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VoL 87, No, 1
April 1990
Rs. 90
VOLUME 87(1): APRIL 1990
Dstc of Publication:30-0ifr 1990 rnMTFNTQ
THE BREEDING BIRDS OF OVERA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, KASHMIR {With four
By Trevor Price and Nitin Jamdar
NOTES ON ESTABLISHED EXOTIC TREES FROM WESTERN GHATS OF MAHARASHTRA
By Vinaya S. Ghate and V.D. Vartak
GENETIC STATUS OF WHITE TIGERS AT NAND ANKANAN BIOLOGICAL PARK, ORISSA
{With two text-figures)
By A.K. Roychoudhury and L.N. Acharjyo 20
NOTES ON THE BIOLOGY OF Varanus griseus koniecznyi MERTENS (SAURIA: VARANIDAE)
{With four text-figures )
By Walter Auffenberg, Hafeezur Rehman, Fehmida Iffat and Zahida Perveen 26
PREDATION BY Aquila EAGLES ON NESTLING STORKS AND HERONS IN KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK,
BHARATPUR {With four plates and a map)
By Rishad Naoroji . 37
VOCAL ACTIVITY OF THE INDIAN GRAY MONGOOSE Herpestes edwardsii edwardsii GEOFFROYIN
CAPTIVITY
By Jagathpala Shetty, Gunapala Shetty and S.R. Kanaka Raj 47
STUDIES ON NESTING AND ARTIFICIAL HATCHING OF THE ENDANGERED RIVER TERRAPIN Balagur
baska (GRAY) IN THE SUNDARBANS TIGER RESERVE, WEST BENGAL {With a plate)
By Arin Ghosh and N. Mandal . 50
REVISED NOMENCLATURE FOR TAXA IN W YNTER-BLYTH ’ S BOOK ON THE BUTTERFLIES OF INDIAN
REGION — m
By R.K. Varshney 53
MAMMALS OF COX’S BAZAR FOREST DIVISION (SOUTH), BANGLADESH, WITH NOTES ON THEIR
STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION {With two text- figures)
By S.M.A. Rashid, Anizuzzaman Khan and M. Ali Reza Khan 62
BREEDING OF THE COMMON TERN Sterna hirundo IN SRI LANKA
By Thilo W. Hoffmann 68
AVIAN PROFILE OF A MAN-MODIFIED AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM IN THE BACKWATERS OF THE UJJANI
DAM {With two plates and four text-figures )
By E.K. Bharucha and P.P. Gogte 73
DISTRIBUTIONAL RECORDS FOR CHELONIANS FROM NORTHEASTERN INDIA {With a text-figure )
By Indraneil Das 91
LIFE CYCLE OF Phlyctenophora indica ANNAPURNA AND RAMA SARMA, AMARINE BENTHIC
PODOCOPAN OSTRACOD {With two text- figures)
By C. Annapurna, D.V. Rama Sarma and K. Shyamasundari 98
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
DESCRIPTION OF A NEW CY?RmD,Barilius dimorphic us (SUBFAMILY: RASBORINAE) FROM RAJAH
NATIONAL PARK, UTTAR PRADESH {With four text-figures)
By Raj Tilak and Akhlaq Husain 102
ON TWO NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS Puntius HAMILTON FROM INDIA (PISCES: CYPRINIDAE)
{With two text-figures)
ByK C. Jayaram 106
A NEW GENUS Pseudopagiophloeus OF WEEVIL (CURCULIONIDAE: HYLOBUNAE) FROM INDIA
{With two text-figures)
By H.R. Rajni, Sukesha Sood and P. Kama! Tewari 109
TWO NEW SPECIES BELONGING TO THE GENUS Allop hleps BERGROTH (CICADELUDAE: HOMOPTERA)
FROM INDIA ( With eighteen text-figures )
By V. Rama Subba Rao and Usha Ramakrishnan Ill
A STUDY ON THE INDIAN SPECIES OF Plutarchia GIRAULT (HYMENOPTERA : EURYTOMIDAE)
( With twenty-nine text- figures)
By T.C. Narendran and R. Padmasenan 114
ANEW SPECIES OF GENUS Parevaspis RITSEMA (HYMENOPTERA: APOIDEA : MEGACIIILIDAE:
ANTHIDINAE) FROM INDIA (With five text-figures)
By Virendra Kumar and V.K. Tiwari 122
A NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS Sirthenea SPINOLA (PIRATINAE- REDUVDDAE-HETEROPTERA) FROM
THE COROMANDEL COAST, INDIA (With a text-figure)
By C. Murugan and David Livingstone 125
TWO NEW SPECIES FROM NORTHEASTERN INDIA (ORTHOPTERA : ACRIDIDAE) (With eight text-figures)
By Kharibam Meinodas and Shaikh Adam Shafee 126
ANEW SUBSPECIES OF Dendrobium panduratum LINDL. (ORCHID ACE AE) FROM SOUTHERN INDIA
(With four text-figures)
By R. Gopalan and A.N. Henry 128
REVIEWS
The Indian blackbuck
Reviewed by J.C. Daniel 130
Proceedings of the Symposium on endangered marine animals and marine parks
Reviewed by B.F. Chhapgar 130
The wealth of India, raw materials. Vol. I A
Reviewed by M.R. Almeida 131
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
MAMMALS
1. Overlapping distribution of capped langur
Trachypithecus p Heat a and Phayre’s leaf monkey T.
phayrei
By Anwaruddin Choudhury 133
2. A hunting technique of the jungle cat Felis chaus
By Hashim N. Tyabji 134
3. Occurrence of Dobson’s long-tongued fruit bat
Eonycteris spelaea (Dobson, 1971) (Chiroptera :
Pteropodidae) in Meghalaya
By Y.R Sinha 134
4. Occurrence of Pipistrellus camortae miller, 1902
(Chiroptera : Vespertilionidae) in the Andaman Is-
lands, with comments on its taxonomic status
By RK. Das 135
5. Five-striped squirrel Funambulus pennanti
(Wroughton) killing birds
By Jugalkishore Tiwari 137
BIRDS
6. Heronries in Raigad district, Maharashtra, - a
preliminary survey
By Anil Mahabal 137
7. Feeding association between jackal Canis aureus
(Linnaeus) and two species of egrets at Point
Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu
By P. Balasubramanian 138
8. Breeding of egrets in Kerala
By P.K. Uthaman 139
9. Weight of whiteneckedstork Ciconia episcopus
By Prakash Rao and S. Muralidharan 139
10. Aggressive behaviour of blacknecked storks
towards cranes
By D.P. Bannerjee, S.P. Bavdekar and
V.K. Paralkar 140
11 . Status of greylag goose Anser anser in Gujarat state:
a re-evaluation
By B.M. Parasnarya, J.F. Dodia, K.L. Mathew and
Lalsinh Raol 140
12. Blackwinged kite Elanus caeruleus vociferus
(Latham) at 3650 m in Sikkim
By Usha Ganguli-Lachungpa 142
13. Interaction of honey buzzard Pernis ptilorhyncus-
with fantail flycatcher Rhipidura albicollis and red-
wattled lapwing Vanellus indicus
By Divyabhanusinh 142
14. Roosting and feeding of harriers in Secunderabad,
Andhra Pradesh
By S.M. Satheesan and Prakash Rao 143
15. Jungle cat Fells chans and grey jungiefowl Gallus
sonneratii
By Raza Tehsin and Fatema Tehsin 144
16. Hover-fly Eristalis sp. among the stomach contents
of gullbilled tern Gelochelidon nilotica (Gmelin)
By S.M. Satheesan 144
17. Breeding of the river tern Sterna aurantia in Kerala
By K.K. Neelakantan 144
18. Behaviour of southern spotted owlet Athene brama
brama (Temminck) and jungle crow Corvus mac-
rorhynchos at Point Calimere, Tamil Nadu
By P. Balasubramanian 145
19. Bird-aircraft collision at an altitude of 2424 m over
the sea
By S.M. Satheesan 145
20. Occurrence of long-clawed skylark Alauda gulgula
dharmakumarsinhji in central India
By K.K. Mohapatra and Prakash Rao 146
21 . Occurrence of haircrested drongo Dicrurus hotten-
tottus (Linn.) in Point Calimere, Tamil Nadu
By V. Natarajan and P. Balasubramanian 147
22. Reappearance of Sturnus vulgaris Linn, in Kutch
By Himmatsinhji, S.N. Varu and N.N. Bapat . 147
23. Altitudinal range extension of the brahminy myna
Sturnus pagodarum in Chushul, Ladakh
By S. Asad Akhtar 147
24. Extensionof breeding range of brown flycatcher
Muscicapa latirostris
By Taej Mundkur 148
25. An unusual nesting site of the sunbird
By Asad R. Rahmani and Ravi Sankaran ...... 148
26. Range extension of the Spanish sparrow Passer
hispaniolensis (Temminck)
By K.K. Mohapatra and Prakash Rao 149
27. Flower petals of Crotalaria juncea observed from
half built nests of Ploceus benghalensis
By Satish Kumar Sharma 149
REPTILES
28. Territorial behaviour of male gharial Gavialis gan-
geticus in the National Chambal Sanctuary, India
By L.A.K. Singh and R.J. Rao 149
29. Two freshwater turtles of the genus Kachuga from
Assam
By Anwaruddin Choudhury 151
30. A survey of freshwater turtles of Gujarat
By Raju Vyas and B.H. Patel 152
3 1 . Notes on the land tortoises of B angladesh
By Indraneil Das 155
AMPHIBIA
32. Onset of breeding season in some anuran
amphibians of Dharwad, Karnataka
R.D. Kanamadi and C.R. Hiremath
N.V. Bhuttewadkar : 156
33. Amphibian (anura) species and their altitudinal dis-
tribution in northeast India
By S.K. Chanda 157
FISHES
34. On the fish resources of Ujni wetland, Pune,
Maharashtra
By G.M. Yazdani and D.F. Singh 157
INSECTS
35. Morphology of the scent glands of the Rutherglen
bug, Nysius vinitor Berg. (Hemiptera-Lygaeidae)
By P. Ramesh 161
36. Behaviour of the Indian tortoiseshell butterfly
Aglais ( vanessa ) caschmirensis (Kollar) in the
Himalaya
By Meena Haribal 163
37. New record of Microtrombidium saharanpuri
Dhiman and Mittal (Acarina - Trombidiidae -
Micro trombidinae) parasitizing green bottle fly
Lucilia caesar L. (Diptera - Calliphoridae)
By S.C. Dhiman, R.K. Singh and R. Kumar.... 164
38. Mosquitoes of Div
By J.S. Khamre and M.B. Kaliwal 164
39. Jatropha gossypifolia L. and Jatropha curcas L-
new host plants for the longhomed beetle Sthenias
grisator Fb. (Cerambicidae: Coleoptera)
By P. Balasubramanian 165
40. New records of cladocera of Keoladeo National
Park, Bharatpur - III.
By K. Venkataraman 166
BOTANY
41. Monadenium heteropodum N.E.Br. (Euphor-
biaceae) - an exotic in the process of naturalization
in India
By Seshagiri Rao and M.N.V Prasad 168
42. Abnormal flowering of Caryota urens L.
(Arecaceae)
By P. Venkanna, G.M. Narasimha Rao and
J.B. Raju 170
43 . Entada pusaetha DC . (Mimosaceae) - new distribu-
tional record from Gujarat
By A.S. Reddy 170
44 On the endemic status of three wild legumes with spe-
cial reference to their distribution in West Bengal
By Arabinda Pramanik 172
45. New records of some ferns for Kumaun Himalaya
(western Himalaya)
By S.S. Sam ant and Y.P.S. Pangtey 173
JOURNAL
OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY
SOCIETY
April 1990 Vol. 87 No.l
THE BREEDING BIRDS OF OVERA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, KASHMIR1
Trevor Price2 and Niten Jamdar3
(With four text-figures)
The occurrence, abundance and altitudinal ranges for the breeding birds of Overa Sanctuary is documented. Of
117 species recorded near or in the Sanctuary, 89 appear to regularly breed within its boundaries. 51 of these species
breed in the fir woodlands and associated ecotones at c. 2,400 m, 51 breed in the birch woodlands at c. 3,300 m, and
23 species breed above the tree line. The results are discussed in the context of the suitability of the Sanctuary as a bird
preserve.
In Kashmir there are currently 54 Sanctuaries
and Protected Areas administered by the State’s
Department of Wildlife Protection. They have been
primarily established to preserve wildlife and
natural resources, and for use as educational and
recreational areas. Additionally other economic ven-
tures, such as agroforestry, may be developed in so
far as they do not interfere with conservation goals.
Many of the parks have only recently been set aside
as protected areas and there is currently a critical
lack of the sort of knowledge needed to make plan-
ning decisions.
The Department of Wildlife Protection’s re-
search resources have of necessity been applied to
studies of particular rare species for which several
of the reserves have been explicitly set aside, e.g. the
hangul (Schaller 1969, Inayat Ullah 1986), the
blacknecked crane Grus nigricollis (Hussain 1985,
Narayan et. al. 1987) and the snow leopard Panther a
uncia. To date there has been no taxon-wide survey
of any sanctuary, and complete lists for even the
most conspicuous taxa (for example the birds and
mammals) are unavailable. In this paper we describe
the results of a three year study of the breeding birds
of one Sanctuary. We present measurements of
species’ abundances, altitudinal distributions, and
habitat preferences. Our purposes in presenting this
information are twofold. First, it will be of use to or-
nithologists visiting similar habitats (fir-pine- birch
woodland) in Kashmir. Second, the results provide
baseline data against which population decreases or
increases in subsequent years can be assessed. We
discuss our results in the context of species’ conser-
vation and sanctuary management given the long
term goals of the Wildlife Department.
Despite the absence of the sort of quantitative
study we will be presenting, Kashmir has been fre-
quently visited by naturalists and ornithologists who
provide anecdotal reports on species’ occurrence
and behaviour (e.g. Dewar 1923, Osmaston 1927,
Alexander 1950, Bates and Lowther 1952, Koul
1968, Gauntlett 1972). Much of this previously
published work is summarised in Ali and Ripley
(1983). Our new observations on breeding behavior
are reported in separate publications (Jamdar 1987,
1988, Jamdar and Price in press , Price and Jamdar,
in preparation ).
1 Accepted June 1988
department of Biology C-016, University of California at San
Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, U.S.A.
Bombay Natural History Society, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,
Bombay 400 023 (Address for correspondence)
2
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
OVEfM WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
Fig. 1. Map of Qvera Wildlife Sanctuary. The dotted line is the
approximate 3,300 m contour. The letter captions are acronyms
for the study sites (see Tables 1 and 2). The insert map shows the
location of Overa in relation to the major local towns, the area
above c. 3,000. m is shaded.
Study Location
Overa Wildlife Sanctuary is one of the smallest
(33 sq. km) and most recently established (1981)
reserves in the state. It is approximately 10 km from
the tourist centre of Pahalgam, and 80 km from the
state capital, Srinagar (Fig. 1). It is hoped that it will
eventually form part of a much larger biosphere
reserve. The sanctuary extends from about 2,100 to
4,200 m above sea level. There are three main
vegetational types - coniferous forest, birch forest,
and alpine pasture. To the south the sanctuary is bor-
dered by the Overa valley, opening into the Lidder
valley. This is an agricultural area, although some
deciduous trees have been retained. Along the Lid-
der valley side to the east and west of the sanctuary
lie heavily grazed pasture lands and coniferous
forest. To the north lies an expanse of high altitude
land, also grazed in the summer.
Methods
One or both of us spent May, June and July in
each year 1985, 1986, and 1987 at the Sanctuary. We
established three main study areas - one at 2,400 m
(FRH) and two at c. 3,300 m (UPI and UP2, Fig. 1
and Table 1). Altitudes were obtained using an al-
timeter, standardized to 1,570 m at Dal Lake in
Srinagar. We spent most of May at the lower altitude
and June and July at the higher locations. We
recorded temperature and daily rainfall at these loca-
tions. We also occasionally visited locations at 2,800
m and at 3,600 m (KK and RT) to obtain more infor-
mation on altitudinal distributions of birds. To quan-
tify habitats we established five grids along the al-
titudinal gradient ranging from 1-4 ha. in size (Fig.
1, Table 2). We counted all trees in each grid, and es-
timated the area covered by juniper and
rhododendron bushes.
Birds were censused by the following methods.
Table 1
OBSERVATION AND TRAPPING INTENSITY AT EACH LOCATION
Location Altitude (m) Number of days each month at site (number of net-miomings)-
Figures in parentheses are the number of nets opened for a morning summed across all mornings in which nets were opened in that
month.
Abbreviations: FRH-Forest Rest House. KK-Kanj Kut, a local name for this area of the sanctuary. UP stands for ‘up above’, with
UP1UP meaning above UPI. RT-ridge top.
deludes trapping and observation at UPI UP (altitude 3550 m).
BIRDS OF OVERA SANCTUARY
3
Table 2
TREE DENSITY (NUMBERS/HA,) AT VARIOUS ALTITUDES
(lha)
Notes: The number of ha. surveyed is given in parentheses. The predominant understory shrubs are Viburnum grandiflorum in the
valleys alongside the coniferous forest and Salix denticulata under the birch. All trees with trunk widths 10 cm. at chest height are
included. Birch and cherry often have several trunks from a subterranean bole and these were counted as a single tree.
*Rhododendron and Juniper are estimated approximate areas (in sq.m.) per hectare.
Table 3
WEATHER DATA FOR THE HIGH ALTITUDE CAMP (UP1)
We placed up to 10 mist-nets on varying dates at
each location (Table 1) and opened them from dawn
(c. 0600 hrs) until between 1000 hrs and 1200 noon.
Captured individuals were weighed and their wing-
length measured, using the maximum chord method
of Svennson (1975). They were then ringed and
released. The average number of individuals of a
given species captured per mist, net per morning
provides a useful index of relative abundances, at
least for commoner passerines (Price 1979, Schluter
1982, Martin 1984).
We recorded the number of individuals of each
species we observed in a daily log book. Although
most of our observations werq.made casually, we
also used two census methods to obtain these data,
conducted as follows. First, we estimated the num-
ber of singing males in each of five established grids
by carefully walking round the grid on between one
and five mornings over the three seasons combined.
Second, at the low altitude site only, we conducted
a regular 2 km post-dawn walk up a small valley
running through a fir woodland (from 2,300-2,600
m), recording all singing males heard. We did this at
approximately 10 day intervals in 1985 and 1986,
and on fewer occasions in 1987.
Results
Vegetation: Typical forest types of Kashmir are
described in Champion and Seth (1968). The density
of trees in grids at each of five altitudes is given in
Table 2. Lower altitudes are dominated by fir, al-
though several deciduous trees are common, par-
ticularly along water-courses. The first birch trees
are encountered at approximately 3030 m altitude
and birch is dominant above 3100 m. Large firs
occur up to 3400 m however, and a few small in-
dividual fir trees occur up to the tree line (i.e., the
upper limit of the birch at about 3550 m).
Rhododendron and juniper are first encountered at
3330 m. Rhododendron extends beyond the birch to
4
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 87
*
u.
&
&
6.
4»
3
|
I
-o- 1 985 (low)
-*- 1986 (low)
♦ 1 986 (high)
♦ 1 987 (high)
Fig. 2. Climate data for Overa. The upper figure gives the maxi-
mum temperature recorded in five day periods from May 1st.
Middle figure gives minimum temperatures, lower figure gives
rainfall totals, in similar five day periods. Data are not available
for all years at all locations. Lines connect points for which data
are continuously available.
3750 m, and juniper is found up to 3900 m. Above
the juniper, and also intermingled with it there is an
expanse of pastureland dominated by Alpine
flowers. There are thus no abrupt transitions be-
tween the various dominant plant forms, except
along the sanctuary’s lower boundary where the
forests abut agricultural land.
Climate: We present available temperature and rain-
fall data in Fig. 2. The weather at Overa during May-
Octave
Fig. 3. Species abundance distributions, for passerines only, at
the low and high sites. Abundance is the number of individuals
captured at each site (from Table 4). The number of species in
each abundance class is graphed against abundance class group,
or octave:(0-l individinls, 1-2 individuals, 2-4 individuals etc.
up to 128-256 individuals; see Preston (1962). The numbers along
the x-axis give the upper bound of each abundance class.
July can be summarized as follows. Each winter
most of the sanctuary is under snow for between 3-
4 months The snow persists into May at the higher
altitudes, and following the hard winters of 1986 and
1987 a metre of snow was present at the 3,300 m
camps throughout May. It only disappeared from
these altitudes in June. In 1985" the snow disappeared
several weeks earlier: the last snow disappeared
from a watercourse in the UP1 area on 15 June in
1985, on about 10 July in 1986, and on 19 July in
1987. Each year at the high altitudes May was typi-
cally wet, June was fine, and July was more variab-
ly fine and wet (Table 3). Hailstorms may occur at
any time (Table 3). For breeding birds at this altitude
the climate can be unpredictable, and at times harsh.
It is significantly cooler at the higher altitudes than
at lower altitudes, and at the low altitudes June and
July can be hot (Fig. 2). Although it may rain a great
deal at the low altitude, no snow fell below 2,900 m
in any year during the study periods.
Bird Occurrence
We have recorded a total of 116 species in or
BIRDS OF OVERA SANCTUARY
5
Table 5
NUMBER OF SPECIES BREEDING AT THREE ALTITUDES
near the sanctuary. Of these 16 are primarily as-
sociated with the arable land and villages bordering
the lower boundary (Appendix 1), and although two
(the house sparrow and the dark-grey bush chat)
have been recorded breeding within the sanctuary,
we do not discuss these species further. Another 11
species were recorded on fewer than three occasions
(Appendix 2), and in the light of their uncertain
status are also not considered here. This leaves a total
of 89 species which appear to breed regularly or oc-
casionally in the sanctuary, and be dependent on the
habitats within its boundaries. Habitat associations,
measures of abundance, and biometrics of these
species are presented in Table 4. We give two dif-
ferent measures of abundance at each of the high and
low altitudes. The first is based on mist net surveys
and gives a direct estimate of relative density (in-
dividuals/mist net/day). For the passerines these
values agree well with general impressions of rela-
tive abundance, and the grid surveys. The second
measure is the proportion of days on which we ob-
served at least one individual of a given speces. The
observation and mist net measures are correlated
(for passerines captured at least once, r = 0.5, N =
29, P < 0.5 at the low altitude, and the same values:
r = 0.5, N = 29, P< 0.5 at the high altitude). The cor-
relation is not strong, and the measures provide dif-
ferent information. The observation measure is not
a good indication of relative densities (a single con-
spicuous individual might be often recorded, even
though the species as a whole is rare, as was the case
for example at the high altitutde for the strongfooted
bush warbler Cettia montana and the scalybellied
green woodpecker Ficus squamatus. However it is
a good indicator of the chances of seeing a particular
species at each of the two altitudes, and should be of
use to naturalists visiting this and other similar
localities in Kashmir.
In Fig. 3 we show number of individuals
trapped for the high and low sites separately, for all
Passerines. Species abundance classes are grouped
into the histogram by octave (i.e. the first octave
graphs all species for which 1 individual was cap-
tured, the next octave for which 1 or 2 individuals
were captured, the next for 2,3, or 4 individuals and
so on. Where two octaves share some boundary
numbers (the first two both include one individual
for example, the number of species is divided among
them). Abell shaped curve indicates the species dis-
tributions follow an approximately lognormal dis-
tribution, as is usually observed (Preston 1962).
Abundances at both the low and high site follow
similar distributions, and appear to be approximate-
ly lognormal. By this measure, however, the y el-
lowbrowed leaf warbler Phylloscopvs inornatus is
exceptionally abundant. Several species are rare,
and to these should be added those recorded ex-
tremely infrequently and not included in Fig. 3 (Ap-
pendix 2).
Altitudinal distributions: Total bird density at the
Table 4
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
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Species Scientific name Status Ringing Observation Wing (mm.) Weight (g.) Sample Altitude range Habitat
high low high low X Sd. X Sd. size m (x 1,000)
Nutcracker Nucifraga caryocalactes B 1 75 0 101 3. 1-3.5 cb
BIRDS OF OVERA SANCTUARY
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SPECIES 1 OCCURRENCE AND ABUNDANCE AT OVERA
Woodpecker Picoides auriceps
Ringing Observation
Wing (mm.) Weight (g.) Sample
70
97
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c-3.3
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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
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9
g-grass lands
No speciec name is given for Buteo because of difficulties of identification (All and Ripley 1983).
2.9 13.5 0.9
2.1 35.0 2.3
10
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
high and low altitudes was similar (2.24 per net per
day and 2.70 per net per day respectively), and at
each locality 51 species were thought to breed.
However only 26 species were held in common be-
tween the two sites (Table 5). There is therefore sub-
stantial turnover of species along the altitudinal
gradient. Both the high and low altitudes are
predominantly woodland: the former mostly birch
and the latter mostly conifers. Above the tree line 26
species breed, i.e. species diversity is half that of the
wooded areas, and this presumably reflects the loss
of structural habitat diversity. Many of the species
breeding above the tree line are unique to this area
(Table 5) and only two species (the pinkbrowed
rosefinch Carpodacus rhodochrous and the black-
and-yellow grosbeak Coccothroustes ictirioides
breed across the entire altitudinal range.
Based on shorter surveys at intermediate al-
titudes we are able to assess the altitudinal range of
each species to within 100 m (Table 4). Some species
are habitat specialists (e.g. the yellowbrowed leaf
warbler in birch, the ruby throat Erithacus svecicus
in juniper) whereas others respond more to altitude
than habitat (e.g. the wren which can be found breed-
ing among high altitude scrub, or in coniferous
forest, but does not occur below c. 3,000 m).
Migration: Individuals of many species probably
leave the Sanctuary extent during the winter. In the
status column of Table 4 we list those species which
vacate the area totally. According to Ali and Ripley
(1983), they form 49% (44 species) of all the species.
Many of these species are present in the Sanctuary
by May. However, some arrive later than this, and
their arrival times are recorded in Table 6. In addi-
tion to annual migration there are temporary al-
titudinal movements due to inclement weather. Thus
although the redflanked bush robin Erithacus
cyanuew was recorded commonly at low altitude in
May it does not breed there. Single individuals of
this species, the large crowned leaf warbler, Phyllos-
copus occipitalis and the Tytler’s leaf warbler Phyl-
loscopus lytleri were ringed in May at the low al-
titude, and subsequently observed in June at higher
altitudes. The rosefinches and the plaincoloured
mountain finch Leucosticte nemoricola are common
in May at the high altitude locality, but they largely
breed still higher, above the treeline. At least one
species, the yellowbrowed leaf warbler, appears to
undergo a regular diurnal migration in May, spend-
ing the early morning displaying at its future breed-
ing location, and the rest of the day at lower altitudes
(Price and Jamdar, in preparation ).
Breeding Seasons: Our information on the timing
of breeding agrees with that of Ali and Ripley
(1983). Most species begin building nests in May,
and breeding is complete by the middle of July.
Documented exceptions are the black-and-yellow
grosbeak, the woodcock Scolopax rusticola and
smallbilled mountain thrush Zoothera dauma all of
which were observed with fledged young in May,
and the redbrowed finch Callacanthis burtoni ob-
served nest building in late July.
Comparisons with other localities: Kedarnath
Sanctuary lies in the Himalayas of Uttar Pradesh, c.
500 km to the southeast of Overa. Green (1986) has
recently provided a species list based on three years
of casual observation in the Sanctuary. Excluding
observations limited "to one or two sightings he
recorded 101 species as breeding above c. 2,400 m
compared to the 89 we recorded at Overa. Of the 101
species 54 are also found at Overa. Hence 39% (35
species) of those observed at Overa do not appear to
regularly breed at these altitudes at Kedarnath (one
of the Overa species was recorded at a lower al-
titude). This suggests that some species have
restricted ranges, and there may be a number of en-
demics to Kashmir, for which reserves such as Overa
could be extremely important.
The results on bird abundance can be com-
pared with a similar study in the tropics, at a dry
deciduous forest site in Andhra Pradesh, c. 1900 km
to the south and at an elevation of 2,300 m (Price
1979). Here 58 species were found to breed at a
single forest locality (excluding hawks, owls and
other large non-Passerines, (Price 1979). The com-
parable figures from Overa are 47 species at the low
altitude site (including three watercourse species)
and 42 species at the high altitutde site. The Kash-
mir totals are 20-25% lower than those from
Andhra. Two species (the blackbird and jungle
crow) are held in common between the sites, but
both have distinctive subspecies in each area. Total
bird density during the breeding season at the
Andhra site lies between 0.5 and 1.5 birds per net
per day (Fig. 8 of Price 1979), and thus appears to
be lower than in Kashmir. The trend of more species
Population Sfze
BIRDS OF OVERA SANCTUARY
11
Winter season
Fig. 4. The effect of increasing, or conserving, breeding season
habitat depends on the manner of population regulation. If the
population size is mostly regulated by availability of winter
season habitat, and density dependent mortality, the increased
availability of breeding habitat may have little effect on popula-
tion size (upper right figure). If the population is mainly affected
by density dependent reproductive success, and mortality factors
are largely density independent, increased availability of breed-
ing habitat may be very important (lower right figure).
in tropical areas appears to be a general phenomenon
(Karr 1971), but bird densities have been rarely com-
pared in this manner.
Discussion
Kashmir’s sanctuaries have been established
for a number of reasons, one of the more important
being species preservation. In this paper we have
been concerned with providing as complete a list as
possible of bird occurrence and abundance in
specific habitats in one sanctuary. We now use this
information to assess the suitability of the sanctuary.
We now use this information to asssess the
suitability of the sanctuary as a wildlife (particular-
ly bird) preserve. First we ask if the Sanctuary is
large enough to maintain breeding populations of all
species. Second, we discuss the impact of surround-
ing agricultural land on the Sanctuary. These are
questions generally considered in conservation dis-
cussions (Gilpin and Soule 1987, Janzen 1987, Wil-
cove et al 1987). There is concern over loss of
habitat in Kashmir (Oza 1980, 1985) and in the
Western Himalayas in general (Gaston et al 1981),
and several studies in both temperate and tropical
regions have shown that loss of Passerine birds oc-
curs as habitat becomes fragmented (Diamond 1984,
Wilcove 1985, Blake and Karr 1987). Finally, we
consider the extent to which bird populations are
limited by the availability of breeding habitat (cl
mortality outside the breeding season). This ques-
tion is less often considered because it is specific to
migratory populations in temperate reserves (as are
most of the birds in this Sanctuary).
Sanctuaries are often established with a view
to preserving one or two prominent (usually mam-
malian) species in their natural habitat. One goal of
this sanctuary is to conserve large mammals - the
black bear Selenarctos tihetanus, brown bear Ursus
isabellinus , hangul Cervus elaphus and musk deer
Moschus moschiferus. Because of its small size, in
isolation, the Sanctuary cannot support viable
populations of these species. Indeed, although the
black bear breeds, it is not clear that the other three
species are resident in the Sanctuary. Tracks of han-
gul and musk deer regularly observed but we have
sighted these species and the brown bear on one or
two occasions only. The Sanctuary has connections
with the much larger Dachigam Sanctuary (c.25 km
over high altitude pasture land which is uninhabited
for much of the year). It therefore acts as an impor-
tant extension to Dachigam, and will continue to do
so if animals do pass between the two protected areas
(the extent to which this occurs needs to be estab-
lished). The value of Overa as a large mammal
preserve depends on it not being isolated, and is one
of the strongest arguments for the establishment of
a biosphere reserve which includes and extends the
Sanctuary.
Similar arguments can be made for many of the
bird species. Critical population sizes for long term
preservation vary with the species but are likely to
be greater than several hundred individuals (Soule
1987). Many of the larger species (including the two
species of pheasants) would have far less than viable
populations if confined to the sanctuary by sur-
rounding areas of unfavourable habitat. Indeed the
range of a single pair of golden eagles Aquila
chrysaetos may be greater than the area covered by
Sanctuary. Barriers for bird species may be less for-
midable than for the mammals. Although some
tropical bird species are known to be poor dispersers
(Diamond 1980, Karr 1982) many temperate species
12
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
should have high dispersal rates, since they vacate
the sanctuary in winter. Hence exchange between
other areas of similar habitat may occur reasonably
frequently (the pheasants may be an exception, but
this is not known). Since sanctuary size may also af-
fect bird populations through the loss of plants and
insects on which they depend, it is clear that the
proximity of neighbouring similar habitats will be
an important factor in maintaining the flora and
fauna of the Sanctuary.
One side of the Sanctuary is bordered by per-
manent human habitation and people live on the
other three sides during the summer months. This
may affect the Sanctuary in two ways (Janzen 1987):
through loss of individuals which emigrate to un-
suitable habitats and through immigration of un-
desirable elements. The extent to which this is going
on needs to be critically assessed, but we noted three
aspects of concern. First, there is inevitable
encroachment of cattle in the border areas of the
Sanctuary, although the central area is kept free of
domestic animals. Nevertheless illegal grazing is
having a noticeable effect in slowing the recovery of
the flora from the days before it was a Sanctuary. In
the New World tropics understorey grazing has been
shown to adversely affect species diversity (Martin
1974). Second, during our studies of leaf warblers
(Price and Jamdar, in preparation ) we noted intense
nest predation due to crows. Some of this predation
was undoubtedly due to the crows observing us as
we visited nests, and then raiding the nest after we
departed but it is likely that crows are at a higher den-
sity in the Sanctuary than they would be in the ab-
sence of human habitation surrounding it. Recentre-
search on North American songbirds has identified
increased nest predation by crows as a cause of
decline of several species (Wilcove 1985). A
management programme would be justified. Third,
there is a danger of forest fires initiated by
shepherds. One such fire, consuming several large
trees, was observed inMayT985r
India is unique in that it harbours both impor-
tant breeding and wintering areas for temperate zone
migrants. Many considerations will enter into the
setting up of any new reserves in the country. Here
we ask where they would best be sited if maximiz-
ing the survival probability of migratory species was
an important goal. The answer depends on where
population regulation is most severe (Fig. 4). If
populations are most severely regulated by the
availability of winter habitat, then clearly a
Sanctuary in the wintering grounds would be of
more value. On the other hand, suitability of suitable
breeding habitat may severely limit reproductive
output of a species.
Temperate passerines are subject to density-
dependent effects on both reproduction and survival
(Lack 1966, Perrins 1979, Arcese and Smith 1987).
The prevailing view has been that winter mortality
is of prime importance in affecting population size
for migrant species. This has been supported by
studies in Europe on the cause of recent declines in
migratory species (attributable to droughts in the
sub-Saharan regions, Winstanley et al. 1974, Sims
1985), as well as studies of migrant birds in the
winter season (Keast and Morton 1980, Price 1981).
However, recent research on North American pas-
serines has suggested that nest predation (i.e. breed-
ing season mortality) due to crows etc. encroaching
from surrounding arable land may account for a
decline in migratory birds (Wilcove 1985, Wilcove
et al 1987).
The evidence suggests that for Himalayan
migrants winter mortality may be the prime deter-
minant of population size. First, according to Gas-
ton (1984) several species of small passerine bird are
now threatened in the plains of India as a result of
habitat loss, but none of these are species breeding
in the temperate regions of the Himalayas of
Himachal Pradesh. This suggests that a shortage of
some habitats may be becoming critical in the plains:
these are the wintering grounds for many migrant
species. Second, the total area available for over-
wintering East Asian birds is severely restricted
when compared with species breeding in Europe and
North America. Third, the conclusion that food
shortage in the winter is a major cause of migrant
mortality has been supported by a detailed study in
South India (Price 1979, 1981).
If the above reasoning is correct we should
find species absent from apparently suitable breed-
ing habitat, and a low density of breeding pairs, as
indicated by lack of contiguity of territories. Many
species do seem to follow this pattern. In addition
to those listed in Appendix 2, which are so scarce in
tlie Sanctuary as to be of uncertain status, more in-
BIRDS OF OVERA SANCTUARY
13
dividuals of virtually every species that vacates the
Sanctuary in winter may be able to breed in the
reserve. Some of the best examples of species with
low density in apparently suitable habitat are the
bluefronted redstarts Phoenicurus frontalis ,
blueheaded redstarts Phoenicurus
caeruleocephalus , and the chestnutbellied rock
thrush Monticola ruflventris (which migrate to the
Himalayan foothills and adjoining plains) and the
rubythroat, smallbilled mountain thrush,
blueheaded rock thrush Monticola cinclorhynchus
and firecapped tit Cephalopyrus flammiceps (which
are long distance migrants). The clearest exceptions
are the yellowbrowed leaf warbler, the large
crowned leaf warbler, the blue chat Erithacus brun-
neus and the redflanked bush robin. These four
species, which are at very high density in the
Sanctuary, appear to overwinter successfully, and
may well benefit from increased breeding habitat.
But the overall conclusion is that wintering habitats
are in more acute short supply than breeding
habitats. Of course, for the resident fauna and flora
Overa provides an important year-round Sanctuary.
Our suggestion that there is an excess of breed-
ing habitat for many migratory species needs to be
qualified for at least three reasons, which should be
further investigated. First, there are few studies of
the breeding requirements for any species. Subtle
aspects of the habitat may make superficially
suitable areas unoccupiable, as we have shown for
some species of Phylloscopus warblers (Price and
Jamdar, in preparation). Second, if an area of
suitable is isolated it may not be discovered by
returning migrants, and hence habitat remains unoc-
cupied. Third, the territory itself may not provide all
the requirements for a breeding pair. We have shown
that habitat at lower altitudes is necessary for many
species which retreat there during inclement
weather. Thus preservation of high altitude species
requires preservation of habitats over a broad al-
titudinal range, and not just at high altitudes. This
should be an important consideration in reserve
management.
Two essential pieces of information are miss-
ing in any assessment of the value of this Sanctuary.
First, are there specially threatened species for
which the Sanctuary may be of particular impor-
tance? In the absence of quantitative information
from elsewhere in Kashmir this is unknown (indeed
in this study we recorded several species not pre-
viously known to occur m the area), but there may
well be Kashmir endemics with severely restricted
ranges. Second, are species disappearing from the
Reserve? The answer to this question is obviously
needed if we are to assess ways to prevent any loss.
We hope this paper will provide the baseline against
which further surveys can be measured.
Acknowledgements
We especially wish to thank Mr. Mir Innayat
Ullah, formerly Chief Wildlife Warden, for all the
support he provided us during the three years of the
study. We thank our local assistants and the staff of
the Wildlife Protection Department for field assis-
tance, and Mr. J.C. Daniel for help with the planning.
The research was supported by a grant from the
Smithsonian Foreign Currency Program.
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BIRDS OF OVERA SANCTUARY
15
Appendix 1
SPECIES WHICH PRIMARILY OCCUR ALONG THE SANCTUARY’S LOWER BOUNDARY
Notes: See notes to Table 4 for explanation. The observation column includes observations made just outside the sanctuary.
Appendix 2
SPECIES RECORDED EXTREMELY RARELY IN THE SANCTUARY
See Table 4 for explanation.
’"indicates that the species was recorded only once
NOTES ON ESTABLISHED EXOTIC TREES FROM WESTERN GHATS OF
MAHARASHTRA1
VINAYA S. GHATE AND V.D. V ARTAK2
A large number of plants have been brought to the areas of Western Ghats of Maharashtra mostly by foreigners
right from the days of the Greeks (327 BC.) to modem times. Many such introductions got acclimatized/established in
the original flora of the area and now constitute important elements of the present day flora. It is difficult to identify
such naturalized species from the original flora on account of their wide distribution and occurrence in the wild. This
category of plants needs critical taxonomic investigations. This paper accounts for 35 such established exotic trees
having common occurrence and wide distribution. Details regarding the country of origin, probable date or period of
introduction and remarks on their establishment and spread have been presented.
Introduction
The Western Ghats of Maharahstra (15°75’ to
21°00’ N, 72°75’ to 75°00’ E) have a peculiar ter-
rain. The eastward sloping terraced plateau. Desk ,
separated from the coastal strip, Konkan by the
Western Ghats or the SahyacLri. The local climatic
factors coupled with edaphic and geographical fea-
tures influence the growth and prevalence of vegeta-
tion. The flora of the region thus shows diversity and
adaptability to the varied climatic conditions.
The same adaptability features of the flora also
provide habitat to the exotic elements. A large num-
ber of exotic plants were introduced in the area from
prehistoric times, either by natural agencies like sea
currents or brought by foreign traders or invaders for
betterment of human life. The introduction of
species, their suitability to the region and spread
through natural regeneration accommodated them in
the original set of floristic elements. They now grow
naturally along with the original elements in such a
way that it becomes difficult to trace their regions of
origin. Such species sometime create problems for
describing the original flora of a region (Chatterjee
1939, 1962; Maheshwari 1962).
Earlier botanists like Cooke (1903-1908), Tal-
bot (1909-1911), Santapau (1953) and others, while
describing the flora of this region, intermixed the
naturalized exotics with the original flora, separat-
ing commonly cultivated exotic species. The sys-
tematic studies on these established exotic elements
as attempted by Matthew (1969), Maheshwari and
Paul (1975) and S harm a and Pandey (1984) are lack-
ing for the study area. The project, therefore, was un-
dertaken to evaluate naturalized exotic trees in isola-
tion from the natural flora.
Accepted September 1989
department of Botany, M.A.C.S., Pune 411 004.
Material and Methods
The species which, following their immigra-
tion or introduction during prehistoric times or in the
recent past, became naturalized in the wild flora,
have been considered for the present study.
35 established exotic trees having common oc-
currence and wide distribution in the study area have
been described in Table 1 . The table includes data on
place of origin, probable date of introduction and
remarks on their establishment, spread and utility at-
tributes. The data on country of origin have been
adopted from Brandis (1906), Bailey (1949),
Maheshwari and Paul (1975) and S harm a and Pan-
dey (1984). It may be also mentioned that the time
of introduction of species in many cases is difficult
to determine, as exact records of their introduction
are lacking (Table 1).
Discussion
The flora of an area, its nature, distribution and
association of the species, is more or less dependent
on peculiarities of terrain and the climatic condi-
tions. Exotics on the other hand are the introductions
from abroad. Their survival, growth and spread
depend on the suitability of the habitat and adap-
tability of the species. Some introductions remain
restricted, survi » e in patches and do not grow unless
and until spe.LJly planted. These isolates, accord-
ing to Mahabale (1973), are secondary endemics.
Some introductions on the other extreme become
obnoxious weeds by prolific adaptability. These may
be referred to as cosmopolitan species. Some
species, however, grow fast, regenerate on their own
and find a suitable niche in the natural flora as if they
are the natural elements of uie region.
The rate of introduction of foreign plants, par-
ticularly of the trees, was accelerated in 17th, 18th
and early 19th centuries by Portuguese traders and-
ESTABLISHED EXOTICS FROM WESTERN GHATS
17
European explorers. They brought many plants of
economic value, particularly fruit trees and or-
namental trees.
In many cases it is difficult to determine the
centres of origin as the regions and routes are imper-
fectly studied. It is particularly true in the case of
prehistoric introductions like Areca catechu ,
Azadirachta indica , Borassus flabellifer , Cocos
nucifera , Plumeria rubra forma acutifolia , Sesbania
grandiflora and Tamarindus indica. As per available
literature (Brandis 1906, Bailey 1949, Anonymous
1957,Randhawa 1958, 1965 and Santapau 1966) the
centres of origin of these species are either doubtful
or in alien countries. In agreement with these
workers and in view of this uncertainty about the na-
tive place, these species are considered as exotics in
the present study. The introduction and naturaliza-
tion of these species is so ancient that they have a
great importance in Indian religion and folklore. The
task of assigning the original habitat for such species
is a formidable one.
Introduction of trees is mostly man-made.
However, wide and wild occurrence of species like
Areca catechu , Borassus flabellifer and Cocos
nucifera along sea coast suggest the probability of
their introduction naturally through sea currents and
similarity of climate to that of the original home.
Now varieties of Areca catechu and Cocos nucifera
also have been developed for inland plantations.
Species like Anacardium occidental. Ficus
carica , Manilkara zapota, Phyllanthus acidus ,
Psidium guajava and Punica granatum were
brought as fruit yielding trees mostly by Portuguese
traders in the 16th and 17th centuries. They became
naturalized in various regions of the area under study
as if they were native to the regions. These regions,
namely Konkan for cashewnut (kaju), Gholwad
(Thana district) for sapodilla plum (chiku), Bhor-
Junnar (Pune district) for fig (anjir) and Ahmednagar
district for pomegranate (dalimba), are now impor-
tant trade centers for commercial production of these
fruits. Species like Phyllanthus acidus and Psidium
guajava become so popular that they are present in
every home garden.
Species like Cassia renigera , C. siamea,
Delonix regia , Peltophorum pterocarpum , Polyal-
thia longifolia and Samanea sarnan were introduced
as ornamental horticultural trees by European ex-
plorers. These novelty introductions now rank first
in any plantation programme.
Trees like Casuarina equisetifolia , Eucalyptus
globosus , Euphorbia tirucalli , Leucaena
leucocephala , Parkinsonia aculeata , Pithecel -
lobium dulce and Ricinus communis were intro-
duced and naturalized in connection with soil con-
servation and afforestation programmes of dry and
arid areas. These species are now commonly
adopted by forest department in various plantation
programmes and have thus become common.
Among these successful species, Euphorbia tirucal-
li, Parkinsonia aculeata , Pithecellobium dulce and
Ricinus communis proved more adaptable and now
occupy any type of habitat including waste lands.
As stated earlier, introductions of trees were
mostly man-made. The case of invasion of tree
species by accident is not on the record so far as in
case of herbaceous weeds (Parthenium, Acan-
thospermum etc.). Adaptability features of these in-
troduced species have made them naturalized in the
region. However, some of the 35 established species,
namely Areca catechu , Cassia javanica , C.
renigera , Casuarina equisetifolia , Cocos nucifera ,
Delonix regia. Eucalyptus globosus. Plumeria rubra
forma acutifolia, Polyalthia longifolia and
Swietenia mahogani, do not show self generation in
spite of their wide occurrence in the area under
study.
In general these naturalised exotic elements are
the new ecological isolates. They provide rich poten-
tial for research in terms of their adaptability and
suitability in varied climatic conditions.
Acknowledgements
We thank the Director, M.A.C.S., Pune, for
giving facilities for the work, and Dr. M.S.
Kumbhojkar, Scientist-in-charge, Botany Depart-
ment, M.A.C.S., Dr. M.C. Suryanarayana, Central
Bee Research Institute, Pune, for going through the
manuscript and making valuable suggestions.
18
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Table 1
ESTABLISHED EXOTIC TREES FROM WESTERN GHATS OF MAHARAHSTRA
Sr. Botanical name Nativity /probable date Remarks
No. (common name) of introduction
1. Adansonia digitata L. Tropical Africa/
(Gorakh chinch) Mughal period
Introduced by Arab traders and Africans employed in Mughal
army. Considered to be one of the longest living trees.
Introduced in India by the Portuguese from Brazil. Naturalized
all along the west coastal regions of India and forms an
important export crop.
Introduced in India for its edible fmit. Now completely
naturalized and run wild.
One of the first American plants introduced by Portuguese for
its edible fruits. Now naturalized and run wild.
Naturalized and cultivated in coastal areas. Also grown inland.
Important article of trade.
Naturalized and wild throughout. Natural regeneration plenty.
Controversy about the nativity as well as period of introduction.
Naturalized and self-sown throughout coastal regions.
Locally used variously.
Introduced in India by Portuguese for edible fruits. Naturalized
and self-sown throughout the area.
Introduced in the India first in botanic gardens probably by the
British for its ornamental flowers.. Naturalized and now used
commonly for avenue plantations.
Introduced for beautification. Naturalized and very commonly
used for avenue plantation.
Introduced in India, probably by the British, as fast growing
ornamental tree, popularized as P. W.D. tree for its common
use in roadside plantations.
Introduced in India probably by the British, as fast growing
forest species. Naturalized and cultivated mainly along coastal
sandy areas and also inland for ornamentation.
Introduced and wide-spread in coastal areas, appears as if
growing wild. Cultivated foyts multi-utilitarian attributes.
Introduced in India probably by the British for its ornamental
flowers. Naturalized and now popular as roadside tree.
Introduced in India as fast growing timber species. First
introduced in hilly areas of Nilgiris, naturalized and spread
throughout the country by man.
Naturalized and mostly cultivated as hedge plant near villages
Brought to India probably by Portuguese traders. Naturalized
in parts of Deccan, Particularly Pune area and has become a
peculiarity of the region for its edible fruits.
Introduced in India from Ceylon. First planted in Bombay by
Millard. Planted as fast growing hardy species on barren hilly
tracts of Maharashtra and become naturalised for the region.
Introduced in India in British period as fast growing species,
spread throughout and now becoming a weed with tremendous
natural regeneration.
Introduced in India by Portuguese traders for its edible fruits.
Established in Dahanu- Gholwad areas of Thana District and
has become a commercial peculiarity of the region for its fruits.
ESTABLISHED EXOTICS FROM WESTERN GHATS
19
Sr. Botanical name Nativity/probable date Remarks
No. (common name) of introduction
21 . Melia azedarach L Persia, Asia Minor,
(bukan-nim, Persian lilac) Baluchistan/
22 Parkinsonia aculeata L. Tropical America/
(vilayati babul) About 1797.
Introduced as ornamental tree, naturalized and commonly used
as roadside tree in area under study.
Introduced for afforestation programmes in arid zones of India,
to reduce erosion. Naturalized and spread everywhere through
natural regeneration.
Introduced probably by the British as ornamental roadside tree.
Now naturalized and commonly used in amenity plantations.
Introduced for its acidic edible fruits. Naturalized and now a
common feature of home orchards.
Introduced by Spaniards as protective hedge and for its edible
fruits. Naturalized and now growing even in wastelands.
Introduced probably via China. So naturalized that it has
become an important element of temple environment flora.
Introduced for its graceful shape and ornamental value.
Naturalized and commonly used for avenue plantations.
Brought by Portuguese for its edible fruits. Now established
in all parts of country for the fruits. Developed into many
horticultural varieties.
Introduced and naturalized from remote antiquity in India.
Established in arid regions of Western Ghats of Maharashtra
and has become a commercial crop.
Introduced as fast growing species for field bunds. Run wild
and grows even along barren waste places.
Introduced probably by the British as fast growing shade tree
Naturalized and commonly utilized as roadside tree.
Introduction is ancient, as it has a religious value. Naturalized
and commonly cultivated along field bunds.
Introduced as fast growing species for field bunds. Naturalized
and self-sown in the area.
Introduced as a timber tree in India. Naturalized and utilized
as timber and beautification tree.
Introduced and naturalized throughout India. Self-sown even
in dry waste places. Fruit is important in commerce.
References
Anonymous (1957): Maharashtra State Gazetteer, General
Series Vol. A. Botany (rev.ed.) Part II: Timbers. Govern-
ment of Maharashtra Publication, Bombay.
Bailey, L.H. (1949): Manual of cultivated plants. (Revised ed.)
New York.
Brandis, D. (1906) (Rept. 1978): Indian Trees. Rept. by Bishen
Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun, India.
Chatterjee, D. (1939): Studies on the endemic flora of India and
Burma. J. Asiatic Soc. Bengal II: 5: 19-67.
(1962): Floristic patterns of Indian vegetation. Proc.
Summer School ofBot ., Darjeeling, pp. 32-42.
Cooke, T. (1903-1908): (Rept. 1958): The Flora of Bombay
Presidency. 3 Vols. Rept. Botanical Survey of India,
Howrah.
Mahabale, T.S. (1973): Endemic and Exotic plants in Deccan
flora. Proc. Symp. Deccan Trap Country Bull. INS A No.
45: 102-107.
Maheshwari, J.K. (1962): Studies on naturalized flora of India.
Proc. Summer School Bot. Darjeeling, pp. 156-170.
& Paul, S.R. (1975): The exotic flora of Ranchi. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72 (1): 158-188.
Matthew, K.M. (1969): Exotic flora of Kodaikanal and Palni
hills. Rec. Bot. Surv. India 20 (1 ): 1-241.
Randhawa, M.S. (1958): Beautiful Trees of India. New Delhi.
— (1965): Flowering trees New Delhi.
Santapau, H. (1953): The Flora of Khandala on Western Ghats
of India. Rec. Bot. Surv. India. 16 (1): 1-336.
(1966): Common Trees. National Book Trust, India.
Sharma, B.D. & Pandey, D.S. (1984): Exotic flora of Allahabad
district. Publ. Botanical Survey of India, Howrah.
Talbot, W.A. (1 909-19 ll): Forest flora of the Bombay Presiden-
cy and Singh. 2 Vols. Govt. Photozinco Press, India.
GENETIC STATUS OF WHITE TIGERS AT NANDANKANAN BIOLOGICAL PARK,
ORISSA1
A.K. Roychoudhury2 and L.N. Acharjyo3
(With two text-figures)
Using genealogies the inbreeding coefficients of the white tigers at the Calcutta, Delhi and Nandankanan Zoos
have been calculated. The white tigers at Nandankanan are less inbred than those at Calcutta and Delhi. Inbreeding
does not have much effect on fertility and mortality of the white tigers at Nandankanan. An objective breeding plan for
Nandankanan has been given in order to breed white tigers with small values of inbreeding coefficient.
All the white tigers found at the zoos of Cal-
cutta and Delhi in India, Washington D.C. in the
U.S.A, and Bristol in England originated from two
founder animals, namely Mohan, a white male and
Begum, a coloured female. Since these two animals
were caught in the forests of Rewa, Madhya
Pradesh, India, all their descendants belong to the
Rewa lineage. During the last two decades the white
tigers of this lineage suffered grevious losses due to
the deleterious effects of inbreeding. Matings be-
tween close relatives like father-daughter, mother-
son, brother-sister etc. practised in the above men-
tioned zoos resulted in reduced fertility and in-
creased early mortality (Roychoudhury and
Sankhala 1979).
There is another lineage of white tigers found
at the Nandankanan Biological Park, Orissa
(Roychoudhury and Acharjyo 1983). The white
tigers bom there to a pair of normal coloured tigers
have apparently no biological connections with the
patriarch of white tigers, Mohan, or with his descen-
dants. As of 20 February 1986, this park had the
largest collection of white tigers in India, 8 females
and 5 males. It has also 18 normal coloured tigers of
which at least one is heterozygous, i.e. carrying a
gene for white coat colour. They are all founded by
three wild-caught tigers (Pradeep, Sikha and Rani)
and one white female (Diana/S ubhra) of the Rewa
lineage obtained from the Delhi Zoo. Seven white
offspring produced by Diana at this Park are the
products of a mixture between Rewa and Nan-
dankanan lineages. A number of coloured tigers have
been sold or exchanged for animals to three zoologi-
cal parks and one animal dealer in India. A
Accepted February 1988.
Nandankanan Biological Park, Barang, Orissa 754 005
3Bose Institute, 93/1, Acharya Prafulla Ch. Road,
Calcutta 700 0 09.
genealogical chart of the animals is shown in Fig. 1.
The dates of births and deaths of the tigers as well
as the dates of selling and sending them to different
zoological parks are given where available. In this
paper we shall discuss the genetic status of the white
tigers at Nandankanan.
Degree of inbreeding: At present 19 white descen-
dants of Mohan and Begum are living in India, the
USA and England. The inbreeding coefficients of
these tigers range from 0.37 to 0.50 with an average
of 0.41 ± 0.09 which is slightly higher than the
average value (0.39 ± 0.13) of seven white tigers
living in Delhi and Calcutta (Table 1). It is therefore
clear that all the animals are highly inbred. Among
19 white tigers of the Rewa line, at least four
(Neema, Sefali, Barun, and Priya) appear to be in-
fertile. Nothing is known about the reproduction of
Seema, Thiana, Akbar II and Nanda. The remaining
tigers have produced offspring.
At Nandankanan among 13 white tigers seven
are non-inbred, five have an inbreeding coefficient
of 0.25 and the one (Diana/S ubhra) that had been
brought from the Delhi Zoo has an inbreeding value
of 0.50. However, the average inbreeding coefficient
of all of the white tigers is 0. 13 ± 0.05 and it is 0. 10
± 0.04 when Diana is excluded (Table 2). The white
tigers at Nandankanan are significantly less inbred
than those at the Delhi and Calcutta Zoos.
Genetic contributions of four founders: To
preserve the ideal genetic diversity in the tiger
population at Nandankanan, all the four founder
animals should have equal genetic contributions.
From the genealogical chart we can easily calculate
the percentage of genes contributed by the founders
to each individual. Averaging over all living in-
dividuals, the percentages of genetic contributions
of four founding animals are determined. It is ob-
served that Pradeep and Sikha have higher genetic
NORMAL COLOURED
GENETIC STATUS OF WHITE TIGERS
Geneological chart of tigers at Nandankanan Biological Park
22
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Table 1
INBREEDING COEFFICIENTS AND OTHER INFORMATION OF THE LIVING WHITE DESCENDANTS OF MOHAN AND BEGUM
Abbreviations: BZ: Bristol Zoo, England; CZG: Calcutta Zoological Garden, Calcutta; GZ: Guwahati Zoo, Assam;
KZ: Kanpur Zoo, Uttar Pradesh; MYZ: Mysore Zoo, Mysore; NBP: Nandankanan Biological Park, Orissa;
NZPD: National Zoological Park, New Delhi; NZPH: Nehru Zoological Park, Hyderabad;
NZPW: National Zoological Park, Washington, D.C.
Table 2
INBREEDING COEFFCIENTS AND OTHER INFORMATION OF THE LIVING WHITE TIGERS AT NANDANKANAN
*NBP: Nandankanan Biological Park, Orissa NZPD: National Zoological Park, New Delhi
GENETIC STATUS OF WHITE TIGERS
23
cn
FOUNDERS
Fig. 2. Genetic constribution of four founders to the tiger popula-
tion at Nandankanan. The dotted line shows the ideal contribu-
tion to the genome, if all founders contribute equally (25%).
contributions than Rani and Diana (Fig. 2). Diana
has contributed the least, since she is old and highly
inbred.
Inbreeding effects on fertility: The effect of in-
breeding on litter size in white tigers of the Rewa
lineage at the Delhi and Calcutta Zoos and in white
and coloured tigers of the Nandankanan lineage at
the Nandankanan Biological Park was examined
(Table 3). Cubs with inbreeding coefficients of 0 are
classified as non- inbred and those with values
greater than 0 as inbred. At the Delhi and Calcutta
Zoos, the average litter size of inbred tigresses is less
than that of non-inbred ones but the difference is not
statistically significant ( p > 0.05). At Nandankanan,
the average litter size is higher in inbred tigresses
than in non-inbred ones, but the difference is not
statistically significant. Nothing can be said
categorically until more data for both inbred and
non-inbred births are available.
Inbreeding Effects on Mortality
It has been stated earlier that the matings be-
tween close relatives of white tigers at the Delhi,
Calcutta, Bristol and Washington Zoos resulted in
early mortality. Table 4 shows the number of deaths
of offspring for the Rewa and Nandankanan lineages
within 30 days after their births for different levels
of inbreeding coefficients. It is observed that 10% of
Table 3
LITTER SIZE OF NON-INBRED AND INBRED BIRTHS OF WHITE TIGERS IN REWA LINEAGE (DELHI AND CALCUTTA)
AND THOSE OF WHITE AND COLOURED TIGERS AT NANDANKANAN
Number of cubs in a litter Mean ± S.D. ■
Table 4
30 DAY MORTALITY DATA FOR THE OFFSPRING OF TWO LINEAGES OF WHITE TIGERS
24
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
the non- inbred offspring of Rewa lineage died
before they were 30 days old, as compared to 40%
of the inbred offspring. The early mortality is in-
creased up to 77% when inbreeding coefficient of
the offspring attains 0.5. But at Nandankanan, 19%
of the non-inbred offspring died as against 30% in
the inbred offspring. In both the lineages, the dif-
ferences are not statistically significant.
To study the inbreeding effects on mortality of
the offspring of the Rewa and Nandankanan
lineages, the following standard genetic model is
used (Morton et al 1956).
P = exp (-A-BF)
Where P is the proportion of dead offspring
whose inbreeding coefficient is F and, A measures
the contribution of non-genetic or environmental
causes of death and B the contribution of genetic
causes of deaths due to inbreeding. Following Chak-
raborty and Chakravarti (1977), the estimates of A
and B for the Rewa lineage are:
A = 0.061 ± 0.077, B = 1.386 ± 0.282
Since the standard error of A is larger than its
estimate, environment does not seem to have any ef-
fect on the mortality of the offspring of the Rewa
lineage. But the estimate ofB is about five times its
standard error, indicating that the inbreeding has a
significant role in* the early deaths of the offspring.
Using similar type of mortality data for the off-
spring of the Nandankanan lineage the estimates of
A and B are obtained as follows:
A = 0.241 ± 0.091, B = 0.589 ± 0.712
Unlike the offspring of the Rewa lineage, the
effects of inbreeding on early deaths for the off-
spring of the Nandankanan lineage seem to have a
minor role as compared to those of environment.
Breeding Plan
If we know in advance the inbreeding coeffi-
cients of the resulting offspring for all possible pairs,
an objective breeding plan can be made. A number
of workers have calculated the inbreeding coeffi-
cients of the resulting offspring for all possible com-
binations of captive males and females of Sumatran
tigers (Ballou and Seidensticker 1982), Indian lions
(Smith 1985) and north American white tigers (Mur-
taugh 1985). We have also calculated the inbreeding
coefficients for the offspring of all hypothetical pair-
ings of living tigers at Nandankanan (Table 5).
Table 5
INBREEDING COEFFICIENTS FOR THE OFFSPRING OF LIVING WHITE (CAPITAL LETTERS),
HETEROZYGOUS (ITALICS) AND COLOURED TIGERS AT THE NANDANKANAN BIOLOGICAL PARK
GENETIC STATUS OF WHITE TIGERS
25
The inbreeding coefficients of the offspring
can be used as guides in the selection of mates for
future breeding of white and coloured tigers. Apart
from age and health considerations, the mates are to
be selected in such a manner that their offspring will
have the least inbreeding coefficient. In this respect
Lipsa, Anuradha and Chitra may be ideal partners
for the white Sangram or the white unnamed male,
for their offspring will have an inbreeding coeffi-
cient of 0.11. Since Sangram and the unnamed male
(UM2) are not mature, they cannot be paired im-
mediately with these three females. In this analysis
we have excluded Rekha, the offspring of Sikha, for
she has passed her reproductive period.
Of 40 possible pairings between eight white
females and five white males, only two pairs
produce offspring with inbreeding coefficient of 0,
nine pairs produce offspring with inbreeding coeffi-
cient of 0.19 and the remaining pairs produce off-
spring with inbreeding coefficients varying between
0.28 and 0.38. To breed white tigers with an inbreed-
ing value of 0, Diana should be paired with either
Debabrata or Pinaki. But she is too old to produce
further offspring. Instead of Debabrata, Aswini or
Sangram may be the ideal partner for Alaka, Nanda
and Jamuna.
Bisakha, born to Subhra and Deepak, is a
heterozygous female. If she is mated with any of the
mature white males, namely Aswini, Debabrata and
Pinaki, white offspring may appear with a chance of
50% per cent. Matings of Bisakha with the last two
white tigers will produce offspring with low inbreed-
ing coefficient (0.19). Four coloured females and
one coloured male born to Deepak and Ganga in
their last two litters are heterozygous with a prob-
ability of 0.67. If they are mated with any white tiger,
the probability of obtaining a white offspring is 0.33.
Refe
Ballou, J.D. & Seidensticker, J. (1982): Demographic and
genetic status of the captive population of Sumatran tigers
( Panthera tigris sumatrae). In: International Tiger Stud-
book. Zoologischer Garten Leipzig. Germany, pp. 5-39.
Chakraborty, R. & Chakravarti, A. (1977): On consan-
guineous marriages and the genetic load. Hum. Genet. 36:
47-54.
Morton, N.E., Crow, J.F. & Muller, H.J. (1956): An estimate
of the mutational damage in man from data on consan-
guineous marriages. Proc.Natl. Acad. Sci. 42 : 855-863.
Murtaugh, J. (1985): A genetic analysis of the north American
It is quite unlikely that both Anand and Lipsa are
heterozygous. If they were so, they would have
produced at least one white cub out of their 16 cubs
in five litters. To examine whether any of them is
heterozygous, Anand may be paired with Sweta,
Swapna or Sipra, and similarly Lipsa with Aswini or
Sangram. If Anand or Lipsa produce at least one
white offspring, they will be considered
heterozygous. In any case the inbreeding coefficient
of their offspring will not be higher than 0.12.
Conclusions
To reduce the levels of inbreeding, white tigers
should be allowed to outcross with unrelated normal
coloured tigers and the offspring thus produced are
to be backcrossed with white tigers, preferably of
different lineage. If outcrossing and backcrossing
are conducted alternately, avoiding common lineage
whenever possible, white tigers can be produced
with the lowest possible level of inbreeding. This
strategy of breeding in white tigers has been advo-
cated earlier by Murtaugh (1985).
Acknowledgements
We are thankful to Dr Jonathan Ballou of the
National Zoological Park, Smithsonian Institution,
Washington D.C., U.S.A. for critically going
through the manuscript and correcting some errors
in inbreeding coefficients in Tables 1 and 5 and to
Dr Ranajit Chakraborty of the Centre for
Demographic and Population Genetics, the Univer-
sity of Texas Health Science Center at Houston,
USA for helping us in using the computer
programme for studying the effects of inbreeding on
mortality. Our thanks are also due to Prof. W.J.
Schull of the same University for improving the ear-
lier draft of this paper.
NCES
population of white tigers with recommendations for fu-
ture management. National Zoological Park, Washington,
D.C., USA, (Unpublished).
Roychoudhury, A.K. & Sankhala, K.S. (1979): Inbreeding in
white tigers. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 88B: 311-323.
& Acharjyo, L.N. (1983): Origin of white tigers at
Nandankanan Biological Park, Orissa. Indian J. Expt. Biol.
21: 350-352.
Smith, G.L. (1985): International Studbook. Indian Lion, Pan-
thera leo persica (Meyer 1926). Knoxville Zoological
Park, Tennessee, USA.
NOTES ON THE BIOLOGY OF VARANUS GRISEUS KONIECZNYI I MERTENS
SAURIA: VARANIDAE1
Walter Auffenberg2, Hafeezur Rehman, Fehmida Iffat and Zahida Perveen3
(With four text-figures)
The present study documents several aspects of the biology of Varanus griseus koniecznyi in Pakistan. Adequate
material now available makes possible a more detailed description of the morphological features and the geographic
distribution of this species than was previously possible. The annual reproductive and abdominal fat cycles are outlined
and the common prey organisms identified.
Introduction
This study was undertaken as part of an exten-
sive research programme involving the varanid
lizards of India and Pakistan. It is the second of a
series of publications intended to make the results of
this work available to biologists. With the exception
of a few casual notes (Corkhill 1928), literature con-
tains nothing regarding the biology of this sub-
species (a significant unpublished thesis research
study on food and burrow use was conducted by
Dave (1961) at the University of Rajasthan (see
below). Several of the earlier publications (i.e. Smith
1935) that deal with the eastern populations of
Varanus griseus (now considered to represent the
distinctive V. g. koniecznyi) include behavioural and
other data relating to more western populations now
considered as distinct geographic races, so that it is
not clear what information pertains to the eastern
race and what does not.
Varanus griseus (desert monitor lizard) is dis-
tributed from northern Africa to north-central India.
Within this large area three geographic races are
recognized V. g. griseus from Africa to approximate-
ly eastern Iran, V. g. caspius from the western shores
of the Caspian Sea, Turkman and the Iranian Plateau,
eastward through Afghanistan and Baluchistan to
western Sinkiang Province, China; and V. g.
koniecznyi from central Pakistan to north-central
India.
Varanus g. koniecznyi was described by Mer-
tens in 1954; the type locality is Khorangi, near
Karachi, Pakistan. In addition to those morphologi-
1 Accepted September 1988
2The Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville,
Florida 32611, U.S.A.
3 All remaining authors Zoological Survey Dept., Block 61,
Pakistan Secretariat, Karachi, Pakistan.
cal features he listed as distinguishing it from its
closest geographic conspecific V g. caspius , he in-
cluded a few other localities. To these he added
several more in 1969. Minton (1966) published a
few natural history notes, added still more localities
in southern Pakistan, and further characterized the
subspecies on the basis of a few additional mor-
phological features. Our studies were primarily con-
ducted to better understand the biology of this poor-
ly known subspecies. The study was intended to
supply baseline information on distribution, mor-
phology, reproduction and nutrition as an aid to
developing a conservation programme for this (and
other) monitor species in southern Asia.
The following data were obtained as a result of
field work conducted from 1984 through most of
1987 in both countries. Additionally, important
museum specimens were examined in both these
countries and in Europe and the United States. Total
field time was approximately 22 months (India 10,
Pakistan 12). Data were obtained from 150
specimens (52 in museums, 98 in the field). All
measurements of total length (TOL), tail length (TL)
and snout-vent length (SVL) were made to the
closest mm; all internal measurements (testes, ova,
etc.) were made to the closest 0.1 mm; all weights to
the closest 0.1 g.
Results
Distribution: Fig. 1 shows the published literature
records as well as those Pakistan localities
demonstrated as possessing Varanus griseus during
the present study. These data make it quite clear that
the subspecies V g. koniecznyi is restricted to what
is best described as the historic and the present Indus
River Valley (see Fig.l). However, within this large
area, it is more or less restricted to sandy tracts. This
habitat preference has already been mentioned by
BIOLOGY OF VARANUS GRISEUS KONIECZNYI
27
Fig. 1. Locality records for Varanus griseus koniecznyi ; literature records hollow dots, examined specimens solid dots. Shaded area
represents what we believe to be the entire range of the subspecies. The zone of intergradation with V. g. caspius along the western
border is not yet clear (see text). Only one specimen is considered an intergrade (half solid dot). The traingles represent the closest
localities known at present for Varanus g. caspius.
Minton (1966); it is rarely found in clay deserts.
Common plants noted in areas where V g. koniecznyi
were seen during this study are Acacia jacquemon-
tii , Prosopis cineraria , Salvadora oleoides , Cap-
paris aphylla , Leptadenia pyrotechnica , and Col-
li gonum polygonoides.
Localities from which this subspecies are now
known and the data source follow:
INDIA. Uttar Pradesh Prov., Sikandra (this
study), near Agra (Carlleyle 1869); Dayalbagh (this
study), Agra (Boulenger 1885, based on Carlleyle?),
Delhi (Jerdon 1870), Oudh (Murray 1884);
Maharashtra Prov., Narsingarh (Smith 1932, see
text, locality questioned). Gujarat Prov., Surat,
(Gleadow 1905), Deesa (ZSI and Smith 1932);
Kutch (Stoliczka 1872). Haryana Prov., Ambala;
Rajasthan Prov., Bikaner, Banner and Pugal (Dave
1961), Pokaran (this study), Jodhpur (ZSIJ, Smith
1932 and this study), Jaipur (this study).
Pakistan. Baluchistan Prov., Gwador Distr.:
Ormara (this study); Quetta Distr., Quetta (ZSD);
Las Bela Prov., Bela (this study), Goth Mauladad
(Mertens 1969), Uthal (ZSM), Panjgur Distr.,
Panjgur; Punjab Prov., Jhellum Distr.: Goolpour, 9.6
km Pindo Dadau Khan (this study); Jhang Distr.:
Jhang (UMMZ), Rabwah (this study), Bhravi Desert
(Minton 1966); Sargodha Distr.: Khewra, nr. Jhel-
lum River (this study); Lahore Distr.: Lahore (Jer-
don 1870): 32 km SE Lahore; Kolakhatai; Narang
Mandi; Sri Rampura; Changa Manga (all this study),
Mianwali Distr.: Salt Range (Theobald 1868). Sind
Prov., Badin Distr.: Badin (MCZ and Mertens 1969),
Thar Parkar Distr.: (Smith 1932), Islamkot (ZSD),
Nagar Parkar (this study), Umarkot (ZSD and this
study); Karachi Distr.: Karachi (Minton 1966 and
many museum collections), Dabiji (Mertens 1969),
Clifton (Minton 1966), 6.4 km E Landhi (Minton
1966), Khar Centre nr. Hab Dam (this study), San-
ghar Distr.: Sher Khadra (this study); Thatta Distr.:
Jati (Mertens 1969, Jherruck (Mertens 1969),
Jungshahi (Mertens 1969 and this study); 4.8 km NE
Gharo (Minton 1966); Hyderabad Distr.: nr. Bhalori
(Minton 1966), Mirpur Khas (ZSD); Dadu Distr.: nr.
Thana Bulla Khan (ZSD, Minton 1966 and this
study).
The locality Narsingarh (Smith 1932) requires
verification, for it is out of the expected range on
zoogeographical grounds. In the most eastern parts
of this subspecies range Nikolsky (1907) reports
Varanus griseus (subsp.?) from SE Iran; but the sub-
species represented is probably V g. caspius on the
basis of Mertens ’s record from Iranshah (1956). The
28
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
western limits of V.g. koniecznyi is apparently at the
edge of the Iranian Plateau (i.e., die Sulaiman,
Bruhai and Kirthar Mountain Ranges in central
Pakistan. At the southeastern limit the subspecies
ranges into, but not beyond, the Gujarat Plains (Surv.
India Maps, pi. 41), and eastward to, but apparendy
not beyond the Ganga-Jamuna Doab. I have seen a
specimen (not captured) from the sandy river bed
near Firozabad that I believe represents this species.
If correcdy identified, it is the most eastern locality
known.
Systematics: At an early date the distinctive colora-
tion and pattern of the Varanus griseus populations
from India had already been reported in the litera-
ture (Hardwicke and Gray 1827, Anderson 1898). In
1942, Mertens suspected that the Indian and Pakis-
tani specimens represented an undescribed race on
the basis of its colour pattern, but had too few
specimens for study to be certain. Additional Pakis-
tan material was made available through collections
made by Mr Konieczny. Mertens described the sub-
species V. g. koniecznyi in the collector’s honour in
1954. Unfortunately, Mertens was unable to define
the geographical limits at the western edge of the
range, for at that time there were no Baluchi
specimens with precise locality data.
Today, the situation is hardly better, though
Minton (1966) reported a specimen referred to V.g.
caspius from Chagai District, 17.6 km NW Nushki.
It is also presumed that the specimen reported by
Wall (1912) from Chitral Distr., N.W.F.P., was also a
member of this race. Thus systematists believe the
populations along the Afghani-Baluchi border are
referable to V. g. caspius. It is presumed that those
populations between these and those examined from
the most northwestern localities in the Indus Valley
(Fig. 1) are intermediate, though this has not been
proven with the material at hand. Even less is known
about the subspecific allocation of populations along
the Irani-Baluchi border. Specimens from the mid-
dle and eastern part of the Mekkran Coast (Ormara,
Uthal, and Bela) are clearly assignable to V.g.
koniecznyi , and show no evidence of intergradation.
However, a single adult from Panjgur, Baluchistan
(ZSM 161/1985) is intermediate in body and tail
colour pattern between V.g. koniecznyi and V.g.
caspius. The closest undoubted V.g. griseus records
are in central Iran (Tuck 1971).
A good black-and-white photograph of
Varanus griseus koniecznyi is provided by Minton
(1966) and a coloured one by Auffenberg (1986).
The photograph by Pilleri (1970) is not of this
species as stated, but of V. bengalensis bengalensis ,
as first noted by Mertens (1971). Detailed descrip-
tions of material then available are provided by Mer-
tens (1954) and Minton (1966). The following short
description is based on a much wider selection of
specimens available to us in this study:
Tongue long, slender, bifid and retractable into
a sheath. Head moderately broad, with a pointed
snout. External nares, located near the eye (28-40 %
of the distance from the nostril to tip of the snout).
Tail rounded in cross section throughout most of its
length, longer than snout-vent distance (109-128 %
of SVL). Head scales small, polygonal; mid-dorsal
body scales small (108-139 scale rows around
body), granular above, squarish ventrally.
Dorsal head colour dark grey to black, lighter
in the young. Body dull yellow to light grey,
speckled with dark grey to black; 3 -4 dark grey,
greenish grey (to dark brown or black in young)
cross bands on trunk, bordered by and sometimes
enclosing white to yellow spots. This pattern is
sometimes obscured by a long triangular dark grey
to black patch that extends from the top of the head
over the dorsal part of the neck onto the shoulders,
sometimes farther posteriorly. This "cape" is best
developed in older individuals, especially from the
Indian side of the Thar Desert (photograph in Auf-
fenberg 1986). There is always a dark brown to black
stripe extending from the canthus through the ear
opening onto the neck and a shorter, narrower one
from behind the eye. The base and proximal two
thirds of the tail are often crossed with from 8-12
greyish bands; distal third to one half black with a
white tip. The limbs are greyish with yellow spots
and the ventral surfaces are white, often with dark
speckling on the throat.
Corkhill (1928) reports that during early sum-
mer the bellies of males have a pinkish cast. Though
this is probably correct, we were not able to confirm
a seasonal colour change in either sex.
The few Pakistan specimens of Varanus g.
caspius that are available are similar, but have a
longer tail (148% SVL), a higher number of mid-
dorsal scales (143) and more body (6-8) and
BIOLOGY OF VARANUS GRISEUS KONIECZNYI
29
tailgraph (15-17) bands. The body bands are not
bordered by lighter spots (photograph in Minton
1966). The distal part of the tail is whitish. Addition-
ally, they reach larger size.
Size and Mass: In the sample of adult V. g.
koniecznyi measured and weighed in the field during
this study (N = 94), female SVL varied from 190-
335 mm (N = 39); males 183-365 mm (N = 55).
Males were slightly, but significantly larger than
females (X male SVL 286.7 ± 34.6 mm, X female
SVL 268.0 ± 33.22; t test = 6.5; p < 0.001). The
proportional difference in SVL between the sexes is
less than in all other monitors studied so far. Total
length in males varies from 449 to 835 mm, and in
females from 412 to 752 mm. The tail is longer than
the body, as in most monitor species. There is no sig-
nificant sexual difference in the proportional length
of the tail, the mean SVL/ Tail L (X 1.23 ± 1.0 in
males, 1.20± 0.1 in females). Its tip is missing in 11
% of the males and 12.8 % of the females, with no
significant sexual difference between them in this
regard.
Total weight varied from 62 to 580 g in females
(X 250.9 ± 133.1 g) and 85 to 520 g in males (X
296.2 ± 106.0 g).
Among sexually mature adults there is no sig-
nificant relation between SVL and Wt (best fit with
exponential curve, R2 = 0.29), suggesting that total
weights vary greatly intra-individually and
seasonally. This high variance is probably due to
variation in local insect abundance.
Sex ratio: A total of 96 specimens were dug from
their burrows in Sind Province, Pakistan. Of these,
the sex of twelve was indeterminant (gonadal im-
maturity). The sex ratio of adults (84) was 58 males
to 26 females (2.23:1), which is significantly dif-
ferent (P < 0.5) from a 1:1 ratio (X2 = 4.4, 1 df).
Pianka (1968, 1969, 1971), Horn (1980), Pen-
gilley (1981) and Auffenberg (1981) have reported
unequal sex ratios in different species of varanid
lizards; the latter showed that such ratios may obtain
in unhatched eggs as well (though based on small
sample size). Studies of still other species have
shown that ratios of 1:1 are normal (Auffenberg
1988, Auffenberg et al in press, King and Rhodes
1982, and Auffenberg in MS). King and Green
(1979) thought it likely that unequal sex ratios in
varanids were the result of differences in activity
patterns or levels. That this is likely was suggested
by the activity patterns of many captive V. ben-
galensis , in which males were much more active
than females of the same age (Auffenberg 1979).
Further studies of the same species in the wild (Auf-
fenberg in MS) show that when individuals are ex-
cavated from their burrows the sex ratio is 1:1. A
recent study of V. flavescens in India and Pakistan
(Auffenberg et al. in press) provides the same 1:1
ratio on the basis of excavated specimens. However,
the same capture technique for V. griseus (also in
Pakistan) shows that this subspecies exhibits a sex
ratio favouring males.
Thus, while it seemed for a time that the une-
qual sex ratios in varanids may be due to bias related
to differential activity levels of the sexes, the occur-
rence of unequal ratios in the eggs of at least some
species and the clear presence of unequal ratios in
samples taken from refugia suggests that some
varanids have equal sex ratios, others do not. When
unequal, the ratios favour the males. So far these
species favour xeric habitats. Unequal sex ratios in
land tortoises inhabiting xeric conditions have also
been demonstrated (Auffenberg and Weaver 1969).
Reproductive Cycle: In spite of a number of publi-
cations on Varanus griseus , there is little informa-
tion on the reproductive biology of this species in the
eastern parts of its range. The data presented below
were obtained from specimens originating in both
Pakistan and India, representing most of the
geographical distribution of this subspecies.
The female reproductive cycle is best studied
by examination and measurement of the ovarian fol-
licles. Ovary volume and diameter of the largest
ovum both show a dramatic rise in August (Fig. 2).
Though there is a drop in October-November, both
remain at high levels through January. The ovaries
are in a regressed phase (Jacob and Ramswami
1976) from February through July. The smallest
female with enlarged follicles (< 3.0 mm diameter)
has an SVL of 245 mm, which is taken as the smal-
lest size of mature females. Eggs are ovulated when
they are about 10 mm in diameter.
Oviducal eggs were found in 12 females. Col-
lection dates of these individuals were from August
8 to September 15. Shelled oviducal eggs are found
from October 13 to September 15. The smallest in-
dividual with oviducal eggs has an SVL of 276 mm.
3
30
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Fig. 2. Seasonal change in ovary and testes volume and the diameter of the largest follicle in Varanus griseus koniecznyi.
Clutch size of oviducal eggs ranges from 6-11;
luteal bodies remain in the ovary for at least one year,
and range in number from 2-15. Thus our evidence
from Pakistan suggests that mature females lay from
2 to 15 eggs, with the mean for this area calculated
as 8.7 ±4.3.
Females appear to produce only one clutch per
breeding season. All females throughout the sub-
species range are synchronous in respect to gonadal
activity. The ovaries of individuals with oviducal
eggs generally contained both corpora lutea and a
number of degenerating ova. We found no evidence
that eggs pass through the oviducts of this subspecies
as rapidly as suggested by Jacob and Ramswami
(1976) for V. bengalensis , who reported the
presence of mature follicles, and both shelled and
unshelled eggs in a single individual. Ovulation oc-
curs mainly in August and September, with continu-
ing slow decrease in ovary volume through January
(Fig. 2), after which there is a radical reduction in
ovary size March through June. Ovulation in this
subspecies is later than that in the sympatric V
flavescens (Auffenberg et al. in press).
Corpora lutea vary from 2 to 15. There is no
significant relationship (R2 = 0.01) between female
size (SVL) and number of ovulated eggs (number of
corpora lutea).
Testes volume of all males with SVL >250 mm
shows a significant seasonal change (Fig. 2). Testes
volume is highest in April, gradually becoming more
or less smaller in the following months through July.
In August there is a dramatic decrease in testes
volume, after which it slowly increases through
December, followed by a more rapid rise to April.
Varanus g. koniecznyi exhibits a composite
reproductive cycle. Males produce sperm during the
spring, after they emerge from a period of dorman-
cy (or at least reduced activity) from November
through March. Thus testicular recrudescence takes
place when ambient temperatures are increasing in
spring. Combat takes place May, June and early July
(just before the monsoon, which in Pakistan and
western India usually begins between mid-July and
mid- August). This is suggested both by the presence
of combat scars on the shoulders of adult males (see
Auffenberg 1988) and combatant pairs during these
months. Ovarian activity (as well as courtship and
breeding) occurs during August. Most eggs are laid
in September, a few in October.
The timing of reproductive activity in this sub-
species of monitor is of considerable interest. We
have demonstrated that the onset of testicular ac-
tivity is correlated with increasing ambient tempera-
ture. In contrast, ovarian activity is not correlated
with temperature, but is greatest during the monsoon
season. Because ambient temperature and precipita-
tion are not correlated, the gonadal activity of males
and females are asynchronous.
Reproductive activity is controlled by complex
environmental cues, including temperature,
BIOLOGY OF VARANUS GRISEUS KONIECZNYI
31
photoperiod and precipitation (see Duvall et al.
1982 for review). Licht (1971) and Marion (1982)
have demonstrated that lizard testicular activity is
stimulated by increasing temperature. Thus the male
desert monitor annual reproductive cycle with sper-
matogenesis in spring is not surprising. However,
the fact that female gonadal activity does not begin
until much later in the year is unusual among
monitors. Guillette and Sullivan (1985) have
demonstrated a similar asynchronous reproductive
cycle in male and female iguanid lizards (Sceloporus
formosus). However, in that case females are preg-
nant during spring. They point out that pregnancy
hormones would block any stimulatory environmen-
tal cues (through action of the anti-gonadal hormone
progesterone). However, there is no evidence that
female V g. koniecznyi are pregnant during spring,
so that the mechanism inhibiting ovarian activity in
females during the earlier part of the year remains
unknown.
Unfortunately, we are not certain when the
eggs hatch. Minton (1966) collected what he
believed to be newly hatched individuals in August
and September (SVL 94 mm). Three small
specimens (X SVL 102 mm); in collections of the
California Academy of Science and M.S. Khan
(Rabwah, Pakistan) were collected together during
July from the roof of a thatched hut, suggesting they
had hatched several weeks previously (sibling hatc-
hling monitors sometimes remain together for some
time (Auffenberg 1981, 1988). Thus the current data
suggest that V. g. koniecznyi hatch from July through
September (monsoon), further suggesting that in-
cubation takes about 10 months.
This premise requires confirmation from
Pakistani and Indian biologists. In Tunisia, Thilenius
(1897) reports hatchlings 3 to 4 months after shelled
eggs are found in the oviducts. However, his total
length measurements of about 30 cm are much too
great for young of the year, suggesting that his "hatc-
hlings" were already one season old. Thus there is
no information on how long incubation lasts in
Tunisia.
The long incubation period suggested for V. g.
koniecznyi is not unique among monitors (though
exceptionally long when compared to lizard species
in other families), for Varanus niloticus requires a
similar incubation period in some parts of its range
(Cowles 1930). Other workers have demonstrated
that the incubation of the eggs of other monitor
species may take 4 to 6 months (see Auffenberg 1988
for review). In every case where comparisons are
possible, the hatching of monitors seems correlated
with the onset of the rainy season, which evidence
suggests is also true of V. g. koniecznyi. This is, of
course, the time when insect prey usually reach their
highest annual peaks.
Thilenius (1897) suggests the possibility that
in Tunisia, female desert monitors may return to the
nest near the time of hatching. Auffenberg (1981)
repeats a local rural story that the females of V.
komodoensis do likewise, though he saw no
evidence for such behaviour. Additional information
on such possible maternal behaviour on the part of
adult females would be very important, if confirmed.
Newly hatched monitors of many species are
rarely seen in the wild even by professional monitor
hunters. We presume this is usually due to their often
arboreal habits when young. However, hatchlings of
Varanus griseus are also rarely caught when com-
pared to adults. The paucity of trees in their usual
habitat suggests they are spending their time else-
where. This is another area in which local biologists
can shed much light on - where very young monitors
spend most of their time. In contrast, ovarian activity
is not correlated with temperature, but is greatest
during the monsoon season. Because ambient
temperature and precipitation are not correlated, the
gonadal activity of males and females are
asynchronous.
On the basis of limited growth data on captive
Varanus griseus caspius (Segeev 1939), V. g.
koniecznyi may become sexually mature at the end
of the second year of life, certainly during the third.
Thilenius (1897) believes that the larger nominal
subspecies may become mature as early as two
years, but for most individuals he believes it is 4 or
5 years. They have been known to live in captivity
at least ten years (Flower 1925).
Abdominal Fat Bodies, Male and female fat bodies
exhibit identical annual cycles (Fig. 3), as they do in
the tropical evergreen species Varanus olivaceus
(Auffenberg 1988). In both sexes of V griseus the
fat body weight begins to accumulate during the
monsoon season, reaching a peak in September and
October. This is directly associated with increased
32
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Fig. 3. Abdominal fat body cycles of male (M) and female (F) Varanus griseus koniecznyi.
Fig. 4. Annual cycle of proportional liver weight (SVL/Liver Wt g x 100)
abundance of insect prey (Auffenberg, MS). Ab-
dominal fat in both sexes begins to decrease in
November, correlated with the beginning of annual
dormancy and following egg deposition during
August and September. This fat body reduction is
later than vitellogenesis, suggesting that the fat
bodies in V. griseus , as in V. olivaceus , are not used
for this purpose. The senior author has suggested
elsewhere (Auffenberg 1988) that considerable fat
is also stored in the tail of varanids and that this
varies seasonally. It is possible that caudal fat, rather
than abdominal fat is a more important lipid source
during vitellogenesis in varanid lizards. Auffenberg
and Auffenberg (in press) have suggested that the
caudal fat may be the source of some (or all) of the
lipids used in vitellogenesis in Philippine scincids as
well.
In both sexes abdominal fat weight is least
during April, May and June. While it is true that this
inverse relationship agrees with spermatogenesis in
male desert monitors (most marked in April), it does
not agree with vitellogenesis in the female (mainly
August).
Thus the weight of abdominal fat in both sexes
BIOLOGY OF VARANUS GRISEUS KONIECZNYI
33
Table 1
STOMACH CONTENTS OF Varanus griseus koniecznyi IN
RAJASTHAN, BASED ON DATA PROVIDED IN DAVE (1961)
exhibit cyclic changes, with the greatest weight
achieved during and immediately after the monsoon
season (Fig. 3).
Liver:The pattern of seasonal changes in propor-
tional liver weight has been investigated in Varanus
olivaceus (Auffenberg 1988) and V flavescens (Auf-
fenberg et al. in press). Fig. 4 demonstrates seasonal
differences in the weight of this organ in V.g.
koniecznyi. The annual peak in both males and
females is during August, when, in the females,
vitellogenesis occurs. However, the fact that liver
weight is also highest in males during this same
month suggests that greater liver weight is related to
increased insect prey abundance during the same
month (Auffenberg, unpubl. data). Lowest liver
weights occur during May and June, when insect
prey are the least abundant.
Food and its seasonal utilization. Several previous
workers have reported in a general way on the prey
taken by Varanus griseus koniecznyi. Corkhill
(1928) reported that they fed chiefly on small ro-
dents, lizards, snakes and crickets. Minton (1966)
reports that his captives fed on mice, rats, fish, meat
and eggs, and small toads. The inference from these
reports is that V g. koniecznyi feeds largely upon
small vertebrates. However, Dave (1961) provided
a long list of prey taken from the stomachs of in-
dividuals captured in Rajasthan, India (no indication
of number examined). More importantly, his data
show that insects comprise the major food category
(Table 1).
Food remains were recovered from the
stomachs of 75 specimens during this study. All
those individuals captured during December
through March had empty stomachs and intestines.
Our data show that during these three months V g.
koniecznyi is usually inactive. Insects are the most
common food category taken (82.6%); vertebrates
(including their eggs) comprise a small percentage
of the total stomach contents (15.9%; Table 2). Thus
in both of those studies in which food habits are
based on wild caught specimens, insects
predominate; vertebrates are not the most common
food of this subspecies.
Almost all the prey in Pakistan specimens are
partly fossorial. The gerbill, desert cockroaches,
centipedes, tenebrionid beetles, toads, and reptile
eggs are all most commonly encountered under
stones and surface detritus, or in their burrows. It is
also highly likely that at least the juvenile Uromas-
tix hardwickii were also taken from their burrows.
Acanthodactylus cantoris regularly hides in burrows
and could have been retrieved from holes. However,
Calotes versicolor was almost certainly taken while
on the ground (normally an arboreal form). Scarib
beetles are commonly found either on the ground at
cow or camel pats, or within pats or the soil beneath
them. When the entire spectrum of prey taken is
reviewed it becomes obvious that almost all the prey
are found below the surface or extricated from
beneath debris on the desert floor.
The largest prey taken are Uromastix
hardwickii - all were juveniles with a mean SVL of
77 mm. One adult desert monitor contained 5 hatc-
hling U. hardwickii , two of which appeared to have
been eaten the day before, and three the day it was
captured. Another adult monitor contained remains
34
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Table 3
SEASONAL PREY UTILIZATION IN Varanus griseus koniecznyi FROM SIND, PAKISTAN (JN% OF MONTHLY TOTALS)
of two hatchlings. Most beetle prey were represented
by a number of individuals in each stomach (mean
10.2 per stomach). The mean cockroach length is
10.0 mm; mean beetle length 1 1.9 mm. Thus the vast
majority of the prey eaten are small in proportion to
predator length. In spite of prey lists in the literature
that tend to emphasize the vertebrate prey of
Varanus griseus koniecznyi , most prey are small
beetles they dig from beneath detritus or from shal-
low burrows, usually under desert shrubs.
Dave (1961) demonstrates considerable
seasonal variation in the prey taken by the desert
monitor in Rajasthan, India. He concludes that in-
sects comprise the major prey during July and
August; reptiles are eaten primarily in March
through April, and eggs (order not determined) in
May and June (but no quantitative seasonal data is
provided).
Table 3 provides data obtained during the cur-
rent study on seasonal prey utilization in Sind
Province, Pakistan. No food was found in any desert
monitor stomachs from December through March.
Beetles were taken every month that the monitors
were active, varying from about 4 to 96 % of the total
monthly items. Lizards were taken only during the
monsoon season; reptile eggs mainly before the
monsoon. The remainder of the prey categories
reflect no obvious pattern. Thus the seasonal utiliza-
tion of prey in Pakistan is somewhat different from
what Dave described in western India.
Utilization. In connection with study of the be-
havioural ecology of monitor lizards in Pakistan and
India during five years by the senior author, there is
no clear evidence that this monitor lizard is regular-
ly* (if at all) hunted for its leather. This is striking in
view of the fact that in appropriate habitats it is rather
common. Not once have we seen a leather product
(handbag, wallet, etc.) made of its skin in either of
these countries. Nor have we noted it among the
thousands of confiscated skins ready for processing
in tanning establishments. Such skins are always of
Varanus bengalensis and V. flavescens (in Pakistan
and western India). The reason seems to be that in-
dividuals of both the last two species tend to be con-
centrated, whereas individuals of the desert monitor,
while clearly more abundant on the basis of com-
parative sizes of the areas inhabited by each, tend to
be more widely scattered over the vast sandy arid
tracts in which they are found. We found no evidence
that the desert monitor lizard is avoided by hunters
(though many uninformed rural people believe it is
venomous, the professional animal catchers do not).
In general, through both India and Pakistan
much of the original preferred habitat of this sub-
species remains intact. This is due mainly to its
aridity. Some schemes have been proposed in both
countries to convert some of these desert lands
(where they lie near a major water source) to agricul-
tural land. This will undoubtedly result in some
habitat destruction of importance to the desert
monitor. However, viewed in broad perspective,
such schemes will have little significant effect on the
totality of the geographic area in which it exists.
Most of this land cannot be irrigated and thus the
total range will probably not experience as much sig-
nificant future modification as the habitats of the
other Indo-Pakistani monitor species. In fact, the
continued salination (and thus abandonment for
agricultural purposes) of marginal desert habitat
through hydro-agriculture may, in the long run,
match and even exceed the effects of habitat destruc-
tion through urbanization and highway construction.
However, proof of this remains for the future. These
observations suggest that of the three species found
in southern arid Asia, V. g. koniecznyi is the least
threatened.
BIOLOGY OF VARANUS GRISEUS KONIECZNYI
35
Acknowledgements
Thanks are extended to the following in-
dividuals for allowing the study of prepared
materials in their care (museum abbreviations in
parentheses where appropriate): Dr Farooq M.
Ahmed, Director, Zoological Survey Dept., Karachi
(ZSD); Dr N. Arnold, British Museum (Natural His-
tory), London (BMNH); Mr K.J. Baig, Pakistan
Museum Natural History, Islamabad; Mr J.C.
Daniel, Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS);
Dr W. Bohme, Alexander Koenig Museum Natural
History, Bonn; Dr J.Eiselt, Vienna Museum Natural
History; Dr O. Gruber, Zoologisches Staatmuseum
Munchen (ZSM); Dr K. Klemmer, Senckenberg
Museum Natural History, Frankfurt (SMF); Mr H.
Marx, Chicago Museum Natural History, Chicago.
Mr S.M. Nair, Director, Museum Natural History,
New Delhi; Mr J.P. Rosada, Museum Comparative
Zoology, Harvard University, Cambridge (Mass.);
Mr D.P. Sanyal, Zoological Survey of India, Calcut-
ta (ZSI); Mr R.C. Sharma, Desert Regional Station,
Zoological Survey of India, Jodhpur (ZSIJ); Dr G.
Zug, United States National Museum, Washington;
Dr R. Zweifel, American Museum Natural History,
New York (AMNH); Additional material was ex-
amined in the Florida Museum Natural History,
University of Florida, Gainesville, FI., U.S.A. (UF).
Mr. Qayyum Nazar, Zoological Survey
Department, Pakistan was a valued laboratory assis-
tant. Dr S. Telford, Florida Museum Natural History,
University of Florida, examined all blood smears for
parasites. Appreciation is also extended to the
Florida Museum Natural History and the Zoological
Survey Department of Pakistan for allowing the in-
vestigators to conduct the work, and to the follow-
ing agencies for providing funds without which the
study could not have been possible: United States
Fish and Wildlife Service (India 1984-5, Pakistan
1985-7) and a Fullbright Senior Fellowship to W.
Auffenberg (India 1979).
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PREDATION BY AQUILA EAGLES ON NESTLING STORKS AND HERONS IN
KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK, BHARATPUR1
Rishad Naoroji2
( With four plates, and a map)
Large scale predation of chicks in heronries by Aquila species during the 1985 breeding season is reported in
Keoladeo National Park, which harbours the largest heronry in India. Young of the painted stork Mycteria leucocephala
which nested successfully in large numbers that year were preyed upon. Their nesting coincided with the influx of
Aquila migrants. Large and nearly full-grown young in nests and later fledged young on the ground were killed and fed
upon collectively by six to eight Aquila. Predation was not observed when nesting was unsuccessful in the next two
years when drought prevailed. To my knowledge earlier published records of predation by Aquila in the subcontinent
do not exist. Killing of nestlings was not observed, though unsucessful attempts were. A minimum of 2.5% of the total
number of young herons in the main study area were preyed upon.
Introduction
The Keoladeo National Park has become world
famous for its vast numbers of wintering waterfowl.
It is also the only wintering grounds of the rare
Siberian crane Grus leucogeranus in India. A wide
variety of waterbirds breed here in the monsoon and
post monsoon period. The Park is the winter host of
one of the world’s largest concentrations of raptors,
mainly eagles of the genus Aquila. Other species of
raptors also breed and winter here.
This paper describes predation by eagles of the
genus Aquila primarily on nestlings and fledglings
of the painted stork. Systematic killing of painted
stork young by Pallas’s fishing eagle Haliaeetus
leucoryphus has been previously recorded by Low-
ther (1949). Ali (1953) mentions heron nestlings
taken by the Pallas’s and marsh harrier Circus
aeruginosus , imperial eagle Aquila heliaca preying
on flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber roseus chicks
was observed by Ali (1953, unpublished notes).
Study Area
The park is divided into fifteen blocks (of
which the relevant blocks are shown in Fig. 1)
bounded by man- made dykes, (bunds). The flow of
water from the main reservoir (Ajan Bund) is so
regulated that different blocks can be flooded as re-
quired (Breeden and Breeden 1982). In blocks B, D
and L, clusters of mounds support groves of Acacia
nilotica. These trees provide safe nesting sites for a
wide variety of waterbirds during the monsoon when
the marsh is flooded.
Accepted June 1989
2Belha Court, 24 Ramchandani Marg, Bombay 400 039.
During my study period, two pairs of Pallas’s
had established territories in the park. One of these
pairs was nesting in D-block and had a large ter-
ritory in the southeastern part, whereas the other, in
LW and N-block, comprised of an adult female and
a non-adult male, which were not nesting and were
holding a smaller territory in the northwestern part
of the park (Fig. 1). Both these pairs were under con-
stant observation and a study of their activity will be
published elsewhere.
Material and Methods
My study period lasted from mid September to
mid April. I studied the predation presented here,
from 27 October to 16 November 1985, 8 January to
20 February 1986, and 8 November 1988 to 3
February 1989. Observations were made using 8 x
40 binoculars from a punt.
Results
Migration schedule of raptors: During the latter
half of September, there was an influx of migrant
raptors into the park, and by mid October a variety
of different species, mainly Aquila , were observed.
The greater spotted eagle Aquila clanga was the
most numerous. By late November the eagles had
dispersed over the 8 sq. km. of marsh. From then
until mid-January, the numbers of migrant raptors
were at peak levels. A raptor survey on 3 December
1985 tallied 75 raptors of eleven species which in-
cluded a total of 49 Aquila of the following four
species: imperial 10, steppe eagle A. nipalensis 8,
greater spotted 30, lesser spotted eagle A. pomarina
1 . The other species were: black- winged kite Elanus
caeruleus 4, black kite Milvus migrans govinda 1,
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
N
Entrance
Main Boating Area Heronry
Outer Boating Area Heronry
Bakalia Heronry
B-Block Heronry
Sapan Mori Heronry
D -Block Heronry
\ Park Boundary
Main road
Area under water
Block boundary
^ Heronry
IH Territory limit of H. leucoryphus
Fig. 1 . Map of study area, showing relevant blocks
AQUILA PREDATING ON STORKS AND HERONS
39
besra sparrow hawk Accipiter virgatus 1, marsh har-
rier 15, Bonellis’s eagle Hieraaetus fasciatus 1,
Pallas’s 2, crested serpent eagle Spilornis cheela 2.
Several other species of raptors seen regularly
during this period were not observed during the two
and a half hour survey which was restricted to the
marsh.
By the end of January, a marked decline was
noticeable in raptor numbers, especially marsh har-
rier, and Aquila , and by early February steppe out-
numbered the greater spotted eagles. Whether this
was due to an influx of steppe or a departure of many
of the greater spotted could not be ascertained.
Around 27 February, numbers of all migratory
Aquila had decreased considerably, though steppe
still outnumbered greater spotted. Marsh harriers,
greater spotted, steppe and imperial eagles were rep-
resented by a few individuals at least till the end of
March.
The gradual departure of many raptor migrants
after January coincided with a decrease in the num-
ber of their prey species such as ducks, coots and
moorhens. By late February, painted stork young
began leaving the park and they were no longer seen
killed. By 5 March, the number of prey individuals
had dwindled, and the remaining were leaving the
park on their return migration. Aggressive en-
counters over food and kleptoparasitism were evi-
dent between the greater spotted and steppe, among
steppe, and between steppe and Pallas’s fishing
eagles, and the ,;e will be discussed in detail in
another paper.
Heronries: 15 species of storks, herons and allied
species breed in the park (Ali 1953). In 1985 there
were five major heronries in the park, three in L-
block and one each in D and B-blocks (Fig. 1). L-
block contained the largest concentration, with one
large heronry at Sapan Mori and another in LW -
(sub-divided into the main and outer) around the
boating area; scattered Acacia between these two
large heronries harboured only a few nests, and a
small but dense concentration of painted stork nests
existed at Bakalia. Average density of nests per
mound in the boating area heronry was 42, at Sapan
Mori 41, Bakalia 9 and the D-block heronry 5 (Ali
and Vijayan 1986).
Seven species, namely little cormorant
Phalacrocorax niger , shag Phalacrocorax fuscicol-
lis , darter Anhinga rufa , large egret Ardea alba ,
median egret Egretta intermedia , little egret Egretta
garzetta and openbill stork Anastomus oscitans
begin nesting around the second week of July. The
painted stork usually start in late August or early
September, continuing up to November/December.
Their peak nesting season, September/October thus
coincided with the influx of migrant Aquila and
other raptors. The painted stork nested socially,
mostly among themselves, though sometimes with
other species.
Heronry predation: The eagles were opportunists,
maintaining no fixed territory, and investigated
every jheel for food. They fed at the heronries during
the first few weeks of arrival, later shifting to
scavenging and kleptoparasitism (on marsh harrier
by greater spotted and steppe and sometimes on
Pallas’s by steppe).
By mid October, the painted stork nests con-
tained young - two to three to a nest of variable age.
Predation on stork young continued after the young
had fledged. In February and March fledged young
still dependent on adults for food, were being killed
and on some days as many as four to five bodies were
found, with steppe feeding on them along with some
greater spotted (Table 1). Most of the predation took
place in the large heronry in the boating area.
Surprisingly the L-block pair of Pallas’s were not
observed feeding from the LW-block heronry,
though this behaviour has been frequently men-
tioned for Bharatpur by earlier observers (Ali 1953,
Ali and Ripley 1978). A large painted stork colony
was observed decimated by a pair of Pallas’ where
many of the squabs killed were well grown and had
only the breast eaten (Lowther 1949). The presence
of large numbers of Aquila in LW may have deterred
the L-block Pallas’s pair. Nest predation did not
occur at Sapan Mori heronry apparently due to the
aggressive nature of the nearby nesting D-block
Pallas’s pair, which was observed to drive away all
raptor intruders from Sapan Mori, where mainly iso-
lated instances of predation were observed by the
Pallas’s D-block pair.
Among the eagles observed feeding around the
heronry, the majority were greater spotted, with four
to seven present at once. One steppe was observed
on 8 out of 14 days and a single imperial on 6 out of
14 days (Table 1). Out of the 14 days of predation
40
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Table 1
PERCENTAGE OF Aquila SPECIES FEEDING ON HERONCfflCKS
AND FLEDGED JUVENILES, DURING THE 1985-1986 SEASON .
Painted stories, normally late nesters, were more prone to preda-
tion than other heronry species. Late nesters among cormorants
and openbill stories were also subject to predation.
observed, on two days six nests of cormorants, on
one day four nests of openbill stork, and on seven
days 19 nests of painted storks were predated (Table
2). The remaining four days were utilized by the
eagles for feeding on leftovers, which were available
to them in spite of wastage and feeding by house
Corvus splendens and jungle crow C. macro-
rhynchos. No adult of the painted and openbill stork,
and white ibis Threskiornis aethiopica was observed
taken by any Aquila.
Timing and method of predation: Apparently the
heronries were visited early in the morning so that,
except for a cormorant squab which I saw being
killed by a single steppe, I never observed a kill
being made. Even when I visited the heronry at 0600
hrs, half an hour before sunrise, the Aquila were al-
ready settled and feeding at nests. However, on 26
October 1985, around 0800 hrs, Mr. Rajan Mathur,
the deputy Chief Wildlife Warden and Sohanlal, a
reliable forest guard, observed in the boating area
five greater spotted eat nestlings from five closely
placed nests of painted storks on a single Acacia. All
young were killed and partly eaten.
The method of killing is known only in the case
of the cormorant that I saw being killed by the
steppe. Four greater spotted were perched on a single
Acacia where egrets and cormorants were nesting
and the top most bird was being mobbed by a marsh
harrier. At this time, one steppe flew straight into a
cormorant nest (which was a late nest) ousting the
adult which flew away. The predator immediately
after alighting began defeathering the nearly fledged
squab. On this day young cormorants from four
other nests were also killed.
A single greater spotted was observed to be un-
successful in displacing an adult painted stork from
its nest (see later). How active were the larger and
dominant steppe and imperial in nest predation is not
known, though they were seen feeding on nests
predated early in the morning, with several greater
spotted waiting their turn.
Nests in isolated trees were predated as often
as closely placed nests in Acacia clumped together.
Early mornings, if young from four to five closely
packed nests were predated, one greater spotted
would be feeding while seven to eight others per-
ched together or singly nearly would be awaiting
their turn to feed. If no heronry predation took place
in the morning and there were not enough leftovers,
the eagles would scatter all over the heronry await-
ing an opportunity to find suitable prey or pirate
from a marsh harrier.
When fledgelings from a group of nests were
killed, and one nest spared, the young from that nest
would subsequently be killed.
Feeding on predated nestlings: After an average
of four to five stork nests, each containing almost
fledged young had been predated, 7 to 10 eagles and
15 to 30 crows would feed off the carcasses over two
to three days. If undisturbed by crows or other rap-
tors, the eagles would gorge themselves to satiation
with crops bulging. At times large numbers of rap-
tors, upto nine of three species, would be gathered,
awaiting their chance to feed. By about 1000 hrs
usually, all feeding activity would end and the rap-
tors would fly to nearby perches in the shade. If
more than two to three nests were destroyed, raptors
would sometimes disperse satiated as early as 0800
hrs.
Occasionally, as a consequence of conflicts
among predators over a carcass, wastage of food was
considerable. While feeding, an eagle might try to
take off with a heavy stork young to avoid harass-
ment by crows or from being displaced by another
eagle. On many such occasions, the large prey would
be dropped into the water before the eagle could get
to a safe perch. The following two observations
among others illustrate this.
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 81
Naoroji : Heronry predation by Aquila
Plate 1
Top: Aquila clanga alighting on predated nest displacing the crows.
Bottom left: Aquila clanga juvenile mobbed by crow as it feeds on painted stork fledgling.
Bottom right: Aquila clanga awaiting its turn to feed is mobbed by crows.
X/
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 87
Naoroji : Heronry predation by Aquila
Plate 2
Top : Body of painted stork young hanging out of the nest. Another carcass in the nest is
fed upon by crows.
Bottom left : Bold dark juvenile Aquila clanga feeding in the heronry.
Bottom right: Aquila awaiting their turn to feed in the heronry. Aq. heliaca flanked by
2 Aq. clanga.
Top: Aquila nipalensis returns to feed on almost fledged painted stork nestling. Adult
stork looks on.
Bottom left : Painted stork adult on its decimated next in protective posture.
Bottom right: Fledged painted stork young begging to be fed on mound away from the
main group. Young of this age were also vulnerable to attacks by Aquila.
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 81
Naoroji : Heronry predation by Aquila
Plate 3
Plate 4
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 81
Naoroji : Heronry predation by Aquila
Above : Aquila nipalensis continues feeding on painted stork young in the jheel after other
Aquila have left.
Below: Remains of two fledged young painted storks after Aquila have fed on the
ground.
AQUILA PREDATING ON STORKS AND HERONS
41
A steppe alighted on a predated nest but before
it could settle down to feed, a greater spotted landed
almost on top of it displacing the former which in
turn upset the nest, and both stork nestlings fell into
the water. On another occasion, two greater spotted
alighted together on a nest to feed. One of them, to
avoid being displaced, flew off immediately with the
carcass of a stork nestling. It stuck the half eaten car-
cass precariously in the crotch of an Acacia 20 m
away. However, it subsequently dropped the carcass
into the water when disturbed by crows during feed-
ing.
Crows at the predated nests: Usually 11 to 15, and
sometimes as many as 20 to 30 house and a few
jungle crows were present to exploit heron preda-
tion. greater spotted were effectively prevented from
alighting on nests by crows on a number of oc-
casions. If an eagle did manage to land on a nest
during a frenzied mobbing session (Plate 1), it was
often prevented from feeding (Plate 1). When an
eagle lowered its head to feed, it was harassed by at-
tacks to the head, pulling of the tail and sometimes
by a momentary landing on the back which usually
unsettled a raptor considerably, forcing it to fly off
and return later.
Mobbing intensity by crows was related to the
number of nests predated and number of crows and
raptors present on the nest tree (Plate 1 ). If there were
a small number of crows present with four to five
nests to feed from and only a few raptors around, the
intensity of mobbing would be low and crows would
mob only the bird that interfered with their feeding.
When an adult painted stork became possessive of
its decimated nest and presented an aggressive dis-
play, it was mobbed. Many times raptors and crows
would feed side by side, the raptor being intermit-
tently mobbed. The crows would then peck at scraps
at the edge of the nest, and sometimes even sneak
away a morsel between the legs of a feeding raptor,
or when the latter’s attention was held elsewhere,
usually by another mobbing crow or raptor.
Crows would jostle amongst themselves. On
two occasions on the same day, a crow lifted its
leftfoot and kicked sideways at a josding neighbour,
unsettling the latter which flew off. Crows would
continue feeding on the leftovers in nests after the
satiated eagles had left (Plate 2) and occasionally
even in the evenings. However, their main feeding
period was in the morning. If there was no fresh prey
in the morning they appeared to wait for the eagles
to kill.
Dominance hierarchy among raptors: Greater
spotted were the most numerous, but the larger
steppe and imperial were clearly more dominant and
were observed, on eight and six occasions respec-
tively, feeding relatively undisturbed by the greater
spotted early in the mornings. The imperial, though
the largest, was shy and would fly off, if disturbed
by the approach of boats. Steppe in a similar situa-
tion would remain or re-alight later to feed. When
satiated, the larger eagles would allow themselves to
be displaced by the smaller raptors perched nearby
awaiting their chance. Among the more numerous
greater spotted, a larger individual would im-
mediately displace a smaller one, which would fly
off and wait to displace the larger after it had fed sub-
stantially. However, one small, dark juvenile greater
spotted, almost black and easily recognisable, was
very bold and dominant; it often displaced larger
conspecific individuals (Plate 2) and occasionally
even a steppe.
Greater spotted frequently displaced each other
during early mornings. It was a common sight to
see them replacing each other in quick succession at
the fresh carcasses in a few nests (Plate 2), with five
or more impatient hungry raptors perched on the
same or a nearby tree awaiting their turn to feed.
Early in the morning, the dominant eagles were
hungry and held their ground, aggressively display-
ing and vocalizing at other nearby eagles awaiting
their turn. In 1988 at around 0900 hrs. I observed an
adult imperial perched on an Acacia above a
spotted feeding on a newly fledged grey heron Ardea
cinerea. The imperial vocalised for about five
minutes before displacing the spotted.
Reaction of storks to predators: On two occasions
only in 1985 was a painted stork seen using a threat
display effectively against a greater spotted and a
steppe. In the first case, after feeding for fifteen
minutes on a day old carcass at a painted stork’s nest,
an immature greater spotted flew to an active nest,
where the adult painted stork successfully defended
its nestling with a typical threat display, namely,
wings widespread and mandibles clicking. The eagle
countered with a wings spread pose, which was in-
effective, the stork refusing to budge. After two
42
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
minutes the eagle flew back to feed on the stale car-
casses. It is possible that if there had been a collec-
tive attack by the eagles, the stork’s reaction may
have been different.
In the second incident, which occurred at 0625
hrs, four Aquila, one steppe and three greater spotted
were feeding on an Acacia where young from six
nests were eaten over a period of two days. Three
other greater spotted were perched nearby apparent-
ly waiting an opportunity to feed. An adult painted
stork flew to the Acacia and perched near the nest
where the steppe was feeding. The stork flew off
after 20 minutes, only to return within 10 minutes to
drive off the feeding steppe. The stork remained on
the nest lunging menacingly with bill stretched
towards the nearest eagle and crows, with wings
widespread and mandibles clicking. The crows,
however, continued to feed nearby at a safe distance.
The adult stork probed its partially eaten young with
its bill a few times, while lunging repeatedly at the
steppe as it flew low over the nest contemplating a
landing. An hour later the same steppe landed on the
nest ignoring the painted stork which demonstrated
threateningly with head raised. The stork did not,
however, lunge at the steppe but moved away, while
the eagles resumed feeding (Plate 3). Eventually,
after remaining perched for some time, the painted
stork flew away to settle nearby. Later, the painted
stork again returned for a few moments to die nest
before flying off to a nearby tree.
In 1988 a spotted was observed at 0905 hrs,
perched above an imperial feeding on a grey heron.
It suddenly flew to a painted stork nest containing
two large young. The young and an adult painted
stork perched nearby displayed with much wing
flapping and mandibles clicking. The eagle perched
on the nest rim flew away after four to six seconds.
These incidents appear to be exceptional since
the adult storks usually stood by impassively and
watched their chicks being eaten by the eagles. The
adult storks (single birds) were occasionally ob-
served to perch motionless above their predated
nests for considerable periods after the eagles had
left, probing and prodding with their bills their dead
young in the nest (Plate 3). This behaviour was ob-
served mainly during the evenings, only on the days
the young were killed. Sometimes, while crows and
eagles were feeding on freshly killed nestlings, an
adult stork would perch on a branch above its nest
and watch without interfering for 15 to 20 minutes,
sometimes even longer (once over two hours) if un-
disturbed by the eagles.
Once a dislodged nestling, a survivor from
among four predated nests, was found preening un-
concernedly near the base of the nest tree, while the
eagles fed above on its siblings. It was killed two
days later. No contact was observed between the
adult stork perched on the Acacia and the displaced
young while the raptors were feeding. On two
separate occasions, an adult openbill stork and white
ibis were seen to alight on the very same Acacia in
which Aquila were feeding on painted stork young
and watch the proceedings for on a few minutes
before flying off.
Predation on newly fledged painted storks: Once
the fledged painted storks left their nests, they were
still fed by their parents and vulnerable to attacks by
Aquila. Fledgeling storks would cluster together in
large groups on the ground. At this stage, they could
fly but not as strongly as the adults. They would
leave the groups individually to be fed when their
parent alighted nearby, but always away from the
main group (Plate 3). After the feed the young storks
would rejoin the group. These groups were attacked
by the eagles, presumably during the early morning.
As in the case of the heronry killings, no actual at-
tack was observed. Predation on the young storks
continued during their fledgling period till around
20 February, when they began leaving the park.
Fledged painted storks appeared to be one of the
main food sources of Aquila in 1985/1986 winter,
supplemented with food obtained by pirating and to
a lesser extent by actual hunting and opportunistic
carrion feeding.
From 8 January to 20 February, 11 instances
were recorded in L- block (outer and inner boating)
and Bakalia area (Map) and one in D-block, involv-
ing a total of 14 dead storks and 36 Aquila - out of
which 12 were greater spotted, 23 steppe and one
imperial. In one observation, probably a natural kill,
an egret was fed upon by two greater spotted, two
steppe and one juvenile imperial. In another obser-
vation five dead storks were located in one morning,
three in outer boating area and two at Bakalia.
On 31 January 1986, from my hide at Bakalia
around 1030 hrs I saw two carcasses of fledged
AQUILA PREDATING ON STORKS AND HERONS
43
painted stork about 100 m apart. The carcass nearer
the hide was fed upon by three steppe and one greater
spotted on the ground at the base of a heronry
mound. Marsh harriers frequently investigated the
feeding Aquila and even perched frequently for long
periods a few feet above them. The usual dominance
hierarchy occurred with repetitive displacement and
confrontations already described. A few unusual in-
teractions that occurred on this day are mentioned.
While two Aquila fed, the nearby eagles awaiting
their turn were observed to repeatedly drive off the
crows ensuring more food for themselves when they
got the opportunity to feed. At 1212 hrs a wild boar
Sus scrofa foraging nearby approached the eagles
and appropriated the kill. The eagles and crows flew
away. Ten minutes later a steppe perched above the
feeding boar, who left at 1230 hrs. At 1557 hrs the
wild boar returned and fed on the remaining scraps.
When the kill was later examined at 1628 hrs, only
the feathers remained attached to the partly eaten
legs. A few days later near the same spot a wild boar
was observed driving off a gathering of steppe and
greater spotted, scavenging a day old stork kill.
Most of the carcasses would last the Aquila two
days or more. All prey were found on the ground, ex-
cept in D-block on 8 January when a young was
killed in a nest, probably when resting. The eagles
fed in shallow water or where the thickness of grass
adequately supported their weight (Plate 4). A
fledged painted stork was seen standing motionless
on the main road opposite D-block between Sapan
Mori and Keoladeo temple, with serious head in-
juries from which it died a day later. On another oc-
casion in the LW outer boating area four painted
storks were lying dead together in shallow water
under a low thorny bush where they must have
crawled for protection and died, after an attack (Plate
4). I can find no other reason for finding the bodies
in such an inaccessible place. On another occasion,
four steppe and two greated spotted, one of the ful-
vous morph, were feeding on a carcass in Bakalia
area in L-block under another thorny bush.
After 20 February 1986, killings were rarely
observed, as most painted stork had left the park.
March onwards the herons and egrets commenced
nesting again, mainly in D-block and by mid to late
April most Aquila had left. On 1 1 March in D-block,
I observed a steppe feeding on the eggs of a grey
heron. By mid April after I had left, three remaining
Aquila - one juvenile imperial and two juvenile
greater spotted - ate 38 clutches of purple Ardea pur-
purea and grey herons, so that heronry success was
nil in 1986 summer (V. Prakash, pers. comm.). It ap-
pears that 1985-1986 was an exceptional year for
heronry predation by Aquila.
Discussion
The Aquila , with the exception of the imperial,
were not territorial on their wintering grounds in
Bharatpur though they had preferred loafing sites.
They are known opportunists (Brook et al. 1972,
Brown and Amadon 1968, Brown et al. 1982, Morel
et al. 1957), and were observed feeding on all kinds
of prey they could find, or easily overcome, such as
injured birds and young squabs from the heronry,
taking carrion including stranded fish, pirating from
marsh harriers and even Pallas’s, and doing little ac-
tive hunting. In a habitat less favourable to oppor-
tunism (Paulson 1984), their hunting would probab-
ly increase considerably, as they are efficient hunters
especially in their breeding haunts (Brown and
Amadon 1968, Dementev et al 1966, Steyn 1973).
They are versatile and ecologically unspecialized. In
their search for food, they visited all areas in the
park, though mainly the marshland where most op-
portunities existed for locating food. In fact their
winter movements within the park were apparently
governed mainly, if not solely, by the search for food
(Newton 1979). Thus, when the heronry is success-
ful it could serve as an important source of easy food
for the Aquila , who are attracted to the area because
of an abundant food supply (waterfowl and other
migrant species) and turn to the herons when they
are available.
Most of the wintering Aquila here are juveniles
and subadults, which are known to winter further
south than adults (Bijlsma 1983, Brook et al. 1972,
Christensen et al. 198 1). A successful heronry could
thus ensure a higher rate of survival for the compara-
tively inexperienced juveniles. Initially the greater
spotted was more numerous among the Aquila but
from February onwards, steppe outnumbered the
other raptors (except vultures) and became extreme-
ly dominant often in pairs or larger groups. The
greatest densities of Aquila and other migratory rap-
tors found in the park are in the vicinity of water, and
44
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
this coincides with the greatest prey -population den-
sities. Species diversity and abundance fluctuates in
different years (Ali and Vijayan 1983, 1986) due to
many reasons, and it would be interesting to note
whether raptor numbers fluctuate correspondingly
over a long period.
Most of the heronry killings in 1985 took place
in LW where the largest number of nests are con-
centrated, mainly in boating area and Bakalia but
surprisingly not at Sapan Mori. This was probably
due to the aggressive nature of the D-block Pallas’s
pair who were very defensive of their hunting ter-
ritory as they were nesting. Painted stork nests were
predated mostly by the Aquila as they nested later
than the other monsoon waterbirds, and their young
were easy prey for migratory eagles as they offered
little or no resistance. Adult painted and openbill
storks and white ibis were not taken. Almost fledged
and fledged painted stork young are large birds and,
considering wastage and sharing prey with at least
15 to 20 crows, four to five carcasses would ade-
quately last a couple of days.
No kills were observed made around sunrise,
during the day or thfe evenings. Thus a reasonable
surmise would be that the fledged storks were killed
in and out of their nests early in the morning before
sunrise or at night. As the peak killing period coin-
cided with moonlit nights it is definitely plausible
that the eagles took advantage of bright moonlight.
A possible correlation between predation and phases
of the moon needs to be investigated. Vultures have
been observed in forest feeding in moonlight
(Gough 1935, Grubh 1974, Lewis 1940, Livesey
1938, Morris 1935). The black-shouldered kite
Elanus caeruleus has been recorded hunting at night
and active before dawn (Steyn 1971), as have noc-
turnal group flights of the pale chanting goshawk
Me tier ax canorus (Rasa 1986).
The greater spotted, which outnumbered the
other Aquila species during the heronry period, ap-
peared to do most of the hunting. Probably they drive
off the relatively placid adults with advantage of
numbers and then attack the large but helpless
young. Another factor contributing to this pattern of
predation may be the vulnerability of the nests at
night as predators are known to synchronize their
predatory activity to prey vulnerability (Curio
1976). This may have been of great advantage to the
Aquila and contributed to their success in taking so
many of the large fledglings. Destruction of nests
was systematic. Usually only after young from
closely packed nests on a single or cluster of Acacia
were eaten, would the eagles move on to attack oc-
cupants of nests in adjacent or nearby trees after kill-
ing the few survivors.
Whether the adult painted storks were driven
collectively off their nests by greater spotted or other
Aquila as they brooded their almost fledged young
on or near their nests is not known. It appears prob-
able that attacks were directed at the head, as a num-
ber of dead fledglings had sustained head and neck
injuries. In 1986 due to severe drought only nine
adult painted storks were counted and nesting did
not occur. There were also fewer Aquila and
migratory prey species. Most of the raptors that
visited the park disappeared after a few days for lack
of food opportunities. In 1987, the second consecu-
tive year of prolonged drought, no waterbirds
nested. In 1988, due to a good monsoon the heronry
was successful though, unlike in 1985, scattered
over the park mainly in L-block. Grey herons, egrets
and cormorants were predated more frequently than
painted stork in the boating area. Raptor numbers
were lower than in 1985 and 1986, periodically fluc-
tuating, and mainly concentrated in L- block.
The scale and magnitude of the 1985 heronry
predation was not observed. 1985 was undoubtedly
a peak predation year when 2433 painted storks
nested totalling 1749 nests for the whole park and
1004 in LW (Ali and Vijayan, 1986). According to a
forester Bholu Khan (pers. comm.), the systematic
and prolonged killings were never witnessed here
earlier. Unfortunately no written records exist ex-
cept for stray observations. It is possible, however,
that heronry predation was overlooked. How much
these predatory attacks affect breeding success, if at
all, as painted storks nest in hundreds, is not clear.
My observations which covered the major phase of
predation of painted stork young in nests during
1985 indicated a minimum predation rate of 2.5% in
LW and 1 .4% for the entire park, which would close-
ly match the actual predation.
Heronry success is directly dependent on two
main factors: water level and the millions of fish fry
that come in with the flood waters. With natural fac-
tors unfavourable for the nesting waterbirds, as in
AQUILA PREDATING ON STORKS AND HERONS
45
1984 when painted stork numbers were as low as 440
(Ali and Vijayan 1986), predation and consequent
disturbance could have a negative effect on the
breeding success of vulnerable species. If this sys-
tematic killing in the heronry continues, long-term
observations on the heronry would shed some light
on many interesting points, such as inter-relations
between heronry success (the various natural factors
contributing to this success) with arrivals of raptors
and extent of predation in heronry, mode and timing
of attacks and species or combination of species and
number of predators involved, main species
predated over a number of years, and effect of preda-
tion, if any, on heronry success in any given year.
This will elucidate the optimum conditions suitable
for the destruction of nests by the Aquila.
Acknowledgements
My sincere thanks to Shri O.P. Mathur and Shri
V.D. Sharma, Chief and Asstt. Chief Wildlife War-
dens respectively of the Rajasthan Forest Depart-
ment for readily granting me permission to work in
the field.
At Bharatpur I am indebted to the then Dy.
Chief Wildlife Wai len, Shri Rajan Mathur and
Bholu Abrar Khan for their hospitality and unstint-
ing assistance. In 1988 the present Warden Shri K.L.
Saini offered me wholehearted co-operation. Nir-
pesh and Arun Arya accorded me open house
hospitality.
I am indebted to Prof. R.M. Naik of Saurashtra
University, Rajkot, for guiding me at all stages. His
support and encouragement have been a source of
strength. In Rajkot, Mrs. Shashi Naik, Harsh Trivedi,
P.M. Sukumar, Taej Mundkur and Rishad Pravez
made my sojourn more enjoyable. Taej made many
useful suggestions on the manuscript. Shivrajkumar
Khachar was as usual the perfect host during my fre-
quent visits to Jasdan. Divyabanusinh as always
helped out in numerous way and Jait Singh and Nihal
Mathur in Jaipur. My cousin Jamshed Godrej made
available equipment without which my work
would have suffered.
I am grateful to the Managers, Shri Asthana and
Shri Rathore, and the staff of the Forest Lodge, viz.
Babulal, Vijay, Mathai, Bakshi. The Forest Depart-
ment staff mainly Sohanlal, Amarnath, Prakash
Chand Sain, Habib and Iqbal Khan, Suresh and Shiv
Singh were extremely helpful in the field and at
Shanti Kutir. Dr V.S. Vijayan, Project Scientist, Dr.
Lalita Vijayan, Vibhu Prakash, M.N. Haque, re-
search students and staff of the B.N.H.S.
hydrobiological project always extended assistance
and hospitality. C. Siva Subramanium provided data
on the heronry.
Ian Newton and William S. Clark assisted by
sending reference material not available here. Then-
assessment of the text is much appreciated. Carl
D’Silva drew the map.
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rapax. Ostrich 44 (1): 1-22.
VOCAL ACTIVITY OF THE INDIAN GRAY MONGOOSE
HERPESTES EDWARDSI EDWARDSII (GEOFFROY) IN CAPTIVITY1
Jagathpala Shetty, Gunapala Shetty and S.R. Kanakaraj2
(With a text-figure)
Patterns of day and night vocal activity have been studied in a group of Indian gray mongoose Herpestes
edwardsii edwardsii Geoffrey, with special reference to ‘conversation type’ of vocalization. The hourly recording of
the calls revealed that the mongooses become communicative with daybreak, reaching a maximum by dusk. The
vocalization was least or absent during nights. The juveniles were most vocal, the subordinates moderately, and the
dominants least vocal. The possibility of vocalization playing a role in their social ranking has been discussed.
Introduction
Among mongooses vocalization is an impor-
tant medium of communication in view of their size
and the habitat of dense grass and brush which af-
fords limited visibility. Reports on acoustic features
of mongooses are scanty and not exhaustive (Ewer
1973, Mulligan and Nellis 1975, Jacobsen 1982).
Since there are no reports on the acoustic features of
the Indian gray mongoose a detailed study on the day
and night patterns of vocal activity of this species
has been made.
Methods
The study group consisted of seven individuals
of Indian gray mongoose Herpestes edwardsii ed-
wardsii Geoffroy, captured around the environs of
Mysore city and quarantined for about 6 months
together, during which time a social hierarchy had
been established. Based on factors like ability to
guard prey, aggression and grooming they were
categorised into three groups (Table 1).
During the month-long period of observation
the three groups were housed in three cages in a
single room. All through they were fed once a day
around 1700 hrs with beef and eggs. Water was made
available ad lib.
Hourly recordings of the calls of ‘Conversation
type’ was made in the 24 hour cycle. A minimum of
8 observations of each hour of the day/night was
made at least once in 4 days since continuous obser-
vation was not practicable. Though it was possible
to record calls of individuals during the daytime, it
was difficult to distinguish during nights and there-
accepted February 1988.
department of Studies in Zoology, University of Mysore,
Manasagangotri, Mysore 570 006.
fore scores have been recorded only for groups. The
results for all three groups are presented in Fig. 1 .
For statistical analysis the 24 hour cycle was
divided into 6 units of 4 hours each (Table 2). To
bring out the natural trends in vocalization and dif-
ferences in different groups and also with reference
to the time of the day/mght, two-way as well as one-
way analysis of variance for the number of calls by
different groups of individuals have been made.
Observations and Discussion
The vocal repertoire of the Indian gray mon-
goose has been observed to include several types of
sounds and calls. Most of these were in response to
a visual stimulation from outside like responding to
provocation, attacking the prey, devouring recently
killed prey etc. The type of vocalization selected for
detailed analysis in the present study is of ‘Conver-
sation type’ (Ewer 1973). This category of vocaliza-
tion was observed to accompany almost any activity,
it was non-aggressive and did not depend on any
visual stimulation from outside. This type of sound
is produced in the throat without opening the mouth
as a part of their social communication.
The pattern of vocal activity during a 24 hour
cycle was found to be similar for all the three groups
of individuals (Fig. 1). They become communicative
with the daybreak, reaching the maximum around
the time of sunset. During nights vocalization was
Table 1
DETAILS OF COMPOSITION OF THREE EXPERIMENTAL
GROUPS OF MONGOOSES
The number in parenthesis indicates the number of individuals
in each group.
48
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Table 2
NUMBER OF CALLS OF 3 GROUPS OF MONGOOSES IN 4 HOUR UNITS IN A 24 HOUR CYCLE
A. JUVENILES
06 08 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 02 04
TIME OF DAY/ NIGHT
Fig. 1. Number of calls per hour in three experimental groups of
mongooses (Mean ± S.D.)
to be highly significant (P< 0.01). A one-way
analysis of variance of the number of calls of dif-
ferent groups with respect to the time periods (Table
2) has also shown to be highly significant (P< 0.01).
A comparison of three groups during a time period
(Table 2) reveal that the difference was highly sig-
nificant from 0600 to 1759 hrs (P< 0.01) and sig-
nificant between 1800 and 2159 hours (P< 0.01).
There was no significant difference in the number of
calls between the three groups during the time period
2200 and 0559 hrs.
The pattern of vocal activity is clearly indica-
tive of the diurnal habit of Indian gray mongoose.
The increased vocalization during dusk may be at-
tributed to the time of feeding in captivity in the
present study. An innate demand for food due to
hunger may be expressed in the form of increased
vocalization, more so in the juvenile group. Shipley
(1986) has suggested temperature to be a factor in-
fluencing the rate of vocalization in elephant seals.
But in gray mongoose the data on hand is not indica-
tive of temperature influencing vocalization. The
present study denotes the possibility of the conver-
sation type of vocalization in the Indian gray mon-
goose to be an expression of activity such as explora-
tion and food finding, the juveniles giving greater
number of calls than the adults. Vocalization thus
may have an important role to play in their social
ranking.
least or completely absent. The juveniles were rela-
tively more vocal, the subordinates moderate and
dominants least as represented by the mean number
of calls per hour (Table 2).
A two-way analysis of variance has shown that
the interaction between the groups and time periods
Acknowledgements
We are thankful to Dr N.B. Krishnamurthy and
Dr H.B. Devaraj Sarkar for their interest in this
study and Dr N. Mohan Madhyastha for useful sug-
gestions in statistical analysis.
VOCAL ACTIVITY OF GRAY MONGOOSE
49
References
Ewer, R.F. (1963): The behaviour of the Meerkat, Suricata
suricatta (Schreber). Z. Tierpsychol. 20: 570-607.
(1973): The carnivores. Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 5
Winsley Street, London W1 .
Jacobsen, N.H.G. (1982): Observations on the behaviour of
slender mongoose, Herpestes sanguineus in captivity. BLV
Verlagsgesellschaft mbH Munchen 40, 30. Jhg., Heft 3:
168-183.
Mulligan, R.E. & Nellis, D.W. (1975): Vocal repertoire of the
mongoose Herpestes auropunctatus . Behaviour L.V. 3-4:
237-267.
Shipley, C & Strecker, G. (1986): Day and night patterns of
vocal activity of northern elephant seal bulls. J. Mamm. 67
(4) : 775-778.
STUDIES ON NESTING AND ARTIFICIAL HATCHING OF THE ENDANGERED RIVER
TERRAPIN BATAGUR BASK A (GRAY) IN THE SUNDARBANS TIGER RESERVE,
WEST BENGAL1
Arin Ghosh2 and N.R. Mandal3
(With a plate )
Nesting ground of the endangered river terrapin Batagur baska was first recorded on the beaches of the Sundar-
ban Tiger Reserve of West Bengal during February-March 1988. Three clutches of eggs were collected from the Mechua
beach (Bagmara block) of the National Park. In the hatchery, after 60-66 days of incubation, hatchlings emerged.
Average hatching success of 48% was recorded. Artificial hatching of Batagur has been done for the first time in India.
Introduction
Batagur baska has been one of the most ex-
ploited estuarine turtles over the centuries and is
listed as endangered in IUCN Red Data Book. Four
large riverine turtles Batagur baska , Callagur
broneoensis , Kachuga trivittata and Pelochelys
bibroni inhabit the estuarine habitat throughout
tropical Asia (Moll 1985). The population of all
these four species have been very much depleted
over the years. The river terrapin Batagur is
moderately large, web- footed and is distinctive in
having four clawed toes on the forelimb. Moll
(1976, 1978, 1980), Siow & Moll (1982) and
Tikader & Sharma (1985) have discussed the biol-
ogy and its exploitation. This terrapin inhabits the
lower reaches of major rivers over the tropical main -
land of Asia and is reported to be available in
Sumatra, Malaysia, Thailand, Bangladesh, Burma
and the Sundarbans of India.
Batagur was formerly abundant at the mouth
of Hooghly river where they were captured in large
numbers (Gunther 1864). Theobald (1868) reported
that the terrapin was used as substitute for sea turtle
in making turtle soup. In Bangladesh, Batagur has
recently been discovered in the Sundarbans (Khan
1982, Whitaker 1982). There has been no report of
its presence and nesting in India for the last several
years. Maxwell (1911) reported the numbers of this
river terrapin as declining in Burma. Wirot (1979)
pointed out that in Thailand the population has been
heavily exploited. In Malaysia the river terrapin is
found in the large rivers. The decline in its popula-
1 Accepted June 1988
2Field Director, Project Tiger, Sundarbans Tiger Reserve,
West Bengal.
3Research Officer, Sundarbans Tiger Reserve, West Bengal.
(Deceased)
tion is documented by Loch (1950), Mohamed Khan
(1964), Moll (1980) and Siow & Moll (1982).
Three clutches of eggs of the, Batagur were col-
lected during February and March 1988 from the
beaches of the Sundarban Tiger Reserve and suc-
cessfully hatched in the hatchery.
Nesting ground: The nesting ground of the river
terrapin was located on the Mechua sea beach (Bag-
mara block) of the National Park in the course of
searching for Ridley turtle eggs. Following the flip-
per marks on 25 February 1988 a nest was located
in the sandy beach 25 m away from the maximum
tide water mark. The nest was excavated and 32 eggs
were found. The nest chamber was 30 cm deep. The
upper layer of eggs was found at a depth of 15 cm.
The chamber was flask shaped, the length and width
being 27 and 13 cm respectively.
On 3 March 1988 another nest was located 80
m away from the maximum tide water mark. While
excavating the nest, 19 eggs were found. The nest
was 40 cm deep and the upper sand layer above the
eggs was 30 cm thick. The egg chamber was flask-
shaped, 18 cm in length and 15 cm in width. On the
same date another clutch was located which was 158
m away from the maximum tide water mark. This
nest was 45 cm deep and the upper sand layer above
the eggs was 30 cm. The length and width of the
chamber was 28 and 20 cm respectively. 37 eggs
were collected from this nest.
Hatching in hatchery: The eggs of the three nests
were marked in the conventional manner on the top
pole before transferring them to the transportation
bucket and carriage (following Pritchard et al.
1982). The eggs were oblong shaped, average
dimension 68 x 40 mm and the average weight 70 g.
These eggs were transferred with the original sand
to the hatchery at Pakhiralaya, where artificial nests
j. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 87 Plate l
Ghosh & Mandal : Batagur baska
Hatchlings of Batagur baska in Sunderbans Tiger Reserve.
ARTIFICIAL HATCHING OF BATAGUR BASRA
51
were prepared.
Hatching technique: Artificial nests were prepared
using the original estuarine soil and sand in a trench
of size 3 m x 1.5 m. Nest cavities were scooped out
resembling the original one and the eggs were placed
in separate clutches as collected. A hollow bamboo
pipe was inserted at the centre of each egg chamber
for placing a thermometer through the pipe to record
the nest temperature. The temperature of air and nest
was recorded daily at 3 hr intervals.
The clutch collected on 25 February 1988 con-
taining 32 eggs was marked as Nest I. 19 eggs col-
lected on 3 March 1988 were marked as Nest II, and
37 eggs collected on 3.3.1988 were marked as Nest
HI.
Hatching: The eggs started hatching in Nest I at 66
days of incubation and in Nest II and III at 61 and
62 days respectively. The temperature records
showed the nest temperature remained within 24.7°
C to 33.1° C (Table 1).
Hatching behaviour: In Nest-I first hatching took
place on 1 May 1988 and one hatchling came out in
the early morning on 2 May 1988 at noon; at 2100
hrs. 2 hatchlings emerged and on 3 May 1988 at
noon 4 hatchlings came out. From this nest a total of
7 hatchlings were obtained. The other eggs were ex-
amined but no sign of embryo formation was
noticed. Hatching success in this nest worked out to
be 21.9%.
In Nest II one hatchling came out on 2 May
1988 at 0900 hrs. On 3 May 1988 at 0700 hrs one
hatchling and at 2100 hrs another hatchling
emerged. On 4 May 1988 at 0600 hrs 7 hatchlings,
and at 1800 hrs 5 hatchlings emerged. The remain-
ing eggs were unfertilised. In this nest 79% hatching
success was achieved.
In Nest III on 1 May 1988 between 0600 to
2100 hrs 15 hatchlings emerged, and on 2 May 1988
at 1900 hrs 2 hatchlings came out. In this clutch
46% hatching was observed.
All the hatchlings were active and healthy; the
average weight was 45 g. The shape of the hatc-
hlings was nearly circular. Length and width of the
carapace was 6 cm. The total length from snout to
tail is 10 cm. Forelimb and hindlimb were 3.5^4 cm
in length. The newly hatched hatchlings were kept
in the nursery tank, their rearing being especially
cared for.
Discussion
Finding of nests of Batagur in the Sundarban
Tiger Reserve is the first recent record of this
species, nesting ground in India. This indicates the
presence of Batagur in the Hooghly-Matla es-
tuaries, though there is no record available regard-
ing the population density and abundance of this
species.
On account of large scale exploitation for its
eggs and flesh for food, Batagur was over-exploited
in Bengal in the mid 19th century. Habitat destruc-
tion is also a very important factor for the decline of
this terrapin in Malaysia, Thailand and India
(Tikader and Sharma 1985). However, in view of the
good protection being accorded to the habitat by
Project Tiger authorities the terrapin may be able to
re-establish itself in its erstwhile habitat.
The nesting of Batagur is nocturnal and the
nests obtained between February and March coin-
cide with the time of nesting in Malaysia (Moll,
1985). Only 3 clutches were obtained and the num-
ber of eggs varied from 19-38 and perhaps only 2-
3 females landed on the beach for egg-laying. The
Table 1
TEMPERATURE RECORDS OF THE AIR AND THE NESTS OF Batagur
0600 hrs 0900 hrs 1200 hrs 15000 hrs 1800 hrs 2100 hrs
Air Nest Air Nest Air Nest Air Nest Air Nest Air Nest
52
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
survey of the beaches of the National Park has been
continuing from 1983 for the collection of Ridley’s
sea turtle eggs, but it is the first time that \he Batagur
eggs have been found.
The hatching results in the present study
showed that the incubation period ranged between
60-68 days. Moll (1985) reported that in Malaysia
the incubation period is approximately 90 days. The
lower incubation period in the present study may be
due to the change of microclimatic conditions and to
certain abiotic factors. The hatching success
achieved in the 3 nests was 2 1 %, 79% and 44% . This
indicates that all the eggs were not fully fertilised or
that handling of the eggs killed some of the embryos.
The records of temperature showed very little
variation of the nest temperature throughout the in-
cubation period, though there was considerable
variation in air temperature.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to Shri G.S. Mandal, I.F.S.
Chief Wildlife Warden, West Bengal, for encourage-
ment, suggestions and valuable advice during the
present study. The hard work put in by the staff of
the Sundarbans Tiger Reserve in locating the eggs in
most inhospitable terrain is gratefully acknow-
ledged.
References
Gunther, A. (1864): Reptiles of British India. Robert Handwicks,
London, 452 pp.
Khan, M.A.R. (1982): Chelonians of Bangladesh and their con-
servation. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 79(1): 110-116.
Loch, J.H. (1950): Notes on the Perak River turtle. Malay, nat. J.
5: 157-160.
Maxwell, F.D. (1911): Reports on inland and sea fisheries in the
Thongwa, Mayaungmya and Bassein Districts and the
turtle banks of the Irrawaddy Division. Govt, printing of-
fice, Rangoon 57 pp.
Khan.M.B.M.K. (1964): A note on Batagur baska (The river ter-
rapin ortuntong). Malayan nat. J. 18: 184-189.
Moll, E.O. (1976): West Malaysian Turtles: Utilisation and Con-
servation. Herpetol. Rev. 7(4): 163-166.
(1978): Drumming on Perak. Natur. Hist. 87(5): 36-
43.
(1980): Natural history of the river terrapin, Batagur
baska (Gray) in Malaysia (Testudines: Emydidae).
Malayasian. J. Sci. 6: 23-62.
(1985): Estuarine turtles of Tropical Asia, Status
and Management. Symposium on endangered marine
animals and marine parks. The Marine Biological Associa-
tion of India, pp. 1-24.
Slow, K.T. & Moll, E.O. (1982): Status and Conservation of es-
tuarine and sea turtles in West Malaysian waters. In: Biol-
ogy and conservation of sea turtles. K. Biorandal (Ed.).
Smithsonian press, Washington, D.C. pp. 339-347.
Theobald, W. (1868): Catalogue of the reptiles of British Burma,
embracing the provinces of Pagu, Martaban and Tenas-
serim, with descriptions of new or little known species. J.
Linn. Soc. Zool. 10: 4-61.
Tikader, B.K. & Sharma, R.C. (1985): Handbook of Indian Tes
tudines. Zoological Survey of India. 156 pp.
Whitaker, R. (1982): Bangladesh: a general survey. Hamadryad
7(B): 4-12.
Wirot, N. (1979): The turtles of Thailand Siam. Farm Zoologi-
cal Garden, Bangkok, Thailand.
REVISED NOMENCLATURE FOR TAXA IN WYNTER-BLYTH * S BOOK ON THE
BUTTERFLIES OF INDIAN REGION - III1
R.K. Varshney2
[Continued from Vol. 82 (2): 321]
In the earlier two parts of this study (Varshney
1980, JBNHS 76(1): 33-40; 1985, ibid. 82 (2): 309-
321) eight families, namely Danaidae, Satyridae,
Amathusiidae, Papilionidae, Pieridae, Acraeidae,
Lycaenidae and Hesperiidae, have been covered. In
the present part, which is the third and last in this
series, the remaining two families of Wynter-Blyth’s
book, namely Erycinidae and Nymphalidae, have
been dealt with. The style of presentation is as ear-
lier, e.g. taxa which do not require any change have
been left out from the tables.
Family LlBYTHEIDAE
Libytheidae is represented by a single genus,
Libythea, in South Europe, Africa, America and
Indo-Australian region. These butterflies, which
have the common name ‘The Beaks’ , are more close
to Family Nymphalidae, but differ in their long
palpi, which are porrect and beak-like. These are low
flying species.
Wynter-Blyth has included Libythea in Family
Erycinidae. However, modem workers treat this
group as a separate family. No change is required in
the generic name of the four species. L. myrrha, L.
lepita, L. celtis and L. narina , included by Wynter-
Blyth (1957 : 238-240). However, the author of
generic name Libythea is Fabricius. Additional in-
formation come across is thatL. narina rohini Mar-
shall occurs in Assam, and L. geoffroyi Godart oc-
curs in Burma, in the Indian region.
Family Riodinidae
Family Erycinidae of earlier authors is now
referred to as Riodinidae. Some other authors call it
Nemeobiidae. Wynter-Blyth has treated the taxa of
this as well as the preceding family under
Erycinidae. This is a small family comprising of
species more closely related to the Lycaenidae than
to the Nymphalidae. The family is represented on all
Accepted October 1987
2Zoological Survey of India, M-Block, New Alipur,
Calcutta 700 053.
continents, except Australia, but is predominantly a
tropical American family. The butterflies occur lo-
cally, flying in sunshine, and their male genitalia
shows affinity to the Lycaenids.
I have followed Corbet & Pendlebury (1956,
BUTTERFLIES OF THE MALAY PENINSULA, 2nd ed.)
and some other works for the revision of names. The
changes are given in Table 9. Important changes are
found only in the author’s name, e.g. author of
Dodona egeon is Westwood and not Doubleday; and
authors of Abisara kausambi and A. savitri is not
Felder, but C. Felder and R. Felder jointly. Peile
(1937, A GUIDE TO COLLECTING BUTTERFLIES IN
INDIA) shows Dodona ouida phlegra Moore as an
Indian subspecies.
Family NYMPHALIDAE
About 15 years back I observed, "Unluckily
there is no revised monographic study on the Nym-
phalid butterflies of the country, which is one of the
largest families of the group. Whereas Bingham
(1905, 1907) and Evans (1932) are old and Wynter-
Blyth (1957) inadequate, there the Fauna volumes
by Talbot (1939, 1947) do not cover this family"
Table 9
Riodinidae
54
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
[Varshney and Chanda 1971 (1974), Indian Mus.
Bull. 6 (1): p. 51]. Unfortunately the situation has
not altered as yet.
In the absence of any revisionary study on the
Indian Nymphalidae, I have opted for outside sour-
ces for the present revision, though I may frankly
admit my limitations. Corbet & Pendlebury’s THE
BUTTERFLIES OF THE MALAY PENINSULA (1956, 2nd
ed.) and its latest revision by J.N. Eliot (1978, 3rd
ed.) have been consulted extensively, the BUT-
TERFLIES OF japan by Kawazoe and Wakabayashi
(1980, revised ed.), and encyclopedia of the but-
TERFLYWORLD by Smart (1985) were found helpful
in many cases. Hemming (1967, Bull. Br. Mus. (Nat.
Hist.) Ent.y Suppl. 9) has been followed for generic
information. Through the courtesy of Lt. Col. J.N.
Eliot I got a copy of his monograph on Neptini (Eliot
1969, ibid. 15) which proved indispensable.
However, I could not get D’Abrera’s butterflies
of the oriental region Part 2.
There are a large number of changes in the
names of taxa of this family from that given in
Wynter-Blyth’s book (see Table 10). I pointed out
some of these changes in an earlier work dealing
with the common and scientific names of Indian but-
terflies (1983, Index Rhopalocera Indica - Part II.
Rec. Zool. Surv. India, Occ. Paper 47). Notes on the
important changes in Table 10 are as follows:
Generic name Eriboea Huebner is now treated
as a synonym of Charaxes on subjective taxonomic
basis; as such the former genus is given its next valid
oldest name Polyura Billberg. One species of it,
schreiberi , has been changed to schreiber in Corbet
and Pendlebury (1978), and I could not see the
original publication of Godart. C. polyxena
(Cramer) is preoccupied. Genus Agatasa has been
formed to receive Nymphalis calydonia Hewitson,
which is said to be the most beautiful butterfly by
some authors. Prothoe franckii was first corrected to
JranckV in their 2nd edition, and then to franck' in
the 3rd edition of their book by Corbet &
Pendlebury. Smart (1985) has also used the latter
spelling, but Hemming (1967) shows that Huebner
1824 proposed genus Prothoe with a new species
franckii (monotypy). I feel that the original spelling
should be preserved as per Articles 31-32 of the In-
ternational CODE OF ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLA-
TURE (1985, 3rd edition). Among the additional
species of Charaxinae from the Indian region, not
reported by Wynter-Blyth, I have come across two:
Charaxes kahruba Moore, and Prothoe regalis But-
ler from Assam. Genus Eulaceura is reportedly
monotypic and Malaysian. Its type-species osteria
Westwood looks similar to Limenitis dudu. The
taxonomic status of E. manipurensis Tytler (very
rare) is not known.
Genus Apatura is divided into some subgenera
(Smart 1985), which some other authors have used
in the generic position, e.g. Rohana parisatis , of
which the Indian subspecies is camiba Moore (vide
Peile 1937). Apatura chevana has been
synonymised with A. leechi in Smart (l.c.). The
forms or races of any species given in Wynter-Blyth
have been generally kept out of the present revision,
but when any form is found established as a species
group taxon, it has been included, e.g. Euripus nyc-
telius. Idrusia Corbet 1943 is synonym of Euripus.
Smart (1985) has treated Diagora as a subgenus of
Hestina , but I stick to Wynter-Blyth.
Genera Calinaga and Penthema have been as-
signed to Family Satyridae, instead of Nymphalidae,
by Smart (1985). He says that formerly these but-
terflies (of Calinaginae) were considered allied to
the Apaturinae (Nym.) and in some respects they fall
between the two families.
Euthalia is a large and characteristic genus of
Indo- Oriental Nymphalids. Now some of its species
are assigned to other genera. The name Symphaedra
ought to be revived, the type-species of which is a
synonym of Euthalia nais. It is monobasic and con-
fined to peninsular India. Some other species of
Euthalia are now put in Tanaecia Butler/Cynitia
Snellen. Corbet & Pendlebury (1956) say that T. julii
is recorded from Malaya and Sumatra only, but the
Malayan subspecies is T. julii bougainvillei Corbet.
The author of julii is Lesson who described Nymula
julii in a publication of Bougainville 1837. Later
Moore 1897 described a new genus Haramba , the
type-species of which is a synonym of T. julii. In my
INDEX RHOPALOCERA INDICA - Part II (1983 : p. 17)
Euthalia atala is an error for E. patala (Kollar). E.
garuda is now treated as E. aconthea garuda
(Moore), which should not be confused with another
subspecies E. aconthea gurda (Fruhstorfer) that
does not occur in the Indian region. Euthalia
phemius (Doubleday) is sometimes credited to
REVISED NOMENCLATURE FOR BUTTERFLY TAXA
55
Doubleday and Hewitson jointly. This is incorrect.
Doubleday 1848 figured and proposed this species
in a new genus Itanus , but this was however placed
in Adolias , when the text of phemius was ‘written’
by Westwood 1850. Corbet & Pendlebury (1978)
have retained it in Euthalia. E. evalina in Wynter-
Blyth is an error for evelina , now put in Dophla , and
its Indian subspecies is laudabilis Swinhoe. Corbet
& Pendlebury (1956) report that£. tnonina (F.) oc-
curs from Sikkim to Indo-China; and E. aconthea
(Cramer) is widely distributed in Ceylon (Sri Lanka)
eastwards; both these species are not given in
Wynter- Blyth. E. recta and E. teuta are referred to
Bassarona , while some other Euthalia species
treated under Adolias by Wynter-Blyth are now
referred to Lexias, since in the past Oriental species
were erroneously placed in Adolias due to a mistake
over its type-species.
Hemming (1967) shows that Acontia
doubledaii Westwood 1848, which is the type-
species of genus Neurosigma , was mistakenly sunk
as a homonym and under Article 59 (c) of I.C.Z.N.
it is permanently invalid. The replacement name siva
Westwood 1850 is applicable in its place.
Genus Limenitis is a large group of species, in
which Kawazoe & Wakabayashi (1980) and Smart
(1985) have recognised several subgenera. Here
these are treated in generic rank. I took this stand
since as early as Bingham (1905, fauna of BRITISH
INDIA - BUTTERFLIES, 1st ed., Vol. 1) has used
Auzakia in generic rank. Accordingly, a number of
Limenitis species are transferred as follows: aus-
tenia and danava to Auzakia , procris to Moduza ,
daraxa to Sumalia , and zayla and dudu to Parasar-
pa. For procris Corbet & Pendlebury (1956) also
opined that it merits a separate genus. Further, in
their 1978 edition they say that Limenitis should not
be used for any Oriental species. I am convinced that
this group requires more studies, e.g. to ascertain the
correct genus of zulema Doubleday and trivena
Moore. Smart (l.c.) put the last species in Limenitis ,
the genus which he considers Holarctic and Orien-
tal.
Pantoporia of Wynter-Blyth and auctorum has
been replaced with Parathyma by many workers.
The true Pantoporia is a Neptid genus (see SI. No.
95-99 in Table 10). The Limenitid Pantoporia Auct.
has been replaced with Parathyma in Peile (1937),
Corbet & Pendlebury (1956), Hemming (1967) etc.
I have also used Parathyma (Rec. zool. Surv. India,
Occ. Paper 31 and 47). However, Corbet &
Pendlebury (1978) and Kawazoe & Wakabayashi
(1980) have shown most species of Limenitid Pan-
toporia in Athyma , which is followed here. A. nefte
is Malaysian, and A. nefte inara Doubleday is the In-
dian subspecies. Incidentally it may be noted that A.
jina Moore is the type-species of genus Tharasia
Moore 1898.
For Neptis , I have followed Eliot (1969) ex-
clusively. Table 10 shows that some Neptis species
are now placed under Phaedyma, Lasippa and Pan-
toporia. Wynter-Blyth has not given the name of
respective author with any species of Neptis. These
have been provided here. Neptis soma of Evans
(1932, IDENTIHCATIONOFINDIAN BUTTERFLIES, 2nd
ed.) and Wynter-Blyth is TV. nata , while true TV. soma
is what Wynter-Blyth and others called TV. yerburyi
( vide Eliot 1969: p. 68). A number of subspecies are
reported in each case from our region. Other notable
changes are : vikasi to pseudovikasi , anjana to
nashona , heliodore to tiga camboja , and paona to
bieti paona. True antilope is from China; the species
of our region is probably sylvana. TV. hordonia is
now well known to represent two species: P. hor-
donia (Stoll) and sandaka (Butler), both of which
occur from South India to Indo-China, the former in
Sri Lanka also.
Corbet & Pendlebury (1978) state that the In-
dian leaf butterfly is Kallima paralekta (Horsfield).
We have been calling it as K. inachus (Boisduval).
Both have the upper side of wings alike, but the
former is Malaysian and the latter Indian in distribu-
tion. I retain the latter.
Precis is another genus of common butterflies
represented in our region. Recent authors divide it
into two subgenera: Precis and Junonia. According
to Corbet & Pendlebury’s classification, iphita and
hedonia belong to Precis and all the rest to Junonia.
But Smart states that Precis has Old World species,
mostly Ethiopian, while Junonia has American
species. Due to these contrasting views I have not
adopted these subgenera in Table 10. P. orithyia is
corrected to orithya , following Seitz (1927, THE
MACROLEPIDOPTERA OF THE WORLD, 9: p. 522),
though I feel that oritya , the original spelling given
by Linnaeus 1758 should have been preferable. P.
56
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
hierta Fabricius 1798 is preoccupied by the names
lintingensis Osbeck 1765, and oinone Cramer 1775.
However, these names are nomina oblita, and sup-
pressed vide Opinion No. 842 of 1968 of the ICZN.
The generic nam zDoleschallia has been erroneous-
ly cited as Dolleschallia in Corbet and Pendlebury
(1978).
V anessa is yet another large genus found in our
region, many species of which are now shifted to
other genera. Among the species listed by Wynter-
Blyth, indica and atalanta are still referable to it;
cardui to Cynthia ; canace to Kaniska\ cashmirien-
sis, urticae and ladakensis to Aglais ; and xan-
thomelas , polychloros and antiopa to Nymphalis.
Some authors have put egea under Polygonia ,
though it is reportedly Holarctic in distribution. I
have followed Kawazoe and Wakabayashi (1980)
for the above assignments. Regarding Cynthia car-
dui my earlier note (1977, Newsl. zool. Surv. India 3
(1): 13) may be seen. Aglais cashmiriensis is spelt
as 1 kashmir ensis' in Kawazoe and Wakabayashi, and
as ' caschmirensis’ in Smart. I could not see the
original publication. According to Corbet and
Pendlebury (1978) Symbrenthia hippo clus is found
in the Papuan subregion of the Oriental Region, and
S. lilaea occurs from N. India and China to
Neomalaya.
Genus Argynnis Fabricius is mostly Holarctic
and only partially Oriental. The Indian species
belonging to it are presently placed in various other
genera, namely Argyreus , Argyronome, Childrena ,
Issoria , Fabriciana etc. Although not so treated
here, Argynnis kamala is the type-species of genus
Protodryas Reuss 1928. Boloria pales Schiffer-
mueller has been reported from Sri Lanka by Wood-
house (1949, BUTTERFLY FAUNA of ceylon) as Ar-
gynnis pales , but not included by Wynter-Blyth.
Smart (1985) reports B. pales generator juldussica
Wagner from India. Generic name Melilaea in Hem-
ming (1967 : p. 286) is an error for Melitaea
Fabricius. Corbet and Pendlebury (1978) hint that
M. robertsi Butler is a synonym of Tanaecia aruna
(C. & R. Felder).
The name Atella Doubleday as given in
Wynter-Blyth ’s book, has long been substituted with
Phalanta Horsfield, by many workers including
Peile (1937, l.c.). Name Issoria has been used for
two different genera; the true Issoria is Argynnid
(see SI. No. 134), while the false Issoria of authors
has been renamed as Vagrans by Hemming 1934.
Corbet and Pendlebury (1978) made a mistake by
citing ' Vagrans lathonia ’ and also stating that
Vagrans was formerly incorrectly known as Issoria
Huebner. While their latter statement is correct, the
former combination is wrong, as they have changed
true Issoria there. Table 10 can show this anomaly.
The above authors further state that Vagrans egista
(Cramer) is distributed from India as far as Pacific
Is. In that light, I. sinha (Kollar) may probably be a
synonym of V egista , but it requires confirmation.
Name Cynthia is also misused for two genera; the
true Cynthia is now retained for the cosmopolitan
‘Painted Lady’ butterfly (SI. No. 116), while the
false Cynthia of authors is presently replaced with
Vindula Hemming 1934.
Wynter-Blyth has reported three species of
Cirrochroa from India : thais, aoris and thyche. A
fourth species C. mithila Moore was pointed out by
me (1983, l.c.: p. 44). Corbet and Pendlebury (1978)
report another species C. orissa orissa C. and R.
Felder from Burma eastwards. According to Corbet
& Pendlebury (1956) Cethosia hypsea Doubleday is
a common species occurring in S. Burma onwards
to Malaysia.
Subfamily name Biblidinae (or Biblinae sensu
Smart 1985) is based on type-genus Biblis (not found
in Indian region) and not on Biblia, which is an in-
correct subsequent spelling of Byblia Huebner.
Generic name Ergolis Boisduval 1836 has lost to
prior name Ariadne Horsfield 1929, with which both
species of Indian region ariadne and merione form
combination.
Among the additional taxa, not reported by
Wynter-Blyth, are two genera: Yoma Doherty and
Paduca Moore. Corbet and Pendlebury (1956)
report Yoma sabina (Cramer) from Burma
eastwards. The range of Paduca is from Burma to
Malaysia and it is represented by P. fasciata (C. &
R. Felder) in S. Burma.
Classification
Before ending this series, I consider it would
be useful to give a revised classification of but-
terflies as applicable to our region. This has been fol-
lowed in a modified way from Corbet and
Pendlebury (1978, l.c. revised 3rd ed.) and tabulated
in Tables lOAand 10B.
REVISED NOMENCLATURE FOR BUTTERFLY TAKA
57
Table 10 A
CLASSIFICATION UP TO FAMILIES
Acknowledgements
I initiated this study on 25 December 1972
and continued over the years on account of the com-
ments and inspiration received from various cor-
respondents. I may particularly thank the following
for their kind interest in my work and/or sending
literature : Mr J.C. Daniel, BNHS, Bombay; (Late)
Mr. D.G. Sevastopulo, Mombasa; Lt. Col. J.N. Eliot,
Taunton, Somerset; M/s E.W. Classey Ltd.,
Faringdon, Berks. Mr. D.P. Wijesinghe, Colombo;
Prof. Dr. S. Takagi, Sapporo; Prof. Dr. T.C.
Majupuria, Kathmandu; and M/s Biswanath Nandi
and I.J. Gupta, ZSI, Calcutta. Besides, I am grateful
to the Director, Zoological Survey of India, for
providing facilities.
Addendum
, After about an year of submitting the
manuscript, I have been able to consult the
monumental work of D’Abrera, B. (1985, BUT-
TERFLIES OF THE ORIENTAL REGION Part II Nym-
phalidae, Satyridae & Amathusidae. Hill House,
Melbourne : 534 pp.). He has covered most of the
taxa of our region, with exceptions left such as genus
Melitaea and many species of Vanessa complex. The
names used by him in most cases are confirmative
to my observations given above. However, since he
has given subspecies names, an addendum has be-
come necessary to point out wherever single or in
come cases two subspecies names alone are ap-
plicable to our region, along with some other
revisionary names for Nymphalidae. These are
presented below (Table 10C). D’Abrera has not used
parenthesis on author’s name in eligible cases. Un-
fortunately I have not been able to correct it in all
cases, and a discussion on the reasons for these chan-
ges in names is also not possible in this addendum.
58
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Table 10
NYMPHALIDAE
(Kollar)
REVISED NOMENCLATURE FOR BUTTERFLY TAKA
59
60
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
REVISED NOMENCLATURE FOR BUTTERFLY TAKA
61
Certain names given in D’Abrera (1985) have not been followed by me. These are: Hypolimnas missipus in place of H. misippus ,
Vanessa cardui in place of Cynthia cardui, Argynnis hyperbius in place of Argyreus hyperbiusf and generic name Junonia in place of
Precis. I have followed Smart (1985) for these, except C. cardui. D’Abrera has cited Byblia ilithyia as ‘alithyia’ in his text, which is
erroneous, as I have checked the original work of Drury 1773 where it is ‘ilithyia’.
5
MAMMALS OF COX’S BAZAR FOREST DIVISION (SOUTH)
BANGLADESH, WITH NOTES ON THEIR STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION1
S.MA. Rashid, Anizuzzaman Khan and M. Ali Reza Khan2
(With two text-figures)
A study was made in the Cox’s Bazar Forest Division (South) to gather information on the mammals of that area
from May 1982 to December 1983. A total of 1848 man hours were spent in the field. From the study it was revealed
that 53 mammalian species occur in this area. They were represented by Order Insectivora (2 species), Order Chirop-
tera (10 species), Order Primates (8 species). Order Pholidota (1 species), Order Carnivora (18 species), Order Probos-
cidea (1 species), Order Arctodactyla (3 species), Order Rodentia (9 species) and Order Cetacea (1 species).
Introduction
Cox’s Bazar Forest Division (South) (CB), which
ranges from Cox’s Bazar to Teknaf (the southern-
most part of the country) supports a large area of
evergreen and semi-evergreen forests. These forests
are the habitat of a large number of wild flora and
fauna. No detailed study on the mammalian fauna of
this area is available in the literature, so the present
study was undertaken to explore the mammalian
fauna of this area. Some work has been done on the
primates and other wildlife Khan (1979, 1980, 1981,
1982a, b/, 1984, 1985, 1986, 1987), Khan and Ahsan
(1981), Khan and Wahab (1983) and on elephants
(Khan 1980b).
The present paper is a result of a 20 month study of
the area from May, 1982 to December, 1983 with
1848 hours of field observation.
Study Area
Bangladesh lies between 20°34’to 26°38’N and
88°01’ to 92°40’E approx., having an area of about
144,054 sq.km. The present study area lies between
Cox’s Bazar township and the Teknaf township,
within the Cox’s Bazar Forest (South) Division of
the Government Forest Department. The study area
covers an area of 43,197 hectares of which 35,715
hectares is likely to support reserved forests. The
quantity of natural forests may not exceed 10,000
hectares (Khan et al. 1983). The remaining areas are
under a mono-culture of teak ( Tectona grandis,
newly introduced mulberry (Morus sp.) and
Eucalyptus sp. During the last half of the decade,
^Accepted
department of Zoology, University of Dhaka, Dhaka 1000,
Bangladesh. Present address: Curator, Al-Ain Zoo & Aquarium,
P.O. Box: 1204, Al-Ain, Abu Dhabi, U.A.E.
over 5000 hectares of reserved forests have been
handed over to the oil-palm ( Elaeis guinaensis)
project for plantations. The area under study com-
prised evergreen, semi-evergreen and plantations
with undulating hillocks of varying heights ranging
from 5 m to 200 m above mean sea level and tidal
mudflats supporting mangrove forests along the
banks of the international Naaf river and the islands.
The temperature is more or less uniform throughout
the year. The average maximum temperature is c.
60°C and the minimum is c. 49°C. Average humidity
and annual rainfall is about 81.2% and 4060 mm
respectively (Anon. 1969).
Habitat
The habitat of the mammals of Teknaf Peninsula,
CB, comprises (a) evergreen forests, (b) semi-
evergreen forests, (c) plantations and (d) mangrove
forests, (a), (b) and (a) are natural, while the planta-
tions are human raised. The floristics of the tropical
wet evergreen forests are the chapalish Artocarpus
chaplasha , telsur Hopea odorata chundul
Tetrameles nudiflora , pitraj Amoora wallichi , uriam
Mangifera longipes, civit Swintonia floribunda,
toon (Toona ciliata) and jam ( Syzygium spp.), etc.
These plants were prevalent in CB prior to 1947 or
so, that is before the introduction of the clearfelling
operations in this Forest Division. Now-a-days this
type is found mostly in the deep valleys or in
localities shaded by lofty trees where there is plen-
tiful supply of water, as in the north sub-division of
CB.
The tropical semi- or mixed-evergreen forest is the
general forest type of the Teknaf Peninsula. It is a
dense, many storyed forest of tall trees ranging from
20 m to 45 m, in which the evergreen species
predominate in the second or lower canopy. The
MAMMALS OF COX’S BAZAR, BANGLADESH
63
64 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Table 1
LIST OF THE MAMMALS OF COX’S BAZAR FOREST DIVISION (SOUTH)
MAMMALS OF COX'S BAZAR, BANGLADESH
65
Abbreviations: C- common, UC- uncommon, VC- very common, R- rare, WD- widely distributed.
EG- evergreen forests, F- forests, M- mangrove forests, T- tidal mudflats
commonest species are baitta garjan Dipterocarpus
scaber , telya garjan D. turbinatus , dulya garjan D.
alatus , koroi Albizzia procera , chuka koroi A.
chinensis , chapalish, uriam, civil, shimul ( Bombax
ceiba and B. insignae , bandarholla Duabangha
grandiflora , narikeli Sterculia alata , etc.
Under the top storey, there is a second storey which
ranges from 20 m to 30 m in height, and has a variety
of trees, evergreens on the whole predominating.
Under the second storey there is another series of
trees ranging from 7 m to 18 m in height which in-
clude saplings of the first two storeys and adaliya
Meliosma pinnata , naricha Moosa ramentacea , bor-
mala Callicarpa arborea , goda Vitex glabrata , kes-
toma andkechua ( Glochidion spp.), sheora ( Streblus
asper ), jalpai ( Elacocarpus spp.) bela Semicarpus
anacardium , etc. Bamboo occurs as undergrowth.
The commonest species are muli Melocanna bam-
busoides , mitenga ( Bambusa tulda , kaliserri
Oxytenanthera auriculata, daloo ( Teinostachyum
dullooa) and orah {Dendro calamus longispathus).
As practically all the accessible areas of the Teknaf
Peninsula were subjected to clear-felling or jhoom-
(shifting cultivation) - virgin forest is seldom
noticed in the peninsula. Due to the removal of vir-
gin forest many areas are now covered with sungrass
( Impereta cylindrica), bhat ( Clerodendrum infor-
tunatum),Lantana camara , assam lata (Eupatorium
odoratum ), Melostoma spp., etc.
The tidal mudflats and the islands of the river Naaf
are inundated daily by the high tide. These areas also
support the typical mangrove species. The dominant
arekeora {Sonneratia apetala ), goria ( Candelia cau-
dal), dhundal ( Xylocarpus obovata ), kankra
( Bruguiera gymnorhyza), hargoza {Acanthus
ilicifolius ), bola {Hibiscus tiliaceus.), gol pata Nypa
fruticans ), kewakanta {Pandanus odoratissimus ),
batul {Sapium indicum ), hijol {Barringtonia
racemosa), etc. The climbers included gila lata {En-
tada pursaetha), Derris. spp., Sacrolobus globosus,
etc., and among the grasses uri gash {Oryza
coaretata), Pragmites kakra, Imperata cylindrica
and Typha elephantina were prominent (Anon.
1969).
Observations
During the field work definite transect paths were
followed, sometimes in a straight line and some-
times in a zig zag way depending on the topography
of the area. Special attention was given to areas
which were densely covered by trees and where the
visibility was less.
The study of the area from May 1982 to December
1983 revealed the presence of 53 mammalian
species. The complete list of the observed mammals
along with their status and distribution is given in
Table 1. A total of 1848 man -hours were spent in
the field for observation.
Status and Distribution
As seen from the list, the mammalian species of the
Cox’s Bazar Forest Division is represented by 9 or-
ders and 25 families including 3 sub-families.
Order: Insectivora: In this order Tupaia glis
(Fam.: Tupaiidae) is very rare and is distributed only
in the evergreen forested areas of Inoni and Rajar-
chara whereas Suncus murinus (Fam.: Soricidae) is
very common and is widely distributed throughout
66
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
the area. Tupaia glis used to visit Nhila rest house
frequently in the late 1970s (Khan 1982).
Order: Chiroptera: Among the species of the fami-
ly Pteropidae, Pteropus giganteus is very common,
whereas the other two species of the same family are
fairly common. All the species are widely dis-
tributed. Taphozous saccolaimus (Fam.: Embal-
lonuridae). Megaderma lyra. (Fam.: Megader-
matidae) and Rhinolopus subbadius (Fam:
Rhinolopidae) are more or less common and are
widely distributed. Among the members of the fami-
ly Vespertilionidae, Pipistrellus coromandra and
Hesperoptenus tickelli are very common and wide-
ly distributed among the forested areas, whereas
Scotophilus temmincki and Kerivoula papillosa are
rarely met with, the later species restricted only to
the forested areas.
Order: Primates: Of the 10 non-human primates
recorded so far from Bangladesh, excluding the con-
troversial dsky leaf monkey, Presbytis obscurus ,
eight are found in the forested areas of the Teknaf
Peninsula. Nyctibecus coucang (Fam. Lorisidae) has
been found in the semi-evergreen and evergreen
forests of Rajachara, Shilkhali, Roikeong, Inoni and
Himchari with ope being caught in the Teknaf
bazaar. It is uncommon. The family Cercopithecidae
is represented by two sub-families. Macaca fas-
cicularis. is distributed only in the tidal mudflats and
islands of the river Naaf, which supports the
mangrove vegetation. M . nemestrina. and M. mulat-
ta are not so uncommon but M. nemestrina has not
been observed south of Harikhola, Whykeong. M.
assamensis occurs in small numbers with restricted
distribution. Presbytis pileatus is common and can
be seen occasionally feeding in the semi-evergreen
forests. P. phayrei is very rare and was seen only
twice at Noya Para, Madhya Nhila and at Patwatek,
Inoni. They are restricted to dense evergreen
forested areas. Hylobates hoolock (Fam:
Hylobatidae) was observed in the evergreen forests
of Inoni and on one occassion the local people in-
formed us that they have seen it at Monkhali.
Order: Pholidota: Manis crassicaudata is widely
distributed but its population is steadily declining
due to poaching. The tribals hunt it for the meat and
others seek it for its scaly skin as there is a belief that
it has aphrodisiac values.
Order: Carnivora: Among the members of the
family Canidae, Canis aureus, Vulpes bengalensis
are quite common and widely distributed whereas he
Cuon alpinus is rare and was only met twice, once
at Madhya Nhila and again at Inoni. Selenarctos
thibetanus. (Fam.: Ursidae) is also very rare and was
met only once at Thainkhali-Monkhali border.
Among the members of the family MustelidaeLwrra
lutra and Aonyx cinerea were uncommon and dis-
tributed along the tidal mudflats of the river Naaf,
Arctonis collaris is quite rare and only two
specimens were collected during the study period.
One specimen was collected in December 1982 from
Whykeong, from near human habitations and the
other from the semi-evergreen forests of Kutupalong
in November 1983. These are the first two
specimens collected from Bangladesh. Khan (1985)
has already reported it. Skins of both the specimens
are deposited in the department of Zoology, Univer-
sity of Dhaka.
The family Viverridae is represented by four species,
of which Viverra zibetha and Viverricula indica are
common and distributed widely. On the other hand,
Paradoxurus hermaphroditus and Arctictis bin-
turong are rare and are distributed in forested areas
of Rajarchara and Inoni. The members of the fami-
ly Herpestidae, Herpestes auropunctatus and//, ed-
wardsi are common and widely distributed but //.
urva is rare and was twice sighted at Thainkhali. It
is restricted to forested areas. The family Felidae is
represented by four species. Panthera pardus is un-
common but widely distributed. It was sighted twice
but pugmarks were seen throughout the forested
areas and a number of reports of cattle-lifting by this
species were recorded. Felis temmincki is very rare
and was sighted at Dhumdhumia under Teknaf Beat.
The other two species F. viverrina and F. chaus are
common and widely distributed.
Order: Proboscidea: Elephas maximus is uncom-
mon but widely distributed. This animal is
threatened with extinction from this area. A recent
study has shown that there are about 110 individuals
in this area. Apart from these there are also about 30
migratory elephants which come from the neigh-
bouring hills of Burma during the winter months
(Khan et. al 1983).
Order: Arctodactyla: The hoofed mammals are the
most threatened animals of this area, since they are
under constant hunting pressure. Capricornis
MAMMALS OF COX’S BAZAR, BANGLADESH
67
sumatraensis is very rare and was sighted only once
in the deciduous forested areas of Madhya Nhila.
This species is also on the verge of extinction from
this area as well as from Bangladesh. Muntiacus
muntjac (Fam.: Cervidae) is uncommon but widely
distributed. Occassionally hunted by local people
from various areas of the forests, this species is also
decreasing at a steady rate and if poaching is not
stopped the days are not far away when this species
will be eliminated from the area. Sus scrofa is very
common in this area and sometimes it creates havoc
by destroying their crops. These are also hunted by
the tribals and non-Muslims for meat.
Order: Rodentia: Some variations were noted in
the distribution of the family Sciuridae. Petaurista
petaurista is uncommon and is found only in the
dense forested areas. It was sighted at Rajarchara
and Inoni. Ratufa bicolor is a common species of the
area and is mostly seen in the semi-evergreen and
deciduous forested areas. Calloscuirus pygerythrus.
is also very common and is distributed, in the
peripheral areas of the forests and is rarely seen in
the evergreen forested areas. All the species of the
family Muridae found in the area are quite common
and widely distributed excepting Millar dia meltada
which is rare and restricted to the forests only.
Hystrix indica (Fam: Histricidae) is also common
and widely distributed in the area but due to large
scale killings by the local people in recent days, it is
now seldom met. Moreover, it is considered as a
menace in the oil-palm gardens where porcupines
love to eat the soft root and stem of the plants.
Order: Cetacea: Peponocephala electra
(Fam.:Delphinidae) is common at the mouth of the
river Naaf and sometimes they come upstream even
up to Whykeong.
Conclusions
The occurrence of almost 50% percent of the total
mammalian fauna of Bangladesh gives a good pic-
ture of the forests and some easily demarcated forest
ecological habitat. If proper management program-
mes are taken with practical implementation of the
conservation laws, this area will attract a lot of local
and foreign tourists. Through wildlife tourism, the
Government can the earn considerable foreign cur-
rency provided infrastructure for giving some
facilities to the tourists is improved.
Acknowledgements
We thank the WWF and the IUCN for financial sup-
port. Thanks are due to the Department of Zoology,
University of Dhaka, for permitting one of us
(MARK) to run the Elephant Project under the
departmental sponsorship, which enabled us to do
field work. We thank the Forest Department for their
assistance. We specially thank Mr. Zafar Alam of
Whykeong for his cooperation and help in various
ways and Ms. Selina Alam for use of her
typewriter.
References
Anonymous (1969): Working Plan for the Cox’s Bazar Forest
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Khan, M.A.R. (1979): The distribution and population status of
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(1980): On the distribution and population status of
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(1981): The mon -human primates of Bangladesh.
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(1982a): On the distribution of mammals in
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(1982b): Wildlife of Bangladesh - A Checklist.
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(1984): The endangered mammals of Bangladesh.
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(1985): Mammals of Bangladesh - A Field Guide.
Nazma Reza, Dhaka. 92 pp.
(1986): Wildlife in Bangladesh Mangrove Ecosys-
tem. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83(1): 32-48.
(1987): The status and distribution of Cats in
Bangladesh. In: Cats of the world: Biology, Conservation
& Management. National Wildlife Federation, New York,
U.S.A. 43^49 pp.
& Ahsan, M.F. (1981): The status of primates in
Bangladesh and a description of their forest habitats.
Primate Conservation 7: 102-109.
Khan, M.A.R. , Rashid & Wahab, M. A. (1983): Eco-ethology of
the crab-eating macaque ( Macaca fascicularis) in
Bangladesh. J. Asiatic Soc. Bangladesh.
Khan, M.A.R., Rashid, S.M.A. & Khan, A.Z. (1983): Develop-
ment of a Management Plan for the Elephants of Cox’s
Bazar Forest Division (South). Report of the
WWF/IUCN/DU -Elephant Project No. BD-3033, Depart-
ment of Zoology, University of Dhaka, Dhaka. 16 p.
BREEDING OF THE COMMON TERN STERNA HIRUNDO IN SRI LANKA1
Thilo W. Hoffmann2
This paper describes a breeding colony of Ster-
na hirundo in Sri Lanka, the first recorded in the
Eurasian tropics.
Generally the common tern is regarded as a
winter visitor to the coasts of Sri Lanka, both in the
dry and wet zone, in irregular but small numbers.
Henry (1955) says that it arrives in some years in
considerable numbers, but is absent in most. It has
been rarely collected only from the northwest and
northeast coasts. In recent years I have observed
variable numbers of common terns regularly every
winter at Colombo and in January 1988, for instance,
many thousands were noted in the northwest (Kal-
pitiya Peninsula) and in the south (Hambantota). On
the whole it would appear that the common tern has
become a regular winter visitor in fair and some-
times large numbers.
At the end of May 1980 I discovered a breed-
ing colony of this tern on a tiny island of loose coral
debris not shown on any map, locally called Irrach-
chal (08°N, 81°E). This little island lies northeast of
Thenadi Bay, on the east coast of Sri Lanka, about 5
km north of Valaichchenai. The island is formed by
coarse coral debris (mostly stag-horn) and seashells
and lies in the centre of a fairly extensive coral reef
which runs for several miles in a north-south direc-
tion, roughly parallel to the coast about 2.5 km away.
There is no vegetation, and the white island, ap-
proximately 65 m long and about 15 m at its widest
point, is exposed to the elements at all times with fre-
quent changes size, shape and topography as a result
of wave action, chiefly during the NE Monsoon
(December to February). There are ridges and val-
leys in its surface, which rise 1-1.3 m over the water
level. During the period of the SW Monsoon (May
to September) when the terns breed, the sea is nor-
mally calm and wave action minimal, with no chan-
ges in the topography and shape of the island. A hot
dry wind called kachchan blows from the landside,
the result of the SW Monsoon which then lashes the
western coast of Sri Lanka.
Accepted May 1988
Ceylon Bird Qub, P.O. Box 11, Colombo, Sri Lanka
I had been visiting this bare and desolate little
island for some years for the purpose of goggling.
Regularly in June-July each year there were breed-
ing colonies of large crested terns Sterna bergii ,
roseate terns ( Sterna dougallii, and sometimes little
terns Sterna albifrons). On 28 May 1980 when I
visited the island I noted four large crested terns sit-
ting on one egg each, as well as five nest scrapes with
much smaller eggs, all singles, except for one nest
which contained two eggs. I left the island and a lit-
tle later approached it swimming with an underwater
camera; in this manner I managed to get very close
to about a dozen terns standing close together at the
edge of the island just above the waveline. About
half of these were clearly roseate terns with beauti-
ful pink-hued underparts, glossy black caps and
long, pointed black beaks, vermilion feet and legs.
But to my surprise the other six birds had brilliant
orange-red beaks’ with black tips, though otherwise
they were almost identical with the roseates, except
for the pink hue; they appeared slightly smaller. I got
to within a few feet of the birds, and there could be
absolutely no question of their identity, which I sub-
sequently confirmed over and over again: they were
common terns in breeding plumage; I can find no
record of this stage ever having been noted in Sri
Lanka before.
With my Nikonos underwater camera I took
colour photographs of both these roseate and com-
mon terns and the photographs came out quite well,
showing very clearly the different identities of the
two species of terns. Later when I walked on the is-
land, the birds took off but some kept circling above
and dived at me; these were common terns, the
Roseates having flown away on being disturbed.
When I left the island, the common terns returned
immediately, even before I was back in the water,
and settled on the five nests. Until then I had thought
that the five nests were those of roseate terns, a
regular summer visitor for breeding in Sri Lanka.
During the next three days I checked and re-check-
ed and alway s made the same still surprising obser-
vation: the common terns were actually breeding
here on this small coral island off the east coast in
BREEDING OF COMMON TERN IN SRI LANKA
69
Sri Lanka.
During these same days I observed many terns
hovering over hand- operated coastal purse-seines,
locally called madel, which were then in use along
this stretch of the shore, and found that the majority
were common terns in breeding plumage with a few
large crested and some little. The common terns
were quite conspicuous and easily identified with
the naked eye on the basis of their coral red and
mosdy black-tipped bills. The birds also produced
the piping, metallic-sounding twink (Henry after
Leg ge 1955) as well as the scolding crarr , both over
the madels and on the island.
Nearly one month elapsed until I was again
able to visit the east coast and this coral island.
During the period 26 to 30 June 1980 1 reconfirmed
the earlier observations. I counted from the boat 16
large crested and three lesser crested (Sterna ben-
galensis) in breeding plumage (unusual — this
species too is a non-breeding winter visitor and sum-
mer loiterer), as well as 50 to 60 common terns, all
in breeding plumage and all clearly recognisable by
their black-tipped red bills; in a few the bill was en-
tirely brilliant red without the black tip. When I went
ashore some of the birds took to the air but quickly
settled down again on the nests when I crouched be-
hind a ridge of coral debris. I could observe them
very clearly through binoculars, the nearest being
only about 6 m. away. There were two separate
colonies of breeding birds, namely one of some large
crested terns (the nests being quite close to each
other, most only 30 cm apart), and one of the com-
mon terns (individual nests much further apart), but
not a single roseate or little tern was present. I
watched the birds on the island for about 30 minutes,
then got up when they all tok to the air with much
noise, in which the clear high twink of the common
was easily discernible. Several of the common at-
tacked me repeatedly by diving at me.
I counted 41 nests of common terns, all with
one egg, except for one which had two; in addition
there were seven broken eggs of common with
embryo, and two downy chicks, making altogether
50 observed nests. There were also about one dozen
abandoned ensts (including the five seen at the end
of May) of common terns clearly distinguishable
from those of the large crested. In addition, 8 nests
with one egg each, three broken eggs and one aban-
doned nest of large crested terns were found.
It was obvious that the common had started
breeding about a month earlier (end May) and most
nests had reached the stage where the young would
hatch, whereas the large crested were only starting
their colony (end June), which conforms with obser-
vations made in earlier years. For instance, at the
beginning of July 1977 I counted over 200 nests of
the large crested tern on this same island. On that oc-
casion I noted for the first time the main natural
hazard to these breeding colonies: The white-bellied
sea eagl zHaliaeetus leucogaster , which early in the
breeding season had destroyed and partly eaten over
25% of the eggs laid till then.
Two basic ground colours could be distin-
guished in the eggs of the common terns, one beige-
brown, the other pale sepia to pale greenish-beige,
all with variable dark brown markings. There was
considerable variation in measurements and shapes,
some being extremely pointed and longish in shape.
Apart from being smaller, they were much darker
than those of the large crested which are white or off-
white with very variable markings. (I had observed
one pure white egg without markings which was
very conspicuous against the background, in con-
trast to the marked ones.)
Most of the nests of the common were lined
with feathers and/or seashells (every nest had at least
a few feathers and shells), whereas those of the large
crested were devoid of any linings or embellish-
ments, and often barely a scrape in the coarse rough
coral debris. Most of the nests of the common were
between or near relatively large pieces of coral rock,
obviously for shelter (shade), all were on ridges, not
in depressions, and well away from and above the
waves. Both nesting colonies were in an elevated
portion at the northern widest end of the island,
though later greater numbers of large crested would
also nest in the lower portions. With a caliper I
measured the 29 common tern eggs which were
present at that time. The average was 41.2 x 28.5
mm, which is less (especially in width) than Baker’s
41.9 x 30.5 mm in Ali and Ripley (1968-1974), or
41 x 31 as given by Cramp (1985), or 41.3 x 30.5
by Harrison (1975). The most common size was 40
x 29 mm, the smallest 36 x 27 mm, and the largest
47 x 30 mm. The downy chicks were greyish-brown
with dark brown and orangy mottling. The eggs of
70
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
the large crested are, of course, much bigger and
easily recognisable at a glance, therefore I did not
measure them on this occasion in order to shorten to
the minimum the period of disturbance. I had
measured large crested eggs the year before, which
gave an average of 62 x 42 mm compared with 62 x
43 mm (Cramp 1985) and 60 x 40 mm (Ali and
Ripley). The average egg size of the roseate tern is
given as 43 x 30 mm (Cramp 1985). The five nests
of common terns seen a month earlier (end May)
were empty and it would appear that egg laying in
the colony was staggered; the same is the case with
the large crested which had four nests at the end of
May, a dozen at the end of June, over 100 by mid-
July, and the maximum of about 150 by the 23rd of
July. I took a number of colour photographs of nests,
eggs, downy chicks, and of the island. Both species
sat on the eggs mainly during the day, particularly at
midday when the temperature rises steeply and the
eggs must be protected. Towards evening all birds
left the island for feeding and to roost on low rocks
nearer the shore; I have observed them there
throughout the night. In the morning they returned
to the breeding colonies on the island.
Throughout the period of observation practi-
cally all the nests of common terns contained only
one egg each (two being the rare exception). In the
literature greater clutch sizes are given: 2 or 3 in Ali
and Ripley (handbook), usually 2-3 (rarely 4) in
Harrison (1975), 1-3 (varying between colonies)
with means around 2.5-3 in Cramp (1985); in the
latter it is also stated that older birds lay bigger
clutches and lay earlier in the season. Could it be that
this Sri lankan colony was composed mostly of first
time breeders (3rd or 4th year) who might have been
in Sri lanka for several years or even have hatched
here? The smaller width and variable size of the eggs
would add weight to this possibility. Or is the single
egg per nest conditioned by location and environ-
ment?
At the southern tip of Thenadi Bay there is a
group of large rocks in the sea forming the end of a
promontory called Elephant Point or Amakallu. On
these rocks I observed at the end of June 1980 up to
100 immature common terns, recognisable by the
pronounced dark carpal band, with dark feet and
dark bills. There were also 10 adult common terns
in breeding plumage sitting on these rocks; I could
not determine whether these sat on eggs in depres-
sions on the rock surface, but it looked like it. Again
many common terns, both in breeding plumage and
im matures were seen hovering over and swooping
down on purse-seines being pulled in, in order to
catch prey escaping from the nets.
By mid-July (12th/13th) all except 12 nests of
the common tern (including one with a broken egg
and embryo) were empty, but there were over 100
adults in breeding plumage on the island. I also noted
two fledglings almost ready to fly, which were
probably young of large crested; they were very
adept at hiding under large flat plates of coral and
most difficult to find. Superficial description: Dark
grey feet and bill, head spotted, throat white, back
with folded wings shows zig-zag white and black
pattern, edge of the short tail white. Many adult com-
mon terns were bringing small fish to the island, so
there were probably also fledglings of this species
hidden under the coarse coral pieces. There were
now also over 100 ‘nests’ of large crested terns, as
well as 4 roseate and some little terns incubating.
By mid-August the little island was deserted, with
only some of the scrapes and nests remaining. It
would seem that all the common terns (adults and
newly raised juveniles) had flown away before the
23 July.
This is a clearly documented case of the breed-
ing of common terns in Sri Lanka, and the only in-
stance known to me where this species has bred in
the Asian tropics. According to Cramp (1985), the
nearest known breeding areas are at the northern end
of the Persian Gulf ( S . h. hirundo ), clearly outside
the Tropic of Cancer, and the high-elevation lakes
of Tibet ( S.h . tibetana). According to the same
source there are two known breeding areas of S.h.
hirundo on the West African coast, within the
tropics, and some in Central America and the im-
mediately adjoining South American continent
(Venezuela), but never before has the species been
known to breed so far south in Eurasia.
Unfortunately I have not been able to confirm
the breeding of common terns in Sri Lanka during
subsequent years due to several factors. In the early
1980s tourism rapidly developed into a major in-
dustry in Sri Lanka and hotels were established at
Pasikudah Bay only a few kilometres south of the
coral island. Despite annual appeals to the hotels,
BREEDING OF COMMON TERN IN SRI LANKA
71
toursits, quite ignorant of the special importance of
the little island, were brought there for goggling,
spear-fishing and shell collecting. Particularly
during the breeding season (which is also the main
tourist season) there were daily visits with people
trampling over the corals and swimming in the near-
by sea, thus disturbing the terns and preventing any
attempts by them to breed; this was especially the
case in 1981 and 1982. The breeding birds are fur-
ther disturbed by collectors of coral who illegally
remove in sacks boat-loads full for lime burning, and
also by collectors of tropical fish for export who
operate here during the time of the year.
In July 1981 I observed only seven common
terns (and only 20 large crested) in breeding
plumage, and there was no sign of breeding of any
terns on the island, perhaps due to unusual weather
(late SW Monsoon) and the absence of swarms of
sprats and sardines, the main food of the terns at this
time. Roseate and little terns were also missing. Per-
haps the breeding started later for all four species,
but I was unable to make further observations that
year. Later the ethnic conflict broke out in earnest
and it was no longer possible for me to visit the area.
But I am fairly convinced that common terns breed
in and around Sri Lanka in suitable undisturbed
localities. Adult pairs are highly faithful to breeding
colonies (Cramp 1985).
This documented discovery in 1980 of a sub-
stantial number of common terns in breeding
plumage, with nests, eggs and chicks, thousands of
kilometres away from the nearest known breeding
areas, if confirmed in later years, would add a new
breeding resident to the checklist of Sri Lanka and
reveal an amazing extension of the breeding range
of this species in Eurasia. An exciting prospect when
it is considered that since about Legge’s time one
hundred years ago, there have hardly any additions
to the list of resident breeding species, in evident
contrast to the list of winter visitors and pelagic birds
which grows almost every year by one or several
species. A recent probable breeding addition is the
greyheaded mynah Sturnus malabaricus , and
another candidate is the large pied wagtail Motacil-
la maderaspatensis , which I suspect to breed in the
northern islands, e.g. Delft.
Worldwide there are three races of the common
tem: S.h. hirundo , which breeds in a wide geographi-
cal band from central and eastern North America
through Europe to West Siberia; S.h. tibetana which
breeds in Kashmir, Tibet, Mongolia and China; and
S.h. longipennis which breeds in NE Asia and
winters from Japan through to Australia (it differs
from the other two in blackish bill and legs), all nest-
ing mostly on freshwater lakes. Of the three sub-
species only S.h. hirundo breeds in or near the
tropics (W. Africa, Central America) and also in the
Arabian Gulf on bare islands similar to the one
described here. The race which visits Sri Lanka in
winter is S.h. tibetana which breeds on the high-
elevation lakes in Tibet and Ladakh. This led me to
speculate (Hoffmann 1981) that the breeding colony
described in this paper might perhaps belong to the
race S. h. hirundo. In the original Ceylon Bird Club
Notes (1980, May- August: 27-43) the birds are
referred to by me as S.h. tibetana (with S.h. hirundo
as a possibility). However, this question must remain
unresolved until another breeding colony is found
and a specimen can be procured. S.h. hirundo (prac-
tically not distinguishable from S.h. tibetana in the
field is a winter visitor and non-breeding summer
loiterer to Sind and Baluchistan, but has not been
definitely recorded (collected) in India.
In Hoffmann (1984) and also in Hoffmann
(1989): the common tern is listed as S. h. tibetana on
the strength of the observations presented in this
paper There have been uninformed comments on
my report of this breeding colony of the common
tem in Sri Lanka, seemingly based on hearsay and a
misunderstanding of my brief reference to this oc-
currence in the 1980 annual Ceylon Bird Club digest
(Hoffmann 1981); the original observations as
published in the monthly Ceylon Bird Club Notes
were obviously not consulted. Thus it became
desirable to present this detailed paper on my obser-
vations in 1980.
72
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
References
Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1968-74): Handbook of the Birds of India
and Pakistan. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.
Cramp, S. (Chief Ed.) (1985): The Birds of the Western
Palearctic, Vol. 4. London.
Harrison, P. (1975): A Field Guide to the Nests, Eggs and Nes-
tlings of British and European Birds. London.
(1983): Seabirds, an Identification Guide. London.
Henry, G.M. (1955): A Guide to the Birds of Ceylon. London.
Hoffmann, W. (1981): Notes from the Ceylon Bird Club 1980.
Loris 15(5): 283-285.
(in press): J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.
(1989): Notes on the Status and Distribution of Some
Birds in Sri Lanka as Listed in S.D. Ripley (1982) "A
Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan, together with
those of Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka, J. Bom-
bay Nat. Hist. Soc. 86(1 ): 7-16.
AVIAN PROFILE OF A MAN-MODIFIED AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM IN THE
BACKWATERS OF THE UJJANI DAM1
E.K. BHARUCHA 2 AND P.P. GOGTE3
(With two plates and four text-figures)
This study highlights the avifaunal aspects of a man-modified aquatic ecosystem in the backwaters of a recent-
ly constructed irrigation dam. It uses the bird profile of the area as an indicator of changes in the ecosystem. The study
provides a strategy to develop a viable nature conservation scheme in a multiple use area in the backwaters of the Uj-
jani Irrigation Project.
Introduction
It is commonly believed that dams and irriga-
tion projects are detrimental to the ecology of an
area.They are known to submerge large tracts of
forests, destroying their diverse plant and animal
life, or lead to detrimental changes in the water
regime of the area. However, this is not always the
case. If carefully managed they can also help in the
conservation of nature in a limited sense (Soule
1986). One such example is the Ujjani dam, which
has provided a new habitat for a large number of
waterfowl and terrestrial birds. We would thus like
to point out that if dams must be built for the
economic well-being of mankind, selection of the
site must be a prime concern so as to minimise
ecological damage. After impoundment, careful
management must provide natural resources on a
sustainable basis for local inhabitants. And finally an
attempt must also be made to balance its utilitarian
values with the institution of a nature conservation
scheme in the newly formed man-modified ecosys-
tem. This last aspect has not been given adequate at-
tention.
This paper demonstrates that by identification
of specific conservation goals and careful planning,
natural resources can be protected within the exist-
ing framework of an irrigation project.
The Ujjani dam was built only eight years ago.
Before the dam was constructed, the area consisted
of semi-arid marginal agricultural tracts and waste- 2.
land on the banks of the Bhima river. A small num-
ber of local and migratory aquatic birds were found
in patches along the length of the river. Terrestrial
Accepted February 1990
2‘Saken’, Valentina Society, North Main Road, Koregaon Park,
Pune 411 001, Maharashtra
317-Vidya Vilas Colony, I.T.L Road, Aundh, Pune 411 007
birds that fed on surrounding crops and those that
used the semiarid wasteland were also present.
Today this pattern has changed dramatically and the
backwaters of the Ujjani dam at Bhigwan constitute
a highly complex wetland ecosystem. This makes it
not only an interesting study site, but also provides
an insight into what can be achieved around other ir-
rigation projects.
An important factor which emerged during
this study was that several abiotic features in the
newly established waterbody are still progressively
changing. This has produced a series of successional
changes in the biotic component of the system. Pat-
terns of wetland utilization and land use, which
have been modified by the dam, built in the recent
past, have played a considerable role in producing
various changes in the ecosystem.
Objectives
The primary objective of this study was to
provide a baseline assessment of the present state of
the ecosystem in the backwaters of the Ujjani dam
at Bhigwan, so that it could be used to formulate a
rational and scientific basis for management.
The main aims of this study were:
1. To study the abiotic parameters of the habitat
such as its geographical features, the
physicochemical properties of water, the depth
of the water in different areas, and relate them
to avifaunal patterns.
To study changes in successive years of biotic
features such as planktonic forms, aquatic and
semi-aquatic vegetation and their effects on
the diversity and population of bird life.
3. To document the avian profile of the area and
study habitat utilization by different species of
waterbirds.
4. To study land use patterns and the utilization of
74
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
the waterbody by local inhabitants.
5. To define the effects of human utilization of
the ecosystem with special reference to its bird
life.
6. To assess the ill effects of human interference
on the conservation values of the area.
7. To provide management recommendations for
the conservation of this wetland.
Methods
This study was conducted over a period of five
years (January 1985-January 1990). Regular field
trips were made throughout this period at intervals
of 15 to 20 days. However, the area has been visited
fairly regularly by us since 1979.
Water depth: Water depths were measured during
April 1986. The measurements were taken along a
transect by dropping a scaled rope at fixed intervals
across the lake from the southern bank to the north-
ern bank.
Physicochemical: Four sampling stations were set
up along the shore of the waterbody (Fig. 1). The
criteria for choosing the respective sites were re-
lated to the distribution and movement of water-
fowl, especially flamingos. Station A was on the
eastern bank, where flamingos were seldom seen.
Station B was near Bhigwan township and was not
frequented by flamingos. Stations C and D always
had flamingos, the former being a feeding area, the
latter a roosting site. The physicochemical study of
the waterbody consisted of recording dissolved
oxygen, alkalinity, pH, and hardness. All the tests,
except for hardness, were carried out in the field
according to standard methods (apha, awwa, wpcf,
1975 ). Samples were collected in two litre plastic
cans and were brought to the laboratory for analysis
of hardness. The analysis was done 24 hours after
collection. The sampling was done every week in
1987 and 1988.
Plankton: The plankton study consisted of iden-
tification of the common phytoplankton and the den-
sity of plankton during different seasons. Samples
were collected from the four stations and preserved
in formalin. Their analysis was done in the
laboratory 24 hours after collection.
Botanical: A brief botanical survey of the
aquatic and semi-aquatic macrophytes found in the
lake and its immediate surroundings was made.
Specimens were collected in the field for a her-
barium and later identified in the laboratory. Plant
density was calculated by the list count quadrat
method.
Ornithological: The ornithological study consisted
primarily of a study of population dynamics and be-
havioural ecology of the diverse species of bird life
of the area. More detailed behavioural studies of
flamingos and nesting terns were also carried out.
The status of the water birds was determined on the
basis of absolute number of a species in comparison
with the population of related species of the same
family, as well as by comparing their abundance
with other lakes in the area.
Bird counts were carried out around the 15th
of January of every year from point A to D. Bird
counts were done by two different methods. Actual
head counts were done for bird species which were
small in number. For fast moving birds or for birds
present in large flocks, a section of the flock was
counted, using this as a guide to estimate the total
number in the flock. Bird behaviour was studied by
observing their movements and habits. Hides in the
form of cloth sheets, spread over the observer,
were used to observe nesting birds. The identifica-
tion of birds was done using field guides such as a
PICTORIAL GUIDE TO THE BIRDS OF THE INDIAN SUBCON-
TINENT (Salim Ali, 1983). All observations were
made using binoculars (Sears 8x35, 16° wide
angle). Photographic documentation was done with
a Nikon FE and Nikormat EL with 300 mm telephoto
lens or 80 to 210 Vivitar zoom; or an Asahi Pen tax
with 200 mm or 400 mm telephoto lenses).
Socio-economic: Repeated surveys were done to
correlate ecological data with sociological and
economic changes in the life of the local people.
These periodic surveys were carried out to elicit the
people’s reaction to the dam, their impressions of the
avifauna, and their attitudes towards the impending
notification of the area as a sanctuary. During such
surveys the people were given an idea of what the
local conservation goals were, and informed that
notification would not be economically detrimental
to them.
Results and Discussion
Study area: Bhigwan is a small township situated
on the Pune- Solapur highway 100 km southeast of
AVIAN PROFILE OF MAN-MODIFIED AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM
75
Fig . 1. ivlap of Bhigwan wetland, showing study area.
Pune, with a population of 4,000-5,000. The large
expanse of shallow water is a part of the backwaters
of an irrigation dam built across the Bhima river at
Ujjani. The waterspread in the backwaters covers a
considerable area from Bhigwan to Dalaj (Fig. 1).
This shallow area is a favoured habitat for a large
number of waders and surface feeding ducks. The
original river bed, which is relatively deep, also at-
tracts diving ducks and fishing birds such as terns
and gulls.
There are several small settlements on the
banks. Bhigwan, which is the largest, is situated just
off the Pune-Solapur highway. Another small vil-
lage, Kumbhargao, is situated on the south bank.
Further downstream the submerged village of Dalaj
has been split into three settlements called Dalaj 1,
2 and 3. There is a small island off Khanoti, upstream
towards the northeast, beside which is another
small settlement called Chincholi.
Water depth: One of the important features of this
wetland is the large expanse of shallow water. This
is due to the fact that much of this inundated land is
in the plains (Fig 2). The expanse of the water can
be divided into three zones (Odum 1971) (Table 1):
Zone I. The edge of the water close to the shore,
which is frequented by waders like stilts, plovers,
godwits, sandpipers, shanks, etc. The water level in
this area is very shallow, ranging from 0 to 10 cm.
Zone II. The shallow portions where water
levels vary up to a depth of 120 cm. This area has a
large amount of aquatic plants and is frequented by
larger birds like the flamingos, herons, storks,
cranes, spoonbills, ibises, and surface feeding
ducks.
Zone III. The deep water region where water-
depth is greater than 120 cm is commonly fre-
quented by the diving ducks. Flamingos were also
seen in feeding parties swimming into deep water
on several occasions.
Many birds like gulls, terns, osprey, etc. do not
require a specific depth of water to feed in. These
birds, which feed by diving into the water, were
found in all the three zones. Some specialist species
have a specific ‘niche’ and feed mostly in a single
zone, while others are less specific and can use a
combination of two or even all three zones. The
76
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
RELATIVE WATER DEPTHS FROM SOUTH BANK
Fig. 2. Water depth in relation to distance from southern bank.
SEASON WISE PLANKTONIC VARIATION
Fig. 3. Season-wise planktonic variations
number of species using individual zones and com-
bined ones is shown in Table 2.
Habitat utilization: The birds are classified accord-
ing to habitat utilization as aquatic (A) or terrestrial
(T). However, certain aquatic species also feed on
land, while some of the terrestrial birds utilise
aquatic forms of life as an additional source of food
(Table 2, Appendix 1).
Table 1
WATER DEPTH
Physicochemical characteristics: In the four
sampling stations the physicochemical analyses
showed a similarity in the water at stations A and B,
which were upstream of stations C and D. At sta-
tions C and D the water had a higher pH. These areas
were more frequently used by the flamingo to feed
in (Table 3).
The water is more alkaline than in other lakes
in this area of Maharashtra. Apparently this is an im-
portant factor that attracts large numbers of greater
flamingos to this wetland. Both hardness and dis-
solved oxygen show high concentrations. As the
physicochemical analysis was done over a relative-
ly short period of time its results are only indicative
of the abiotic characteristics of the water (Tables 3,
4).
Plankton: The high alkalinity at Bhigwan evident-
ly contributes to the development of specific micro
flora and fauna on which various birds survive
(Table 5). The seasonal variation observed in the
plankton population is shown in Table 6. This
Table 2
HABITAT BASED DISTRIBUTION OF AVIFAUNA AT BHIGWAN
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 81
Bharucha & Gogte: Ecosystem of Uijani Dam.
Plate 1
Top: Early period, mudbanks frequented by flamingos.
Centre: Transition period, with growing expanse of Paspallum
Bottom: Recent period, with heavy overgrowth of Paspallum.
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 81
Bharucha & Gogte: Ecosystem of Uijani Dam.
Plate 2
MANAGEMENT OF KEY AREAS
AVIAN PROFILE OF MAN-MODIFIED AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM
11
Table 3 Table 4
PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER COMPARATIVE pH OF NEIGHBOURING WATERBODIES
shows that phytoplankton population peaks around
June, followed by zooplankton in November (Fig.
3).
The planktonic forms thus show definite
seasonal changes in their abundance and density.
Water depth and turbidity are the factors that control
their population. In the rains when the silt is washed
into the waterbody, the turbidity and the water level
increases, and there is a sudden fall in planktonic
density.
Botanical profile: The profile of the plant macro-
phytes in the area is shown in Table 7.
Eutrophication and succession: A significant
finding was the sudden increase in 1989 in the
growth of Paspallum , which was uncommon until
1986.
m
6
78
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Table 8
MACROPHYTIC VEGETATION
Paspallum was found to be the commonest
species (93%) of the macrophytic vegetation along
a major part of the shore. It was recorded up to a
depth of 0.6 m inside the water at a distance of about
25 m from the shore in the summer of 1988 (Table
8).
Avian Profile
A checklist of the birds recorded, along with
their abundance and seasonal variation, is shown in
Table 9. The change in relative abundance is indi-
cated by a + when the population has shown an up-
ward trend and a - if the population was found to
drop appreciably during the study period from 1986
to 1989.
The checklist also shows the ‘niche’ used by
purely terrestrial (T) and aquatic (A) species. Those
that require a combination of habitat conditions are
catagorised as A(t) or T(a).
The aquatic system is divided into three zones
- 1, II and ID according to the depth of the water, as
discussed earlier (see Appendix 1).
The profile of aquatic and terrestrial birds
shows that during the study period 160 species of
birds were recorded (Hussain 1984, Ali 1983, Ali
1986). Out of these 85 (50.3%) were aquatic, and 75
(49.7%) were terrestrial. In 1989 of the 160 species,
65 (40.6%) were migratory, 5 (3.1%) were local
migrants while 90 (56.3%) were resident throughout
the year.
The species diversity index calculated for
January 1987 and January 1988 was 2.01 and 2.08
respectively (Shannon-Weiner formula). In summer
the species diversity index calculated for March
1987 and March 1988 was 1.32 and 1.72 respective-
ly. This shows that the population is considerably
modified by the influx of migrants in winter.
Between 1986 and 1989 the population of
several species was observed to have changed.
Among the 26 species that showed an increasing
trend in population, 21 had to be reclassified into a
commoner category in 1989. Certain birds, however,
showed a decline in population. Among the 21
declining species, 15 were found to have become ap-
preciably less common and had to be grouped
among the less commoner category.
Those whose population increased were either
marsh dependent species or those that are dependent
primarily on fish. Those that showed a drop in
population were invariably waders, which depend
on mudflats for their food.
Comparing the seasonal status of the birds, 18
species that were considered local migrants in 1986
were found to have become resident throughout the
year by 1989. Birds that have established nesting
colonies during these years figure prominently in
this group.
Bird counts: The bird counts were conducted by
walking along the periphery of the waterbody. As
this covered only a small sector of our study area
along the edge of the lake from station A to station
B it only indicates the relative abundance of dif-
ferent species through the study period. Table 10
shows annual counts on 15 January from 1986 to
AVIAN PROFILE OF MAN-MODIFIED AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM
79
Table 9
WINTER BIRD COUNT OF SOME INDICATOR SPECIES CARRIED OUT FOR 4 YEARS ON/AROUND 15 JANUARY IN THE SAME
SEGMENT OF THE LAKE.
River tern
Little tern
Little ringed plover
Kentish plover
Small pratincole
100
4
5
1
11
250
8
9
2
18
120
16
4
1
14
The total number of nests throughout the nesting
season is several times greater, as these figures only
indicate the number of active nests counted at one
time during the peak period of each year.
80
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
FLAMINGO POPULATION 1986-89
Fig . 4. Flamingo population in 1988-89
1989, of some important indicator species that have
been affected by habitat changes.
The Flamingo
At Bhigwan the flamingos feed along the
shore and on mud banks. Their major feeding area
is in the vicinity of Kumbhargao, which is also one
of the roosting places where they spend the night.
It is known that flamingos are highly special-
ized feeders and occupy a narrow niche within the
ecosystem. The greater flamingo is known to feed
on both minute plant and animal life that is abundant
in certain muddy areas (Allen 1956). As shown ear-
lier, one of the features observed was the high pH
values obtained from Bhigwan lake as compared to
lakes at Patas, Kurkumbh and Varvand, where the
flamingos though present are always found in much
smaller numbers. The pH values are between 8 and
9 for Bhigwan, 7 and 8 for Patas and Varvand and
between 6 and 7 for Kurkumbh. The factor that at-
tracts the flamingo to Bhigwan is related to the abun-
dance of its specialized food. In all probability some
components of this food material must be dependent
upon a higher alkalinity.
Population dynamics: The flamingo population
showed wide fluctations (Table 10). The main peak
period was in February and March (Fig 4). Their
lowest numbers were recorded during the monsoon.
The bird profile in a wetland is affected not only by
the abundance of specific food supply, but also by
the ease with which it can be exploited. Even though
there is apparently no reason for the flamingo’s
favoured food sources to have diminished in the lake
bed, its accessibility has been decreased by the over-
growth of weeds. This prevents the ease with which
the birds can filter their food from the mud. This may
be a major contributory factor for the progressive
decline of the flamingo population over the last four
years (Fig. 4).
The flamingo movements, feeding and roost-
ing sites showed several changes over the study
period. In 1986, the flamingos were found almost all
over the lake. In 1987 however, they had selected
isolated feeding and roosting areas. Only one roost-
ing area was located near Kumbhargao. As the water
levels went up drastically during June-July 1987 the
movement of flamingos showed a sudden change.
They no longer favoured their old feeding sites.
However, the roosting sites remained the same. The
Paspallum grass had by then covered most of their
favorite mud banks, used earlier, forcing them to
move west, closer to the Pune-Solapur highway.
Here they fed on the clear patches of mud and in the
deeper part of the lake at the edge of the grass. In
late February 1988, the birds were observed going
upstream at dusk. This suggested that they had
abandoned their old roosting site near Kumbhargao,
but still frequented the area to feed in. In 1989 the
flocks were smaller and were evidently hard pressed
to locate feeding areas.
Courtship display: Between March and July of
1986 and 1987 the flamingo at Bhigwan were seen
to perform courtship displays. During displays near-
ly the whole population congregated in the shallows
near Kumbhargao. The males formed small groups
with their beaks nearly touching while holding their
heads high up in the air and fluffing up their dorsal
feathers. A loud croaking accompanied this frantic
activity, followed by pairing. Unfortunately, they
made no attempt to build nests. An attempt to induce
nesting was made by the Forest Department by
making mud mounds, but these were washed away
by the rains in 1986 and in 1987 they cracked due to
lack of moisture, as they were built a little too far in-
land (Johnson 1982, Rooth 1982).
To induce these birds to breed the mudbanks
that they require must be maintained and given
protection. At present these mud banks are being
encroached upon by the now fast spreading-
AVIAN PROFILE OF MAN-MODIFIED AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM
81
Paspallum weed. Measures to check the further
encroachment of Paspallum would be beneficial to
the flamingo, both for feeding and breeding.
Breeding Colonies on Mudbank Islands
As this waterbody is shallow, the silt that is
brought down by the river and deposited in it creates
constant changes in the configuration of the floor of
the lake. In some places these deposits form large
mudbanks which emerge out of the water when the
lake recedes in summer, thus forming islands.These
islands are not permanent as they are submerged in
the rains. During the monsoons due to the increase
in the rate of flow these mudbanks are either
shifted to a different place or disappear altogether.
New islands also suddenly appear when the water
recedes. When the islands first appear in winter they
are covered with algal mats. As soon as the soil dries
up weeds and grasses take root. These terrestrial
plants slowly start moving outwards as more of the
mud bank emerges. In late summer these islands
develop muddy bridges with the shore of the lake
and are thus invaded by cattle which, feed on the
vegetation.
The islands are used by several species of
ground nesters as they afford some degree of protec-
tion and seclusion, during the early part of the sum-
mer (Table 11). All the colonies were dominated by
river terns which nest throughout March and into
early May. As the number of river tern nests drop in
late April, the little terns start nesting. Nests of little
ringed plovers and pratincoles were found in dif-
ferent stages of development during the entire nest-
ing period ranging from March to May. A pair of
great stone plovers was observed to perform nesting
activities but their nest could not be located.
Solitary nests of redwattled lapwing, Malabar
crested lark and tawny pipit were found along the
shore and on the islands when the emergent grass
grew denser. The total number of nests during the
peak of the nesting season in different years is shown
in Table 11. As the islands grow progressively larger
with the approach of summer their periphery is
gradually colonised. The overall density of river tern
nests which was 4/sq. m in the center, was much
lower at the periphery with only 0.5/sq. m.
Human Utilization
This wetland is a multiple use area. The
primary use of its terrestrial component consists of
farming by lift irrigation and grazing of cattle and
sheep. The aquatic system is used as a source of
water for agriculture and domestic use and for fish-
ing arid commuting across the water.
Utilization of aquatic component: The water from
the lake is used for a number of purposes such as :
a) Irrigation: The main purpose for the con-
struction of the Ujjani dam was for irrigating
agricultural areas downstream. Cultivators on the
banks of the backwaters utilize water pumped up
from the lake throughout the year.
b) Drinking and bathing: Water is pumped to
Bhigwan, Kumbhargao, Dalaj etc. for drinking,
bathing and other domestic activities. The lake is
also used for washing of domestic animals.
c) Fishing: Fishing has become one of the
chief occupations of the people living in the area.
Several people have purchased new boats. Fingerl-
ings have been released in the lake and the annual
catch has increased significantly. A thriving fishing
co- operative has been established in the area.
d) Communication: As old overland routes
have been disrupted by the inundation, fishing boats
are used to ferry people from place to place.
Utilization of terrestrial component:
a) Agriculture: The land that is exposed during
the summer when the water recedes is used for cul-
tivation of cash crops mainly sugarcane. Other crops
such as onion, bajra and jawar are also grown. The
only species which damages crops off and on is the
demoiselle crane. This problem can be minimised if
managed carefully (Fog 1982). Land which is now
under the jurisdiction of the Irrigation Department
is leased to local people for cultivation.
b) Grazing: as the water level drops, the ex-
posed land is covered by grass which is grazed by
livestock.
c) Plantations: the Forest Department has
selected three plots along the shore for plantation of
Acacia, Eucalyptus , Australian Acacia and Neem
along with some other indigenously occurring trees.
Interaction between resource utilization and con-
servation goals: Though the utilitarian functions
appear to produce a conflict with conservation goals
a compromise solution can be worked out. It is
82
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Table 12
INTERACTION BETWEEN UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION
UTILIZATION OF RESOURCES CONFLICT ADVERSE EFFECTS ON CONSERVATION GOALS
TERRESTRIAL COMPONENT
AQUATIC COMPONENT
Disturbance to feeding and roosting area of waders
Destruction of nesting colonies on islands
Rapid eutrophication and formation of thick marsh,
reducing wildfowl diversity and population.
Disturbance to wildfowl and dispersal outside refuge
TERRESTRIAL COMPONENT
Waterlogging and increasing salinity. Erosion of
soil affects micro and macro plant and animal
life at edge of the water. Eventually decreases soil
fertility. Siltation shortens dam life
Degradation of rangeland and desertification, which
affects terrestrial avifauna and wildlife. Eventually
affects pasture carrying capacity.
neither necessary nor desirable to totally prevent
farming or fishing in the whole area. However some
control is essential so that key conservation objec-
tives can be achieved. The interactions between
utilization and conservation are given in Table 13,
which shows the complex interrelationships that
lead to conflicts in using and conserving the aquatic
and terrestrial components of this wetland.
If a small strip of land about 50 to 100 m in
width is not leased for agriculture several conserva-
tion goals can be achieved. This would be a small
price to pay for a large conservation gain, by reduc-
ing disturbance in key feeding, roosting and nesting
sites. It would also help in reducing eutrophication
and thus prevent the overgrowth of Paspallum. The
reduced density of the weed and the reappearance of
mudbanks would provide multiple niches and in-
crease the diversity of bird life.
Prevention of fishing and ferrying in certain
key areas where birds feed in the shallows and stop-
ping the fishermen from using nesting islands to dry
nets is another important conservation issue.
However, there need be no general ban on fishing
throughout the area.
Changing Patterns in the Ecosystem
The changing patterns in the ecosystem show
that there is a close relationship between the habitat
requirements of avifauna and human utilization.
The environmental changes created by the dam
have modified the lifestyle of local people as well as
progressively created changes in the ‘niches’ of
various aquatic birds.
During the early part of the study this wetland
provided a large amount of food material that the
flamingo and other waders found highly suitable.
Due to the very gradual slope of the lake floor in the
peripheral shallow zone, even a small drop in the
water level exposed a wide belt of open mud, rich in
food material. The main change in these mud banks
is the sudden invasion by Paspallum grass that has
colonized the shore. This has been highly detrimen-
tal to a specialized feeder such as the greater flamin-
go and other birds that feed by probing for food in
the mud.
It is well known that an aquatic ecosystem
evolves through several successional stages such as
marsh, grassland, woodland, which culminates in a
AVIAN PROFILE OF MAN-MODIFIED AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM
83
forest ecosystem. However, each transition should
take several years. At Bhigwan the surrounding mud
flats and the emerging islands which supported little
or no vegetation in 1986, suddenly began to harbour
patches of Paspallum in 1987. Within two years,
this grass completely covered the open mudflats and
has replaced most of the original vegetation such as
Typha by 1989. In the recent past the grass has spread
over the whole area, both in the surrounding soft
moist mud at the periphery of the lake and in the
water up to a depth of about 60 cm. Thus today large
expanses of what used to be feeding grounds for a
variety of waders has been converted into a marsh
or grassland ecosystem.
The surrounding area consists of farmlands in
which cash crops like sugarcane, as well as jawar,
bajra and onions are grown. The farmers in the area
use large amounts of fertilizers which are washed
into the lake during the monsoons. The surrounding
mud banks, which are exposed in summer, are also
used for cultivation. These are again submerged, as
water levels rise during the rains. As they are heavi-
ly fertilized, the residue directly enters the water.
This is evidently responsible for the rapid
eutrophication within the lake, which manifests it-
self as: a) large algal mats, b) a thick tangle of aquatic
weeds, c) a peripheral zone of the spreading semi-
aquatic grass, of which one is th & Paspallum species,
and d) peripheral patches of Echornia which have
now begun to spread.
The adjacent terrestrial ecosystem supplies
large inputs in terms of micro-nutrients into the
aquatic ecosystem, resulting in an acceleration in the
normal rate of succession. The sequence of interac-
tions are depicted in Table 12.
Any management scheme must thus take into
consideration the fact that it is essential to maintain
mudbanks and an appropriate water depth, without
an overgrowth of any form of macrophytic vegeta-
tion. Adequate periods of draw down which expose
the mudflats are thus essential to dry off the vegeta-
tion and permit recycling of various micro or-
ganisms, worms, molluscs and Crustacea in the mud
(Thomas 1982).
The changes in the avian profile thus indicate
how the overall ecological picture has been progres-
sively modified.
In the Pre-dam period the Bhima had a
seasonal flow. It supported primarily rain dependent
crops. Aquatic avifauna had patchy low density
populations of the commoner bird species found in
Maharashtra.
During the Early Period soon after the con-
struction of the dam, the surrounding farmland ac-
quired by the Irrigation Department was mostly fal-
low. The ecosystem was dominated by the formation
of extensive open mudbanks at the edge of the water.
As these were progressively colonized by micro-
scopic plankton and later by invertebrates such as
worms, molluscs, and Crustacea the waders began to
increase in number. This also provided the favoured
‘niche’ of the flamingo.
This was followed by a Transition Period with
the establishment of a few areas of aquatic and semi-
aquatic macrophytes. The peripheral land was now
leased to farmers to grow cash crops which were
heavily fertilized, leading to progressive eutrophica-
tion. This brought about a shift from the
predominantly wading species to that of dabbling
ducks and marsh birds. The growing expanse of
Paspallum grass now began to attract more and more
coots, moorhens and jacanas.
With the increasing number of fingerlings
released by the Fisheries Department there was a rise
in the fisheating birds such as gulls and terns.
During this period the nesting colonies of tern were
established.
The Recent Period is characterised by an over-
growth of Paspallum that has converted the multi-
niche wetland into an extensive single niche
marshland. Only the deep water is left open while
most of the mudbanks are covered with weeds. The
waders and specialist feeders such as the flamingo
have thus been drastically reduced. The avifaunal
pattern is dominated by increasing numbers of com-
moner species of marsh birds.
Summary and Conclusions
Bhigwan is a wetland that has an immense con-
servation potential and thus requires special atten-
tion from Government. Unless it is notified im-
mediately and a well formulated management plan
drawn up and implemented, the ecosystem will soon
deteriorate beyond the point of no return. One of the
special features of this wetland is the relatively high
pH, and the presence of large mudbanks that in 1986
84
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
created an ideal habitat for waders. As a result the
flamingo aggregated here in larger numbers than
anywhere else in Maharashtra.
The profile of aquatic and terrestrial birds
shows that during the study period a total of 160
species of birds was recorded. Of these 85 were
aquatic, and 75 were terrestrial.
The species diversity index calculated for
January 1987 and January 1988, was 2.01 and 2.08
respectively ( Shannon- Weiner formula). In sum-
mer the species diversity index for March 1987 and
March 1988, was 1.32 and 1.72, which was con-
siderably lower than in winter.
Bhigwan is the only large breeding colony for
a variety of ground nesters in Maharashtra. The is-
lands on which a major concentration of breeding
occurs are selected by the birds for their seclusion.
Unfortunately as the water level drops in summer,
the islands develop mud bridges like an isthmus that
joins them to the shore of the lake. This produces an
influx of cattle that trample the eggs and chicks.
The village dogs also predate on them and within a
few days all the nests are destroyed.
Our observations have shown that population
trends for different avifauna are related to : a)
Changes in the habitat and availability of favoured
niches; b) Availability and accessibility of specific
food sources; c) Presence of secluded nesting sites;
d) Extent of disturbance by human activity to feed-
ing, roosting and nesting sites.
It is apparent that this specialized system is
undergoing a process of rapid succession and con-
sequently becoming a less specialized one. Even
though this may have enhanced the absolute num-
ber of birds especially of the commoner marsh
species, it has lead to a decrease in certain specialist
birds dependent on mudbanks that occupy a very
narrow ‘niche’. During the study period 26 species
became relatively more common, while the popula-
tion of 21 other species showed a decline.
Habitat suitability has mirrored the changes
observed in the avifaunal population. The early
period with newly formed mudbanks, gave way
place to a multi-niche intermediate period with a
very high population of diverse birds and finally a
uni- niche marshland with a lower diversity and
population of several species.
The point in question is, what should be en-
visioned as an ‘ideal’ wedand habitat for Bhigwan.
A highly diverse and densely populated mix is what
is evidently most desirable. Management should
aim at transforming this man-modified ecosystem
so that it mimics a natural ecosystem as closely as
possible. This can be done if the wetland is managed
so as to provide multiple ‘niches’ for a variety of
species. However this may not be easily feasible as
the ability to control such a complex system re-
quires careful, constant scientific monitoring. Ar-
resting the process of succession is in itself difficult
and to attempt to reverse it, is even more
problematic. For instance the influx of Paspallum
may indeed necessitate an expensive bulldozing
operation or provide a major drawdown every sum-
mer to dry the weed. Maintaining open mudbanks
provides a challenge to the wetland manager.
Removal of weed species such as the Eichhornia
also poses a serious problem.
Controlling the water level is another tool that
can be used to manage the aquatic ecosystem. This
would necessitate building of bunds and sluices to
maintain a specified water level as is done in Bharat-
pur. Lift irrigation pumps can be used to raise water
levels in them. The submerged road and trolley
track that extends from the Bhigwan Forest Depart-
ment Nursery up to Kumbhargao could be used as
a foundation to build the bunds. A pilot experiment
on these lines could be made near Kumbhargao,
where the old road and the banks form a shallow
lagoon. Studies could then be instituted to observe
how changes in water levels affect various bird
species, producing local fluctuations in their popula-
tion.
Management must attempt to balance the needs
of resource utilization and nature conservation. As
the specific conflict sources have been identified and
key conservation goals specified during this study,
it has been possible to evolve a multi-faceted
management formula for the wetland.
Management Recommendations
Administrative measures: At present, the entire
waterbody is under the jurisdiction of the Irriga-
tion Department of Maharashtra. This wetland,
or a part of the backwaters, should be handed over
to the Forest Department and notified as a sanctuary.
The Forest Department has already accepted our as-
AVIAN PROFILE OF MAN-MODIFIED AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM
85
sessment that this is a unique wetland, and has
proposed to the Government that it should be
notified as a bird sanctuary.
We would like to point out that though the
northeastern bank is said to be already notified as the
Great Indian Bustard Sanctuary, this has little mean-
ing as this very large sanctuary cannot be protected
effectively. We feel that this unmanageably large
Sanctuary should be denotified as core areas used by
the bustards have now been identified. Once this is
done, the area on the northeastern banks of the Uj-
jani lake would be left without a protected status,
as there are no bustards in the area. In view of this,
the whole area should be separately notified as a
Wetland Sanctuary, rather than being left as part of
the Great Indian Bustard Sanctuary.
Land use management around the wetland:
a) Farming: As the waterbody stores an enor-
mous quantity of water even through the dry season,
the utilization of water for domestic use and irriga-
tion presents no threat to the ecosystem. In fact the
irrigated fields attract a large number of gram-
nivorous and insectivorous birds and provide a
habitat for small mammals.
However, farming on the exposed land during
the summer draw-down should not be permitted in
the immediate vicinity of the shoreline in the back-
waters. At present this adds to very rapid
eutrophication by the excessive use of fertilizers.
Filling this area increases siltation and will shorter
the effective lifespan of the Irrigation Project. The
local effect of pesticides, which has not been studied,
may also be detrimental to the aquatic ecosystem.
The continuation of uncontrolled farming in this
area will further disturb the probable nesting of
flamingos and other ground nesters around the
shore. Thus this area at the edge of the water may be
constituted into a ‘core zone’ where disturbance
should be minimized. This can only be done if the
local people are involved and are made aware of the
economic benefits of creating a sanctuary for
wildlife tourism and are given job opportunities for
its management.
We are given to understand that compensation
for these lands has been given to the farmers, and
these areas are only leased to them by the Irrigation
Department each summer. This practice need not
be stopped completely. However, those areas which
get totally inundated every year should not be leased
out to prevent further ecological changes. This con-
sists of a strip of about 50 to 100 meters in width at
the edge of the water.
b) Control of grazing: Grazing on the islands
where the tern colonies are located should be im-
mediately stopped, as it destroys the large nesting
colonies that have been established. Grazing of
livestock in the peripheral area poses no threat to
the aquatic ecosystem. However, the institution of
scientific rangeland management would improve
the quantity of locally available fodder. Some areas
should be closed by rotation, to permit better
rejuvenation of the semi-arid grassland ecosystem.
This would also support larger numbers of semi-arid
land birds.
c) Afforestation: The hill ranges near the
waterbody as well as the entire shore, are totally bar-
ren. Suitable trees should be planted around the
water, a sufficient distance away from it. These trees
will serve as roosting and nesting places for birds
like storks, herons and egrets. Afforestation of the
permanent islands with Acacia trees would also
help establish nesting colonies of birds, which
prefer seclusion and thorny trees to nest in. The
trend, at present, is to plant exotic fast growers and
attractive flowering trees around the lake. These do
not form part of this semi-arid Savannah ecosystem
and are detrimental to its ecology. This will reduce
the habitat suitability for semi-arid land birds, rep-
tiles and mammals. The aforestation must thus be
aimed at recreating a near natural semi-arid area
vegetation, with trees such a Babul and Ber , which
are indigenous to the area and also require less
economic inputs to grow successfully in the murum
soil.
Management of the aquatic component of the
wetland:
a) Fishing: At present fishing, does not have
any adverse effect on the ecosystem. However,
fishermen should not be permitted to leave their
nets in the shallows for several days, as they trap
waterfowl such as ducks, waders and flamingos.
Otters are also killed by fishermen. This must be
prevented. The nesting islands should be made
out-of-bounds for drying of nets or other activities.
Movement through the feeding and roosting areas
should be through specific routes to minimise dis-
86
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
turbance. The species of fingerlings released by the
Fisheries Department should contain a smaller
proportion of carnivorous fish so as to reduce com-
petition (for molluscs and Crustacea) with wildfowl.
b) Ferrying: The establishment of specific
routes to ferry people from one village to another
will reduce disturbance to critical feeding, roosting
and nesting sites.
c) Habitat improvement: Some isolated areas
can be selected to plant Typha or other aquatic
reeds. These will provide nesting places for resident
ducks and waders.
Mudflats that appear and disappear rapidly
must be stabilized by controlling the direction and
flow of water. This can be done by adding rubble to
existing mudbanks to prevent them from being
washed away in the monsoon. This will allow more
birds to nest regularly. An attempt must be made to
allow the large expanses of Paspallum grass to
revert, to mudbanks This can be done by encourag-
ing grazing by buffaloes and by manual removal for
stall feeding. The annual summer draw-down that
will occur once the water is fully utilized for canal
irrigation downstream, may further help in the con-
trol of the unwanted grass by drying during the sum-
mer. Opening up the mudbanks by reducing macro-
phytes in a part of the area would effectively increase
the accessibility of food essential for specialized
waders.
The wetland can also be managed by building
bunds and manipulating water levels as is done in
Bharatpur. A small pilot scheme to study the effect
should be instituted before going in for any large
scale management on these lines (Harrison 1982).
Wildlife Management:
a) Protection of nesting colonies: Specific
protection should be given to the nesting colonies
of terns, pratincoles and plovers on the islands. The
land connections that form in summer between the
islands and the shore of the lake should be discon-
nected or closed off with barbed wire fences when
the water level drops. Guards must be posted near
the islands to prevent damage by villagers, cattle and
dogs.
b) Poaching: There have been several reports
of ‘shikar’ of birds at the lake. Large numbers of
ducks, waders, cranes and even flamingos have
been shot. There have also been some cases of trap-
ping of otters which should be looked into and
stopped immediately by the Forest Department.
Notification as a Sanctuary would effectively
prevent this in future.
Wildlife tourism: Currently there are no tourist
facilities in this area. If such facilities are provided
in a well controlled fashion it will help to improve
the economic standards of the local people.
Special problems:
a) Eradication of Paspallum: This weed must
be removed on a priority basis by repeated manual
removal. Reducing the weed density and producing
open mudbanks constitutes a major conem. Graz-
ing by domestic buffaloes should be encouraged.
b) Eradication of water hyacinth: The in-
vasion by water hyacinth is becoming more evident.
This should also be removed on a priority basis
before the whole lake is covered by this weed.
c) Increasing salinity: During 1989 several
areas around the periphery of the water showed signs
of salinity. Patches of salt deposits were seen in cer-
tain areas and in some cases apart from sugarcane,
the yield from other crops is on the decline. This
aspect needs further investigation so that the
farmers, income is not jeopardised.
d) Proposal for nuclear and thermal
powerplant: There is a recent proposal to develop a
nuclear and a thermal powerplant at Ujjani. The
BNHS has been requested to study its impact on the
ecosystem. Permission to start work on the project
should not be granted till the EIA is completed.
Proposed pilot study: It is essential to build small
bunds to impound water at different depths and ob-
serve its effects on resource utilization and feeding
habits of the different waterfowl. The cycling of
nutrients and effects of fertilization and pesticides
should also be evaluated. This would help formulate
further management principles to improve the
habitat suitability for its avifauna and support a
larger population with a greater diversity of bird life.
Environmental awareness programs: Conserva-
tion consciousness can be best achieved by design-
ing a specific audio-visual programme on the
benefits of protecting and managing the wetland as
a sanctuary. This can be shown to local people on
market days, and to village schools in the area.
Conservation: Though the Forest Department has
been considering creating a sanctuary here for
AVIAN PROFILE OF A MAN-MODIFIED AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM
87
several years, the area is yet to be officially notified.
It has iso been included in the list of proposed
Protected Areas in a report for the Department of
Environment by the Wildlife Institute of India
(Rodgers and Pan war 1988)
If a productive multiple use area and a bird
sanctuary are to coexist in this wetland its active
management must be done with local involvement.
Only then can its conservation objectives be realized
on a long term basis.
Acknowledgements
The fieldwork was funded in the earlier part
of the study by the W.W.F. Maharashtra and Goa
Refe
Anderson J.M.(1981): Ecology for Environmental Sciences:
Biosphere, Ecosystems and Man Edwart Arnold
(Publishers) Ltd.
Ali,S. (1983): A Pictorial Guide to the Birds of the Indian Sub-
continent. Oxford University Press, Bombay.
Ali, S. & Vuayan, V.S. (1986): Keoladeo National Park, Ecologi-
cal Study Summary Report 1980-1985. Bombay Natural
History Society, Bombay
Ali, S. & Hussain, S. A. (1983): Studies on the Movement and
Population Structure of Indian Avifauna. Annual Report -
II, 1981-1982. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.
Allen, R.P. (1956): The Flamingos : Their Life History And
Survival.
Fog, M. (1982): Prevention of crop damage. In Managing Wet-
lands And Their Birds , (Ed. D.A. Scott) International
Waterfowl Research Bureau, Slimbridge, England, pp.
227-232.
Harrison, J.G. (1982): Creating and improving island wading
bird habitat at Sevenoaks, England. Managing Wetlands
And Their Birds 137-142.
Hussain, S.A., Mohapatra, K.K. & Ali, S. (1984): Avifauna
Profile of Chilka Lake, A Case for Conservation.
Committee and was sponsored by Air India during
the Crystal Year celebrations of W.W.F. India. We
are grateful for their financial help.
We are indebted to Shri K.A. Shaikh, D.F.O.
Wildlife, who has taken keen interest in the area.
We wish to thank Prof. B.B. Chaughale of the
Botany Department, Pune University for his inputs
on the botanical aspects of the study. We thank Shri
J.C. Daniel and Dr V.S. Vijayan who went through
the draft of the report and gave us guidance and sug-
gestions for changing it to its present form.
We wish to thank Dr. (Mrs) Statira Wadia and
Mrs Parveen Godrej who helped with editing the
manuscript.
NCES
Johnson, A. R. (1982): Construction of a breeding island for
Flamingos in the Camargue, France, In Managing Wet-
lands And Their Birds , (Ed. D.A. Scott) International
Waterfowl Research Bureau, Slimbridge, England, pp.
204-208.
Odum, E.P. (1971): Fundamentals of Ecology, 3rd edn. pp. 303-
304. W.B. Saunders Toppan Co Ltd.
Rodgers, W.A. & Panwar, H.S. (198 8) Planning a Wildlife
Protected Area Network in India. Vol II 148/MH-14.
Wildlife Institute of India, Dehra Dun.
Rooth, J. (1982): A man-made breeding Sanctuary for Flamin-
gos on Bonaire, Netherlands Antilles, In Managing Wet-
lands And Their Birds, (Ed. D.A. Scott) International
Waterfowl Research Bureau, Slimbridge, England, pp.
172-178.
Soule, M.E. (1986): Conservation Biology p. 369 Sinauer Ass.
Inc. Sunderland, Massachusetts.
Thomas, G.J. (1982): Management of vegetation at wetlands)
In Managing Wetlands And Their Birds, (Ed. D.A. Scott)
International Waterfowl Research Bureau, Slimbridge,
England.
88
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol87
Appendix 1
BIRDS RECORDED AT BHIGWAN BACKWATERS FROM 1986 TO 1989
Checklist with ecological classification, feeding ‘niche’, seasonal population dynamics, status, and population trends from 1986 to 1989.
Column 1 : Habitat utilization of avifauna: A = Aquatic, T = Terrestrial, A (t) = Primarily aquatic, secondarily terrestrial; T(a) = Primarily
terrestrial, secondarily aquatic.
Column 2: Aquatic feeding zone : I = 0 to 10 cm deep (at shoreline) II = 1 1 to 120 cm (relatively shallow) and HI = 120 cm and deeper
water.
Column 3: Status and seasonal variations in 1986 (3a) and 1989 (3b) VC = Very Common, C = Common, U = Uncommon, O = Occasional
M = Migratory, LM = Local Migratory, R = Resident
Column 4: Population trends : + = Increasing, - = Decreasing
AVIAN PROFILE OF MAN-MODIFIED AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM
89
SPECIES
46. Marsh harrier Circus aegruginosus
47. Short-toed eagle Circaetus gallicus
48. Osprey Pandion haliaetus
49. Lagger falcon Falco biarmicus
50. Redheaded merlin Falco chicquera
5 1 . Kestrel Falco tinnunculus
52. Grey partridge Francolinus pondicerianus
53. Rock bush quail Perdicula argoondah
54. Common crane Grus grus
55. Demoiselle crane Anthropoides virgo
56. Whitebreasted waterhen Amaurornis phoenicurus
57. Moorhen Gallinula chloropus
58. Purple moorhen Porphyrio porphyrio
59. Coot Fulica atra
60. Pheasant-tailed jacana Hydrophasianus chirurgus
61. Painted snipe Rostr alula benghalensis
62. Blackwinged stilt Himantopus himantopus
63. Great stone plover Esacus magnirostris
64. Indian courser Cursorius coromandelicus
65. Collared pratincole Glareola pratincola
66. Small Indian pratincole Glareola lactea
67. Redwattled lapwing Vanellus indicus
68. Yellow-wattled lapwing Vanellus malabaricus
69. Golden plover Pluvial 'is apricaria
70 Ringed plover Charadrius hiaticula
71 Little ringed plover Charadrius dubius
72 Kentish plover Charadrius alexandrinus
73 Curlew Numenius arquata
74 Blacktailed godwit Limosa limosa
75 Bartailed godwit Limosa lapponica
76 Spotted redshank Tringa erythropus
77 Common redshank Tringa totanus
78 Greenshank Tringa nebularia
79 Green sandpiper Tringa oc hr opus
80 Spotted sandpiper Tringa glareola
81 Common sandpiper Tringa hypoleucos
82 Fantailed snipe Gallinago gallinago
83 Sanderling Calidris alba
84 Little stint Calidris minula
85 Temminck’s stint Calidris temminickii
86 Ruff and reeve Philomachus pugnax
87 Herring gull Larus argentatus
88 Brownheaded gull Larus brunnicephalus
89 Blackheaded gull Larus ridibundus
90 Whiskered tern Chlidonias hybrida
91 Gullbilled tem Gelochelidon nilotica
92 Caspian tem Hydroprogne caspia
93 Indian river tem Sterna aurantis
94 Blackbellied tem Sterna acutrcauda
95 Little tem Sterna albifrons
96 Indian sandgrouse Pterocles exustus
97 Blue rock pigeon Columba livia
98 Indian ring dove Streptopelia decaocto
99 Red turtle dove Streptopelia tranquebarica
100 Little brown dove Streptopelia senegalensis
101 Roseringed parakeet Psittacula krameri
102. Koel Eudynamys scolopacea
103 Crow-pheasant Centropus sinensis
90
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol 87
DISTRIBUTIONAL RECORDS FOR CHELONIANS FROM NORTHEASTERN INDIA1
INDRANEIL DAS2
(With a text-figure)
Distributional records for 10 species of chelonians, based primarily on collections from the northeastern states
of Assam and Meghalaya have been presented. These include: Emydidae- Pyxidea mouhoti , Cuora amboinensis,
Melanochelys tricarinata, M. trijuga , Geoclemys hamiltonii, Kachuga smithii, K. sylhetensis, K.tentoria , Tes-
tudinida e-Manouria emys and Trionychidae-Liy^emyj punctata
Introduction
The chelonian fauna of the northeastern states
of India (Fig. 1) comprises at least 17 species,
belonging to 3 families (Table 1). Much of the exist-
ing knowledge on the distribution of the group in the
region is based on collections that are decades old,
scattered in several museums. Literature concerning
the region’s turtles and tortoises is scanty. Those
solely dealing with north eastern India, published in
the present century include Chaudhury (1912),
Talukdar (1979), Vijaya (1983) and Das (1987).
The present account describes the notable
records of turtles and tortoises discovered during a
recent (January-February and June- July 1988) sur-
vey in the states of Assam and Meghalaya, under-
taken by me and supported by the IUCN/WWF. A
description of the survey will be found in the final
project report (Das 1988).
Methods
Turtles and tortoises were collected during the
survey either by hand or in tangle-nets set in water
or from forest villages. At the Manas Tiger Reserve,
the chelonian collections made by Mr. S.K. Sarma,
Forest Range Officer, Bansbari, were examined. In
addition, material at several museums was verified.
The following museum acronyms have been
used: BM(NH): British Museum (Natural History),
South Kensington, London, England. MHNG:
Museum Histoire Naturelle, Geneva, Switzerland.
ZSI: National Zoological Collection, Zoological
Survey of India, Calcutta, India. ZSI/ER: Zoologi-
cal Survey of India, Eastern Regional station, Shil-
long, India.
All material referred to in subsequent sections,
Accepted
2Madras Crocodile Bank Trust, Vadanemmeli, Perur Post,
Mahabalipuram Road, Madras 603 104.
except those in the MHNG have been personally
verified. ID/NE refers to my north eastern India field
number and material collected during the above sur-
vey are being deposited at the ZSI.
Nomenclature follows Iverson’s (1986) most
recent checklist. Scute terminology used are those
suggested by Zangerl (1969).
Two or more of the following measurements
were taken on each specimen dealt with sub-
sequently:
1. Straight carapace length (SCL): For emydids
and testudinids, cervical at carapace midline to
posterior edge of 12th marginal; for
trionychids, from the cervical, along the medial
region to the posterior tip of flap, taken with
dial vernier calipers for specimens upto 20 cm,
and with steel tape for those exceeding this
length.
Table 1
LIST OF CHELONIANS RECORDED FROM THE
NORTHEASTERN STATES OF INDIA
Emydidae
92
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
2.
3.
Fig. 1. Map of northeast India, showing localities cited in the text.
Assam: 1. Manas; 2. Kaziraga; 3. Sibsagar; Meghalaya; 4. Ranikor: 5. Nonghyliem.
Emydedae
1. Keeled box turtle Pyxidea mouhotii
(Gray 1862)
In a recent review of the distribution of this
little - known species (Das 1987), I mentioned that,
based on museum specimens, it is positively known
from the Garo hills of Meghalaya and Deban, Tirap
(presently Changlang) district of Arunachal
Pradesh, with a possible record from Cachar, Assam,
BM(NH)98°12°20o 1, registered as from ‘Eastern
Curved carapace length (CCL): Taken with a
flexible tape.
Straight carapace width (SCW): Distance
across widest part of carapace, perpendicular
to longitudinal body axis, taken with dial ver-
nier calipers for specimens up to 20 cm, and
with steel tape for those exceeding this length.
CHELONIANS FROM NORTHEASTERN INDIA
93
Assam hills, probably North Cachar, near Barail
Range.
Since then I have obtained the following infor-
mation: Three specimens have been recorded as col-
lected from the Cachar hills by Anderson (1871) and
evidently two of these were from the Kapili river of
the North Cachar hills. All were presented to the
Asiatic Society by Maj. H.H. Godwin- Austin hand-
written comments, together with the initials ‘J.A.’
( = John Anderson?) on blank page between pages
10 and 11 of Theobald (1868) in the library of the
ZSI. The zoological collections of the Asiatic
Society of Bengal, in 1875, was transferred to the In-
dian Museum, and in 19 16 the collection was handed
over to the ZSI, but the 3* North Cachar hills
specimens of Pyxidea mouhotii cannot be located at
present
2. Malayan box turtle Cuora amboinensis
(Daudin 1802)
Material: 2 examples, from Kaziranga National
Park, Golaghat district, Assam. ID/NE 02 : SCL
21.6 cm, CCL 25.3 cm, SCW 14.8 cm. ID/NE 09 :
SCL 20.9 cm, CCL 25 cm, SCW 14.3 cm. Both col-
lected by me in January-February 1988.
Moll and Vijaya (1986) reported on a specimen
belonging to this species in the collection of the ZSI
(Reg. 16690), from Mangaldai, Darrang district,
Assam.
The present records further confirm the occur-
rence of Cuora amboinensis in northeastern India.
In addition to the Kaziranga material, 3 more ex-
amples collected from Manas Tiger Reserve, Bar-
peta district, Assam, by Mr S.K. Sarma, were
verified. An example of the present species, from the
‘Gela Bil river, Jorhat, Assam’ is reported to be in
the collection of the MHNG (Reg. 1557.15). ‘Bils’
in the region, however, refers to large bodies of
standing water.
Anderson (1872a) recorded the species from
Samagooting in the Naga hills, now in Nagaland, but
this record is not supported by a museum specimen.
3. Tricar mate hill turtle Melanochelys
tricarinata (Blyth 1856).
6 examples of this poorly known emydid were
seen at Manas, which were collected from the
Bansbari grasslands (Sarma, pers. comm.), within
the Tiger Reserve. The distribution given for the
species by Smith (1931) is Bisnath plain, Assam;
Dafla hills, presently in Arunachal Pradesh; Jal-
paiguri district, northern West Bengal and Chaibas-
sa, now in Singhbhum district, Bihar. The ZSI has
collections from the localities mentioned in addition
to one (Reg. 18391) listed as from ‘a few miles from
Sonarpur, Assam’.
Moll and Vijaya (1986) collected the species
from near the Nepal border in West Champaran dis-
trict, Bihar, and saw photos of the turtle taken in
Nepal’s Chitawan National Park. The species has
also been reported from Corbett National Park,
Nainital and Garhwal districts, Uttar Pradesh by
Frazier (1986). There are, in adddition, published
records of Melanochelys tricarinata from
Bangladesh - Mymensingh district (Khan 1982a,
1982b and 1987), Dinajpur (Khan 1982b) and the
Cox’s Bazar-Teknaf region of Chittagong (Khan
1987). The record of the species from the Sunder-
bans of West Bengal by Mukherjee (1975) is
surprising and erroneous. At Manas, 2 of the cap-
tive turtles laid one large egg each on the open
ground, in November, but both were broken possib-
ly by the turtles themselves (Sarma, pers. comm.).
One of the broken eggs were examined by me and
found to be large in size, with a thick, brittie shell.
Moll (quoted in Dinerstein et al. 1987) believed
clutch size in the species to be between 1-3.
4. Indian black turtle Melanochelys trijuga
(Schweigger 1814)
Material: A nearly complete carapace from Lailad
village, Nongkhyllem Reserve Forest, East Khasi
hills, Meghalaya. Reportedly caught from the ad-
jacent Umtru river. Collected by me in June 1988.
ID/NE 18:SCLc. 20.5 cm, CCL c. 25 cm, SCW 15.8
cm.
To this species, I assign an incomplete
carapace, put together from a cluster of disarticu-
lated bones discovered on the roof of a shed in Lailad
village, where in the past, it was used as a feeding
bowl for dogs. Subspecific allocation is not possible,
as the 5 races that are currently recognised are dif-
ferentiated primarily by their head colorations and
the locality falls approximately halfway between the
known ranges of the subspecies indopeninsularis :
northern India and possibly Bangladesh and Nepal,
and edeniana: almost throughout Burma (Das 1985,
Iverson 1986). The Manas records, a collection of 7
individuals made by Mr. S.K. Sarma, had long, black
7
94
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
spear-shaped marks on the foreheads, diagnostic of
indope ninsularis, This extends the range of the sub-
species into Assam.
The subspecies indopeninsularis was given a
rather restricted distribution by Smith (1931),
‘Chota Nagpur and Jalpaiguri district, N. Bengal! ’
Mol! and Vijaya (1986) collected it from West
Champaran district of Bihar. Dinerstein et al. (1987)
recorded Melanochelys trijuga from western and
central Nepal and though a subspecific allocation
was not made in either case, indopeninsularis seems
to be the race involved.
5. Spotted pond turtle Geoclemys hamiltonii
(Gray 1831).
Material: 8 examples, shells and entire specimens,
from forest camps and large ponds in Kaziranga Na-
tional Park, Golaghat district, Assam. ID/NE 04 :
SCL 16.6 cm, CCL 18.9 cm, SCW 11.0 cm, ID/NE
06: SCL 32.3 cm, CCL 36.6 cm, SCW 19.6 cm,
ID/NE 10: SCL 21.6 cm, CCL 24 cm, SCW 13 cm,
ID/NE 14: SCL 19 cm, CCL 21.5 cm, SCW 11.8 cm,
ID/NE 15:SCL 19.5 cm, CCL 23 cm, SCW 12.2 cm,
ID/NE 16:24.7 cm, CCL 28 cm, SCW 15.2 cm,
ID/NE 17:SCL 22.4 cm, CCL 25.6 cm, SCW 13.7
cm, ID/NE 07, plastron only (notch-notch) 18.3 cm;
greatest length 19.7 cm. All collected by me between
January and February, 1988.
Smith (1931) gave the distribution of
Geoclemys hamiltonii as from ‘Sind to Bengal’.
Vijaya (1983) extended the range of the species into
Assam, based on photographs of the species taken at
Kaziranga. Most of the material reported herein
were collected as shells discovered in the vicinity of
forest camps, where the turtles were eaten by the
human inhabitants. Exceptions include ID/NE 14, a
complete articulate skeleton of a female from the
bank of Barbeel besides ID/NE 10 and 15, both
males, from Mehrbeel and Barbeel respectively,
caught in tangle nets set among reed clumps.
The only other locality in Assam from where
the species is known is Sonarpur, Kamrup district,
(ZSI 18339) collected by L.W. Middleton. At
ZSI/ER, a large but poorly preserved and un-
catalogued example of the species was seen, which
was collected from the West Khasi hills of
Meghalaya (Ranikor) by V.T. Darlong on 10
February 1987.
The present records confirm the occurrence of
Geoclemys hamiltonii in northeastern India.
6. Brown roofed turtle Kachuga smithii
(Gray 1863)
Moll (1987) recently reviewed the biology and
distribution of the small riverine species and
described a new subspecies, pallidipes. During the
present investigations, a single example of K. smithii
was seen at Manas, which was locally acquired by
Mr. S.K. Sarma. The dark pigmented limbs and head
and large black blotches on the plastron keys this out
as the nominate form, smithii
Rivers Indus and Ganga are included in the
range of the species in general works (Das 1985,
Pritchard 1979, Smith 1931), as Chaudhury (1912)
in his account of the turtles of the Brahmaputra was
not clear whether the brown roofed turtle does in fact
occur in this river. Iverson’s (1986) distributional
map for the species shows a locality in the Brah-
maputra, and this is based on the MHNG record cited
below (Iverson, pers. comm.): MHNG 1185.27,
from Kaziranga; MHNG 1240.55 listed as from the
north bank of the Brahmaputra, in the Jorhat area.
Since the city of Jorhat is situated in the south bank,
the collection locality is presumably opposite Jorhat,
across the Brahmaputra, the collection locality is
presumbaly across the river, north of Jorhat.
7. Assam roofed turtle Kachuga sylhetensis
(Jerdon 1870)
Material: 1 example, from Kolathua village, Sib-
sagar district, Assam. ZSI/ER VI/8139 : SCL 7.2
cm., CCL 8.8 cm., SCW 6.0 cm. Collected by J.P.
Sati, 12 June 1981.
Moll (1987) in his recent review of K. sylheten-
sis had listed specimens from Cherrapunji (Khasi
hills) and Garo hills of Meghalaya and Cachar dis-
trict of Assam, in India besides the Khasi hills of Syl-
het district of Bangladesh, based on material in the
BM(NH) and ZSI collections.
The referred material from Sibsagar district in
the southern bank of the Brahmaputra, central
Assam, extends the range of the species by over 250
km to the north.
In addition, an example of the present species
was seen in the collection of Mr. S.K. Sarma in
Manas, which was collected from the Rupahi
Bhumuk, a perennial stream within the Tiger
Reserve. This is the first record of the species from
the north bank of Brahmaputra.
CHELONIANS FROM NORTHEASTERN INDIA
95
8. Indian tent turtle Kachuga tentoria
(Gray 1834)
Material: 3 shells, from Gobrai, Kaziranga Nation-
al Park, Golaghat district, Assam. ID/NE 11: SCL
5.9 cm, CCL 7.7 cm, SCW 4.8 cm. ID/NE 12: SCL
7.1 cm, CCL 8.1 cm, SCW 5.8 cm. ID/NE 13: SCL
8.6 cm, CCL 9.8 cm, SCW 6.7 cm. All collected by
the author in February, 1988.
Moll (1987), in his most recent review of the
subgenus Pangshura , included the Ganga,
Mahanadi, Godavari and Krishna drainages in the
distribution of Kachuga tentoria , in its 3 subspecies,
tentoria , circumdata and flaviventer.
Besides the Kaziranga material referred to, a
living juvenile of the present species was seen at
Manas, in the collection of Mr. S.K.Sarma. The dark
plastral pattern, red markings on the head, black and
cream striped rump and absence of pleuro-marginal
ring identifies it as the nominate race, which was
thought to be restricted to the rivers of peninsular
India (Moll 1987).
A third locality for the species from the Brah-
maputra is Sibsagar, from where Mr Anwaruddin
Choudhury, Extra-Assistant Commissioner,
Guwahati, photographed a juvenile which I have
verified. It was reportedly found in a channel of the
Brahmaputra after the floods in 1988.
These records comprise the first documenta-
tion of Kachuga tentoria from the Brahmaputra
drainage, and puts Assam in the distribution of the
species.
Testudinidae
9. Asian brown tortoise Manouria emys
(Schlegel and Muller 1844)
Material: 1 carapace, from Umling village, Non-
gkhyllem Reserve Forest, East Khasi hills,
Meghalaya. Reportedly from Lailad, north of the
Nongkhyllem Wildlife Sanctuary: ID/NE 19: CCL
c. 60 cm, CCW 54 cm. 1 plastron from Nongpoh vil-
lage, East Khasi hills, Meghalaya. Reportedly from
Borhulong, inside the Nongkhyllem Wildlife
Sanctuary: ID/NE 20: notch to notch 35 cm, greatest
length 40 cm. Both collected by me in June 1988.
The above material constitutes the first record of the
species, based on actual collection, from
Meghalaya. Anderson (1871) noted that 3 examples
of Testudo phayrei (now considered synonymous
with the northern subspecies Manouria emys
phayrei) were collected from the Cachar hills
(Assam) and deposited at the Indian Museum, Cal-
cutta. Subsequently, the Museum’s Zoological col-
lection was handed over to the ZSI. At present, there
are 2 examples of M. emys phayrei from the Cachar
hills in the said collection, ZSI 15545 and ZSI
20476, both collected by Maj. H.H. Godwin- Austin.
These are apparently the specimens mentioned by
Anderson (op.cit.), though the fate of the third is un-
known, and it is presumably lost or destroyed.
The first volume of the register of the Asiatic
Society of Bengal, now in the possesion of the ZSI,
lists no fewer than 6 examples of ' Testudo phayrei ’ .
ZSI 901-904, are listed as collected from the Cachar
hills by Maj. Godwin-Austin in January 1870; ZSI
900, for which no collection data (locality/collec-
tor/date) is available and ZSI 983, registered as from
‘Assam’ by Dr Anderson.
Jerdon (1870) wrote that the species is not un-
common in the hills of North Cachar, from where
Godwin-Austin ’s specimens were obtained. The
same authority stated, on information received, that
the tortoise extends westwards to the Jaintia hills of
what is now eastern Meghalaya. The two shells of
Manouria emys from the Cachar hills that are cur-
rently at the ZSI, as well as the Nongkhyllem
material, show characteristics of the northern sub-
species, phayrei , whose known distribution encom-
passes northeastern India, Burma, northern and
western Thailand, such as a brownish-black shell,
small gulars and pectorals that are united. The
southern subspecies, emys , from southern Thailand,
Malaysia and Indonesia possesses a brownish shell,
with large gulars and widely separated pectorals.
The Nonghkhyllem carapace (ID/NE 19)
shows a hole in the 2nd and 3rd vertebrals, where the
animal was burnt to kill it by the Khasia tribals, from
whom the carapace was obtained.
Smith (1931) gave the distribution of the
species (as Testudo emys) in India as ‘Assam
(Cachar, Naga Hills)’. While the Cachar hills record
is supported by the museum specimens cited earlier,
the report from the Naga hills is not, and is probab-
ly based on Anderson (1872 b) who wrote on a col-
lection of both ' Testudo phayrei ' and ' Manouria
emys ’ from Lumajooting in the Naga hills, present-
ly in the state of Nagaland. However, Anderson (op.
96
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
cit.) believed the two to be indistinct, admitting after
a lengthy discussion that ‘beyond the variation of the
pectorals, they presented no other points of
difference*.
One of the five tortoises from the above men-
tioned locality did possess pectorals that are
separated, a character thought to differentiate
Manouria emys emys from M. emys phayrei , sug-
gesting that the ‘southern* subspecies emys, occurs
within Indian limits.
Elsewhere (Das 1985), I have included
Manipur in the distribution of the species, and this
is based on information provided by the her-
petologist, Mr. S. Biswas (pers. comm.), previously
of the ZSI and is not supported by a museum
specimen. The Nongkhyllem record is the first
record of the species from the country in over 100
years, and an extension of range by 100+ km to the
northwest.
Tri ony chid ae
10. Indian flapshell turtle Lissemys punctata
(Lacepede 1788)
Material : 1 example from Barbeel, Kaziranga Na-
tional Park, Golaghat district, Assam. ID/NE 03:
SCL 27 cm, CCL 31 cm, CCW 29.5 cm. Collected
by the author in January, 1988. 1 example from
Ranikor, West Khasi hills, Meghalaya. ZSI/ER
VI/8390: CCL 29.1 cm, CCW 24.1 cm. Collected by
V.T. Darlong and party, 10-2-1987.
Distributed in Pakistan, northern India, Nepal,
Bangladesh and south-western Burma the northern
subspecies of Lissemys punctata punctata was con-
sidered the forma typica, till Webb (1980) showed
that the trinomial punctata should be correctly ap-
plied to the southern subspecies, the Lissemys
punctata granosa of Smith (1931) and Pritchard
(1979) from peninsular India and Sri Lanka. This,
amazingly enough, left no name for the widely dis-
tributed and familiar yellow-spotted northern sub-
species, and Webb (op.cit.) proposed the name
andersoni for it.
Smith (1931) remarked that the northern sub-
species has not been recorded from Assam. Nearly
half a century later, Talukdar (1979) reported on a
collection of a specimen belonging to this species
from Munnabeel, Kaziranga National Park, Assam.
Recently, I had the opportunity to verify the material,
ZSI/ER VI/500. In addition, one more example
(cited above) was collected by me during field work
from the same general area. Yet another example
from northeastern India examined, ZSI/ER VI/8390,
was collected from the West Khasi hills of
Meghalaya, close to the Assam border, and is the first
record of the species from the state. These material
indicate that Lissemys punctata is widespread in the
Brahmaputra drainage.
I tentatively assign all three examples referred
above to Lissemys punctata andersoni , as these pos-
sess yellow- blotched heads and carapaces. The
comparative sizes of the entroplastral callosities
which had been used by Smith (1931) in separating
the subspecies are highly variable in size even within
a single form, sometimes being absent altogether,
and this is therefore not a good taxonomic character.
Acknowledgements
I thank the Forest Departments of Assam and
Meghalaya for permission and logistical support
provided during the field work, and the officials who
rendered help and shared their knowledge on
chelonians of Assam.
I am grateful to the Director, ZSI, and the Of-
ficers-in-charge, Mr. D.P. Sanyal, ZSI Reptilia Sec-
tion, and Dr. J.R. Alfred, ZSI/ER, for permission and
facilities to examine the chelonians in their collec-
tions.
Dr. John B. Iverson, Earlham College, In-
diana, sent lists of several species at the MHNG. Dr.
John G. Frazier, Smithsonian Institution,
Washington D.C., made me aware of J.A.’s com-
ments on Pyxidea mouhotii.
Field work in north-eastern India was sup-
ported by a grant from the IUCN/WWF (Project
6343) through Dr. Edward O.Moll, Eastern Illinois
University, Charleston and WWF-India (Eastern
Region) rendered administrative help. Comments on
an earlier draft were given by Mr. Romulus
Whitaker.
CHELONIANS FROM NORTHEASTERN INDIA
97
References
Anderson, J. (1871): A list of the reptilian accession to the In-
dian Museum, Calcutta, from 1 865 to 1 870, with a descrip-
tion of some new species. J. Asiatic Soc. Bengal 40 (Part
2): 12- 39.
— — — (1872 a): On Manouria and Scapia , two genera of
land tortoises. Proc. Zool. Soc., London 26: 132-144.
(1872 b): On some Persian, Himalayan and other
reptiles, ibid. 26: 371-404.
Choudhury, B.L. (1912): Aquatic tortoises of the middle Ganga
and Brahmaputra. Rec. Indian Mas. 7: 212-214.
Das, I. (1985): Indian turtles: Afield guide. World Wildlife Fund-
India (Eastern Region), Calcutta. 119 pp.
— (1987): Distribution of the keeled box turtle Pyxidea
mouhotii (Gray). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84 (1): 221-
222.
(1988): A survey of land tortoises and freshwater
turtles of northeastern India. Final Report. lUCN/WWf
Project 6343.28 pp.
Dinerstein.E., Zug, G.R. & Mitchell, J.C. (1987): Notes on the
biology of Melanochelys (Reptilia, Testudines, Emydidae)
in the Terai of Nepal. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84(3): 687-
688.
Frazier, J. (1986): Turtles of Corbett National Park. Report sub-
mitted to Corbett Tiger Reserve, U.P. Forest Department.
3 pp.
Iverson, J.B. (1986): A checklist with distribution maps of the
turtles of the world. Privately printed, Paust Printing, Rich-
mond. 283 pp.
Jerdon, T.C. (1870): Notes on Indian herpetology. Proc. Asiatic
Soc. Bengal. 1870: 66-85.
Khan, M.A.R. (1982a): Chelonians of Bangladesh and their con-
servation. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 79 (1): 110-116.
(1982 b): Wildlife of Bangladesh: a checklist.
Dhaka University, Dhaka. 173 pp. + corrigenda.
— (1987): Bangladesher bonyoprani. Vol. 1. (In
Bangla). Bangla Academy, Dhaka. 16 + 169 pp.
Moll, E.O. (1987): Survey of the freshwater turtles of India. Part
II. The genus Kachuga. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84 (1):
7-25.
— & Vuaya, J. (1986): Distributional records for some
Indian turtles, ibid. 83 (1): 57-62.
Mukherjee, A.K. (1975): The Sunderban of India and its biota,
ibid 72 (1): 1-20.
Publications, Inc., Neptune, New Jersey. 895 pp.
Smith, M.A. (1931): The fauna of British India, including Ceylon
and Burma. Reptilia and Amphibia. Vol. I. Loricata, Tes-
tudines. Taylor and Francis, London. 185 pp.
Talukdar, S.K. (1979): Lissemys punctata punctata (Bon-
naterre) [Testudines: Trionychidae]: An addition to the
chelonian fauna of the Brahmaputra drainage, Assam. In-
dian J. Zootomy 20 (3): 181.
Theobald, W. (1868): Catalogue of reptiles in the museum of the
Asiatic Society. J. Asiatic Soc. Bengal (Extra number).
Vuaya, J. (1983): Range extension for the spotted pond turtle
Geoclemys hamiltonii. Hamadryad 8 (2): 20.
Webb.R. (1980): The identity of Testudo punctata Lacepede 1788
(Testudines, Trionychidae). Bull. Mus. Nat. Hist. nat. Paris
(4) 2: 547-557.
Zangerl, R. (1969): The turtle shell. In: Biology of the Reptilia.
Vol. I. Morphology A. pp. 311-339. C. Gans, A.d’A. bel-
laris & T. Parsons (Eds.) Academic Press, New York.
LIFE CYCLE OF PHLYCTENOPHORA IND1CA ANNAPURNA AND RAMASARMA,
A MARINE BENTHIC PODOCOPAN OSTRACOD1
C. Annapurna, D.V. Rama Sarma and K. Shyamasundari2
(With two text-figures )
Introduction
In the course of a study of the systematics and
ecology of benthic ostracods inhabiting the marginal
water bodies of the east coast of India, adults and
juveniles of Phlyctenophora indica were seen in
considerable numbers, adequate for undertaking a
study of its life-cycle. Relatively few living
ostracods have been studied in detail in this regard.
Innumerable instars of several species are still not
traceable to the species with certainty (Kesling
1953).
Inform on so far published reveals that all the
members of the sub-order Podocopa apparently pass
through eight larval stages (Claus 1868, Muller
1894, Muller-Cale 1913, Scheerer-Ostermeyer
1940, Kesling 1951). Usually a pair of antennae and
mandibles are present in the first instar. Very little is
known about the duration of the larval stages and the
related environmental parameters.
This is the first attempt to study the develop-
ment of Phlyctenophora indica Annapurna and
Rama Sarma, 1985; of the family Cyprididae.
Material and Methods
Adults were picked up from fresh sediments
and maintained in the laboratory in sea water of
about 28% salinity (ambient salinity) and at
temperatures fluctuating between 27°C and 29°C.
The specimens were examined every day and instars
were separated. A few instars were fixed and
preserved in 70% ethyl alcohol at intervals of 24
hours for identification at a later stage while the
remaining were allowed to develop. Some of the in-
stars, encountered directly in the field samples, were
also fixed for comparison with the instars obtained
in laboratory cultures. Only the later stages, namely
sixth, seventh and eighth instars were encountered
in the field collections, while instars up to the fifth
were obtained from those cultured in the laboratory.
Accepted March 1988.
department of Zoology, Andhra University, Waltair 530 003.
Thus with the instars obtained in the field together
with those cultured in the laboratory, the entire life
history could be successfully traced and ages of the
instars fixed.
To find the time required for the different lar-
val stages, culture studies were carried out with the
ostracods kept together with the sediment in small
Petri dishes and maintained as far as possible at
temperatures and salinities identical to those of the
habitat. A daily close examination of the instars and
the time required to reach the next successive stages
was made (Table 1).
Results
A scattergram of carapace length versus
carapace height plotted on a graph paper was
prepared as this is a standard method used for deter-
mining the number of instars. Instars of identical
developmental stages formed discrete clusters of
points (Table 2, Fig. 1) and these clusters fell suffi-
ciendy apart, so that the various stages in the sample
could be deciphered with considerable ease (Table
2).
The carapaces of adults and of instars are as-
signed to species on the basis of several criteria such
as (1) progressive changes in shape from the
youngest instar to adult, (2) progressive thickening
of valves (immature valves in Phlyctenophora in-
dica are fragile and hence susceptible to breakage),
(3) the increasing complexity in ornamentation
during ontogeny, (4) a progressive shift in the adduc-
tor muscle scar, (5) the hinge structure becoming in-
creasingly complex, (6) posterior part of the valve
becoming proportionately longer.
Table 1
TIME SPAN FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF Phlyctenophora indica
Stages Time (days)
LIFE CYCLE OF PHLYCTENOPHORA INDICA
99
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30 0.40
LENGTH (mm)
0.S0
0.60
0.70
Fig. 1. Length-height distribution of larval stages: O single specimen G 20 specimens
Table 2
AVERAGE SHELL DIMENSIONS FOR INSTARS OF
Phlyctenophora indica ANNAPURNA AND RAMA SARMA
Table 3
LARVAL INSTARS OF Phlyctenophora indica ANNAPURNA
AND RAMA SARMA
* Definitive form
® Rudiment
Description of instars (Table 3, Fig. 2)
First instar: Carapace slightly elongate and
moderately compressed. Anterior end rounded,
carapace slighdy calcareous. Antennule consisting
of 4 podomeres with a few moderately elongate
setae. Segmentation indistinct.
Second instar: Carapace becomes further elongated
and becomes slightly calcareous. Anterior end
round. Second antenna appears with 4 podomeres
and brisdes.
Third instar: Carapace further elongates. Antennule
and antenna well developed and rudiments of max-
ilfa and mandible appear.
Fourth instar: Formation of calcareous shell, elon-
gation of carapace continues. Maxilla and mandible
develop into definitive structures. Anterior end
rounded. Posterior end slightly narrow and trian-
gular. a rudiment of first pair of thoracic legs ap-
pears.
Fifth instar: Carapace elongates. Normal pores and
marginal pore canals develop. Both antennule and
antenna remain the same as in fourth instar but for a
slight increase in size. Mandible and its palp assume
a definitive form. Maxilla provided with a short and
broad masticatory tube beset with some setae. The
second rudimentary thoracic leg appears behind the
first.
100
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Fig. 2. Life cycle of Phlyctenophora indica (Annapurna & Rama Sarnia, 1985).
1. First instar, 2. Second instar, 3. Third instar, 4. Fourth instar, 5. Fifth instar, 6. Sixth instar, 7. Seventh instar; 8. Eighth instar;
9. Adult; Al. Antennule; A2. Antenna; Md. Mandible; Mx. Maxilla; LI, L2, L3. Thoracic legs.
UFE CYCLE OF PHLYCTENOPHORA INDICA
101
Sixth instar: Carapace elongates further. The ap-
pendages become elaborate and no new appendages
are added.
Seventh instar: This resembles the adult except in
size. Third thoracic leg and eyestalk appear.
Eighth instar: All appendages take finite shape.
Rudiments of sex organs appear between thoracici
legs and posterior part of the body.
Adult: The adult differs from the eighth instar by the
development of chitinous appendages. Sex organs
form.
General Remarks
The growth of Phlyctenophora indica is typi-
cally discontinuous. As the body grows, the rigid cal-
careous shell containing the animal moults, shed-
ding its carapace and replacing it by a new and larger
one to accommodate the growing body. After each
moult an animal, differing in size and form from the
previous stage, emerges. The old appendages may
change in form and function and new appendages
get added quickly before a carapace is secreted
anew. In nature, reproduction of P. indica appears to
take place throughout the year as evidenced by its
appearance in the sediment.
A noteworthy feature resulting from this con-
tinuous growth is a change in function of certain ap-
pendages which may be used as walking legs in the
first two instars and as accessory feeding rogans in
the next. Not only is there an increase in the number
of appendages in many of the earlier stages, but dif-
ferentiation of appendages occurs later. In addition,
the number and shape of the carapace of various in-
stars changes.
When the adults, holding ripe eggs, were col-
lected from fresh sediments and cultured in the
laboratory, the fourth instar emerged after 7 weeks.
Attempts to rear them in the laboratory beyond the
fourth instar proved futile. However, simultaneous
field collections contained sixth instar stage at a
time when the fourth instar just appeared in the
laboratory cultures.
This observed time lag in the rate of develop-
ment in laboratory cultures and in nature, may be re-
lated to water temperature and food availability, as
noticed by Theisen (1966). Hutchins (1947) states
that the temperature influences not only its survival
but also its reproduction and repopulation.
References
Claus, C. (1868): Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Ostracoden. I.
Entwicklungsges chichte von Cypris. Schr. Ges. Beforder.
ges. Naturwiss. Marburg 9:
Hutchins, L.W. (1947): The basis for temperature zonation in
geographical distribution. Ecol. Monogr., 17: 325-335.
Kesling, R.V. (1951): The Morphology of Ostracod MoltStages.
Illinois Biol. Monogr ., 21: 1-324.
(1953): A slide rule for the determination of instars
in ostracod species. Contr. Mus. Paleontol. Univ. Michigan
11 (5): 97-109.
Muller, G.W. (1894): Die Ostracoden des Golfes von Neapel
und der angrenzenden Meeres-Abschnitte. Fauna Neapel,
Monogr. 21 : 404.
Muller-Cale, K. (1913): Uber die Entwicklung von Cypris in-
congruens. Zool. Jahrb., Abt. Anat. Ontog. der Tierre 36:
113-170.
Scheerer-Ostermeyer, E. (1940): Beitrag zur Entwicklung sges-
chichte der Susswassorostrakoden. ibid. 66: 349-370.
Theisen, B.F. (1966): The life history of seven species of
ostracods from a Danish brackish water locality. Meddr.
Danm. Fisk. Havunders. (n-ser.) 4: 215-270.
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
DESCRIPTION OF A NEW CYPRINID, BARILIUS DIMORPHICUS (SUBFAMILY:
RASBORINAE) FROM RAJAH NATIONAL PARK, UTTAR PRADESH1
Raj Tilak and Akhlaq Husain2
(With four text-figures )
Introduction
During a recent survey of Rajaji National Park,
Uttar Pradesh, we collected interesting material of a
hitherto undescribed species of the genus Barilius
Hamilton from two localities, namely Song river
(upstream near the road bridge) at Satyanarain,
Eastern Doon Valley, District Dehra Dun and Ghasi
Ram Sot (downstream near causeway) on Chila-
Hardwar road, near Chila Forest Rest House, Dis-
trict Pauri-Garhwal, both tributaries of the river
Ganga.
Barilius dimorphicus sp. nov.
Description: B. iii, D.II/6-7, P.I/12-13, V.I/7-
8, A.III/10-11,C. 17-19 (8-10/9), L.l 60-66, L.tr.
12.5/7.5, Predorsals 25-27.
In Head Length: head width 1.67-1.96. Head
height 1.10- 1.33. Snout length 3.12-3.67. Eye
diameter 3.08- 4.12. Interorbital width 2.72-3.23.
Postorbital head length 1.82-2.72. Cleft of mouth
2.27-2.86. Height of dorsal fin 1.31-1.72. Dorsal
base 1.79-2.09. Pectoral fin 1.25-1.47. Distance be-
tween outer edges of pectoral base 2. 12-2.87.
Pectoral base to pelvic base distance 1 . 10-1 .38. Pel-
vic fin 1.73-2.04. Distance between outer edges of
pelvic base 3.47^1.60. Pelvic base to anal base dis-
tance 1.19-1.61. Anal fin 1.96-2.29. Anal base
1.35-1.69. Length of caudal peduncle 1.17-1.60.
Caudal fin (upper lobe) 0.75-0.95.
In Total Length: Head length 4.67-5.44. Body
depth 4.59- 5.75. Body width 6.83-10.45. Height of
body at anal origin 5.25-6.76. Height of dorsal fin
7.11-8.85. Dorsal base 9.17-10.95. Pectoral fin
6.22-7.19. Pectoral base to pelvic base distance
5.47-6.89. Pelvic fin 8.32-10.45. Pelvic base to anal
origin 6.04-7.50. Anal fin 9.74-11.56. Anal base
Accepted June 1988.
2Zoological Survey of India, Northern Regional Station, 218,
Kaulagarh Road, Dehra Dun 248 195.
6.65-8.85. Caudal fin (upper lobe) 4.08^1.79.
Predorsal distance 2.32-2.61. Post-dorsal distance
2.71-3.19. Prepectoral distance 3.97-4.48. Post-
pectoral distance 1.66-1.98. Prepelvic distance
2.56-2.87. Post-pelvic distance 2. 19-2.61 . Pre-anal
distance 1.86-2.05. Post-anal distance 3.35- 4.11.
Caudal peduncle length 6.33-7.93.
In Standard Length: Head length 3.60-4.12.
Body depth 3.47-4.05. Body width 5.29-7.69.
Height of body at anal origin 3.96-4.70. Height of
dorsal fin 5.38-6.47. Dorsal base 7.10-7.80. Pec-
toral fin 4.78-5.39. Pectoral base to pelvic base dis-
tance 4.23-5.32. Pelvic fin 6.40-7.57, pelvic base to
anal origin distance 4.68-5.78. Anal fin 7.48- 8.87.
Anal base 5.15-6.25. Caudal fin 3.08-3.50. Predor-
sal distance 1.79-1.95. Post-dorsal distance 2.11-
2.25. Prepectoral distance 3.11-3.44. Post- pectoral
distance 1.28-1.40. Prepelvic distance 1.95-2.11.
Post-pelvic distance 1.70-1.92. Pre-anal distance
1.43-1.53. Post-anal distance 2.61- 3.04. Caudal
peduncle length 4.83-5.93.
Other Proportions: Eye diameter 0.90-1 .3 1 in
snout length and 1.00-1.37 in interorbital width. In-
terorbital width 1.55-1.80 and postorbital head
length 1 .04-1 .22 in head width. Distance from snout
tip to nostril 1.31-1.63 and distance from nostril to
anterior margin of eye 4.50-6.18 in snout length.
Length of dorsal base 1.20-1.43 in length of anal
base. Length of pectoral fin 0.95-1.20 in pectoral to
pelvic distance. Distance between outer edges of
pectoral bases 1.16-1.67 in head width and 1.61-
2. 15 in pectoral to pelvic distance. Length of pelvic
fin 1.27-1.59 in distance between pelvic base and
anal origin. Distance between outer edge of pelvic
bases 1.89-2.40 in head width and 2.69-3.50 in pel-
vic base to anal origin distance. Least height of
caudal peduncle 1.56-1.93 in its length.
Trout-like fish. Body compressed. Lower
profile comparatively more arched than upper. Ab-
domen rounded. Head moderately compressed.
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
103
Barilius dimorphicus sp. nov.
1 . Lateral view of male; 2. Lateral view of female; 3. Ventral view of male; 4. Ventral view of female.
104
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Mouth terminal, cleft deep, oblique, posterior ex-
tremity of maxilla extending to below anterior mar-
gin of eye. Rostral margin and lower jaw finely
tuberculated; this condition is more prominent in
some specimens. Lips thin. Two pairs of barbels
present (a minute rostral pair and a rudimentary
maxillary pair). Jaws subequal, the lower very
slightly longer than the upper; tip of upper jaw with
a shallow notch into which the corresponding tip of
lower jaw fits; lower jaw without a symphysial knob.
Snout obtuse, with a transverse groove or a depres-
sion in front but close to nostrils. Nostrils together,
simple, distinctly nearer anterior margin of eye than
snout tip and almost at level of upper margin of eye.
Eyes large, slightly bulging (convex), visible both
from dorsal and ventral sides of head. Interorbital
space slightly arched. Suborbital ring of bones wide,
especially the 3rd which is the deepest and compara-
tively narrower than the opercular width.
Dorsal fin short, margin almost cut; and when
folded against body, the tips of anterior rays not
reaching tip of last ray. Its longest ray (the last un-
divided ray) much shorter than body depth below
and at anal origin, slightly shorter than pectoral fin
and slightly longer than pelvic fin and longest ray of
anal fin. Tip of last dorsal ray extending to middle
of anal base. Dorsal origin midway between the pel-
vic and anal bases, much nearer caudal base than tip
of snout; it is almost midway between middle of eye
and caudal base. Pectorals shorter than head, their
tips pointed or nearly so. Pectoral length somewhat
variable, generally not reaching pelvic base but in
some examples, it does so and may even extend
slightly beyond the origin of pelvic base. 1st
branched ray of pectoral ossified in mature males.
Axillary scale of pectoral fleshy, slightly longer than
the diameter of eye. Pelvics shorter than pectorals,
margin (posterior extremity) notched. Outer un-
branched and 1st branched rays of pelvics equal in
length and extend to below anterior l/3rd of dorsal
base. The last two branched rays thickened and al-
most fused at base. Pelvic fin distinctly not reaching
anal opening (which lies at anal base origin), falling
short of a distance almost equal to eye diameter.
Axillary scale of pelvic thin, longer than the axillary
scale of pectoral and extending beyond pelvic base.
Anal origin just below the base of last dorsal ray; fin
margin concave. Last anal ray shortest (almost equal
to eye diameter), reaching almost middle of caudal
peduncle. Anal fin base longer than that of the dor-
sal. Caudal peduncle narrow, distinctly longer than
high. Caudal fin’s deeply forked, the fork extending
to more than half the fin’s length (lower lobe); lobes
pointed, lower caudal lobe distinctly longer than the
upper and also the head length. Upper lobe general-
ly shorter than head length (sometimes equal).
Scales minute (visible to naked eye). In some large
specimens, the margin of scales of upper region,
especially the anterior part, are studded with
prominent tubercles, imparting to the surface a
rough texture. This is a secondary sexual character
of males. Lateral line complete, curved downward,
passing below the mid line of caudal peduncle.
Coloration : Silvery. Body with 2-4 irregular
rows of bluish-black spots of varying sizes. These
spots are generally vertically oval. The rows of spots
do not generally extend below the lateral line. The
spots of the uppermost row (14-16 in number) are
the biggest. Head and body dorsally darkish. Eyes
with blackish pupil and golden iris. Dorsal fin
greyish except its upper corner which is whitish.
Pectoral, pelvic and anal fins are also whitish.
Caudal fin greyish, lower lobe more so.
Sexual Dimorphism: In mature males, the mar-
gin of scales on anterior region of body (below and
in front of dorsal) are studded with fine tubercles.
The lower jaw and the area between the mandibles
and branchiostegal rays are covered with tubercles
which are spiny in nature. The first branched ray of
pectoral fin is ossified and strongly developed. The
females lack these characters
Holotype: 185 mm total length, 140 mm stand-
ard length. Song river near its union with Teenpani
nala, Satyanarain, Eastern Doon Valley, Rajaji Na-
tional Park, Dist. Dehra Dun, Uttar Pradesh. 13 Sep-
tember 1987. Raj Tilak and Akhlaq Husain. Regd.
No. ZSI/NRS/F-728.
Paratypes - A. 5 examples, 115-171 mm total
length, 81-133 standard length. Other data same as
of Holotype. Regd. No. ZSI/NRS/F-729.
Paratypes -B. 7 examples, 104-147 mm total
length, 80-111 mm standard length. Locality same
as of Holotype and Paratype - A. 14 September
1987. Raj Tilak and Akhlaq Husain. Regd. No.
ZSI/NRS/F-730.
Paratypes - C. 2 examples. 94-112 mm total
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
105
length, 75-76 mm standard length. Ghasi Ram Sot 7.
Stream, near Chila Forest Rest House, Chila-
Hardwar Road, Rajaji National Park, District Pauri- 8.
Garhwal, Uttar Pradesh. 12 September 1987. Raj
Tilak and Akhlaq Husain. Regd. No. ZSI/NRS/F- 9.
731.
Barilius dimorphicus sp nov. is closely related
to Barilius tileo Hamilton - an Eastern Indian form, io.
but can be easily distinguished from it in a number
of characters, especially in the extent of maxilla and
lepidosis as per the details given below: 1 1
1. Lower jaw slightly longer, when the mouth is
closed, in Barilius dimorphicus, (vs. upper jaw
slightly longer, when the mouth is closed, in 12
Barilius tileo Hamilton-Hamilton 1822, Day
1878, 1889).
2. Posterior extremity of maxilla reaching
anterior margin of eye (vs. reaching to beneath
the middle of eye - Day 1878, 1889).
3. Two pairs of minute barbels (rostral and max-
illary) present (vs. devoid of tendrils according
to Hamilton 1822; barbels very rudimentary or
entirely absent - Day 1878, 1889).
4. Eye diameter 1.00-1.37 times in interorbital
width (vs. 1.50 times - Day 1878, 1889).
5. Dorsal fin midway between middle of eye and
caudal base (vs. midway between hind edge of
eye and caudal base - Day 1878, 1889).
6. Pectoral fin generally longer than head exclud-
ing the snout (vs. as long as head excluding the
snout - Day 1878, 1889).
Caudal fin with 17-19 rays (vs. 20 rays - Day
1878, 1889).
60-66 scales in lateral line (vs. 70-75 scales -
Day 1878, 1889).
12.5 rows of scales between dorsal fin and
lateral line (vs. 14 rows of scales - Day
1878,1889).
25-27 rows of scales before the base of the dor-
sal fin (vs . 30 rows of scales - Day 1878,
1889).
185 mm in total length (vs. attaining at least
127 mm = 5 inches in length - Day, 1878,
1889).
Distribution: Rajaji National Park (Dehra Dun
and Pauri- Garhwal districts, Uttar Pradesh)
(vs. Kosi river - Hamilton 1822; Bengal and
Assam - Day 1878, 1889).
In the same locality, in the Ganga and its
tributaries there is a similar looking species,
Raiamas bola Hamilton which differs from die new
species in the deep cleft of the mouth. The cleft of
the mouth extends posteriorly up to anterior margin
of eye in B. dimorphicus whereas it reaches beyond
the posterior margin of the eye in R. bola. They also
differ greatly in the number of lateral line scales on
body (60-66 in B. dimorphicus vs. 88-94 in R bola
- Day 1878, 1889).
Acknowledgements
We thank the Director, Zoological Survey of
India, Calcutta, for encouragement and facilities and
the Director, Rajaji National Park, for cooperation.
References
Day, F. (1878): The fishes of India, being a natural history of the (1889): The fauna of British India, including
fishes known to inhabit the seas and freshwaters of India, Ceylon and Burma. Fishes. London: I: 351-353.
Burma and Ceylon. London: 589, 593, 594, pi. CXI IX, Hamilton, F. (1822): An account of fishes found in river Ganges
Fig. 5, pi. CXLIX, Fig. 4. and its branches. Edinburgh: 276.
106
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
TWO NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS PUNTIUS HAMILTON (PISCES: CYPRINIDAE)
FROM INDIA1
K.C. Jayaram2
(With two text-figures )
Fig. 1. Puntius nangalensis sp. nov.
While studying the Cyprinid fishes of the
subfamily Cyprininae, I came across two un-
described species in the collections of the Zoologi-
cal Survey of India, Calcutta. These are described
here as new. The name Puntius is now applied for all
‘barbs’ of South Asia and Barbus for those of West
Asia and Europe. The genus as now revised by me
comprises of 54 species, classified under 10 groups,
each group with complexes of species. This revision
is under publication elsewhere.
Puntius nangalensis sp. nov.
Specimens studied: ZSI, F. 4841/2, Holotype,
27.5 mm SL, Nangal lake, Punjab fisheries depart-
ment (with a name label Puntius mitrai Menon); 1
ex., 24.0 mm SL, Paratype; 9 exs., 22.0 to 28.0 mm
SL., same data.
Diagnosis: A deep bodied fish without any
bands or blotches, with no barbels, dorsal ray os-
seous, serrated, lateral line incomplete ceasing after
7 or 8 scales and with 31 to 33 scales.
Description: D. I-D, 6-8; P. i, 12-13; V. i, 7-8;
A. i-ii, 5; C. 14-15; LL. 31-33.
Dorsal profile convex, with a good rise up to
dorsal fin base. Head conical, head length 3.14 to
Accepted December 1988.
Principal Investigator, DOEN Project on Krishna River,
Zoological Survey of India, Madras.
4.19, body depth 3.12 to 3.69 in standard length.
Head width 1.67 to 2.33, height of head at occiput
1.11 to 1.49, snout 2.00 to 4.00 in head length. Eyes
large, superior, 2.00 to 4.00 in head length, 0.80 to
1.25 in interorbital width and 0.80 to 1.50 in snout
length. Mouth subterminal, its width greater than
inter-nostril distance. Lips thin, plain. No barbels.
Dorsal fin inserted nearer tip of snout than
caudal base. Last unbranched dorsal ray osseous,
finely serrated, first branched dorsal ray elongated.
Dorsal fin base greater than least depth of caudal
peduncle. Pectoral fins extending to pelvic fins; lat-
ter not reaching anal opening. Anal fin when laid flat
not reaching root of caudal fin. Least depth of caudal
peduncle 1.25 to 1.83 in its length. Lateral line in-
complete, ceasing after 7 or 8 scales from anterior.
Scales: PDS 12 or 13; pre-anal 12 to 14; pre-
pelvic 6 to 8; between LL and dorsal fin base 5 to
5 1/2; between LL and pelvic fin base 5 1/2 to 6;
Table 1
ADDITIONAL DATA ON Puntius nangalensis SP. NOV.
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
107
Table 2
COMPARISON OF P. nangalensis WITH ITS CLOSELY RELATED SPECIES
between LL and anal fin base 3 1/2 to 4 1/2; circum-
peduncular 12 or 13.
Gill Rakers: 5+12
Size: 37.0 mm TL
Colour : Uniformly brown all over, body
diaphanous over pectoral area, each scale with a
small black dot, a faint dark longitudinal streak
along lateral line seen.
Distribution: INDIA: Nangal Lake, E. Punjab.
Related to P. guganio but differing from it in
having a less deep body, larger eyes, less number of
lateral line scales, coloration (Table 2) besides a
more northern distribution.
The material was found in the reserve type col-
lections of ZSI, Calcutta, labelled Puntius mitrai
Menon. I have searched the entire literature and find
that this name is a nomen nudum . Hence it is
described with a new name.
Puntius afasciatus sp. nov.
Specimens studied: E 2985/2, ZSI, Holotype,
50 mm SL., Vellakaravi and Vathakad village,
Nagercoil, Tamil Nadu (with a name label P.
melanampyx kanniyakumarei Menon & Sareen).
Diagnosis: A deep bodied fish without any ver-
tical bands, last unbranched dorsal ray weak and
smooth, and a complete lateral line with 22 scales,
dorsal fin with 9 branched rays, four barbels.
Description: D. I, 9; P. 15; V. i, 8; A. ii, 5; C.
16; LL. 22.
Dorsal profile steeply arched, ventral profile
gently. Head short, conical. Head length 3.57; body
depth 2.70 in standard length. Head width 1.75;
height of head at occiput 1.16; snout 3.50 in head
length. Snout plain, smooth. Eyes large 3.68 in head
length, 1.31 in interorbital width and 1.05 snout
length. Mouth subterminal, narrow, its width less
than inter-nostril distance. Lips thin, plain. Two pairs
of barbels.
Dorsal fin inserted nearer caudal base than tip
of snout. Last unbranched dorsal ray weak, smooth.
Dorsal fin base greater than least depth of caudal
Table 3
ADDITIONAL DATA ON Puntius afasciatus SP. NOV.
108
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Fig. 2. Puntius afasciatus sp. nov.
peduncle. Pectoral fins not extending to pelvics; lat-
ter not reaching anal opening. Anal fin when laid flat
reaches root of caudal fin. Least depth of caudal
peduncle 1.12 in its length. Lateral line complete.
Scales: PDS 6; pre-pelvic 6; pre-anal 12; be-
tween LL and dorsal fin base 4 1/2; between LL and
pelvic fin base 2 1/2; between LL and anal fin base
2 1/2; Circumpeduncular 10.
Gill Rakers: Not taken
Size: 60 mm TL
Distribution: INDIA: Nagercoil, Kan-
Table 4
COMPARISON OF THE fasciatus’ COMPLEX OF SPECIES OF Puntius
IND = Inter-nostril distance.
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
109
niyakumari Dist., Tamil Nadu.
Differs from fasciatus fasciatus in absence of
colour bands, in having 9 branched rays in dorsal fin
and 22 scales on lateral line (Table 4).
The material which forms the basis of this new
species was present in the reserve type collections
of ZSI, Calcutta, under the name P. melanampyx
kanniyakumarei Menon & Sarecn. I have made ex-
tensive enquiries and also searched literature and
find that this name was never published and thus be-
comes a nomen nudum. The spcies is therefore
described as new.
Acknowledgements
Thanks are due to Department of Environment,
Government of India for a brief assignment as an
Emeritus Scientist of the Zoological Survey of India
during which this revision was completed, and to the
Director, Zoological Survey of India for facilities.
The drawings were executed by Sri. D. Sengupta,
Zoological Survey of India, Madras, and manuscript
typed by Sri B. Hanumantha Rao of Krishna River
Project, Zoological Survey of India.
A NEW GENUS PSEUDOPAGIOPHLOEUS OF WEEVIL (CURCULIONIDAE:
HYLOBIINAE) FROM INDIA1
H.R. Pajni, Sukesha SoodandR KamalTewari2
(With two text-figures)
A weevil collected during April 1978 from
grass in Arunachal Pradesh is assigned to a new
genus Pseudopagiophloeus and is described.
Pseudopagiophloeus gen. nov.
Type species: Pseudopagiophloeus divergus
sp. nov.
Head with a depression just behind posterior
margin of each eye. Antennal club slightly shorter
than funicle, pubescent. Pronotum with basal and
apical margins bisinuate, ocular lobes developed.
Prostemum with its anterior margin deeply sinuate.
Elytra with humeral angles rounded, impressed
posteriorly. Femora clavate at apex; tibiae with ex-
ternal fringe of corbal oblique, premucro present.
Metastemum short. Intercoxal process between hind
coxae acuminate. Spiculum ventrale of female
genitalia with its anterior arm long and transversely
expanded at free end. Coxites broad but narrow at
base; styli slightly longer than broad, strongly
sclerotized.
The new genus comes close to genus Pagioph-
loeus Fst. of the tribe Hylobiini and agrees with it in
possessing a long antennal club and in the oblique
position of corbels. The overall appearance of the
body, the rigid surface of pronotum and the furcate
apices of elytra are also shared by the majority of the
Accepted February 1989.
department of Zoology, Pimjab University,
Chandigarh 160 014.
species of Pagiophloeus Fst. with this genus.
However, the presence of mucro and the extension
of the anterior end of the spiculum ventrale into
lateral processes clearly separates the new genus
from the genus Pagiophloeus Fst., in which tibiae
are always without a mucro and anterior end of
spiculum ventrale is simple. In fact, the structure of
spiculum ventrale forms a very unique character,
which the genus shares only with the genera
Niphades Pasc. and Niphadonyx Dalla Torre.
Pseudopagiophloeus divergus sp. nov.
Head piceous, small, deeply and coarsely
punctate, with a depression on posterior margin of
eyes; frons almost as broad as base of rostrum; eyes
brownish-black, lateral, almost in level with surface
of head, rostrum piceous, almost as long as
pronotum, narrowed to middle and broadened
towards apex; surface of rostrum with 2 lateral deep
furrows in basal half and two distinct median fur-
rows which stop short of lateral furrows, broadly and
coarsely punctate, punctures smaller and closer at
apical broadened part, each puncture with a short
yellow scale, scales being absent near apex; scrobes
long, oblique, broadened posteriorly, their upper
margins touching the lower margins of eyes. Anten-
nae fuliginous, long, inserted a little away from apex
of rostrum; scape long, its surface punctate and beset
with pale yellow setae; funicle longer than scape, 7-
segmented, segments 1 and 2 longer than broad, 3 to
8
110
JOURNAL, BOMBA? NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Psuedopagiophloeus diver gus sp. nov. 1. Adult, 2. Female genitalia.
6 long but shorter than preceding two, 7 shorter than
broad and distinct from club; club long, pubescent,
oval, 3-segmented.
Pronotum almost as long as broad, broadest a
little before middle and narrowed towards apex, con-
stricted near apical margin, its basal and apical mar-
gins bisinuate, ocular lobes well developed; surface
of pronotum rugosely punctate and tuberculate,
tubercles less distinct near apex, with an indistinct
middle keel near apex. Scutellum piceous,
transverse, closely punctate and furnished with yel-
low scales. Elytra piceous, broader than base of
pronotum at shoulders, humeral angles well
developed, their apices separately acuminate and
strongly furcate, posterior callosity distinct; surface
of each elytron marked with broad punctures form-
ing indistinct striae; intervals narrower than striae,
tuberculate, interval 3 with a pair of tubercles im-
mediately below scutellum, beset with a few yellow
scattered scales. Legs piceous, long, punctate, beset
with pale yellow setae; femora clavate, toothed
ventrally; tibiae very slender, uncinate, armed with
a premucro, external fringe of corbel oblique; tarsi
spongy underneath, with segment 3 strongly bilobed
and 5 very long, claws separated. Thoracic stemites
piceous, closely punctate, furnished with yellow
setae; prostemum with its anterior margin deeply
sinuate and fringed with yellow setae; mesepimeron
broad; metasternum coarsely punctate, its head
broader than posterior visible part. Abdominal ster-
nites piceous, sparsely and finely punctate, each
puncture beset with a yellow seta, its intercoxal
process between hind coxae acuminate; stemite 1 al-
most as long as 2.
Female genitalia with coxites broad, narrow at
base and abruptly broadened at middle, uniformly
and weakly sclerotized, each with long setae near
apex; styli slightly longer than broad, cylindrical,
highly sclerotized, each with many long setae at
apex, spiculum ventrale Y-shaped, with free end ex-
tended transversely on either side, its middle arm
longer than broad basal arms, not uniformly
sclerotized.
Body length 18.0 mm; Body breadth 5.4 mm;
Rostrum length 3.4 mm; Rostrum breadth 0.8 mm.
Material examined: Holotype 1 female; Grass;
30 April 1978; Khasi hills, Arunachal Pradesh; H.R.
Pajni, Material deposited in the Entomological Sec-
tion, Zoology Department, Punjab University,
Chandigarh.
The species is named after the characteristic
shape of the apices of elytra, which are acuminate
and distinctly divergent.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the Indian Council of
Agricultural Research and the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture, for financing a 5 year project
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
111
on family Curculionidae under which this work has
been carried out. Thanks are also due to Dr Sen-
Sarma, Forest Entomologist, Forest Research In-
stitute, Dehra Dun and Dr. R.T.Thompson of the
British Museum (Natural History), London, for per-
mitting comparison of our material with their collec-
tions. The liberal loan of unidentified material from
Dr. Sen-Sarma of Forest Research Institute, Dehra
Dun is also thankfully acknowledged. We thank the
Chairman, Department of Zoology, Punjab Univer-
sity, Chandigarh, for laboratory facilities.
TWO NEW SPECIES BELONGING TO THE GENUS ALLOPHLEPS BERGROTH
(CICADELLIDAE: HOMOPTERA) FROM INDIA1
V. Rama Subba Rao2 and Usha Ramakrishnan3
(With eighteen text-figures )
Two new species of the Allophleps Bergroth
are described A. delhiensis with the Aedeagal shaft
bifurcated ventrally near gonopore into a shorter
pointed process and A. menoni , with the bifurcated
process tooth-like.
The genus Allophleps was erected by Bergroth
in 1920 and was known only by its type species, A.
inspersa Bergroth till Pruthi in 1936 added another
species, A. indica from India. Datta (1988)
redescribed A. indicus Pruthi. Hence it is represented
by only two species, and two new species are being
described here. Based on the Indian species, generic
characters have been suitably modified.
Colour stramineous. Vertex with or without
ventral sub- marginal fuscous line and dorsal mar-
ginal spots.
Head wider than pronotum. Vertex shorter than
the breadth between the eyes. Forewings with four
apical and three ante- apical cells, the outer ante-
apical cell either narrow and pointed at apex or
divided into two or more cells by supernumerary
cross veins. Posterior femoral setal pattern 2-2-1.
Pygoferal lobes uniformly broader for two-
thirds length, then abruptly narrowed into subacute
apex and macrosetae on postero-dorsal area, a pair
of strap-like pygofer processes from mesodorsal
edge directed ventrad. Subgenital plates triangular
with submarginal macrosetae and marginal filamen-
tous setae. Connective linear, arms closely apposed,
stem fused with aedeagus. Style with slightly curved
and pointed apophysis; pre-apical lobe angulate
Accepted February 1989.
2Asst. Professor, Deptt. of Entomology, Agricultural College,
Bapatla 522 101, Andhra Pradesh.
3Senior Scientist, Division of Entomology, Indian Agricultural
Research Institute, New Delhi 110 012.
with minute setae. Aedeagus long bifid sub-apical-
ly; gonopore sub-apical.
The Indian species of the genus may be
separated by the following key.
1. Aedeagal shaft bifurcated ventrally near gonopore into
shorter pointed process 2
— Aedeagal shaft bifurcated ventrally, just below the
gonopore into a tooth-like short process ?
A. menoni sp. nov.
2. Outer ante-apical cell of forewing secondarily divided into
two or more cells .. A. delhiensis sp. nov.
— Outer ante-apical cells of forewing narrow and pointed at
apex but not divided ,.. A. indicus Pruthi
Allophleps delhiensis
(Figs. 1-9)
Colour: Colour stramineous without any spots.
Form : Head wider than pronotum. Vertex
shorter than the length between the eyes/Ocelli mar-
ginal close to the eyes. Face broader than long.
Pronotum longer than vertex. Fore wings longer than
the body, with four apical and three ante-apical
cells, the outer ante-apical cell secondarily divided
into two or more cells, the number of cells not con-
stant even in the left and right wings of the same
specimen.
Male genitalia: Shape and setosity of pygofer
as in generic description; its processes extending
beyond ventral margin, their apices curved caudad.
Valve with posteriorly produced rounded margin.
Subgenital plates and styles also as mentioned in the
genus. Aedeagus thin, elongated, bifurcated ventral-
ly near genopore into shorter pointed process, shaft
apex also pointed, dorsal apodeme curved apicad of
the shaft, gonopore sub-apical and dorsal.
Second abdominal apodemes well developed,
extending into sternum III.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Figs 1-9. Allophleps delhiensis sp. nov.
1. Pygofer, lateral view; 2. Aedeagus, lateral view; 3. Aedeagus, dorsal view; 4. Style; 5. Forewing; 6. Hind wing;
7. Abdominal opodemes; 8. Valve and subgenital plate; 9. Female sternum VII.
Figs. 10-18 .Allophleps menoni sp. nov.
10. Pygofer, lateral view; 11. Aedeagus, lateral view,; 12. Aedeagus, dorsal view; 13. Style; 14. Valve and subgenital plate,
15. Forewing; 16. Hind wing; 17. Abdominal apodemes; 18. Female sternum VII.
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
113
Female sternum VII rounded and slightly
produced at the posterior margin.
Measurements (in mm) of Male (Female):
Head, width 1.05 (1.10); vertex, width 0.50
(0.50), length 0.35 (0.40); pronotum, width 0.95
(0.98), length 0.45 (0.45); scutellum, width 0.65
(0.70), length 0.45 (0.50); total length including fore
wings 3.75 (3.95).
Types: Holotype, Male - Delhi, inside lamp
dome, 30 April 1965, R. Menon; Paratypes, 1 Male,
5 females, same data as holotype; deposited at Na-
tional Pusa Collection, Division of Entomology, In-
dian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi 110
012, India; 2 females will be deposited at British
Museum (Natural History), London.
This species is similar to indicus in the shape
and bifurcation of apex of aedeagus and connective,
but differs in the shape of subgenital plates and
styles. Outer ante- apical cell of forewings is divided
into two or more cells in this species but in indicus
it is not divided.
Allophleps menoni sp. nov.
(Figs. 10-18)
Colour: Stramineous. Vertex with three pairs
of light brown spots on the anterior margin and a fus-
cous submarginal ventral line; a pair of pale sunken
spots basally one on each side of coronal suture.
Face with pale striae laterally. Scutellum with pale
brown spots at basal angles. Fore wings fuscous with
some dark brown pigment deposited in the cells.
Form: Form and wing venation as given in the
genus.
Male genitalia: Pygofer, valve, subgenital
plates, connective and styles as given in the genus
and are similar to that of the previous species.
Aedeagus linear, elongated, shaft bifurcated into
tooth-like short process before the gonopore; dorsal
apodeme less curved; gonopore sub-apical and dor-
sal.
Second abdominal apodemes well developed,
extending into sternum III.
Female sternum VII with much more produced
posterior margin.
Measurements (in mm) of Male (Female):
Head, width 0.95 (1.00); vertex, width 0.40
(0.45), length 0.35 (0.35); pronotum width 0.85
(0.90), length 0.40 (0.45); scutellum, width 0.55
(0.60), length 0.35 (0.43); total length including fore
wings 3.4 (3.8).
Types: Holotype, Male - Delhi, inside lamp
dome, 30 April 1965, R. Menon; paratypes, 2 Males,
3 females, same data as holotype deposited at Na-
tional Pusa Collection, Indian Agricultural Research
Institute, New Delhi - 110 012, India; 2 Males, 2
females will be deposited at British Museum
(Natural History), London.
This species is similar to the previous species
in respect of pygofer, valve, subgenital plates, con-
nective and styles, but differs in aedeagal shaft. The
coloration and spotted pattern are also different.
Acknowledgements
We thank the Indian Agricultural Research In-
stitute and Indian Council of Agricultural Research,
New Delhi, for the facilities and financial assistance
provided.
References
Bergroth, E. (1920): Hemiptera from British East Africa. Arkiv. Pruthi, H.S. (1936): Studies on Indian Jassidae (Homoptera).
Zool. 12: 1-30. Part HI. Descriptions of some new genera and species, with
DattAj B. (1988); On oriental Cicadellidae (Homoptera: Insec- first records of some known species from India. Indian
ta). Rec. Zool. Surv. India Occ. paper No. 90: 89-90. Mus. Mem. 11: 101-131.
114
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
A STUDY ON THE INDIAN SPECIES OF PLUTARCH! A GIRAULT
(HYMENOPTERA : EURYTOMIDAE)1
T.C. Narendran and R. Padmasenan2
(With twenty-nine text-figures )
The Indian species of Plutarchia have been studied. Six new species, namely Plutarchia bengalensis, Plutar-
chia carinata, Plutarchia hayatii, Plutarchia keralensis, Plutarchia malabarica , and Plutarchia marginata are
described. A dichotomous key for the identification of Indian species of Plutarchia is provided.
The little known genus Plutarchia was erected
by Girault (1925) with the type-species Plutarchia
bicarinativentris Girault from Queensland,
Australia. Walker (1860) described a species, name-
ly Plutarchia indefensa , from Sri Lanka. Subba Rao
(1974) reported this species from India and
described a new species from Nigeria. During our
studies on Eurytomidae of India we come across six
remarkable species which are new to science. These
are described below.
The following abbreviations are used in this
paper: BMNH: British Museum (Natural History),
London; DZCU: Department of Zoology, University
of Calicut; OOL: Ocellocular length; POL: Pos-
tocellar length; m: marginal vein; pm: Postmarginal
vein; st. stigmal vein.
Plutarchia marginata sp. nov.
(Figs. 1-3)
FEMALE: Length: 2.31 mm. Black; scape ex-
cept apical one third dorsally, fore and mid tibiae, all
trochanters, apices and bases of fore and mid femora,
fore tarsus, apex of ovipositor sheath brownish; api-
cal one third of scape dorsally, pedicel, fore and mid
femora except bases and apices, hind femur, hind
tarsus and mandibles blackish brown; mid coxa and
flagellum brownish black; mid and hind tarsi and
venation testaceous. Wings hyaline, pubescence
whitish.
Head dorsally 1.77x as broad as long, anterior-
ly 1.35x as broad as high; densely umbilicately
punctured on vertex and frons; punctures shallower
than those on thorax, interstices shagreened; on
lower face punctures confluent into shallow grooves
separated by raised striae radiating from depressed
clypeal margin; malar space shagreened. Frons con-
1 Accepted February 1989
department of Zoology, University of Calicut , Kerala 673
635.
KEY TO INDIAN SPECIES OF Plutarchia GIRAULT
1. Propodeum with a median carina (Figs. 2, 11, 16, 22, 27)
2
— Propodeum without a median carina (Fig. 6)
6
2. Dorsal length of second gasteral tergite more than 2.2.5 x
first tergite 3
— Dorsal length of second gasteral tergite less than 2.2.5 x
first tergite 4
3. POL more than 3 x OOL; exposed part of ovipositor sheath
subequal to dorsal length of epipygium; gaster as in Fig.
1 8 Plutarchia bengalensis sp. nov.
— POL 2.2 x OOL; exposed part of ovipositor sheath dorsal-
ly distinctly shorter than epipygium; first gasteral tergite
very small and fused to the second dorsally; marginal vein
small and broad as in Fig. 3; gaster as in Fig. 1
Plutarchia marginata sp. nov.
4. Gaster subequal to thorax; venation brownish; dorsal
length of epipygium 2x dorsal length of ovipositor sheath;
gaster as in Fig. 24 Plutarchia keralensis sp. nov.
— Gaster distinctly shorter than thorax; other characters not
as above 5
5. Stigmal vein shorter than marginal; dorsal length of
epipygium 1.5 x ovipositor sheath; POL more than 12.5 x
OOL; gaster as in Fig. 29
Plutarchia hayatii sp. nov.
— Stigmal vein longer than marginal; dorsal length of
ovipositor sheath subequal to epipygium; POL 2 x OOL;
gaster as in Fig 13 Plutarchia carinata sp. nov.
6. Scape luteous; venation brownish; marginal vein longer
than stigmal Plutarchia indefens a (Walker)
— Scape brownish black except lower one third; marginal
vein shorter than stigmal; venation testaceous; gasteras in
Fig. 8 Plutarchia malabarica sp . nov.
vex but not bulging; scrobe deep, slightly
shagreened, its lateral sides carinate; front ocellus
located outside scrobe; pre and postorbital carinae
well developed, a single row of piliferous punctures
present in between these carinae and eye margin.
Lower edge of toruli at about halfway between
median ocellus and emarginate mouth margin; malar
sulcus absent. POL: OOL - 100:45; eye
length:malar space - 100:83. Antenna 11153; scape
just reaches the lower level of median ocellus; first
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
115
funicular segment the largest, segments 2-5 sube-
qual in length; club slightly longer than the com-
bined length of preceding two segments combined.
Thorax umbilicately punctured, interstices
shagreened; about 1.21x as long as mesoscutum
broad, 1 . 16x as long as high; pronotal collar carinate
dorsolaterally, ecarinate medially, its posterior mar-
gin slightly concave, its lateral part carinate anterior-
ly; its collum shagreened. Tegula aciculate at hind
margin; propodeum vertical, its median area flat
with a median carina and two submedian carinae as
seen in Fig. 2. Mesopleuron with faint horizontal
striation on upper mesepimeron, lower
mesepimeron and mesepistemum reticulate, epic-
nemial area with a single row of piliferous puncta.
Fore coxa with a single diagonal groove; hind tibia
with seven backwardly directed spines dorsally.
Forewing 2.08x longer than broad; m: pm: st -
77:100:96.
Gaster 1.2x thorax; 2. lx as long as broad,
1.54x as long as high; petiole very small, seen only
in dissected specimen; second gasteral tergite the
largest, dorsally 2.65x first, its surface microsculp-
tured as in Fig. 1; first tergite very small and fused
to second dorsally, it bears two strong carinae dor-
solaterally; dorsal length of epipygium about 1.1 6x
those of ovipositor sheath.
MALE: Unknown.
Host: Unknown.
This species differs from the rest in having a
short broader marginal vein, first gasteral tergite
very small and fused to the second dorsally, it oc-
cupies only a very small portion of gaster anteriodor-
sally.
Holotype: Female. INDIA: Kerala, Malampuz-
ha, January 1986, T.C. Narendran et al. (DZCU).
Plutarchia malabarica sp. nov.
(Figs. 4-8)
FEMALE: Length: 1.39-1.93 (Holotype 1.93
mm). Black; head and thorax with short silvery
pubescence; antenna except the base of scape, fore
and hind femora except bases and apices, middle of
mid and hind tibiae brownish black; base of scape,
apex or ovipositor sheath and mandibles blackish
brown; in mid and hind tibiae the colour changes
towards the tips from brownish black to blackish
brown, to brown and to yellow at the extreme tip;
bases and apices of fore, mid and hind femora, fore
tibia, and fore tarsus yellowish brown; mid and hind
tarsi, venation testaceous. Wings hyaline; pubes-
cence whitish.
Head dorsally 1 .62x as broad as long, anterior-
ly 1.32 x as broad as high; shallowly and umbilicate-
ly punctured on vertex; punctures on lower face con-
fluent into shallow grooves separated by raised
striae radiating from depressed clypeal margin;
malar area shagreened. Frons con vex but not bulg-
ing; front ocellus located outside scrobe; pre and
postorbital carinae faintly indicated, indistinct on
the dorsal side of the eye. Lower edge of toruli at
half distance between median ocellus and emar-
ginate mouth margin; malar sulcus absent.
OOL:POL - 31:100; eye length: malar space -
100:89. Antenna 11153; scape reaches a little below
the level of front ocellus; funicular segments sube-
qual in length, first funicular segment a trifle longer
than the rest.
Thorax shallowly umbilicately punctured,
punctures more prominent than on head, interstices
narrow; about 1.75x as long as mesoscutum broad,
1.53x as long as high; pronotal collar slightly
carinate on anteriolateral margin, ecarinate medial-
ly, its posterior margin slightly concave, its lateral
part carinate anteriorly; its collum shagreened.
Tegula smooth and shiny, aciculate at hind margin.
Propodeum vertical, its median area flat and without
a median carina (Fig. 6). Mesopleuron with faint
horizontal striation on upper mesepimeron, lower
mesepimeron and mesepistemum reticulate; epic-
nemial area with a single row of piliferous punc-
tures. Fore coxa with a narrow diagonal groove.
Forewing length 2.3x width; m: pm: st - 75: 100:83.
Gaster 1.33x thorax, 2.17x as long as broad,
1.6 lx as long as high; second gasteral tergite the
largest, its dorsal length 1.5x the first, its surface
microsculptured as in Fig. 8.
MALE: Unknown.
Host: Unknown.
This species resembles Plutarchia bengalensis
in general appearance but differs from it in the fol-
lowing characters: 1. Propodeum without a median
carina, 2. Upper two thirds of scape brownish black,
3. Slightly longer marginal vein.
Holotype: Female. INDIA: Kerala, Neeles-
waram (Kasargod), 26 February 1988, Narendran
0-3 mm
116
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
0-2 mm
0-2 mm
0.2 mm
Figs. 1-3. Plutarchia marginata sp. nov. 1. Body profile; 2. Fropodeum; 3. Venation.
Figs. 4-8. Plutarchia malabarica sp. nov. 4. Head; 5. Antenna; 6. Propodeum; 7. Venation; 8. Gaster.
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
117
0-4 mm
0-2 mm
Figs. 9-13. Plularchia hayatii sp. nov. 9. Head; 10. Antenna; 11. Propodeum; 12. Venation; 13. Gaster.
Figs. 14-18. Plularchia bengalensis sp.nov. 14. Head; 15. Antenna; 16. Propodeum; 17. Venation; 18. Gaster.
118
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
et al. Paratypes : 2 females. Same data as for
holotype; 1 female: INDIA: Kerala, Payyanur, 26
February 1988, Narendran et al .; 1 female. INDIA:
Kerala, Kadakkattupara (Nr. Calicut University), 9
November 1988, Narendran et al.\ 1 female. INDIA:
Kerala, Kallayi, 24 June 1987, Narendran et al. All
types at DZCU.
Plutarchia hayatii sp. nov.
(Figs. 9 -13)
FEMALE: Length: 2.16 mm. Black; head and
thorax with white pubescence; lower two thirds of
scape, all trochanters, base and apex of fore femur,
fore tibia and tarsus, mid femur, mid and hind tibiae
except bases and apices, apex of ovipositor sheath
brownish; upper one third of scape, pedicel man-
dibles blackish brown; bases and apices of mid and
hind tibiae yellowish brown; mid and hind tarsi and
venation testaceous; flagellum, middle region of
fore femur, hind femur and tegulae brownish black.
Wings hyaline.
Head dorsally 1 .85 x as broad as long, anterior-
ly 1.29 x as broad as high; shallowly umbilicately
punctured excluding malar space, latter shagreened,
on lower face these punctures confluent into shallow
grooves separated by raised striae radiating from the
depressed clypeal margin. Frons convex, not bulg-
ing; scrobe deep, slightly shagreened, its lateral
sides carinate; front ocellus located outside scrobe;
pre and postorbital carinae present, a single row of
piliferous punctures present between these carinae
and eye margin. Lower edge of toruli at half distance
between median ocellus and emarginate mouth mar-
gin; malar sulcus absent; POL:OOL - 100:37, eye
length: malar space - 100:70. Antenna 11153; scape
reaches a little below the median ocellus; first
funicular segment largest, segments 2-5 subequal;
club slightly longer than the preceding two segments
combined.
Thorax densely umbilicately punctured, inter-
stices shagreened; about 1.34x as long as mesos-
cutum broad, 1.23x as long as high; pronotal collar
slightly carinate anteriolaterally, ecarinate medially,
its posterior margin slightly concave, lateral part
carinate anteriorly, collum shagreened. Tegula
slightly striate reticulate at hind margin. Propodeum
steep with a flat median area containing a median
carina and two incomplete submedian carinae as in
Fig. 11. Mesopleuron rugosopunctate with horizon-
tal striation on mesepimeron and mesepistemum,
epicnemial area slightly raised and contains single
row of piliferous puncta. Fore coxa with a narrow
diagonal groove. Forewing 2x longer than wide;
m:pm:st- 83: 100:70.
Gaster 1.3x thorax; petiole very short, not seen
in undissected specimens; gaster 2.55x as long as
broad, 1.46x as long as high; second gasteral tergite
the largest, its dorsal length 1.5x those of first;
epipygium dorsally 1.6 x ovipositor sheath; surface
of second gasteral tergite microsculptured as in Fig.
13.
MALE: Unknown.
Host: Unknown.
Holotype : Female. INDIA: Uttar Pradesh,
Aligarh, 31 May 1987, M. Hayat., (DZCU).
Plutarchia bengalensis sp. nov.
(Figs. 14-18)
female: Length: 1 .75 mm Black; head, thorax,
and tip of abdomen with short silvery pubescence;
upper half of scape, pedicel, mid and hind coxae,
mandibles, tegulae, fore, mid and hind femora ex-
cept apices, hind tibia except base and apex black-
ish brown; flagellum brownish black; trochanters
brownish; lower half of scape, fore and mid tibiae,
fore tarsus, apex of ovipositor sheath yellowish
brown; mid and hind tarsi and venation testaceous.
Wings hyaline, pubescence whitish.
Head dorsally 1 .62 x as broad as long, anterior-
ly 1.1 8x as broad as hicdv shallowly umbilicately
punctured on frons and vertex, on lower face these
punctures confluent into shallow grooves separated
by raised striae radiating from depressed clypeal
margin; malar space shagreened. Pre and postorbi-
tal carinae present, a single row of piliferous punc-
tures present in between these carinae and eye mar-
gin. Frons convex, not bulging; scrobe deep and
smooth, its sides carinate; front ocellus located out-
side scrobe. Lower edge of toruli at about halfway
between median ocellus and emarginate mouth mar-
gin. POL:OOL - 100: 29; eye length: malar space -
100:76. Antenna 11153; scape reaches a little below
the lower level of median ocellus, funicular seg-
ments except the first subequal in length, first a tri-
fle longer than the rest; club slightly longer than the
preceding two segments combined.
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
0.7 mm
Figs. 19-24. Plularchia keralensis sp. nov. 19. Head; 20. Antenna; 21. Scape of male antenna; 22. Propodeum;
23. Venation; 24. Gaster.
Figs. 25-29. Plularchia carinata sp. nov. 25. Head; 26. Antenna; 27. Propodeum; 28. Venation; 29. Gaster.
120
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Thorax shallowly umbilicately punctured,
punctures more distinct than those on head, inter-
stices narrow, shagreened; about 1.36x as long as
mesoscutum broad, 1.28x as long as high; pronotal
collar carinate anteriolaterally, ecarinate medially,
posterior margin slightly concave, lateral part
carinate anteriorly, collum shagreened. Tegula
smooth, its hind margin aciculate. Propodeum verti-
cal, its median area flat with a median carina as in
Fig. 16. Mesopleuron with horizontal striation on
upper mesepimeron; lower mesepimeron and
mesepistemum reticulate; epicnemial area with a
single row of piliferous punctures. Fore coxa with a
narrow diagonal groove. Fore wing length 2x its
width; m: pm: st- 60:100:80.
Gaster 1.2x longer than thorax; 2.15x as long
as broad, 1.47x as long as high; petiole very short,
concealed; second gasteral tergite the largest, dor-
sally 2.47x longer than first; surface of second
gasteral tergite microsculptured as in Fig. 18.
MALE: Unknown.
Host: Unknown.
Holotype: INDIA: West Bengal, 28 September
1983, S.S. Islam, (DZCU).
This species resembles Plutarchia malabarica
in general appearance but differs from it in having a
median carina on propodeum, in having a shorter
marginal vein and coloration of antennal scape.
Plutarchia keralensis sp. nov.
(Figs. 19-24)
FEMALE: Length: 1.52-2 mm (Holotype: 1.72
mm). Black; head, thorax and tip of abdomen with
white silvery hairs; scape except the apical one third
dorsally, all trochanters, bases and apices of fore and
hind femora, base and apex of hind tibia, apex of
ovipositor sheath and venation brownish; apical one
third of scape dorsally and pedicel blackish brown;
antenna except scape and pedicel, mid and hind
coxae, fore femur, hind femur, fore and mid tibiae
yellowish brown. Wings hyaline, slightly infumated,
pubescence brownish.
Head dorsally 1.76x as broad as long, anterior-
ly 1 .38x as broad as high; umbilicately punctured on
vertex and frons, on lower face these punctures con-
fluent into shallow grooves separated by raised
striae radiating from depressed clypeal margin.
Frons convex but not bulging; scrobe deep, slighdy
shagreened posteriorly, lateral side carinate; front
oceilus located outside scrobe; pre and postorbital
carinae present, a single row of piliferous punctures
present between these carinae and eye margin.
Lower edge of toruli at about halfway between
median ocellus and emarginate mouth margin; malar
space shagreened; malar sulcus absent. POL:OOL
100:40; eye length:malar space - 100:86. Antenna
11153; scape just reaches the lower level of median
ocellus; first funicular segment slightly longer than
the rest, segments 2-5 subequal in length; club
slightly longer than the preceding two segments
combined.
Thorax umbilicately punctured, interstices nar-
row, shagreened; about 1.33x as long as mesos-
cutum broad, 1.26x as long as high; pronotal collar
carinate dorsolaterally, ecarinate medially, its
posterior margin slightly concave, its lateral part
carinate anteriorly, its collum shagreened. Tegula
aciculate at hind margin; propodeum vertical, its
median area flat, reticulate, with a median carina as
in Fig. 22. Mesopleuron horizontally striated on the
upper mesepimeron, reticulate on lower
mesepimeron and mesepistemum, epicnemial area
with a single row of piliferous puncta. Fore coxa
with a narrow diagonal groove. Forewing length
2.4x its width; m: pm: st - 95: 91: 100.
Gaster a trifle over the length of thorax, twice
as long as broad, 1 .44x as long as high; petiole short,
concealed: first gasteral tergite bears two strong dor-
solateral carinae, the latter bears a rectangular
projection anteriorly; second gasteral tergite the
largest, its dorsal length about 1.94x the first, its sur-
face microsculptured as in Fig. 24; dorsal length of
epipygium twice that of ovipositor sheath.
MALE: 1.76 - 1.85 mm. Resembles female in
almost all characters except the following: 1. anten-
nal funicle six-segmented; scape blackish brown on
its upper half, brownish basally, ventrally it bears a
knob-like projection as in Fig. 21; gaster petiolate,
petiole longer than hind coxa, gasteral body very
small.
Host: Unknown.
This species resembles Plutarchia indefensa
(Walker) in having infumated wing with brownish
venation, differs from it in having a median carina
on propodeum, in having 2 subglobose gasters. The
male of this species can be distinguished from that
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
121
of P. indefensa in having six funicular segments on
antenna, in having a knob-ike projection on the
ventral side of scape. It also resembles P. marginata
in general appearance but differs from it in having
an infumated wing with brown venation and in the
nature of carina on propodeum and in the measure-
ments of gasteral tergites.
Holotype: Female. INDIA: Kerala, Silent Valley,
9 December 1987, Narendran et al . (DZCU).
Paratypes: 1 Female. Same data as for
holotype; 8 Females and 3 Males. INDIA: Kerala,
Kadakkattupara (Nr. Calicut University), 9 Novem-
ber 1988, Narendran et al:, 1 Female. INDIA: Kerala,
Valiyakavu (Pathanamthitta), 25 December 1988; 2
Females. INDIA: Kerala, Idikki, 1 December 1988,
Narendran et al.; 1 Female. INDIA: Kerala, Edayar
(Cannanore), 30 October 1988, Narendran et al:, 1
Female & 1 Male. INDIA: Kerala, Pyyannur, 26
February 1988, Narendran et al:, 26 Females and 9
Males. INDIA: Kerala, Kumarakom, 29 November
1988, Narendran et al.. All types at DZCU.
Plutarchia carinata sp. nov.
(Figs. 25-29)
female: Length: 2.17 mm. Black; head thorax
and tip of abdomen with short silvery pubescence;
lower half of scape, pedicel, mid and hind
trochanters, apex and base of mid femur, bases and
apices of mid and hind tibiae, apex of ovipositor
sheath brownish; upper half of scape, flagellum, fore
and hind femora except bases and apices, hind tibia
except base and apex, mid and hind coxae brownish
black; fore trochanter, bases and apices of fore and
hind femora, middle region of mid femur and mid
tibia blackish brown; fore tarsus yellowish brown;
mid and hind tarsi, venation yellowish; Wings
hyaline, pubescence whitish.
Head dorsally 1.89x as broad as long, anterior-
ly 1.33x as broad as high; umbilicately punctured on
vertex and frons, on lower face these punctures con-
fluent into shallow grooves separated by raised
striae radiating from depressed clypeal margin;
malar space shagreened. Frons convex, not bulging,
scrobe smooth, deep, its lateral sides carinate; pre
and postorbital carinae present, a single row of
piliferous punctures present in between these
carinae and eye margin. Lower edge of toruli at
about halfway between median ocellus and emar-
ginate mouth margin; malar sulcus absent. POL:
OOL- 100:52; eye length : malar space - 100 : 77.
Antenna 11153; scape reaches a little above the
lower level of median ocellus; first funicular seg-
ment slightly longer than the rest; segments 2-5 sub-
equal in length; club slightly longer than the preced-
ing two segments combined.
Thorax umbilicately punctured; interstices
shagreened; about 1.4 lx as long as mesoscutum
broad, 1.21x as long as high; pronotal collar
carinate anteriolaterally, medially ecarinate, its
posterior margin slightly concave; lateral part of
propodeum carinate anteriorly, its collum
shagreened. Tegula smooth, aciculate on hind mar-
gin; propodeum flat with a strong median carina and
three submedian carinae as in Fig. 27. Mesopleuron
with horizontal striation on upper mesepimeron;
lower mesepimeron and mesepistemum reticulate;
epicnemial area with a single row of piliferous
puncta. Fore coxa with a narrow diagonal groove.
Forewing length 2. lx its width; m: pm: st - 84:
100:92.
Gaster 1.1 7x longer than thorax; petiole very
short and concealed; 1.85x as long as broad, 1.25x
as long as high; second gasteral tergite largest, its
dorsal length 1.48x first; surface of second gasteral
tergite microsculptured as in Fig. 29.
MALE: Unknown.
Host: Unknown.
This species resembles P. marginata in general
appearance but differs from it in having a slender
long marginal vein, in the nature of carinae on
propodeum, and in the measurements of gasteral ter-
gites.
Holotype: INDIA: Tamil Nadu, Siruvani, 27
September 1987, Narendran et al., (DZCU).
Plutarchia indefensa (Walker)
Eurytoma indefensa Walker, 1860, Ann. Mag.
nat. Hist. 6: 358, Female. Sri Lanka (BMNH),
Subba Rao (1974) has given a good redescrip-
tion of the female of this species. This species
resembles Plutarchia keralensis in general ap-
pearance but differs from it in having luteous scape,
elliptical gaster and propodeum without a median
carina.
MALE: 1.7 - 2.5 mm. Resembles female except
in having a plumose antenna with brownish black
122
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
scape and five funicular segments, and in having a
small gaster with a petiole longer than hind coxa.
The male of this species closely resembles that
of Plutarchia keralensis but can be distinguished
from the latter by the antenna which has a five-seg-
mented funicle and a scape devoid of knob-like
projection.
Host: Melanagromyza spp. (Subba Rao 1974)
Distribution: Sri Lanka; INDIA: Namkum,
Tamil Nadu (new record for Tamil Nadu), Uttar
Pradesh (new record for Uttar Pradesh), Kerala (new
record for Kerala).
Materials examined: 1 Female. INDIA: Uttar
Pradesh, Aligarh, 19 November 1984, M. hayat; 1
Female. INDIA: Kerala, Amalagiri (Kottayam), 28
November 1988; Narendran et al; 2 Females. INDIA;
Kerala, Calicut University Campus, 1 February
1986, 2 June 1987, Narendran et al; 1 Female.
INDIA: Tamil Nadu, Coimbatore, Sept. 1987,
Narendran et al .; 1 Female. INDIA: Kerala, Kallayi,
24 June 1987, Narendran et al.; 2 Females and 7
Males. India: Kerala, Kalkandi (Nr. Silent Valley),
Refe
Girault, A. A. (1925): Indications ( in new insects) of ruling
power and law in nature. Private publication , p. 1 86.
Subba Rao, B.R. (1974): Redescription of Plutarchia Girault
and Axanthosoma Girault with the description of a new
13 December 1987, Narendran et al , 1 Male. INDIA:
Kerala, Kumarakom, 28 November 1988,
Narendran et al.; 1 male. India: Kerala, Malampuz-
ha, 11 December 1987, Narendran et al; 2 females.
INDIA: Kerala, Mukkali (Nr. Silent Valley), 13
December 1987, Narendran et al ., 15 Females and
1 Male. INDIA: Kerala, Parambikulam, 22 December
1985, Narendran et al; 1 Male. India : Kerala,
Payyannur, 26 February 1988, Narendran et al; 1
Female. India: Kerala, Silent Valley, 30 December
1988, Narendran et al. All types at DZCU.
Acknowledgements
This research is financed by Department of
Science and Technology, Government of India, New
Delhi. We are thankful to Dr. M. Hayat, Department
of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, for
providing us a few specimens of Plutarchia for our
studies. We also thank authorities of University of
Calicut for providing necessary facilities for our
work.
NCES
species of Plutarchia from Nigeria (Eurytomidae :
Hymenoptera). J. Ent. (B) 42(2): 199-203.
Walker, F. (1860): Characters of some apparently undescribed
Ceylon insects. Ann. Mag, nat. Hist. 6: 358.
A NEW SPECIES OF GENUS PAREVASPIS RITSEMA (HYMENOPTERA : APOIDEA :
MEGACHILIDAE : ANTHIDINAE) FROM INDIA1
Virendra Kumar2 and V.K. TiwarI3
( With five text-figures )
The genus Parevaspis Ritsema from the Indian
region is represented by only one species,namely
Parevaspis carbonaria Smith (Bingham 1897 and
Michener 1965). In this paper a new species,
Parevaspis baijalii , is described from Bombay,
(India).
Parevaspis baijalii sp. nov.
(Figs. 1-5)
MALE: Integument of head and thorax rough
Accepted March 1989.
2Research Student, Department of Zoology, Agra College, Agra.
3Lecturer, department of Zoology, Agra College, Agra.
and not shining, abdomen shining; facial pubes-
cence white, rest of body having few scattered white
hairs; integument black.
Head wider than the median length; inner eye
margin convergent below and slightly incurved at
median area; clypeus triangular, broadly protuberant
and coarsely punctured; supraclypeal area elevated
and with a prominent ‘Y’ shaped carina, lower arm
of carina touching the apical margin of clypeus,
upper bifurcated arms reach up to antennal sockets
level; width of parocular area equal to the basal
width of clypeus; subocellar area flat, punctured and
bare; vertex margin straight and incarinate; genae
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
123
Figs. 1-5. Parevaspis baijalii sp. nov. (Male)
1. Adult, full dorsal view; 2. Head front view; 3. Sternum 6th; 4. Sternum 8th; 5. Genitalia.
(Dots on Figs. 1 & 2 indicate pubescence).
124
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
narrowed below and hypostomal area with short
white pubescence; mandible tridentate with wide in-
terspace between second and third tooth.
Pronotal lobe expanded laterally, anterior ridge
subcarinate; scutum flat, broadly protuberant
anteriorly, with coarsely deep punctures; median
line distinct, parapsidal lines much short; notauli in-
evident; scutellar surface with coarsely pits like deep
punctures, posterior margin broadly arched and
ridge like; mesepistemum minutely punctate, with
few pale yellow hairs and a complete carina on
antero-lateral surface; median length of propodeal
triangle about twice that of median groove below;
wing colour clear hyaline, with apical fuscous mar-
gin, veins black to piceous, first recurrent vein is far
from base and second reaches beyond the apex of
second cuboital cell; coxae and trochanter normal
with long white hairs on inner margin; femora broad-
ly cylindrical, angulated and ventro-apically
notched; tibia ventrally carinate and with a fringe of
short pale bristles; outer surface of leg with short
white hairs.
Basal tergum concavity margin carinate and
with ferrugenous pubescence; apical margin of ter-
gites with smooth area and rudimentary fringe; ter-
gites 2-5 with unexposed pregradular area and
graduli; post gradular area exposed; 6th tergum with
broadly arched apical margin, laterally finely ser-
rated and slightly blunt at apex; apical margin of 7th
tergum slightly declivous at midline, broadly imer-
ginate and testaceous brown; 6th sternum exposed
with invaginate apical margin and incurved medial-
ly; 8th sternum pentagonal, apical lobe obtusely an-
gulated, fringe with few fine bristles, basal part nar-
rowed and produced into a broad stalk.
Gonocoxite medially constricted; gonostylus
broadly dilated, fan-shaped, with long fringe; penis-
valve flattened, triangular with narrow apex; penis
membranous.
Measurements: (in mm): Total length 9.6; eyes:
length 2.70, lateral width 1.4; clypeus : median
length 1.1, basal width 1.2, apical width 1.7; anten-
nae : length of scape 0.9, pedicel 0.25, flagellar seg-
ments 1-0.20, II-0.30, XI-0.40; labrum : median
length 0.8, basal width 0.9, apical width 0.75; man-
dible : length of dentate and lower margin 0.60 and
0.90; scutum : median length 2.4, maximum width
3.0; forewing: total length 7.0; tergites I- VII, rela-
tive median width 1 .6, 2. 1 , 2. 1 , 2.0, 2.0, 1 .6 and 0.5.
FEMALE: Not known.
Material Examined: Holotype : male,
Solanum sp. Bombay (National Park), 16 June
1985. (V.K.) deposited in I.A.R.I., New Delhi .
Paratypes : 2 males with same data, in the collection
of the Deptt. of Entomology, Agra College, Agra.
The new species is close to P. carbonaria
Smith. However, P. baijalii sp. nov. can be distinct-
ly separated from P. carbonaria by : "facial pubes-
cence white; both the recurrent veins are not equi-
distant; hypostomal area is broadly elevated and
with few white pubescence; median carina of
mesepistemum absent; apical margin of 6th sternum
is medially incurved; sternum 8th pentagonal in
shape, apical lobe obtusely angulated, basal part
with long hairs and elongated; penis-valves trian-
gular with narrow apex".
This species has been named after Dr. H.N.
Baijal, Head of the Zoology Department, Agra Col-
lege, Agra.
Acknowledgement
We thank Dr H.N. Baijal, Head of the Zoology
Deptt., Agra College, Agra, for providing necessary
facilities.
References
Bingham, C.T. (1897): Fauna of British India, including Ceylon Michener, C.D. (1965): A classification of the bees of the
and Burma. Hymenoptera (Wasps and Bees), Vol. I. p. 498- Australian and South pacific region. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat.
499. Hist; 130: 213-214.
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
125
A NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS SIRTHENEA SPINOLA (PIRATINAE- REDUVIIDAE-
HETEROPTERA) FROM THE COROMANDEL COAST, INDIA 1
C. Murugan and David Livingstone2
(With a text-figure)
A new species of the genus Sirthenea Spinola, namely Sirthenea nigripes sp. nov. (Reduviidae : Heteroptera)
from the Coromandel Coast of India has been described and illustrated.
Introduction
The genus Sirthenea Spinola can be identified
from all other genera of Piratinae by their well
formed tibiarolium on the fore tibiae alone and by
their extraordinary elongation of the ante-ocular
area, carrying the antennae forward, farther in front
of the eyes. Distant (1904) recorded only one
species, namely Sirthenea flavipes (Stal) from the
Oriental region. Apart from this species, Villiers
(1969) described yet another species (S. rapax) from
the Ethiopian region. The present species from the
Coromandel Coast of the Indian peninsula is a new
addition, bringing two from the total species under
this genus from India.
This new species is based on a single specimen
collected by light trap by Mr. G. Ravichandran from
Sunabeda, Koraput District, Orissa on 19 June 1987
at an elevation of 950 MSL, temperature 25°C and
humidity 70%.
Sirthenea nigripes sp. nov.
MALE: macropterous; elongate; length 18 mm,
width across the pronotum 4 mm and across the ab-
domen 3 mm; piceous; legs pale fuscous, anterior
lobe of the pronotum, dorsal and ventral surface fus-
cous; a longitudinal dark streak extending from
beneath the antennal socket up to the base of the ar-
ticulation of the rostrum conspicuous; entire ster-
num, scutellum, posterior lobe of pronotum, major
part of the corium and membrane piceous.
Head : elongate; ante-ocular area more than
twice as long as the post - ocular area; antennal sock-
et more dorsal ly located, far removed from the eyes;
frons, clypeus, lorum etc. setaceous; ocelli wide
apart, reddish brown, encircled by piceous ring;
ocellar prominence smooth; collar short and narrow;
Accepted June 1989.
division of Entomology, Bharathiar University,
Coimbatore 641 046, Tamil Nadu
Fig. 1. Sirthenea nigripes sp. nov.
scape slightly incrassated, very short, almost half as
long as the pedicel and not exceeding the anterior
limit of clypeal prominence; second segment of the
rostrum almost four times as long as the first seg-
ment and almost twice as long as the very slender,
acutely pointed third segment.
Thorax: anterior lobe of the pronotum almost
twice as long as the posterior lobe; the sulcations in-
clude, one on either side of the median longitudinal
fissure, another oblique one outer to it, extending al-
9
t
126
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
most up to the posterior limit of the anterior lobe and
a short, more shallow one in between these two;
anteriorly, the sulcations expand, being lined by fine
setae; antero-lateral tubercles obscure; posterior
lobe with discal prominence demarcated on either
side of the median longitudinal furrow, a transverse
fissure delineating the two lobes fairly deep; scutel-
lum piceous, acutely pointed apically and laterally
compressed and dorsally flattened; hemelytra with
an ochraceous spot at the distal end of the clavus,
confluent with a similar spot on the corium; both
corium and clavus basally ochraceous; the
membrane basally piceous, apically ochraceous and
translucent; legs concolorous; femora only slightly
longer than the coxae, both laterally compressed,
forming a ventral setaceous keel; fore tibiae almost
as long as the femora; tibial pad more apically dif-
ferentiated, anteriorly extending upto the tip of the
first tarsomer; mid and hind tibiae without any trace
of a pad; mesosternal carination prominent,
metastemum foveated at the posterior margin.
Abdomen: with ochraceous spots on the con-
nexivum, mid ventral keel of the abdominal seg-
ments brownish ochraceous except at the pregenital
and genital segments; first abdominal sternite
ochraceous throughout.
This species closely resembles Sirthenea
flavipes in the pattern of formation of its carinations
and sulcations of the anterior lobe of pronotum and
characters of the head and segments of the ap-
pendages. However, it can be readily recognised
from S. flavipes by its small size and by the colora-
tion of the corium, clavus and the sulcations of the
anterior lobe of pronotum (black in S. flavipes and
fuscous concolorous with the rest of the anterior lobe
of the pronotum in S. ni gripes sp. nov.); legs in the
former ochraceous and in the latter pale fuscous.
The type is for the present deposited in the
reduviid collection of the Division of Entomology,
Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, India.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the authorities of the
Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, for providing
facilities, and to the Department of Science and
Technology, New Delhi, for financial assistance
during the course of the investigation. Thanks are
due to the Director, Zoological Survey of India, Cal-
cutta, for placing at our disposal their reduviid col-
lection for comparison and to Mr. G. Ravichandran
for making available the specimen with the collec-
tion data for the present description.
References
Distant, W.L. (1904): The Fauna of British India, including Villiers, A. (1969):Hemipteres Reduviides recoltes a Madagas-
Ceylon and Burma - Rhvnchota, Vol. II (Heteroptera). car par Mr. F. Keiser, Verhandl. Naturf. Ges. Basel. 80 (I):
Taylor and Francis, London, pp. 288-303. 62-69.
TWO NEW SPECIES FROM NORTH EASTERN INDIA (ORTHOPTERA : ACRIDIDAE)1
Kharibam Meinodas and Shaikh Adam Shafee2
(With eight text- figures )
Two new species of the subfamily Acridinae
from northeastern India, viz. Odontomelus
manipurensis and Pargaella champ haiensis are
described and illustrated. Further, occurrence of the
genera Odontomelus Bol. and Pargaella Bol. is
reported for the first time from the Oriental region.
1 Accepted June 1989.
Section of Entomology, Zoology Department, Aligarh Muslim
University, Aligarh 202 001.
Odontomelus manipurensis sp. nov.
(Figs. A-E)
MALE: Head (Figs. A,B) brownish, strongly
oblique, distinctly longer than pronotum; vertex
convex; fastigium of vertex slightly longer than
wide, depressed, with median and lateral carinulae;
fastigial foveolae absent; antennae slightly widened
basally, much longer than head and pronotum
together, inserted in front of lateral ocelli; frontal
ridge compressed between antennae, with carinae
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
127
New species from northeastern India. Figs. A-E Odontomelus manipurensis sp. nov. F-H Pargaella champhaiensis sp. nov.
almost parallel, slightly divergent before reaching
clypeus.
Thorax brownish; pronotum (Fig. B) long with
well developed median and lateral carinae, median
carina crossed by posterior transverse sulcus; teg-
mina and wings short, never reaching beyond the
third abdominal segment; mesostemal interspace
open; hind femur with knee passing slightly beyond
the apex of abdomen, upper basal lobe slighdy
longer than lower basal lobe, external apical spine
of hind tibia absent.
Abdomen brownish, carinate above; tym-
panum well developed; supra-anal plate triangular
with a mid-longitudinal groove; cerci long, tubular;
epiphallus (Fig. D) with bridge narrow, ancorae
short, lophi lobiform; aedeagus (Fig. E) with apical
valve curved upward.
Body length : 22-24 mm.
The new species differs from Odontomelus
usambaricus Ramme in the knee of hind femur
reaching slightly beyond apex of abdomen; antennal
segments 7 to 14 much longer than wide; tegmina
128
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
reaching beyond the third abdominal segment.
Holotype: Male, from grass, Waithou,
Manipur, 20 June 1983, Kh. Meinodas. Preserved
specimen deposited at present in Zoological
Museum, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh,
India.
Paratype: 1 Male (Same data as for holotype).
Pargaella champhaiensis sp. nov.
(Figs. F-H)
FEMALE: Head (Figs. F, G) brownish, slightly
shorter than pronotum; fastigium of vertex with dis-
tinct median and lateral carinulae; fastigial foveolae
indistinct; frontal ridge narrow, shallowly sulcate,
with carinulae slightly divergent downwards; vertex
with indistinct mid-longitudinal carinula; antennae
slightly ensiform, shorter than head and pronotum
together.
Thorax brown; pronotum (Fig. G) with fine
median and lateral carinae; dorsum rugose in
prozona, longitudinal carinulae in metazona;
median carina crossed by posterior transvere sulcus;
metazona about one-half the length of prozona,
posterior margin obtusely angular; mesostemal in-
terspace open, as long as wide; tegmina and wings
short, never reaching beyond third abdominal seg-
ment; hind femur with knee never extending beyond
tip of abdomen; external apical spine of hind tibia
absent.
Abdomen brown, supra-anal plate long with
mid-longitudinal groove basally; cerci short,
tubular; subgenital plate with egg- guide long.
Body length: 30 mm.
The new species is closely related to Pargael-
la luctuosa Bolivar, but differs from it in the knee of
hind femur not extending beyond the tip of the ab-
domen, and by the presence of lanceolate tegmina.
Holotype: Female, from grass, Champhai
Tasar farm, Mizoram, 12 July 1983, O. Kupera.
Preserved specimen deposited at present in Zoologi-
cal Museum, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh,
India.
A NEW SUBSPECIES OF DENDROBIUM PANDURATUM LINDL.
(ORCHIDACEAE) FROM SOUTHERN INDIA1 2
R. Gopalan and A.N. Henry2
{With four text -figures)
Dendrobium panduratum Lindl. subsp. vil-
losum subsp. nov.
Dendrobium panduratum. Lindl. subsp. pan-
duratum affinis, sed sepalis dorsalibus ellipticis, ob-
tuso-mucronatis, sepalis lateralibus obtuso-
mucronatis, petalis super medianum fimbriatis;
lobis lateralibus labii, basibus midlobi et discis intus
villosis differt.
Allied to Dendrobium panduratum Lindl.
subsp .panduratum but differs in: dorsal sepal ellip-
tic, obtuse-mucronate; lateral sepals obtuse-
mucronate; petals fringed above the middle; and lip-
lateral lobes and base of midlobe, and disc villous
within.
Epiphytic or lithophytic herbs; pseudobulbous
stems 3-15 cm long, elongate, flat, narrowed at base,
broader towards apex; young leafy stem arises from
the anterior side; mature (old) leafless flowering
1 Accepted September 1989.
2Botanical Survey of India, Southern Circle, Coimbatore 641 003,
Tamil Nadu.
stem enclosed by sheath (sometimes with one or two
leaves at apex). Leaves 1-10 x 0.2-1. 5 cm, linear-
lanceate, sessile, acute, membranous. Flowers white
in terminal or axillary, zigzag, 2-7 flowered racemes
up to 8 cm long; bracts minute, ovate. Dorsal sepal
7-8 x 2.5-3 mm, elliptic, obtuse- mucronate, 3-
veined, gland-dotted; lateral sepals 9-10 x 2.5-3
mm, falcatly ovate-lanceate, obtuse-mucronate, 5-
veined, gland-dotted. Petals c. 7 x 2 mm, oblanceate,
acute, margin fringed above the middle, 3-veined,
gland-dotted. Lip c. 10 x 6 mm, panduriform, 3-
lobed; lateral lobes small, acute, incurved, villous
within, 3-veined, veins branching at apex; midlobe
c. 4x5 mm, broadly ovate or orbicular, irregularly
crenulate, undulate, acute and recurved at apex, vil-
lous at base within, 5-veined; disc thick, villous
within, 5-veined, outer veins branched; mentum c .
4 mm long, spur-like, straight or slightly incurved;
2-lobed at tip. Column c. 6x1 mm, 3-toothed, oper-
culum attached to the middle; pollinia 4, in pairs,
waxy. Ovary with pedicel 5-8 mm long. Fruits
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
129
globose. (Figs. 1-4).
Holotype (Gopalan 88699, CAL) and isotypes
(Gopalan 88699, MH- acc. no. 144695-144701)
were collected at Inchikkuzhi in Kannikatty R.F.,
Tirunelveli Kattabomman District, Tamil Nadu, on
20 September 1988.
We are thankful to Dr N.P. Balakrishnan,
Scientist ‘SE’ for encouragement and to Dr V.J.
Nair, Scientist ‘SD\ for the Latin translation.
KEY TO THE SUBSPECIES OP D. Panduratum LINDL.
Dorsal sepal oblong -lanceolate, acuminate; lateral sepals
acuminate; petals not fringed above the middle; lip and disc
glabrous sub sp. panduratum
{Distrib.: Sri Lanka)
Dorsal sepal elliptic, obtuse-mucronate; lateral sepals ob-
tuse-mucronate; petals fringed above the middle; lip - lateral lobes
and base of midlobe, and disc villous within
sub sp. villosum
{Distrib.: Southern India)
Figs. 1-4. Dendrobium panduratum Lindl. subsp. villosum Gopalan & Henry
1. Habit; 2. Flower, 3. Rostrum from front; 4. Sepals, petals and lip spread out from front.
REVIEWS
THE INDIAN BLACKBUCK by M.K. Ranjitsinh. Natraj Publishers, Dehradun, 1989.
156 pp, with 25 monochrome and 2 coloured plates. Rs. 250.
As any other species of Indian wildlife, the black-
buck, that magnificient symbol of India’s indigenous
fauna, has a declining fortune, swamped as it is by an ever
increasing human population encroaching and destroying
the natural habitats of the subcontinent. This book by Ran-
jitsinh relates the history of its survival and discusses what
the future holds for the species. In the process the author
has reviewed all that has appeared in published literature
from the time of the Emperor Babur to the present day.
Ranjitsinh is perhaps the best qualified to undertake such
a review. A member of the Indian Administrative Service,
he is atypical of those guardians of the red tape and is more
at home in the wilderness than in the musty corridors of
power.
The two main areas he had studied intensively, the
Velavadar and Kanha National Parks , are illustrative of
optimal and suboptimal habitat for the species. The en-
vironmental parameters in both habitats have been dis-
cussed in detail.
The physiology, distribution and status; group struc-
ture, birth and mortality; food and feeding habits; social
behaviour; courtship and reproduction; relationship with
other species; blackbuck and cheetah; and finally conser-
vation and future of the species are discussed, based on the
author’s wide experience of the species correlated with the
published data of other workers.
The blackbuck could be the best subject for inten-
sive management. The population is widespread, often iso-
lated, abundant in pockets and just holding its own else-
where. The high reproductive capacity of the species
enables it to respond effectively to protection. This is a
blessing as well as a curse: in well protected areas the
ever increasing population becomes a human interest con-
flict problem. Selective culling may be necessary and
pragmatic. The dilemma is that if the total population is
considered the species is still endangered; but in particular
areas expanding populations are counterproductive to its
conservation and require to be thinned.
A very useful and instructive monograph, recom-
mended to all those interested in wildlife ecology.
J.C. DANIEL
PROCEEDINGS OF THE SYMPOSIUM ON ENDANGERED MARINE ANIMALS
AND MARINE PARKS. Edited by E.G. Silas. Marine Biological Association of India,
Cochin, 1988. pp. xli + 508 (25 x 18 cm), with many plates and illustrations. Price Rs.
500/-
Some 200,000 kinds of plants and animals are es-
timated to inhabit the world oceans. As these do not ob-
serve international boundaries and move freely, they are
more uniformly distributed than the terrestrial species.
People, therefore, tend to believe that the threat of extinc-
tion is less in these marine species. This is as wrong a no-
tion as the naive belief that the volume of water in the seas
and oceans being so huge, one can, with impunity, dump
one’s sewage and industrial wastes therein. It is fairly
recently that people have woken up to the threat posed to
many living marine resources from unscientific commer-
cial exploitation and increasing damage to the marine
habitat from human activities and other economic inter-
ests. The human population explosion, and the consequent
need for increased food resources, coupled with
‘development’ of the coast and of new ocean resources,
have led to an equally rapid growth of concern regarding
overexploitation of our marine resources.
With a view to disseminating current knowledge and
apprising institutions, both governmental and NGOs, of
the need to do something about this grave situation, the
Marine Biological Association of India organized this
symposium in 1985. It is the sixth in a series of such sym-
posia. (Earlier ones were on Scombroid fishes, Crustacea,
Mollusca, Corals and coral reefs, and Coastal aquacul-
ture.) It is up to the high standard that we have come to ex-
pect from the Association and succeeds very well in
presenting the current status of this important range of sub-
jects. A total of 60 papers delivered at the symposium form
the basis of this text. These papers are grouped under four
headings: Marine Mammals; Estuarine and marine rep-
tiles; Other marine vertebrates and invertebrates; and
Marine parks, sanctuaries, reserves, zoos and
oceanariums.
There are 23 papers in the first category. The first
paper, by John G. Frazier titled ‘What is endangered?’,
though placed under ‘marine mammals’, is of a general
nature and helps to answer the non-specialist’s query on
the definition of an endangered species. Eleven papers in
the first category are concerned with whales. Even the
wildlife enthusiasts among Indians are not conversant with
this group, knowledge being generally restricted to cur-
REVIEWS
131
sory reports on occasional standings of whales on our
coasts which, being headlined in the newspapers, receive
immediate but short-lived attention. It is not surprising,
therefore, that the vast majority of papers on whales are by
foreign scientists. In fact I was astonished to find four
papers by India workers, until I browsed through them, to
find that two of them were by non-residents based in
U.S.A. and Brazil. While Silas et al. have done a good job
of studying the food of a specimen of sperm whale
stranded at Tranquebar, the remaining paper by a scientist
from India is very sketchy, and appears to have been writ-
ten solely for presenting at the symposium.
Of the five papers dealing with lesser Cetaceans,
three are by Indian scientists. There are four papers on
dugongs. Of these, the one by Silas and Fernando should
make every Indian hang his head in shame, dealing, as it
does, with the sordid tale of human avarice and utter cal-
lousness and impotence of the authorities that be, of a
harmless creature with as much a right to life as any of us.
It is not that the killing is done to fill an empty belly, or
even to pit our skill against a dangerous beast like a tiger
or a shark. The butchery of an innocent vegetarian, and the
secrecy with which its flesh is shared would place the per-
petrators of this heinous crime in a class with the worst of
criminals, murderers and smugglers. And this happens in
the land of ahimsa!
Of the 16 papers in the category of estuarine and
marine reptiles, the vast majority are on turtles. The three
dealing with captive rearing prove that we have come a
long way in achieving succcess. The influence of incuba-
tion temperature on sex determination of turtles is also well
brought out here. Kar gives an excellent picture of the
present status of the highly endangered saltwater crocodile
in Orissa, the only place, apart from the Sunderbans, on
the Indian mainland where this reptile is found. Whitaker ’s
paper is of a more general nature, but is notable for its
coverage of the water monitor lizard.
The 14 papers under 'Other marine vertebrates and
invertebrates" cover a heterogenity of animals ranging
from fiddler crabs and pearl oysters to hemichordates and
sea-eagles. Some of the papers at the end of this category
cannot be strictly included under "endangered". For ex-
ample, Reza’s paper deals more with the effect of pollu-
tion due to an oil spill. James’ paper, although excellent as
a taxonomic review of 95 echinoderms from the Gulf of
Mannar, loses its value when he tries to justify it by giving
the isolated example of depletion of just one species.
Again, Azariah and Pillai’s coverage of a hemichordate
deals with the toxic effects of its body extract on a
polychaete worm — excellent as a physiology paper but in-
cluded here only because the animal itself is ‘protected’.
The paper by Vodden and Thomas on cleaning oiled birds
deserves species mention as it is written from the humane
or animal welfare point of view.
Thirteen papers are grouped in the fourth category.
While the establishment of a national park in the Gulf of
Kutch and a proposed park in the Gulf of Mannar are fully
justified, the proposal for one at Malvan-Vengurla appears
to be far fetched, and more a result of vying with other
states for a status symbol or showpiece. Such marine parks
would be more attractive and effective at Andaman-
Nicobar and Lakshadweep.
In view of the great spread of interest about marine
life and conservation, these proceedings provide a refresh-
ing approach to the problems attendant upon them. The
nonspecialist, who desires to find ready access to facts and
figures, can gain some understanding about the subject
material of present concern to conservationists, even
though some of the papers may be difficult for him to un-
derstand. For the specialist, on the other hand, there is a
considerable amount of material which he will find of in-
terest, and useful summaries of the present state of
knowledge. The shoddy proof-reading does not detract
from the overall value.
B.F. CHHAPGAR
THE WEALTH OF INDIA, RAW MATERIALS. VOL. IA (Revised Edition). Edited
by Shri Y.R. Chadha and 27 others. Publication and Information Directorate, CSIR, New
Delhi, 1985. pp. lx + 54 (29 x 22 cm), 84 figures, 11 plates. Price: Rs. 200/ (Not indi-
cated on the book).
This is the first volume of the revised second edition
of Wealth of India series, which was started in 1948 and
completed with eleven volumes in 1976. Since the publi-
cation of the first volume immediately after independence,
there have been tremendous additions to the knowledge of
natural resources of our country, which is reflected in the
increase in the number of pages from 142 to 5 13 under the
alphabet A in this volume. It was pointed out by reviewers
of concluding volumes of the first edition that with the
large time lag between the first and the final volume there
was ? tremendous difference in the amount, type and
quality of information published, and it was high time that
whole series was revised in the light of new information.
This volume of revised series therefore serves a common-
ly felt need.
Although the series is supposed to furnish informa-
tion about resources from the plant and animal kingdoms
as well as the mineral wealth of India, more than 95% of
132
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol...87
the entries deal with plant resources only, which is evident
from the fact that this first volume includes information on
198 genera of plants, with merely 6 entries about
minerals. The old concluded series had information on
5000 plant species belonging to 1,730 genera, 48 animals
and animal products and 74 minerals. In fact, while
reviewing the first volume of the earlier series in Blumea ,
Dr. C.J.J. Van Steenis had rightly pointed out that ‘Wealth
of India’ Raw Materials series was Only the revision of
‘Dictionary of Economic products of India’ by Sir George
Watt.
Instead of revising the entire work in the fashion
presently undertaken, it would have been perhaps more
appropriate and economical to supplement the earlier
volumes, periodically updating the information. With the
publication of this first volume of the revision, the old
volumes are rendered out-dated and useless, and as a result
the old series has already made its way to second-hand
booksellers on the pavements of Bombay. In contrast, the
data presented in the volumes of ‘Dictionary of Economic
Products of India’ remains unrevised and the original
volumes still retain their importance and value among
book rarities.
The present revision is not only rich in information,
but also corrects the nomenclature of many species in the
light of present understanding, although it is not fully up-
to-date. Some nomenclatural corrections from earlier
series brought up-to-date in this volume are shown in the
table above.
However, the name used in this volume Adina cor-
difolia (Roxb.) Hook.f. ex Brandis, is now corrected as
Haldinia cordifolia (Roxb.) Ridsdale in recent taxonomic
works.
The later volumes of the earlier series have been well
received by experts from both India and abroad; the
present volume also keeps up the tradition of good work,
and deserves praise. I have no hesitation in saying that this
series would be the best source of cumulative information
on all aspects of our natural resources, particularly the
vegetational wealth; it is recommended for research or-
ganisations, colleges, schools and also individual users.
M.R. ALMEIDA
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
1. OVERLAPPING DISTRIBUTION OF CAPPED LANGUR TRACHYPITHECUS PILEATA AND
PHAYRE’S LEAF MONKEY T. PHAYREI
( With a
Fig.. 1. Distribution of capped langur and Phayre’s leaf monkey.
Note the zone of sympatric distribution.
The capped langur Trachypithecus pileata Blyth is
the commonest of the leaf monkeys found in the forests of
northeast India. Outside India it is found in Upper Burriia
and Bangladesh. In Bhutan, although it was an unrecorded
species (Eudey 1987), I observed a group in the Manas
Wildlife Sanctuary (eastern bank) on 20 October 1985.
This 400 sq.km sanctuary in Bhutan is contiguous with the
Manas Tiger Reserve in Assam.
text-figure)
Phayre’s leaf monkey T. phayrei Blyth is the most
extensively distributed leaf monkey of continental
Southeast Asia(Fooden 1976). However, in India its range
is a small one, covering parts of Assam (Cachar and
Karimganj districts), Tripura and also perhaps Mizoram.
It is also found in eastern Bangladesh.
The most interesting question in the distribution of
these two neighbouring species of langurs is whether they
are sympatric or allopatric. Fooden (1976) mentioned that
capped langur is strictly allopatric with Phayre’s leaf
monkey. However, later surveys showed that in some areas
these two are sympatric. In the forests of Cachar (south of
Barak river) and Karimganj districts of Assam, I have
found them sympatric (Choudhury 1989).
Moreover, I have also observed them resting
together without any antagonistic behaviour towards each
other. Once a group of capped langurs were seen chasing
away a group of Phayre’s leaf monkeys while the latter
were busy feeding. The capped langurs then started feed-
ing at the same spot (some even on the same Ficus hispida
figs). The locality was Damchara, c. 1.5 km west of
Nagorhgena (24° 17’ N, 92°30’E) in the Innerline reserve
forest of Cachar. In Nagorhgena also both the species were
found together.
In Tripura, and maybe both in Mizoram and eastern
Bangladesh both the species could be sympatric. There is
a possibility of a little overlap in the Chin Hill region of
Burma. There are two specimens in the American Museum
of Natural History, one each of capped langur and Phayre’s
leaf monkey. The capped langur specimen was collected
from Mt. Victoria of Chin Hill (21°14’N, 93°55’E) and
the Phayre’s leaf monkey from Dudaw Taung of Magwe
(21°05’N, 94°19’E, Fooden 1976).
August 30, 1989 ANWARUDDIN CHOUDHURY
References
Blyth, E. (1 843): Report of Curator, Zoological Department, for
February 1843. J. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, 12(1): 166-184.
(1847): Supplementary report of the Curator of the
Zoology Department. J. Asiatic Soc. Bengal 16: 728-737.
Choudhury, A. (1989): Primates of Assam: their distribution,
habitat and status. Unpub. Ph.D thesis, Gauhati University,
300 pp.
Eudey, A. A. (1987): A compiled works for the Action Plan for
Asian Primate Conservation: 1987-91. IUCN/SSC Primate
Specialist Group, New York.
Fooden, J. (1976): Primates obtained in peninsular Thailand,
June- July, 1973, with Notes on the Distribution of Con-
tinental Southeast Asian Leaf -Monkeys ( Presbytis ).
Primates (Inuyama), 17(1): 95-118.
134
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
2. A HUNTING TECHNIQUE OF THE JUNGLE CAT FEUS CHAUS
Over the last few years, while working at Royal Chit-
wan National Park in Nepal and Bandhavgarh National
Park in Madhya Pradesh, I have been able to observe, at
close quarters, a number of stalks and hunts conducted by
jungle cats Felis chaus, and have learnt something of the
different methods they use.
One technique is what may be called the ‘vertical
assault’. This seems to be almost exclusively employed
against prey lurking in small, dense thickets like a clump
of dead bamboo, a bunch of high grass or a bush. When
alerted by some sound or movement to the presence of a
potential prey in such a place, the cat cautiously ap-
proaches the edge of the thicket and then sits, still and in-
tent, until it spots its intended victim and identifies it. Once
located, the cat gathers its hindquarters under it and
launches itself high into the air, sometimes as much as a
metre, to descend almost vertically upon its startled prey
which is caught as it seeks to escape.
The advantage of this ‘vertical assault’ over other
techniques seems to be that, apart from overcoming the
barrier presented by dense vegetation, the very suddenness
of the descent serves to startle and confuse the prey and
flush it out of the thick cover, thus rendering it more vul-
nerable. Every time that I have actually seen the prey
animal it has always been after the attack, never before.
Although I have seen several successful and unsuc-
cessful attempts, I have got a clear look at the kill on only
six occasions. They have all been small rodents barring
one instance when I saw a common bustard quail Turnix
suscitator escape from between a cat’s paws.
August 4, 1989 HASHIM N. TYABJI
3. OCCURRENCE OF DOBSON’S LONG-TONGUED FRUIT BAT EONYCTERIS SPELAEA
(DOBSON, 1971) (CHIROPTERA:PTEROPODIDAE) IN MEGHALAYA
The Dobson’s long-tongued fruit bat Eonycteris
spelaea (Dobson), although recorded from Kumaon,
Uttar Pradesh (Bhat 1968), Andaman Islands (Bhattachar-
rya 1975), Darrang District, Assam (Ghose and Bhat-
tacharya 1977); coastal Karnataka (Bhat et al. 1980) in
India, has hitherto not been reported from the rest of the
country (Blanford 1891, Andersen 1912, Ellerman and
Morrison-Scott 1951, Tate 1947).
Recently, I obtained two females from the hills of
northeast India (near La-ilad Forest Rest House, E. Khasi
Hills, Meghalaya, alt. c. 350 m) on 17 May 1989 between
0300 and 0400 hrs in a mist-net set between plantains near
cultivation. The smaller of the two females, a young adult,
was pregnant and had two spots on the chest instead of
teats. A single embryo (12 mm) was present in the right
horn of the uterus. Both the females had projecting para -
anal glands. Bhat et al. (1980) mentioned that it is
polyestrous and breeds throughout the year.
One female from Siju cave (360 m), Garo Hills,
Meghalaya, (S.W. Kemp & B.N. Chopra, Feb. 1922)
present in the National Zoological collection of India at
the Zoological Survey of India was also identified as
Eonycteris spelaea (Dobson), by Shri P.K. Das, Scientist -
‘SD’, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, who has al-
lowed me to report it in this paper.
Measurements (in mm): 2 (Khasi Hills) and 1 (Garo
Hills): External : Head and body 92, 102, - ; tail 14, 15,- ;
forearm 68, 70, 70.5; ear 18, 18, - ; tibia 28, 30,- ; foot
and claw 16, 19, - ; wing span 370, 400, - ; Skull: Total
length 34, 35.4, 35.5; zygomatic width 19, 20, - ; cranial
width 14, 15, 14.9; cranial height 11.2; 12.2, - ; width of
cranial rostrum 7, 7.6,- ; maxillary width {m - m) 8.3,
9.2, 8.9; upper tooth row (c - m!) 12, 13, 12.4; lower tooth
row(c-m2)13, 13.5, 13.1; mandibular length 26, 27, 26.4.
Distribution: India, Burma, Thailand, Laos, Viet-
nam, Cambodia, Malaysia, Indonesia and the Phillipines.
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to the Director, Zoological Survey of
India, and the Officer-in-Charge of this Regional Station
for providing facilities for this work. My sincere thanks
are also due to Shri P.K. Das, Scientist ‘SD’, Zoological
Survey of India, Calcutta, for providing measurements of
the Garo Hills specimen.
November 10, 1989 Y.P. SINHA
References
Andersen, K. (1912): Catalogue of the Chiroptera in the Collec-
tion of the British Museum, London.
Bhat, H.R. (1968): Dobson’s long-tongued fruit bat, Eonycteris
spelaea (Dobson), from Kumaon hills, U.P. An addition to
the chiropteran fauna of India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
64: 550-551.
Bhat, H.R., Sreenivasan, M. A. & Jacob, P.G. (1980): Breeding
cycle of Eonycteris spelaea (Dobson, 1871) (^Chiroptera :
Pteropidae, Macroglossinae) in India. Mammalia 44 : 343-
347.
Bhattacharrya, T.P. (1975): Occurrence of Dobson’s long-ton-
gued fruit bat, Eonycteris spelaea (Dobson) (Mammalia:
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
135
Chiroptera : Pteropidae) in the Andaman Islands, India. Sci.
& Cult. 41: 317-318.
Blanford, W.T. (1891): The fauna of British India, including
Ceylon and Burma, Mammalia. Vol. 2. Taylor and Francis,
London.
Ellerman, J.R. & Morrison-Scott (1951): Checklist of
Palaearctic and Indian Mammals. Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.),
London.
Ghose, R.K. & Bhattacharya, T.P. (1976): Occurence of
Dobson’s long-tongued fruit bat, Eonycteris spelaea (Dob-
son) in Assam, India. J. Zool. Soc. India , 26: 152-153.
Tate, G.H.H. (1947): Mammals of Eastern Asia. Mac Millan
Company, New York.
4. OCCURRENCE OF PIPISTRELLUS CAMORTAE MILLER, 1902
(CHIROPTERA : VESPERTILIONIDAE) IN THE ANDA MAN ISLANDS,
WITH COMMENTS ON ITS TAXONOMIC STATUS
While examining the alcohol-preserved specimens
of pipistrelline bats present in the National Zoological Col-
lections of India at the Zoological Survey of India, Calcut-
ta, I came across a specimen of Pipistrellus misidentified
as Miniopterus schreiberi; locality: Andamans; donor:
Major A.R. Anderson, I.M.S.; date of entry : 25-11-04. No
other detail was available from the register. However, the
specimen is a female. The specimen was finally identified
as Pipistrellus ccunortae Miller, 1902.
Pipistrellus ccunortae was described by Miller
(1902) from Kamorta (=Camorta) Island of the Middle
Nicobar group of islands, Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Since then it has also been reported from Great Nicobar
Island (Hill 1967) and Car Nicobar Island (Soota and
Chaturvedi 1980). Additional specimens of this bat have
been reported from Camorta Island, Great Nicobar Island
and Car Nicobar Island by Hill (1967), Saha (1980), and
Hill and Harrison (1987), respectively. Thus, Pipistrellus
camortae is so far known only from the Nicobar group of
islands. The present specimen, therefore, extends the dis-
tributional range of Pipistrellus camortae much
northwards to the ‘Andamans’ (^Andaman Islands).
Though no precise locality is available for the
specimen under discussion, its donor. Major A.R. Ander-
son, belonged to the Indian Medical Service, and was
posted at Port Blair from where he sent some other species
of bats as well to the Indian Museum, Calcutta. Thus, the
place of origin of the present specimen is probably Port
Blair (or some other place near it). South Andaman islands.
Miller (1902), while describing Pipistrellus camor-
tae, compares it with the Javan Pipistrellus abramus (Tem-
minck 1840) and remarks, Pipistrellus camortae appears
to be a well-marked species related more closely to P.
abramus than to any other’. Tate (1942) believed that the
species may be a relatively unspecialised member of the
abramus group. Following Tate, Ellerman and Morrison-
Scott (1951) kept Pipistrellus camortae as a species under
the abramus group. Hill (1967), in his account of the bats
of the Andaman and Nicobar islands, however, considers
camortae as a subspecies of Pipistrellus javanicus (Gray
1838). Soota and Chaturvedi (1980) have studied six
specimens of P. camortae (from Car Nicobar Island), in-
cluding the baculum of one specimen. They have also
compared the data (forearm, upper cheek teeth row and
baculum) available in literature with respect to Pipistrel-
lus abramus, P. camortae, P. javanicus and P. paterculus
Thomas, 1915, with their data on P. camortae , and have
come to the conclusion that while the forearm and cheek
teeth row of P. camortae show their affinity to P. abramus,
P. camortae should be treated as a separate species on the
basis of its baculum. In their comprehensive study of the
bacula of pipistrelline bats in general. Hill and Harrison
(1987) have provided diagrams of the bacula of P.
abramus, P. camortae, P. javanicus and P. paterculus , and
have considered abramus, javanicus and paterculus as
distinct species, with camortae as a subspecies of P.
javanicus.
Under the circumstances, a fresh review of the
taxonomic status of Pipistrellus camortae Miller was
thought necessary.
Agrawal and Sinha (1973) studied the baculum of a
specimen of a pipistrelle from Indawagyi lake, Burma,
which they identified as Pipistrellus abramus paterculus
Thomas. They found the baculum of their specimen
having the ‘shaft doubly curved’. This study has formed
the basis of Soota and Chaturvedi ’s (1980) statement that
the baculum of P. paterculus also is doubly curved, like
that of P. abramus , as has been stated by Thomas (1928).
However, on the basis of the material (including the
original material seen by Thomas) in the collections of the
British Museum referred to paterculus , Hill and Harrison
(1987) stated that this species has a relatively straight
baculum. According to these authors, the specimen from
Indawagyi lake, Burma, mentioned earlier, should perhaps
be referred to Pipistrellus abramus.
When diagrams of the baculum of Pipistrellus
camortae , P. javanicus and P. peguensis given by Sinha
(1969), Agrawal and Sinha (1973), Soota and Chaturvedi
(1980), and Hill and Harrison (1987) are compared, the
baculum appears to be similar (more or less straight) in all
three species. In details, however, the baculum of P.
camortae differs equally from those of P. javanicus and P.
136
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Table 1
EXTERNAL MEASUREMENTS OF Pipistrellus camortae MILLER, 1902
♦First reports
Table 2
CRANIAL MEASUREMENTS OF Pipistrellus camortae MILLER, 1902
♦Andaman Islands
♦First reports
peguensis. Further, the baculum of only two specimens of
P. camortae have been studied so far. This, of course, is
not sufficient to establish the range of variation in the
structure and dimensions of the baculum.
It would, therefore, appear that there is no justifica-
tion for considering camortae as a subspecies of Pipistrel-
lus javanicus. On the basis of data available so far, the best
course would be to treat P. javanicus , P. camortae and P.
peguensis as closely related species. In fact, Hill and Haris-
son (1987) have already made a move in that direction by
placing P. paterculus and P. peguensis just after P.
javanicus, in that order, under Javanicus subgroup of
Pipistrellus group, in the classification of the Vesper-
tilioninae proposed by them.
External and cranial measurements of the specimen
of Pipistrellus camortae from the Andaman Islands
together with those of this species available in literature
are appended in Tables 1 and 2 respectively.
August 8, 1989 P.K. DAS
References
Agrawal, V.C. & Sinha, Y.R (1973): Studies on the bacula of
some Oriental bats. Anat. Anz. 133: 180-192.
Ellerman, J.R. & Morrison-Scott, T.C.S. (1951): Checklist of
Palaearctic and Indian mammals 1758-1946. British
Museum (Natural History), London.
Hill, J.E. (1967): The bats of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 64: 1-9.
Hill, J.E. & Harrison, D.L. (1987): The baculum in the Vesper-
tilioninae (Chiroptera : Vespertilionidae) with a systematic
review, a synopsis of Pipistrellus and Eptesicus, and the
descriptions of a new genus and subgenus. Bull. Br. Mus.
nat. Hist. (Zool.) 52: 225-305.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
137
Mn i .FR, G.S. (1902): The mammals of the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands. Proc. U.S. Natn. Mus. 24: 751-795.
Saha, S.S. (1980): Notes on some mammals recently collected
from Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Rec. Zool. Surv. India
77: 119-126.
SlNHA, Y.P. (1969): Anew pipistrelle bat from Burma. Proc. Zool.
Soc., Calcutta 22 : 83-86.
Soota, T.D. & Chaturvedi, Y. (1980): New locality record of
Pipistrellus camortae Miller from Car Nicobar and its sys-
tematic status. Rec. 7x>ol. Surv. India 77: 83-87.
Tate, G.H.H. (1942): Results of the Archbold Expeditions. No.
47. Review of the vespertilionine bats, with special atten-
tion to genera and species of the Archbold Collections.
Bull. Am. Mus. not. Hist. 80: 221-297.
Thomas, O. (1928): The Delacour Exploration of French Indo-
China- Mammals. II. On mammals collected during the
winter of 1926-27. Proc. Zaol. Soc. Lond.: 139-150.
5. FIVE-STRIPED SQUIRREL FUN AMB ULUS PENNANT! (WROUGHTON) KILLING BIRDS
The five-striped squirrel Funambulus pennanti
(Wroughton) usually feeds on fruits, nuts, young shoots,
buds and bark. They visit flowering trees to lap nectar and
also feed on seed pods. Insects are taken whenever they
are come across, and occasionally the eggs of birds form a
part of their diet. Prater (THE BOOK OF INDIAN ANIMALS)
brands them as persistent nest robbers.
I have observed five-striped squirrels capture, kill
and eat birds in the Luni village, district Jodhpur, Rajas-
than. On 25 July 1989, 1 saw a female squirrel capture a
redvented bulbul Pycnonotus cafer by its tarsus while the
bird was feeding on the ground. The bulbul struggled, but
was soon subdued. The squirrel clambered up a neem tree
with the victim, placed it on a branch and began feeding
from the ventral side. Having taken some bits, thdsquirrel
left its prey and scampered away.
On 29th July and 12th August, I came across two
more such instances. In the first a whitecheeked bulbul
Pycnonotus leucogenys was the victim, and on the latter
occasion it was a house sparrow Passer domesticus. In
both these instances the bird was not eaten.
In all the three instances, the squirrels involved were
females.
September 14, 1989 JUGALKISHORE TIWARI
6. HERONRIES IN R AIG AD DISTRICT, MAHARASHTRA- A PRELIMINARY SURVEY
A survey of the avifauna of Raigad district of
Maharashtra was undertaken during the rainy season in
July 1987. This district is situated in the western part of
Maharashtra (1 8° 19’ N, 70° to 73°35 ’E). The annual rain-
fall of the district is between 2600 mm and 3600 mm. The
main agricultural crops are rice and ragi.
During the survey, a number of heronries and breed-
ing populations of the pond heron Ardeola grayii (Sykes),
cattle egret Bubulcus ibis (Linnaeus), little egret Egretta
garzetta (Linnaeus) and median egret Egretta intermedia
(Wagler) were noticed in different places (Table 1). Ac-
cording to the system of classification of heronries
described by Singh and Sodhi (1985), the heronries in
Raigad district can be classified as follows. All the heron-
ries were very close to human settlement and hence they
are ‘associated’ type of heronries. The nesting of egrets
Table 1
NUMBER OF NESTS OF BREEDING HERONS AND EGRETS AT DIFFERENT LOCATIONS IN RAIGAD DISTRICT
138
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
and herons was observed mainly on trees such as tamarind
Tcunarindus indica Linnaeus, mango Mangifera indica
Linnaeus and some Ficus sp. and hence they are ‘tree’ type
of heronries. All the observed heronries were of ‘loose’
type, except at Kolad and Nagothana village, where they
were ‘compact’ heronries. These were ‘mixed’ heronries,
either on a single tree or on scattered trees in a small area.
All these heronries seem to be small or medium-sized.
At most of the heronries, either construction of nest
and/or incubation of eggs was in progress, whereas at a
few heronries there were nestlings. Besides the breeding
birds at the nest, a number of egrets and herons were feed-
ing in the paddy fields in the immediate vicinity of the
heronries.
At Roha town, two pairs of little cormorant
Phalacrocorax niger (Vieillot) were found to be nesting
very close to the breeding colony of cattle egret.
The egrets and herons occur in large numbers in Pan-
vel, Karjat, Uran, Alibag, Pen and Roha talukas of the dis-
trict, whereas hardly any heronries were observed in the
southern part of the district, consisting of Mangaon,
Shrivardhan, Mhasla, Mahad and Poladpur talukas.
I am thankful to the Officer-in-charge, Zoological
Survey of India, Western Regional Station, Pune, for
providing necessary facilities.
June 29, 1988 ANIL MAHAB AL
References
Singh, N. & Sodhi, N.S. (1985): Heronries and the breeding coromandus (Boddaert) during 1985, in tehsil Kharar of
population density of the cattle egret Bubulcus ibis the Ropar District (Punjab). Pavo 2 3(1/2): 77-84.
7. FEEDING ASSOCIATION BETWEEN JACKAL CANTS AUREUS (LINNAEUS) AND TWO
SPECIES OF EGRETS AT POINT CALIMERE WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, TAMIL NADU
The feeding associations between African birds and
mammals have been discussed in detail by Dean and Mac-
Donald (1981). They described both commensalistic and
mutualistic feeding associations. In the commensalistic
type of association, the birds mostly followed the mam-
mals for their food as the mammals ’movement or presence
provided them some sort of ‘beating effect’ to flush their
prey. In the mutualistic associations described, in which
both were benefited, the birds directed the mammals to the
source of food.
On field duty on 5 May 1988 at 0625 hrs in the
Muniappan Lake area of the Point Calimere Wildlife
Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu, I saw a jackal Canis aureus feed-
ing along with some waterbirds in the lake. The water was
restricted to a pool in the middle of the lake, with a depth
of c. 25 cm. There were about 25 large egrets, 40 little
egrets, 22 pond herons and 40 brownheaded gulls feeding
together in the water. Moreover, two whitebreasted
kingfishers and five house crows were seen perched on the
power lines. Apart from these, three whiskered terns and
three brahminy kites were seen hovering. Among these
birds, the jackal was in the middle, encircled by the egrets
which formed a ‘Vigilance circle’. As it was quite unusual
to see a jackal among the birds. I approached close to the
spot, hid, myself behind a nearby bush and started observ-
ing their feeding behaviour. Though the jackal was very
close to the birds they were neither afraid nor did they fly
off. They were feeding complacently along with the jack-
al. The jackal every now and then plunged its head into the
water, grabbed the fishes (Tilapia mossampica) and ate
them. Whenever it got a bigger fish it took it to the land,
held it between its paws and tore it to pieces, ate it, and
went back into the water for more fish. As and when the
jackal fished the egrets were alert and they also started
picking up fish from the periphery of the jackal’s action.
Obviously, the jackal’s every fishing attempt formed a
‘beating effect’ that enabled egrets to get more fish. The
tail of the jackal was raised while it was feeding in the
water. Around 0655 hrs another jackal came to the site.
This time also the birds made no attempt to fly away, but
moved back a little, making a wider circle large enough to
accommodate both the jackals. The second jackal entered
the water, smelt the back of the first jackal and it also
started fishing in the same way. Every time a jackal took
a big fish to the land to devour, the left-overs were suc-
cessfully picked up by the house crows (commensalistic
feeding association). But most of the time the jackals ate
the prey in the water. The hovering brahminy kites and
whiskered terns were also seen fishing frequently. At 0745
hrs one of the jackals with its stomach full came out of the
water and stood at the water edge. Shortly thereafter the
other jackal came out of the water, and both moved into
the jungle. Subsequently on 6 June (one jackal between
0630 hrs and 0750 hrs), on 7 June (two jackals between
0720 to 0740 hrs) in similar feeding associations were ob-
served at the same site.
Schaller (1967) recorded the presence of scales of
minnow-like fishes in the droppings of the jackal, but was
not certain whether the fishes were caught or scavenged.
The observations of the fishing behaviour of jackals at
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
139
Point Calimere confirms their ability to fish whenever con-
ditions are suitable. Even though the jackals are predators
of birds (Schaller 1967, and Prater 1980) it is interesting
to note that in spite of their close proximity to the birds
like egrets, herons and gulls they ignored them. Instead
there existed a feeding relationship between them in which
both were benefited in getting food, hence a mutualistic
association. At Point Calimere Sanctuary during the rainy
Refe
Dean, W.R J. & MacDonald, I. A.W. (1981): AReview of African
birds feeding in association with mammals. Ostrich 52:
135- 155.
Prater, S.H. (1980): The book of Indian Animals. Bombay
season many of the low lying areas inside the forest go
under water in which the bigger waterbirds like egrets and
storks feed in flocks. Hence it may have helped the jack-
als to learn this technique of fishing in association with
waterbirds. Further study on the feeding ecology of the
jackal would reveal more interesting results.
July 9, 1988 P. BALASUBRAMANIAN
:nces
Natural History Society, Bombay, pp. 111-127.
Schaller, G.B. (1967): The Deer and The Tiger: A study of
Wildlife in India. The Chicago University Press, Chicago,
pp. 313-315.
8. BREEDING OF EGRETS IN KERALA
According to Salim Ali in THE BIRDS OF KERALA
(1969), breeding of the large egret ( Ardea alba), the
median egret Egretta intermedia, and the little egret Egret-
ta garzetta has not been recorded in Kerala. Prof. K.K.
Neelakantan later reported the breeding of the little egret
in Kanyakulangara, near Trivandrum. (See ‘Keralathile
Pakshikal’, (Malayalam), Kerala Sahity a Academy, 1986).
I have, in August-September, 1987, seen both the median
egret and the large egret nesting, in the company of the lit-
tle egret and some other birds, in Nooranad in Alleppey
district, and in Panamaram in Wynad district.
Nooranad is a small town, 15 kms. south of Kayam-
kulam. 32 big trees standing in some office premises on
the Kayamkulam - Punalur road had been colonised by the
birds. A large majority of the nests-about 2,500-belonged
to the little cormorant Phalacrocorax niger, and the night
heron Nycticorax nycticorax, which were also rare
breeders in Kerala. Among them were more than a hundred
nests of little egrets, and a few dozen nests of median egrets
and large egrets. On 5 September, I got the opportunity to
observe very closely and photograph one occupied nest
each of the median and the large egrets. There were half-
grown nestlings in both the nests and one of the parent
birds was sitting in each nest. Local people said that the
heronry in Nooranad was 7 years old. Unlike in other parts
of Kerala, the people of Nooranad guard the breeding birds
from poachers and egg-pickers.
At Panamaram, in north Kerala, the heronry was es-
tablished on a few bamboo clumps on the banks of the
Panamaram river, a tributary of the Kabani. There were
about 50 nests of Little egrets and 4-5 nests of little cor-
morants. By the time I discovered the heronry on 2 Sep-
tember, most of the fledgelings had left their nests and
were perched on bamboos or on branches of on a big tr.ee
standing nearby. But, luckily, I could observe one nest of
the large egret with two full grown nestlings, and two nests
of the median with one nestling each. These chicks were
being fed by their parents.
During the nesting season of 1985 (July-Septem-
ber), I saw three nests of large egrets on a tree standing in
the busy bus stand at Meenangadi, also in Wynad district.
Pond herons Ardeola grayii nest regularly in large num-
bers on a few Indian coral trees around Meenangadi town.
But the large egret did not return to nest in Meenangadi
during 1986 or 1987.
Thus, the breeding of the median and the large egrets
is not altogether absent in Kerala, and the nesting of the
little egret is not as rare as it was thought to be.
April 12, 1988 P.K. UTHAMAN
9. WEIGHT OF WHITENECKED STORK CICONIA EPISCOPUS
On 11 December 1985, while carrying out ecologi-
cal studies at Tezpur in Assam we received a fresh dead
specimen of the white necked stork. The bird measured as
follows:
Wing 470 mm. Bill 182 mm, Tarsus 190 mm. Tail
210 mm. It was an adult male.
The weight of the bird was 2,185 gms. The stomach
was empty. There is no known record of the weight of the
bird in the available literature.
October 7, 1988
PRAKASH RAO
S. MURALIDHARAN
140
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ///ST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
10. AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR OF BLACKNECKED STORKS TOWARDS CRANES
During our visit to Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary, Rajas-
than, in the last week of December 1986, we saw aggres-
sive behaviour of the blacknecked stork Ephippior-
hynchus asiaticus towards the Siberian cranes Grus
leucogeranus and Sarus cranes Grus antigone in particular
and other large waterbirds in general. A pair of blackneck-
ed stork approached all big birds and if they did not move
off immediately, started hustling them. While the Siberian
cranes immediately moved away, the Sarus cranes
resisted. The storks then displayed and started moving
slowly towards the cranes. The Sams cranes did challenge
by calling out a few times and also displayed, but even-
tually retreated and flew off. However, one of the three
pairs of sarus did not yield to the threat behaviour of the
storks for quite some time, but eventually flew upwards.
The storks chased the pair and even succeeded in pecking
and plucking off feathers from one of the cranes’ back.
With that ended the resistance from all the birds. The
storks, after flying around other roosting or feeding birds
and making them take to flight, settled down and started
displaying again.
D.R BANNER JEE
S.P. BAVDEKAR
May 15, 1987 V.K. PARALKAR
11. STATUS OF GREYLAG GOOSE ANSER ANSER IN GUJARAT : A RE-EVALUATION
(With a text-figure)
Introduction
The eastern greylag goose Anser anser rubrirostris
Swinhoe is a palaearctic species wintering from the
Mediterranean countries to China. It is abundant during
winter in the northeastern states of India but, it becomes
rare in Madhya Pradesh and is absent in states further south
(Ripley 1982). It has been reported to occur in a small
numbers in north Gujarat ( Ali and Ripley 1983). Its occur-
rence in Gujarat, particularly from Kutch, comes from an
early publication of Palin (1904) and a report by Vijayraj-
ji in 1930 (Ali 1954). Though Ali (1954) himself never
came across this species in Gujarat during his surveys in
1944-45, he has reported that Aldrich had recorded them
near Pariej and Chittersumba of Kheda district during the
winters of 1931-32 and 1939 respectively. Since then,
there is no report of its occurrence from Gujarat, which ap-
parently led Ali and Ripley (1983) to consider it as a rare
visitor to the state. Only recently Parasharya et al. (1986)
reported sighting of more than 100 geese from Kheda dis-
trict and opined that the geese might be visiting their
preferred habitat in Gujarat, but that such habitats may not
have been surveyed by ornithologists. Here, we report
recent sightings of the greylag goose Anser anser from dif-
ferent parts of Gujarat state and discuss its present status.
Methods
After the first accidental sighting of the geese
(Parasharya et al 1986), we carefully checked major reser-
voirs of Kheda district during winter months from 1984-
85 to 1987-88. Other sightings outside Kheda were
recorded during casual birdwatching trips to the respective
reservoirs. Census data of first and second Asian water-
fowl census from Gujarat state were referred to confirm
the bird’s status in other parts of the state where personal
confirmation was not possible. A few birdwatchers were
also contacted to learn about recent sightings of the bird
in their areas.
Results
The number of greylag geese sighted from Novem-
ber 1984 to January 1988 at different places in six districts
of Gujarat is given in Table 1. The largest flock (401) ob-
served was at Wadhawana of Baroda district by Nitin Pan-
dya (pers. comm.). Such a big flock was not reported from
Table 1
RECENT SIGHTINGS OF THE GREYLAG GOOSE IN GUJARAT
Recorded by Nitin Pandya, 2 Recorded by Narendrasinh Zala
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
141
Fig. 1 Map of Gujarat showing locations where the greylag goose was recorded.
Closed circles represent locations of present sightings, open circles show sites of old pulished records.
elsewhere. However, a large number (100 +) of the geese
were found wintering in Ahmedabad and Kheda districts
also, it was seen only in fewer numbers in Sabarkantha and
Surendranagar districts. Although the size of the flock ob-
served at the reservoirs of Kheda district varied each year,
the data indicated that they regularly visited the well ir-
rigated parts of the state in winter. All the places where the
goose has been sighted in Gujarat are mapped in Fig. 1.
Discussion
The greylag goose was regularly captured and
brought to the Ahmedbad Municipal Zoo by the trappers
from Nalsarovar region (Babubhai, pers. comm.). En-
quiries with the trappers confirmed that the geese visit the
area regularly. The present review confirms that the geese
visit intensively irrigated areas of Ahmedabad, B aroda and
Kheda districts, where the river canal system for irrigation
is well established since long. An irrigated agroecosystem
seems to be a preferred habitat of the wintering geese. It
seems possible that the geese would winter in the other
parts of Gujarat mainland where extensive irrigation
facilities through canals from perennial rivers exist.
The geese are seen rarely in lesser numbers in
Saurashtra and Kutch. The species is not included in the
checklist of birds of Saurashtra by Dharmakumarsinhji
(1955). Only once, two birds were seen at Gaurishankar
lake at Bhavnagar in the early seventies (Shivab-
hadrasinhji, Pers. comm.). Although two of us (B.M.P. &
L.R.) spent several years in Saurashtra and Kutch, we
never came across this species. Several other birdwatchers
of the region also substantiate this; the only exception is a
record fifbm Muli (Narendrasinh Zala, pers. comm.),
where 7 geese were seen in January 1987. All these obser-
vations indicate that the geese avoid the semi-arid regions
142
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
of the state — Saurashtra and Kutch.
It is difficult to say whether the presence of geese
in large numbers in the central part of Gujarat mainland is
the recent phenomenon. It must be taken into considera-
tion that the number of resident ornithologists in Gujarat
mainland was negligible and the rarity of sight records for
the goose in earlier years may be a reflection of this. The
presence of geese at a reservoir is subject to wide diurnal
fluctuation in winter, so that their presence, when in small
numbers, in a region would be recorded only under inten-
sive birdwatching. On the other hand, it is also possible
that the frequency of the goose in Gujarat may have ac-
tually increased in recent years. Reports from Europe
reveal that the population of the greylag goose has in-
creased in recent years (Owen 1980, Karel and Pallantova
1985). An increase in the population density of the bird
would make its presence more prominent in our fields.
Such a situation would also force the geese to invade and
exploit newer areas within their wintering grounds and
thereby increase the frequency of site records.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to Dr. D.N. Yadav, Officer-in-charge,
AICRP on Economic Ornithology for his encouragement.
We thank Dr. R.M. Naik, Professor, Department of Bios-
ciences, Saurashtra University, for critically going through
the manuscript. The financial assistance given by ICAR is
acknowledged.
B.M. PARASHARYA
J.F. DODIA
K.L. MATHEW
November 1, 1988 LALSINH RAOL
References
Ali.S. (1954): The birds of Gujarat. J. Bombay nat.Hist. Soc. 53:
374-458.
Ali, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1983): Handbook of the Birds of India and
Pakistan. (Compact ed.). Oxford University Press, Delhi.
Dharmakumarsjnhji, K.S. (1954): Birds of Saurashtra. Times of
India Press, Bombay.
Karel, H. & Pallantova, J. (1985): Game management of geese
( Anser spp.) in Czechoslovakia. Folia Zool. 34(3): 255-
266.
Owen, M. (1980): The role of refuges in wildfowl management.
In: E.N. Wright, I.R. Inglis, (Eds.) Bird problems in
Agriculture. The British Crop Protection Council,
Croydon, pp. 144-156.
Palin, H. (1904): The Birds of Cutch. Times Press, Bombay.
Parasharya, B.M., Dodia, J.F. & Patel, R.C. (1986): Recent
record of Greylag Goose Anser anser from Gujarat. Pavo,
24 ( 1&2 ): 119-120.
Ripley, S.D. (1982): A Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakis-
tan. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.
12. BLACKWINGED KITE ELANUS CAERULEUS VOCIFERUS (LATHAM) AT 3650 M IN SIKKIM
On 7 May 1987, while we were on our way to the
high altitude lake Menmoitso (3450 m) in east Sikkim to
collect botanical specimens, we halted at Sherathang
(3650 m) to get a better look at a pigeon-sized bright white
bird of prey with black wingtips, hovering ahead of our
jeep. It was perfectly at home in the open snowcovered
landscape where the only visible vegetation was small
tufts of soggy primulas under drippy rock overhangs. The
time was 1 000 hrs and the weather was quite sunny. A good
look at its typical wing-upraised ‘stationary hovering’ fol-
lowed by a couple of hesitant ‘parachute descents’ of a few
metres (after which it flew off to rest on a rocky slope) con-
firmed it to be blackwinged kite Elanus caeruleus. After
resting for a few moments, it took flight at the noise of our
jeep as we moved ahead and flew out of sight.
This bird is not mentioned in BIRDS OF SIKKIM ( 1 962)
by Salim Ali. The compact edition of HANDBOOK OF THE
BIRDS OF INDIA and PAKISTAN (1983) by Ah and Ripley
states that it occurs "from the Himalayan foothills (from
c. 1600 m) and terai, south to Kanyakumari; upto c. 1200
m in the peninsular hills. Nepal, chiefly terai and lowlands
but recorded at c. 1370 m. (Biswas)."
Hence the above sighting proves not only a status
record but also an altitude record.
March 24, 1988 USHA GANGULI-LACHUNGPA
13. INTERACTION OF HONEY BUZZARD PERNIS PTILORHYNCUS WITH FANTAIL
FLYCATCHER RHIPIDURA ALBICOLLIS AND REDWATTLED LAPWING VANELLUS INDICUS
On 9 June 1988 at around 1700 hrs. I was at the bund in spite of the unprecedented drought conditions this year,
built the previous year beyond Milak Talai in Ran- As our jeep approached the bund a honey buzzard flew off
thambhore National Park, Rajasthan. On both sides of a tree parallel to the vehicle and settled with its back
the bund there is a small quantity of water among the rocks towards us on a branch of kadam tree beyond the water.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
143
On a nearby branch of the same tree was a fantail
flycatcher. It was disturbed by the honey buzzard and at-
tacked it vigorously by striking it on its back in three suc-
cessive swoops. Surprisingly, this had no effect at all on
the bigger bird. The fantail flycatcher became even more
aggressive; it sat on the honey buzzard’s back and pecked
away with its beak vigorously. This, too, did not evoke any
response and the fantail flycatcher flew off. It repeated the
manoeuvre twice in quick succession before it gave up, as
all the while the honey buzzard paid no attention what-
soever to its tormentor.
While the fantail flycatcher remained agitated on the
nearby branch, the honey buzzard turned around to face
our jeep and the water. There was a redwattled lapwing
with one fledgeling on the water’s edge. The honey buz-
zard swooped down from the tree towards them. The
mother took off and intercepted the honey buzzard in mid-
air and deflected its flight. The latter returned to its perch
on the same kadam tree. In a few moments it repeated the
swoop to meet with the same response from the lapwing.
This time the honey buzzard flew off to settle on a tree a
14. ROOSTING AND FEEDING OF HARRIES
In November 1986 and October 1987 observations
were made on the feeding and roosting habits of some har-
riers in a protected grassland area c. 1 sq.km in
Secunderabad (17°27’N, 78°28’E) almost 10 km NNE of
Hyderabad. Feeding habits of three harriers ( Circus spp.)
were studied in the winters of both 1986 and 1987, but
roosting only in 1987.
Montagu’s (C. pygargus), pale (C. macrourus ) and
marsh (C. aeruginosas ) harriers fed along with pariah kites
and kestrels on insects, chiefly grasshoppers. Most of the
time from daybreak to sundown the harriers flew low over
the grassland area, dipping every now and then, catching
grasshoppers perched on some raised hard surface, and fed
on them as fast as they could. Some of the larger grasshop-
pers eaten by harriers and kites in the study area included
the long-homed ones like Mecopoda elongata and Con-
ocephalus indicus as well as short-horned ones like
Demodocus and Cyrtacanthacris species. Kestrels, kites
and harriers also fed on medium-sized grasshoppers like
Gastrimargus , Hieroglyphus and Acrida species.
Several other birds like crows, mynas and egrets also
feed on medium and large sized grasshoppers. But what
attracted us in harriers, especially the Pale and Montagu’s
is the way they catch and feed on them. They are specialists
at the job - very agile in catching a grasshopper, cutting it
open and skillfully removing the alimentary canal, legs
(except the trochanter and femur portions), as well as
wings, and swallowing the rest of the body. Pariah kites,
kestrels and marsh harriers were seemingly rather slow
considerable distance away. I then moved on.
Lapwings are well known for being extremely ag-
gressive and will attack anything if they feel threatened.
On one instance in 1985, 1 observed a lapwing attacking a
tigress twice on the edge of Padam Talao in this very park
because the latter had decided to settle too close to the
former’s fledgelings. As such, its behaviour towards the
honey buzzard cannot be considered unexpected or par-
ticularly unusual. However, the repeated attacks of a fan-
tail flycatcher are a different matter altogether, particular-
ly when, as in this case, it had no apparent reason to be so
agressive, apart from the fact that the honey buzzard had
settled too close to its own favoured perch.
I visited the bund successively on 10, 11 and 12 of
June. The honey buzzard was not noticed, though I was
informed by the forest department staff that one was usual-
ly to be found in the vicinity of the bund. Nor was fantail
flycatcher seen. The lapwing with its fledgeling was, of
course, very much present.
June 25, 1988 DIVYABHANUSINH
IN SECUNDERABAD, ANDHRA PRADESH
and lacked in neat execution. Very often these birds left
out only the homy portion of the legs (tibia) and tarsus,
that too of the mid and hindlegs. Cattle egrets are known
to swallow the full insect. About sixty grasshoppers (most
of them intact) were once got from the stomach of a cattle
egret, the carcass of which was obtained from the Bombay
airport.
All the harriers of the area roosted on the ground
among tall grass. The study area had tall grass ( c . 120 cm),
short grass ( c . 60 cm) and bare patches. At dusk these birds
settled among the tall grasses away from the fence and
compound wall of the protected area, possibly to avoid
areas of human activity.
Four Montagu’s and four pale harriers roosted in
twos, interspersed by a marsh harrier almost three metres
apart. Observations made elsewhere show that marsh har-
riers as a rule roost in short grass or on bare ground. Some
of the common grasses in the roosting area are
Heteropogon contortus, Cymbopogon martinii,
Chrysopogon fulvus, Dichanthium annulatum, Dichan-
thium caricosum, Eragrostis tenella , Eragrostis bifaria ,
Dactyloctenium aegyptium, Cynodon dactylon. Panic um
antidotale, Paspallidum geniculatum and Digitaria
ciliaris. Some of the sedges in the study area are Cyperus
iria and Kyllinga colorata. The tall grasses probably af-
forded the protection the harriers needed from natural
enemies.
S.M. SATHEESAN
September 1, 1989 PRAKASH RAO
144
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
15. JUNGLE CAT FEUS CHAUS AND GREY JUNGLEFOWL GALLUS SONNERATII
Ladan lies in the hilly tract about 125 km west of
Udaipur in Rajasthan. On 2 June 1988, at about 0830 hrs
we were crossing a ravine in Ladan forest, when we came
across a group of four grey junglefo wl, consisting of a cock
and three hens, feeding about 90 m away. Taking ad-
vantage of the bushes in between us and the bunds, we
reduced this distance to about 55 m without disturbing
them.
The birds were feeding, gradually moving away
from us. Suddenly they stopped feeding and looked intent-
ly towards a bush about 20 m away from them on slightly
raised ground. The cock, which was in the rear, advanced
and stopped just ahead of the group.
We scanned the area with binoculars and saw a
jungle cat Felis chaus crouching in the bush. Its entire
body except the head was concealed by a low bush and it
was slowly moving its head in a clockwise direction. In
doing so it was also stirring some of the leaves of the bush.
The cock became curious and advanced a few steps
towards the bush; the other birds followed suit. In this
fashion, slowly, the birds reached within 4 to 5 metres of
the bush. The cat stopped its head movement and darted
towards them. Before the birds realized the danger it had
landed on one of the hens. The other birds scattered and
flew away in different directions. Within seconds the cat
disappeared into the bushes with its prey.
RAZATEHSIN
September 17, 1988 FATEMATEHSIN
16. HOVER-FLY ERISTAUS SP. AMONG THE STOMACH CONTENTS OF GULLBILLED TERN
GELOCHEUDON NILOTIC A (GMELIN)
The carcass of a juvenile male gullbilled tern
Gelochelidon nilotica (Gmelin) was collected from San-
tacruz at Bombay on 24 August 1982. This bird had in its
stomach three cockroaches Periplanetta americana. Two
fishes, one freshwater species Puntius sophore and the
other marine Pseudosciaena sina , two chelicerae of a
small-sized crab as well as pupae (1.5 cm long body and
3 cm long stigmata) of a hover-fly Eristalis sp. Larvae of
the genus Eristalis and some others live in water or sub-
merged in filth and have their breathing stigmata at the end
of very long, extensible tubes so as to reach the surface
while the animal is feeding.
During the monsoon of 1982 a small flock of 12-15
gullbilled terns were flying over ponds and puddles in S an-
tacruz area several times for two days. On 23 August 1982,
some of these terns were dipping into these shallow water
bodies, possibly to swoop on the larvae, pupae or adults
of some insects such as those found in the stomach of the
tern reported above.
September 17, 1988 S.M. SATHEESAN
17. BREEDING OF THE RIVER TERN STERNA AURANTIA IN KERALA
S alim Ali did not include the river tern Sterna auran-
tia in his BIRDS OF KERALA (1969) as he did not come
across it anywhere during his survey of Travancore and
Cochin. But from 1944 to 1951 when I used to spend a
couple of weeks every September and December, and 2 to
3 months between April and July, at Kavassery (Palghat
Dist., Kerala), I often came across this tem in the Gayatri
river. It was recorded in almost every month between April
and December. In some years the blackbellied tem was
also seen. The first published record of these two terns
from Kerala is that of Dr. A. J. Gaston ( J . Kerala Nat. Hist.
Soc. 1979, p. 28) who found them in 1978 near
Cheruthuruthi in the Bharatpuzha river. However, the
breeding of the river tem has not so far been reported from
Kerala.
On 16 February 1987, on a small, low, circular islet
close to the dam at the Malampuzha reservoir c. 15 km
north of Palghat town, a number of river terns and small
swallow-plovers Glareola lactea were flying about and
calling constantly. The terns were chasing and harassing
every crow and brahminy kite that ventured near the islet.
A closer look showed that about a dozen river terns were
squatting in the middle of the islet with a larger number of
pratincoles sitting around them. The way the terns sat at
the centre of the islat, each bird at the same distance from
the nearest ones and the tireless, noisy, persistent pursuit
of crows and kites reminded me of the various occasions
when in the 1940s, I had watched river terns and swallow-
plovers nesting on the islands in the Godavari at Rajah-
mundry. However, owing to the distance, the glare, and the
fact that all the terns on the island were probably incubat-
ing, we were not able to see eggs or nestlings, which alone
would have been positive proof of their nesting.
In the hope of obtaining firm evidence of the breed-
ing of these birds, I went again to Malampuzha on 2 March
1987 with Namassivayan and P.K. Uthaman. But, owing
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
145
most probably to the intrusion of some persons into the
islet, all the birds had deserted the place.
In May 1988 river terns in ones and twos were seen
occasionally fishing in a tank and a river close to my home
at Kavassery and flying off to the south whenever they had
secured a small fish. As the only reservoir in that direction
was that of the Mangalam Dam (c. 11 km south of Kavas-
sery), I went to the reservoir on 1 June with Mohanan Van-
dali. On a island close to the shore we found six river terns
and some 25 small swallow-plovers, which showed great
agitation when we waded to the island. On the island we
came across a number of half-shells and at one spot a large
quantity of crushed fragments of the terns’ eggs. The des-
sicated carcass of a juvenile was also found. Our attention
was then caught by some large splotches of white faecal
matter, and as we walked towards it the terns displayed in-
tense agitation. These splotches were at the edge of a cir-
cular patch of thick grass and shrubs that capped the flat
top of the island. Searching in the dense vegetation,
Mohanan spotted a juvenile tern lying close to a heap of
boulders. It was about seven inches long. It had so pressed
itself into a shallow depression that its back and wings
looked absolutely flat. The growing primaries and the
short tail were pale grey, the wing coverts buff with sub-
terminal blackish chevrons. The bill was dull ochre-yel-
low.
We left the place as quickly as possible in order to
save the birds further anxiety. We found no evidence of the
breeding of the pratincoles on that island, but, as all of
them had flown to a much larger island a kilometre away
over which some terns were flying, we thought that the
pratincoles could have been nesting there along with some
terns.
This, to the best of my knowledge, is the first record
of the breeding of the river tern in Kerala. I am grateful to
Mr Jamal of Mudappallur for arranging this trip to the
Mangalam dam.
June 21, 1988 K.K. NEELAKANTAN
18. BEHAVIOUR OF SOUTHERN SPOTTED OWLET ATHENE BRAMA BRAMA (TEMMINCK)
AND JUNGLE CROW (TEMMINCK) AND JUNGLE CROW CORVUSMACRORHYNCHOS
AT POINT CALIMERE, TAMIL NADU
On 10 June 1988 at 1210 hrs I heard the distress call
of a whitebreasted kingfisher Halcyon smyrnonsis near the
fence of our office campus at the Point Calimere Wildlife
Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu. I went in the direction of the call
and noticed a jungle crow Corvus macrorhynchos perch-
ing on a Thespesia populnea tree holding a whitebreasted
kingfisher in its bill. The kingfisher continued calling and
with its flapping wings tried to extricate itself from the
predator’s clutches. The call of the kingfisher was high
pitched; I saw one of the three spotted owlets Athene
hrama perched on a nearby Madhuca longifolia tree, fly
at the jungle crow and its prey. When the spotted owlet
flew close to the jungle crow, it dropped the kingfisher to
the ground and changed its perch. The spotted owlet then
returned to its earlier perch. The wounded kingfisher was
still alive and was slowly crawling towards cover at the
base of the Thespesia tree, but the crow caught the kig-
fisher again and perched in the same tree. Once again the
spotted owlet flew at the crow, which dropped its prey im-
mediately. The owlet again returned to its earlier perch.
When the owlet left, the crow picked up the prey and per-
ched on the same tree. It was joined by another jungle crow
and the crows complacently started pecking and tearing at
the prey though the kingfisher was calling in distress. This
time, the spotted owlet made no attempt to mob the crow,
probably being frightened by the presence of the second
crow.
It is clear that the attempts by the owlet to mob the
crow were a reaction to the distress call of the kingfisher
rather than an effort to grab the prey. Probably, as the
spotted owlet was with its family, the distress call of the
kingfisher might have motivated a defence reaction. On
both the occasions when the kingfisher was dropped to the
ground, the owlet made no attempt to go near it.
July 5, 1988 P. BALASUBRAMANIAN
19. BIRD-AIRCRAFT COLLISION AT AN ALTITUDE OF 2424 M OVER THE SEA
According to reports from the Indian naval
authorities in INS Virat, at about 2100 hours on 10 October
1987, an aircraft cruising 30 nm west of Dabolim (Goa)
over the Arabian Sea at a speed of 400 knots and altitude
of 2424 m was hit by a medium- sized bird. After detailed
macroscopic and microscopic examination of the bird
strike remnants sent to us, we identified the bird as a Kash-
mir roller (blue jay) Coracias garrulus.
Not much data on migration or ringing is available
on this bird. According to Ali and Ripley (1983) Kashmir
rollers migrate during day time, chiefly in the morning
before noon and later throughout the day. From the above
data we understand the bird must have been flying at night
at an altitude of 2424 m and probably was on its autumn
146
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
migration from east-northeast to west-southwest, which
generally occurs during mid August to early October. This
bird is not recorded so far to be flying at this altitude.
This data was collected as a part of the work in the
BNHS project on Bird Hazards at Indian aerodromes and
Bird Hazard Research Cell, both sponsored and funded by
AR & DB, Defence Ministry, Government of India.
October 13, 1988 S.M. SATHEESAN
References
Ali, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1983): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Compact edition Oxford University Press, Delhi.
20. OCCURRENCE OF LONG-CLAWED SKYLARK
ALAUDA GULGULA DHARMAKUMARSINHJI IN CENTRAL INDIA
(With a text-figure )
References
Abdulali, H. (1975); On a new subspecies of the Skylark Soc. 72(2): 448-449.
Alauda gulgula Franklin in Gujarat, India. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Fig. 1 Long-clawed skylark
During the Society’s bird ringing camp at Karera
Bustard Sanctuary (25°30’N, 78°12’E), Dist. Shivpuri,
Madhya Pradesh between 6 January and 28 March 1988,
35 eastern skylark Alauda gulgula were ringed. Interest-
ingly on 19 February 1988, while ringing was in progress
a skylark with an unusually long hindclaw was noticed.
We checked the claw measurement and compared it with
the other skylarks trapped that day. We were then under
the impression that the bird was just a skylark A lauda gul-
gula like the others we were netting but with an abnormal
hindclaw. The bird was ringed with BNHS ring A202640
and released after noting all the physical parameters such
as wing, bill, tarsus and tail length. While compiling the
ringing data we identified it as of the subspecies A.g. dhar-
makumarsinhji Abdulali 1975. The race had been
separated from the other races A.g. gulgula and A.g. pun-
jaubi mainly on the basis of the long hind claw. The hind
claw length of this subspecies has been given as ranging
from 17.5-24 mm with an average of 20.2 mm. The bird
which we ringed had a claw length of 22 mm and the fol-
lowing other measurements:
Wing 93 mm, bill 15 mm, tarsus 23 mm, tail 56 mm,
weight 25 g.
Seven specimens of this race, all from Kutch area of
Gujarat, were described by Abdulali as A. gulgula dhar-
makumarsinhji. Hence it is of interest to note that the bird
has been recorded beyond its known range. At the same
time it cannot be ruled out that the bird can be a resident
somehwere in the neighbourhood from where it strays or
migrates. In due course, when sufficient number of birds
are reported from this area, the range of the subspecies can
be described with certainty.
Mr Humayun Abdulali, who desribed this sub-
species, when approached for his comments agreed with
our conclusions. We thank him for his help.
K.K. MOHAPATRA
July 9, 1988 PRAKASH RAO
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
147
21. OCCURRENCE OF HAIRCRESTED DRQNGO DICRURUS HOTTENTOTTUS (LINNAEUS)
IN POINT CALIMERE, TAMIL NADU
On 10 November 1987, while ringing the forest
birds near the old Forest Rest House at Point Calimere,
Tamil Nadu, we identified a haircrested drongo Dicrurus
hottentottus along with a catch of five Indian grey dron-
gos. The haircrested drongo was ringed and the measure-
ments are as follows.
Wing 161 mm; bill (from skull) 39 mm; tarsus 25
mm; central tail 130 mm, outer tail 134 mm; weight 82 g.
Refe
Jamdar, N. (1987): Addition to the birds of Point Calimere, S.
India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84: 206.
Sugathan, R. (1982): Some interesting aspects of the Avifauna
of the Point Calimere Sanctuary, Thanjavur district,
Sugathan (1982), Jamdar (1987) and Sugathan et al.
(1987) recorded 243 species of birds from Point Calimere.
Though 16,830 forest birds were ringed under the BNHS
ringing programme (1980-1986), the haircrested drongo
has been neither ringed nor sighted earlier.
V. NATARAJAN
September 27, 1988 P. BALASUBRAMANIAN
NCES
Tamil Nadu. ibid. 79: 567-575.
Sugathan, R., Melville, D.S. & Alagarrajan, S. (1987): Fur-
ther additions to the Avifauna of Point Calimere. ibid. 84:
206-207.
22. REAPPEARANCE OF STURNUS VULGARIS LINNAEUS IN KUTCH
One of the authors, while birdwatching at Devisar
jheel (north of Bhuj, Kutch) on 9 November 1988, came
across five starlings. On two subsequent visits to the jheel
by SNV and some members of the Pelican Nature Club of
Kutch on the 1 1 th and 13th two and three starlings respec-
tively were observed. He visited Devisar on 18 November
and noted 50 ± birds. Four of them were seen first, and
after they flew away 14 more came and settled on a tree,
while in-between a flock of 30 ± were seen flying across.
The birds under observation came and perched on stunted
Prosopis juliflora standing at the edge of the jheel with a
lush growth of reeds and other vegetation cropped short
by buffaloes. The starlings would come down to the
ground to feed among the clumps of reeds and would fly
up frequently to their perches, a habit typical of this
species.
Sturnus vulgaris , though commoner in Sind, across
the border, is a rare cold weather visitor to Kutch,
Saurashtra and perhaps also to the adjoining areas of north
Gujarat. The Salim Ali survey of Kutch in 1943-44 failed
to meet with this species. As far as we are aware, the bird
has not been recorded here since they were seen by Capt.
C.D. Lester, who mentions having seen about a dozen of
them on 27 December 1895 ( JBNHS 10 p. 331, Jan.
1896), and he again came across seven of these birds at
Padhar village (about 10 km east of Bhuj) on 23 February
1896. Thus die recent occurrence of Sturnus vulgaris per-
haps follows after a gap of a few years short of a century;
and hence this note for the sake of information and record.
HIMMATSINHJI
S.N. VARU
November 30, 1988 N.N. BAPAT
23. ALTITUDINAL RANGE EXTENSION OF THE BRAHMINYMYNA
STURNUS PAGODARUM IN CHUSHUL, LADAKH
During the survey of the blacknecked crane Grus
nigricollis conducted by the BNHS from July to Novem-
ber 1987, I came across a small party of four brahminy
myna Sturnus pagodarum (Gmelin) in a willow plantation
(Salix sp.) in Chushul, Ladakh (34° 35’N, 78° 43’E, al-
titude 4,419 m). They were seen regularly till the third
week of September. This species was also seen during
August - October 1986.
Its altitudinal range has been recorded as 3000 m by
Ripley (SYNOPSIS, 1982). An exceptional extralimital sight
record near the Hanley monstery, Ladakh, about 90 km
southeast of Chushul (32° 47’N, 79° 04’E, altitude 4340
m). has also been reported by Ripley (op. cit.)
The above sighting indicates an altitudinal range ex-
tension of the species in the arid region of Ladakh. This is
probably because of afforestation willow plantations by
the Jammu and Kashmir forest department.
October 13, 1988
S. ASAD AKHTAR
148
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
24. EXTENSION OF BREEDING RANGE OF BROWN FLYCATCHER MUSCICAPA LATIROSTRIS
The known breeding range of the brown flycatcher
Muscicapa latirostris in India consists of three disjunct
areas: the Eastern Himalayas, the Vindhya range, and the
southern part of the Western Ghats, and it is suspected to
breed in parts of the Eastern Ghats (Ali and Ripley 1983).
This bird was first observed in the Gir forest in Gujarat in
March 1966 (Raol 1966), though it was recorded from the
Dangs forest (also in Gujarat) earlier (Ali 1955). There-
after, the bird has been seen occasionally, and these obser-
vations were believed to be of wintering or migrating
birds. On 28 May 1988, Jamal Ahmed Khan and I were
walking a transect in the Amla and Khokhara forest blocks
of the Gir Lion Sanctuary in Gujarat, for ungulate counts,
when I came across an adult brown flycatcher. It was in
the upper canopy of a Ficus tree, foraging for insects in
small aerial sallies. After a few flights, it flew to a branch
on which a young bird was perched. The adult fed the
young one. The fledgling was capable of flying and it took
to flight immediately following the feed. Then it remained
on a nearby branch calling out to the parent. The adult
moved off into a neighbouring tree to forage. There were
no signs of any other fledglings or a second parent in the
vicinity.
The present observation further extends the breed-
ing range of the brown flycatcher to the Gir forest in
Gujarat.
June 25, 1988 TAEJ MUNDKUR
References
Ali, S. (1955): The birds of Gujarat. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
52: 735-802.
Ali,S. & Ripley, S. D. (1983): Handbook of the birds of India and
Pakistan. Compact edition. Oxford University Press,
Delhi.
Raol, L. M. (1966): Occurrence of the Brown Flycatcher in the
Gir forest. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 63: 751.
25. AN UNUSUAL NESTING SITE OF THE SUNBIRD
(With a text-figure )
Fig. 1 . Sunbird nest on telegraph wire
According to Ali and Ripley (1983) the nest of the
purple sunbird Nectarinia asiatica is generally suspended
on a twig within a couple of metres from the ground, main-
ly in some bush or a low tree. They have also collated some
unusual nest site records like punkah-pulling rope, hang-
ing electric wire of portico lamp in regular use, rafter in
veranda, pendant flush-tank chain in temporary disused
lavatory, etc. To these unusual nesting site records, fully
exposed telephone wire should now also be included. On
21 May 1988, outside the Dudwa National Park in Uttar
Pradesh, on Dudwa-Pallia road, we saw an old (?) sunbird
nest suspended from the telephone wire (Fig. 1). It was
about a metre from the pole, and was built on the middle
wire, among the five wires. The nest was complete, with
a small porch-like protection over the entrance. It was
about 5 m from the ground and fully exposed. After two
days we found the nest about one metre from its earlier
position. The knot from which it was suspended must have
become loose, so the nest moved away with the strong
wind (there was a mild storm on 22 May). We are not sure
whether or not the sunbird was successful in raising the
chicks, but from the condition of the nest it appeared that
it was untouched by a predator. We are also not very sure
about the identity of the sunbird species but we think the
nest was built by a purple sunbird Nectarinia asiatica , as
this species is commonly seen in the Park.
ASAD R. RAHMANI
July 9, 1988 RAVI SANKARAN
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
149
References
Ali. S. & Ripley, S.D. (1983): Handbook of the Birds of India and Delhi.
Pakistan. (Compact edition). Oxford University Press,
26. RANGE EXTENSION OF THE SPANISH SPARROW PASSER HISPANIOLENSIS (TEMMINCK)
While banding birds at the Karera Bustard Sanctuary
(25°30’N, 78° 12’E) in Madhya Pradesh, we ringed
several Spanish sparrows Passer hispaniolensis (Tem-
minck) between 10 January and 25 March 1988. A total of
44 birds (15 males, 29 females) were ringed. Several large
flocks of these birds were seen in wheat and sugarcane
fields at Fatehpur and nearby areas in the sanctuary.
According to Ah and Ripley (HANDBOOK, Comp.
Ed., 1983), the Spanish sparrow is a winter visitor to India
and has a range extending from the plains of Punjab and
Haryana, south to northeastern Rajasthan (Bharatpur-
27°14’N, 77°32’E).
The occurrence of the species in Karera further ex-
tends the range of the bird south by approximately 200 km
from its known range.
K.K. MOHAPATRA
October 15, 1988 PRAKASH RAO
27. FLOWER PETALS OF CROTALARIA JUNCEA OBSERVED FROM HALF BUILT NESTS OF
PLOCEUS BENGHALENSIS
At the ‘helmet’ stage of the construction of the nest,
a quantity of wet mud or cowdung is daubed thickly along
the edge of the helmet — analogous to the nape portion —
into which brightly coloured scarlet or orange flowers or
flower-petals ( Lantana , Lagerstroemia ) are implanted
(Ali & Ripley 1983).
I had earlier observed flowers of Acacia nilotica,
Cucumis melo var momordica, Momordia dioca and M.
balsamia in half built nests of Ploceus benghalensis (Shar-
ma 1985, 1986).
In August 1987, while studying the effect of drought
on the breeding success among different species of weaver
birds, I came across three half built nests of P. benghalen-
sis on clumps of Saccharum munja near village Badli in
Alwar district, with yellow coloured flower petals of
Crotalaria juncea implanted in the wet bed of dung inside
the egg chambers of the half built nests.
I observed a blooming, irrigated Crotolaria juncea
crop in a field hardly 50 m away from the breeding colony,
near a hamlet. The whole of the nearby area did not have
any wild monsoon plants like Cucumis melo var. momor-
dica, Momordica dioica and M. balsamia due to unusual
drought during 1987.
Perhaps due to scarcity of wild yellow flowers,
cocks of blackthroated weaver birds used the yellow
flowers of irrigated agricultural crops like C. juncea.
September 26, 1987 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA
References
Ali, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1983): Handbook of the birds of India &
Pakistan, Compact edition, p. 678. Oxford University
Press, New Delhi.
Sharma, S.K. (1985): Use of wet dung in egg chamber of half
built nest by the blackthroated weaver bird. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 82(3): 661-664.
(1986): Colour selections by the blackthroated
weaver bird Ploceus benghalensis. ibid 83: (Centenary
supplement): 214-216.
(1986): Monochromic beautification of nest by
blackbreasted weaver bird Ploceus benghalensis. Vijnama
Parishad Annusandhan Patrika 29(2): 149-153.
28. TERRITORIAL BEHAVIOUR OF MALE GHARIAL GAVIAUS GANGETICUS
IN THE NATIONAL CHAMB AL SANCTUARY, INDIA
(With a text-figure )
During the breeding season a 6 m long male gharial
Gavialis gangeticus fought with a male of equal length but
tolerated a younger and smaller male in the same breeding
area. Observations related to this are reported below.
Gharial populations in the National Chambal
Sanctuary (NCS) are annually monitored by undertaking
on-boat surveys from downstream. The surveys are nor-
mally carried out during January- February when the
gharial breeding season commences. In this season, be-
haviour related to breeding are (a) congregation of breed-
150
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Fig. 1. Map of National Chambal Sanctuary. Arrows show nesting sites where two male gharial showed territorial behaviour.
ing groups near traditional or potential nesting sites and
(b) courting.
The communal nesting site located in the uppermost
reaches of the NCS during 1984 was at Baroli, which is
57 km downstream from the Chambal-Parbati confluence
(Fig. 1). During the course of the next annual survey, on
18 February 1985, a group of 6 females and one male
gharial was sighted at 1600 hrs at Baroli. The next morn-
ing we confirmed the presence of 13 female gharials, but
could not locate the male.
While continuing our survey from Baroli towards
Nadigaon (downstream) we located 2 more females. At the
Nadigaon communal nesting area, located 17 km
downstream from Baroli, we saw two equal sized (6 m)
male gharials engaged in a fight. Their snouts, including
the g haras, had numerous injuries and appeared pink and
red from the distance. The fight included side-to-side sur-
facing and then sudden leaping up above the water surface
with audible clashing of the snouts held vertically up-
wards. Noises included nasal hissing and water splash.
This was followed by either submergence or resurfacing.
Resumption of the fight was usually after a lapse of about
5 minutes. After observing the fight for an hour we left the
place to continue the survey. We were informed by the vil-
lagers that the fight had started two days earlier.
On 28 February 1985, we found one of the injured
resident males back at Baroli. The male was seen con-
tinuously for the 6 days we stayed there.
Discussion
Gharial are usually extremely tolerant of smaller
conspecifics in close proximity in the wild (Bustard and
Maharana 1981). While studying the ecology of gharial in
the Mahanadi river, Singh (1978) reported that males are
territorial during the breeding season. Occasionally, the
territoriality will end with fatal consequences. Bustard and
Maharana (1981) reported that a resident 3 m male in a
breeding enclosure atNandankanan Biological Park, Oris-
sa, was killed (though without any apparent external in-
jury) by another 3.85 m male introduced during the breed-
ing season. However, two young male gharial along with
8 females were present in a rearing enclosure at Kukrail
Crocodile Rehabilitation Centre, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh,
where they bred for the first time during 1985 (Basu, pers.
comm.). Observations from Kukrail and Tikerpada (Oris-
sa) on gharial and our experience from captive manage-
ment of the mugger Crocodylus palustris suggest that ir-
respective of sex, equal sized crocodilians may tolerate
each other if they have grown up together from the hatc-
hling stage.
From the incident narrated in this note, it appears
that the resident male at Nadigaon had first travelled
upstream and entered the territory of the male at Baroli.
The reason may be for mating and the cue leading to the
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
151
presence of a large group of females upstream may be
chemical. Such chemical communication has been sug-
gested for mugger (Singh 1979). The territorial male at
Baroli may have chased the intruder until they travelled
17 km downstream to Nadigaon where we noticed them
fighting. Under whatever circumstances the males may
have met, it is clear that equal sized males are strongly ter-
ritorial during the breeding season. Singh (1985) men-
tioned that the minimum distance between two males oc-
cupying their own territories was 5 km in Chambal.
Rao (1988) reported that a young male about 5 m in
length was sighted in October 1986 at the Baroli nesting
site. Thereafter, it was seen sharing the river stretch with
a large male and participating in hatchling attendance.
However, the males basked at places separated by a dis-
tance of around 500 m. It is presumed that, since the new
male was small and young, the old resident male was
tolerant of it and allowed it to join the breeding population
at Baroli.
Permitting a younger male in the breeding popula-
tion at a particular area may bear a survival significance
because, after the death of the resident large male, breed-
ing will continue until a more vigorous/territorial male
takes over the area. As per available records, one 7 m male
gharial was killed at Baroli during January 1983. It is not
known whether the 6 m male now present at Baroli had
replaced the dead male or had succeeded it in the hierar-
chical order after living with it for some years.
In conclusion, it is seen that an old gharial male may
allow a younger male to join its breeding group but at the
same time maintain its territory with other breeding males
of different groups. From these observations, it is sug-
gested that introducing anew breeding male into an estab-
lished adult group should be done with caution. It is safer
to add a younger male than an older or smaller male.
Acknowledgements
We thank the Chief Conservator of Forests
(Wildlife), Madhya Pradesh, for necessary facilities.
Director, Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, for finan-
cial assistance, Mr. D. Basu of Uttar Pradesh Forest
Department for information and the field staff of Nation-
al Chambal Sanctuary (Madhya Pradesh/Uttar
Pradesh/Rajasthan) for accompanying us on the survey
L.A.K. SINGH
November 18, 1989 RJ RAO
References
Bustard, H.R. & Maharana, S. (1981): Fatal male-male conflict
in the gharial Gavialis gangeticus (Gmelin) (Reptilia,
Crocodilia). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 78 (1): 1-3.
Rao, RJ. (1988): Nesting ecology of the gharial in National
Chambal Sanctuary, Study report, WII/NCS mimeo pp.
105.
Singh, L.A.K. (1978): Ecological studies on the Indian Gharial
Gavialis gangeticus (Gmelin) (Reptilia, Crocodilia). Ph.D.
thesis, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar, Orissa.
(1979): Sexual attraction of a wild mugger
(i Crocodylus palustris , Lesson) toward captive muggers. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 76(1): 167-172.
(1985): Gharial population trends in National Cham-
bal Sanctuary with notes on radio-tracking. Study report.
CRC/WIL mimeo pp. 167.
29. TWO FRESHWATER TURTLES OF THE GENUS KACHUGA FROM ASSAM
(With a text-figure)
I report here the collection of two roofed turtles of
the genus Kachuga from the state of Assam.
In 1987, 1 was given a carapace (Fig. 1) of a roofed
turtle by a Mishing (formerly Miris) fisherman of Dis-
angmukh (94°30’E) in the Sibsagar district of Assam. Dis-
angmukh is on the banks of the Brahmaputra river, near
the confluence of the Disang river with that of the Brah-
maputra. The turtle may have been caught from either of
the rivers. Later on it was tentatively identified as a brown
roofed turtle Kachuga smithii (Gray, 1863). It measured
18.7 cm (straight carapace length) and 13.7 (straight
carapace width). It may well be an undescribed subspecies
of K. smithii . So far as the available work goes, the east-
ern known limit of the species is Bengal (Das 1988, Moll
1987).
Moll comments on the species, "Based on the height
of the shell, I would tentatively support your identification
of K. smithii. However, it would help to see the plastron.
The high spine on the 3rd vertebral scute is unusual. Also
the second vertebral tends to be shaped similar to that of
K. tecta. The specimen is sufficiently unusual that I can-
not be positive of the species".
On 25 October 1987, while on a bird survey in the
flooded Fulai-Dighali beel in Pani-Dihing area of Sib-
sagar district, I collected another species of the genus
Kachuga , the Indian tent terrapin Kachuga tentoria Gray,
1834. It was given to me by the local fishermen and was
released after examination and photography. The
152
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
L... ,1
Fig. 1. Carapace of Kachuga smithii , lateral view
specimen was a young one, with a carapace length
(straight) of 7.0 cm. Although the area is a complex of
beels (ox-bow lakes and depressions) and jans (channels),
during my visit it was virtually a part of the Brahmaputra
river, following the devastating floods in 1987 that
breached many embankments along the river. The typical
race of Kachuga tentoria , to which my turtle was sub-
sequently assigned, was not noted as occurring in the
Brahmaputra by Smith (1931). However, Das (1988)
reported finding the form in the Manas Tiger Reserve in
Assam’s Barpeta district and in the Kaziranga National
Park in Nagaon and Golaghat districts of the same state,
but within the drainage of the Brahmaputra. My records
thus further confirm the existence of the species in the
Brahmaputra river.
Locally, both species are called dora kacho , while
the shell is referred to as solong.
I thank Indraneil Das of Calcutta for identifying
Kachuga tentoria , Dr. E.O. Moll for commenting on the
possible Kachuga smithii , Prabhat Yien of Disangmukh
for donating the carapace of Kachuga smithii and Puran
Das of Jailgaon for extending help during the Fulai-
Dighali trip.
November, 12 1989 ANWARUDDIN CHOUDHURY
References
Das, I. (1988): A survey of land tortoises and freshwater turtles
in northeastern India. IUCN/WWF Project 6343. 28 pp.
Moll, E.O. (1987): Survey of the freshwater turtles of India. Part
II. The genus Kachuga. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84(1):
7-25.
Smith, M.A. (1931): The fauna of British India, including Ceylon
and Burma. Reptilia and Amphibia. Part I. Loricata. Tes-
tudines. Taylor and Francis, London, xxxiii +185 pp.
30. A SURVEY OF FRESHWATER TURTLES OF GUJARAT
(With a plate and a text-figure )
Introduction
Information available on the reptilian fauna of
Gujarat with respect to their systematics and regionwise
distribution is scant. The literature reveals that few her-
petologists e.g. Stoliczka (1872) and McCann (1938),
have attempted the study of reptiles and amphibia of
Kutch. Acharya (1949) and Kapadia (1951) listed the rep-
tiles from Gujarat, Daniel and Shull (1963) have listed the
reptiles from Gujarat region and Sharma (1982) made a
study of reptiles of Gujarat. As a part of studies on rep-
tilian fauna, a survey of freshwater turtles of Gujarat was
undertaken during the years 1987 and 1988. (In the year
1987-88 Gujarat suffered a severe drought and most of the
rivers and water reservoirs went dry. It was thus a
favourable time for getting information about turtles.)
The river systems of Narmada, Tapi, Mahi, Sabar-
mati, Ambika, Puma and Shetrunji and the perennial water
reservoirs were surveyed. Information was collected on
the habitat, biology, vernacular name, natural history,
water pollution, myths and beliefs etc., from local fisher-
men and tribal people.
A few turtles were kept alive for feeding and breed-
ing behavioural studies at Sayaji Baug Zoo, Vadodara.
The specimens were measured with vernier cal-
lipers and tape measure and weighed with a spring balance.
Measurements taken include curved carapace length (CL),
curved carapace width (CW), plastron length (PL), and
height of shell (H), weight (W).
Physiography of Gujarat: Gujarat is conveniently
divisible into (i) Saurashtra and Kutch, (ii) north Gujarat
and (iii) south Gujarat. Kutch and the north and northwest
borders of north Gujarat are a desert, while Saurashtra is
less arid; the rest of Gujarat is semi-arid.
Big river s like Sabarmati, Mahi, Narmada, and
Tapi flow throughout the year in north and south Gujarat
regions.
Turtles and the culture of Gujarat: There is a stone turtle
in the temple of Lord Shiva, symbolizing the Yamunariver.
Turtle worship can be seen in many parts of Gujarat.
Turtle-meat and eggs are used as food by some of
the Gujarati tribals. The Waghari, Bhoi, Dangi, Koli, Pad-
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 87 Plate l
Vyas & Patel: Turtles of Gujarat
Top: Costo-periferal fontanelles in shell of male Kachuga tecta.
Centre: Fungus infection on carapace of K. tecta.
Bottom: Cockroach eating K. tecta.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
153
har and Harijans believe that turtle meat is good for health
and increases fertility in men. The farmers keep live turtles
in wells and water tanks as they keep the water clean.
Results
The following species of freshwater turtles were
recorded. The colour, measurements and other descriptive
data given here are from live specimens.
Family: Emydidae
Peninsular black turtle Melanochelys trijuga trijuga
(Schweigger).
Material:
1 . CL 7.80 cm, CW 6.60 cm, PL 6.40 cm, H 2.93 cm,
W 0.086 kg. Gira river, near Dhuldha Village, Dist.
Dangs, 25 Jan. 1987, Coll. K.P. Bhatt.
2. CL 8.80 cm, CW 6.33 cm, PL7.30 cm, H 1.36 cm,
W 0.095 kg. Bardipada, Dist. Dangs, 20 Sept. 1987, Coll.
K.P. Bhatt.
3. CL 24.9 cm, CW 21.7 cm, PL 20.7 cm, H 8.8 cm,
W 1.745 kg. Dhuldha Village, Dist. Dangs, 18 Aug. 1988,
Coll. K.P. Bhatt.
4. CL 23.8 cm, CW 21.3 cm, PL 20.8 cm, H 8.1 cm,
W 1.622 kg, Dhuldha Village, Dist. Dangs, 22 Aug. 1988,
Coll. K.P. Bhatt.
Description : Carapace moderately depressed and
tricarinate. Colour light brown in young, darker in adults.
Head brown with pale reticulation, upper jaw pale and
bicupspid. Feet dark with enlarged scales, digits well
webbed. Underparts of neck and limbs creamy yellow.
Distribution: Gujarat: tributary of Ambica and Puma
rivers, Ahwa, Dangs district. Elsewhere: peninsular India
(Das 1985).
Indian roofed terrapin Kachuga tecta (Gray)
Material :
1. CL 8.8 cm, CW 6.0 cm, PL7.0 cm, H 2.15 cm, W
0.125 k.g (Mahi river, near Lunawada, Dist. Panchmahals,
20 Feb. 1987, Coll. Aspibhai Driver.
2. CL 9.0 cm, CW 6.60 cm, PL 7.50 cm, H 2.20 cm,
W 0.130 kg. Mahi river, near Lunawada, Dist.
Panchmahals, 16 March 1987 Coll. Aspibhai Driver.
3. CL 2 1.0 cm, CW 18.9 cm, PL 18.0 cm, H 9.30 cm,
W 1.150 kg. Sabarmati river, near Indroda village, Dist.
Gandhinagar, 23 May 1988, Coll. R.V. Vyas.
4. CL 23.0 cm, C W 19.8 cm, PL 18.6 cm, H 10.0 cm,
W 1.350 kg. Sabarmati river, near Koba village, Dist.
Gandhinagar, 25 May 1988, Coll. D. Matang.
5. CL 10.7 cm, CW 7.55 cm, PL 8.30 cm, H 2.8 cm,
W 0.150 kg. Sabarmati river, near Indroda village, Dist.
Gandhinagar. 20 Dec. 1988, Coll. J. Golaniya.
Description: Carapace elevated with flat sides and a strong
median keel with second vertebral shields longer than the
third. Carapace olive brown with red and black bordered
Fig. 1 . Map of Gujarat showing major rivers. Inset figure shows location of Gujarat state i n India.
154
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
dorse-median keel, a yellow border on marginal, cervical
shield black. Black spot or thick line on the joint of each
pleural scute and four small black spots on comer of the
last (5th) vertebral scute. The plastron yellow-orange with
2-3 black markings on each scute, a black spot on each in-
guinal and axillary scute. A dark orange-red mark on the
border of the anal scute. The head with a large orange-yel-
low crescent-shaped mark, mandible orange, neck dark
olive with yellow stripes, limbs dark with yellow spots,
yellow vertical stripes on rump.
Distribution: Gujarat: Sabarmati and river systems of
Mahi. Reported by Moll and Vijaya (1986) from the Nar-
mada river. Elsewhere: Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra
rivers and their tributaries (Moll 1987).
We observed some of the specimens eating insects
like crickets, cockroaches, ants and moths in captivity. The
largest specimen recorded by Smith (1933) was 32.0 cm.
Female was also recorded by us from the Sabarmati river
near Koba village, Dist. Gandhinagar, Gujarat. The
Gujarati name is "Rangin Kachab".
Pinkringed tent terrapin Kachuga tentoria circumdata
(Mertens)
Material:
1. specimen; CL 9.60 cm, CW 8.10 cm, PL 9.0 cm,
H 4.33 cm, W 0.085 kg. Tapi river, near Surat, Dist. Surat
20 July 1988, Coll. K.P. Bhatt.
Description: Carapace elevated with flat side and a strong
median keel; third vertebral shield longer than the second.
Carapace olive brown with a light pink colour ring around
pleuro-marginal junction, dorso-median keel pink with
black border. Plastron yellow with large black blotches on
each scute. Head olive brown with a pink broken band on
the occipital region and pink postocular spot, a much
smaller pink mark located at dorsal posterior edges of eye.
Neck with indistinct stripes, limbs olive with unclear yel-
low spots. Dark olive and cream coloured vertical stripes
on rump region.
Distribution: Only a single specimen was collected from
the Tapi river near Surat, Dist. Surat. Elsewhere: the
western and central drainage of the Ganga river (Das 1985,
Moll 1987).
Family: Triqnychidae
Indian flapshell turtle: Lissemys punctata punctata
(Bonnaterre)
Material:
1 . CL 21 .50 cm, CW 21 .00 cm, PL 19.50 cm, H 7.35
cm, W L600 kg. Gaurishankar lake, Bhavnagar, Dist.
Bhavnagar, 18 Jan. 1987, Coll. R.V. Vyas.
2. CL 10.00 cm, CW 10.20 cm, PL 9.90 cm, H 3.30
cm, W 0.155 kg. Tapi river, near Surat, Dist. Surat, 13
March 1987, Coll. K.P. Bhatt.
3. CL 24.50 cm, CW 24.00 cm, PL 22.20 cm, H 8.80
cm, W 2.100 kg. Raja Rani talao, Vadodara, Dist.
Vadodara, 12 April 1988, Coll. K.B. Mali.
4. CL 22.00 cm, CW 22.00 cm, PL 20.00 cm, H 8.20
cm, W 1.850 kg, Vishvamitri river, near Vadodara, Dist.
Vadodara, 15 Sept. 1988, Coll. R.V. Vyas.
Description: Carapace convex and oval, olivebrown with
numerous dark green or black spots, which disappear with
age. Plastron pale yellow or light orange. Head greenish
with three oblique streaks and a black bar from eye to angle
of mouth. Digits well webbed.
Distribution: Gujarat: Very common in the ponds and
rivers of Gujarat state. Elsewhere: Peninsular India (Das
1985).
Most common species in Gujarat. Normally Vaghari
and other tribes use it as food. Farmers like to keep it in
wells and watertanks. The local name is Pani no Kachabo.
Ganges soft-shell turtle Trionyx gangeticus Cuvier
Material:
1. CL 44.00 cm, CW 33.00 cm, PL 26.50 cm, H
13.50 cm, W 11.5 kg. Vishvamitri river, near Vadodara,
Dist. Vadodara, 5 March 1986, Coll. R.V. Vyas.
2. CL 71.00 cm, CW 56.00 cm, PL 49.50 cm, H
17.50 cm, W 23.0 kg. Talao of Harni village, Dist.
Vadodara, 10 Sept. 1987, Coll. R.V. Patel.
3. CL 77.00 cm, CW 63.50 cm, PL 55.00 cm, H
21.50 cm, W 26.5 kg. Mahi river, near Sin thro t, Dist.
Vadodara, 25 Oct. 1987, Coll. R.V. Vyas.
4. CL 36.00 cm, CW 32.00 cm, PL 19.50 cm, H 7.50
cm, W 3.8 kg. Narmada river, near Bharuch, Dist.
Bharuch, 2 Feb. 1988, Coll. Kasambhai Koli.
Description: Carapace low and oval, old specimens with
deep vertebral groove. Carapace dark olive-green, no
markings on the shell in adults. Head dark greenish with
3-5 oblique streaks and a black bar from eye to the nape,
on each side. The head markings are entirely lost in very
old specimens. Plastron pale yellow, sometimes light
pinkish white. Limbs olive green. Underparts of neck and
limbs skin light yellow colour.
Distribution: Gujarat: Very common in Mahi, Nar-
mada and Tapi rivers. Also found in Sabarmati, Puma and
Ambika rivers. Elsewhere: river systems of Ganga,
Mahanadi and Indus.
The meat and eggs are used as a food by Bhoi,
Waghari and other fishermen. Live turtles are kept in
temple tanks for religious purposes . The local name is Moti
Kachab or "Kachher".
Summary and Discussion
Five species of freshwater turtles contained in four
genera belonging to two families are recorded from
Gujarat. All the five species are commonly found in south
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
155
Gujarat, where big rivers flow throughout the year. Only
L. punctata is found all over Gujarat.
We have recorded for the first time new localities of
Kachuga tecta and K.t circumdata from the rivers Sabar-
mati, Mahi and Tapi. The freshwa ter turtles Trionyx leithii,
T. hurum and Chitra indica are mentioned in lists of rep-
tiles by Acharya (1949) and Kapadia (1951) from the
temple tank of Dakor village, Kheda district, and rivers of
south Gujarat, but during the survey we have not found
any of these species from Gujarat state. T. leithii is known
to be restricted to the rivers and reservoirs of peninsular
India, but the other species may well occur.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to Shri Karmvir Bhatt of Surat dis-
trict. Shri Jay anti Golaniya, Gandhinagar and Devraj
Matang, Koba village, for their help during this survey.
Our thanks are also due to the Curator of Sayaji Baug Zoo,
Vadodara, for providing facilities.
RAJU VYAS
June 29, 1989 B.H. PATEL
References
Acharya, H. (1949): list of reptiles from Gujarat. Prakruti 8:
158-175.
Daniel, J.C. (1983): The Book of Indian Reptiles. Bombay
Natural History Society, Bombay.
& Shull, E.M. (1963): A list of the reptiles and am-
phibians of Surat, Dangs, South Gujarat. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 60: 737-743.
Das, I. (1985): Indian turtles: Afield Guide. W.W.F.-India, Cal-
cutta.
Kapadia, G.A, (1951): Animal Life of Maha Gujarat. Guj. Res.
Soc. 1-18.
Moll, E.O. (1938): Survey of the Freshwater turtles of India.
The genus Kachuga Parts I & II ibid 83: 538-553, 84: 7-
25.
McCann, C. (1938): The reptiles and amphibia of Kutch state.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 40: 425-429.
Vuaya, J. (1986): Distributional records for some
Indian turtles, ibid. 83: 57-62.
Sharma, R.C. (1982): Taxonomic and ecological studies on the
reptiles of Gujarat. Rec. Zool. Survey. India 80: 85-106.
Smith, M.A. (1933): The Fauna of British India, Reptilia & Am-
phibian, Vol. I. Taylor and Francis, London.
Stoliczka, F.L. (1872): Notes on the reptilian and amphibian
fauna of Kutch. J. Asiatic Soc., Bengal. 41: 71-85.
Vyas, R. (1989): The Ganges soft-shell turtle (Trionyx gangeticus
Cuvier) from Vadodara City. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86:
107.
31. NOTES ON THE LAND TORTOISES OF BANGLADESH
The elongated tortoise Indotestudo elongata and
Asian giant tortoise Manouria emys are the two land tor-
toise species reliably reported to occur in the Republic of
Bangladesh. The sight record of the Indian star tortoise
Geochelone elegans from Dhaka district, cited by Jayakar
and Spurway (1966), is curious and has not been con-
firmed either by collection or subsequent sightings. In fact,
the known natural distribution of the aforementioned
species has been shown by Frazier (1987 and in prep.) to
encompass eastern Pakistan and northwestern India, as
well as southern peninsular India and Sri Lanka, in two
well marked clusters. The present note is based on data on
the identity and distribution of the two land tortoise
species, obtained during a survey of the chelonians of
Bangladesh.
The elongated tortoise has been reported from
Pablakhali in the Chittagong Hill Tracts of southeastern
Bangladesh by Khan (1987). During fieldwork at the West
Bhanugach Reserve Forest, Moulvi Bazar (formerly apart
of Sylhet District), in north eastern Bangladesh, a slightly
damaged carapace (field number ID/BGD 01; now in the
collection of the Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta) was
obtained on 11 January 1989, from a Khasia village at
Lawachara. The animal was reportedly locally caught and
consumed by the villagers about a month previously. Lo-
cally, the species is called ‘hunro ’ by the Khasia tribesmen.
Measurements: SCL 23.8 cm, CCL 27.7 cm, SCW 15.9
cm, CCW 23.7 cm.
West Bhanugach Reserve Forest, where the elon-
gated tortoise is reportedly uncommon, comprises 27
sq.km of degraded forests, scrublands and plantations.
Another example of this species, a male, was seen
in mid January 1989, at a menagerie in Srimangal town in
the same district, which was reportedly caught at Patrok-
hola, in a natural forest within a tea estate. The animal had
bright pink patches on the head, a condition found
seasonally in male tortoises of the genus Indotestudo and
thought to play a role in sex- and species-recognition
during the breeding season (Auffenberg 1964). These
records indicate the existence of the elongated tortoise in
northeastern Bangladesh. The nearest locality to this from
where the species has been recorded is Tura, in the West
Garo Hills, Meghalaya, India, mentioned in a review of
nematodes by Baylis and Daubney (1922 : 304).
The other land tortoise species of Bangladesh, the
Asian giant tortoise Manouria emys is as poorly docu-
156
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
mented from the country. Khan (1982) put the Chittagong
Hill Tracts, which has been recently subdivided into 3 dis-
tricts, in the distribution of the species. On a visit to the
museum of Dhaka University’s Zoology Department, I
had the opportunity to verify the material, collected by
Prof. K.Z. Husain in 1965 (see Husain 1979), on which
Khan’s ( op.cit .) record was based. An account of the ex-
pedition during which the specimen was collected from
the Rangkhyang Reserve Forest, presently in the Bandar-
ban Hill Tracts district, has been given by Husain (1967).
The shell (CCL 60 cm+; nuchal slightly damaged
anteriorly) is raw umber in colour, the scutes nearly trans-
lucent and the gulars long and projecting - conditions that
key out the nominate subspecies emys, while the sub-
species phayrei has a blackishbrown shell, with smaller
gulars. In the nature of its pectorals, it is intermediate be-
tween the 2 subspecies - in emys , these are widely
separated, but in phayrei , they meet on the midline,
making a broad contact. In the present specimen, the pec-
torals narrow towards their contact points and barely touch
each other. I therefore consider the specimen to be a
Manouria emys emys - M. emys phayrei intergrade, as
might occur in areas where both forms naturally occur.
This research was supported by the Fauna and Flora
Preservation Society, London. I thank the Bangladesh
Forest Department for logistical support to conduct the
study and Mr. Syed Abdul Rahaman, Conservator of
Forests, for permission and facilities. Assistance during
fieldwork was rendered by Mr. Abdul Wahab Akonda,
Senior Research Officer, Forest Department, and Mr. Ab-
dullah Al-Javed, Graduate Student, Life Science Institute,
Jahangimagar University. Mr. Mohammed Ghulam Mus-
tafa, Postgraduate Student, Department of Zoology, Dhaka
University, provided generous help in Dhaka, especially
while studying the chelonians at the University
Zoological Museum.
March 15, 1989 INDRANEIL DAS
References
Auffenberg, W. (1964): A first record of breeding colour chan-
ges in a tortoise. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 61(1): 191-192.
Baylis, H. A. & Daubney, R. (1922): Report on the parasitic
nematodes in the collection of the Zoological Survey of
India. Mem. Indian Mus. 7(4): 263-347.
Frazer, J. (1987): Biology and conservation of Indian turtles and
tortoises. Interim report to the American Institute for In-
dian Studies. Typescript. 64 pp.
Husain, K.Z. (1967): Expedition to Chittagong Hill Tracts (Ban-
darban Subdivision), 1965. J. Asiatic Society, Pakistan.
12(1): 121-165.
(1979): Bangladesher bonnyojontu shompodo tar
shongrakshan (in Bangla). Bang la Academy Bijnan
Patrika5(3): 29-31.
JAyakar, S.D. & Spurway, H. (1966): Contribution to the biol-
ogy of the Indian star tortoise Testudo elegans Schoepff -
I. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 63(1): 83-114.
Khan, M.A.R. (1982): Chelonians of Bangladesh and their con-
servation. ibid. 79(1): 110-116.
(1987): Bangladesher bonnyoprani. Vol. I. (In
Bangla). Bangla Academy, Dhaka. 168 p.
32. ONSET OF BREEDING SEASON IN SOME ANURAN AMPHIBIANS OF DHARWAD,
KARNATAKA
Observations on the onset of the breeding season of
Polypedatus maculatus , Tomopterna breviceps , Microhyla
ornata and Rana limnocharis have been made since 1985
around Karnataka University campus, Dharwad, Karnataka.
Many tropical and sub-tropical anurans spawn responding to
monsoon rains (Lofts 1984). Breeding coincided with the
onset of the southwest monsoon in Bufo melanostictus,
Ramanella montana, T. breviceps , Rana tigerina, Rana
cyanophlyctis , R. limnocharis and P. maculatus at Sanjay
Gandhi National Park, Borivali, Bombay (Gnanasekar 1986).
In 1985 and 1986 at Dharwad, onset of breeding in the above
species coincided with monsoon rains. However, in both
these years there was no consistent heavy rainfall in April and
May. There was heavy pre-monsoon rainfall in the last week
of May in 1987, with the result that we could record the in-
dividual advertisement calls of T. breviceps and P. maculatus
fromthe banks of several ponds. In April 1988 there were
heavy showers for about five days regularly in the evening.
We could record individual and chorus advertisement calls of
T. breviceps, P. maculatus, R. limnocharis , and Microhyla or-
nata. Female P. maculatus and T. breviceps were brought
from the breeding ground and injected with heteroplastic pars
distalis pituitary homogenate at 2200 hrs. After eight hours,
i.e. at 0600 hrs the next morning, both species had spawned
in the laboratory. Based on the advertisement calls in all the
above species and spawning response to pars distalis extract
in some, it is suggested that at Dharwad the breeding season
begins much before die monsoon rains, if heavy premonsoon
rains occur.
R.D. KANAMADI
N.U. BHUTTEWADKAR
May 21, 1988 C.R. HIREMATH
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
157
References
Gnanasekar, S.A. (1986): Ecology of Amphibia of Sanjay
Gandhi National Park, Borivali, Bombay, with special
reference to behaviour of adults and food habits of tad-
poles. M.Sc. Thesis, Bombay University.
Lofts, B. (1984): Reproductive cycles of vertebrates - Am-
phibians. In: G.E. Lamming (ed.) Marshall’s Physiology
of Reproduction (Churchill Livingstone, London, pp. 127-
205.
33. AMPHIBIAN (ANURA) SPECIES AND THEIR ALTITUDINAL DISTRIBUTION IN
NORTHEAST INDIA
Studies on altitudinal distribution of amphibians
(Anura) have not been undertaken in any form in the
country. Pillai & Chanda (1976) published an account of
the distribution pattern of anuran amphibians from
Meghalaya, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh and Manipur in
northeastlndia. Chanda (1986, unpublished) made a com-
prehensive study of the amphibian (Anura) fauna of north-
east India. In this paper, an attempt has been made to ana-
lyse the distribution of amphibian species of northeast
India on an altitudinal scale. Out of 54 species presently
known (Chanda 1986, unpublished) from northeast India,
the greatest number of species occur between 500 m and
1500 m, while the diversity gradually diminishes from
2000 m and above, and only one species, which is com-
mon at all elevations, has been recorded at 3000 m
(Table 1).
The following points are interesting to note: At c.
500 m 11 species, viz. Philautus kempiae , Megophrys
boettgeri , Rana leptoglossa R> kexadactyia, Uperodon
globulosum, Micrixalus borealis , Philautus garo ,
Chirixalus doriae , Rana khasiana , Microhyla rubra and
Pedostibes kempi are mostly restricted. Between c. 500 m
- 1000 m 9 species, viz. Rana tiger ina, R . garoensis ,
Rhacop horns jerdonii , Theloderma asperum, T. moloch ,
Rhacophorus bipunctatus , R. tuberculatus, Lep-
tobrachium hasseltii and Philautus argus are mostly
restricted. Between c. 500 m - 1500 m 9 species, viz. Rana
danieli , R. erythraea , R. livida , R. mawphlangensis, R.
malabarica , Rhacophorus nigropalmatus , Microhyla
berdrnorei , Megophrys parva and Amolops afghanus are
restricted while two species Rana cyanophlyctis and R.
limnocharis occur between c. 500 m - 2500 m. One
species Bufo melanostictus is restricted c. 500 m - 3000
m. A group of 1 6 species, viz. Rana alticola , R. assamen-
sis , R. bilineata , R. gerbillus , R. laticeps, R. garoensis ,
Philautus cherrapunjiae , P. andersoni , p. annandalei , P.
shillongensis , Rhacophorus leucomystax, Bufoides
meghalayana , Hyla annextens, Scutiger sikkimensis,
Microhyla ornata , Amolops formosus , appear to be
restricted in their altimdinal gradient of c. 1000 m- 1500
m. Besides, four species: Rana mawlyndipi, Philautus
shyamrupus , Bufo himalayanus , Pterorana khare are
restricted at c. 1500 m, and Rhacophorus naso and
Chirixalus simus at c. 1000 m.
The exact cause for this diversified altitudinal varia-
tion of amphibian (Anura) species in this region is not quite
clear. However, it may be presumed that distribution of
food species and physiological condition play an impor-
tant role in their altitudinal distribution.
Acknowledgements
I wish to thank Prof. Mohammad Shamim Jairajpuri,
Director, Zoological Survey of India, for providing me
facilities to carry out the work and Dr. A.K. Ghosh, Scien-
tist ‘SF\ Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, for his en-
couragement.
April 13, 1988 S.K. CHANDA
References
Chanda, S.K. (1986): A study of anuran (Amphibia) fauna of Pillai, R.S. & CHANDA, S.K. (1976): The distribution pattern of
northeast India. Ph D. Thesis (Unpublished), Kalyani amphibia in northeast India. J. Assam Sci. Soc. 19(1): 53-
University. 56.
34. ON THE FISH RESOURCES OF UJNI WETLAND, PUNE, MAHARASHTRA
(With a text-figure)
In India a few attempts have been made to study the
various aspects of wetlands (Pandit 1982, Pandit and
Fotedar 1982, Ali and Vijayan 1983, Adoni and Saini
1984, Yousuf et al 1986). These studies relate to the
physico-chemical properties of water, its plankton popula-
tion, the macrophyte community or a combination of one
or two of these aspects, but no comprehensive study ex-
ists. Recently a steering committee for the development of
11
158
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Table 1
ALTITUDINAL DISTRIBUTION OF ANURANS IN NORTHEAST INDIA
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
159
wetlands has been established at the central level which
selected 16 wetlands of national importance in different
states. Ujni wetland in Pune district of Maharashtra is one
of them.
Since no comprehensive work has been done on its
flora and fauna, a project was taken up from 1984 as a part
of a long term ecological study of the Bhima river ecosys-
tem. The present report covers a survey of the fish and
fishery of Ujni wetland.
Ujni wetland: Ujni wetland has been formed by construc-
tion of a dam on the Bhima river at Ujni (Fig. 1), about
140 km southeast of Pune, Maharashtra (17°54’ to 19°24’
N, 73°19’ to 75°10’E). Bhima, the major river of Pune dis-
trict and a part of the Krishna rivers system, rises from the
crest of the Western Ghats near the famous temple of
Bhimashankar and flows southeast. On its way it is joined
by Bhama, Indrayani, Mula-Mutha and Ghod river (all
originating from the Western Ghats), finally flowing into
a reservoir at Ujni.
Ujni wetland is spread over an area of about 357 sq.
km, with a maximum length of 134 km and a maximum
width of 8 km. The gross catchment area covers over
14,856 sq.km. This wetland is located in the rain-shadow
region of the Western Ghats and receives an annual rain-
fall of about 500 mm which falls mainly in August and
September. The temperature ranges from 12°C to 35°C.
Since the completion of the dam in 1980, irrigation water
is readily available, leading to cultivation of cash crops
like sugarcane and groundnut. One 12 MW hydroelectric
power plant is now under construction.
Methods of Collection: Cast and bag nets were used
for collecting the fish samples. Fish landing sites at Saha,
B hi gw an and Khanota were also visited regularly. The col-
lecting stations from where regular fish samples were ob-
tained are given in Fig. 1.
Fish and Fishery
The systematic account of the fish fauna is given
in Table 1 and has been adopted after Greenwood et al .
(1966). In the present survey 42 species of fish belonging
to 1 4 famihes have been recorded. The wetland has proved
to be a good fishing ground with an annual catch of about
450 tonnes. The State Fisheries Department has set up a
fish farm near Ujni Dam where fish seed of major carps
are being raised to finger ling stage before stocking the
wetland. During 1988-89 over two lakh seeds of major
carps were released in this wetland.
The State Fisheries Department has regulated fish-
ing operations by handing them over to two cooperative
societies (situated in Ujni and Indapur). These societies
issue licences to individual fishermen, hire out boats and
nets at nominal rates. Loans are also given to the fisher-
men for purchasing their own gear. The fishermen use gill
nets (surface) varying from 50 m to over 1 km in length.
The meshes range from 30 mm to 100 mm. These nets
have floats as well as sinkers. The bottom set nets are not
used because of submerged tree stumps and weeds. Long
lines (used for catching catfishes and snakeheads) are not
in much use. Departmental fishing is done on a very
limited scale.
In Ujni the freshwater grey mullet Rhinomugil cvr-
sula (Ham.) has been noticed in very large numbers. Prad-
• CQLLEC TING STATION
cm dam site
mz TAR ROAD
RAILWAY
Cd ISLAND
UJNI WETLAND
( MAHARASHTRA )
Fig. 1. Location of Ujni wetland
160
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Table 1
FISH FAUNA OF UJNI WETLAND
Class : Pisces, Subclass : Teleostomi
Order Osteoglossoformes Family Notopteridae
1. Not op ter us notopterus (Pallas)
Order Cvpriniformes Family Cyprinidae
2. Salmostoma boopsis (Day)
3. Rasbora (R.) daniconius (Ham.)
4. Danio (D.) aequipinnatus McQelland
5. Barilius bendelesis (Ham J
6. Puntius conchonius (Ham.)
7. P. kolus (Sykes)
8- P. sophore (Ham.)
9. P. ticto ticto (Ham.)
10. Osteobrama vigors ii (Sykes)
11. O.neilli (Day)
12. O. cotio cun mu (Day) Some specimens show remarkable
difference from the known description of the species. Fur-
ther studies are in progress.
13. Schismatorhynchus (n) nukta Sykes
14. Labeo kawrus Sykes
15. L. rohita (Ham.)
16. L. cal basu (Ham.)*
17. L. boggut (Sykes)
18. Cirrhinus mrigala (Ham.)*
19 C.fulungee (Sykes)
20. Cat la catla (11am.)*
21. Cyprinus carpio carpio Linn.*
22. Ctenopharyngodon idella (Val.)*
23. Garra mullya (Sykes)
ban and Singh (1984) reported it for the first time from
Bhima river. Earlier this fish was known from the Brah-
maputra (Day 1889) and Kaveri (Menon and Jayaram
1977) river systems.
Since spawn and fry were initially procured from
Calcutta for releasing in Ujni wetland, it is quite possible
that small numbers of Rhinomugil spawn or fry might have
come along with carp fry. Similar accidental stocking of
this fish has been reported from Krishnagiri and Sathaanur
reservoirs in Tamil Nadu (Ranganathan and Natarajan
1969). Like other mullets (Mugilidae), this fish swims in
shoals near the water surface with its eyes, head and
anterior portion of the body out of water. This aerial vision,
which is an adaptive feature, gives it a fair chance of es-
Family Cobitidae
24. Noemacheilus botia (Day)
25. N. denisonii (Day)
26. Lepidocephalus (Lepidocephalichthys) guntea (Ham.)
Order : Siluriformes Family : Bagridae
27. Mystus bleekeri (Day)
28. Malabaricus (Jerdon)
29. Aorichthys seenghala (Sykes)
30. Aaor (Ham.)
Family: Siluridae
31. Wallago attu (Sch.)
32. Ompok bimaculatus (Bloch)
Order : Atheriniformes Family : Belonidae
33. Xenontodon cancila (Ham.)
Family : Cyprinodontidae
34. Aplocheilus lineatus (Val.)
Family : Poecilidae
35. : Gambusia affinis (Baird & Girard)
Order : Channiformes Family : Channidae
36. :Channa marulius Ham.
37 . :C. orientalis (Schn.)
Order : Perciformes
Family : Chandidae
38. -.Chanda nama (Ham.)
Family : Cichlidae
39. ’.Tilapia mossambica Peters
Family : Mugilidae
40. \Rhinomugil corsula (Ham.)*
Family : Gobiidae
41. .Glossogobius giuris giuris (Ham.)
Order : Mastacembeliformes Family : Mastacembelidae
42. : Mastacembelus armatus (Lacepede)
♦Introduced species
caping enemies and capture. As a result very few were
caught in gill nets. The fish catch shows predominance of
species like Osteobrama, Channa, Wallago, Mystus and
major carps.
Recent fish catches have shown the presence of
Tilapia , and exotic species from Africa. As this fish adver-
sely affects the growth and production of carps, its
presence is a matter of concern. Our ongoing studies on
the fish diversity and ecology will throw more light on the
impact of such introduced species on the local ones.
G.M. YAZDANI
December 15, 1989 D.F. SINGH
References
Adoni, A.D. & Saini, R.S. (1984): Eutrophication and production
of some lentic ecosystems around Sagar, M.P. Proc. 2nd
An. Workshop on MAB Projects, New Delhi, 163-167.
Ali, S. & Vuayan, V.S. (1983): Hydrobiological (Ecological)
Research at Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur. First in-
terim report. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.
Day, F. (1889): The Fishes of India. William Dawson, London.
Greenwood, P.H., Rosen, D.E., Weitzman, S.H. & Myers, G.S.
(1966): Phyletic studies of teleostean fishes with a
provisional classification of living forms. Bull. Amer. Mus.
nat. Hist. 131: 339-456, pis. 21-23.
Menon, A.G.K. & Jayaram, K.C. (1977): The freshwater grey
Scanning Electron micrographs of scent gland opening of nymphs of
Nysius vinitor. Above: Two openings. Below: Openings surrounded by
thickened cuticle.
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 81
Ramesh: Nysius vinitor
Plate l
X
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
161
mullet Rhinomugil corsula (Hamilton) a fishery
resource in the Cauvery river system, South India. Science
and Culture, 43(7): 302-304.
Pandit, A.K. (1982): Feeding ecology of breeding birds in five
wetlands of Kashmir. Indian J. Ecol. 9: 181-190.
& Fotedar, D.N. (1982): Restoring damaged wet-
lands for wildlife. J. Environ. Mgml. 14: 359-368.
Pradhan, M.S. & Singh, D.F. (1984): First record of the fresh-
water grey mullet, Rhinomugil corsula (Ham.) from
Maharashtra. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81(1): 202-204.
Ranganathan, V. & Natarajan, V. (1969); Studies on the occur-
rence and biology of Rhinomugil corsula Hamilton in
Krishnagiri and Sathanur reservoir, Tamil Nadu. J. Bom-
bay nat. Hist. Soc. 66(3): 518-532.
Yousuf, A.R., Mustafa, S.G. & Qadri, M.Y. (1986): Some lim-
nological aspects of Mirgund wetland. Geobios new
Reports 5: 27-30.
35. MORPHOLOGY OF THE SCENT GLANDS OF THE RUTHERGLEN BUG, NYSIUS VINITOR
BERG. (HEMIPTERA - LYGAEIDAE)
( With a plate and two text-figures)
Introduction
Most of the insects belonging to the order Heterop-
tera form social aggregations, which may result in severe
localized damage to agricultural crops. Therefore,
knowledge of the mechanisms involved in the formation
of these aggregations might be useful. Investigations were
carried out with the Rutherglen bug Nysius vinitor B., a
polyphagous insect pest, in Australia. Preliminary experi-
ments in the laboratory indicate that the individuals of
these bugs are attracted to the odours of the neighbouring
individuals of the same species, and the tendency to ag-
gregate was drastically decreased when the antennae were
amputated or the openings of the abdominal scent glands
of the larvae were blocked with liquid paper (Ramesh, un-
published). Giles (1958), Remold (1963), Gilby and
Waterhouse (1965), Youdewei (1966), Baker and Kembell
(1967), Games and Staddon (1973) observed similar be-
haviour with different insect species belonging to the order
Heteroptera. In order to understand the behaviour of bugs
to scent secretions fully, knowledge of the morphology of
glands and their functioning is essential.
Material and Methods
Insects used in this study were obtained from
laboratory cultures, maintained at 25° ± 2° C. The insects
were fed on cracked sunflower seeds and with water from
a moistened pad of cotton. The morphology of scent
glands was studied from dissections of various stages i.e.
second to fifth instar nymphs and adults.
Results and Discussion
Morphology
Scent glands of nymphs: In the nymphs of each instar
there are two abdominal glands situated on the mid-dor-
sal abdominal line (Fig. 1 A). The glands are open on the
dorsal surface with two visible black dumb-bell shaped
spots. Each of these two spots consists of elongated slits
surrounded by the thickened cuticle (Fig. 1C and Plates 1
& 2). The glands are simple orange- red coloured sacs,
situated just beneath the cuticle and above the gut, and
opening directly to the exterior between abdominal seg-
ments IV and V, V and VI. The posterior gland is 2-2 1/2
times as large as the anterior gland (Fig. 1 B).
Scent glands of adults: Adults of both sexes have two
scent glands on the ventral side of the thorax (Fig. 2D),
which open at the base of the hind coxae by means of small
pores through which the secretions pass into a narrow,
ridged groove (Fig. 2E). The chitin on both sides of this
groove is raised to form a characteristic lip. At one end of
these lips, another raised stand of chitin, also surrounding
a groove, extends to the lateral dorsal line just below the
wings. These grooves provide a large surface area which
according to Imms (1958), retains the secretion while it
evaporates.
Functions
The position and morphological characteristics of
the scent glands of the nymphs of N. vinitor differ from
those of adults. The anterior and posterior glands of
nymphs are not similar in size (Fig. IB). The scent gland
secretions have a characteristic smell and evaporate from
the surface of the cuticle within a few seconds. Observa-
tions on the behaviour of the nymphs ofV. vinitor suggest
separate function for these two glands. For instance, before
nymphs rubbed their tarsi together or used them to clean
their antennae, they were often seen passing them over the
opening of the anterior gland. It is likely that in this way
the insects spread the aggregating pheromone produced by
the scent glands all over the body. When the nymphs are
disturbed or pinched with a pair of forceps, they secrete a
drop of thick liquid from the anus, which is spread over a
large area at their back with hind tarsi. Then the nymphs
(larvae) eject posterior gland secretions which spread over
the anal secretion coating which was formed earlier. Anal
secretion may here help in the retention of secretion of the
162
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Fig. 1. Dorsal abdominal scent glands of nymphs of Nysius
vinitor. A: Position cf gland openings B: First and second
glands C: Gland opening, to show slits.
posterior gland. Nymphs exhibit this type of behaviour
whenever an aggressor disturbs them. The secretion from
the posterior gland therefore, appears to have a defensive
function. The adults also secrete from their scent glands
when disturbed.
Acknowledgements
I wish to thank my supervisors. Professor T.O.
Fig. 2. Adult scent gland of Nysius vinitor D: Position of gland
E: Gland opening, to show groove.
Browning and Dr. Roger Laughlin, for their valuable
guidance during this study. I am thankful to the University
of Adelaide, South Australia, for awarding URG fellow-
ship. This work was conducted at the Department of En-
tomology, Waite Agricultural Research Institute, South
Australia.
April 20, 1989 P. RAMESH
References
Baker, J.T. & Kembell, P. A. (1967): Volatile constituents of the Games, D.E. & Staddon, B.W. (1973): Composition of scent from
scent gland reservoir of the coned, Pternistria bispina Stal. the larvae of milkweed bug, 0 . facialus. J. Insect Physiol
Aust. J. Chem. 20: 395-398. 19: 1527-1532.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
163
Gilby, A.R. & Waterhouse, D.E (1965): The composition of the
scent of the green vegetable bug Nezara viridula. Proc. R.
Soc. (B) 162: 105-120.
Giles, P.H. (1958): Some investigations into the effects and
causes of crowding in Dysdercus faciatus Sign. (Pyr-
rhoeoridae). D.I.C. thesis. Imperial College, University of
London.
Imms, A.D. (1958): A general Textbook of Entomology. 9th Ed.
(revised) * +886p., 606 figs, London.
Remold, H. (1963): Scent glands of land-bugs, their Physiology
and biological function. Nature, London. 198: 764-768.
Youdeo WEI, A. (1966): Laboratory studies on the aggregation of
feeding Dysdercus intermedins Distant (Heteroptera-Pyr-
rhocoriadae). Proc. R. ent. Soc. London (A). 41 (4-6): 45-
50.
36. BEHAVIOUR OF THE INDIAN TORTOISESHELL BUTTERFLY
AG LAIS (VANESSA) CASCHMIRENSIS (KOLLAR) IN THE HIMALAYA
The Indian tortoiseshell Aglais caschmirensis (Kol-
lar) (Nymphalidae) is one of the most common butterflies
of the Himalaya, seen from Kashmir to Assam at altitudes
of 1000 m to 4200 m. It is one of the most well adapted
butterflies, found in different types of terrain from cul-
tivated areas to open forest glades and alps of the high al-
titudes.
I have seen this species in several parts of the
Himalaya. While photographing and watching butterflies
in Sikkim, I came across an interesting aggressive and ter-
ritorial behaviour of this butterfly.
On 7 November 1980 around 1100 hrs I was walk-
ing along the path near Tashiding monastery. On one side
there were fields of buckwheat; the other side was part of
Tashiding monastery. At the edge of the field along the
path was an oval stone (0.75 m x 1 m). The tortoiseshell
was sitting on the stone with its wings open and body
parallel to the sun’s rays and facing away from the sun,
about 0.6 m away from the path.
A large silverstripe Childrena childerni (Gray)
came from the front (west). When it was about 2 m away
from the tortoiseshell, the tortoiseshell dived at it and
chased it about 10 m, then turned back and settled in the
same manner. As soon as it settled a common jester
Symbrenthia hippoclus de Niceville came from the west.
It was also chased away in a similar manner, after which
the tortoiseshell returned and settled in the same position.
After about 2 minutes, although nothing could be seen
coming from the west, the tortoiseshell went out as if chas-
ing something (I do not know if there was something
which I could not see) and took a semicircle and came back
and settled in such manner that its body was perpendicular
to the sun’s rays and was facing south. It slowly went on
turning till its body became parallel to the sun’s rays and
it was facing away from the sun.
A red admiral Vanessa indie a (Herbst) came from
the rear. When it was about 1 .5 m from the tortoiseshell,
the latter flew ahead and turned back and chased away the
red admiral. It also chased one common silverstripe
Fabriciana karnala (Moore) and a bee (probably a bumble
bee). All the butterflies which were attacked were within
the buckwheat field. A common jester which was flying
along the path passed the tortoiseshell about 1 m away
from the butterfly, but was not attacked. I was also about
2 m away from it was not disturbed by my presence. On
the basis of these observations I concluded that the butterf-
ly had a territory in the buckwheat field, with an area of
about 4 m radius around the three side of the rock, which
was its look-out point with the path forming the fourth
side of the boundary. Any intruder Within this area was
chased out. This whole episode took about 25 minutes.
After observing this incident I became interested in
this species and have been on the look-out for such be-
haviour. After the Sikkim trip I have visited several other
parts of the Himalaya, viz. Pindari glacier region in Oc-
tober 1981, Kashmir in 1982, Himachal Pradesh in May
1983 and Gharwal in June 1983 and 1984, Usually these
butterflies were seen above 2000 m and other species were
very few. I did not observe any aggressive behaviour.
During the 1983 Garhwal trip on the slopes of die nearby
mountains in Dokriyani glacier region around 3600 m
there were a large number of tortoiseshells. I watched their
behaviour for about an hour and the observations were as
follows:
I chose a small patch of 1000 sq. m, which consisted
of several species of wild flowers like Anemone ob-
tusiloba , Caltha palustris, Primula denticulatum,
Taraxacum officinale, Gentian spp. etc. Several species of
butterflies like the Indian tortoiseshell, yellow swallowtail
Papilio machaon Linnaeus, dark clouded yellow Colias
electo Linnaeus, cabbage whites Pieris spp., queen of
Spain fritillary Issoria lathonia (Linnaeus) etc. were feed-
ing on the wild flowers. There were about four A.
caschmirensis in that area. Different species visited the
same flowers or even flew within a few centimetres of each
other. On one Gentian inflorescence there were both yel-
low swallowtails and tortoiseshell feeding together and
they were less than 1 cm away from each other. No aggres-
sive behaviour was obsered. The queen of Spain fritillary
showed some aggressive behaviour.
Do the altitudinal variation and geographical dif-
ferences influence the behavioural pattern or is it depend-
164
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
ent on the availability or non-availability of food and mental conditions and altitudes,
mates?
It would be very interesting to study the behaviour
pattern of this species in more detail in different environ- Janurary 30, 1989 MEENA HARIB AL
37. NEW RECORD OF MICR O TR OMBIDIUM SAHARANPURI DHIMAN AND MITTAL
(ACARINA- TROMBIDIIDAE - MICROTROMBIDINAE) PARASITIZING GREEN BOTTLE FLY
LU CILIA CAESAR L. (DIPTERA - C ALLIPHORIDAE)
The green bottle fly Lucilia caesar L. frequently oc-
curs at carrion and excrement, particularly during summer
and rainy months. May to September, in the northwestern
districts of Uttar Pradesh. Earlier, Dhiman and Dhiman
(1981) recorded Microtrombidium sp. parasitizing Indian
house fly Musca domestica nebulo and Dhiman (1983)
made some ecological studies on it. Later, Dhiman and
Mittal (1985) identified it as a new species, M. saharan-
puri. Recently, at Saharanpur this mite species has been
observed parasitizing Lucilia caesar. Further studies have
revealed that only six legged reddish larvae are parasitic
while eight legged nymphs and adults of the mite are free
living, feeding on the eggs of green bottle and house flies
as well as on soil microarthropods. The main attachment
points of the larval mite on the host body were the head.
Table 1
PARASITIZATION PERCENTAGE IN HELD CATCHES OF
Lucilia caesar L.
haustellum, cervical membrane, wing axillaries, coxal
joints of legs, veins of wing, pleuron, intertergal and inter-
sternal membranes of abdomen and the genital part. Ob-
servations on load of larval mite per host indicated that a
maximum of 1 6 and a minimum of larvae are carried by a
fly. Field catches of the green bottle flies were made to
record the percentage of parasitization. The data are
presented in Table 1, which indicates that maximum
parasitization of 42.66% occurs during July and the min-
imum of 19.23% in May. The probable reason for
parasitization of green bottle flies is that these flies fre-
quently occur in association with house flies on carrion
and human and animal excrement. The mite also breeds in
the same environment. Hence, after hatching the larvae
crawl over the body of the host. At first they cling to the
legs and then migrate to a suitable feeding site on the host
body. One to three mite larvae has no marked influence on
the host but more than four larvae influence the body ac-
tivities.Heavily parasitized (with 10 to 16 mite load) flies
become weak and unable to make the usual quick flight.
We are thankful to the Principal and Head of the
Zoology Department, M.S. College for necessary
laboratory facilities and to Dr. G.D. Garg for his valuable
suggestions.
S. C. DHIMAN
R.K. SINGH
September 23, 1988 R. KUMAR
References
Dhiman, S.C. & Dhiman, R.C. (1981): Microtrombidium sp., an
Acarine ectoparasite of Musca domestica nebulo Fabr. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 77(2): 353-354.
Dhiman, S.C. (1983): Ecological studies on Microtrombidiumlar-
vae parasitizing the house fly Musca domestica nebulo
Fabr. Proc. Insect Inter-relations in Forest Agro-ecosys-
tem, 227- 231.
Dhiman, S.C. & Mittal, J.P. (1985): Microtrombidium saharan-
puri , a new species of trombidiid mite from India
(Acarina-Trombidiidae-Microtrombidiinae). Uttar
Pradesh Jour. Zool. 5(2): 190-194.
38. MOSQUITOES OF DIV
The Union Territory of Div is a small island in the
Arabian sea, near the southern coast of Gujarat. It has an
area of 40 sq.km, has one town and five big villages and
a population of 35,000. It is bounded on three sides by the
sea and by a creek on the north, separating it from the main-
land of Gujarat. The topography is generally flat, and a
large part is rocky and barren. The climate is sultry. Im-
portant crops are jowar and ragi. Annual malaria in-
cidence in Div has been more than 2 since 1975. DDT was
sprayed from 1965 to 1971 under a public health
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
165
programme and BHC is being sprayed since 1972.
Information on the mosquito fauna of Div is scanty.
Only 3 species of Anopheles, viz. A. stephensi, A. subpic-
tus, A. vagus and Culex spp. were recorded earlier (J.S.
Khamre, unpublished report, 1982). There has been no
other information on the mosquito fauna of Div island. A
mosquito survey was therefore done between 28 Septem-
ber 1983 and 4 October 1983 to determine the mosquito
fauna and their relative abundance. The results are sum-
marised here.
Adult mosquitoes that were resting indoor, outdoor
and biting man and cattle were collected from 0600 to
1000 hrs and again from 2000 to 2400 hrs by suction tube
method. Collections were made from cattle sheds, human
dwellings, mixed dewellings, other man-made structures
and from shrubs surrounding and nearby cattle sheds and
human dwellings. Larval survey was also done in under-
ground tanks, wells, cement tanks, water pools, drums, etc.
and the larvae were held in cages until emergence. Adult
mosquitoes were identified by using the keys of Chris-
tophers (1933), Barraud (1934), Puri (1955) and Rao
(1981).
The results of the mosquito collections are given in
Table 1 . A total of 725 mosquitoes were collected belong-
ing to 3 genera: (i) 664 specimens of genus Anopheles con-
sisting of 5 species, (ii) 55 specimens of genus Culex con-
sisting of 3 species and (iii) 6 specimens of genus Ar-
migeres. Anopheles subpictus (82.5%) was the most
prevalent species which was collected more during day
collections, followed by A. culicifacies (6.9%) which was
collected only in day collections. Culex quinquifasciatus ,
C. gelidus and C. tritaeniorhynchus together formed only
7.6% of the total collections.
Table 1
RESULTS OF THE MOSQUITO COLLECTIONS IN DIV
Anopheline fauna of Div includes the well-known
malaria vectors A. annularis, A. culicifacies and A.
stephensi incriminated in some parts of the country.
Panicker et al. (1981) have recently incriminated A. sub-
pictus as the vector of malaria in the coastal villages of
southeast India. C. tritaeniorhynchus is the main vector of
Japanese encephalitis in India, though C. gelidus can also
play a role in transmission of the disease.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to Dr. Estibeiro, Director of Health
Services for Goa, Daman and Div, Dr. J.M. Pereira, CMO
(Malaria) and Dr. Bhattacharya, Regional Director (H. &
F.W.), Pune, for their encouragement and kind help in car-
rying out the present studies.
J.S. KHAMRE
August 27, 1988J M.B. KALIWAL
References
Barraud, P.J. (1934): The Fauna of British India including
Ceylon and Burma, Vol. 5 Taylor and Francis, London, pp.
1-463.
Christophers, S.R. (1933): The Fauna of British India including
Ceylon and Burma, Vol. 4, Taylor and Francis, London
pp. 1-360.
Puri, I.M. (1955): Synaptic table for the identification of the
Anopheline Mosquitoes of India. Health Bulletin No. 10.
Rao, T.R. (1981): The Anophelines of India, Malaria Research
Centre (ICMR), Delhi.
39. JATROPHA GOSSYPIFOLIA L. AND JATROPHA CURCAS L.- NEW HOST PLANTS FOR
THE LONGHORNED BEETLE STHENIAS GRISATORFB. (CERAMBICIDAE: COLEOPTERA)
The longhomed beetle Sthenias grisator is a main
pest of grape vine and has also been reported to attack other
plants such as casuarina, mango, jack, croton, cacao,
bougainvillea, oleander, erythrina, rose, M or us indica , and
Tabernoemontana alba (Maxwell-Lefroy 1909, Fletcher
1914, Nayar et al. 1981). During the months of July and
August 1988 the adults of this beetle attacked the two
species of Jatropha, namely Jatropha gossypifolia and J.
curcas occurring at Point Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary,
Tamil Nadu. The beetles, which are generally known as
stem girdlers, have powerful mandibles and cut the base
of the main stem as well as branches by ringing them com-
pletely by biting through the bark. The beetles are noctur-
nal, sluggish, cryptically coloured and hide under the fork
of stems during the day. They girdle the stem so as to ar-
rest the flow of sap, thus killing the branches. The eggs are
166
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
laid and the larvae tunnel and live in the girdled twigs,
which provide suitable food free from sap (Fletcher 1914).
The life cycle is said to be more than a year (Mani 1968).
J air op ha gossypifolia L., is a very common small
shrub. Jatropha curcas L., which is larger, is of occasional
occurrence in Point Calimere (Balasubramanian 1982).
Both species are medicinally important and the latter is
valuable commercially also as its seeds are used in the ex-
traction of ‘Jatropha oil* (Nadkami 1926).
200 individuals of Jatropha gossypifolia were ex-
amined for the infestation. Stems ranging from 5 to 10 cm
in diameter were girdled. In plants with no branches or few
branches the main stem was girdled, and hence the whole
plant dried up. In the case of plants with many branches,
mostly, the branches are girdled and the plant stays alive.
About 62 individuals were attacked by the beetles, of
Refe
Balasubramanian, P. (1982): A study on the Flora of the
Vedaranyam Reserve Forest. M.Sc. dissertation submitted
to the University of Madras.
Fletcher, T.B. (1914): Some South Indian Insects and other
Animals of Importance. M/s Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal
Singh, Dehradun. pp, 149-159.
which 17 were completely dead. In the case of Jatropha
curcas , out of 30 individuals examined, 10 were infested,
but none dead. Sthenias grisator is a serious pest to the
two Jatropha species, especially J. gossypifolia . The two
plants are hence reported as new hosts of this beetle.
Control: Swabbing the base of the main stem or
branches with BHC 0.1% solution (Nayar et al. 1981) and
collection of beetles and destruction by fire of girdled
twigs (Fletcher 1914) are suggested remedies for infesta-
tion.
My sincere thanks are due to Mr. J.C. Daniel,
Curator, Bombay Natural History Society, for his en-
couragement.
September 3, 1988 P. BALASUBRAMANIAN
NCES
Mani, M.S. (1968): General Entomology. Oxford and IBH Publ.
pp. 364-366.
Maxwell-Lefroy (1909): Indian Insect Life: A manual of the
insects of the plains. Govt, of India, Pusa. pp. 368-379.
Nadkarni (1926): Indian Materia Medica, pp. 483-485.
Nayar etal. (1981): General and Applied Entomology. Tata Mc-
Graw-Hill, New Delhi, pp. 328-362.
40. NEW RECORDS OF CLADOCERA OF KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK, BHARATPUR - III.
(With two text-figures)
Little is known regarding the occurrence of different
species of Cladocera of Rajasthan. So far only 20 species
of tills order have been recorded from this region. The im-
portant previous papers on Cladocera of Rajasthan are
those of Biswas (1964), Nayar (1971) and Venkataraman
(1988). Biswas (1964) recorded a new species and Nayar
(1971) recorded 17 species of Cladocera. The material for
the present study was collected from the Keoladeo Nation-
al Park, Bharatpur (27° 7.6’ to 27° 12.2’ N, 77° 29.5’ to
77° 33.9’ E) from July 1984 to May 1985. The collections
revealed two new records, (1) Grimaldina brazzai
Richard, 1892 and (2) Guernella raphalis Richard, 1892
in addition to the species recorded earlier (Venkataraman
1988).
Family Macro thricidae Baird, 1843.
Genus Grimaldina Richard, 1892
1 . Grimaldina brazzai Richard, 1892 (Fig. 1)
FEMALE: Body size 0.72 - 0.83 mm, breadth 0.60 -
0.66 mm. Shape quadrangular oval. Head small, eye large,
ocellus small and situated closer to the rostrum than to the
eye. Antennules long, slender and slightly narrow distal-
ly; 10-12 transverse rows of spinules; a group of long sen-
sory setae at the apex. Antenna slightly more than half the
body length. Postabdomen rather larger, bilobed with
broadly rounded preanal margin. Anal margin armed with
two groups of five long, sharply pointed spines. Preanal
comer armed with one to two spines and followed by a
series of short spinules proximally. Claw rather long, with
two basal spines.
This is the first record of the occurrence of this
species in Rajasthan; it agrees with the previous descrip-
tion of the species by Sars (1901 ), Harding (1957) and Idris
(1983).
Genus Guernella Richard, 1892
2. Guernella raphalis Richard, 1892 (Fig. 2)
FEMALE: Body length 0.40 - 0.43 mm, breadth 0.33 - 0.35
mm; shape slightly oval. Head rounded anteriorly and
concave ventrally; eye rather large, ocellus situated closer
to the apex of rostrum. Antennules rather large and broad,
with lateral setae and rows of setules. Valves with
polygonal reticulation, ventral margin rounded and ser-
rated without setae. Postabdomen broad proximally, nar-
row distally and without anal denticles. Claw rather short
without basal spine.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
167
Fig. l.Grimaldina brazzai, female Fig. Guernella raphalis, female
All - antennule; F - postabdomen; A VC - anteroventral AI - antennule; P - postabdomen; A VC - anteroventral
margin; PVC - postero ventral margin margin.
168
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Distribution: Common and occurring in all types of
habitat.
This is the first record of the occurrence of this
species in Rajasthan, and it agrees with the previous
description of the species by Smirnov (1976) and Idris
(1983).
I thank Mr. C. Sivasubramanian, B.N.H.S. Bharat-
pur, for his kind help in collecting the organisms, and Dr.
T.M. Haridasan for his encouragement.
July 6, 1989 K. VENKATARAMAN
References
Biswas, S. (1964): A new species of cladoceran genus Latona
Straus (1 820) from Rajasthan, India. Proc. Zool. Soc., Cal-
cutta 17: 149 - 152.
Harding, J.R (1957): The South African Cladocera Euryalona
colletti (Sars) and another African species. Ann. South
African Mus. XLI1(5): 245-247.
Idris, B.A.G. (1983): Freshwater zooplankton of Malaysia.
Penerbit Universiti Pertanian Malaysia, 153 pp.
Nayar, C.K.G.. (1971): Cladocera of Rajasthan. Hydrobiol. 37:
509-519.
Sars, G.O. (1901): Contributions to the knowledge of the fresh-
water Entomostraca of South America as shown by artifi-
cial hatching from the dried material. Archiv.fur math, og
naturv.,XXni(3): 1-102.
Smirnov, N.N. (1976): Macrothriddae and Moinidae. fauna of
the World. Fauna of USSR, Crustacea 1(3): 236
Venkataraman, K. (1988): Cladocera of Keoladeo National
Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan. II. New records. 1.
Moinodaphnia macleayii (King, 1 853) and 2. Bosminopsis
deitersi Richard, 1895, J. Bombay not. Hist. Soc. 85(1):
229-233.
41. MONADENIUM HETEROPODUM N.E. BR. (EUPHORBIACEAE) - AN EXOTIC IN THE
PROCESS OF NATURALIZATION IN INDIA
(With a text-figure)
Monadenium Pax is a genus of succulent plants
belonging to the family Euphorbiacea, represented by
about 47 species, distributed in East and South Tropical
Africa (Bally 1961, Jacobson 1978). Hitherto, it has not
been reported in India (Hooker 1 872-97). One species was
found growing in red loamy soils of Secunderabad and
Hyderabad.
Monadenium heteropodum (Pax) N.E. Br. Fig. 1
Succulent, stem 50 cm tall, 3-4 cm thick with stout tuber-
cular branches. Tubercles prominent, smooth, not
grooved, base rhomboid-quadrangular, varying in size
and shape. Leaves spatulate, glabrous, succulent undulate
apice, 25 x 50 mm, seated on prominent rhomboid
tubercle, rosulate. Leaf-scar armed with prickles. Inflores-
cence axillary from terminal leaves, simple dichasium;
consisting of one precocious central cyathium
androeceous, gynoecium reduced. Lateral cyathia
bisexual, zygomorphic, involucre cup-like, truncate at the
top and open on one side. Involucre gland with thickened
rim, inside with 5 lobes, fringe-toothed. Stamens arranged
in five groups opposite to the lobes of the involucre,
mingled with a few filiform bracteoles. Ovary pedicellate,
surrounded by stamens, exserted from the opening in the
frontal parts of the involucre and recurved, becoming erect
in the last stage of maturity; 3- celled with one ovule, pen-
dulous. Styles 3, free, shordy bifid, stigmas thickened.
Voucher specimen: KSR 306A, Secunderabad; deposited
in the Herbarium, School of Life Sciences, University of
Hyderabad.
Monadenium heteropodum (Pax) N.E. Br. was pre-
viously known only from Tanzania (Jacobsen 1978). The
present record is interesting from the fact that several ex-
otic Euphorbiaceous taxa like Euphorbia milii Desmoul,
E.tirucalli L., Synadenium grantii Hk.f., Euphorbia pul-
cherrima Willd. and Pedilanthus tithymaloides Poir. have
become naturalized in India. Monadenium heteropodum,
having effective vegetative propagation, may rapidly
spread and get naturalized in the flora like other Euphor-
biaceous species.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to Dr. Dan H. Nicolson, Smithsonian
Institution, Washington DC, USA, and Mrs. S. Carter Hol-
mes, Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew, U.K., for valuable
comments on this manuscript and the Dean, School of Life
Sciences, University of Hyderabad, for providing neces-
sary facilities.
K. SESHAGIRI RAO
February 16, 1989 MJM.V. PRASAD
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
169
Monadenium heteropodum N.E. Br.
A. Habit sketch; B. Ventral view of dichasium; C. Dorsal view of dichasium; D. Front view of lateral cyathium; E. Involucre gland;
F. Involucre lobes; G. Male flower: 1. Involucre, 2. Gland with thickened rim, 3. Pedicel 4. Capsule, ovary, 5. Style, 6. Secondary bud,
7. Male flower, 8. Bracteole
170
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
References
Bally, P.R.O. (1961): The Genus Monadenium. Benteli
Publishers, Berne.
Jacobsen, H. (1978): A handbook of suculent plants-descrip-
tions, synonyms and cultural details for succulents other
than Cactaceae. Vol. 2. English edn. reprint. Blanford
Press, Poole & Dorset, 1978. pp. 682-693,
Hooker, J.D. (1872-97): The flora of British India, Vol. 7, Lon-
don.
42. ABNORMAL FLOWERING OF CARY OTA URENS L. (ARECACE AE)
(With a plate)
A fish-tail palm Caryota wrens L., family Arecaceae
(Palmae), in the Andhra University Botanical Garden,
Waltair, Andhra Pradesh, lost its crown during a cyclonic
storm. After one year, the inflorescence arose during
November-January, from the sides of the trunk very close
to the top (Plate).
According to Blatter (1926), branching is rare occur-
rence in palms, except in the genus Hyphaene . It is often
caused by injury to the terminal bud, as in Phoenix syl-
vestris (L.) Roxb. (wild date), where the apex is con-
tinuously tapped for toddy. The multiple branching due to
the terminal bud being struck by lightning in wild date has
been recorded by Field (1908). In other cases branching
takes place consequent to the replacement of flowering
buds by leaf-buds, which develop into shoots. In the
present case abnormal flowering was formed instead of
vegetative branches. This type of abnormal flowering is
apparendy due to physiological or ecological factors.
P. VENKANNA
G.M. NARASIMHA RAO
September 6, 1989 J.B. RAJU
References
Blatter, E. (1926): Palms of British India and Ceylon. Oxford Field, F. (1908): A branching date palm (Phoenix sylvestris). J.
University, London, p. vii. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 18(2): 699-700.
43 .ENTADA PUSAETHA DC.(MIMOSACEAE) - NEW DISTRIBUTIONALRECORD FROM
GUJARAT
(With a text-figure)
During the course of intensive explorations in the
vicinity of Dharampur forests in Bulsar district, Gujarat,
under the the Botanical Survey of India’s District Flora
Scheme, I came across an enormous tendrillar liana in
vegetative condition. The presence and nature of tendril
accompanied with the 2-pinnate leaves identified it ac-
cording to Cooke’s flora (1901-1908) as Entada pur-
saetha. To the best of my knowledge, this is the only In-
dian tendrillar mimosoid.
Entada pusaetha DC. so far has not been reported
from Gujarat (Shah 1978, Raghavan et al. 1981). It has
also been confirmed from the literature survey and from
my visits to Blatter Herbarium, Bombay, and BSI(WC)
herbarium, Pune, that this species was collected neither
from Gujarat nor from any of the northwest districts
(Nasik, Dhule, Jalgaon and Thane) of Maharashtra, which
are adjacent to the present locality. The present report from
the southeast hilly region of Gujarat supports its extended
distribution from the Sahyadri hills in the Western Ghats.
Sahni (1980) stated this taxon as being ‘perhaps the
largest climber in the world’. Santapau (1953) estimated
the length of this species as ‘well over 1500 m." As the
complete description of this species is given by Cooke
(1901-1908), only an illustration (Fig. 1) is provided here.
Though this species has a wide distribution in central
and eastern Himalayas, Sikkim, East Bengal, Bihar, Oris-
sa, Deccan and Western Ghats (Chopra et al. 1956) it has
recently been reported that this taxon is on the verge of ex-
tinction (Vartak 1983), threatened (Rao and Reddy 1983),
becoming rare (Gupta and Dakshini 1983) and scarce
(Sahni 1980) in different parts of India.
Recent workers, except Matthew and Britto (1983),
report this Indian taxon under E. pursaetha DC. While the
latter report it under E. rheedii. According to Henry and
Chandrabose (1980), Brenan appears to have been the first
to unite E. pursaetha DC., E. rheedii Sprengl and E.
mono st achy a DC. and adopt the name E. pursaetha DC.
for the combined species.
The specific epithet pursaetha , a typographical
error, given in most of the Indian Floras, should be spelt
as pusaetha (pus - name of the liana; aetha = etta = seed).
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 81
Venkanna et, al. : Caryota urens
Plate 1
Abnormal flowering of Caryota urens L.
Fig. 1 .Entada pusaetha DC., illustration based on Lhe specimen (ASR 3591) collected from Barpuda in Dharampur Forests.
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to late Prof. G.L. Shah and Prof. Inam-
dar for guidance; BSI, Howrah, for financial help. My sin-
cere thanks are due to the authorities of Blatter Herbarium,
Refe
Chopra, R.N., Nayar, S.L. & Chopra, I.C. (1956): Glossary of
Indian Medicinal Plants, (reprint (1986)). CSIR, New
Delhi.
Cooke, T. (1901-1908): The Flora of Bombay Presidency. 2 vols.
London (reprint 3 vols. 1958, BSI, Howrah).
Gupta, P.G. & Dakshini, M.N. (1983): Rare and Endemic Taxa
in the Botanical Garden and Arboreta of the Forest
Research Institute, Dehra Dun. In: An Assessment of
Threatened Plants of India. Eds. S.K. Jain & R.R. Rao.
Henry, A.N. & Chandrabose, M. (1980): An aid to the Intema-
Bombay, and BSI (WC) herbarium, Pune, for allowing me
to refer to the specimens.
March 14, 1989 A.S. REDDY
NCES
tional Code of Botanical Nomenclature. Today & Tomor-
row Printers and Publishers, New Delhi.
Matthew, K.M. & Brttto, J.B. (1983); In: The Flora of Tamil
Nadu Kamatic, 3 vols. Ed. K.M. Matthew. Rapinat Her-
barium, Tiruchirapalli.
Raghavan, R.S., Wadhwa, B.M., Ansari, M.Y. & RAO, R.S.
(1981): A checklist of the plants of Gujarat. Rec. bot. Surv.
India 2 1(2): 1-128.
Rao, K.N. & Reddy, K.R. (1983): Threatened Plants of Tirupati
and Its Environs. In: An Assessment of Threatened Plants
172
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
of India. Eds. S.K. Jain & R.R. Rao.
Sahni, K.C. (1980): Vanishing Indian Taxa and their Conserva-
tion. In: Glimpses in Plant Research (vol. 5): Modem
Trends in Plant Taxonomy. Ed. P.K.K. Nair.
Santapau, H. (1953): The Flora of Khandala, (3rd ed. 1967). BSI,
*■ Calcutta.
Shah, G.L. (1978): Flora of Gujarat. 2 vols. Sardar Patel Univer-
sity, Vallabh Vidyanagar.
Vartak, V.D. (1983): Observations on Rare, Imperfectly known
and Endemic Plants in the Sacred Groves of Western
Maharashtra. In: An Assessment of Threatened Plants of
India. Eds. S.K. Jain &R.R. Rao.
44. ON THE ENDEMIC STATUS OF THREE WILD LEGUMES WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO
THEIR DISTRIBUTION IN WEST BENGAL1
Revisionary studies on three genera, namely,
Smithia Ait., Geissaspis W. & A. and Zornia Gmel. in
India reveal some of their members to be endemic. Among
these endemics, Smithia grandis Baker, Geissaspis cris-
tata W. & A. and Zornia quilonensis Ravi also occur in
West Bengal, although this has not been mentioned in
literature on endemic plants of India. The present com-
munication deals with the endemic status and general dis-
tribution of the above three taxa with special reference to
West Bengal. Taxonomic interpretations are also included
wherever required.
Recently concluded revisionary studies on the three
genera, namely Smithia Ait., Geissaspis W. & A. and Zor-
nia Gmel. have shown that in the Indian subcontinent the
above 3 genera were represented by 12, 2 and 1 species
and some infraspecific taxa respectively (Baker 1876).
Since then addition of new species and new records of
known species have been made from time to time. Subse-
quently, the Indian region has changed greatly both in size
and ecological conditions. Presently, the above three
genera are reported in the Indian context to comprise 15,
2 and 3 species and some infraspecific taxa respectively.
Among these, 9 species and 1 variety of Smithia, 2 species
of Geissaspis and 1 species of Zornia have been estimated
to be endemic.
A study on the legume flora of West Bengal reveals
endemic taxa Smithia grandis Baker, Geissaspis cristata
W. & A. and Zornia quilonensis Ravi as their distribution
extended to West Bengal. Studies on the endemic status of
these genera have never been attempted in detail. Ah-
medullah and Nayar (1986) published an account of en-
demic plants of India. Unfortunately, only Zornia
quilonensis has been included in the list and is reported to
occur only in Kerala, while the other two species are over-
looked. This may be the result of insufficient field study
and taxonomic misinterpretations.
The present communication deals with the critical
assessment of the endemic status and general distribution
of the aforesaid three leguminous plants in tne light of criti-
1 An abstract of this paper is included in the proceedings of 76th
Session (Botany Section) of the Indian Science Congress
Association 1989.
cal taxonomic as well as thorough field studies. Details of
their distribution in West Bengal are also recorded.
Smithia and Geissaspis are drought loving plants
and are more frequent in drier areas. Smithia grandis is the
only shrubby member of the herbaceous genus Smithia
and grows vigorously in grasslands at the edge of swamps.
This endemic species generally occurs along the sub-
Himalayan tracts of eastern India and extends from Dar-
jeeling in West Bengal, Sikkim to Assam and lower Khasi
hills of Meghalaya up to 1,800 to 2,000 m. In West Ben-
gal this species has been reported from Darjeeling tarai,
Kuprail tarai, Lalltung on the Bengal border, Mahakalguri
of Alipur Duar and on the Tista sand bank of Jalpaiguri.
Geissaspis cristata is a unique natural species in its
characteristic leafy, spathulous, large orbiculate, ciliate
bracts covering the whole flower, which distinguishes the
species as well as the genus from the allied genus Zornia.
This species is common in forests along streams, and also
in open dry grasslands. Apparently endemic to the tropics
and subtropics of India, it is found in Maharashtra, Kar-
nataka, Goa, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andaman & Nicobar Is-
lands and West Bengal. In its type locality (i.e., in penin-
sular India) the overall habit does not vary much, but in
Kerala, Andamans and in some places of Maharashtra it is
a very small, prostrate herb with very small leaflets and is
often confused with its allied species G. tenella. The only
specimens (Bengalia, Circa Calcuttam 1836 - 38 John W.
Heifer 493 and 165) deposited at CAL constitute its
records of distribution in West Bengal. In a sense the
species is very occasional in this locality.
Usually the identity of Zjornia quilonensis is con-
fused with the Ceylonese species Z. walkeri Amott in
general habit but it differs in having narrow oblong and
often orbicular, similar leaflets and 6-jointed pods having
bristles with continuous retrorsely hairs. The species is en-
demic to southern and southwest India, being distributed
in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and West Bengal. This
species was originally described from peninsular India as
Z. angustifolia var. oblongifolia W. & A. This fact was
overlooked by subsequent workers, and as a result the
same plant was again described in 1969 from Kerala as a
distinct species with the name Z. quilonensis. However,
the later name is maintained here according to rules (vide
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
173
Art. 60 ICBN). This plant was collected from Digha in la (L.) Pers.
West Bengal (Digha, Mednapur coast, 24 Aug. 1966 AX.
Mukherjee E4468 - CAL) and misidentified as Z. diphyl- March 31, 1989 ARABINDA PRAMANIK
References
Ahmedullah, M. & Nayar, M.P. (1986): Endemic plants of the Baker, J.G. (1876): Leguminosae. In J.D. Hooker (ed.) Flora
Indian region, Vol. I. Howrah. British India, Vol. II: 56-306, Kent. London.
45. NEW RECORDS OF SOME FERNS FOR KUMAUN HIMALAYA (WESTERN HIMALAYA)
Pangtey and Punetha (1987) published an updated
list of Pteridophytic flora so far known from Kumaun
Himalaya based on their own collections and on previous
reports. They recorded, in all, 251 species of ferns from
the entire Kumaun Himalaya ranging from 300-4500 m
altitudes. During 1988, we made several more collection
trips, especially in fem-rich areas, which resulted in the
collection of a fairly large number of specimens. On iden-
tification, 5 species belonging to 5 genera and 4 families
turned out to be new to the fern flora of Kumaun Himalaya.
All the available previous published records indicate that
these species have neither been collected nor reported
from Kumaun Himalaya so far. Voucher specimens are
housed in the Herbarium, Department of Botany, D.S.B.
College, Kumaun University, Naini Tal.
Family : Osmundaceae
1. Osmunda japonica Thunb., FI Jap. 330. 1784;
Panigrahi & Dixit, J. Indian bot. Soc. 48:97. 1969; Dixit,
Census Indian Pterid. 27. 1984.
An infrequent fem in Kumaun Himalaya. It grows
between 2000 - 2250 m on humus rich soil near wet areas
in scrub jungles, open places, road edges.
Specimens examined: Kumaun : Almora district, Khati en
route Pindari glacier (YPSP 138); Pithoragarh district,
Munsiari (Gori Valley) (YPSP s.n.)
Previous Distribution: India (Garhwal, Assam and
Meghalaya), Bhutan.
Panigrahi and Dixit (1969) were the first to record
this fern from western Himalaya from Garhwal without
giving any definite locality, based on the collection made
by Mackinnon. The present authentic collection of this
species from Kumaun Himalaya confirms its existence in
Western Himalaya. But its occurrence in Garhwal needs
to be confirmed because it has not been collected again by
subsequent workers from Garhwal after Panigrahi & Dixit
(1969).
Family : Aspleniaceae
2. Asplenium capillipesMakino, Bot. Mag. Tokyo 17: 77.
f. 1-3. 1903; Dixit, Census Indian Pterid. 116. 1984; Khul-
lar & Sharma, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82(2) : 463 , 1986.
An extremely rare fem in Kumaun Himalaya that
grows on tree crevices where a little soil gets deposited
and also in rock crevices around 2300 m.
Specimens examined : Kumaun : Almora District, below
Jatoli en route Sundardhunga glacier (SSS 1179).
Previous Distribution: India (Garhwal), China, Japan,
Bhutan.
This interesting fem is reported earlier only from
China and Japan. But it has not been recorded from Tibet
so far. Later, H. Ito (in Hara 197 1) reported it from Bhutan.
However, the first authentic collection of this fem was
made by Khullar and Sharma (1986), who collected it from
Yumnotri (Uttar Kashi District) in Garhwal (Western
Himalaya). The collection of this species from Kumaun
Himalaya indicates that it is being collected from India
after Khullar & Sharma (1986). Thus it extends its dis-
tributional range eastward to Kumaun Himalaya. It is very
likely that this fem may be found to occur throughout the
Himalayan regions of India, if exhaustive and careful col-
lections are made.
Family : Athyriaceae
3. Athyrium rubricaule (Edgew.) Bir, Nova Hedw. 4 :
169. t. 12 - 13. 1962; Dixit, Census Indian Pterid. 128.
1984. Asplenium filix-femina var. retusa subvar.
rubricaulis (Edgew.) Clarke, Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond. 2.
Bot. 1 :492. t. 59. f. 2. 1880.
Rather rare fem that grows in open places and humus
rich forest floors between 2200 - 3000 m.
Specimens examined: Kumaun : Almora District , Khati
en route Pindari glacier (SSS 1275); Phurkia en route Pin-
dari Glacier (SSS 1291).
Previous Distribution: India (Kashmir, Sikkim), Bhutan.
Bir (1962) recorded this fem from Gulmarg (Kash-
mir) in northwestern Himalaya. The present collection
thus extends its eastward distribution to Kumaun from
Kashmir. However, there is no report of this fem from
other sectors of northwestern Himalaya between Kumaun
and Kashmir.
Family : Dryopteridaceae
4. Dryopteris barbigera (Hook.) O. Ktze., Rev. Gen. PI.
2 : 812. 1891 subsp. komarovii Fraser - Jenkins, Bull. Brit.
Mus. Nat. Hist. 14: 209. 1986.
174
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
A rare fern of the high altitude regions of Kumaun.
It grows on gentle alpine slopes and meadows between
3200-3700 m.
Specimens examined: Kumaun : Almora district, Sun-
dardhunga glacier (SSS 1199).
Previous distribution: India (Kashmir to Garhwal).
5.Nothoperanema hendersonii (Bedd.) Nakaike, Enum.
Pterid. Jap. 239. 1975; Dixit, census Indian Pterid. 155.
1984. Lastrea hendersonii Bedd., Ferns Brit. India Suppl.
17. t. 377. 1876. Nephrodium spectabile Clarke, Trans.
Linn. Soc. Lond. 2. Bot. 1 : 526. 1880 .Lastrea spectabile
(Clarke) Bedd., Handb. Ferns Brit. India 257. 1883.
A rather rare fem in the Kumaun Himalaya. It usual-
ly grows in dark shaded humus rich forest floors and
moist-shaded situations between 1500-2500 m.
Specimens examined: Kumaun : Pithoragarh district, Kuk-
Refe
Bir, S.S. (1962): Some new and little known members of the
genus Athyriumirom the Himalayas. Nova Hedw. 4: 165—
170.
Hara, H. (1971): The Flora of Eastern Himalaya. Second Report.
Univ. Mus. Univ. Tokyo Bull. 2: 197-221.
Khullar, S.P. & Sharma, S.S. (1986): Asplenium capillipes
Makino (Aspleniaceae) - A Sino-Japanese Fem in the
India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82: 463-466.
rouli (SSS 628); Almora district, below Jatoli en route Sun-
dardhunga glacier (SSS 1249).
Previous Distribution: India (Khasi Hills and Shillong),
Nepal, China, Taiwan, Thailand.
This species is being reported for the first time from
northwestern Himalaya from Kumaun.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to Dr. S.P. Khullar, Reader, Depart-
ment of Botany, Punjab University, Chandigarh, for his
help in the identification and in the preparation of this note.
Thanks are due to Head, Department of Botany, D.S.B.
College, Kumaun University, Naini Tal, for facilities.
S.S. SAM ANT
April 4, 1989 Y.P.S. PANGTEY
NCES
Pangtey, Y.P.S. & Punetha, N. (1987): Pteridophytic Flora of
Kumaun Himalya : An updated list. In: Western Himalaya
(Environment, Problems & Development) Ed. Y.P.S.
Pangtey & S.C. Joshi 1: 389 - 412.
Panigrahi, G. & Dexit, R.D. (1969): Studies in Indian
Pteridophytes II. The family Osmundaceae in India. J. In-
dian Bot. Soc. 48: 90-101.
INDEX OF AUTHORS, MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Page No.
Akhtar, S. Asad Blacknecked Crane Project, Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House,
Bombay 400 023 147
Balasubramanian, P. BNHS Research Station, Point Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary,
Kodikkarai 614 807, Tamil Nadu 138, 145, 147,165
Bannerjee, D.P. 395, Mod Nagar, Lucknow 226 004 140
Bapat, N.N. Paburai Chowk, Bhuj, Kutch 147
Bavdekar, S.P. B/14, ‘Anand Chhaya’, Prabhadevi, Bombay 400 025 140
Bhuttewadkar, N.V. Department of Zoology, Kamatak University, Dharvvad 580 003 156
Chanda, S.K. Zoological Survey of India, Fire Proof Spirit Building, 27, J.L. Nehru Road,
Calcutta 700 016 157
Choudhury, Anwaraddin Near Gate No. 1 of Nehru Stadium, Islampur Road, Guwahati 781 007, Assam 133, 151
Das, Indraneil Madras Crocodile Bank Trust, Vadanemmeli, Perar Post, Mahabalipuram Road,
Madras 603 104 155
Das, P.K. Zoological Survey of India, ‘M’ Block, New Alipur, Calcutta 700 053 135
Dhiman, S.C. Entomology Research Laboratory, Department of Zoology, M.S. (PG) College,
Saharanpur 247 001 164
Divyabhanusinh 1 , Mansingh Road, New Delhi 1 1 0 001 142
Dodia, J.F. AICRP on Economic Ornithology, Gujarat Agricultural University, Anand 388 110 140
Ganguli-Lachungpa, Usha Sikkim Forest Dept., Deorali, Gangtok- 737 101 142
Haribal, Meena 4, Modi Nivas, Telang Road, Matunga, Bombay 400 019 163
Himmatsinhji Jubilee Ground, Bhuj, Kutch 147
Hiremath, C.R. P.C. Jabin Science College, Hubli 156
Kanamadi, R.D. Department of Zoology, Kamatak University, Dharwad 580 003 156
Khamre, J.S. Regional Office (Health & F.W.), Pune 164
Kaliwal, M.B. NMEP, Directorate of Health Services, Campal, Panaji, Goa 164
Kumar, R. Entomology Research Laboratory, Department of Zoology, M.S. (PG) College,
Saharanpur 247 001 164
Mahabal, Anil Zoological Survey of India, High Altitude Zoology Field Station, Hospital Road.
Solan 173 212 , Himachal Pradesh 137
Mathew, K.L. AICRP on Economic Ornithology, Gujarat Agricultural University, Anand 388 110. 140
Mohapatra, K.K. Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road, Bombay 400 023 146. 149
Mundkur, Taej Department of Biosciences, Saurashtra University, Rajkot 360 005 148
Muralidharan, S. Sir P.P. Institute of Science, Bhavnagar 360 002 139
Natarajan, V. BNHS Research Station, Point Calimere 614 807, Tamil Nadu 147
Neelakantan, K.K. Kongalakode, Kavassery P.O., Kerala 678 543 144
Pangtey, Y.RS, Dept, of Botany, D.S. B College, Kumaun University, Nainithal 263 002, Uttar Pradesh 173
Paralkar, V.K. B 2/3, Manav Kalyan, Bangur Nagar, Goregaon, Bombay 400 090 140
Parasharya, B.M. AICRP on Economic Ornithology, Gujarat Agricultural University, Anand 388 110 140
Patel, B.H. Dept, of Zoology, Sir P.P. Institute of Science, Bhavnagar 360 002 152
Pramanik, Arabinda Botanical Survey of India, Howrah 71 1 103 172
Prasad, M.N.V. School of Life Sciences, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad 500 134 168
Rahmani, Asad R. Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, S.B. Singh Road, Bombay 400 023 148
Raju, J.B. Department of Botany, Andhra University, Waltair 530 003 170
Ramesh, P. Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad,
Andhra Pradesh 500 030 161
Rao, G.M. Narasinha Dept, of Botany, Andhra University, Waltair 530 003 1 70
Rao, Prakash Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, S.B. Singh Road,
Bombay 400 023 139, 143, 146, 149
Rao, RJ. Simlipal Tiger Reserve, P.O. Khairi Jashipur, Orissa 149
Rao, K. Seshagiri School of Life Sciences, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad 500 134 168, 170
Raol, Lalsinh Parvatinagar Hats, Behind Om Cinema, Jivraj Park, Ahmedabad 380 05 1 140
Reddy, A.S. Department of Botany, Arts, Science & Commerce College, Shahada 425 409,
Dhule (Dist.), Maharashtra 170
Samant, S.S. Department of Botany, D.S.B. College, Kumaun University, Naini Tal 263 002 (U.P.) 173
Sankaran, Ravi Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, S.B. Singh Road, Bombay 400 023 148
Satheesan, S.M. Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, S B. Singh Road, Bombay 400 023 143, 144, 145
Page No.
Sharma, S.K. Arboriculturist, World Forestry Arboretum, Thai an a Dungri, Agra By Pass,
Jaipur 302 004, Rajasthan 149
Singh, D.F. Zoological Survey of India, Western Regional Station, 1182/2, F.C. Road, Pune 411 005 157
Singh, L.A.K. Project Tiger, Simlipal Tiger Reserve, P.O. Khairi- Jashipur, Dist. Mayurbhanj, Orissa 149
Singh, R.K. Entomology Research Laboratory, Department of Zoology, M.S. (PG) College,
Saharanpur 247 001 164
Sinha, Y.P. Eastern Regional Station, Zoological Survey of India, Fruit Garden, Risa Colony,
Shillong 793 003, Meghalaya 134
Tehsin, Fatema 41, Panchwati, Udaipur 313 001, Rajasthan 144
Tehsin, Raza 41, Panchwati, Udaipur 313 001, Rajasthan 144
Tiwari, Jugalkishore Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, S.B. Singh Road, Bombay 400 023 137
Tyabji, Hashim N. 624/1, Road 10, Banjara Hills, Hyderabad 500 034, Andhra Pradesh 134
Uthaman, P.K, Field Publicity Office, Government of India, Kalpetta 673 122, Kerala 139
Varu, S.N. Junavas, Madhapar, Bhuj Ta., Kutch 147
Venkanna, P. Department of Botany, Andhra University, Waltair 530 003 170
Venkataraman, K. School of Energy, Environment and Natural Resources, Madurai Kamaraj University,
Madurai 625 021 166
Vyas, Raju Zoo Inspector, Sayaji Baug Zoo, Vadodara 390 018 152
Yazdani, G.M. Zoological Survey of India, Western Regional Station, 1182/2, F.C. Road, Pune 41 1 005 157
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THE BREEDING BIRDS OF OVERA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, KASHMIR
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WEST BENGAL (With a plate)
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50
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REVISED NOMENCLATURE FOR TAXA IN WYNTER-BLYTH’S BOOK ON THE BUTTER-
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BREEDING OF THE COMMON TERN Sterna hirundo IN SRI LANKA
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AVIAN PROFILE OF A MAN-MODIFIED AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM IN THE BACKWATERS
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DISTRIBUTIONAL RECORDS FOR CHELONIANS FROM NORTHEASTERN
(With a text-figure)
By Indraneil Das 91
LIFE CYCLE OF Phlyctenophora indica ANNAPURNA AND RAMA SARMA, A MARINE
BENTHIC PODOCOPAN OSTRACOD (With two text-figures)
By C. Annapurna, D. V. Rama Sarma and K. Shyamasundari 98
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
REVIEWS
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
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VOLUME 87 (2): AUGUST 1990
Date of Publication: 30-10-1990
CONTENTS
Page
THE PAST AND PRESENT DISTRIBUTION OF THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD Ardeotis nigriceps (VIGORS)
IN INDIA (With two text- figures)
By Asad R. Rahmani and Ranjit Manakadan 175
RESULTS OF A PILOT SALTWATER CROCODILE Crocodylus porosus SCHNEIDER RESTOCKING IN
BHITARKANIKA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, ORISSA (With two text-figures )
By S.K. Kar and H.R. Bustard 195
A PRELIMINARY ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF ALGUAL SPRING, SARISKA TIGER RESERVE, RAJASTHAN
(With two plates and five text-figures)
By W. A. Rodgers 201
SCALING MODELS FOR FLIGHT PATTERNS AND SEXUAL DIMORPHISM IN RAPTORS (With five text- figures)
By Ram ana M. Athreya and Vijay A. Singh 210
POLYMORPHISM IN Acanthaspis siva DISTANT (REDUVHDAE: HETEROPTERA), A PREDATOR OF THE
INDIAN HONEY BEE (With two text-figures )
By Dunston P. Ambrose and David Livingstone 218
OBSERVATIONS ON THE DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES OF TADPOLES OF THE MALABAR GLIDING FROG
Rhacophorus malabaricus JERDON, 1870 (ANURA: RHACOPHORIDAE)
(With three plates and three text- figures)
By A.G. Sekar 223
STRATEGIES OF BROODING AND PARENTAL CARE AND INFLUENCE OF STRESS CONDITIONS IN THE
LABORATORY IN Heteropoda Venator ia (ARANEAE: HETEROPODIDAE) (With a text- figure)
By K. Vijay alakshmi and S. Sivaraman 227
NEW RECORD AND DESCRIPTION OF Aethalotus horni BREDDIN (INSECTA: HETEROPTERA: LYGAEIDAE)
WITH ITS IMMATURE STAGES FROM NORTHEAST INDIA (With twelve text-figures)
By A. Mukhopadhyay, P. Roy and S. Das 235
AN ANALYSIS OF SOME EXTERNAL FACTORS IN THE SEXUAL PERIODICITY OF THE INDIAN BAT
Megaderma lyra lyra (GEOFFROY) (With five text -figures)
By A. Gopalakrishna and N. Badwaik 240
TICKS (ACARI: IXODIDAE) COLLECTED ON CHELONIANS (REPTILIA) FROM INDIA AND BURMA
By J.G. Frazier and J.E. Keirans 247
STATUS OF THE SWAMP DEER Cervus duvauceli duvauceli IN THE DUDWA NATIONAL PARK,
UTTAR PRADESH (With three text-figures)
By Ravi Sankaran 250
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Julostylis polyandra (MALVACEAE) - A NEW SPECIES FROM INDIA (With a text-figure)
By N. Ravi and N. Anilkumar 260
A NEW SPECIES OF GALL-FORMING Crotonothrips (Inermothrips) (TH YS ANOPTERA : PHLAEOTHRIPIDAE)
FROM MANIPUR (With a text- figure)
By L. Nilamani and B. Prasad 262
TWO NEW VARIETIES OF Christella dentata (FORSSK.) BROWNSEY ET JERMY (With a text-figure)
By N. Punetha and B .S . Kholia 264
A NEW SPECIES OF GENUS Megachile LATREILLE (HYMENOPTERA: APOIDEA: MEGACHILIDAE), FROM
INDIA (With a text-figure)
By Virendra Kumar 266
NEW SPECIES OF Aconurella AND Paramesodes (HOMOPTERA: CICADELUDAE) FROM INDIA
(With two text- figures )
By V. Rama Subba Rao and Usha Ramakrishnan 268
ON A NEW SPECIES OF Salmostoma SWAJNSON (CYPRINIDAE: CULTRINAE) FROM DHOM RESERVOIR,
SATARA DISTRICT, MAHARASHTRA (With two text- figures)
By R.T. Srithar and K.C. Jayaram 272
NEW PLANT TAXA FROM THE SIND VALLEY, KASHMIR (With three text- figures)
By G.H. Dar and A.R. Naqshi 274
ANEW SPECIES OF Euagoras (HETEROPTERA: REDUVHDAE: HARPACTORINAE) FROM WESTERN GHATS,
INDIA (With a text- figure)
By David Livingstone and G. Ravichandran 280
Lecanthus peduncularis (ROYLE) WEDD. VAR. Garhwalensis : A NEW VARIETY FROM GARHWAL
HIMALAYA (With a text-figure)
By R.A. Silas and R.D. Gaur 281
A NEW Eurya THUNB. (THEACEAE) FROM ARUNACHAL PRADESH (With a text-figure)
By G.S. Giri, G.D. Pal and T.K. Pal .. . 283
REVIEWS
Plants of Dhofar (the southern region of Oman)
Reviewed by M.R. Almeida 284
Further illustrations on the flora of the Tamil Nadu Carnatic, Vol. 4
Reviewed by M.R. Almeida 284
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
MAMMALS: 12.
1 . On the longevity of two species of Indian wild cats
in captivity
By L.N. Acharjyo and S.K. Patnaik 286 ^
2. Relative toxicity of three acute rodenticides against
Rattus rattus rufescens
By Y. Saxena 286 ^
3. Reaction of a group of gaur Bos gaur us to the
presence of an unidentified predator in Bandhav-
garh N ational Park, M adhy a Pradesh i r
By Hashim N. Tyabji 287
4. Recto-vaginal prolapse in a wild chital Cervus axis
By K. Sankar 288 ^
BIRDS:
5. Great crested grebe Podiceps cristatus cristatus
near Bhilwara, Rajasthan
By Raza Tehsin 289
6. Black bittern Ixobrychus flavicollis (Latham), an
addition to the avifauna of Maharashtra
By Nitin Jamdar and Kiran Srivastava 289
7. Occurrence of spoonbill Platalea leucorodia Linn,
in Kerala
By A.P. Jairaj and V.K. Sanjeev Kumar 289
8. Brahminy duck Iadorna ferruginea (Pallas) breed-
ing in Sikkim
By Usha Ganguli-Lachungpa 290
9. Spotbill duck Anas poecilorhyncha J.R. Forster in
Kerala
By P. K. Uthaman 290
10. Red kite Milvus milvus in Ladakh
By M. Fily and C. Perennou 291
1 1 . Osprey Pandion haliaetus in Sikkim
By Usha Ganguli-Lachungpa 291
Successful nesting of shaheen falcon Falco
peregrinus peregrinator in Tamil Nadu
By Douglas A. Bell ..291
Reappearance of common peafowl Pavo cristatus
Linn, in Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala
By P.S. Easa 292
On the voice of the kora or watercock Gallicrex
cinerea
By K.K. Neelakantan 293
Recent breeding records of the lesser florican
Sypheotides indica (Miller) from Andhra Pradesh
By Ravi Sankaran and Ranjit Manakadan 294
Blacktailed godwit Limosa limosa and large Indian
pratincole Glareola pratincola — two new records
from Kerala
By Sasi Kumar 296
17. Marsh sandpiper Tringa stagnatilis eating a frog
By Asad R. Rahmani, K.K. Mohapatra and
Carl D’Silva 296
18. Food of the spotted sandpiper Tringa glareola
Linn.
By K. Sampath 297
19. Skuas Stercorarius sp. on the west coast
By Stig Toft Madsen 297
20. Indian river tem Sterna aurantia, a coastal species
or a case of mistaken identity?
By Taej Mundkur 298
21. On the status of the sandwich tem Sterna sandvicen-
sis on India’s west coast
By Heinz Lainer 298
22. Incubation period of Indian little brown dove Strep-
topelia senegalensis (Linn.)
By C.R. Ajith Kumar and N.K. Ramachandran 299
23. Indian great homed owl Bubo bubo (Linn.) and
peafowl Pavo crist at us Linn.
By Raza Tehsin and Fatema Tehsin 300
24. Unusually large congregation and behaviour of In-
dian rollers Coracias benghalensis
By A.M.K. Bharos 300
25. Common grey hombill Tockus birostris (Scopoli)
dust bathing
By V. Santharam 300
26. Indian black drongo Dicrurus adsimilis eating a
bird
By Carl D’Silva, Ravi Sankaran, K.K. Mohapatra
and Jagdish Chandra 301
27. Indian house crow Corvus splendens preying upon
pied ground thrush Zoothera wardii at Point
Calimere, Tamil Nadu
By P. Balasubramanian 301
28. Yellow -eyed babbler Chrysomma sinensis in
Kerala
By K.K. Neelakantan 302
29. Simla black tit Par us rufonuchalis andrufousbellied
crested tit Parus rubidiventris breeding sympatri-
cally in Kashmir
By Nitin Jamdar and Trevor Price 302
30. Nest transplants and behaviour of blackthroated
weaver bird Ploceus benghalensis
By Satish Kumar Sharma 303
3 1 . Status of some birds in southeastern India
By C. Perennou and V. Santharam 306
REPTILES:
32. Marsh crocodile Crocodylus palustris (Lesson) at
Point Calimere, Tamil Nadu
By V. Natarajan and S. Balachandran 307
33. A bath by a common garden lizard Calotes ver-
sicolor
By Satish Kumar Sharma 308
34. Food of the dhaman Ptyas mucosus
By Jugal Kishor Tiwari 308
35. Golden tree snake Chrysopelea ornata Shaw
By Raju Vyas..... 309
36. King cobra Ophiophagus hannah in grassland: an
unusual habitat
By Goutam Narayan and Lima Rosalind 309
AMPHIBIANS:
37. Rana bhagmandlensis: a junior synonym of Rana
aurantiaca Boulenger (Anura: Ranidae)
By Sushil K. Dutta 310
38. Amphibians from India - some further species
By Indraneil Das 310
39. Notes on morphometry, ecology, behaviour and
food of tadpoles of Rana curtipes Jerdon, 1853
By A.G. Sekar 312
FISHES:
40. Occurrence of a trigger fish (Pisces: Balistidae) in
Bombay seas
By B.F. Chhapgar and A.M. Ringangaonkar.... 313
INSECTS:
41. Hypocala violacea Butler — a case of strong mor-
phovariation
By A. Srivastava 314
42. Studies on the biology of Apotomorrhinus
cribratus Sch. (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
By H.R. Pajni and Neelima Nanda 315
43. Intrasexual combat in Onthophagus pygmaeus
(Schaller) (Coleoptera : Scarabaeidae)
By K. Veenakumari and G.K. Veeresh 318
44. Utilization of dry dung and intraspecific competi-
tion in Onthophagus tritinctus Boucomont (Coleop-
tera: Scarabaeidae)
By K. Veenakumari and G.K. Veeresh 319
45. Odonata of Vedanthangal Waterbird Sanctuary,
Tamil Nadu, with notes on their field ecology
By Anil Kumar 320
46. Seasonal changes in the population of earthworms
(Oligochaeta) in an orchard
By J.M. Julka and R. Paliwal 323
BOTANY:
47. Taxonomical and distributional notes on Poly gala
telephioides Klein ex Willd. in India
By S. Panda, R.N. Banerjee and A. P. Das 326
48. Distribution of some rare and less known species
from Dudhatoli region (Garhwal Himalaya)
By R.A. Silas and R.D. Gaur 327
49. Xanthium spinosum L. — a new record for the Indian
subcontinent
By G.H. Dar, A.R. Naqshi and S. Ara 329
50. Richardia scabra Linn. — an addition to the flora of
Orissa
By H.N. Subudhi, B.P. Choudhury
and P.C. Panda 331
5 1 . Changes in the status of two species in the genus Ar-
gostemma (Rubiaceae)
By D.B. Deb and S.K. Basu 332
52. On the genus Neanotis Lewis (Rubiaceae) in India
By D.B. Deb and Rama Dutta 332
53. Rediscovery of some rare ferns of Kumaun
Himalaya (western Himalaya)
By S.S. Samant and Y.P.S. Pangtey 333
JOURNAL
OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY
SOCIETY
August 1990 Vol. 87 No. 2
THE PAST AND PRESENT DISTRIBUTION OF THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD
ARDEOTIS NIGRICEPS (VIGORS) IN INDIA1
Asad R. Rahmani and Ranjit Manakadan2
( With two text-figures)
The Bombay Natural History Society started a
five year project in 1981 which was later extended
by a year to study the ecology and distribution of the
great Indian bustard Ardeotis nigriceps. The project
was funded by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
and sponsored by the Ministry of Environment and
Forests, Government of India. This paper describes
the present and past distribution of the bustard in
India.
Study Period
The study started in April 1981 with a prelimi-
nary survey of Rajasthan and Maharashtra. In
August the same year, a field station was established
at Nanaj, Solapur district, Maharashtra, where
ecological studies were conducted till December
1984 (Ali and Rahmani 1982-84). Another field sta-
tion was started in May 1982, at Karera Bustard
Sanctuary, Shivpuri district, Madhya Pradesh, and
studies continued till the end of 1986; but monitor-
ing of the bustard population went on till the end of
1987. A third field station was established in 1985
atRollapadu, Kumool district, Andhra Pradesh, and
work continued till December 1987.
Surveys: In order to determine the present distribu-
tion of the bustard, extensive surveys were done in
the states where the bustard is known to exist. The
Accepted January 1989.
^Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House
Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023.
results of the surveys till 1983 have been given else-
where (Rahmani and Manakadan 1985). Two major
surveys were done in Gujarat (Rahmani 1985) and
three in Rajasthan. In addition to this, frequent short
surveys were done in the states where we had field
stations (i.e. Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and
Andhra Pradesh) and the results were published in
various reports (Ali and Rahmani 1982-84,
Manakadan and Rahmani 1986). After receiving
some information on bustard sightings in Tamil
Nadu, a short survey was done in June 1986 (Rah-
mani and Manakadan 1988b).
Obviously, the states where we had the field
stations were more thoroughly searched than other
states where we could not spend much time. In order
to cover this gap, two major surveys were organised
for Gujarat (in March 1982 and January 1984) and
a watch was kept on the bustard while surveying for
the lesser florican Sypheo tides indica in January
1985 and August 1987. In spite of Rajasthan having
the largest bustard population in the country, we
could not get permission from the State Government
to do intensive studies. However, three major sur-
veys were organised in Rajasthan (March 1983,
January-February 1986 and January 1987) but we
still could not cover all the bustard areas. We could
have perhaps surveyed Rajasthan much better if we
had a field station. Among the six states where the
bustard is found, Karnataka could not be surveyed
properly mainly due to our preoccupation in other
176
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Fig.l Former distribution of the great Indian bustard. (Based cm literature review till 1980).
areas. There must be many more bustard populations
in Karnataka yet to be discovered.
Methodology
As the surveys were more a search than
population sampling, a simple visual count method
was applied. The bustard is present in pockets and
in seemingly perfect bustard habitats it was often not
seen, so sampling a small-area and then extrapolat-
ing to the whole bustard area of the country
(hundreds of thousands sq. km) would have given
erroneous results. For example even in western
Rajasthan where the bustard is seen from Bikaner to
Barmer, it is not distributed uniformly, so population
sampling methods could not be applied. The chief
aim of these surveys was to search and visually
count the birds.
Most of the Field work was done in the early
mornings and late evenings when the birds are most
active. Data on sex ratio, flock size, habitat utiliza-
tion, time of the day, weather conditions and crop
pattern of the area were recorded in the proforma. In
DISTRIBUTION OF GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD
111
addition to taking data, intensive publicity for the
protection of the bustard was done in all the areas
visited and posters were distributed. Wherever we
had distributed the posters, during our subsequent
visits we got better response from the locals, as a
result of which in some areas we could see more
birds compared to our earlier visits.
Results
State- wise results of the surveys are given
below. All the data is based on our surveys, unless
stated otherwise. For comparison, past records of the
bustard are given in Appendix 1, and shown in Fig
1.
Madhya Pradesh
About a hundred years ago, the great Indian
bustard was possibly a common bird in open
scrublands of Madhya Pradesh, especially in the
northwest region of the state. Bevan (1868) reported
that trappers catch them in the neighbourhood of
Gwalior (where the bustard is still found: see
below), and Barnes (1886) found it "fairly com-
mon" in Neemuch district. In this century, there
were only a few records prior to 1980, mainly be-
cause of lack of ornithologists working in the state,
especially in bustard areas. Deeks (1935) saw a bus-
tard in Sagar district and Ali (1939) though he did
not see any bustards during his ornithological work
in central India, recorded its presence from Gwalior
and Shivpuri districts (Appendix 1). Interestingly,
during his bird collection trips, Ali (1939) did not
see any bustard near Narwar and Surwaya, which
are very close to Karera where the present bustard
sanctuary is located. Ali (1970) based on
Dharmakumarsinhji’s Figures reported 400 bustards
to be present in Madhya Pradesh, but cautioned that
the figure was ‘much too high’. To Dr Salim Ali’s
personal enquiry, the Chief Conservator of Forests,
Madhya Pradesh, simply said ‘It is not seen’! Never-
theless, Ali (1970) added that it is possible for a few
fugitive birds to exist in Gwalior areas (Esagarh,
Shivpuri, Morena). His optimism was not un-
founded because in 1980, P.K. Naik, the then Direc-
tor of the Madhav National Park, Shivpuri, found a
few bustards near Fatehpur village about 20 km
from Karera. Later Hassan (1980) did another sur-
vey of the area and saw two birds between Fatehpur
and Dihaila villages and some birds near Ghatigaon
village in Gwalior district Dr Salim Ali visited the
area the same year and proposed bustard sanctuaries
near Karera and Ghatigaon which were declared in
1981.
Between 1982 and 1986, we studied the bus-
tard at Karera (Rahmani 1988) and also surveyed
nearby areas. Apart from Karera, we have seen the
bustard in the Ghatigaon Bustard Sanctuary and in
Pohri area. We also found positive evidence of bus-
tards near Chhatipur and Panna. Good bustard
habitat is present in Guna and parts of Biora districts
but we could not get any evidence of its occurrence
there. It is also likely that a few bustards may still
survive in Raipur district. Bharos (pers. comm.)
wrote to us in 1985 saying that the bustard was found
in good numbers between Tilda S.E. Railway and
Khora on Pallari road, which was and still is suitable
for the bustard. He saw three: one big (male?) and
two smaller (females?) in 1965 and saw footprints
of another big bustard. He also mentioned the local
name Hurnma. Unfortunately, we could not go to
Raipur and enquiries from the Forest Department
did not give any conclusive evidence about its
present status in Raipur district. Perhaps a few
birds are still present there.
During our stay at Karera between 1982 and
1986 we thoroughly surveyed Shivpuri and Gwalior
districts, and later did a brief survey of Panna dis-
trict in January 1988. As mentioned earlier, apart
from the Karera area we saw bustards in the
Ghatigaon Bustard Sanctuary and in Pohri area, and
found positive evidence near Chhatipur and Panna.
Detailed descriptions of Karera, Ghatigaon and
Pohri are given elsewhere (Ali and Rahmani 1982-
84, Rahmani and Manakadan 1988a).
Rajasthan
Old records state that the great Indian bustard
was plentiful in Rajasthan (Jerdon 1864, Barnes
1886, 1891, Blanford 1898, Baker 1929). Blanford
(1898), included the whole of Rajasthan and eastern
Sind (Pakistan) as the distributional range of the
bustard. The birds were regularly seen or shot in
Sind (Hume 1873, Butler 1878). Hume (1890)
reported that upto 100 bustard eggs were collected
by Khan Nizam-oo-din Khan from Bikaner region.
Keeping in view the large number of bustards
in the Thar desert in olden days, there are compara-
tively few recent records of shooting or sightings of
178
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
this bird. Out of the 78 references on the bustard
from 1 834 to 1975, the Thar desert accounts for only
fifteen and the figures in some of these references
are either repeated or quoted from the earlier
references. The comparative scarcity of first-hand
reports of the bustard in Rajasthan reflects more on
the remoteness of the area and consequent lack of
recorders than on the actual scarcity of the species.
Surprisingly, there is no mention of Jaisalmer dis-
trict in old records, where the maximum number of
bustards now occur. Once the district became easi-
ly accessible to naturalists, bustard sightings be-
came common. Prakash and Ghosh (1963, 1964)
saw "appreciable numbers" of bustards in the Ram-
deora region of Jaisalmer district.
Ali (1970), quoting Dharmakumarsinhji’s
data, stated that nearly 500 bustards must be present
in Rajasthan. Considering the present population,
the figure appears to be an underestimate. With the
increase in environmental awareness and develop-
ment of interest in natural history, more and more
sightings of the bustard were reported (e.g. Prakash
1980, Kapoor and Bhatia 1980, Saxena and Sen
1980,Rathore 1980 and Bharat Singh 1980). It is not
known whether the spurt in bustard sightings was
due to an increase in the number of birds or to more
diligent searches. Perhaps both the factors were
responsible for sightings of the bustard in widely
separated areas like Kundanpur near Kota (Bharat
Singh 1980), Shonkhaliya near Ajmer (Rathore
1980), Sudasari, Khuri and Dhanana in Jaisalmer
(Kapoor and Bhatia 1980), Bhinmal in Jalore and
Diyatra in Bikaner (Vyas et al. 1980). Data upto
1980 was presented during the International Sym-
posium on Bustards held at Jaipur, the proceedings
of which were published as a book (Eds. Goriup and
Vardhan 1980).
Our surveys, as well as data collected from dif-
ferent sources, reveal that presently the bustard is
found in 11 districts: Jaisalmer, Barmer, Jodhpur,
Bikaner, Pali, Jalore, Ajmer, Bhilwara, Tonk, Kota
and Sawai Madhopur. Out of the 1 1 districts we have
seen bustards in five: Jodhpur, Jaisalmer, Bikaner,
Ajmer and Kota (Table 2)
Gujarat
Dharmakumarsinhji (1957, 1962 a,b) did
pioneer work on the ecology, behaviour and dis-
tribution of the bustard in Gujarat, especially in the
Kathiawar peninsula. According to him (1957): "In
the past it was found throughout this peninsula ex-
cept in the forest areas of Gir, Gimar and Barda
Hills, and there was practically no grassland (Vids)
where it was not seen. Droves of 30 to 40 individuals
could be observed in certain suitable habitats for
most of the year". Large tracts of grasslands were
seen in Okhamandal, Junagadh, Nawanagar, Bhav-
nagar, Jasdan, Wadhwan, Rajkot, Virpur, Bagasra,
Bhawas, Wankaner and Morvi (Dharmakumarsinhji
1978).
The bustard was not uncommon in the Kutch
district in the 19th century (Stoliczka 1872, Hume
1873) but later Ali (1945) found it to be rare. The
birds breed in the Kutch district during the monsoon.
(Baker 1929, Vijayraji 1943, Ali 1945, Himmat-
sinhji 1984, pers. comm.). An albino bustard was
sighted near Mandvi (Vijayrajji 1926).
A marked decline in the population of the bus-
tard in Gujarat was noted by Dharmakumarsinhji
(1978) during his surveys in 1970-71 for the
Worldwide Fund for Nature-India. He reported the
last stronghold of this species in Kathiawar to be in
Jamnagar district, close to Okhamandal "where a
staunch Iyer community allows no trespassing on
their lands and the birds seem to realize this protec-
tion". A few birds may be seen on the Panchal
plateau and in the Rann borders where formerly they
were not uncommon. Later, Sinha (1980) reported a
further decline in the number of the bustards in
Gujarat and through his questionnaire and en-
quiries found the bustard to be restricted to Jam-
nagar district and perhaps Rajkot and Bhavnagar
districts. According to Sinha (1980), Lavkumar
Khacher estimated the bustard population in
Gujarat to be about 75 birds, while M. A. Rashid, the
Chief Wildlife Warden (retd.) estimated it to be
around 50 birds. At present, the bustard is definite-
ly recorded only in two districts of Gujarat, i.e. Jam-
nagar and Kutch. A few birds exist in other districts
like Surendranagar and Rajkot (Table 3).
Maharashtra
There is some literature regarding the former
status of the bustard in Maharashtra. The bustard ap-
pears to have been quite common in this state.
Robert Mansfield in the now defunct ‘Oriental
Sporting Magazine’ says he shot no less than 961
bustards between 1809 and 1829 in the neighbour-
DISTRIBUTION OF GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD
179
hood of Ahmednagar. Davidson and Wendon (1878)
and Fraser (1881) also provided some interesting in-
formation. The bustard is no longer present in its
former numbers, but still survives in some parts, and
fortunately is making a comeback in areas where
grassland enclosures are established under the
Drought Prone Areas Programme (DPAP). Solapur,
Ahmednagar, Aurangabad, Osmanabad, Beed, Kol-
hapur and Pune are the districts where the bustard
has been seen during the last 8-10 years (Table 4).
Unconfirmed reports indicate their occurrence in
Nagpur and Nasik districts.
Andhra Pradesh
Old records indicate the presence of the bus-
tard in the ‘dry districts’ of Andhra Pradesh (Hume
and Marshall 1879, Blanford 1898). Burton (1953)
mentioned seeing a drove of 13 birds east of Gun-
takal junction. Elliot (1880) and Tostems (1887) ac-
knowledged their presence in Kumool district
Till very recently, little was known about the
present status of the bustard in Andhra Pradesh.
Pushp Kumar (1980) offered a rough estimate of 15
birds for the whole state, based on information
gathered mainly from hunters. Then, in August
1982, a few birds were sighted by the Forest Depart-
ment near Rollapadu and Banganapalle in Kumool
district Subsequently the bustard was also located
by the Forest Department or by us at Nellibanda,
Peddapadu, Siruvella, Palakurti, Malligeli in Kur-
nool district; Hanimireddy-palli in Anantapur dis-
trict, Chevalla and Shamshabad in Rangareddy dis-
trict (Table 5). There are unconfirmed reports of
their presence in some parts of Mahboobnagar dis-
trict.
Karnataka
There is no clear picture of the status and dis-
tribution of the great Indian bustard in Karnataka.
There are unconfirmed reports of its occurrence in
Bijapur, Raichur, Dharwad, Bellary, Chitradurgha,
Tumkur, Hassan, Kolar and Mysore districts, but the
bustard is definitely known to exist only in Dharwad
district (Table 6).
Discussion
Limitations of the study: In order to estimate the
number of a patchily distributed, rare species, it is
important to know its complete ecology and espe-
cially its movements and home range, to avoid
duplication in counting. A serious limitation in our
work was that we could not study the local or long
distance movements(?) of the bustard because we
were not allowed to mark the birds in sufficient num-
bers. Therefore, we do not know whether the same
individuals were seen in different places or they
were different birds. An in-depth study of the home
range using colour bands and radio telemetry would
have been useful to extrapolate the population
figures.
Present distribution: Mukheijee in 1973 estimated
the bustard to occupy only 1.7% of its former range.
In the absence of data on the home range and move-
ments, it is difficult to compare the area occupied by
the bustard in the olden days and now. Moreover
some of the older distributional records are so vague,
e.g. ‘Saurashtra’ or ‘Deccan* that they cannot form
a basis for any comparative studies. Even now the
bustard is found in ‘Saurashtra* and ‘Deccan*,
though certainly in much reduced numbers.
As can be seen from the maps showing the
former and present distribution of the bustard (Figs.
1 and 2), the area of distribution has not shrunk
much, especially in the central part of its distribu-
tional range. Only the density of the bustard has
gone down (Goriup and Vardhan 1980; this study).
For instance, based on available literature, the bus-
tard was reported from five districts of Madhya
Pradesh, i.e. Gwalior, Shivpuri, Neemuch, Sagar
and Raipur (Fig. 1). It is still present in Gwalior and
Shivpuri and possibly also in Raipur. In addition,
we found it in Panna district, and we suspect it is
present in Guna district which adjoins Shivpuri
and still retains extensive open scrubland. Thus, as
far as Madhya Pradesh is concerned, the range of the
bustard has not decreased much. Similarly, in
Maharashtra out of the 11 districts from which it
was reported (Fig. 1), it is now definitely seen in
five, and possibly in six districts. Its population has
gone down much, hence few sight records, but the
extent of distribution in Maharashtra has just halved.
In Rajasthan, Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh the bus-
tard is seen in almost all the dry districts as in the
olden days.
Reduction in the distributional range of the
bustard is markedly seen in the peripheral areas of
its former range like Uttar Pradesh, Orissa and Tamil
Nadu. From Orissa, there was only one record, i.e.
180
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Fig. 2. Slates and districts having bustard populations,
Sambalpur (Appendix 1) (Raipur is now in Madhya
Pradesh). We do not know whether the bustard sur-
vives there or not as we do not have any recent in-
formation. Similarly, in Tamil Nadu either the bus-
tard is totally extinct or has become extremely rare
(Rahmani and Manakadan 1988b). Even in the past
the bustard may not have been very common in
Tamil Nadu (the erstwhile Madras Presidency) or
was on the decline even during the early part of this
century. Therefore, its disappearance from Tamil
£ Breeding records y| Other records
Nadu was only a question of time since its habitat
was being altered at an accelerated rate.
The greatest reduction in the range of the bus-
tard is seen in the north, i.e. Uttar Pradesh, Haryana
and Punjab. It was a resident bird in all the three
states (Haryana was earlier part of Punjab). Eggs
were collected (e.g. from Sirsa; Oates 1902) or the
birds were seen throughout the year (e.g. in Muzzaf-
famagar, Butler 1880) in this region. The bustard
was seen as far north as Ferozepur in Punjab and
Table 1
STATE -MADHYA PRADESH
DISTRIBUTION OF GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD
181
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DISTRIBUTION OF GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD
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PRADESH
DISTRIBUTION OF GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD
187
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188
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Saharanpur in Uttar Pradesh (Fig. 1). It has totally
disappeared from Punjab and Haryana and the
northern parts of Uttar Pradesh mainly because of
poaching and alteration of its grassland habitat. Pun-
jab and Haryana are semi-arid (average annual rain-
fall less than 700 mm) and hence perfectly suitable
for the bustard. However, owing to the development
of irrigation projects, the open scrublands and
grasslands have been converted into croplands.
These two states have now become the granary of
India and practically no area is left for the bustard
and other denizens of the grasslands. Similarly the
plains of Uttar Pradesh are now more or less covered
by cropfields, especially in the fertile northern belt
from Saharanpur to Lucknow (where the bustards
was earlier seen, Fig. 1). There are still some chan-
ces of sighting bustards in the southern parts of the
state, namely in Agra, Etawah, Banda, Lalitpur and
Jhansi districts which still have some open
scrublands with marginal dryland crops. In such
areas bustards can come from adjoining Madhya
Pradesh. Moreover, on both sides of the interstate
border, crops suitable for bustards (Bengal gram
Cicer arietinum , groundnut Arachis hypogea ,
taramira Eruca sativa , wheat Triticum spp. and
mustard Brassica campestris) are grown and the
bustard can move to these parts in search of food.
Comparing the old sight/hunting records in
Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan (Fig. 1), it appears that
the bustard was more common in Uttar Pradesh than
in Rajasthan, because there are more records from
the former than the latter (13 in U.P. v. 9 in Rajas-
than). This discrepancy is mainly because of a very
high human population in Uttar Pradesh, and hence
more recorders, not due to high bustard density. As
reported earlier, the Thar Desert was a comparative-
ly remote area in the early part of this century, thus
few naturalists or hunters could go there, resulting
in fewer records in spite of the Thar being the major
stronghold of this species.
Numberof the bustards: As reported earlier,
without knowing the home range and movements of
the bustard, it is not easy to estimate the number be-
cause we do not know how far they move and
whether the same birds are seen in different places
or they are different individuals. If the bustard does
not move, say from Rajasthan to Andhra Pradesh,
then the number of bustards may be between 1500
and 2000, with Rajasthan having more than half the
number (Table 7).
However, if the birds can move long distances,
up to a thousand kilometres or more, and the same
individuals are seen in many places such as Rol-
lapadu, Nanaj and Sudasari then the population is
very low, perhaps less than 500. The number of bus-
tards at Nanaj (Rahmani and Manakadan 1986) and
at Rollapadu (Manakadan and Rahmani 1989)
varies from season to season with maximum num-
bers being seen during the monsoon period and min-
imum in late winter and summer. In contrast, in
Sudasari in the Desert National Park we were told
that the maximum number of bustards (even up to
70) are seen during the hot summer months of May
and June, and less during the monsoon (mainly the
breeding birds?). The most plausible explanation is
that during summer the bustards are attracted to the
waterhole of Sudasari and come from the nearby
areas in search of water. However, in the absence of
ringing data we cannot overlook the possibility of
bustards coming from far off places such as Nanaj
or Rollapadu, especially when they are not seen
there in summer.
The question is: where do most of the bustards
of Rollapadu go in summer? (only 5 to 10 are seen
in summer unlike 50 to 60 during early monsoon).
Do they move to other states or spread out in the
Table 7
STATE-WISE POPULATION ESTIMATE OF THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD
DISTRIBUTION OF GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD
189
nearby areas? Unseasonal showers and cloudy
weather conditions even during summer result in
temporary immigration of some bustards to the
grasslands of Nanaj and Rollapadu, indicating that
the birds were in the vicinity.
Nonetheless, long distance movement of the
bustard cannot be ruled out especially when many
other species of bustards such as the houbara
Chlamydotis undulata (Ali and Ripley 1969, Cramp
and Simmons 1980, Mian 1984), little bustard
Tetrax tetrax and great bustard Otis tarda (Cramp
and Simmons 1980), lesser florican Sypheotides in-
dica (Baker 1921, Ali and Ripley 1969, Dhar-
makumarsinhji 1950) show migratory tendency. A
Kori bustard Ardeotis kori wing-tagged in South
Africa has been recorded in southern Kenya (P.
Goriup 1988 pers. comm.).
Perhaps the great Indian bustard also moves
between the two arid areas of India, i.e. the Thar
Desert and the Deccan Tableland. Unless we mark
bustards and study their movement by radio-
telemetry, we may never know the exact population
of the bustard in India, and until we know its com-
plete ecology and movements, we may never be able
to evolve a long-term conservation strategy for this
endangered species.
Refe
Adam, R. M. (1873): Notes on the birds of the Sambhur Lake and
its vicinity. Stray Feathers I’: 361-404.
(1874): Additional notes on the birds of Sambhur
Lake and its vicinity, ibid. 2: 337-341.
Auken, A.B. (1912): Note on the Great Indian Bustard. J. Bom-
bay nat. Hist. Soc. 21: 1334.
Ali, S. (1934): The Hyderabad State Ornithological Survey, part
2. ibid. 37(2): 442.
(1939): The birds of central India. Part II. ibid. 41:
470-488.
(1940): The birds of Bahawalpur (Punjab), ibid. 66:
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(1945): The birds of Kutch. Oxford University
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(1970): The Great Indian Bustard Choriotis
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& Rahmani, A.R. (1982-84): Study of Ecology of
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& Ripley, S.D. (1969): The Handbook of the Birds
Acknowledgements
We record our gratitude tp the late Dr Salim Ali
under whose guidance the Endangered Species
Project was started. The Project was funded by the
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (grant no. 885 1^658-
04) and was sponsored by the Government of India.
We are thankful to them and specially to Mr David
Ferguson of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and
to Dr M.K. Ranjitsinh, Joint Secretary, Ministry of
Environment, Government of India, for taking extra
interest in the project
We also want to thank the Forest Departments
of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka, Gujarat and Rajasthan states for their
cooperation during the study period.
We are grateful to Mr J.C. Daniel, Co-inves-
tigator of the Project and Curator, BNHS, for his en-
couragement throughout the study period, and also
for commenting on the earlier draft. Thanks are due
to Mr Paul D. Goriup, Chairman, ICBP Bustard
Group, for providing some literature and also com-
menting on the draft. Lastly, we want to thank our
colleagues Messrs. Ravi Sankaran, Goutam
Narayan, Eric D’ Cun ha and Taej Mundkur (of
Saurashtra University), with whom we had discus-
sions from time to time.
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(1962b): Display, Posturing and Behaviour of the
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(1978): The changing wildlife of Kathiawar. J. Bom-
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DISTRIBUTION OF GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD
191
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490.
2.
192
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.87
Appendix 1
A LITERATURE REVIEW OF THE OCCURRENCE OF THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD (Till 1980)
pers. comm.)
DISTRIBUTION OF GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD
193
Appendix 1 (Contd.)
194
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Appendix 1 (Contd.)
RESULTS OF A PILOT SALTWATER CROCODILE CROCODYLUS POROSUS
SCHNEIDER RESTOCKING IN BHITARKANIKA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, ORISSA1
S.K. Kar2 and HR. Bustard3
(With two text-figures)
This paper describes the rehabilitation of the saltwater crocodile Crocodylus porosus Schneider into the river
systems of Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuaiy, Orissa, as a part of the Conservation Programme of the species using 'grow
and release’ techniques. The first pilot release was carried out in April/May 1977 with a release of 15 crocodiles of 1.2
m length (approx.) into the wild. Movement, dispersal and their adaptability in nature was recorded. A few released
crocodiles created a problem — so-called ‘man and crocodile conflict’- which has been overcome to a great extent by
capturing and again releasing them in suitable release sites away from human habitation.
Introduction
Bustard (1974) and Daniel and Hussain (1975)
both referred to the area which is now the
Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary and mentioned the
problems facing the saltwater crocodile population
inhabiting the area. The State Government of Oris-
sa acting through the State Forest Department in
1975 initiated a conservation programme to con-
serve and study the saltwater crocodile. The first ac-
tion taken was to gazette the area as a sanctuary
(Kanungo 1974). Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary
was gazetted on 22 April 1975.
It was realised that unless the wild population
was strengthened by release of captive-reared
crocodiles into the wild, recovery of the seriously
depleted population would either not occur or would
be delayed.
A programme of active management was taken
up in which saltwater crocodile eggs were collected
from the wild as soon as laid for hatchery incuba-
tion. The resultant young were reared to a size of 1-
1.2 m prior to release back into well protected areas
of the natural habitat
Bustard (1975) gives an account of the early
work in developing the saltwater crocodile Research
and Conservation Centre at Dangmal within the
Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary and points out the
key management objectives. De Waard (1975) also
stressed the importance of protection and manage-
ment in this sanctuary. A detailed survey carried out
in the creeks and river of this 14 1 .0 sq. km sanctuary
Accepted April 1989.
Research Officer, Office of The Chief Wildlife Warden,
Orissa, 315, Kharvel Nagar, Bhubaneswar, Orissa 751 001.
3Airlie Brae, Alyth, Perthshire, PH 11 8 AX, Scotland.
between 1 December 1976 and 31 January 1977 in-
dicated the presence of only 29 adult crocodiles (Kar
1981, Kar arid Bustard 1981, 1989). Recruitment
was also extremely poor, only six individuals being
recorded between die length 1.8 and 2.2 m. The
present paper describes the first pilot release carried
out in April/May 1977. The release site selected was
unsuitable which makes it important to document
reasons for and the consequences of this choice.
Material and Methods
Selection of release site: It is crucial that the release
site(s) be chosen with care in order to select ideal
areas of the natural habitat, free from disturbance,
of all sorts, where it would be possible to re-estab-
lish a sizeable crocodile population. The first release
site was selected at Dangmal creek which runs im-
mediately behind the Centre and is very close to
Dangmal village.
Timing of release: Crocodiles were released
several months prior to the onset of the monsoon, in
order to ensure that they had adequate time to be-
come familiar with the habitat before the annual
floods. Two crocodiles were released late on 25
April 1977, three on 26 April 977 and ten on 5 May
1977.
Selection of crocodiles to be released: Size of the
crocodiles for release is the most important
parameter as the release of crocodiles from captivity
to the wild involves change from the limited sur-
roundings of the yearling pool (4 x 4 x 1 m depth)
to a vast area. In order to maximise future survival
in the wild, the crocodiles selected for release were
1-1.2 m in total length. At this size they are able to
protect themselves from most potential enemies.
Marking of crocodiles: Prior to release, all
196
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.87
crocodiles were tail scute clipped for subsequent
recognition. The standard method adopted by the
Government of India/FAO/UNDP-assisted Project
Crocodile Breeding and Management was used.
One side scute of the first double row of scutes
(beginning at the single row of posterior scutes) was
clipped to signify the year of release and here it sig-
nifies the first year release. For successive years the
scute immediately anterior to the scute clipped in
previous years and so on is clipped to designate year
classes. The scute on the left side is clipped in the
case of females and the corresponding scute on the
right in the case of males. The scute cuts easily and
cleanly near the base using a sharp knife and
generally there is little bleeding. Antiseptic is ap-
plied to the wound. Such cut scutes do not
regenerate. In the year 1977 all the crocodiles for
release were females so the left side of double row
scute was clipped for all 15 crocodiles (Fig. 1.)
The whole creek from the mouth to the saline
embankment was divided into 10 sections each 0.3
km in length. The point of release was designated as
‘O’ and upstream towards the blind end the sections
were numbered + 1, + 2, + 3, + 4, + 5, + 6, + 7.
Downstream from the release point to the mouth of
the creek the sections were marked -1, -2, -3 (Fig.
2).
Results
The released crocodiles were monitored
regularly in order to record data on their movements
and behaviour in the wild. Both day and night ob-
servations were carried out on the released
crocodiles. Night time was chosen for detailed
Fig. 1. Details of distal portion of C. porosus tail to show the
clipping code used to indicate sex and year class.
monitoring as all individuals could readily be seen
after dark using a 5 cell torch or spotlight.
All census work reported here was carried out
by boat, no other method being practicable due to
the dense mangrove forest fringing the creeks. Local
country boats used in the normal protection patrols
within the sanctuary, were employed for the census.
These vessels are eight metres overall and are
crewed by three boatmen - two on the oars and one
on the rudder. One of us (S.K.K.) operated the light
source.
At night the tapetum of the crocodiles’ eyes
reflected light, enabling individuals floating on the
water surface (the normal alert posture after dark) to
be sighted on distances of over 0.5 km with a power-
ful spot
Surveys in tidal rivers and creeks irrespective
of whether they are conducted by day or by night are
greatly affected by the state of the tide. When the
tide is high, crocodiles will be missed
a) by day because the basking mud banks will
be inundated and any crocodiles which have
emerged will be within the vegetation zone where
they are likely to be missed.
Fig. 2. Dispersal of yearling crocodiles returned to the wild in
1977. Each unit of distance represent 0.3 km. The figure shows
the dispersal in succeeding months commencing one month after
release and should be read from the bottom upwards.
CROCODYLUS POROSUS RESTOCKING IN BHITARKANIKA SANCTUARY
197
Table 1
MONITORING RESULTS FOR 1977 RELEASED CROCODILES
198
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Table 1 (Contd.)
A-Release point to blind end of the creek, B-Release point to mouth of the creek,
C-Crocodiles available in Ganjeikhia creek and paddy fields.
b) by night because smaller crocodiles (less
than 2 m) usually remain close to the creek-banks.
When the tide is high the reflection of their eyes may
be hidden by overhanging vegetation. If the tide has
flooded the bank, these crocodiles may be in the
vegetation zone itself. In either situation the eye
reflections are likely to be missed. Accordingly all
surveys were carried out when the tide was half or
less, i.e. when there was a drop of at least 1 .5 m from
the fortnightly high tide level.
In night survey work it is important to carry out
the surveys during the darker phases of the moon.
Nights on which work can be completed prior to the
moon rising are best. When the moon is visible and
there is little or no cloud cover, good results cannot
be expected. With a moon more than one quarter
full, since the spotlight is less effective under such
conditions, the crocodiles are more likely to detect
the approaching vessel (and hence not permit close
approach).
Crocodiles were monitored between 1900 and
2300 hrs. Except for four occasions when the 6 volt
spotlight was used, the rest of the'time the crocodiles
were monitored using a five-celled torch. Although
the spodight rendered the crocodiles’ eyes visible
from a much greater distance than with the 5-cell
torch there was no difference in the total number ob-
served using the two methods.
Staff were trained so as to be able to bring the
dinghy very close to the crocodiles when sighted
without disturbing them. Complete silence was ob-
served.
The behaviour of the released crocodiles dif-
fered from wild crocodiles in the distance to which
the dinghy could approach. The released crocodiles,
for at least 4-5 months, permitted approach to
within 1 m. They appeared less sensitive to distur-
bance than wild juveniles. About 10-15% of the
crocodiles were positively identified from their
scute clipping. In the muddy waters of Bhitarkanika,
it is only when the crocodile keeps the tail portion
slighdy above the water and also permits approach
to within 2-3 m that such positive identification is
possible when they are in the water, The remaining
crocodiles were monitored only from knowing their
behaviour.
The first monitoring of the released crocodiles
took place on 30 May 1977. All 15 were sighted
within 1-0 and 0-1, that is, within a distance of 0.6
km (Table 1 and Fig. 2). Then up to the end of the
year (31 December 1977), these crocodiles were
regularly sighted at approximately fortnightly inter-
vals, and upto 31 December 1978 at monthly inter-
vals. As can be seen from Table 1 and Fig. 2, the
crocodiles showed a strong tendency to move
progressively upstream separately towards the
CROCODYLUS POROSUS RESTOCKING IN BHITARKANIKA SANCTUARY
199
Table 2
SIZE OF RELEASED CROCODILES AT THE TIME OF RECAPTURE
Size of Crocodiles
Crocodile Date of Date of Period At release At recapture Remarks
number release recapture between
release and Length Weight Length Weight
recapture (m) (kg) (m) (kg)
7 5 May ’77 9 May ’78 1 year, 4 days 1.07 3.82 1.1 3.78 Weight decrease 2.3%
2 25 April’ 77 11 May ’78 1 year, 16 days 1.09 3.95 1.14 4.33 Weight increase 9.6%
10 5 May ’77 18 May ’78 1 year, 13 days 1.00 2.90 1.03 3.^5 Weight increase 15.5%
14 5 May ’77 23 May ’78 1 year, 18 days 0.99 3.04 1.03 3.00 Weight decrease 1.3%
saline embankment bisecting the creek. On 30 Sep-
tember 1977, ten crocodiles were sighted and these
were scattered from -2 to +7, that is, some had al-
ready reached the area of the embankment (Fig. 2).
On 30 December 1977, eight crocodiles were
sighted and these were distributed from - 1 to +7. In
the month of January 1978, it was reported by the
people of Dangmal village, that four crocodiles were
in the paddy Fields and while monitoring on 30
January 1978 this was confirmed. A total of 12
crocodiles were located, including four which had
escaped into paddy fields.
In the month of June, four crocodiles were
caught from the paddy fields and were released into
Ganjeikhia creek, a small (2.5 km) associated creek
of Bhitarkanika river which ends blindly in the
Bhitarkanika Reserve Forest This creek has no resi-
dent adults at the present time and only two natural-
ly occurring juveniles of 1.1 -1.4 m (Kar and Bus-
tard 1989). The four crocodiles were released in the
middle portion of the creek. In the same month (30
June 1978) seven crocodiles were sighted in
Dangmal creek, distributed from -1 to +7. In the
month of September, two more entered into the
paddy fields from Dangmal creek and while the
creek was searched on 30 September 1978, only six
were found distributed from -1 to +7. In the month
of October 1978, a released crocodile was seen in a
pond which belongs to Bengali speaking setders of
Dangmal. In December 1978, both Dangmal creek
and Ganjeikhia creek were searched to locate the
position of released or re-released crocodiles. In
Dangmal creek only five crocodiles were reported
and those were distributed from -1 to +7. In Gan-
jeikhia creek all four re-released crocodiles had set-
tled down in the middle portion of the creek. A total
of 12 crocodiles, including these four, were found
up to the end of the year 1978, including the three
crocodiles which were found in the paddy fields.
The remaining released crocodiles were not sighted;
they had probably gone into the main river.
Survival: Of the 15 crocodiles released in 1977, 12
(80%) are known to have definitely survived after
two years. The whereabouts of the remaining three
are not known. However, there is no evidence to
suspect that they have been lost from the population.
The four crocodiles recaptured from the paddy fields
and relocated in Ganjeikhia creek were reweighed
and measured at the time of capture. The data given
in Table 2 indicate that little growth had taken place
in one complete year in nature (mean length increase
3.57 cm). Furthermore, two individuals showed
weight increases of 9.6 and 15.5%, the other two
showed very small weight loss over the year. It is not
known to what extent these reflect their entering the
unnatural habitat of the paddy fields. Hence, the data
should be treated with caution as they may not be
typical of the growth of those released individuals
which remained in the usual creek habitat
Discussion
The pilot restocking exercise underlined the
importance of choosing the release site most care-
fully. The site selected in 1977 was unsuitable for a
number of reasons. Particularly, it allowed ready ac-
cess of the released crocodiles through a sluice in
the saline embankment into the unnatural habitat of
paddy fields where, naturally, the crocodiles came
into close contact with people. A major management
objective for the sanctuary is to separate people and
crocodiles as far as possible.
However, the release offered an excellent op-
portunity, due to the small size of the creeklet
chosen and its proximity to the Research Centre, for
data collection on post-release dispersal and espe-
cially on survival.
The 1977 release also took place late (in late
April and May) whereas the ideal time for release is
200
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
the end of the winter, around mid February. The late
release may also have contributed to the entry of
animals into the paddy fields due to the floods com-
ing before they had fully settled down and become
familiar with the geography of the release site.
The crocodiles had been released into a creek
bisected by a saline embankment There was good
river habitat on the upstream side of the embank-
ment but the adjoining lands had been cleared for
paddy cultivation. The paddy fields form a rich
source of prawns, the favoured article of diet both in
captivity and in the wild for juvenile crocodiles up
to at least 1.5 m (Kar 1981). The regular flow of
water in and out of the paddy fields to the creek car-
ries large numbers of these prawns, which proved
attractive to the juvenile crocodiles, encouraging
them to migrate to the upstream portion of the creek
above the saline embankment. Once there, in the ab-
sence of the normal mangrove cover, they entered
the paddy fields.
To sum up, the crocodiles were liberated into
an artificial situation which they would never en-
counter under normal circumstances in the wild.
They showed what was considered to be an abnor-
mal response to this in gradually migrating up the
creek, eventually entering into the paddy fields. We
have no records of saltwater crocodiles ever occur-
ring naturally in paddy fields in Bhitarkanika.
The normal movement pattern of crocodiles in
their second year is to gradually move down the
creek from the site where they entered the creek as
hatchlings. This dispersal pattern is continued in the
third year (Kar 1981).
The results described in this paper have to be
taken into account in planning future release.
Whereas some creeks are bunded with a sluice in the
wall of the embankment resulting in two way water
flow, other creeks have not been bunded and have a
blind end. Of the seven major creeks of the
Bhitarkanika block, four are bunded and three (on
the Bhitarkanika island side) have blind ends.
The results of the 1977 release clearly show the
disadvantages of carrying out major releases in
bunded creeks. Quite apart from the released
crocodiles showing abnormal behaviour under such
conditions, they are brought into close contact with
people, because the creeks have been bunded for
agricultural purposes. The natural creeks, terminat-
ing in a blind end, have none of these disadvantages.
In future, therefore, it is recommended that releases
should not be carried out in bunded creeks.
The survival of the 1977 year class - 80% are
definitely known to have survived after two years,
with the possibility that the other individuals had
also survived - is an excellent vindication of the
‘rear and release’ technique if any vindication is re-
quired.
We are grateful to the State Forest Department,
Orissa; Government of India, and Food and Agricul-
ture Organisation of the United Nations for support
in carrying out this work.
References
Bustard, H.R. (1974): India. A Preliminary Survey of the
Prospects of Crocodile Fanning. F.A.O., Rome. (FO:
IND/71/033)pp. 1-50.
(1975): India. Gharial and Crocodile Conservation
Management in Orissa. F.A.O., Rome. (FO: IND/7 1/033).
pp. 1-15.
Daniel, J.C. & Hussain, S.A. (1975): A record (?) Saltwater
Crocodile (Crocodylus porosus Schneider). J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 71(2): 309-312.
De Waard, J.M. (1975): Economic Potential of Gharial and
Saltwater Crocodile Scheme in Orissa (India) with notes
on the Sea-Turtle industry. FO: IND/71/033. Project Work-
ing Document. FAO, Rome.
Kanungo, B.C. (1974): An Integrated Scheme for Conservation
of crocodiles in Orissa with Management Plan for Satkosia
Gorge and Bhitarkanika Sanctuaries. Forest Department,
Government of Orissa, Cuttack, Orissa, pp. 1-128.
Kar, S.K. (1981): Studies on the Saltwater Crocodile,
Crocodylus porosus Schneider. Ph.D. thesis submitted to
Utkal University, Orissa, India.
& Bustard, H.R. (1981): Crocodile kills taken as
human food. British Journal of Herpetology 6: 137.
(1989): Status of the Saltwater Crocodile
(i Crocodylus porosus Schneider) in the Bhitarkanika
Wildlife Sanctuary, Orissa, India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
86 (2): 141-150.
A PRELIMINARY ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF ALGUAL SPRING,
SARISKA TIGER RESERVE, RAJASTHAN1
WA. Rodgers2
(With two plates & five text-figures)
The value of the dry deciduous forest biomes for wildlife is often determined by the presence of moister valley
situations with permanent water sources. This paper describes one such valley site within the dry hill slope forests of
Sariska Tiger Reserve. The valley and spring provide water, evergreen shade and cover, and fruit and fodder resour-
ces to a wide variety of mammals and birds. Plant species diversity is much higher than in the surrounding forest.
Despite the importance of these sites, they rarely attract the management attention they deserve. Riverine vegetation
cover is diminishing as seedlings fail to survive due to pressure from people and their livestock and larger individuals
are cut and lopped. Some simple management inputs are suggested to restore these important communities.
Introduction
The wildlife carrying capacity of the dry
deciduous forests of western and central India is lar-
gely determined by the number and distribution of
moister valleys with their perennial water springs.
These sites, which offer greater amounts of dry
season cover and food (including nutritious fruits),
as well as water, are thus key areas for management.
All too often such areas attract the attention of
human settlement and their attendant domestic
stock. A village or cattle camp at a spring site makes
it unavailable for most wildlife, but even casual
human use may greatly reduce the spring’s effec-
tiveness as a wildlife refuge. Undergrowth cutting,
heavy grazing, lopping and tree felling will reduce
cover, restrict woody plant regeneration, reduce
diversity and allow accelerated erosion and water
loss.
Despite the obvious importance of these key
areas they have received little attention in India’s
scientific literature. The typical species and size
class composition of the vegetation, with discussion
on patterns of diversity and regeneration, has not
been described. Their importance as a habitat for
animals and birds has not been documented outside
the popular wildlife writings.
Recent ecological studies in Sariska Tiger
Reserve, Alwar District, Rajasthan, show the impor-
tance of perennial springs and streams for wildlife.
Their natural vegetation cover of a greater greenness
and species diversity than the surrounding
Accepted October 1989.
^Wildlife Institute of India, RO. New Forest, Dehra Dun,
Uttar Pradesh.
deciduous woodlands means they offer a greater
wealth of habitat components to a wider variety of
vertebrate and invertebrate animals than the more
sterile artificial water points of recent management
(Rodgers, unpublished observation). In November
1987, 1 had the opportunity to investigate an isolated
water source in the main core area of Sariska, Algual
Spring (Fig. 1). Botanical and ornithological exper-
tise of scientists and members of the Bombay
Natural History Society and Wildlife Institute of
India allowed the rapid documentation of the floris-
tic structure and composition, and avifauna at that
period. This paper describes the results of this sur-
vey.
Study Site
Sariska Tiger Reserve of some 800 sq. km lies
in the ancient Aravalli mountain range of western
India. The highly dissected topography typically
consists of steep sided plateaux divided by narrow
rocky valleys. Geologically the area is a complex of
the Delhi and Aravalli precambrian crystalline and
metamorphic rock systems of quartzites, con-
glomerates, grits, granites and schists.
The area is semi-arid, annual rainfall averag-
ing some 600 mm in a typical ten week July-Sep-
tember monsoon season. There is thus little sig-
nificant rain for nine continuous months. Rainfall in
1986 and 1987 was much below normal and the
whole region was suffering from a major drought.
The vegetation is briefly described by Parmar
(1985). The plateau slopes are covered with aBos-
wellia serrata-Anogeissus pendula forest, and the
flatter tops bear a more mixed dry deciduous cover.
The broader valleys have an open woodland of
202
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Wot. 87
Road to
Alwar
Road to Kalighati
Fig. 1. Location of Algual Spring in Sariska Tiger Reserve, Alwar District, Rajasthan.
more settlements are awaiting such movement, a
process to be given priority now that National Park
status has been approved.
The study site is illustrated in Fig. 2. Algual
Spring is an isolated water source on the western
foot of Kirashka plateau. The nearest alternative per-
manent water sites are all 2-3 km away: a tank at
Kirashka village, a spring at Bharthari Mandir (now
with settlement) and a small spring at Tarunda below
the Kankwarhi plateau. At Algual water flows from
2-3 small springs and continues for about 100 m
along a well defined stream bed with a distinct
riverine vegetation cover up to 10 m wide. In the
Acacia - Zizyphus - Butea on alluvium, degenerat-
ing to a Zizyphus - Acacia - Capparis - Balanites
scrub where over-used or on gravel deposits.
Steeper gorges may have perennial streams with a
more evergreen Phoenix - Ficus mixed species
riverine community.
Management as a major wildlife sanctuary and
more recently as a Tiger Reserve has allowed the
development of a large core area in which human
and livestock exploitation is prohibited. The village
of Karnawas and cattle camps at Slopka and
Kalighati have been resettled, allowing a great in-
crease in wildlife numbers and sightability. Seven
ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF ALGUAL SPRING
203
Road to Sariska
Fig. 2. Generalised diagram of Algual Spring and surroundings.
monsoon, temporary flood levels may reach 1.5 m
above the stream bed for very short periods. Old
ruins (a chowki and small shrine, plus demarcating
walls) testify to the use of the spring in the
Maharaja’s time. In 1987 management has created
a barrier to prevent cattle from Kirashka village (1-
2 km away) gaining access to the lower spring in the
dry season. The barrier and stricter controls on
vegetation cutting etc. were enforced by a semi- per-
manent guard post at the spring. However, the bar-
rier was broken in November 1988 and remains
open to date.
Methods
The vegetation of the hill-valley system was
initially surveyed by three parallel transects running
down slope perpendicular to the stream. At ap-
proximately 20 metre intervals (25 paces) the
vegetation and slope characteristics were described
as follows: The nearest 5 trees (>3 m height) were
identified and categorised into 1 m height classes.
The nearest 5 shrubs (woody plant <3 m) were iden-
tified and shrub cover estimated in three classes.
Dominant herb layer species were noted. Slope was
subjectively described as precipitous, very steep,
gentle or flat Rock frequency was described as
above 2/3 of ground cover, 2/3 -1/3 and below 1/3.
Tree canopy cover was expressed as dense, medium
or open.
The stream side vegetation was surveyed in
more detail by a 30 x 10 m plot laid along and on
either side of the stream. This plot was demarcated
into 12 internal 5 x 5 m sub-plots, numbered north
1-6 and south 1-6. Within each sub-plot all woody
plants with a girth of 10 cm or more at breast height
were enumerated to allow profile description. Non-
woody plants were assessed as present or absent in
each sub-plot following a careful search. Woody
plant data collected were: species, girth (of each
stem), total height, canopy height (first foliage),
canopy spread each side of the central stem along
the plot long axis. Cutting signs and snags (hollows,
holes etc.) were searched for. Plants that were not
identifiable were collected for later identification.
Mammal presence was based on our past ob-
servations, pugmark collections, and identification
of scat and tracks along the valley. Obvious drink-
ing sites were identified and soil smoothed to
facilitate track recognition on later days.
Bird presence and abundance were assessed by
a series of formal bird walks on the afternoon of 29
November and morning of 30 November. Walks
204
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Table 1
PLANT SPECIES COMPOSITION OF HILL SLOPE FORESTS ABOVE ALGUAL SPRING
Capparis sepiaria 1
Ficus tomenlosa 1
Dendrocalamus strictus 1
C) Ground layer plants prominent in the dry season:
Chloris dolichoslachya
Barleria prionitis
D) Dominant species of the monsoon:
Acalypha ciliata
Bide ns pilosa
Chrysopogon montanus
Corchorus aestuans
Aristida funiculata
Actinopteris radiata
Alloteropsis cimcina
Blainvillea acmella
Cleome viscosa
Table 2
ABUNDANCE PARAMETERS FOR WOODY PLANTS (GIRTH 10 CM GBH) IN ALGUAL SPRING STUDY PLOT
ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF ALGUAL SPRING
205
i) Boswellia - Anogeissus
ii) Anogeissus
iii) Boswellia - Anogeissus
iv) Euphorbia - Boswellia
v) Riverine
S = Steep; G = Gentle;
VS = Very Steep; R = Riverine
Fig. 3. Vegetation and slope patterns to the north of Algual
Spring. 12 sample points, along 3 parallel transects. See text for
details.
were undertaken by experienced ornithologists
along transects parallel to the stream; along the
stream itself, and in the dry woods on the northern
and southern slopes.
Results
1. Vegetation
Hillside vegetation: The features of the hillside
vegetation are depicted in Fig. 3, and species fre-
quencies given in Table 1. The slopes are dominated
by an open Boswellia woodland to 13 m high, over
a lower Anogeissus pendula layer with some Acacia
catechu, Bauhinia racemosa and Wrightia tinctoria.
The shrub layer which is sparse on the rocky ridge
and denser on the slopes is totally dominated by
Grewia flavescens with some Anogeissus regenera-
tion. No Boswellia seedlings or saplings were seen
here (or elsewhere in the reserve). The ground is ex-
tensively rocky with large boulders and slabs. Soil
is largely removed, remaining in small pockets. A
sparse herb layer is dominated by occasional tus-
socks of Chloris and Aristida with conspicuous Bar-
leria prionitis to 0.5 m. Many other more ephemeral
herbs were not obvious at this stage in the dry
season. The dry fern Act inop ter is radiaia was fre-
quent in rocky crevices. Some 10% of Boswellia
trees had conspicuous Dendrophthoe falcata
parasites (Loranthaceae).
Nearer the stream the slopes become very steep
with a greater proportion of woody candelebra
Euphorbias in the underwood layer to 10 m. The
bamboo Dendrocalamus strictus is heavily cut over
and now rare. A cross section is shown in Fig. 4.
Boswellia, Wrightia and Lannea were totally
Fig. 4. Generalised cross section of Algual Spring showing major vegetation zones.
206
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Fig. 5. Profile diagram of part of Algual Spring riverine vegetation viewed from north. Drawn to scale. See text for details.
deciduous, Anogeissus was rapidly losing leaf cover.
Acacia , Bauhinia and Diospyros still retained a
green canopy. Grewia lost most leaves early that
year, probably due to the drought.
Riverine vegetation: Three facies could be recog-
nized: a pui&Phoenixsylvestris stand, a mixed stand
with shrub layer, and an open stand of relict single
trees with no shrubs. Our studies were in the mixed
stand.
The profile diagram (viewed from the north) is
shown in Fig. 5. The separation into an underwood
layer to 8 m high and a canopy layer of palms and
bigger trees from 10- 1 8 m is quite distinct. The shrub
layer is sparse, most members are tree saplings.
There is only one liane, Capparis sepictria. The
diagram does stress the way fruit trees Ficus,
Syzygium and Phoenix dominate the canopy. It is
necessary to stress the narrowness of the com-
munity, averaging less than 15 m wide including the
stream (Fig. 5.).
Abundance parameters are given in Table 2.
Phoenix comprise almost half of all individuals at
49%, followed by Mallotus at 15%. The total den-
sity figure for trees above 10 cm gbh is 1367 in-
dividuals per hectare, a low figure for moist tropical
forest Basal area values are dominated by Phoenix
(33%) with other major contributions by the few
large individuals of Ficus (32%), Syzygium (22%)
and Butea (21%). The overall value of 131.9 sq.
m/ha is high, reflecting the number of large old trees
that a productive riverine community can support.
The population of Phoenix trees shows a
unimodal girth class frequency with a distinct peak
around the 80-100 cm girth class (Table 3). There
are no young trees or saplings. The abundant
regeneration was all in the small (<20 cm high) see-
dling class. Table 3b shows the relatively low
proportion of stems in the smaller size categories
and the numerical dominance of larger individuals.
All woody species except Butea and Holop-
telea showed some regeneration. For Phoenix ,
Anogeissus , Mallotus and Syzygium , seedlings were
frequent Other woody species represented in the
seedling/sapling stages were Grewia , Helicteres ,
Wrightia , Bauhinia , Flacourtia , Mitragyna , Cassia ,
and Linnea (Table 6).
Over half the woody species are considered as
fruit trees for frugivorous birds ( Phoenix , Ficus,
Above: General view of country around Algual Spring looking northwest. Note rocky slopes with Euphorbia in foreground and
leafless Boswellia behind. Anogeissus slopes in rear left.
Below: General view from shaded evergreen spring up slope to the north into open deciduous Boswellia-Anogeissus slopes.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 87
Rodgers: Algual Spring, Sariska Tiger Reserve
Plate 1
Above: Phoenix sylvestris grove in the spring area. Note relatively bare ground, and low capability of stream bed to withhold
monsoon water flow.
Below: Typical view of spring interior. Ficus glomeraia (leaning into centre from left) is a major fruit source. Small Mallotus in
rear centre. Note poor ground cover.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 87
Rodgers: Algual Spring, Sariska Tiger Reserve
Plate 2
ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF ALGUAL SPRING
207
Table 4
FREQUENCY OF FRUITING TREES, CUTTING PRESSURE ETC.
Syzygium , Grewia , Cordia , Capparis) and these
species contribute 70.7% to the total number of in-
dividuals (Table 4). Of the remainder, 2 species
(another 22%) are major forage species, Mallotus
and Anogeissus. Six out of the 21 non-palm in-
dividuals (29%) showed signs of branch cutting and
two trees had been lopped for fodder. Five trees had
major snags (hollows and holes) for animal and bird
Table 5
CANOPY DIVERSITY. ALL WOODY SPECIES AND
INDIVIDUALS IN ALGUAL SPRING STUDY PLOT
shelter.
Table 5 shows the canopy to have its highest
Table 6
PLANT SPECIES FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE IN ALGUAL SPRING STUDY PLOT GROUND LAYER
3.
208
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Table 7
MAMMAL SPECIES KNOWN TO FREQUENT ALGUAL SPRING
Species Notes
Tiger Panthera tigris
Panther Panthera pardus
Jungle cat Felis chaus
Jackal Canis aureus
Hyaena Hyaena hyaena
Toddy cat Paradoxurus hermaphroditus
Small Indian civet Viverricula indica
Common mongoose Herpestes edwardsii
Ruddy mongoose Herpestes smithi
Chital Cervus axis
Sambar Cervus unicolor
Nilgai Boselaphus tragocamelus
Chousingha Tetraceros quadricornis
Male + female
from pugmarks
Frequent droppings
Seen in 1987
Seen in 1987
One pair seen in
1985 and 1986
Wild boar Sus scrofa
Domestic cattle Bos indica
Five striped palm squirrel Funambulus pennanti
Indian porcupine Hystrix indica
Common langur Presbytis entellus
(Bats, smaller rodents and insectivores were not searched for.)
species diversity in the middle storeys, 4-8 metres.
All trees above 8 m are fruit bearing species.
Herb layer sampling in November revealed a
total of 50 species. This total includes 18 shrubs and
woody seedlings, 12 grasses and sedges and 20
forbs. Much of the ground cover was running water,
rock or gravel. One small area had a herb-rich
Cynodon turf. Shrubs were infrequent - Grewia ,
Helicteres and Capparis. Dicliptera roxburghiana
and Barleria prionitis were the commonest herbs.
No climbing or epiphytic herbs were seen; grasses
were heavily grazed.
2. Animals
Table 7 lists the 18 species of larger mammals
known to frequent Algual Spring. Nine mammalian
carnivores illustrate the importance of infrequent
water sources for these animals. Jackal Canis aureus
and toddy cat Paradoxurus hermaphroditus drop-
pings were frequent. Herbivore tracks were
dominated by sambar Cervus unicolor , although
cattle tracks obscure most evidence to the east of the
gate. One pair of chousingha Tetraceros quadricor-
nis were seen at the spring in 1985 and 1986.
25 species of birds were enumerated on the
census walks, 23 of which were found within the
riverine vegetation. Details are given in Table 8.
There is a difference in bird use of the vegetation
types at different times of day. In the afemoon the
hot dry woodlands were almost devoid of bird life,
in great contrast to the spring. In the early morning,
however, the spring was in shadow and many birds
were seen in the warm sunshine on the south-facing
wooded slopes. Many bird species are largely
frugivorous or otherwise dependent on moister
forest for insect food.
Discussion
Several points warrant further discussion; first-
ly, a methodological note. Useful ecological data
can be collected in short intensive surveys by teams
of capable naturalists. As such expertise does exist
in India, then quantitative information can be ob-
tained on a variety of plant and animal communities
which urgently need documentation and conserva-
tion. Robust survey techniques are available which
allow the development of baseline descriptions for
future monitoring and the analysis of component
variables.
Of primary interest in thi s Algual study is the
great difference between the extensive deciduous
dry woodlands of the slopes and the extremely
restricted, largely evergreen moister forest around
the spring. There is a sharp transition, defined by
topography and moisture availability. Differences
include species composition (but many woodland
species do occur in the spring forest, e.g. Anogeis-
sus, Grewia, Wrightia) but equally important are
structure and deciduousness. The principal fruit
trees of the spring are absent from the woodland.
Data show the spring does have a greater diver-
sity of fauna and flora than the surrounding wood-
land. The paucity of water in the overall region stres-
ses the importance of Algual to the wildlife com-
munity of Sariska.
Nearly all woody species of the spring show
some tendency to regenerate, but size class frequen-
cies suggest that biotic pressures have prevented
regeneration for many years now. Much of this pres-
sure has been due to people and their livestock.
Relict trees and large gaps in the forest continuity
suggest that pressures have long exceeded estab-
lishment.
The management authority of Sariska will
have to take even greater initiatives to maintain and
restore these riverine communities. Whilst posting
watchmen can reduce cattle and pole cutting it may
ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF ALGUAL SPRING
209
Table 8
BIRD SIGHTINGS WITHIN ALGUAL SPRING FOREST AND ON ADJACENT HILLSLOPES
have its own problems of polluting waters by soap
etc. Management must do two things. Firstly, reduce
all pressure on the riverine forest, if necessary by
removable fencing, allowing larger animals only
limited access to water and shade. This can be done
in sections, say one third of the water course at a
time. Secondly, canopy gaps should be closed, by
protecting natural regeneration and by planting
selected indigenous tree species including figs,
palms and other fruit bearers.
Algual is not unique to Sariska; there are
several similar sites, all requiring similar levels of
management input. The present efforts of manage-
ment to provide additional water sources by
developing anicuts is to be welcomed, but it will be
uany years before their surrounding vegetation sup-
ports the same diversity of wildlife as the natural
riverine forest.
Acknowledgements
This paper has resulted from the efforts of
many people, especially the 25 scientists and mem-
bers of the Bombay Natural History Society who
participated in the Habitat Workshop at Sariska. My
colleagues at the Wildlife Institute helped in the field
and commented on earlier drafts. I thank Messrs
A J.T. Johnsingh, N.L. Prasad, V.B. Sawarkar and S.
Goyal; and Dr. E. Bharucha from BNHS.
Mr. K. Saini, Director of Sariska National
Park, and the staff gave hospitality and support. Dr
N.L. Prasad supplied the photographs.
References
armar, PJ. (1985): A contribution to the flora of Sariska Tiger of India, 27(1-4) : 29-40.
Reserve, Alwar District, Rajasthan. Bull. Botanical Survey
SCALING MODELS FOR FLIGHT PATTERNS
AND SEXUAL DIMORPHISM IN RAPTORS1
Ramana M. Athreya and Vuay a. Singh2
(With five text-figures)
We set up simple models to analyse two basic flight patterns: gliding and flapping. We present scaling argu-
ments to explain a feature common to raptors, namely that the female of the species is larger and heavier than the male.
Our scaling arguments assume two variables to be fundamental: (i) the weight W which is strongly correlated with the
length L; (ii) the wing length L^. We present and analyse the available data on raptors to confirm our scaling argu-
ments.
Introduction
It is a feature common among raptors, that the
female of the species is larger and heavier than the
male. The obvious source for this dimorphism seems
to be the fact that the female birds have to carry eggs
for a while. A heavier bird will be able to bear a tem-
porary increase in weight better than a lighter one as
the percentage increase is smaller for the former.
The other pointer is that it is only among rap-
tors that the female is larger than the male. In all
other birds, as a rule, in case of a disparity in sizes,
the male bird is larger. This seems to indicate that
the habits of raptors are in some way related to this
peculiarity; that this is an adaptation to the needs of
speed and endurance which are so very important in
hunting. This view is buttressed by the fact that rap-
tors like kites and vultures which do not hunt, or at
any rate hunt prey which demand little speed and
agility, do not show this anomalous dimorphism. In
fact, in case of a difference in size, the male bird is
larger. In this paper we propose to investigate this
anomalous feature of raptors using an elementary
scaling model.
Many problems in science defy a detailed ex-
planation from first principles. It is often sufficient
to understand a complex phenomenon by using
simple qualitative arguments or rules of thumb. Here
we illustrate the use of a special mode of argument,
viz. scaling.
The two basic flight patterns are gliding and
flapping and we develop scaling models for each of
them. The data is discussed along with a brief
description of the method of analysis. The results
Accepted June 1989.
department of Physics, Indian Institute of Technology,
Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh 208 016.
obtained are presented and discussed.
Scaling
One way of understanding a natural
phenomenon is to solve the equations that one ob-
tains on the application of basic laws of nature to
that system. However, most systems in nature, par-
ticularly biological ones, are complex and the data
is often sketchy and incomplete, so that obtaining
exact solutions is very time consuming and un-
feasible, if not altogether impossible. Even without
solving the equations exactly one can obtain a great
deal of knowledge by qualitative methods and ap-
plication of simple rules. Scaling is one such method
(Haldane 1956, Stanley and Ostrowsky 1986)
Scaling involves the study of variation of
properties and characteristics of a system depending
on some specific feature. A successful application of
scaling needs:
(i) Development of an appropriate physical model
describing the system to a sufficient degree of ac-
curacy.
(ii) Identification of the basic independent vari-
ables of the system which are sufficient to determine
the required characteristics. These required charac-
teristics are termed dependent variables.
(iii) A basic knowledge of physics and data
analysis.
Consider the following examples which il-
lustrate the methodology of scaling:
1. Heat loss, surface area and volume: Let the
characteristic length of a system be *L\ For a cube
this will be the length of an edge while for a sphere
it corresponds to the diameter. The surface area ‘S’
of the cube is 6L2 while that of the sphere is n L2.
The volume ‘V* of the cube is L3 while that of the
sphere is n L3/6. The surface area is proportional to
FLIGHT PATTERNS AND SEXUAL DIMORPHISM IN RAPTORS
211
L2 while the volume is proportional to L3. We say
that the surface area scales as the square of L while
the volume scales as the cube of L. So the ratio of
the surface area to the volume scales as:
S/V«L2/L3=1/L (2a)
In what follows « will indicate both ‘ap-
proximately equal to* and ‘proportional to’.
Consider the heat balance in animals (Lin
1982). The amount of heat produced is proportion-
al to the mass of the body which is proportional to
the volume (assuming that the density of animal tis-
sues is the same for all animals). The amount of heat
lost is proportional to the surface area. So
Heat lost/heat produced » S/V ~1/L (2 b)
A large L and hence low surface to volume
ratio is very beneficial to animals wishing to con-
serve heat. Large animals are better at withstanding
colder temperatures. The reason why animals tend
to huddle during cold spells is that the large group,
in effect, forms a system with a large L and is more
efficient in conserving heat.
2. Running speed and leg length: Consider the
model of a running animal. Each leg, in the course
of a stride, comes to rest on the ground before push-
ing off. The work done by the leg in pushing off the
ground is converted into the kinetic energy of the
body. The work done by the leg is equal to the force
it exerts against the ground multiplied by the dis-
tance travelled during each stride. The force exerted
is proportional to the number of muscle fibres run-
ning parallel to the leg, which is proportional to the
cross sectional area of the leg. The length of each
GLIDING FLIGHT
LIFT
WEIGHT
Fig. 1. Force diagram for the gliding model.
The velocity vector of the bird is v.
stride is proportional to the length of the leg. If ‘d’
is the diameter of the leg, ‘Lleg’ its length, ‘m’ the
mass of the animal and V its speed then
Kinetic energy = mv2/2 * d2L, (2c)
Now, the legs also bear the body weight (Lin
1982). The maximum weight that any object can
bear is equal to the product of the maximum com-
pressive stress a that it can withtand and its cross
sectional area, a is a constant for a given material
and since animal tissues are approximately the
same, we have
M = a d2 = d2 (2d)
i.e. heavier animals need to have legs with
larger diameter to cope with their weight With this
result, eqn (2c) simplifies to
<2e)
So all other factors such as shape and special
adaptations being equal, an animal with longer legs
will be capable of running faster, with eqn (2e)
governing the relative speeds.
Models
In our analysis we will assume that the two fun-
damental variables governing the flight of raptors
are:
(i) The body weight ‘W’ which is strongly cor-
related with the body length ‘Lb’ and (ii) The wing
length ‘Lw\
The relation between these two determines the
dominant flight mode of the bird.
Gliding flight: Consider a bird gliding with a
velocity V, making an angle 0 with the horizontal.
The bird is under the action of three forces: its
weight ‘W\ the lift ‘L* and the drag ‘D’ (Fig. 1).
The weight acts vertically downwards. The lift
and drag are aerodynamic forces produced on ac-
count of motion through air. The lift is always per-
pendicular to the velocity while the drag acts in a
direction opposite to the velocity.
Under conditions of equilibrium
D cos 0 = L sin 0 j(3a)
W = L cos 0 + D sin 0 (3b)
When 0 is not equal to zero these equations
yield
L (cos2 0 + sin2 0) = W cos 0
i.e.L = Wcos0 (3c)
The lift is related to the velocity by
L = (Cj p v2 Aw)/2 (3d)
where CL is the coefficient of lift which is in-
212
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
dependent of v but is dependent on the shape of the
wing, p is the density of air and Aw is the area of the
wing. Eqns (3c) and (3d) imply that
v2Aw = Wcos8 ,(3e)
Since the area scales as the square of the wing
length, we have
W cos 0 = v2 Lw2 (30
The minimum V which satisfies this relation
is called the stalling speed. Any bird moving slower
than this will go into an uncontrolled fall.
As the area of the wings increases, the stalling
speed decreases. So a bird with larger wings will be
able to scan a given area more thoroughly.
Further, for a given speed (greater than the
stalling speed), the factor cos 0 increases with an in-
crease in wing area and hence the dip angle 0
decreases. So a bird with a larger wing span will be
able to travel farther for the same loss in height, i.e.
the efficiency of gliding (also called the glide ratio,
it being the ratio of the horizontal distance travelled
to the loss in height in the meantime) increases.
Eqn (3e) also explains the mode of hunting of
such birds. They glide effortlessly high up in the sky
on broad wings. As soon as their quarry is sighted,
they sweep their wings back and go into a near ver-
tical dive. The sweeping back of the wings decreases
their effective area and so the angle of their dive in-
creases. This steep descent helps them to achieve a
very high speed in a short while which gains them
precious seconds over their prey.
Flapping or powered flight: In this case, the bird
generates a thrust by beating its wings to cancel the
drag force and maintains a constant level flight with
a speed sufficient to produce a lift force to balance
the weight. Fig. 2 depicts the forces involved.
The thrust generated by the wing is the rate at
which it imparts momentum to the surrounding air.
It is equal to the product of the mass of air pushed
by the wing during each stroke, the velocity im-
parted to the air, and the frequency of wing beat.
The mass of air is proportional to the volume
covered by the wing during each stroke which scales
as the cube of the wing length. The velocity imparted
is the speed at which the wing moves. This is propor-
tional to the product of the length of each wing beat
and the frequency. The length of the wing beat is
proportional to the wing length. If ‘f* is the frequen-
cy, then
FLAPPING (POWERED)
FLIGHT
LIFT
DRAG
♦ THRUST
WEIGHT
Fig. 2. Force diagram for flapping (powered) flight.
T ** Lw3 x Lw f x f
= Lw4xf2 -(30
The drag force is similar in form to the lift and
is given by
D = (Cdpv2Acw)/2... (3g)
where Cd is the coefficient of drag and Acw is
the cross- sectional area of the wing.
Equating the thrust and the drag, we obtain
v2Lw2«Lw4f2
i.e. v « Lwf (3h)
This form makes sense for any velocity arising
from the motion of limbs — whether legs or wings.
Intuitively it seems that the velocity must be propor-
tional to the length of the limb and the frequency
with which it is moved to and fro.
In fact if we assume that the wing is a simple
oscillator, its natural frequency is inversely propor-
tional to the square root of its length and so eqn (3
h) simplifies to
V ~ Lw/ V LW ~ V Lryy
i.e. v2«Lw (3i)
which is identical to eqn (2e) which describes
running speeds. With the thrust and drag cancelling
each other, only the lift and weight have to be con-
sidered. This situation is similar to a level gliding
flight, i.e. eqn (3c) with 0 = 0. 0 = 0 is not possible
unless the bird is generating sufficient thrust or an
external force like a thermal current is aiding it.
Using eqn (3d) with L = W and using eqn (3i),
FLIGHT PATTERNS AND SEXUAL DIMORPHISM IN RAPTORS
213
we obtain
W = (CL p v2 Aw)/2
W * v2 Lw2
i.e.W*Lw3
A comparison of the equations for gliding, eqn
(3e), and for flapping, eqn (3j), indicates that for a
given weight a flapping bird needs a smaller wing
to maintain flight.
An interesting feature is that greater wing area
makes for greater stability while smaller wing area
makes for greater manoevrability. Birds like ac-
cipiters which have small wings can swerve and
dodge at high speeds and are more often than not en-
countered inside wooded areas. Birds belonging to
the genera Aquila, Buteo, Circus , Haliaeetus etc.
which have long and broad wings restrict themsel-
ves to open grasslands, bare hillsides and water
bodies where high gliding efficiency is more essen-
tial than manoeuvrability. The hawk-eagles belong-
ing to the genera Spizaetus and Hieraaetus are a
very interesting lot, having combined the best of
both worlds.
The falcons, the fastest hunters in the air, have
developed an ingenious method of improving their
speed. According to eqn (3i) an increase in wing
length improves the velocity. But since there is a
decrease in the frequency of wing beat with increase
in length the effect is reduced. Falcons have
developed long and slim wings which curve back-
wards sharply halfway through. So while the actual
wing length which pushes against the air is large, the
effective wing length which determines the frequen-
cy is small. Thus they have the advantage of both a
long wing and a high frequency of wing beat which
gives them exceptionally high speed and agility,
Material and Methods 0
The data was obtained from Grzimek (1978) <\J
Barnes (1981) and Ali and Ripley (1983).
Table 1 lists the data we obtained. The infor-
mation collected are:
(i) Lb* = length of the body from beak tip to
tail tip.
(ii) Lt = length of the tail.
(iii) Lw = winglength as measured from the
wing shoulder to tip of the longest primary feather.
(iv) Sw = wingspan, being the maximum dis-
tance between the wingtips.
(v) W =body weight.
(vi) a, b = dimensions of the eggs; 2a and 2b
being the longer and shorter sides of the rectangle
containing the egg.
.(3j) (vii) p =number of eggs laid.
The measurements from (i) to (v) were noted
separately for male and female birds.
The eggs were approximated as ellipsoids of
revolution with the sides of the rectangle constitut-
ing the major and the minor axes (Fig. 3).The
volume of the ellipsoid is given by
V=(4ji b2a)/3 (4a)
The density of chicken eggs was calculated by
weighing them and calculating their volume in the
above fashion. The raptor egg volumes were multi-
plied with this density to obtain their weights.
Those measurements which were unavailable
but essential for our model were calculated from the
least error average of the available data. They are
suitably marked in Table 1.
The data was analysed using the method of
linear regression. Since the aim is to obtain the in-
dices of the scaling laws, the natural logarithm of the
quantities were used. The scaling power appears as
the slope of the linear log- log plot.
Results and Discussion
The results of the analysis of the data of Tables
2 and 3 show the variation of the body weight ‘W’
with the length of the body disregarding the tail ‘Lb’
(Lb = Lb*-Lt ). This was used to fill the gaps in the
weights of the male and female birds respectively.
2a
Fig. 3. Ellipsoidal approximation for the volume of the egg.
See text eqn. (4a).
214
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
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The underlined numbers are calculated values
M: Male; F: Female. .
FLIGHT PATTERNS AND SEXUAL DIMORPHISM IN RAPTORS
215
Table 2
DATA USED TO FIND THE RELATION BETWEEN BODY
WEIGHT AND BODY LENGTH FOR MALE RAPTORS
Ln W= 0.765 + 2. 199 Ln Lb; Correlation coefficient y= 0.9803
W=Body weight; Lb= Body length.
The results are:
(i) For males: Ln W = - 0.853 + 2. 199 Ln Lb
Correlation coefficient = 0.980
(ii) For females: Ln W =- 0.482 + 2. 1 1 8 Ln Lb
Correlation coefficient = 0.979
Table 4 shows the variation of the wingspan S w
with the wing length This was used to fill the
gaps in the data concerning the wing lengths. The
result is:
Sw= 2.173+3.202 Lw
Correlation coefficient = 0.988
This is an ordinary plot (and not a log- log
one).
Figs. 4 and 5 deal with the variation of the wing
length with weight for flapping and gliding birds
respectively.
The ratio of the wing lengths of the male and
female birds was plotted against the ratio of the
weights of the male and female + eggs in order to
ensure as far as possible that species-specific
characteristics are eliminated. Else it may lead to
changes in the scaling power, the origins of which
are beyond the complexity of our model.
A markedly better correlation was obtained
when the combined weight of the female and the
eggs was used as compared to that obtained when
only the weight of the female was used. It appears
that the female grows wings larger than what is es-
sential to accommodate her own weight. The female
bird possesses more wing power, weight for weight
compared to the male. However they appear to be
on an equal footing when the female bird is carry-
ing eggs. This seems to bear out our assumption that
the anomalous dimorphism is indeed related to the
eggs. We were unable to establish any relation be-
tween the weight of the female and that of her eggs.
Table 3
DATA USED TO FIND THE RELATION BETWEEN WEIGHT AND
BODY LENGTH FOR FEMALE RAPTORS
Ln W = 0.428 + 2.1 18 Ln Lb; Correlation coefficient y = 0.979
W = Body weight; Lb = Body length.
The two groups for which our models were
tested consisted of the hawks (genus Accipiter) and
the hawk-eagles (genus Hieraaetus) on one hand
and eagles and buzzards on the other.
The hawk-eagles are among the finest of
hunters among birds, mixing within them a very ef-
ficient blend of hawk-like (flapping) and eagle-like
(gliding) features and emphatically justify their
English nomenclature. For one, they are much larger
than the true hawks. Their wings in relation to then-
weight are larger than those of hawks but smaller
than those of eagles. Thus they are capable of fast
flight as well as sustained gliding.
In our results, it is evident that they fit into
both groups. But we have classified them with the
hawks as the ratio of their wing length to body length
is closer to hawks than to the eagles and buzzards.
We have obtained a scaling power of 3.325 for
the hawks and hawk-eagles whereas the flapping
model predicts an exponent of 3.00. For the eagles
and buzzards we have obtained an exponent of 2.041
while our theoretical value is 2.00
These fits between the theory and the actual
values are rather flattering but the scatter in the plot
leaves much to be desired. One problem is that we
need to augment our data base.
The biggest and a very serious problem en-
countered in the course of this work was the collec-
tion of data. The data available in the extant litera-
ture is very sketchy and rarely is the difference in
values for male and female birds specified. Often
data from two different sources have had to be
spliced to obtain a full picture. While care has been
taken to ensure that some justification exists for such
an action, a few inconsistencies and spurious infor-
mation have been impossible to avoid.
w$ +w
216
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Fig.4. Log-log plot of weight versus wing length for accipiters
and hawk-eagles (also see text ).
The plot yields Ln (W) = 0.086 + 3.325 Ln (Lw).
Standard deviations for x-and y-axes are 0.0414 and 0.1725
respectively. The correlation coefficient is 0.9095.
Table 4
WING SPAN VERSUS WING LENGTH FOR BOTH
MALE AND FEMALE RAPTORS
Sw = 2.173 + 3.202 L^,; Correlation coefficient y= 0.988
Sw = Wing span, Lw = Wing length.
Fig. 5. Log-log plot of weight versus wing length for eagles and
buzzards (also see text).
The plot yields Ln (W) = 0.15 + 2.041 Ln (Lw).
Standard deviations for x-and y-axes are 0.026 and 0.069 respec-
tively. The correlation coefficient is 0.767.
The purpose of this paper is to introduce a new
method of understanding sexual dimorphism in
birds. We have shown that in spite of various con-
straints and approximations, it is powerful enough
to lead to results which make physical and
physiological sense. But a detailed analysis with a
large data base is desirable.
Acknowledgements
One of us (VAS) wishes to acknowledge the
hospitality of the Solid State Electronics Group
(Tata Institute of Fundamental Research) and in par-
ticular Ms A. Sardesai where this work was com-
pleted.
FLIGHT PATTERNS AND SEXUAL DIMORPHISM IN RAPTORS
217
Rbpbrbnces
Au, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1983): Handbook of the Birds of India
and Pakistan. Compact Edition. Oxford University Press,
Delhi.
Barnes, C. (1981): The birds of India. Cosmo Publications, New
Delhi.
Grzimek, B. (1978): Animal Life Encyclopaedia. Editor - in-
chief Dr Bernhard Grzimek, Van Nostrand Rheinhold Co.
Vol. 7.
Haldane, J.B.S. (1956): On Being the Right Size. In: The World
of Mathematics, Vol. 2, (ed. J.R. Newman), Simon and
Schuster, New York, pp. 952-957.
Lin, H. (1982): Fundamentals of Zoological Scaling, American
Journal of Physics 50: 72-81.
Stanley, H.E. & Ostrowsky, N. (1986): On Growth and Form,
Mardnus Nijhoff Publishers.
POLYMORPHISM IN ACANTHASPIS SIVA DISTANT
(REDUVIIDAE: HETEROPTERA), A PREDATOR OF THE INDIAN HONEY BEE1
Dunston P. Ambrose2 and David Livingstone3
(With two text-figures)
Acanthaspis siva Distant is a reduviid existing in four different morphs, namely (a) unbanded legs without
thoracic spots, (b) banded legs without thoracic spots, (c) banded legs with thoracic spots, and (d) unbanded legs with
thoracic spots. Inter and intra moiph breeding experiments in the laboratory established the existence of polymorphism
in this species. The morph with unbanded legs without thoracic spots appears to be the most biologically successful
one and the morph with unbanded legs with thoracic spots, the least successful. The existence of polymorphism in A.
siva seems to be a non-mutational, non -adaptive trend in evolution, an equivalent of antogenetic evolution.
Introduction
A. siva has very striking variations among in-
dividuals occurring in the same microhabitat that
would compel a museum taxonomist to place them
comfortably in different species altogether. A. siva
exists in four different morphs, namely: unbanded
legs without thoracic spots (A), banded legs without
thoracic spots (B), banded legs with thoracic spots
(C), and unbanded legs with thoracic spots (D) (Fig.
1). Distant (1902) described only the morph A of A.
siva. The present report deals with the biological
diversity exhibited by the morphs of A. siva.
Material and Methods
A. siva is entomosuccivorous, polyphagous,
crepuscular, alate, black with creamy white spots at
the base of corium, middle and apex of the
membrane as well as at the connexivum. It is found
in the scrub jungles, semi-arid zones and tropical
rain forest in concealed microhabitats (Ambrose
1980). Adults and nymphal instars of all the four
morphs of A. siva were collected from Salem semi-
arid zone in Tamil Nadu. They were reared in the
laboratory (temperature 30-32°C, humidity 80-85%
and photoperiod 11-13 hrs.) separately in plastic
containers (8x6x4 cm) on house-flies and cam-
ponotine ants. Morphometric analyses of eggs, nym-
phal instars, adults and spermatophore capsules
were carried out. Six pairs of adults of each morph
were maintained separately to study the oviposition
Accepted October 1988.
department of Zoology, St Xavier’s College, Palayankottai,
Tamil Nadu 627 002.
department of Zoology, Bharathiyar University, Coimbatore,
Tamil Nadu 641 046,
pattern and hatchability. Records of number of
batches of eggs and eggs per batch were maintained
and each batch of eggs was allowed to hatch in in-
dividual containers. Hatching percentage of in-
dividual batches of eggs was calculated and the lon-
gevity of adults recorded. An index of oviposition
days was calculated as a percentage ratio of egg
laying days to the total adult longevity of the females
(Ambrose 1980). Records on incubation and stadial
period, nymphal mortality, nymphal weight and
their camouflaging efficiency were calculated
separately in the four morphs. Camouflaging ef-
ficiency of different stages of nymphal instars was
measured by calculating the particle carrying
capacity index (= Particle weight + Nymph weight).
The nymphs were weighed immediately after
eclosion and ecdysis and after they gathered the
camouflaging material. Sex ratio and the distribu-
tion of morphs among the progeny were calculated.
Observations and Discussion
Size and shape: Morphometric analyses of eggs,
nymphal instars and adults did not show any percep-
tible variations. But morph A ejected the largest
spermatophore capsule and morph C the shortest.
The shape of the capsule also varied among the
morphs (Table 1, Fig. 2).
Oviposition pattern: Morph A and D females lived
longer. Morph B females exhibited the shortest life
span (Table 2). The pre-oviposition period was
longer in morphs with longer life span and shorter
in morphs with shorter life span. Long lived females
registered higher fecundity rates than short lived
ones. Morph C recorded the lowest fecundity.
Highest index of oviposition days was recorded in
the morphs A and D. Index of oviposition days had
POLYMORPHISM IN ACANTHASPIS SIVA DISTANT
219
Fig. 1 . Prothoracic shield and legs of four different morphs of A. siva
A. Unbanded legs without thoracic spots; B. Banded legs without thoracic spots;
C. Banded legs with thoracic spots; D. Unbanded legs with thoracic spots.
Fig. 2. Spermatophore capsules of four morphs of A. siva.
220
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Table 1
POLYMORPHIC DIVERSITY IN MORPHOMETRY OF
SPERMATOPHORE CAPSULE IN A. Siva (N = 6)
Spermatophore capsule
Morphs
Length Width Exit Exit width Exit width
length (broader end) (narrower end)
A = unbanded legs without thoracic spots; B = banded legs
without thoracic spots; C = banded legs with thoracic spots; D =
unbanded legs with thoracic spots.
All measurements in mm.
direct correlation with adult longevity and fecun-
dity.
Hatchability: Hatchability had direct correlation
with the fecundity rate in morphs A, B and C.
Highest and lowest hatchability were recorded by
morphs A and D respectively and this can be corre-
lated with the highest and lowest frequency of 100%
hatching respectively.
Incubation period: Morphs A and D recorded the
shortest and longest incubation periods respectively
(Table 3). Morph A with higher hatchability and
shorter incubation period and morph D with poor
hatchability and longer incubation period are
biologically significant Similar results have been
observed in the different ecotypes of Acanthaspis
pedestris Stal (Ambrose 1980).
Stadial period: Morph A had the longest stadial
period and the morph C the shortest (Table 3). Inter-
estingly, morph A had the shortest incubation period
and the longest stadial period.
Nymphal mortality: Nymphal mortality was
recorded as follows: morph A 63.2%, morph B
69.2%, morph C 36.5%, morph D 69.2%. The rela-
tively short stadial period of morph C may be one of
the reasons for its having the lowest nymphal mor-
tality. Morph D, with fewer nymphs, recorded the
highest nymphal mortality and this might be one of
the reasons for its low level of population in different
Table 2
POLYMORPHIC DIVERSITY IN OVIPOSITION PATTERN AND HATCHABILITY IN A. siva
POLYMORPHISM IN ACANTHASPIS SIVA DISTANT
221
Tables
POLYMORPHIC DIVERSITY IN INCUBATION AND STADIAL PERIODS IN A. siva
(Number in parantheses indicate the number of observations.)
Table 4
POLYMORPHIC DIVERSITY IN NYMPHAL WEIGHT AND WEIGHT OF CAMOUFLAGING PARTICLE CARRIED
AND THE CARRYING CAPACITY IN A. siva
habitats surveyed.
Camouflaging: The first instar of morph D recorded
the highest carrying capacity which was directly
proportional to the camouflaging efficiency
(Ambrose 1980). It may be an evolving adaptation
to protect the nymphs from the threat of cannibalism
as they recorded the lowest hatchability and highest
nymphal mortality (Table 4).
Adult longevity and sex ratio: In all morphs the
females lived longer than the males. (72.6 ± 24.9 and
161.3 ± 18.9; 49 ± 11.3 and 105 ± 10.2; 43 and 80.4
± 6.5; 32 and 70.2 ± 16.2 days of adult longevity of
males and females respectively of morphs A, B, C
and D). Both males and females of morphs A and D
registered the highest and lowest longevity respec-
tively. The population of morph B was slightly
female biased (male:female = 0.9 : 1.0) and the
population of morphs A and C were slightly male
biased (1.0 : 0.8), whereas the population of morph
D was not sex biased. In the field, generally the
population was male biased.
Morph distribution among the progeny: The inter
and intra morph breeding experiments were carried
out in the laboratory from 1 to 3 generations. The
progeny from the inter morph breeding experiments
did not follow any particular genetic pattern. The
222
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vcl. 87
progeny of morph A was A = 47.9%; B = 40.4% and
C = 1 1 .7%; and that of B was A = 21 .7%, B = 5 1 .7%
and C = 26.6%. The parents of morph C gave birth
to 15.9% A, 30.5% B and 53.6% C morph offsprings.
The offsprings of morph D were of A and B = 37.5%
each and D = 25%. The progeny of morphs A, B and
C were more like that of parental type. From the
parents of morph D, not even a single parental type
progeny emerged. The other three morphs (A, B and
C) also failed to give the progeny of the D morph
type.
Observations on the different biological
parameters of different morphs collected from a
single habitat reveal that intraspecific variations
could prevail in abundance even though they belong
to similar ecological conditions. Breeding experi-
ments in between morphs of same habitat provide
sufficient reasons to suggest that such intraspecific
variations are not strictly genetic. Mayr (1963 and
1969) briefly defined polymorphism as variability
within a population. Ford (1937) explained
polymorphism as "the occurrence together in the
same habitat at the same time of two or more distinct
forms of the same species in such proportions that
the rarest of them cannot be maintained by recurrent
mutation". The rare occurrence of the morph D both
under laboratory conditions as well as natural
habitat conditions indicates that the segregation
phenomenon does not occur in the Mendelian
fashion. Therefore, the random occurrence of such
morphs without any relation to environmental or
genetic feedback is an example of a non-mutation-
al, non-adaptive trend in evolution, an equivalent of
"antogenetic" evolution of Simpson (1969).
However, the adaptive significance of a particular
morph in a given habitat cannot be ruled out as
evidenced by the morph A with higher longevity,
fecundity, hatchability and more abundant presence
in the field. This morph appears to have acquired
successful characters as they are found in larger
proportions in the natural population as well as in
the laboratory bred population. Unfortunately, no in-
formation is available on the morph variation in
reduviids except Louis* (1974) preliminary observa-
tion on Rhinocoris sp. The present study establishes
the existence of 4 different morphs in this species.
Further investigation is required to understand this
phenomenon of polymorphism better.
References
Ambrose, D.R (1980): Bioecology, Ecophysiology and Ethology
of Reduviids (Heteroptera). of the scrub jungles of Tamil
Nadu, India. Ph.D. thesis, University of Madras, Madras.
Distant, W.L. (1902): Fauna of British India. Rhynchota Vol. II
Heteroptera. Taylor and Francis Ltd., London, pp. 265.
Ford, E.B. (1937): Polymorphism. Biol. Rev. 12: 461-503.
Louis, D. (1974): Biology of Reduviidae of Cocoa farms in
Ghana. The American Midland Naturalist 91(1): 68-89.
Mayr, E. (1963): Animal species and Evolution. The Bleknap
press of Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mas-
sachusetts.
(1969): Principles of systematic Zoology. Tata Mc-
Graw - Hill Publishing Co. Ltd., New Delhi, pp. 162.
Simpson, G.G. (1909): The meaning of Evolution. Oxford and
IBH Publishing Co., New Delhi, pp. 46.
OBSERVATIONS ON THE DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES OF TADPOLES OF THE
MALABAR GLIDING FROG RHACOPHORUS MALABARICUS
JERDON, 1870 (ANURA : RH ACOPHORID AE) 1
A.G. Sekar2
(With three plates and three text- figures )
The ontogeny of the Malabar gliding frog Rhacophorus malabaricus was studied by rearing tadpoles from the
egg stage. Metamorphosis took 68 days to complete. The juveniles were of the same colour as the substratum and quite
distinct from the green of the adult. The tadpoles were carnivorous by preference.
Introduction
The Malabar gliding frog Rhacophorus
malabaricus is distributed in the evergreen forests
of the Western Ghats of India from Ponmudi Hills,
Kerala, to Goa (Daniel and Sekar 1989). It is ar-
boreal in habit, and has a cryptic green coloration. It
can glide over a distance of 10 m (Ayyangar 1915).
According to Ferguson (1904) this frog is common
in the low country of the Travancore region of
Kerala and sometimes enters houses. The breeding
season commences with the S W monsoon and lasts
from June to November (Ferguson 1904). The
breeding call is syllabized as truk — truk — truk.
Amplexus is axillary in this species (Abdulali and
Sekar 1988). The female makes a foam nest attached
to the leaves of a tree or a shrub overhanging a pool
(Ferguson, op. cit.)
The development of amphibian tadpoles in the
Indian region has been scantily investigated. So far,
literature is available only for such anuran species
as Rana tigerina (McCann 1932), Rana cyanophlyc-
tis (Mohanty-Hejmadi and Dutta 1979), Microhyla
ornata (Padhye and Ghate 1989), Polypedates
maculatus (McCann 1932, Mohanty-Hejmadi and
Dutta 1988). Existing literature on tadpoles of
Rhacophorus malabaricus (Ferguson 1904, Inger et
al. 1984) is largely confined to general remarks on
the field biology, including description and location
of the eggmass and feeding behaviour of the larvae.
There has been no previous study of tadpole
development in Rhacophorus malabaricus. The
present study focuses on the development of the tad-
poles of Rhacophorus malabaricus under laboratory
conditions.
Accepted December 1989.
2Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Shaheed
Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023.
Material and Methods
A pair of Malabar gliding frogs (male 61 .7 mm
SV length and female 81.3 mm SV length), which
were in amplexus on a bamboo shoot 2 m above the
ground, was collected at 2200 hrs in Volpoi forest,
Goa, in July 1989. This is a moist deciduous forest
type with evergreen patches. The pair was kept in a
dry plastic jar of 5 litre capacity. The female made a
foam nest which was transferred to another jar con-
taining water. The eggs (approximate number more
than hundred) started developing in the foam nest.
The nest was brought to Bombay and kept in an
aquarium tank (30 x 15.5 x 15 cm) at room tempera-
ture (28-35° C). The tadpoles were fed chopped
earthworms. Different stages were preserved in 10%
formalin. Some tadpoles were kept separately to ob-
serve their feeding behaviour.
Observations
Developmental Stages
The observations made on the development of
the tadpoles are given chronologically.
Embryonic stage: 20 July 1989 - The male and
female made the foam nest at 0100 hrs. This was ex-
actly like the foam nest of Polypedates maculatus in
colour and texture (Sekar 1986). The eggs dis-
tributed in the foam nest were cream coloured and
spherical in shape. Average diameter = 2.76 mm.
(S.D. = ± 0.1 mm; n = 10).
21 July 1989 - Age 34 hrs: Embryos had developed
and were hatched, the larvae were wriggling and
emerging from the foam nest.
Hatching stage: 22 July 1989 - Age 56 hrs: Average
total length of the hatched tadpoles = 8.73 mm (S.D.
= ± 0.45; n = 7); body length 3.73 mm; tadpoles
hatched out and settled at the bottom of the jar and
4.
224
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
were motionless (more larvae were struggling to
come out of the nest); tadpoles bore conspicuous
yolk sac; no gills were visible and eyes were ap-
parently well developed.
23 July 1989 - Age 83 hrs: Average total length =
11.88 mm (S.D.= ± 0.15; n = 10) body length 3.88
mm; tadpoles still motionless; dorsally pigmented
with brown; ventrally white; belly with yolk; tail
muscle and fins also pigmented.
Feeding stage: 24 July 1989 - Age 4 days, 11 hrs:
Average total length =13.7 mm (S.D. = ± 0.51; n =
6); body length 4.8 mm; tadpoles very active and
come to the surface; oral disc formed but without
beak and homy teeth; the intestine was in early
stages of formation; belly white in colour.
25 July 1989 - Age 5 days: Average total length =
16.48 mm (S.D. = ± 0.63; n = 5); body length 5.48
mm; oral disc developed with beak, but no homy
teeth; the coiled intestine was white in colour.
30 July 1989 - Age 10 days: Average total length =
17.84 mm (S.D. = ± 0.53; n = 5); body length 6.2
mm; oral disc with beak and rows (2:3 + 3/3) of
developed teeth; the intestine dark brown in colour;
spiraculam visible clearly; started feeding on
chopped earthworms.
Pre-hindlimb stage: 2 August 1989 - Age 13 days:
Average total length = 18.7 mm (S.D. = ± 0.69; n =
5); body length 6.9 mm; tadpoles dorsally intensely
pigmented with brown except around the eye;
ventrally transparent.
4 August 1989 — Age 15 days: Average total length
= 20.17 mm (S.D. = ± 0.71; n = 5); body length 7.57
mm; tadpoles voraciously fed on the meat of
earthworms; they were very definitely carnivorous.
12 August 1989 - Age 23 days: Average total length
= 21.5 mm (S.D.= ± 1.21; n = 3); body length 8.6
mm; no remarkable changes.
20 August 1989 - Age 3 1 days: Average total length
= 31.6 mm. (S.D.= ± 0.73; n = 3); body length 11.6
mm; dorsally brownish yellow; ventral skin
transparent; ventrally the heart beat was seen clear-
ly; vent dextral.
Hindlimb bud stage: 29 August 1989 - Age 40
days: Average total length = 38.0 mm (S.D. = ± 1.57;
n = 3); body length 13.0 mm; hindlimb bud
developed and measured 3.0 mm in length.
1 September 1989 - Age 43 days: Average total
length = 40.0 mm (S.D. = ± 1.24; n = 3); body length
15.0 mm; hindlimb bud measured 4.5 mm in length.
Fig . 1 . Mouth of Rhacophorus malabaricus tadpoles.
Hindlimb stage: 7 September 1989 - Age 49 days:
Average total length = 41.0 mm (S.D. = ± 0.44; n =
3); body length 16.0 mm; hindlimb measured 10 mm
in length; toes black in colour; webs between toes
yellow.
12 September 1989 - Age 54 days: Average total
length (41.0 mm) and body length (16.0 mm)
remained same; body skin became opaque; in colour
yellowish brown dotted with dark brown or black.
Dental formula of the oral disc was 2 : 4 + 4/1 + 1 :
2 (Fig. 1) The hindlimb well developed and with a
length of 19.0 mm; thighs barred; forelimbs visible
through the transparent ventral skin.
Forelimb stage: 14 September 1989 - Age 56 days:
No change in length; tadpole had attained the
forelimb stage; the oral disc with homy teeth had
disappeared and the mouth was as in a normal frog;
the abdominal region was narrow; the behaviour
was notably different from the hindlimb staged tad-
poles; quiescent, not swimming actively, resting at
a comer of the tank; they did not feed on the mashed
earthworms; the colour of the body was yellowish
brown with dark brown or black dots.
23 September 1989 - Age 65 days: Total length 21 .0
mm; the tadpoles had nearly lost their tails and be-
come froglets with only a rudiment of the tail,
measuring 5.0 mm; froglets came out of the water
and clung to the wall of the tank; toes fully webbed.
Metamorphosed froglet stage: 26 September 1989
- Age 68 days: Average total length = 16.0 mm (S.D.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 87
Sekar: Tadpoles of Rhacophorus malabaricus
Plate 1
Above: Rhacophorus malabaricus pair in amplexus
Below: Eggs collected from the foam nest
Above left: Age 56 hrs, total length 8.73 mm, hatched tadpoles . Right: Tadpoles in feedmg stage.
Below: Tadpoles in hindlimb stage.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 87
Sekar: Tadpoles of Rhacophorus malabaricus
Plate 3
Above: Froglet with rudiment of tail.
Below: Completely metamorphosed froglet
mm
:S
TADPOLES OF RHACOPHORUS MALABARICUS
225
= ± 1 .0; n = 3); the froglets had lost all external signs
of tail and had completely metamorphosed into a
replica of the adult except in size and colour; the
colour of the froglet was yellowish brown with black
dots; thighs barred; toes fully webbed; web yellow.
Feeding behaviour: Tadpoles kept separately for
feeding behaviour observations were offered algae,
chopped cabbage, non-spicy sausage, pieces of mut-
ton, white of boiled egg, chopped earthworms,
crushed snail flesh and pieces of bread. Of these, the
sausage, mutton, snail flesh and earthworms were
aggressively fed on by the tadpoles. The boiled egg
was occasionally eaten whereas algae, cabbage and
bread were rarely consumed. They were highly
responsive to animal matter. They also fed on dead
conspecifics.
Discussion
The tadpoles took 68 days to complete
metamorphosis, which is a longer duration than that
for the related species Ceylonese tree frog
Rhacophorus cruciger cruciger , which completes
its metamorphosis in 49 days (Morgan-Davies
1958) or for the Indian tree frog Polypedates
maculatuSy which completes its metamorphosis in 55
days (Mohanty-Hejmadi and Dutta 1988). However,
these animals may grow faster in nature than under
laboratory conditions. The growth curve (Fig. 2) is
Fig. 2. Growth curve for tadpoles of Rhacophorus malabaricus
up to metamorphosis.
similar to that for other anuran larvae (Mohanty-
Hejmadi and Dutta 1988). The tail reached a maxi-
mum length of 25 mm in 40 days, maintained the
same length for 16 days and was resorbed complete-
ly within 12 days. The body, however, grew up to 16
mm in 49 days and maintained this length until the
tail was resorbed (Fig. 3). The maximum tail length
of 46.67 mm in a tadpole collected from a forest pool
which was recorded by Inger et al. (1984) was not
observed in this study.
Size in mm
Body length ~ ^ Tail length
Fig. 3. Relative growths of body and tail of tadpoles of Rhacophorus malabaricus up to metamorphosis.
226
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 87
The gills were not visible at 56 hrs. At this time
larvae were just hatched and emerged from the foam
nest. This observation supports Ferguson’s (1904)
report that the eggs hatched within the foam nest and
the tadpoles fed within the nest until the external
gills were absorbed. They then dropped out of the
nest.
Ferguson (op. cit.) reported that the colour of
the living tadpoles was purple, closely dotted with
dark brown. But in the present study it was observed
that the colour of the living tadpoles was yellowish
brown dotted with dark brown. The length of the
body and tail agree with Ferguson’s description. He
reported that the tadpoles were carnivorous, which
was also confirmed in this study. The tadpoles of the
Malabar gliding frog clearly preferred meat and
mostly avoided vegetable matter while feeding.
The metamorphosed froglets lacked the green
colour of their parents. They emerged with a colour
closely similar to that of the ground, i.e. yellowish
brown dotted with dark brown and barred thighs as
in land frogs of the genus Rana (Boulenger 1920).
They may live on the ground for a short period until
becoming arboreal and only then acquire the cryp-
tic green body colour of more mature frogs.
Acknowledgements
I thank Mr. J.C. Daniel for encouragement
during the study. I thank the Bombay Natural His-
tory Society for the financial support. Special thanks
are due to Mr. Vithoba Hegde, who accompanied me
during the field trip. My sincere thanks are due to
Dr. Renee Borges, who gave some valuable sugges-
tions for the preparation of this paper, and to the
Forest Department of Goa for their kind cooperation
during the Field trip.
References
Abdulali, H. & Sekar, A.G. (1988): On a small collection of
amphibians from Goa. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85: 202-
205.
Ayyangar, M.O.P. (1915): A south Indian flying frog
Rhacophorus malabaricus (Jerdon). Rec. Ind. Mus. 11:
140-142.
Boulenger, G.A. (1920): A monograph of the South Asia,
Papuan, Melanesian and Australian frogs of the genus
Rana. ibid. 20: 1-226.
Daniel, J.C. & Sekar, A.G. (1989): Field Guide to the Am-
phibians of Western India - Part 4. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 86: 194-202.
Ferguson, H.S. (1904): A list of Travancore Batrachians. ibid.
15: 499-509.
Inger, R.F., Shaffer, H.B., Koshy, M. & Bakde, R.
(1984): A report on a collections of Amphibians and Reptiles from
the Ponmudi, Kerala, South India, ibid. 81: 406-427, 551-570.
McCann, C. (1932): Notes on Indian Batrachians. ibid. 36: 152-
180.
Mohanty-Hejmadi, P. & Dutta, S.K. (1979): Breeding and
development of Rana cyanophlyctis Schneider, ibid. 76:
291-296.
(1988): Life history of the common Indian Tree Frog
Polypedates maculatus. (Gray, 1834) (Anura:
Rhacophoridae). ibid. 85: 512- 517.
Morgan-Davies, A.M. (1958- ): Some notes on the Reproduc-
tion, Metamorphosis, and the Ecology of a Ceylonese Tree
Frog, Rhacophorus cruciger cruciger (Blyth). ibid. 55: 1 1-
16.
Padhye, A.D. & Ghate, H.V. (1989): Preliminary photograph,
Record and description of various Developmental Stages
of the Frog Microhyla ornata (Dumeril & Bibron). Her-
peton 2: 2-7.
Sekar, A.G. (1986): Ecology of amphibia of Sanjay Gandhi Na-
tional Park, Borivli, Bombay. M.Sc Thesis. University of
Bombay.
STRATEGIES OF BROODING AND PARENTAL CARE AND INFLUENCE OF
STRESS CONDITIONS IN THE LABORATORY IN HETEROPOD A VENATORIA
(ARANEAE: HETEROPODIDAE)1
K. VUAYALAKSHMI AND S. SlVARAMAN2
(With a text-figure )
The mode of egg sac construction in Heteropoda venatoria, brood care and release of young ones showed that
parental care is well evolved in this species of hunting spider. Egg sacs were constructed by mated and non-mated
females, but the non mated females discarded the brood sac or ate it within 24 hours of construction of the sac. Brood-
ing females tolerate each other. Maternal care is essential for tearing open the sac and prevention of dessication of eggs.
Recognition of sac by the female does not exist and advancement of release of the second sac could be done by the
removal of the sac from the female. Parental care in H. venatoria is primarily to prevent dessication of eggs and for
protection from enemies. Since eggs undergo normal development in laboratory conditions (temperature 28 ± 2.5° C,
relative humidity 70-85%) mass rearing of these useful predators could be taken up.
In the present study the behaviour strategies
during brood care, mode of egg sac construction,
egg laying, brood care and release of young of H.
venatoria were observed Experiments were
designed to understand phenomena like mutual
tolerance among two brooding females, the role of
the mother in brood care, development of the young
in the absence of the mother, recognition of her own
egg sac by the mother and the changes in the egg
laying pattern by the removal of egg sac soon after
construction.
Material and Methods
In order to observe egg sac construction, egg
laying, brood care and release of young ones the
females were observed under different conditions.
This was done in order to find out variations, if any,
in the nature of brooding. The spiders were main-
tained in closed cylindrical transparent plastic
chambers (20 cm height and 15 cm diameter) with
lids having two holes. One plugged with cotton was
used to introduce the prey. The other carried a long
glass tube with a broad mouth wrapped with filter
paper at a bottom to hold water, and was used to
maintain relative humidity (70-85%). The spiders
were maintained at room temperatures of 28 ± 2.5°
C and fed 24 hours prior to the commencement of
the predation experiments. The following females
were observed individually for their brooding
habits.
i) Females laboratory reared from egg stage on-
wards and mated in the laboratory;
ii) Females collected from houses as subadults
Introduction
Parental care is found to a great extent in
spiders. Maternal care is very common in the
vagabond families like Thomisidae, Salticidae,
Gnaphosidae, Clubionidae and the females guard
the egg sacs until they hatch (Turnbull 1973).
Pisauridae carry their egg sacs wherever they
wander. Lycosid egg sacs are attached to the spin-
nerets. The egg sacs of web building spiders receive
scant attention from their mothers with the notable
exception of Theridids, Pholcids, Agelenids and
Eresids. Thus parental care is evolved at different
levels among the various groups of spiders.
Heteropoda venatoria is a cosmotropical
house spider which is a natural predator of the cock-
roach and other pests. They do not construct webs
to capture prey. The prey capture mechanism is one
of attack and capture (Vijayalakshmi 1986).
These spiders produce silk mainly to construct
egg sacs to avoid dessication and attack by enemies.
Besides, the female mates only once and receives
the entire supply of sperm during that mating
(Robinson 1975). So great care has to be afforded to
reduce mortality and propagate the species. Hence
maternal care is of great significance in this species.
Heteropoda venatoria are reported to carry their
brood sac firmly against their sterna with the help of
pedipalpi till such time they release their young ones
(Bhattacharya 1941, Ross et al. 1982).
Accepted February 1988.
department of Zoology, Loyola College, Madras,
Tamil Nadu 600 034.
228
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
that eventually moulted into adults, and were
mated in the laboratory;
iii) Females collected from the houses and left
without mating.
These females were provided with abundant
prey (cockroaches - Periplaneta sp.) after mating
and also after release of young ones to provide for
the excess energy required for these phases
(Vijayalakshmi 1985).
Besides, certain experimental stress conditions
were provided to observe the responses of such
brooding females. Experiments conducted, results
obtained and inferences are presented in Table 2.
Observations and Results
Behaviour prior to construction of the egg sac:
On completion of mating the females fed voracious-
ly. The spinnerets become enlarged and active, ex-
hibiting increased deposition of silk. Prior to egg sac
construction many attachment points were marked
throughout the experimental chamber. Peculiar rota-
tions of the terminal portions of the abdomen were
observed and silk threads were extended from
various points in the chamber irregularly. Such be-
haviour by the relatively active female lasted for
about 3 days. Onset of egg sac construction finally
occurred after one week (Fig. 1 a, b).
Method of egg sac construction and egg deposi-
tion: The abdomen of the female rotated con-
tinuously and extruded silk to form a disc several
layers thick. This disc had a hold on the surface of
the container. The epigynal plate expanded and the
pale yellowish eggs were released layer upon layer
at regular intervals. The number of eggs varied from
96 to 406. The basal plate of the sac was constructed
first. The lid for the sac was constructed in a similar
manner to that of the basal plate. The sac was pick-
ed up by the female and held firmly with the
chelicerae and pedipalps on the ventral side. The 1st
and 3rd pair of legs were also used for gentle tap-
ping. Freshly constructed sacs had a pinkish tinge.
During preening the sac was left on the floor for a
short while; if disturbed preening was stopped and
the sac grabbed.
Release of the young ones from the sac: Around
the 14th to 16th day of brooding an expansion was
observed in the sac. By the 16th to the 23rd day the
female tore open the seam of the sac by holding with
the chelicerae on top and the 3rd pair of legs at the
bottom. Initially one or two spiderlings came out
through the slit, and rested on the sides of the sac. In
a day or two they started moving about and more
spiderlings came out every day. Between days 2
and 7 all the young ones came out (96 to 406 in-
Fig. 1. Female Heteropoda venatoria holding egg sac: a. Dorsal view; b. Ventral view.
BROODING AND PARENTAL CARE IN HETEROPODA VENATORIA
229
dividuals) and even after release the empty sac was
still carried about by the female for a further period
of 1 to 4 days before being discarded. The young had
already undergone the 1st moult inside the sac and
the exuviae were observed in the egg sac. In the
spiderlings the spinnerets were active and they
climbed up and jumped down by using draglines and
extended threads for dispersal.
Feeding during brood care: Right from the time
of construction of egg sac up to the release of young
ones and the discarding of the sac the female did not
feed. After the release of the young, the female broke
the long period of starvation and fed voraciously. If
at this stage the females were not provided with
enough prey they died.
Cannibalism: Intense cannibalism was noted
amongst young ones of the first instar but no can-
nibalism was noted between the mother and the
spiderlings.
Construction of subsequent egg sacs without
mating: It was observed that the females do con-
struct egg sacs without mating. Virgin females were
also observed constructing sacs. Table 1 provides
data for these observations. It is evident from the
table that when the adult females were reared from
the egg stage in the laboratory and not given an op-
portunity for mating, they still constructed egg sacs
with or without eggs at periodical intervals and
when they contained unfertilized eggs they were
eaten by the female with or without egg sac.
Another observation was that the females
which constructed sacs with viable eggs might con-
struct subsequent egg sacs without viable eggs
which were discarded or eaten up. It has also been
observed that the female which kept constructing
egg sacs with unfertilized eggs, when mated, con-
structed egg sacs with viable eggs subsequently.
Also, observations have been made where the
female failed to construct a proper egg sac; it was in
the form of a patch of silk attached to the wall of the
container and eggs were released on the floor of the
container. A female that had been mated once also
constructed three egg sacs subsequently with viable
eggs without any further mating.
Discussion
One of the biotic factors that influence preda-
tion is brooding and maternal care of the females. In
Heteropoda venatoria the females do not predate
during brooding. However, they feed voraciously
before and after brooding. The amount of feeding
greatly deviates from the normal during such pre and
post brooding phases.
The voracious feeding of the female before the
construction of the sac probably provides for storing
energy for egg development, construction of egg sac
and long period of starvation when brooding.
The brood sac construction does not take place
if the females do not feed after copulation. Feeding
after copulation is necessary for the second phase of
yolk accumulation. An expansion of the egg sac
before the spiderlings moult to the first instar is ob-
served in H. venatoria as also in some wolf spiders
(Fuji 1978).
As in many related families of wandering
spiders, maternal care is better developed in H.
venatoria than in many web weavers that abandon
the egg sac after construction. Heteropoda do not
construct any web either for prey capture or retreat.
Since the egg sac is exposed to greater risk of des-
sication and attack by enemies, it is tough and thick
with several layers of silk. The female holds it firm-
ly until the release of young.
It is evident from earlier studies that there is a
great variation in the number of egg sacs (Table 3).
Studies of some workers (Ross et al. 1982) give an
indication of the time taken to construct the egg sac
after copulation. It is 12-14 days which is twice the
time recorded during the present study. Also the
duration of brooding is lengthened. The number of
young collected in the laboratory is much less than
the ones observed in the present study.
That the females do not cannibalize their
young could be due to the fact that the size of the
emerging 1st instar nymphs is too small for capture
by the adult.
In Metaphiddipus galathea (Homer and Starks
1972) it was observed that the gravid female which
was not allowed to mate constructed an egg sac and
deposited infertile yolk-like material in which in-
dividual ‘eggs’ appeared to run together. These in-
fertile masses were deposited continuously at ap-
proximately the same intervals that other females
deposited fertile egg sacs. Once these females were
mated they produced viable eggs.
In H. venatoria construction of egg sacs with
unfertilized eggs and those without eggs could be in-
terpreted as the result of hormonal imbalance.
Table 1
OBSERVED VARIATIONS OF THE BROOD SAC AND ITS FATE IN MATED AND NON-MATED FEMALE Hete.opoda venatoria
230
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
However, the construction of egg sacs by virgin
females was also observed in H. venatoria and this
was attributed to an artificially imposed mating
schedule (Ross et al. 1982). Acts of ecdysis and
reproduction are accompanied by an increased ac-
tivity of groups of neuro-secretory cells in the
protocerebrum and chelicerae of certain groups of
spiders. (Legendre 1956). The role of
neurosecretory cells has also been described
(Yoshikura and Takaho 1972).
In the light of such observations it may be sug-
gested that hormonal imbalance could be the major
factor governing premating egg laying, rather than
artificial imposition of mating in the absence of a
male. Moreover, the presence of a fertilized brood
sac in the clutches of a female prolongs the release
of new egg sacs and this is advanced by forcible
removal of sac after a day (vide expt. 7).
It is interesting to note that females differen-
tiated between fertilized and unfertilized eggs
within 24 hours of egg deposition and were observed
to eat only the unfertilized ones. The drying of un-
fertilized eggs may bring in loss of weight. Minute
vibrations could be caused by cellular proliferation
of the mass of eggs. These are probably detected by
the female. It has been reported that the vibratile
sense organs of the abdomen are very well
specialised in spiders (Barth 1972).
The eating of eggs prevents the wastage of un-
fertilized eggs in H. venatoria. The eaten unfertil-
ized eggs might be recycled by some mechanism.
When this very same female is later mated normal
development of eggs occurs.
Construction of more than one egg sac after a
single mating has been observed in Metaphiddipus
galathea (Homer and Starks 1972). It is suggested
that they receive a large number of sperms in one
single mating and store them in spermatheca for fur-
ther use. The same mechanism could be operating
in H. venatoria as they are able to construct more
than one egg sac with viable eggs subsequent to a
single mating.
The reduction in the size of the successive
brood sacs and number of eggs could be due to the
successive release of eggs. They decrease cor-
responding to the decreasing availability of sperms.
Such a situation is also observed in Cupiennius
(Melchers 1963).
The experiments conducted gave the reactions
of H. venatoria under stress which may also occur
in the natural habitat.
Experiment 1: Mutual tolerance of females with
egg sacs is quite advantageous. The females though
avoiding each other do not attack or kill each other
presumably due to the risk of losing their own sac.
Experiment 2: From experiments where the egg
sacs were not tom open but were left as they were
to develop after isolation from the mother, it was in-
dicated that tearing open of the egg sac and release
of the young ones is an important function in the
maternal care of the egg sac. A similar function to
the mother was attributed in Pardosa astrigera (Fuji
1978)
Experiment 3: Eggs when isolated from the female
within 24 hours of construction of the sac undergo
normal development in the laboratory when
provided with the same microhabitat. Thus it is
clearly indicated that the maternal care exhibited by
H. venatoria has the primary function of prevent-
ing dessication of eggs and secondarily affording
Table 3
DETAILS OF OBSERVATIONS ON BROODING STRATEGIES OBSERVED BY VARIOUS AUTHORS IN H. venatoria
^Present work.
BROODING AND PARENTAL CARE IN HETEROPODA VENATORIA
233
them protection from enemies.
Experiment 4: Females accept their egg sacs or a
foreign egg sac without the ability to distinguish be-
tween them. The female spider cannot recognize her
own egg sac. In Lycosid spiders the spiderlings of
another species are also readily accepted and will
settle down on the back of their ‘stepmother’ (En-
gelhardt 1964). The level of recognition is of
limited nature.
Experiment 5: The schedule of tearing open of the
egg sac in the present study was delayed or advanced
to suit the moulting of the first instar nymphs. It is
possible that such a stimulus to tearing response is
provided by the active running movement of the
young ones that begins just after moulting (Fuji
1980). Observations clearly indicate that these
spiders regulate the egg sac tearing and expansion
behaviour and that it is not a programmed be-
haviour.
Experiment 6: Though the female could not dif-
ferentiate between its own and other sacs it definite-
ly has a capacity to differentiate between a full and
an empty sac. The acceptance of the empty sac, piece
of cork, and paper for a while is a clear indication
that ‘holding an object* is an instinctive behaviour
in the brooding females. Individual spiders whose
egg sacs were forcibly removed pick up and carry
about various substitutes such as pieces of cork,
waste paper or cotton, a small empty snail shell, rab-
bit dropping etc. (Bristowe 1958, Savory 1977,
Gertsch 1979, Fabre 1913). Non-brooding females
and males accept these objects only when the ob-
jects are in motion. The motion might be mistaken
for the movement of the prey, but the immediate
rejection of it clearly indicates that it at once distin-
guishes between a prey and a fake and also that it
does not have the instinctive ‘behaviour of holding’
like the brooding female individuals.
Experiment 7: The advancement in release of
second egg sac by the removal of the first, might be
to reschedule its next phase. This could be attributed
to the complete control of egg laying by females
only after mating; the release of unfertilized eggs
might be due to imbalance in the total reproductive
cycle of a virgin female. Moreover, a single mating
in the life span of a female is an important phase in
the hormonal regulation and neurosecretion of these
spiders.
Eggs develop in the absence of the brood sac
when provided with the same microhabitat.
Moreover, females release more brood sacs succes-
sively in a short duration when the sacs are
removed. These aspects can be suitably adopted in
mass rearing while using them in biocontrol
programmes. The brood sacs could be isolated from
the mother as and when they are constructed in the
laboratory and maintained under controlled
laboratory conditions.
References
Barth, F.C. (1972): Die Physiologies der Spatisinnesorgane II.
Funktionelle Morphogie eines Mechanoreceptors. J.
Comp Physiol. 81: 159-186.
Bhattacharya, G.C. (1941): The food and habits of the house
spider Heteropoda Venator ia . J. Bombay nat. II ist. Soc. 42 :
821.
Bonnet, P. (1930): Observation Sur deux Heteropodes de la
Guinee, etc. Ann. Soc. Entomal. France: 497-503.
Bristowe, W.S. (1958): The World of spiders. Collins, London,
pp. 1-304.
Engelhardt, W. (1964): Dies mitteleuropaischen Arten der
GaX\mgTrochosaCA.YL. 1848. (Araneae: Ly cos idae) Mor-
phologic, Chemotaxonomie, Biologie, Autokologie. Z.
Morphol. Okol. Tiere. 54(3): 219-392.
Fabre, J.H. (1913): The life of a spider (translated by A. Teixiera
de Mattos). Horizon Press, New York.
Fuji, Y. (1978): Analytical study of maternal behaviour in Par-
dosa astrigera L. Koch (Araneae, Lycosidae). Bull. Nip-
pon. Dent. Univ. Gen. Ed. 9: 235:245.
(1980): Analytical study of maternal behaviour in
Pardosa astrigera L. Koch (Araneae, Lycosidae): Bull.
Nippon. Dent. Univ. Gen. Ed. 3: 223-230.
Gertsch, W.J. (1979): American spiders. Van Nostrand, New
York.
Horner, N.Y. & Starks, J. (1972): Bionomics of the jumping
spider Metaphiddipus galathea. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Amer.
65(3): 602-607.
Legendre, R. (1956): Les elements neurosecreteurs de la masse
nerveuse et leur Cycle d’activite chezles Araignees. Com-
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Cupiennius salei (Keyserling), einer amerikanischen
Ctenidae. Zool. Jb. Syst. 91: 1.
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Oxford, Clarendon Press. 14: 291-312.
Ross, J., Richman, D.B., Mansour, F., Tramburolo, A. & Whit-
comb, W.B. (1982): The life cycle of Heteropoda Venator ia
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(Linnaeus) (Araneae: Heteropodidae). Psyche 89: 297-
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NEW RECORD AND DESCRIPTION OF AETHALOTUS HORNI BREDDIN
(INSECTA : HETEROPTERA : LYGAEIDAE) WITH ITS IMMATURE STAGES
FROM NORTHEAST INDIA1
A. Mukhopadhyay, P. Roy and S. Das2
(With twelve text-figures )
Aethalotus horni Breddin is recorded for the first time from northeast India on a new host plant, Calotropis
procera. A detailed description of the species and its nymphs is provided.
In the oriental region Aethalotus horni Bred-
din is known from Puttalam and Anuradhapuram in
South India and Ceylon (Sri Lanka) (Distant 1910).
In addition Chatterjee (1937) reported it from
Madras. Subsequent records were from North
Salem, Aiyur, Jawalagiri-Madras and North Coorg,
Fraserpet, Mysore and Coorg (Bhasin 1953). The
specimens studied from the plains of district Dar-
jeeling in northeast India are found to be slightly
larger, with a different colour pattern than those
recorded from peninsular India (pers. comm., W.R.
Dolling 1985) and require a redescription. Besides
some changes in morphological character and
colour of the species, its establishment and breeding
activity on a new host plant, Calotropis procera in
this region, compared to its report from sandalwood
plantations of south India (Chatterjee 1937)
facilitated a study of its immature stages.
The descriptions of all the life stages and adult
are based on fresh specimens collected from the
campus area of North Bengal University, District
Darjeeling, West Bengal from the local host plant,
Calotropis procera.
Redescription of adult (Fig. 1): Body slender,
oblong, greyish black with fine adpressed pilosity.
Head triangular, yellowish red; tylus obtusely
pointed exceeding juga; eyes rounded, shortly
stalked with red crescent marking at base in some,
separate from anterior pronotal margin; ruby red
ocelli closer to lateral eyes than to one another,
streaky brown marking anterior to ocelli; antennae
black with fine pilosity; antennifers inconspicuous
with a couple of red dots at base; labium reaching
hind coxae, first labial segment exceeding base of
head.
Accepted August 1987.
department of Zoology, Centre for Life Sciences, University of
North Bengal, District Darjeeling, 734 430.
Thorax with pronotum blackish having two
longitudinal sordid yellow streaks extending along
anterior margin, lateral margins sinuately concave
in the middle, basal margin slightly elevated,
moderate punctation more or less uniformly
sparsed, deep black calli at anterio-lateral margins;
scutellum triangular blackish with apex pale trans-
lucent; pleura yellowish red, finely pubescent,
punctate; sternum brown, non-uniform pubescence;
legs sordid white with blackish tint, coxae pale with
few hairs, femora pale with proximal blackish
patches punctate, tibiae slender, darkish uniform
hair, tarsi darkish, pretarsus with typical claws and
arolia without hairs; forewing blackish with fine
grey decumbent pubescence, membrane hyaline,
exceeding abdominal tip in female and just touch-
ing or passing in males; innermost of the five veins
forked anteriorly, clavus impunctate excepting few
along inner margin, corium with uniform insig-
nificant punctures and vein-like thickening along
subcostal margin; hind wing with well developed
veins excepting faint hamus and second anal, radius
does not reach margin, secondary veins absent, anal
lobe separated prominently along anal fold (Fig. 2).
Abdomen ventrally yellowish green with
adpressed hair; posterior segments darker in male
and pale in female; connexival margin sometimes
visible laterally; margins of sternites and genital
segments with some larger hairs; male genitalia with
pygophore protruding externally; aedeagus (Fig. 3)
with phallosoma moderately pigmented brownish
yellow without any process, bottom area partly
transparent, conjunctiva short, narrowly distin-
guishable, ejaculatory reservoir complete, wings
leaf- like, vesica at base circularly symmetrical but
apically slender with 2 1/2 coils of helicoid process,
a small part of the gonoporal process remain free,
ring sclerite in secondary gonoporal region, basal
apparatus resembles dog-bone; paramere with
236
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Fig 1-6. Aethalotus horrii Breddin
1. Dorsal view of adult male; 2. Hind wing of male showing venation; 3. Aedeagus; 4. Right paramere;
5. Ovipositor showing 1st and 2nd gonapophysis (separated); 6. Spermatheca.
Abbreviations: AB, Apical Bulb; 1 A, 1st Anal; 2A, 2nd Anal; B, Body; BA, Basal Apparatus; BL, Blade; Cu, Cubitus; ER, Ejaculatory
Reservoir, GP, Gonoporal Process; I.G.P.O., 1 st Gonapophysis; 2GPO, 2nd Gonapophysis; M, Median; PCU, Post Cubitus; PH, Phal-
losoma; R, Radius; RS, Ring Selerite; S, Shank; SB, Sub-basal part; SC, Sub Costa; SG, Secondary Gonopore; V, Vesica; W,Wing.
AETHALOTUS HORNI FROM NORTHEAST INDIA
237
sickle shaped blade making almost a right angle with
shank (Fig. 4), rough hair more on dorsal angular
bent than rest; female genitalia with 1st and 2nd
gonapophysis (Fig. 5) of ovipositor not well demar-
cated, 1st ramus dark brown, traversing about 3/4th
length of 1st gonapophysis, 2nd ramus pale yellow
ending in hairy black apex of the blade-like 2nd
gonapophysis; spermatheca (Fig. 6) with bulbous
apical part enclosed in a mass of brownish tissue ex-
tending along with sub-basal saccoid part through a
short slender duct.
All measurements, with ranges in parentheses
are in millimetres and are based on at least ten ob-
servations.
Measurements: Total body length male 4.01(3.95-
4.15), female 4.82 (4.6-5.05); maximum width
(across pronotum) male 1.06(1.05-1.1), female 1.23
(1.2-1.35); head length male 0.58 (0.5-0.65), female
0.67 (0.6-0.7); head width (across eye) male 1.18
(1.15-1.2), female 1.34 (1.3-1.4); interocular width
male 0.81 (0.8-0.85), female 0.93 (0.9-1); antennal
segment I male 0.25(-), female 0.255 (0.25-0.3), II
male 0.70 (0.6-0.75), female 0.73 (0.7-0.75), III
male 0.69 (0.65-0.75), female 0.72 (0.7-0.75), IV
male 0.81 (0.75-0.85), female 0.86 (0.7-0.9); labial
length male 1.82 (1.75-1.85), female 2.05 (1.95-
2.1).
Description of Immature Stages
Fifth instar (Fig. 7): General coloration green,
females appear slightly larger than males, body
linear in outline with fine pilosity.
Head pale with tint of light brown; viewed
from top wider (across eyes) than long; tylus sub-
acutely protruding, slightly exceeding juga; anten-
nifers just produced; vertex region slightly arched;
buccular area a little swollen; eye chocolate brown,
stalked separate from pronotal margin; ocellus red;
dilute brown markings extending at base of head,
anterior to ocelli, in tylus and antennifer regions; an-
tenna brown fuscous, segment IV longest, II and III
subequal, finely pilose; labium green with a central
brown axial marking, tip of segment IV mostly
brown, just passing or reaching hind coxae, segment
I just reaching base of head.
Thorax with pronotum twice as broad as long,
anterior and posterior margins nearly straight with
slight concavity, lateral margins insignificantly ex-
planate and slightly wavy, a pair of shiny narrow
straight calli; legs greenish with tint of brown shade
at the lateral side of femora, part of tibiae and tarsi;
fore femora without spine but small warty structure
at distal end; mesothoracic wing pads green with
scanty hair, explanate margin, extending up to mid-
dle or end of III abdominal tergum.
Abdomen in general green; two dark brown
spots between IV-V, V- VI tergal segments preceded
and followed by other light brown and white patches
along mid-dorsal line; connexivum well marked
with a light greenish yellow colour; very fine
decumbent hairs all over abdomen; females with a
broad patch of shiny oblong plate in the ovipositor
region.
Measurements: Total body length 3.92 (3.6-4.15);
maximum width (across pronotum) 1.12 (1.05-
1.25); head length 0.69 (0.6-0.8); head width (across
eye) 1.16 (1. 1-1.2); interocular width 0.78 (0.7-
0.85); antennal segement I 0.25 (-), II 0.63 (0.6-
0.65), III 0.64 (0.6-0.7), IV 0.77 (0.7-0.8); labial
length 1.81 (1.75-1.85).
Fourth instar (Fig. 8): Similar in form to 5th instar,
coloration pale green; impression of ocelli obscure;
wing pads extend up to half the length of abdominal
tergum I, less green than that of 5th instar; brown
markings along the mid-dorsal line dilute and less
prominent; sexes not easily distinguishable by
seeing genital segments.
Measurements: Total body length 2.79 (2.5-3. 1);
maximum width (across pronotum) 0.90 (0.85-
0.95); head length 0.56 (0.55-0.6); head width
(across eye) 0.94 (0.9-0.95); interocular width 0.69
(0.65-0.75); antennal segment I 0.22 (0.2-0.25), II
0.51 (0.5-0.55), III 0.51 (0.5-0.55), IV 0.62 (0.55-
0.7); labial length 1.53 (1.45-1.6).
Third instar (Fig. 9): General form and coloration
similar to 4th instar; tiny mesothoracic wing pad ob-
tusely triangular; mesonotum with a pair of brown
streaky markings parallel to the pronotal calli; mid-
dorsal brown markings of abdomen very light ex-
cepting two around dorsal scent glands; connexivum
well marked out, partly explanate with prominent
yellowish marking; abdomen with fine hair.
Measurements: Total body length 2.23 (2.1-2.35);
maximum width (across pronotum) 0.77 (0.75-
0.85); head length 0.47 (0.45-0.5); head width
(across eye) 0.79 (0.75-0.8); interocular width 0.57
(0.55-0.6); antennal segment I 0.18 (0.15-0.2), II
0.405 (0. 4-0.45), III 0.43 (0.4-0.45), IV 0.49 (0.45-
238
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Fig. 7-12. Aethalotus horni Breddin
7. Fifth instar nymph; 8. Fourth instar nymph; 9. Third instar nymph; 10. Second instar nymph; 1 1. First instar nymph; 12. Eggs,
AETHALOTUS HORNI FROM NORTHEAST INDIA
239
0.55); labial length 1.31 (1.25-1.35).
Second instar (Fig. 10): Sordid yellowish green;
head pale yellow with dilute brown markings; distal
end of antennal segment IV whitish; dark brown
mesonotal markings (calli) as prominent as that of
prothoracic; connexivum slightly explanate; dorsal
abdominal scent gland area yellowish brown with a
darker tint around orifice; labium reaching or just
passing abdominal segment I.
Measurements: Total body length 1.75 (1.55-1.95);
maximum width (across pronotum) 0.58 (0.55-0.6);
head length 0.41 (0.4-0.45); head width (across eye)
0.6(-); interocular width 0.43 (0.4-0.45); antennal
segment I 0.15 (-), II 0.34 (0.3-0.35), in 0.35 (-),
IV 0.42 (0.4-0.45); labial length 1.01 (0.95-1.05).
First instar (Fig. 11): Sordid yellow with a tint of
green; head prominently yellow, labium passing ab-
dominal segment I; pro, meso, and metathorax with
transverse pairs of black markings, dorsal ab-
dominal scent gland area light reddish-yellow in
colour; abdominal tip with a prominent brown mark-
ing, ventrally presence of a blackish blot of some in-
ternal organ.
Measurements: Total body length 1.47 (1.3- 1.6);
maximum width (across pronotum) 0.47 (0.45-0.5);
head length 0.34 (0.3-0.4); head width (across eye)
0.46 (0.45-0.5); interocular width 0.35 (0.3-0.4); an-
tennal segmentl 0.13 (0.12-0.15), II 0.27 (0.25-0.3),
III 0.28 (0.25-0.3), IV 0.32 (0.3-0.35); labial seg-
ment 0.82 (0.75-0.9).
Egg (Fig. 12): Pearly white, shiny with obscure
decumbence, cucumber shaped with slight curva-
ture, caudal end slightly tapered, mature orange red
with eye spots of ensheathed embryo, micropylar
processes long, slender, slightly swollen in the mid-
dle and extending broadly up to the tip, micropylar
processes 10 to 11.
Measurements: Length 1.29 (1.15-1.4); width 0.402
(0.4- 0.42).
Acknowledgements
We thank Mr. W.R. Dolling, British Museum
(Natural History), London, for identifying and com-
menting on the specimens. We are also grateful to
the Head, Dept of Zoology and the Director, Centre
for Life Sciences, North Bengal University, Raja
Rammohunpur, for providing working facilities and
space. The financial assistance of North Bengal
University is thankfully acknowledged.
References
Bhasin, G.D. (1953): A systematic catalogue of the main iden-
tified entomological collections at the Forest Research In-
stitute, Dehra Dun. Indian Forest Leaflet 121(3): 102.
Chatterjee, N.C. (1937): Entomological investigations on the
spike disease of sandal (32) Lygaeidae (Hemiptera). Indian
Forest records 3(4): 105-121.
Distant, W. L. (1910): The fauna of British India, including
Ceylon and Burma, Rhynchota-V (Heteroptera): 2-3;
Taylor and Francis, London.
5
AN ANALYSIS OF SOME EXTERNAL FACTORS IN THE SEXUAL PERIODICITY
OF THE INDIAN BAT MEGADERMA LYRA LYRA (GEOFFROY)1
A. Gopalakrishna and N. Badwaik2
(With five text-figures)
The breeding habits of Megaderma lyra lyra have been studied from different localities in India at different
latitudes with markedly different climatic factors, such as temperature, rainfall, humidity and duration of the day. The
species breeds once in a year almost synchronously in all the localities, the date of copulation advancing only by a few
days towards lower latitudes. Evidently, the breeding pattern of this species is genetically determined, and external
factors do not seem to play a significant role.
Introduction
Most species of Indian bats, whose reproduc-
tive habits have been studied so far, breed once a
year in a sharply defined season. The different
species, however, breed during different seasons in
the year. Thus, while some species mate during
March-April and experience pregnancy during the
following months (Gopalakrishna 1947, Gopalak-
rishna et al. 1985, Kumar 1965, Sapkal and
Khamare 1984), several species mate during
November-December and gestation follows im-
mediately (Ramakrishna 1951, Ramaswamy 1961,
Gopalakrishna and Rao 1977, Gopalakrishna and
Madhavan 1978, Madhavan et al. 1978, Madhavan
1981). A few species like Pipistrellus ceylonicus
chrysothrix (Madhavan 1971), Tadarida aegyptiaca
(Sandhu 1986) and T. plicata (Pendharkar 1982)
mate in June-July at the commencement of the mon-
soon. Rousettus leschenaulti (Gopalakrishna and
Choudhary 1977) and Cynopterus sphinx (Sandhu
and Gopalakrishna 1984, Sandhu 1984) breed twice
a year in quick succession, once during November-
December and a second time during March-April.
Taphozous longimanus (Gopalakrishna 1954,
1955), Pipistrellus dormeri (Madhavan 1978) and P.
mimus (Gopalakrishna et al. 1975) breed throughout
the year.
All the above mentioned studies have been
made by examining specimens of a given species in
a given locality. Hence, it has not been possible to
explore the possibility of the influence, if any, of ex-
ternal factors on the breeding behaviour of these
animals. India, being a vast country (Fig. 1) extend-
1 Accepted February 1988.
department of Zoology, Institute of Science, Nagpur,
Maharashtra 400 001.
ing from about 8°N to over 37°N latitude and having
several mountain ranges, thick forests and deserts,
has a wide range of climatic and ecological condi-
tions in different parts of the country. An evaluation
of the effect of external factors on the reproductive
behaviour of bats can only be made provided the
breeding habits of the same species are studied in
different parts of the country and under different
climatic and external factors. The present work has
been undertaken precisely with this view. Megader-
ma lyra lyra has a wide distribution and is, therefore,
an ideal species whose reproductive behaviour in
different parts of the country with wide variations in
climatic and ecological conditions may help in un-
derstanding the possible influence of external fac-
tors on the reproduction of this species in particular
and of Indian bats in general.
Material and Methods
The present studies have been conducted on
specimens of Megaderma lyra lyra collected at and
near Bangalore (12° 58’N, 77° 35’E), Srirangapat-
tana (12° 26’N, 76° 43’E), Aurangabad (19° 53’N,
75° 20’E), Nagpur (21° 09’N, 79° 07’E) and Agra
(27°10’N, 78°02’E). The locations for study have
been so chosen as to represent a wide range in
latitude (from 12° 26* to 27° 10* N) with a view to
ensuring a wide range of natural seasonal climatic
conditions, and within a very small range in lon-
gitude (from 75° 20* to 79° 07 ’E). Other factors such
as altitude, occurrence within a short distance of
forest, desert, or mountain have also been taken into
consideration while choosing the geographical areas
for this study. Since the breeding behaviour of this
species is identical in Bangalore and Srirangapat-
tana, and since the climatological characters of these
two places do not differ significantly, the climatic
SEXUAL PERIODICITY IN MEGADERMA LYRA LYRA
241
68 72 76 80 f 88 9f
4 1 ( . , , . .
72 76 80 84 88 92 4
Fig. 1 . Map of India showing locations where the reproductive
habits of Megaderma lyra lyra have been studied.
factors of only Bangalore are included in this report.
The climatic and solar factors which have been
considered here are: maximum and minimum
temperature, percentage relative humidity, rainfall
and duration of the day (sunrise to sunset). The data
were obtained through the courtesy of the
meteorological department. Government of India,
and from the publication entitled "Climatological
and solar data for India" by the Central Building
Research Institute, Roorkee, Uttar Pradesh.
General Notes on Megaderma lyra lyra
This species normally roosts in underground
tunnels, deep dungeons of old forts and dark reces-
ses of old temples, deep natural and artificial caves,
tunnels of discarded mines and deep, dark wells. In
one or two places near Nagpur a few specimens were
found hanging from the ceiling in dark grain
godowns and old cowsheds. These were most
probably temporary places of roosting adopted by
the specimens which had been disturbed from their
usual roosting places either due to breaking up of the
original roost or due to mining and blasting activities
carried out nearby. This species is specially
scotophilous and avoids places where there is much
light This peculiar habit is also evident from the fact
that they do not emerge from their roosting places
until quite some time after sunset and until darkness
nearly sets in. They return to the roost at least two
to three hours before sunrise. During moonlit nights
their foraging time is considerably abbreviated -
from about 2300 hrs to about 0200 hrs only.
In all the places, where these bats have been
studied for the present report, the roosting places
were invariably near a water source, either in the
form of a river or a canal or a large tank. It appears
that this species selects a dark place near a constant
source of water for roosting. The presence of water
appears to ensure a certain degree of humidity in the
roost, and this appears to be a natural requirement
for this animal.
Megaderma lyra lyra is a semicamivorous bat
and feeds on smaller vertebrates like lizards, frogs,
small birds apart from large bodied insects (Brosset
1962). This bat sometimes attacks other smaller bats
and is sometimes cannibalistic (pers. obs.). No other
smaller bat species was ever noticed among the
specimens of Megaderma lyra lyra in any of the
places from where these specimens were examined.
Brosset (1962), however, mentioned that a few other
species were associated with Megaderma lyra lyra
at Elephanta and Pattadakal. This is a very uncom-
mon feature, and probably a few specimens of
Megaderma lyra lyra might have invaded the roosts
of other bats for foraging or, conversely, some
specimens of other species may have accidentally
strayed into the roosting places of Megaderma lyra
lyra. On a few recent visits to these places one of the
present authors (A.G.) noticed the presence of
Megaderma lyra lyra in these localities but invariab-
ly the specimens remained separate from the other
species, either in a separate cave (as in Elephanta)
or in a separate temple building (as in Pattadakal).
This species mates in November in all the
localities and pregnancy follows immediately.
Deliveries in the colony occur during the latter half
of April. The young ones are weaned at an age of 35
to 40 days. The adults are sexually inactive during
the rest of the year. Table 1 gives the data regarding
the various phases of the sexual cycle of this bat in
the four localities.
Climatological Factors
From Figs. 2a-d, which give the maximum and
Temperature
242
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Fig.2. (a-d) Maximum and minimum temperatures at different localities recorded on 5th, 15th and 25th of each month.
An: anoestrus; C: copulation; G: gestation; L: lactation; P: parturition.
70
FMAMJJAS ON o
MONTH
Figs. 3 (a - d) Monthly rainfall in different localities. Legends as in figures 2a-d.
SEXUAL PERIODICITY IN MEGADERMA LYRA LYRA
243
Table 1
VARIOUS PHASES OF THE SEXUAL CYCLE NOTICED IN THE PRESENT STUDIES IN DIFFERENT LOCALITIES
minimum temperatures in the four localities for the
whole year, it is evident that there are marked dif-
ferences not only in the temperature but in the dif-
ference between the maximum and minimum
temperature in the different localities on any given
date. Whereas Bangalore experiences a nearly eq-
uable climatic condition without much variation in
the range of temperature (difference between daily
maximum and minimum) throughout the year, the
other localities, especially Nagpur and Agra, ex-
perience severe summer, relatively cold winter and
considerable variations in the range of temperatures
during the year.
Figs. 3 a-d show the monthly rainfall and Fig.
4 shows the percentage of atmospheric humidity in
the four localities. These factors also present wide
variations in the quantum as well as time relation-
ships in the different localities. Fig. 5 illustrates the
duration of the day, which varies considerably in the
four places during different days of the year. Ex-
amination of Table 1 reveals that the basic breeding
pattern of this bat is nearly the same in all the
localities, there being only a slight advancement of
the various phases towards the lower latitudes. The
entire range of difference in the various phases of
the reproductive cycle between the lowest and the
highest latitudes is about 8 to 10 days (Gopalakrish-
na and Badwaik 1989).
Discussion
Baker and Baker (1936) and Baker and Bird
(1936) were perhaps the First who made an attempt
to relate reproduction to external factors in bats
while studying the breeding habits of some bats in
New Hebrides. They reported that Pteropus geddiei
and P. eotinus among fruit bats and Miniopterus
australis and a few other insectivorous bats at New
Hebrides breed in a sharply defined season once a
year. They were unable to draw any relationship be-
tween climatic factors and breeding habits because
an almost unvarying tropical rain forest precluded
the effect of any external factor on the breeding
habits of the bats which experience a well defined
annual sexual cycle. Working on Indian bats
Gopalakrishna and Sapkal (1986) and Gopalakrish-
na and Badwaik (1989) noticed that even among
species inhabiting the same locality, while some bats
had a strict reproductive periodicity, a few breed
throughout the year. Further, among the species
mentioned in the first category the reproductive pat-
tern differs considerably. For example, Miniopterus
schreibersii fuliginosus and Rousettus leschenaulti
live in the same roost in Mahabaleshwar but present
very different breeding habits. Several such instan-
ces have been reported already (Gopalakrishna and
Sapkal 1986). All these investigations were made on
one-species-one-location basis except Megaderma
lyra lyra (Gopalakrishna and Badwaik 1989). Hence
it was not possible to draw generalised conclusions
on the effect of environmental factors on the breed-
ing habits of bats.
The work of Dwyer (1963a, b, 1968, 1970) on
some Australian vespertilionids revealed that there
was significant difference in the breeding habits of
the bats he studied between lower and higher
southern latitudes. Whereas the duration of the delay
of implantation of the blastocyst increased towards
higher southern latitudes in Miniopterus schreiber-
sii blepotis , the breeding season of Myotis adversus
was longer at lower latitudes.
The present study has revealed that Megader-
ma lyra lyra studied at different parts of India with
considerable variations in climatic' and ecological
conditions breeds nearly at the same time of the year
Duration of the day in hours % Humidity
244
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Fig. 5. Duration of the day on 5th, 15th and 25th of each month as calculated from sunrise to sunset in all the localities.
Legends as in Fig. 4.
SEXUAL PERIODICITY IN MEGADERMA LYRA LYRA
245
in all the places - copulation occurring in the third
or fourth week of November and deliveries taking
place in the third or the fourth week of the follow-
ing April. There is no evidence of any delayed im-
plantation of the blastocyst nor of retarded develop-
ment of the embryo at any place where this species
has been studied. The only Indian bat whose
reproductive behaviour has been investigated from
different parts of India is Rhinolophus rouxi from
Bangalore and Khandala (Ramakrishna and Rao
1977). While this species has normal development
of the embryo at Bangalore, the embryo has retarded
early development and delayed implantation of the
blastocyst at Khandala. This is the only Indian bat
in which there appears to be some influence of ex-
ternal factors on reproduction.
The proximity of Megaderma roosts to a
perennial water source partially obviates much
variation in relative humidity in the roost. Second-
ly, in all the places the bats live nearly in darkness.
Further, they emerge from their diurnal haunts con-
siderably after dusk and return to the roost much
before dawn. Thus, it appears that sunlight may not
play a significant role in the sexual periodicity of
this species. It has been already mentioned that
temperature changes do not alter the basic breeding
pattern. The only slight change is that the date of
onset of breeding activity is advanced by a few days
towards lower latitudes. This is, however, not very
significant
In Megaderma lyra lyra no single external fac-
tor or combination of factors brings about a major
change in the season of onset of sexual activity and
the course of embryonic development. Further, this
species breeds nearly at the same time in all the
places in spite of marked variable environmental
conditions. Evidently, the reproductive rhythm of
this bat is genetically determined and the influence,
if any, of external factors is not very significant.
Acknowledgements
We thank the C.S.I.R. for financial assistance
for carrying out this work.
References
Baker, J.R., & Baker, Z. (1936): The seasons in a tropical rain
forest (New Hebrides) - Part III - Fruit bats (Pteropidae).
J. Linn. Soc. London, 40: 123-141.
— & Bird, T.F. (1936): Seasons in a tropical rain forest
(New Hebrides) - Part IV - Insectivorous bats (Vesper-
tilionidae and Rhinolophidae). ibid. 40: 143-161.
Brqsset, A. (1962): The bats of central and western India - Part
II. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 59: 583-624.
Dwyer, P.D.(1963a): Reproduction and distribution in Miniop -
terns (Chiroptera). Aust. J. Sci. 25: 435-436.
— — — • — ■- (1963b): The breeding biology of Miniopterus
schreibersii blepotis (Temminck) (Chiroptera) in north-
eastern New South Wales. Aust. J. Zool. 11: 219-240.
— (1968): The biology, origin and adapation of Mini-
opterus australis (Chiroptera) in New South Wales. Aust.
J. Zool. 16:. 49-68.
— (1970): Latitude and breeding season in a
polyoestrous species of Myotis. J. Mammal., 51 : 405-410.
Gopalakrishna, A. (1947): Studies on the embryology of
Microchiroptera - Part I - Reproduction and breeding
seasons in the south Indian vespertilionid bat, Scotophilus
wrought oni (Thomas). Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 26: 219-232.
(1954): Breeding habits of the Indian sheath-tailed
bat, Taphozous longimanus (Hardwicke). Curr. Sci., 23:
60-61.
(1955): Observations on the breeding habits and
ovarian cycle in the Indian sheath-tailed bat, Taphozous
longimanus (Hardwicke). Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci . India 21:
29-41.
— & Badwaik, N. (1989) Breeding habits and as-
sociated phenomena in some Indian bats - Part XII -
Megaderma lyra lyra (Geoffrey) (Megadermatidae) at dif-
ferent latitudes. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86 (1): 42-45.
& Choudhary, P.N. (1977): Breeding habits and as-
sociated phenomena in some Indian bats - Part I -Rouset-
tus leschenaulti (Desmarest) - Megachiroptera. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 74: 1-16.
— & Madhavan, A. (1978): Breeding habits and as-
sociated phenomena in some Indian bats - Part III - Hip-
pos ider os ater ater (Templeton), ibid. 74: 511-517.
& Rao, K.V.B. (1977): Breeding habits and as-
sociated phenomena in some Indian bats - Part II -
Rhinolophus rouxi (Temminck). ibid. 74: 213-219.
- & Sapkal, V.M. (1986): Breeding biology of some
Indian bats — A review, ibid. 83: 78-101.
Thakur, R.S. & Madhavan, A. (1975): Breeding
biology of the southern dwarf pipistrelle, Pipistrellus
minus minus (Wroughton) from Maharashtra, India. Dr.
BS. Chauhan Comm. Vol.: 225-240.
Varute, A.T., Sapkal, V.M., Unune, A.R. &
Chari, G.C. (1985): Breeding habits and associated phenomena
in some Indian bats - Part XI - Miniopterus schreibersii
fuliginosus (Hodgson) - Vespertilionidae. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 82: 594-601.
246
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Kumar, T.C.A. (1965): Reproduction in the rat-tailed bat,
Rhinopoma kinneari. J. Zool. London, 147: 147-155.
Madhavan, A. (1971): Breeding habits in the Indian vesper-
tilionid bat, Pipistrellus ceylonicus chrysothrix
(Wroughton). Mammalia 35: 283-306.
(1978): Breeding habits and associated phenomena
in some Indian bats - Part V - Pipistrellus dormeri (Dob-
son) - Vespertilionidae. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 75: 426-
433.
(1981): Breeding habits and associated phenomena
in some Indian bats - Part Vl-Scotophilus heat hi (Horse-
field) - Vespertilionidae. ibid. 77: 227-237.
Patil, D.R. & Gopalakrishna, A. (1978): Breeding
habits and associated phenomena in some Indian bats -
Part IV — Hipposideros fulvus fuivus (Gray) (Hip-
posideridae). ibid., 75: 96-103.
Pendharkar, Y.D. (1982): Early development. Development of
foetal membranes and placentation in the Indian molossid
bat, Tadarida plicata plicata (Buchanan). Unpublished
thesis, Saugor University.
Ramakrishna, P.A. (1951): Studies on reproduction in bats - 1 -
Some aspects of reproduction in the oriental vampires,
Lyroderma lyra lyra (Geoffroy) and Megaderma spasma
(linn.). J. Mysore Univ. 1 %: 107-118.
& Rao, K.V.B. (1977): Reproductive adaptations in
the Indian rhinolophid bat, Rhinolophus rouxi (Tem-
minck). Curr. Sci. 46: 270-271.
Ramaswamy, K.R. (1961): Studies on the sex-cycle in the Indian
vampire bat. Megaderma ( Lyroderma ) lyra lyra (Geof-
frey). Proc. nat. Inst. Sci. India, 27: 287-302.
Sandhu, S. (1984): Breeding biology of the Indian fruit bat,
Cynopterus sphinx (Vahl) in central India. J. Bombay, nat.
Hist. Soc. 81: 600-611.
(1986): Studies on the embryology of some Indian
Chroptera. Unpublished thesis, Nagpur University.
& Gopalakrishna, A. (1984): Some observations
on the breeding biology of the Indian fruit bat, Cynopterus
sphinx (Vahl) in central India. Curr. Sci. 53: 1189-1192.
Sapkal, V.M. & Khamare, K.G. (1984): Breeding habits and as-
sociated phenomena in some Indian bats - Part VIH -
Taphozous melanopogon (Temminck) - Emballonuridae.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 80: 303-311.
TICKS (ACARI: IXODIDAE) COLLECTED ON CHELONIANS (REPTILIA)
FROM INDIA AND BURMA1
J.G. Frazier2 and J.E. Keirans3
An account of three species of hard ticks (Ixodidae) found on three species of chelonians in India and Burma is
given. Data are presented for each tick species including: numbers of ticks, host, locality, and other collection infor-
mation. In addition, the primary synonymy and published records for each species are briefly reviewed. Two new host
records are reported, and a previously reported range extension of 3,000 km is confirmed.
Introduction
During a study (by J.G.F.) of chelonians in
India and Burma, ticks were collected opportunisti-
cally from wild and captive specimens. Two species
of land tortoise (Testudinidae), one from India and
one from Burma, and a terrapin (Emydidae,
Batagurinae) in India were found to harbour ticks.
Although in years past there has been active work
on ticks in India (Sharif 1928, Miranpuri and Gill
1983), it was not possible to get local identifications
of these parasites, and they were identified by a
specialist (J.E.K.) at the Museum Support Centre,
Smithsonian Institution, where the National Tick
Collection (formerly deposited in the Rocky Moun-
tain Laboratory [R.M.L.]) is housed. Collection data
on tick, host, date, locality, and collection numbers
are given in Table 1.
Tick Species
Amblyomma clypeolatum Neumann
Amblyomma clypeolatum Neumann 1899
Amblyomma atrogenatum Nuttall & Warburton
1908
Amblyomma zeylanicum Neumann 1908
This tick species was orginally described by
Neumann (1899) from 6 males found on a tortoise
of unknown species and locality. Nuttall and War-
burton (1908) described A. atrogenatum from 6
males collected on a specimen of the star tortoise
Geochelone elegans (Schoepf), sent from India to
the Zoological Gardens, London. Later Keirans and
Accepted December 1988.
2Programa Regional de Vida Silvestre, Universidad Nacional,
Apto. 1350, Heredia, Costa Rica.
3Dept. of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Na-
tional Institutes of Health, National Institute of Allergy and In-
fectious Diseases, Dept, of Entomology, Museum Support
Centre, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 20560,
U.S.A.
Brewster (1981) selected a lectotype for A.
atrogenatum from Nuttall and Warburton *s
specimens.
Neumann (1908) described A. zeylanicum on
the basis of 2 females received from Sri Lanka from
an unstated host, and Warburton (1925) reported a
single collection of A. clypeolatum (number un-
stated) from Geochelone elegans in the Colombo
Museum, Sri Lanka. Robinson (1926) and Sharif
(1928) also cited collections of A. clypeolatum from
Geochelone elegans in India and Sri Lanka, and
Seneviratna (1965) collected adult A. clypeolatum
on G. elegans in the Zoological Gardens, Dehiwela,
Sri Lanka.
Amblyomma clypeolatum is not well repre-
sented in collections. The U.S. National Museum
Collection contains 1 female from a specimen of
Geochelone elegans ‘from Calcutta, India* (RML
48932). Calcutta is well outside the known
geographic range of Geochelone elegans , which is
found from southeastern Pakistan, throughout much
of western and southern India, to Sri Lanka (Frazier
in prep.).
In Sri Lanka, Deraniyagala (1939:275)
reported that G. elegans hosted large concentrations
of the tick Aponomma gervaisi (Lucas). However,
A. gervaisi is known to parasitize only snakes and
varanid lizards (Kaufman 1972); therefore, this
record from a chelonian is questionable.
It is remarkable that during a study in western
India (Rajasthan and Gujarat) only 2 out of 90
specimens (2%) of G. elegans were parasitized by
ticks (species identified in 1 case); in both cases
there was only one tick attached to the host. In con-
trast, the G. elegans population in south India
(Andhra Pradesh) appears to be much more heavily
parasitized; 5 out of 9 (56%) were infested: each one
with a single tick. Sites of attachment include:
forearm; hind leg near base; base of tail; midplastral
248
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Table 1
TICKS COLLECTED ON CHELONIANS
suture; and carapace suture. In no instance did a tor-
toise hosting a tick appear to be in bad condition.
Amblyomma clypeolatum appears to be a
specific ectoparasite of G. elegans in both India and
Sri Lanka. There are no known records of ticks on
the sister species, Geochelone platynola (Blyth),
found only in Burma.
Amblyomma geoemydae (Cantor)
Ixodes geoemydae Cantor 1847
Amblyomma geoemydae Neumann 1906
Amblyomma malayanum Nuttall and Warburton
1908
Amblyomma caelaturum Cooper & Robinson 1908
Amblyomma caelaturum perfectum Schulze 1932
Amblyomma geoemydae was originally
described by Cantor (1847) from the batagurine ter-
rapin Heosemys (formerly Geoemyda , see Moll et
al. 1987) spinosa (Gray) caught in the Pinang Hills,
Sumatra. This tick parasitizes a variety of reptiles
(especially chelonians, but occasionally lizards) in
Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, Taiwan,
Ryuku Islands, and Japan (Yamaguti et al 1971).
Recently this tick was found on a Travancore tor-
toise Indotestudo travancorica (Boulenger) from
Kerala (Vijaya 1983), some 3,000 km outside its
known range.
Out of 22 specimens of Melanochelys trijuga
(Schweigger) examined in Dakshin Kannad District
(South Kanara), Karnataka, only 1 (5%) was
parasitized by A. geoemydae . Not one of 21
specimens of this species of terrapin examined in
Corbett National Park, Nainital District, Uttar
Pradesh (north India), was infested with ticks. (Ac-
cording to contemporary taxonomy the terrapins
from Karnataka would be Melanochelys trijuga
coronata (Anderson) and those from Uttar Pradesh,
M. t. indopeninsularis [Annandale].)
The occurrence of A. geoemydae on
Melanochelys trijuga in India represents a new host
record and confirms a range extension of ap-
proximately 3,000 km for the tick. Amblyomma
geoemydae is likely to occur on a variety of
chelonians, and some lizards, in southern India,
northeastern India and Burma. The Western Ghats
may be the western-most limit of the geographic
range of this tick.
Aponomma varanensis (Supino)
Ixodes varanensis Supino 1897
Aponomma quadratum Cooper & Robinson 1908
Aponomma gervaisi var. lucasi Warburton 1910
Aponomma lucasi Schulze 1933
Aponomma barbouri Anastos 1950
Aponomma varanensis Santos Dias 1958
Aponomma varanensis was first described from
Varanus salvator collected at Monti Catcin, Burma
(Supino 1897). This tick is most often reported from
snakes and varanid lizards, and is known from a
wide geographic range, including India, Sri Lanka,
Bangladesh, Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam,
Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, and the Philippines
(Kaufman 1972).
Chelonians on which A. varanensis has been
reported are few and include the Asian box turtle
Cuora amboinensis (Daudin), (Kaufman 1972). The
occurrence of Aponomma varanensis on Manouria
emys (Schlegel and Muller) represents a new host
record.
TICKS COLLECTED ON CHELONIANS
249
Nothing is known of rates of tick infestation on
Manouria emys. The presence of 6 male ticks on the
appendages of a single male tortoise is not as
remarkable as it may seem because this is a giant tor-
toise; the individual infested was 40.7 cm in straight
carapace length.
Acknowledgements
Support to J.G.F during the study was provided
by: American Institute of Indian Studies, Indo-
American Subcommission, Flora and Fauna Preser-
vation Sociey, and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser-
vice. Shri I. Das helped with an obscure reference
and comments.
References
Anastos, G. (1950): The scutate ticks, or Ixodidae, of Indonesia.
Entomol. Amer. 30: 1-144.
Cantor, T. (1847): Catalogue of reptiles inhabiting the Malay
peninsula and islands, collected or observed by Theodore
Cantor, Esq., M.D. , Bengal Medical Service. J. Asiat. Soc.
Bengal. (180), n.s. (7): 607-656.
Cooper, W.E & Robinson, L.E. (1908); On six new species of
Ixodidae, including a second species of the new genus
Rhipicenlor Nuttall and Warburton. Proc. Camb.phil. Soc.
Math. Phys. Sci. 14: 457-470.
Deraniyagala, P.E.R (1939): Tetrapod Reptiles of Ceylon.
Colombo Museum, Colombo, xxxii + 412 pp., 24 pis.
Kaufman, T. (1972): A revision of the genus Aponomma
Neumann, 1899 (Acarina: Ixodidae). Unpublished Ph.D.
thesis, University of Maryland, College Park, ix + 389 pp.
Keirans, J.E. & Brewster, B.E. (1981): The Nuttall and British
Museum (Natural History) tick collections: Lectotype
designations for ticks (Acarina: Ixodoidae) described by
Nuttall, Warburton, Cooper, and Robinson. Bull. Brit. Mus.
nat. Hist. (Zool.) 41: 153-178.
Miranpuri, G.S. & Gill, H.S. (1983): Ticks of India. Lindsay &
Macleod, Edinburgh, iv + 125 pp.
Moll, E.O., Groombridge, B. & Vuaya, J. (1987): Redescrip-
tion of the cane turtle with notes on its natural history and
classification. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83 (supp.): 112-
126.
Neumann, L. G. (1899): Revision de la famille des Ixodides. 3e
memoire. Mem. Soc. Zool. Fr. 12: 107-294.
(1906): Notes sur les Ixodides. IV. Archs. Parasitol.
10: 195-219.
(1908): Notes sur les Ixodides. VI. Archs. Parasitol.
12: 1-27.
Nuttall, G.H.F. & Warburton, C. (1908): On a new genus of
Ixodoidea together with a description of eleven new
species of ticks. Proc. Comb. phil. Soc. Math. Phys. Sci.
14: 392-416.
Robinson, L.E. (1926): Ticks. A monograph of the Ixodoidea.
Part IV. The genus Amblyomma. Cambridge at the Univer-
sity Press. 302 pp.
Santos Dias, J.A.T. (1958): Notas ixodologicas m. Sobre duas
especies do genero Aponomma Neumann, 1 899 do Regiao
Oriental. Mem. Estud. Mus. Zool. Univ. Coimbra. (249):
1-9.
Schulze, P. (1932): Neue und wenig bekannte Arten derZecken-
gattungen Amblyomma und Aponomma. Zeit. Parasitenk
4: 459-476.
(1933): Ixodidae der Deutschen Limnologischen
Sunda-Expedition. Arch. Hydrobiol. Suppl. 12: 409-502.
Seneviratna, P. (1965): The Ixodoidea (ticks) of Ceylon. Parts
H and m. Ceylon Vet. J. 13: 28-54.
Sharif, M. (1928): A revision of the Indian Ixodidae with species
reference to the collection in the Indian Museum. Rec. Ind.
Mus. 30(3): 217-344.
Supino, F. (1897): Nuovi Ixodes della Biimania (Nota preven-
tiva). Atti Soc. Ven.-Trent. Sci. Nat. Padova. 3: 230-238.
Vuaya, J. (1983): First record of Amblyomma geoemydae from
India. Hamadryad 8(1): 13.
Warburton, C. (1910): On two collections of Indian ticks.
Parasitology 3: 395-407.
(1925): Report on Ixodidae of the Colombo
Museum. Spolia Zeylanica 13: 255-256.
Yamaguti, N., Tipton, V.J., Keegan, H.L. & Toshioka, S.
(1971): Ticks of Japan, Korea, and the Ryukyu Islands.
Brigham Young Univ. Sci. Bull. Biol. Ser. 15: 1-226..
STATUS OF THE SWAMP DEER CERVUS DUVAUCEU DUVAUCEU IN THE DUDWA
NATIONAL PARK, UTTAR PRADESH1
Ravi Sankaran2
(With three text-figures)
Despite protection to the Dudwa National Park since 1968, the swamp deer population has continued to decline.
Satiana, which had about 1200 swamp deer in the early 1970s currently has only 300. In other areas, the population
has remained static or has increased as in Kakraha. The reason for this decline at Satiana is the seasonal movement of
the deer into two marshes that lie outside the Park in agricultural areas. Protection in these areas is non-existent and
poaching presumably takes a heavy toll. It is suggested that a fence be erected along the Park boundary at Satiana to
prevent the seasonal movement of swamp deer into agricultural areas.
Introduction
Most threatened species of deer occur in iso-
lated rural areas of developing countries where
wildlife poaching and pressures on wildlife habitats,
to graze stock, cut grass or collect fuel is frequently
intense (Holloway 1975). The rapid decline of the
swamp deer Cervus duvauceli duvauceli in the terai
of Uttar Pradesh (U.P.) over recent years is a case in
point. This despite the establishment of two
sanctuaries, Kishanpur and Katemiaghat, and the
Dudwa National Park with the objective to conserve
this species. Out of eleven areas where swamp deer
were reported in the mid 1960s (Schaller 1967) only
three held any ‘reasonable’ numbers by the early
1970s (Hollowayl973). The situation has
deteriorated in some areas (Table 1).
Preferred habitat of the swamp deer are mar-
shes and grasslands. Due to the repatriation of set-
tlers throughout the terai of U.P. most of the
grassland have been converted into agriculture in the
past, the predominant crops being sugarcane Sac-
ckarum officinarum , wheat Triticum aestivum and
paddy Oryza sativa. Forestry policies have often
considered grasslands as ‘wastelands’. The resulting
planting of exotics and indigenous tree species in
grasslands has converted several good grassland
habitats into woodlands (Rahmani et al. 1988). In
addition, relendess hunting has decimated the large
herds that were seen in the terai belt (Singh 1973).
Today, North Lakhimpur, South Lakhimpur and
Pilibhit are the. only three forest divisions where
swamp deer exist in U.P. Excepting Dudwa Nation-
accepted March 1990
2Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Shaheed
Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023.
al Park which holds the largest population, the cur-
rent status of the swamp deer in other areas of U.P.
is unknown.
Despite protection of the Dudwa National Park
since 1968, the swamp deer numbers have continued
to decline there. The main grasslands of the Park are
present along the Suheli river, hence most of the
swamp deer are seen along the river which forms the
southern boundary of the Park (Fig. 1). The
grasslands of Satiana had the maximum numbers of
swamp deer. Certain areas that are traditionally used
for rutting by the herds at Satiana have not been in-
cluded in the National Park. This has resulted in the
movement of the swamp deer into unprotected
agricultural areas for over half the year. Due to the
high incidence of poaching outside the Park, the deer
numbers continue to decline there. In areas where
such movement is not seen populations have
remained static or have shown an increase.
Study Area
In 1968, 212 sq. km, of the North Kheri forest
division was declared as Dudwa Wildlife Sanctuary
primarily to conserve the swamp deer. On 1
February 1977 the Dudwa Sanctuary was upgraded
to a National Park, and covered an area of 614 sq.
km, with a core area of 490 sq. km (Fig 1). In 1987
Dudwa National Park was brought under Project
Tiger. Along with the Kishanpur Wildlife Sanctuary
(158 sq. km core area and 43 sq. km buffer) the
Project Tiger area covers 815 sq. km. However, the
two forest areas are not contiguous.
The Dudwa National Park is situated between
28°24’ and 28°27’N and 80°31’and80°52’E in the
northern extremity of Lakhimpur Kheri district of
Uttar Pradesh (Fig. 1). Elevation above sea level
Bankatti Range
Z
Fig. 1. Map of Dudwa National Paik, Uttar Pradesh. '/// / Swamp Deer Areas
252
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Table 1
POPULATION OF SWAMP DEER IN DUDWA NATIONAL PARK AS REPORTED BY HOLLOWAY (1972),
SCHAAF &SINGH(1977),V.P. SINGH (1984) AND THIS STUDY (1988 & 89)
a. reported (not personally seen by author); b. not counted; c. ‘present’
* Q. Qureshi, pers. comm.
ranges from 150 m in the southeast to 182 m in the
north. The Mohana and Suheli rivers form natural
boundaries to the north and south respectively. The
Park’s water system drains into these two rivers
which are tributaries of the Sharda, which in turn is
a part of the Ganges river system.
The vegetation is chiefly moist deciduous
forest, dominated by sal Shorea robusta. Typical of
the terai, these forests are interspersed with tracts of
low lying grasslands which tend to get flooded
during the monsoons. In the 1950s, under planta-
tions schemes, tracts of the grasslands were planted
with sheeshum Dalbergia sissoo , simul Bombax
ceiba and eucalyptus. These plantations have most-
ly been unsuccessful, leaving behind scattered
clusters of trees in varying densities.
Grasslands occupy about 120 sq. km of the
Park and can be broadly classified into two types.
Wet low lying areas are dominated by tall grass
species such as Schlerostachya fusca, Phragmites
karka , Arundo donax and Saccharum spontaneum
while drier high ground is dominated by grasses like
Imperata cylindrica , Desmostachya bipinnata ,
Erianthus munja , Cymbopogon martini (Jain and
Sastry 1983, Hajra and Shukla 1983, pers. obs.).
The climate can be divided into three seasons.
Winter (October to early March); summer (mid
March to mid June); and monsoon (mid June to Oc-
tober). The annual precipitation is about 1600 mm
with July and August being the wettest months. The
temperatures can reach 47°C in May/June, and may
drop to a minimum of 0°C in December/January.
Methods
The study period extended from 22 January
1988 to 22 June 1988, 1 to 13 November 1988 and
from 15 February 1989 to 10 July 1989.
All data pertaining to herd size and composi-
tion were collected from an area of about 25 sq. km
around the Satiana Forest Rest House. Other areas
occupied by swamp deer were visited frequently to
assess the populations there.
Between 1 and 13 November 1988 the entire
Satiana region, including the marshes at Ghola and
Ghajrola (agricultural areas into which the swamp
deer move, Fig. 2) was surveyed extensively on
elephant back.
Swamp deer were counted mostly from a
vehicle, and less frequently from a machan, on foot
or from an elephant’s back. The grasslands around
Satiana were divided into three zones namely
Kowhaghatti and Chapra, Navalkhad and Madraiya,
the roads being fixed transects (Fig. 2). The former
two were visited at least once a day and Madraiya
was visited approximately thrice a week. In addition
to this, in 1989 all grasslands holding swamp deer
in the Satiana region were extensively surveyed on
elephant back. Every sighting of swamp deer was
recorded and time and visibility permitting, the deer
were also aged and sexed. They were classified into
three groups. Stags and hinds were identified ir-
respective of age. Fawns were all animals estimated
to be bom in the preceding fawning season. The
ratios for stags, hinds and fawns are calculated for
the period between 24 January and 29 April 1988.
During this time the visibility was best because the
grasses were short.
Estimate of population for 1988 at Satiana is
based on the percentage of grasslands covered. As
in 1988, counts were made from the roads and only
about 65% of the grassland area was visible from the
vehicle. Therefore while estimating (Table 1), I have
correspondingly calculated for Satiana. In 1989
Satiana was surveyed extensively using elephants.
FOREST FOREST
Fig. 2 Satiana (Dudwa Range) showing ranges of swamp deer during end winter/summer and monsoon/early winter.
254
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
By this method areas not visible from roads and
machans are covered and very few swamp deer are
missed. Both estimates for Bhadi taal are based on
population structure as seen at Satiana.
In 1988 Kakraha was surveyed in May when
swamp deer herds are fragmented and the vegetation
is tall. Therefore in spite of using elephants the ac-
tual counts were poor and estimating population was
difficult. Estimate of 1988 population is based on
total 1989 population minus fawns under one year
old.
In this paper I compare the total population
present in the various areas in 1989 with the 1988
census. Other details pertaining to population are
from 1988.
Results
Census: A comparative account of the swamp deer
population between 1972 and 1989 is given in Table
1.
In 1988, 800 swamp deer were estimated in 4
disjunct grasslands of Dudwa National Park. Of
these four grasslands Satiana had 50%, Kakraha
31%, Bankey taal 13% and Bhadi taal 5% respec-
tively of the 800 swamp deer estimated in the Park.
The remaining two areas reported to have swamp
deer (Singh 1984), i.e. Nagra taal and Churela taal
were visited only twice and swamp deer were not
seen there.
In 1989 about 765 swamp deer were estimated,
with Satiana having 39%, Kakraha having 42%,
Bankey taal 13%, and Bhadi taal 5% of the popula-
tion. Four and seven deer were seen respectively at
Nagra and Churela taals in 1989 (V. B. Sawarkar
pers. comm.)
At Bankey taal 173 swamp deer were counted
in 1981 (Singh 1984). During this study, a maximum
of 64 swamp deer was counted once in 1988 and 71
deer were seen in 1989. Up to 90 animals have been
reported. Generally in the summer months, deer
numbers varied between 20 and 40. The swamp deer
are believed to move, seasonally, between Kakraha
block and Bankey taal (Singh 1984, Q. Qureshi
pers. comm., pers. obs.) and so an accurate estimate
will be difficult to arrive at.
In Kakraha block, which is now part of the
rhino enclosure where seven rhinos Rhinoceros
unicornis have been re-introduced, the second
largest congregation of swamp deer is seen. 276
were seen in 1977, 221 in 1981 and 150 deer by me
in 1988 (see also materials and methods) and in
1989, 302 animals were counted within the
enclosure (Q. Qureshi, pers. comm.). There has un-
doubtedly been an increase in the swamp deer
population in this area.
At Bhadi taal all 10 swamp deer seen in 1988
seemed to be stags. In 1989 out of 18 deer seen here
12 were stags. If the stag to hind to fawn ratio is as-
sumed to be the same as in Satiana, then the popula-
tion has remained stable between 1981 (35 deer),
1988 ( c . 35 deer) and 1989 (c. 40 deer).
Periodic data on the numbers of swamp deer
present in the Satiana region are available, between
1972 and 1989. There has been a drop by 75% of the
population during the last 17 years. Losses have
been comparatively less between 1972 and 1981
(22.3%), and severe between 1981 and 1988
(57.1%)and between 1988 and 1989(25%).In 1981
an actual count tallied 932 swamp deer (Singh
1984), but during this study the maximum seen in
one day was 287, both studies having used elephants
to do the census.
Population structure: A comparative account of
the average monthly herd sizes seen at Satiana in
1980 and 1988 is given in Table 2. Average herd size
of all herds seen was 29.35 in 1980 and 18.41 in
Table 2
COMPARATIVE DATA ON HERD SIZE 1980 & 1988
(n) = Number of herds; 1980 Singh (1984); 1988 this study.
STATUS OF SWAMP DEER IN DUDWA NATIONAL PARK
255
Fig. 3. Highest number of swamp deer seen cm any given day during 5-day periods between 23 January and 22 June 1988
irf the grassland around Satiana Forest Rest House.
1988, showing a distinct drop in the herd sizes be-
tween the two studies. This is more marked when
the deer return to the Park and less so once they
begin to disperse in the grassland (see also Fig.3). In
1988 the largest herd seen was of about 150 swamp
deer, a drop of 37% from the herd of 237 animals
seen in 1981 (Singh 1984). The largest herd seen in
1989 had 130 deer. Herd size averages have been
calculated from groups of two or more individuals,
and hence are the same in both studies.
During this study, the ratio between hind and
stags was 100:45.5. In 1964-65 it was 100:50
(Schaller 1967) and in 1979-80 it was 100:40 (Singh
1984) (Table 3). In the hard ground Barasingha Cer-
vus duvauceli branderi in Kanha the ratio had
remained more or less the same between 1964-65
and 1971-73 at 100 hinds to 75.2 stags (Schaller
1967, Martin 1977). Martin (op. cit.) also found in
Kanha that the sex ratio between yearlings is 1:1
while in adults it is biased towards the hinds. In this
study, ageing was not done while noting down the
sex ratios. It is likely that the bi^s will be even
greater towards the hinds.
In 1988 37.14% and in 1989 c. 30% of the
hinds had fawns. As counts were carried out more
than 6 months after the fawning period, these figures
would represent those fawns that survived early
fawn mortality. In 1979-80, 27.58% of the hinds had
fawns (Singh 1984) and for 1964-65 Schaller
(1967) found that between 26.85 and 35.19% of the
hinds had fawns. In the Sukla Phanta reserve in
Nepal Schaaf (1978) found that between 33.9% and
42.6% of the swamp deer hinds had fawns over three
successive years. In the barasingha at Kanha, 26.7%,
Table 3
COMPARATIVE DATA ON HERD COMPOSITION 1980 - 1988
1980 Singh (1984), 1988 this study
6.
256
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Table 4
NUMBER OF SWAMP DEER SIGHTINGS IN DUDWA N.P. BETWEEN 3 TO 13 NOVEMBER 1988
♦Seen in the afternoon, a time of day the swamp deer do not bugle
41.2% and 36.1% of the hinds had fawns during the
years 1971 to 1973 (Martin 1977).
Movement of Swamp deer at Satiana
The swamp deer at Satiana have two distinct
ranges. The late winter and summer range is within
the Park, during which time they are seen in the
grasslands of Madraiya and around the Satiana
Forest Rest House. During the monsoons and early
winter the deer move outside the Park and are
present in predominantly agricultural areas (Fig. 2).
As both ranges are adjacent to each other, distance
travelled by the deer is about two kilometres at most.
With the onset of the monsoons the swamp
deer at Satiana emigrate into the adjacent agricul-
tural areas (Singh 1984, Schaaf and Singh 1977, this
study). For the next seven months the deer live in
the jheels (and in the sugar cane) of Ghola and Ghaj-
rola. It is in this marshy habitat that the annual rut
commences at the end of August and ends in the last
week of January (Singh 1984).
About mid January, when the grasses have
dried up, the annual grass burning begins and is
completed by the end of February. The swamp deer
begin returning to the Park in the end of January fol-
lowing the grass bum. At first they arrive in small
herds, and then gather in larger groups before dis-
persing within the grasslands. The swamp deer are
seen at Madraiya first and then at Chapra and
Kowhaghatti and lastly at Navalkhad (Fig. 3). By the
end of June the swamp deer begin moving out of the
Park into the adjacent agricultural areas of Ghola
and Ghajrola.
Monsoon and early winter range: The mon-
soon/early winter and the late winter/summer ran-
ges are given in Fig. 2.
In 1965 Schaller saw a herd of about 500
swamp deer in and around the Ghola taal. At this
time the land (about 1200 ha) belonged to a few large
landholdings and much of the marshland and
grassland remained intact. After the Land Ceiling
Act, the land was cut into smaller portions ranging
from 1 .2 ha upwards and distributed among landless
immigrants from eastern U.P. and the Punjab. The
grasslands and marshes swifly gave way to sugar-
cane and to a lesser extent paddy.
All that remains of the marsh at Ghola is one
fairly large jheel called Ghola taal that covers about
100 ha less than 1 km. west of the Satiana Forest
Rest house. From this a narrow channel, about 50 m
at its widest, runs roughly parallel to the Suheli river
and widens into another jheel adjacent to Ghajrola
village, and in parts contiguous with the forest that
flanks the Suheli river. This jheel is south of the
Madraiya grasslands (Fig. 2). Thick stands of grass
predominantly Sachharum spontaneum (local name
kans) are present in and around the jheels.
At Ghola (in the 1st week of November 1988)
I counted about 18 swamp deer of which 9 were
stags. Of these at least 5 stags were bugling. At Ghaj-
rola the jheel was surveyed only in the afternoon and
so rutting was not heard. Ten swamp deer were seen
of which 5 were male. Inquiries among the locals in-
dicated that at least 7-8 rutting stags were present. It
was also understood from the agriculturists that
several swamp deer spent the day inside the sugar-
cane. It is probable that the swamp deer of Madraiya
move into Ghajrola while the deer around the
STATUS OF SWAMP DEER IN DUDWA NATIONAL PARK
257
Satiana forest rest house move into Ghola (Figs. 2
and 3).
In contrast inside the Park no swamp deer were
seen in Chapra Phanta, Navalkhad, Kowhaghatti
and most of Madraiya. Furthermore there were no
signs of swamp deer using these areas. Only 3
swamp deer were seen inside the Park, 1 stag and 1
hind near Muthna taal and 1 hind near the electric
fence adjacent to Gliajrola taal. Bugling was not
heard from any place within the Park.
Discussion
Till 1988 Satiana region had the maximum
numbers of swamp deer found in the Park. With a
further loss of about a hundred animals the popula-
tion is now slightly less than that of Kakraha. The
decline in numbers in Satiana is reflected as a
general reduction in the total population.
It is widely assumed that the loss of habitat is
one of the major causes for the decline of many
species of animals. The decline of swamp deer at
Satiana can be attributed only indirectly to a loss of
habitat because the area has been protected since
1967, first as a Wildlife Sanctuary and then as a Na-
tional Park.
Singh (1984) postulated that one reason for the
decline of the swamp deer population was a high
fawn mortality rate caused by the flooding of the
grasslands during the monsoons. Data available to
me contradicts this. Fawning success rates of
27.58% in 1980, 37.14% in 1988 and c. 30% in 1989
indicate normal fawning successes as compared to
other mono-tocous deer (Martin 1977, Schaaf
1978). Furthermore, fawning takes place between
end May and early July (Singh 1984), just with the
onset of the monsoons at the end of June. Thus the
fawns would escape all but unusually early floods.
Fawn mortality is therefore not a likely explanation
for the decline.
The major cause for the decline in deer popula-
tions all over the world has been over exploitation
by hunting (Cowan and Holloway 1973). In India
two other Cervidae, the hangul Cervus elaphus
hanglu and the Manipur brow antlered deer Cervus
eldi eldi have been seriously affected by hunting
(Kurt 1978, Ranjitsinh 1978). Holloway (1973) and
Singh (1984) recognized poaching as the cause for
the decline of the swamp deer at Satiana. While
hunting may not occur within the Park it is fairly
widespread outside the Park. The swamp deer are
therefore vulnerable when they leave the Park and
move into their monsoon and early winter ranges.
Evidence of poaching was present at both the mar-
shes at Ghola and Ghajrola. The marshes are entered
in buffalo drawn carts and swamp deer are shot with
the aid of a spotlight. Alternatively, hunters drive
around the crop areas and shoot deer from jeeps.
Conversations amongst local agriculturists indi-
cated frequent poaching incidents, especially by the
wealthier farmers. Furthermore gunshots were
heard almost daily throughout the study periods
from the Satiana Rest House.
Movement of the Swamp Deer
Similar to the barasingha at Kanha (Martin
1977), the swamp deer at Satiana have distinct
seasonal ranges. As a little over half the year is spent
outside the Park in what are presently agriculture
areas this has had a direct negative influence on the
population. Before a conservation strategy can be
prepared it is imperative to understand the causes
behind this seasonal movement. While only an in-
depth study will reveal in detail these factors, I at-
tempt here to postulate certain relevant ideas.
Seasonal migration or movement has been well
documented in deer. This movement between
seasonal ranges is an adaptation to specific climatic
or food conditions in the different ranges during the
year. In the elk Cervus canadensis and in the moose
Alces alces such movements are largely due to non-
availability of food due to snow (Phillips et al.
1973). Similar movements due to snow are seen in
the hangul (Kurt 1978). In the hard ground barasin-
gha at Kanha this movement is due to seasonal non-
availability of water in different parts of its range
(Martin 1977). Furthermore, deer are known to be
traditional and have a strong tendency to return to
their seasonal ranges over the years (Martin 1977,
Schaaf 1978, Cederlund et al. 1987). In fact this
tendency to return to rutting grounds appears to be
so strong that in old fallow deer areas the rutting
grounds were used for over 50 years (Ueckermann
1968).
In the barasingha at Kanha in central India,
lack of surface water is the main factor behind the
deer’s movement (Martin 1977). At Dudwa this is
not the case, for due to a high water level, surface
water is available in almost the entire area
258
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
throughout the year.
It has been suggested that the deer migrate out-
side the Park at Satiana due to flooding of the
grasslands (Singh 1984, Schaaf and Singh 1977).
This is unlikely due to three reasons: a) Ghola and
Ghajrola are also prone to flooding during the mon-
soons, b) Rood waters are not a permanent feature
and subside within a few hours or days, depending
on the intensity of the rains, c) The swamp deer had
already begun leaving the Park at the end of June
1988, much before the monsoons had set in.
In 1989 I surveyed the entire grassland areas
of Satiana using elephants between 2 and 6 July. No
swamp deer were seen at Kowhaghatti, Navalkhad
or Chapra. In the adjacent Ghola taal at least 13
animals were present. Similarly, at Madraiya less
than 10 deer were located. The outward migration
had already taken place well before flooding of any
sort had occurred.
The reasons possibly lie in a need for a specific
habitat during the monsoons and for the rutting
season. This habitat is the marsh or jheel (shallow
lake that dries up in part or completely in summer).
All swamp deer seen during the November 1988 sur-
vey were found in and around the jheels, the only
exceptions being the 3 deer seen at Madraiya, and
even these were close to a waterbody. At Bankey
taal, in three visits in November 1988, all the swamp
deer seen were within the water grazing on aquatic
vegetation. Singh (1984) says that aquatic vegeta-
tion forms an important part of the swamp deer’s
diet. Therefore the marsh would be an important
source of food to the swamp deer when grasses else-
where have flowered and dried up.
The marsh also appears to be important for rut-
ting. An integral aspect of the rutting season is wal-
lowing (Schaller 1967, Martin 1977, Schaaf 1978,
Singh 1984, pers. obs.). At all the marshes visited,
several wallowing holes wpre present at the
periphery of the jheels. Martin (1977) and Schaaf
(1978) state that stags appear to show site fidelity to
their wallows.
Furthermore, as the swamp deer have
presumably been using the Ghola and Ghajrola taals
for several years as their rutting grounds, they would
traditionally return to these taals to rut in. Martin’s
(1977) observation that at least one wallow
remained the same between 1964-65 and 1972-73
would also indicate a strong traditional bond to the
rutting grounds among sw^np deer.
At Satiana, though there are several ponds and
taals they are all quite deep. Marshland habitat (or
jheels) do not exist inside the Park in this region.
Hence the swamp deer would be compelled to leave
the Park to fulfill specific habitat requirements for
the monsoon and early winter period.
The swamp deer would be induced to return to
the Park primarily due to the new grasses emerging
after the annual grass bum in January. Undoubtedly
the human related disturbances would hasten their
return, in spite of the conditions appearing to be
favourable outside.
Conclusions
Satiana was the only area with a significant
loss in swamp deer numbers. At Kakraha there has
been an increase in deer numbers probably as a
result of the deer being localised within the rhino re-
introduction area. At Bhadi taal and Bankey taal the
population seems to have remained stable but more
data is necessary for these two regions.
The decline of the Satiana population is due to
traditional movements into preferred habitat that he
in areas which are not protected from poaching. In
areas of the Dudwa National Park where such move-
ments into agricultural areas are not found, the
swamp deer populations have remained stable or in-
creased over the years.
Intensive patrolling of the Ghola and Ghajrola
agricultural areas during the monsoon and winter is
the immediate action that needs to be taken to en-
sure the survival of the swamp deer at Satiana.
Ideally the agricultural areas of Ghola and
Ghajrola should have been acquired to prevent fur-
ther loss of habitat and to prevent poaching in the
vital rutting grounds. However, these areas are quite
densely populated now and land acquisition will be
difficult to achieve. Instead, I propose that the entire
length of the Suheli upto its confluence with the
Neora nala be permanently fenced so that the deer
are forcibly retained within the Park throughout the
year. If the outward seasonal movement of the
swamp deer is not stopped it is likely that the swamp
deer will vanish from the grasslands of Satiana in a
few years.
One basic requirement for the survival of any
species is safe breeding grounds. At Satiana, where
the largest herds of swamp deer were present, tradi-
STATUS OF SWAMP DEER IN DUDWA NATIONAL PARK
259
tional movement patterns between breeding and
non-breeding grounds were not taken into con-
sideration when the Dudwa National Park was
created. This has resulted in an annual exposure of
the swamp deer to heavy poaching pressures and the
continuing conversion of swamp deer rutting
grounds into agriculture.
Acknowledgements
This study was undertaken while studying the
Bengal florican under the Endangered Species
Project of the Bombay Natural History Society. The
Project was sponsored by the Department of En-
vironment, Government of India and funded by the
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
I wish to thank Mr J.C. Daniel, Dr A.R. Rah-
mani, Dr A.J.T. Johnsingh, Dr Chris Wemmer, Mr
Ajay Desai and especially Dr Michael Stuwe for
their comments and criticisms on earlier drafts of
this paper. Dr S.P. Sinha and Mr Qamar Qureshi
provided important information. In the Uttar
Pradesh Forest Department. I thank Mr R.P. Shar-
ma, Mr Bhadoria, Mr R.P. Singh, Mr G.C. Mishra,
Mr M. Singh and the field staff of Dudwa National
Park for their support. I also thank Mr Arjan Singh
for fruitful discussions. Mr Mehboob Alam’s able
assistance in the field made life much easier.
References
Cederlund G., Sandgren, F. & Larsson, K. (1987): Summer
movements of female moose and dispersal of their off-
spring. J. Wildl. Manage. 51(2): 342-352.
Holloway, C. (1973): Swamp deer in Uttar Pradesh. Oryx 12:
41-48.
Holloway, C. (1975): Threatened deer of the world: Research
and Conservation projects under the IUCN Programme.
Deer Vol. 3 No. 8.
Hajra, P.K. & Shukla, U. (1983): Dudwa National Park (Some
botanical aspects of the proposed new habitat for rhino).
Botanical Survey of India. Howrah.
Jain, S.K. & Sastry, A.R.K. (1983): Botany of some tiger
habitats in India. Botanical Survey of India.
Kurt, F. (1978): Kashmir deer ( Cervus elaphus hanglu) in
Dachigam. Threatened deer. pp. 87-108. IUCN Morges,
Switzerland.
Phillips, R.L., Berg, W.E. & Siniff, D.B. (1973): Moose move-
ment patterns and range use in Northwestern Minnesota.
J. Wildl. Manage. 37(3): 266-278.
Martin, C. (1977): Status and ecology of the barasingha (Cervus
duvauceli branderi) in Kanha National Park (India). J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 74(1): 60-132.
Rahmani, A.R., Narayan, G., Sankaran, R. & Rosalind, L.
(1988): The Bengal Florican. Annual report 3. Bombay
Natural History Society, Bombay.
Ranjitsinh, M.K. (1978): The Manipur brow antlered deer (Cer-
vus eldi eldi ): A case history. Threatened Deer. pp. 26-32.
IUCN Morges, Switzerland.
Schaaf, D. (1978): Population size and structure and habitat rela-
tions of the Barasingha (Cervus duvauceli duvauceli ) in
Sukla Phanta Wildlife Reserve, Nepal. Ph.d. thesis,
Michigan State University.
Schaaf, D. & Singh, A. (1977): Barasingha in the Dudwa
Sanctuary. Oryx 13 : 495-498.
Schaller, G.B.' (1967): The Deer and the Tiger. A study of
Wildlife in India. University of Chicago Press. Chicago.
Singh, A. (1973): Tiger Haven. Macmillan London Limited.
Singh, V.P. (1984): Bio-ecological studies on Cervus duvauceli
duvauceli , Swamp Deer (Barasingha) in Dudwa forest near
Indo-Nepal Border. Ph.D. Thesis, Kanpur University.
Ueckermann (1968): Das Dam wild. Hamburg/Berlin. (Not con-
sulted in the original).
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
JULOSTYUS POLYANDRA (MALVACEAE) - A NEW SPECIES FROM INDIA1
N. Ravi and N. Anilkumar2
(With a text-figure)
Julostylis polyandra , a new species from the forests of Kerala, is described and illustrated.
Introduction
Until the discovery of the species described
here, Julostylis Thw. has been a monotypic genus
represented by J. angustifolia (Am.) Thw. from Sri
Lanka (Th waites 1858) and Kerala (Ramamoorthi
and Rajan 1985). The specimens of the new species
have been collected from the forests of Ponmudi
Hills, Trivandrum District and Kakki, Pathanamthit-
ta District, Kerala at different periods. The new
species, especially in herbarium specimens, has su-
perficial resemblance to Kydia calycina Roxb. and
hence is often mislabelled in local herbaria.
Julostylis polyandra sp. nov.
Affinis J. angustifolia (Am.) Thw. ab hac
tamen differt in eo quod habet suborbicularia ad
ovata folia cum elongatis glandibus ad inferiorem
basem, largi flores cum 4-6 triangulares-ovatae
epicalyx segmento, cordatae ad basem, sparse stel-
latae cum pilis exterioribus, stamina 17-20 et
aciculares staminales dentes.
Holotypus Ravi 2475 A (MH), Isotypus 2475
B (CAL), 2475 C (Sree Narayana College Her-
barium) (SNCH), Quilon et 2475 D (KFRI),15
August 1988, Ponmudi Hills, Trivandrum Dt.,
Kerala, Paratypus Ravi 2647 (SNCH), 19 Decem-
ber 1988, Ponmudi Hills, Anilkumar 70 (SNCH), 11
September 19 87, -Kakki, Pathanamthitta Dt., Kerala
et Anilkumar 364 (SNCH), 12 January 1988, Kakki.
Julostylis polyandra sp. nov. is allied to J. an-
gustifolia (Am.) Thw. but differs from the latter in
having suborbicular to ovate blade with elongate
glands at the base below, large flowers with 4-6 tri-
angular-ovate epicalyx segments, cordate at base,
sparsely stellate hairy outside, 17-20 stamens and
Accepted May 1989.
department of Botany, Sree Narayana College, Quilon, Kerala.
acicular staminal teeth.
Holotype Ravi 2475 A (MH), Isotypes 2475 B
(CAL), 2475 C (Sree Narayana College Herbarium)
(SNCH), Quilon and 2475 D (KFRI), 15 August
1988, Ponmudi Hills, Trivandrum Dist., Kerala,
Paratypes Ravi 2647 (SNCH), 19 December 1988,
Ponmudi Hills, Anilkumar 70 (SNCH), 11 Septem-
ber 1987, Kakki, Pathanamthitta Dist., Kerala and
364 (SNCH), 12 January 1988, Kakki.
Small trees, 8-15 m high; branches terete, rusty
stellate tomentose when young. Leaves reddish
when young, simple, alternate, stipulate; stipules
linear-oblong, stellate tomentose outside, caducous;
petiole 1-8 cm long, terete, stellate tomentose; blade
suborbicular to ovate, 4-21 by 2-18 cm progressive-
ly small upwards, often palmately 3-angled or -
lobed in the upper half, palmately 5-ribbed at base,
sparsely stellate tomentose on both sides,
prominently so on ribs and veinlets below and usual-
ly with an elongate gland with a median slit at the
base and lower surface of mid-rib, sometimes also
on one or both inner lateral ribs, base rounded or
cuneate, margin subentire. Inflorescence erect more
or less congested pyramidal panicle, branches 2 to
many flowered, progressively shorter upwards.
Flowers yellow, bisexual; pedicel up to 1.5 cm long;
bract elliptic- oblong, 3 by 1 mm, rusty stellate
tomentose outside; bracteoles obovate, a little
shorter than bract, stellate tomentose outside.
Epicalyx accrescent, segments 4-6, slightly con-
nate at base, triangular-ovate, up to 15 by 8 mm, stel-
late pubescent, subcordate at base, acute to sub-
acute, erect, ultimately spreading. Calyx persistent,
connate to the middle, 8-10 by 5-6 mm, stellate
tomentose outside, prominently so on the tube; lobes
triangular, subacute, 3-nerved. Corolla yellow with
a purple centre; petals 5, free, narrowly obovate, 1.5-
2 by 1 cm, stellate pubescent on outer surface and
simple hairy on inner surface. Stamens 20 (rarely
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Fig. l.Julostylis polyandra sp. nov.
A. Infrutescent twig; B. Gland (Anilkumar 364); C. Flower, D. Bract; E. Bracteole; F. Epicalyx segment; G. Calyx; H. Petal;
I. Androecium; J. Anther, K. Gynoecium; L. C.S. of ovary (Ravi 2475); N. Stellate hairs on fruit; O. Seed (Ravi 2647).
262
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HITT. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
17-19), monadelphous, sparsely glandular hairy;
column short 5-7 mm long; apical teeth 5, acicular;
filaments slender, purplish c. 6 mm long; anthers
yellow, 1-celled, reniform. Ovary c. 2 mm long, den-
sely hairy, bilocular; ovules 2 per loculus, basal-
axile; style exserted, up to 1.5 cm long with 2 (rare-
ly 1) branches, thickened and stellate hairy above
the middle, stigma peltate-thickened. Fruit indehis-
cent c. 5 by 6 mm, shortly beaked, densely covered
with stellate and simple hairs. Seeds reniform, c. 4
mm long, dark brown, closely longitudinally striate
with sparse to more or less dense fugaceous stellate
hairs.
There is much variability in the extent of
lobing of the blade, number of glands on the ribs,
nature of inflorescence and hairiness of the seed in
different plants. The glands are often absent in the
smaller upper leaves.
Acknowledgements
We thank the Director, B.S.I. for financing the
District Flora Scheme- Pathanamthitta, which
enabled us to discover the new taxon; Dr R. Geesink,
Rijksherbarium, Leiden, Holland, for confirming
the identity of the species; Dr J. Joseph, former Joint
Director, B.S.I., Dr. M. Sanjappa, B.S.I., Howrah,
Dr M. Sivadasan, Department of Botany, University
of Calicut and Mr. N. Sasidharan, Kerala Forest
Research Institute, Peechi, for encouragement and
helpful suggestions. We also wish to thank Rev. Fr.
Alphonse G. Thundil, Jyothi Niketan Women’s Col-
lege, Quilon, for the Latin diagnosis.
References
Ramamoorthi, K. & Rajan, R. (1985): Journal of Economic and Thwaites, G. H. K. (1 858): En. pi. Zey. 30.
Taxonomic Botany, 7, 3: 728-29.
A NEW SPECIES OF GALL- FORMING CROTON OTHR1PS (INERMOTHRIPS)
(THYSANOPTERA: PHLAEOTHRIPIDAE) FROM MANIPUR1
L. Nilamani and B. Prasad2
( With a text-figure)
Crotonothrips ( Inermothrips ) maoensis sp. nov. which inhabited horn gall on Schefflera wallichii from Mao,
Manipur State, is described and illustrated.
Ananthakrishnan (1967) erected a new genus
Crotonothrips with C. gallarum as type-species and
Muraleedharan & Sen (1978) described a new sub-
genus Inermothrips under the genus Crotonothrips
Ananthakrishnan with Crotonothrips {Iner-
mothrips) cacharensis as type-species. In this paper
a new species C. (Inermothrips) maoensis produc-
ing horn-like galls on Schefflera wallichii from
Mao, Manipur State is described.
KEY TO INDIAN SPECIES OF SUBGENUS Inermothrips OF
GENUS Crotonothrips
Fore femora yellow, antennal segment 1 brown, yellow at extreme
base, 2 yellow, brown at base and margin, 3-4 yellow, rest brown.
Forewings with 6-7 double fringes
cacharensis Muraleedharan & Sen
Antennal segments 1-2 brown, 3-8 yellow. All the femora brown,
forewings clear with 12-15 double fringes
maoensis sp. nov.
Crotonothrips maoensis sp. nov.
female (Macropterous): General body colour
brown; head, abdominal segments V-Vin and tube
dark. Antennal segments 1-2 brown, 3-8 yellow. All
femora brown, fore tibiae yellow, mid and hind
tibiae brown with yellow at apices. Wings clear with
brown stripe at the middle parallel to the wings. All
setae brown and blunt
Head a little broader or as long as wide, 194-
2003 long, 186-190 wide across the eyes, 198-202
wide across the cheeks, 182-186 wide across the
base. Eyes 56-60 long, 44-48 wide. Lateral ocelli 20-
24 wide, median ocellus overhanging between the
Accepted December 1989.
2Laboraatory of Entomology, Department of Life Sciences,
University of Manipur, Canchipur 795 003, India.
3 All measurements in microns unless otherwise mentioned.
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
263
Fig. 1. Crotonothrips maoensis sp. nov.
A. Head and Prothorax; B. Antennae; C. Abdominal segment IX with tube; D. Pelta; E. Mesopraestemum.
antennae. Postoculars shorter than eyes, 36-40 long.
Antennal segments 1-8 length (width) 1:24-28(44);
2:44-48(34); 3:50-54(32); 4:52-54(36); 5:50-
54(36); 6:50-54(28); 7:42-46(18); 8:20-24(8).
Sense cones 20-24 long, mouth cone 120-126 long,
166-170 wide at base, 40-44 wide at apex. Maxillary
stylets oculad, retracted from the base of the pos-
toculars and closed at the middle.
Prothorax 122-126 long at median line, 190-
194 wide at anterior margin, 318-322 wide at
posterior margin including coxae. Anteroanguiars a
little longer than anteromarginals, 26-30 and 18-22
long respectively. Mid laterals 42-46 long,
epimerals 82-86 long, postangulars 26-30 long.
Pterothorax 364-370 wide at meso — and 348-354
wide at metathorax. Forewings 782-788 long, 80-84
264
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
wide with 1215 double fringes. Specially, it has 4
basal wing bristles 42-46, 50-54, 52-56, 44-48 long
respectively. Mesopraestemum complete, narrow at
middle.
Abdomen 334-338 wide at base, 336-340 wide
at middle, 250-254 wide at segment VIII, 160-164
wide at segment IX. B1-B3 of segment IX 208-212,
206-210, 220-224 long respectively. Tube 264-268
long, anal setae 212-216 long.
Total body length without tube 1.9- 2.1 mm.
MALE (Macropterous): Body colour same as
female. Head 202-206 long, 180-184 wide across
the eyes, 192-196 wide across the cheeks, 172-176
wide across the base. Eyes 80-84 long, 48-52 wide,
lateral ocelli 20-24 wide, median ocellus overhang-
ing. Postoculars 28-32 long. Antennal segment 1-8
length (width) 1:36-40(40); 2: 48-52(28); 3:64-
68(32); 4:68-72(36); 5:64-68(28); 6:60-64(28);
7:56-60(20); 8:28-32(12). Sense cones 20-24 long.
Mouth cone 152-156 long, 156-156 wide at base,
40-44 wide at apex. Maxillary stylets oculad, closed
at middle.
Prothorax 148-152 long at median line, 196-
200 wide at anterior margin, 352-356 wide at
posterior margin including coxae. Anteroangulars
28-32 long, anteromarginals 24-28 long. Mid
laterals 40-44 long, epimerals 92-96 long, postan-
gulars 36-40 long. Pterothorax 384-388 wide at
meso — and 376-380 wide at metathorax. Fore wings
780-786 long, 80-84 wide with 12-15 double frin-
ges. Basal wing bristles Bi - B5 48-52, 44-48,60-64,
48-52, 40-44 long respectively. Mesopraestemum
complete, narrow at middle.
Abdomen 352-356 wide at base, 384-388 wide
at middle, 208-212 wide at segment VIII, 112-116
wide at segment IX. B1-B3 of segment IX 220-224,
60-64, 180-184 long respectively. Tube 232-236
long, anal setae 160-164 long.
Total body length without tube — 1 . 1 - 1 .3 mm.
Material examined: Holotype female, allotype
male, paratype 6 females, 4 males, INDIA: Manipur,
Molnum (Pallel, 1000 m), 8 December 1984 and
Mao (3000 m), 2 November 1986. Ex-Leaf horn gall
on Schefflera wallichii.
This new species resembles Crotonothrips
( Inermothrips ) cacharensis Muraleedharan and
Sen in general characters, but differs in colour of
femora and antennae, number of double fringes,
shape of pelta; and specially it is differentiated from
other species in having 4-5 basal wing brisdes.
The new species Crotonothrips maoensis sp.
nov. is named after the Mao area which is the col-
lection site.
Acknowledgements
We are indebted to Prof. (Dr.) T.N. Ananthak-
rishnan, Director, Entomological Research Institute,
Madras for the confirmation of the species. We also
thank Dr Samir Sen, Assistant Zoologist, Thysanop-
tera Section, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta
for his invaluable help in the identification and
providing us many relevant literature.
References
Ananthakrishnan, T.N. (1967): Studies on new and little known Tubulifera from N.E. India with description of a new sub-
Indian Thysanoptera. Orient. Ins. 1 (1-2): 113-138. genus. Bull. Tool. Surv. India. 7(3): 257-261.
Muraleedharan, N. & Sen, S. (1978): Two new species of
TWO NEW VARIETIES OF CHRISTELLA DENTATA (FORSSK.)
BROWNSEY ET JERMY1
N. PUNETHA AND B.S. KHOLIA2
(With a text-figure)
Among thelypteroid ferns, Christella dentata
(Forssk.) Brownsey et Jermy is fairly widespread in
Accepted August 1989.
department of Botany, Govt. RG. College,
Pithoragarh 262 501, Uttar Pradesh.
the western Himalaya. It grows in varied habitats
and is spreading in the areas where the forests have
been felled. It is an extremely polymorphic species.
During fern-collection from Pithoragarh district of
Kumaon region (northwest Himalaya) certain vari-
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
265
Fig. 1. New varieties of Christella dentata (Forssk.) Brownsey et Jenny
1-5. Christella dentata var. glabra var. nov.: 1. Lateral pinna; 2. Reduced basal pinna; 3. Venation; 4. Indusium; 5. Spore.
6-10. Christella dentata var. himalayensis var. nov.: 6. Lateral pinna, 7. Reduced basal pinna, 8. Venation, 9. Indusium, 10. Spore.
able populations of this fern from the typical Chris-
tella dentata (which are cytologically, however, in-
variably sexual tetraploid) were observed and
specimens collected. Subsequently these, along
with our comments were sent to Prof R.E. Holttum
(at Kew), who confirmed their identity as new
varieties of C. dentata. A key is provided to distin-
guish between the two varieties.
KEY FOR TWO VARIETIES OF Christella dentata
Rhizome erect; plants glabrous; pinnae broadly lobed; veins 6-7
pairs; perispore spinulose C. dentata var. glabra
Rhizome long creeping, plants pubescent; pinnae narrowly lobed;
veins + 7 pairs; perispore vemicose
C. dentata var. himalayensis
266
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Christella dentata (Forssk.) Brownsey et Jermy
var. glabra var. nov.
A varietate typica speciei differt: caudice erec-
to. Stipite apicem versus glabro, pinnis late-lobatis,
veins 6-7-jugatis (Fig. 1:1-5).
Specimens examined: Holotype, K; Isotype, Bot.
Pithoragarh 88130, 88131. Locality: Thai (800 m),
April 1988.
Christella dentata (Forssk.) Brownsey et Jermy
var. himalayensis var. nov.
A varietate typica speciei differt: pinnis in-
ferioribus 3-5- jugatis sensim redactis, infimis 5.5
cm longis; veins +7-jugatis (Fig. 1: 6-10).
Specimens examined: Holotype, K; Isotype Bot.
Pithoragarh, 88120, 88121, 88122. Locality: Village
Hachila (Didihat -1200 m), February 1988.
Acknowledgements
We thank Prof. RE. Holttum (Kew) for the
identity of the ferns, for the Latin diagnosis of the
new varieties and for encouragement. Thanks are
also due to the University Grants Commission, New
Delhi, for financial support
A NEW SPECIES OF GENUS MEGACHILE LATREILLE
(HYMENOPTERA: APOIDEA: MEGACHILIDAE), FROM INDIA1
Virendra Kumar2
(With a text-figure)
The genus Megachile Latreille is represented
by 8 subgenera: Eutricharaea Thomson,
Paramegachile Friese, Xanthosarus Robertson,
Cyphopyga Robertson, Delomegachile Viereck,
Litomegachile Mitchell, Macromegachile Nos-
kiewicz, Addendella Mitchell from Western Hemi-
sphere (Mitchell 1980); 2 subgenera: Callochile
Michener as well as Eutricharaea Thomson from
Eastern Hemisphere. Megachile s. str. occurs in both
the Hemispheres.
Megachile s. str. from the Indian region was so
far represented by only one species, namely:
Megachile buddhae Dali. Torn (Bingham 1897). In
this paper a new species, Megachile ( Megachile )
bharatpurensis is described from Bharatpur (India).
Megachile (Megachile) bharatpurensis sp. nov.
MALE: Integument black, shining; tegulae
brown; punctures are fine and closely placed; pubes-
cence golden-red, on cheeks and stemums white.
Head wider than the median length; inner eye
margin convergent below and slightly incurved at
median area; clypeal surface is flat, apical margin
laterally outcurved and medially broadly in-
1 Accepted November 1989.
department of Zoology, Agra College, Agra, Uttar Pradesh.
vaginated; parocular area with a prominent carina;
occipital margin without parallel fold; genae dis-
tinctly narrowed above; hypostomal area with
dense, elongated white hairs; mandible four dentate,
lower margin almost straight from base to apex.
Scutum convex, with coarse and sparsely dis-
tributed punctures; median line distinct, parapsidal
lines very fine and obscure; scutellar surface medio-
longitudinally shallowly grooved; anterior and
posterior margins of metanotum carinate; wing
colour dark fuscous with basal hyaline area, veins
black to piceous; coaxae and trochanter are normal;
ventral margin of femora is carinate; inner face
slightly concave; anterior and posterior surfaces of
tibiae are broadly smooth; tarsi ventrally with
milky- white fringe.
Basal tergum concavity margin semicarinate;
tergite 2-5-with completely eclipsed pregradualar
area; 6th tergum with more angulate carina at
median area; 6th sternum projects beyond the apical
margin of post gradualar area; apical lobe of 8th ster-
num with flattened and medially slightly in-
vaginated apex, posterior lobe projects acutely.
Gonocoxite protuberant basally and con-
stricted subapically at outer margin; gonostylus is
slightly dilated and with an inward diversion subapi-
cally, with elongated setae.
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
267
Fig. 1. Megachile ( Megachile ) bharatpurensis sp. nov.: male
1. Head, front view (dots indicate pubescence); 2. Mandible; 3. Sternum 6th; 4. Sternum 8th; 5. Genitalia.
\
Measurements: (in mm). Total length 7.5; eyes:
length 2.25, lateral width 1.0; clypeus: median
length 0.9, basal width 1.12, apical width 1.75; an-
tennae: length of scape 0.57, pedicel 0.2, flagellar
segments 1-0.5, II-0.32, XI-0.4, labrum: median
length 1.0, basal width 1.0, apical width 0.9; man-
dible: length of dentate and lower margin 0.8 and
0.65; scutum: median length 1.5, maximum width
2.5; fore wing: total length 6.25; tergites I- VII, rela-
tive median width 0.9, 0.7, 1.2, 1.0, 1.3, 1.4, 0.3.
FEMALE: Not known.
Material examined: Holotype: male, Bharatpur, 15
June 1986 (V.K.); paratypes: two males with same
data, all specimens in the collection of the Deptt. of
Entomology, Agra College, Agra.
The new species is close to M . buddhae Dali.
Torn However, M. bharatpurensis sp. nov. can be
distinctly separated from M. buddhae by: “thorax
268
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
above with golden red pubescence; clypeal surface
is flat; lower margin of mandible is almost straight
from base to apex; apex of gonostylus of genitalia is
pointed, with long and dense setae; apex of penis
valve is narrow; pregradualar area of 6th sternum
projecting on both laterals; apex of 8th sternum is
flattened, medially slightly invaginated."
Bingham, C.T. (1897): Fauna of British India, including Ceylon
and Burma. Hymenoptera (Wasps and Bees), Vol. I: 484-
485.
This specimen has been named after the col-
lection locality, Bharatpur.
Acknowledgements
I thank Dr V.K. Tewari, Department of Zool-
ogy, Agra College, Agra, for providing necessary
laboratory facilities and Dr Prem Kishor, Entomol-
ogy division, I.A.R.I. New Delhi, for suggestions.
NCES
Mitchell, T.B. (1980); A generic revision of the Megachiline
bees of the Western Hemisphere. Contr. Deptt. Entomol.
N.C. State. Univ. p. 23.
NEW SPECIES OF ACONURELLA AND PARAMESODES
(HOMOPTERA: CICADELLIDAE) FROM INDIA1
V. Rama Subba Rao2 and Usha Ramakrishnan3
(With two text-figures )
Two new species, Aconurella neosolana and Paramesodes wilsoni from India are described and illustrated.
Introduction Material and Methods
Aconurella Ribaut, when erected, was a monotypic
genus with its type-species Thamnotettix prolixus
Lethierry. Vilbaste (1965) synonymized Doratulina
Matsumura with Aconurella and published a con-
solidated list of 10 species. Anufriev (1972)
described two new species. Ghauri (1974) described
a new species, A. solana and proposed a new com-
bination A. erebus (Distant) from Deltocephalus.
Thus there are 14 species recorded so far from all
over the world, out of which five are reported from
India. One new species is described here.
Wilson (1983) redescribed and revised
Paramesodes Ishihara with 11 species, of which
three species are recorded from India. One new
species is described here.
^art of Ph.D. thesis submitted by the first author to the Indian
Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi .
Accepted September 1989.
Assistant Professor, Department of Entomology, Agricultural
College, Bapatla, Andhra Pradesh 522 101.
3Di vision of Entomology, Indian Agricultural Research Institute,
Nev4 Delhi 110 012.
The methods used in the handling and prepara-
tion of specimens for study including dissection of
male genitalia advocated by Knight ( 1 965) were fol-
lowed. The terminology given by Blocker and
Triplehom (1985) was used in descriptions. For
studying external morphological characters and
genitalia dissections a Nikon SMZ 10 stereozoom
binocular microscope was used. Dissected male
genital structures were further studied in detail with
a Leitz Ortholux II Phase contrast, interference,
compound microscope and illustrations were also
made with the same microscope, using drawing ap-
paratus. The scales of magnifications are indicated
on the right side of the illustrations and in all cases
the line is equal to 0.1 mm.
Abbreviations: NPC: National Pusa Collection,
Division of Entomology, Indian Agricultural
Research Institute, New Delhi. BMNH: British
Museum (Natural History), London.
Aconurella neosolana sp. nov. (Fig. 1)
Colour: Stramineous to greenish yellow.
External morphology: Vertex subacute, slightly
shorter than the width between eyes, excavated and
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
269
Fig. 1. Aconurella neosolana sp. nov.
1. Pygofer, lateral view; 2. Aedeagus, lateral view; 3. Aedeagus apex, ventral view; 4. Valve and subgenital plate; 5. Connective;
6. Style; 7. Fore wing; 8. Hind wing; 9. Abdominal apodemes; 10. Female sternum VH
sulcate at the base. Ocelli marginal, away from the
eye at a distance equal to its own diameter. Clypeus
black with median yellow stripe. Clypellus long, ex-
tending up to the lower margin of genae. Pronotum
with black maculations and obscure fine transverse
striae anteriorly. Forewings extending beyond the
abdomen, with four apical and two anteapical cells.
Posterior femoral setal pattern 2-2-1. Abdominal
sternal apodemes well developed.
Male genitalia : Pygoferal lobe angulate at postero-
mesal margin; serrated comb-like structure on
postero- ventral margin, posteriormost tooth well
developed compared to other teeth; macro and micro
setae on dorsolateral surface. Valve is as shown in
Fig. 1. Subgenital plates triangular, shorter than
pygofer, with marginal setae. Connective Y-shaped
with arms close together. Style with narrow body,
claw-like apophysis well developed, inner process
longer than outer process, both wide apart.
Aedeagus as shown in the Figure; gonopore apical.
Female sternum VII as shown in Fig. 1
Measurements (mm) of male (female): Head, width
0.7 (0.85); vertex, width 0.3 (0.35), length 0.25
(0.3); pronotum, width 0.6 (0.75), length 0.25 (0.3);
scutellum, width 0.35 (0.5), length 0.2 (0.25); total
length including forewings 2.15 (2.85).
Types: Holotype Male, Raghavendranagar, Visak-
hapatnam Dt., Andhra Pradesh, grasses, 13 May
270
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Fig. 2. Paramesodes wilsoni sp. nov.
11. Pygofer, dorsal view; 12. Pygofer, lateral view; 13. Fore wing; 14. Hind wing; 15. Aedeagus and connective,
lateral view; 16. Aedeagus and connective, ventral view; 17. Valve and subgenital plate; 18. Abdominal apodemes; 19. Style;
20. Female sternum VH.
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
271
1987, V.R.S. Rao, deposited in NPC.
Paratypes: 1 male, 8 females, same data as
holotype, deposited in NPC. 1 male, 2 females,
same data as holotype deposited in BMNH.
This species resembles A. solana Ghauri in
having pygofer with postero-ventral marginal ser-
rated comb-like structure, but differs from solana in
the shape of pygofer, style, female sternum VII and
also in the arrangement of macro and micro setae
which are not covered along the entire length of
comb-like structure of pygofer. It also differs from
solana in the absence of markings on the head and
thorax.
Paramesodes wilsoni sp. nov. (Fig. 2)
Colour: Pale yellowish brown. A submarginal
transverse pale black band on the vertex between
eyes and two sunken spots at the base of the latter.
External morphology: Head broader than pronotum.
Vertex with anterior margin rounded, slightly longer
medially than next to eyes. Forewings with four api-
cal and three anteapical cells, the inner anteapical
cell open basally. Posterior femoral setal pattern 2-
2-1. Abdominal sternal apodemes well developed.
Male genitalia: Pygofer lobes with long, prominent
setae; pygofer processes projecting considerably
beyond pygofer lobes, directed posteroventrally up
to posterior margin of pygofer lobes, afterwards
curving dorsally, in lateral view. Subgenital plates
triangulate, approximately same length as pygofer
with ventrolateral submarginal row of spines. Styles
well developed as shown in the figure. Connective
fused to aedeagus, arms closely apposed. Aedeagal
shaft tubular, narrowed apically with its ventral wall,
extending beyond gonopore, bifurcated, appearing
Refer
Anufriev, G.A. (1972): Two new far eastern species of Aconurel-
la Rib. previously confused with Aconurella japanica
(Mats.) (Auchenorrhyncha). Bull. Acad. Pol. Sci. Ser. biol.,
20(3): 203-208.
Blocker, H.D. & Triplehorn, B.W. (1985): External morphol-
ogy of leafhoppers. In: The Leafhoppers and Planthoppers,
L.R. Nault and J.G. Rodriguez (eds.). John Wiley and Sons,
New York, pp. 41-60.
Ghauri, M.S.K. (1974): New genera and species of Cicadel-
loidea (Homoptera, Auchenorrhyncha) from economic
like closely apposed processes; gonopore subapical.
Female sternum VII as shown in the Fig. 2
Measurements (mm) of male (female): Head, width
1.50 (1.7); vertex, width 0.75 (0.85), length 0.35
(0.4); pronotum, width 1.35 (1.5), length 0.50
(0.65); scutellum, width 0.85 (0.95), length 0.5
(0.65); total length including forewings 4.75 (5.40).
Types: Holotype Male, Delhi (IARI), grasses, 5
November 1965, R. Menon, deposited in NPC.
Paratypes: 3 females (2 abdomen lost), same
data as holotype, deposited in NPC; 2 females, same
data as holotype deposited in BMNH.
The new species is close to P. lucaniae
(Dlabola) in the key given by Wilson (1983) in
having long, slender pygofer processes, with
recurved apices directed dorsally, in lateral view.
This species differs in the aedeagus, the apex of its
shaft bifid, appearing like closely apposed proces-
ses extending beyond gonopore, whereas in
lucaniae , the apex of the aedeagus is not bifurcated.
This aedeagal character is unusual and is unlike any
other species of Paramesodes. The species is named
in honour of Dr M. R. Wilson who has contributed
a lot to the study of this genus.
Acknowledgements
We thank the Indian Agricultural Research In-
stitute and Indian Council of Agricultural Research,
New Delhi, for the facilities and financial assistance
provided. Thanks are also due to Dr M. R. Wilson,
Dr W. J. Knight and Dr M. Webb, British Museum
(Natural History), London, who provided generous
help and encouragement in going through the
manuscript and making valuable suggestions.
ences
plants in India. Bull. ent. Res., 63: 551-559.
Knight, W.J. (1965): Techniques for use in the identification of
leafhoppers (Homoptera : Cicadellidae). Entomologist’s
Gaz., 16: 129-136.
Vilbaste, J. (1965): On the genus Aconura Leth. (Homoptera,
Lassidae). Notulae Entomologicae, 45: 10-11.
Wilson, M.R. (1983): A revision of the genus Paramesodes
Ishihara (Homoptera, Auchenorrhyncha: Cicadellidae)
with descriptions of eight new species. Ent. Scand. 14: 17-
32.
7
272
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
ON ANEW SPECIES OF SALMO STOMA SWAINSON (CYPRINIDAE : CULTRINAE)
FROM DHOM RESERVOIR, SATARA DISTRICT, MAHARASHTRA1
R.T. Srithar and K.C. Jayaram2
(With two text-figures)
A new species of Salmostoma (Cyprinidae:
Cultrinae) from river Krishna at Dhom reservoir,
Satara District, Maharashtra, is described. Statisti-
cal comparison with S. novacula indicates its diver-
gence in having a longer caudal peduncle, shorter
body and head and smaller eyes, besides a greater
number of lateral line scales.
During the course of a bioresources survey of
the Krishna river system, peninsular India, we found
that me population of Salmostoma species inhabit-
ing the Dhom reservoir comprises of a hitherto un-
described species. The species is akin to S. novacula
(Valendennes) but differs from it in many charac-
ters.
The genus Salmostoma was established by
Swainson (1839) with Cyprinus bacaila Hamilton
as the designated type. Later Banarescu (1968), in
an excellent revision of this genus, clarified the
generic status of Salmostoma vis-a-vis Chela
Hamilton and Securicula Gunther. Jayaram (1981),
following Banarescu, listed 10 species found in In-
dian waters. Of these, five are known in the western
ghats river systems, and three of these — S. boopsis
(Day), S. clupeoides (Bloch) and S. novacula (Val.)
— occur in the Krishna river.
We have examined 29 specimens of the new
species and made a statistical comparison with the
samples of S. novacula from Madras, Poona, Deolali
and Deccan. The material was sent to Prof. Banares-
cu who also confirmed its separate identity. Data on
17 meristic and 17 non-mcristic characters were
recorded, and 29 examples, comprising of both
sexes and of all size ranges, were selected. This was
compared with data published in Banarescu (1968,
p. 6) and the results are presented in Table 1. The in-
tergradations and divergences can be seen from Fig.
1.
Meristic characters such as lateral line scale
counts and lateral line/pelvic fin counts could not be
compared, as frequency and other details of S.
a r~m
b . r in i
A -LTUT
B-TX~1
Accepted August 1989.
2Krishna River Project, C/o Zoological Survey of India,
Madras , Tamil Nadu 600 028.
n /.« Kfl Rft fi? fifi 70 7L 7ft
Fig. 1. Bar diagrams comparing intergradation and divergence
between S. longicauda and S. novacula.
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
273
1 mm.
Fig.2. Lateral view of S. longicauda , holotype.
novacula are not available in the published work.
Although lateral line scales in the new species of
Dhom reservoir range from 5 1 to 70 and in the rest
79 to 95, which itself clearly differentiate the
species; the other characters also support its identity.
The new species can be easily separated from
S. novacula by its longer caudal peduncle, shorter
body depth, shorter head and smaller eyes, besides
greater number of lateral line scales (Table 1).
Salmostoma longicauda sp. nov.
D ii or iii, 7 or 8; P. i, 10 or 11; V. i-ii, 7 or 8; A
ii-iv, 13-16; C. 10 + 9; LL 51-70.
Material examined: Holotype 84 mm. SL; Paratypes
10 exs, 62 to 83.5 mm. SL; Others 18 exs, 62 to 85
mm. SL. from rivers Krishna and Vaitali at Dhom
reservoir at Asari village, 8 km west of Wai, Satara
District, Maharashtra, 3 January 1988, K.C.
Jayaram et al. All specimens are in the Zoological
Survey of India, Madras.
Diagnosis: A Salmostoma species with gill raker
counts 58-76, length of caudal peduncle 13.52 %
(10.76-16.21) of standard length and with lateral
line scales 51 to 70.
Description : Dorsal profile nearly straight with a
gentle rise up to occiput. Body compressed and elon-
gated, head short, mouth upturned, lips thin, snout
plain, eyes placed superiorly in the anterior part of
head, visible from below ventral surface of head, no
barbels.
Table 1
BIOMETRIC COMPARISON OF TWO POPULATIONS OF Salmostoma SPECIES
A - Dhom reservoir.
B - S. novacula from Madras, Poona, Deolali and Deccan.
274
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Measurements: Head length 26.15 (24.21-29.07),
body depth 19.25 (15.67-21 .79), pre-dorsal distance
70.56 (67.57-72.46), pre-pelvic 54.38 (50.51-
57.14), pre-anal 71.40 (67.11-75.19), length of
caudal peduncle 13.52 (10.76-16.21), height of
caudal peduncle 7.38 (6.08-8.39) in percent of
standard length. Eye diameter 27.73 (23.26 -34.25),
snout 24.44 (20.92-31.25), width of mouth 17.47
(11.63-24.21), width of head 35.03 (31.55-44.44),
height at occiput 61.80 (56.50-73.53) in percent of
head length. Eye diameter 106.68 (80.00-136.99)
percent of interorbital width, 1 1 1 .08 (80.00-129.89)
in percent of snout.
Gill rakers very long, 58-76 in the first gill
arch. Dorsal fin inserted above anal origin. Pectoral
fins laterally inserted, not reaching pelvic fin, outer
rays prolonged. Pelvic fins not reaching anal fin.
Anal fin moderately long, not reaching caudal fin
when depressed. Least depth of caudal peduncle
55.11 (41.67-71.43) in percent of its length. Lateral
line curved, reaching base of caudal fin. Caudal fin
forked with unequal lobes.
Colour: In fresh specimens, metallic green over
sides of body, fins and abdomen pale white. In
preserved specimens, light grey above lateral line, a
streak of grey running along centre of body and over
dorsal ridge, pale white below lateral line.
Distribution : Krishna river at Dhom reservoir.
Satara District, Maharashtra.
Scale counts: LL/Dorsal 9 1/2
LL/Pelvic 1 1/2 or 2 1/2
LL/Anal 2 1/2 or 3 1/2
Circumpeduncular 16 or 17.
Dhom reservoir is a man-made impoundment
across the Krishna and Vaitali rivers. Fishermen
operate a purse-seine type net with a mesh size of 1
cm and invariably the catch comprises of Salmos-
toma novacula and S. longicauda , the latter to a
larger extent. It appears that the changed habitat and
isolation has resulted in the fish having a longer
caudal peduncle, shorter body and head, smaller
eyes, and greater number of lateral line scales.
Acknowledgements
This study was supported by a financial grant
to the second author by the Department of Environ-
ment, Government of India, for which he is grateful.
Our sincere thanks are due to the Director of
Fisheries, Maharashtra; Regional Deputy Director
of Fisheries, Poona and to Mr. Jagdale in particular.
Thanks are also due to the Officer in Charge, Marine
Biological Station, Zoological Survey of India,
Madras, for facilities, and to Prof. Petru Banarescu,
Department of Biology, Bucharest, Rumania, for
confirming the material and for his critical com-
ments.
References
Banarescu, P. (1968): Revision of the Indo-Burmese genus Sal-
mostoma Swainson (Pisces, Cyprinidae) with description
of a new species. Rev. Roum. Biologie Zoolog ie 13(1):
314.
Jayaram, K.C. (1981): The Freshwater fishes of India,
Bangladesh, Pakistan, Burma, Sri Lanka. Handbook No.
2, Zoological Survey of India, 475 pp., 13 plates.
Swainson (1839): The natural history and classification of fishes,
amphibians and reptiles or monocardian animals. 2 vols,
London.
NEW PLANT TAXA FROM THE SIND VALLEY, KASHMIR1
G.H. Dar2 and A.R. Naqshi3
(With three text-figures )
The following new taxa from the Sind valley, Kashmir (India) are described: Ermania kashmiriana, E. kachrooi,
Lepidium virginicum var. kashmiricum (Brassicaceae), Dolomiaea baltalensis (Asteraceae) and Veronica biloba var.
densa (Scrophulariaceae). The three new species are also illustrated.
1 Accepted December 1989. Ermania kashmiriana sp. nov.
^Dcpartmcm ofBolany, University of Kashmir, Herbae perennis, 3-10 (-15) Cm alta, multi-
Wrnof Plant Taxonomy, University of Kashmir. ram0Sa ad basim> denSe folioSa; PiloSa si"e si!‘<iUae-
Srinagar 190 006. Folia basalina dense rosulata, subcannosa,
cm
Fig. 1. Ar mania kashmiriana
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
277
spathulata-obovata, 3-5-dentata et subintegra. Folia
caulina lineari- oblanceolata. Racemus multiflorus,
densus, in fructo 10 cm longus. Rores 4-6 mm
diam.; pedicelli 7 mm longi in fructis, ascendentes.
Sepala subaequalia, oblonga-elliptica et obovata-el-
liptica. Petala spathulata, purpurea, subemarginata
et ± Integra. Stamina 3:4 mm longa. Ovarium sub-
cylindricum-oblongum, multiovulatum; stigma
depresso-capitatum, sessilia. Siliquae lineari-
oblongae, subcylindricae, 42 x 2 mm; valvae
glabrae, uninervatae. Semina uniseriata, obovoidea-
elliptica, 1 .5-1.7 x 1 mm,brunea,non-mucilaginosa;
septum membranaceum, enervatum. Typus: India,
Kashmir, Sind valley, G.H. Dar 7786 (holotypus
KASH).
Perennial, 3-10 (-15) cm tall, decumbent to
suberect herbs, much branched from the base, leafy
throughout, pilose with white hairs except the sili-
quae. Radical leaves subfleshy, thickish, densely
rosulate, spathulate-obovate, 1-2 cm long, 3-10 mm
broad, 3-5 toothed towards the apex or ± entire,
pilose. Cauline leaves oblanceolate to linear, entire,
smaller, usually functioning as bracts, pilose.
Racemes dense, many-flowered, bracteate, up to 10
cm long in fruit. Rowers 4-6 mm in dia. Pedicels up
to 7 mm long in fruit, ascending, turning to one side
at maturity, pilose. Sepals subequal, 2-3 mm long,
oblong-elliptic or obovate-elliptic, pilose, the lateral
two often purplish, saccate at base. Petals purple,
sometimes turning white when dry, 5-7 x 1. 5-2.5 (-
3) mm, spathulate, subemarginate to ± entire.
Stamens tetradynamous, 3:4 mm long. Ovary sub-
cylindrical-oblong, many ovuled; stigma sessile,
capitate, usually depressed and subretuse. Siliquae
subcylindric when young, linear-oblong when ma-
ture, compressed, up to 42 mm long, 2 mm broad;
valves glabrous, midvein usually less distinct; sep-
tum complete, veinless. Seeds many, uniseriate,
obovoid-elliptic, 1.5- 1.7 x 1 mm, brown, non-
mucilaginous when wet; radicle accumbent (Fig. 1).
INDIA: Kashmir, Shalimar, Sonamarg (Sind
valley), 3900 m, rocky slopes along the alpine
meadow, 20 Aug. 1983, G.H. Dar 7786 (holotype
KASH); Pranshur, Sonamarg (Sind valley), 4000 m,
rocky slopes along mountain top, with fruits lying
flat on sand, 26 Aug. 1983, G.H. Dar 8296 (paratype
KASH); Nilnai, Sonamarg (Sind valley), 4 100 m, on
sandy slopes at mountain top, 26 Aug. 1983, G.H.
Dar 8301 (paratype KASH).
Ermania kashmiriana resembles E. stewartii
(T. Anderson) O. Schulz and£. himalayensis (Cam-
bess.) O. Schulz in habit but differs from the former
by its dense, many flowered racemes up to 10 cm
long in fruit, longer (3-4 mm) stamens and narrower
(2 mm wide) siliquae. It can be distinguished from
the latter by its radical leaves ranging from 3- 10 mm
in width and 10-20 mm in length, shorter fruiting
pedicels (up to 7 mm), longer stamens (up to 4 mm),
longer siliquae (up to 42 mm) which are glabrous
and do not exceed 2 mm in width and usually lack a
prominent midvein on their valves. From the
glabrous forms of E. himalayensis it can be easily
distinguished by its pilose surface in almost all the
parts except siliquae.
Ermania kachrooi sp. nov.
Herbae perennis, 8-15 cm alta, ascendens et
suberecta, glabra, multiramosa. Folia basalina non-
rosulata. Folia caulina inferiore spathulata, sub-
carinosa, (3-4-) 5-multidentata. Folia superiora
lineari-oblanceolata, integra. Racemus 10-18-
florus, 5-6 cm longus in fructis, ascendentes et
unilaterales. Sepala subaequalia, elliptica et
obovato-oblonga. Petala dare rosea, spathulata,
subemarginata-integra. Ovarium subcylindrico-
oblongum, multiovulatum; stigma depresso-
capitata, sessilis. Siliquae (immaturae) sub-
cylindricae, maturae lineari-oblonga, 36 x 1.5-2
mm; valvae glabrae. Semina uniseriata, obovoidea-
elliptica, 1-1.5 x 1 mm, brunea, nonmucilaginosa;
septum enervatum. Typus: INDIA, Kashmir, Baltal,
Sind valley, G.H. Dar 3934 (holotypus KASH;
isotypus KASH).
Perennial, 8-15 cm tall, ascending-suberect,
totally glabrous herbs, branched from above the
base. Basal rosette of radical leaves absent. Lower
cauline leaves subfleshy, spathulate, 8-16 mm long,
3-8 mm broad, narrowed below into stalk-like lower
half sheathing at base, (3-4-) 5- many toothed in the
apical half; upper cauline leaves oblanceolate to
linear, small, entire. Racemes 10-1 8-flowered, brac-
teate below, 5-6 cm long in fruit. Rowers 4-5 mm
wide. Pedicels 4-5 mm long, ascending, unilateral.
Sepals subequal, 2.5-3 mm long, elliptic or obovate-
oblong, the lateral pair often puplish, saccate at base.
Petals light pink, 4-5 x 1.5-2 mm, spathulate, sub-
marginate or somewhat entire. Stamens 2:3 mm
long. Ovary subcylindric-oblong, many-ovuled;
278
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
stigma sessile, capitate, usually depressed or sub-
retuse. Siliquae subcylindric when young, linear-
oblong when mature, compressed, up to 36 mm
long, 1.5-2 mm broad; valves glabrous, midvein
often obscure; septum complete, veinless. Seeds
many, uniseriate, obovoid-elliptic, 1-1.5 x 1 mm,
brown, nonmucilaginous when wet; radicle accum-
bent (Fig. 2).
INDIA: Kashmir, Baltal, Sonamarg (Sind val-
ley), 3200 m, rocky slopes, 2 Sept. 1982, G.H. Dar
3934 (holotype KASH; isotype KASH).
Ermania kachrooi differs from E. stewartii , E.
kashmiriana and E. himalayensis by the absence of
basal rosette of radical leaves and presence of lower
cauline leaves which are narrowed into stalk-like
lower half, and (3-4-)5-many toothed in the apical
half. It can readily be separated from E. stewartii and
E. kashmiriana by its totally glabrous surface.
However, it resembles glabrous forms of E.
himalayensis but can be differentiated by the
presence of usually 5-many toothed, non-rosulate
lower cauline leaves, shorter fruiting racemes,
pedicels, and stamens, and mostly obscure midvein
on the valves.
Dolomiaea baltalensis sp. nov.
Herbae perennis, acaulis. Folia basalina
rosulata, patens, ± procumbens, elliptica-ovata,
haud lobata-dentata, pubecentia conferta et densa
albo-tomentosa. Capitula corymbosa, discoidea,
oblonga, pedunculata. Phyllaria multiseriata, exter-
na ovata-lanceolata, lanosa ad basim; interia lan-
ceolata et oblonga-lanceolata. Flores bisexualia.
Petala purpurea. Stamina 5; antheris sagittatis,
ciliatus et laciniatus ad basim. Cypsela cuneato-
obovoidea, sub 4-costata, cinerea et lutea. Pappus
densus, brunneus, barbellatus (scabridus), 2-3 et
multiseriatus. Typus: INDIA: Kashmir, Baltal, Sind
valley, G.H. Dar 3899 (holotypus KASH; isotypus
KASH, K & E).
Perennial, acaulescent herbs. Leaves radical,
petiolate. Petioles 3-10 cm long, flattened, ± sheath-
ing at the base, channelled, woolly. Lamina ovate to
elliptic-ovate, slightly cordate, cuneate or some-
what rounded at base, 5-10 x 3-7 cm, entire or very
shallowly and irregularly lobed, spinulosely den-
tate, densely woolly above, densely white-tomen-
tose beneath. Capitula homogamous, discoid, 7-24
in number, corymbose, oblong, expanded above
after anthesis, up to 4 cm long, peduncled. Peduncles
stout, 0.5-4.5 cm long, channelled, woolly. In-
volucral bracts multiseriate, imbricate, serrulate;
outer ovate-lanceolate, often woolly at least at base,
appressedly hairy towards apices; inner lanceolate
to oblong-lanceolate, long-acuminate, scarious,
longer than outer ones, appressedly pubescent, more
so in apical half. Florets actinomorphic, her-
maphrodite. Corolla purple, tubular, tube slender,
± 1 cm long; limb inflated, about as long as tube, 5-
partite. Stamens 5; filaments slender, c. 4 mm long,
glabrous; anthers syngenesious, 6-7 mm long, bases
sagittate with ciliate-lacerate, ± 2 mm long tails.
Style slender, ± 2 cm long, glabrous, bifid at apex;
stigmatic lobes 2 mm long. Cypsela cuneate-
obovoid, 5-7 mm long, indistinctly 4-angled, ±
compressed, often slightly curved, glabrous, ashy
grey with irregular transverse black streaks or yel-
lowish, nearly smooth, shining; apex prominently
rimmed, umbonate. Pappus many, 2-3 or multi-
seriate, brown, deciduous; hairs unequal, barbellate,
cohering at the base into a ring. (Fig. 3).
INDIA. Kashmir, Baltal, Sonamarg (Sind val-
ley), 3000 m, rocky slopes, 2 Sept. 1982, G.H. Dar
3899 (holotype, KASH; isotypes KASH, K & E);
Pranshur, Sonamarg (Sind valley), 3500 m, rocky
slopes above the meadowland, 27 Aug. 1983, G.H.
Dar 8325 (paratypes KASH, K & E).
The genus Dolomiaea was first recognised by
A.P. de Candolle (in Guill., Arch. Bot. 2: 330. 1833)
on the basis of the Himalayan D. macrocephala
(Wallich) DC., but was not considered as different
from Jurinea Cass, by Bentham and Hooker f. (Gen.
PI. 2:474.1873), a treatment since then followed by
most botanists. However, Dolomiaea is now
regarded as distinct from Jurinea (see Ling in Acta
Phytotax. Sin. 10:85-90.1965). In fact the former
shows close affinity with Saussurea DC. rather than
with Jurinea. Dolomiaea baltalensis resembles D.
macrocephala (Wallich) DC. in habit but differs in
having ovate to elliptic-ovate, entire or very shal-
lowly and irregularly lobed, densely woolly leaves,
longer peduncles and darker capitula.
Lepidium virginicum L., sp. PI. 645. 1753.
Type described from Virginia, Jamaica, var. kash-
mir icum var. nov.
Differs from the type variety by its glabrous
stems and leaves, fruiting pedicels with longer,
spreading hairs and smaller (1 .5-2 x 1-2 mm), pubes-
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
279
cent, wingless siliculae.
Typus: INDIA: Kashmir, Chattergul (Sind val-
ley), 1850 m, moist road sides, 3 July 1983, G.H.
Dar 6304 (holotype KASH).
Veronica biioba L., Mant. Plant. 172. 177 1 var.
densa Dar & Kachroo var. nov.
Differs from the type variety by its very small
(1-1.5 cm tall), diffuse, densely tufted racemes aris-
ing from the base and by shorter pedicels (less than
half the length of subtending leaves or bracts).
Typus: INDIA: Kashmir, Sonamarg (Sind val-
ley), 2700 m meadowland, flowers blue, 5 July
1983, G.H. Dar 6529 (holotype KASH; isotypes
KASH).
Acknowledgements
We thank Mr. C. Jeffrey, Royal Botanic Gar-
dens, Kew for kindly providing some useful infor-
mation about Dolomiaea and Prof. G.N. Javeid,
Head of the Botany Department and Director of the
Centre of Plant Taxonomy, University of Kahsmir
for facilities. We also thank Prof. L.W. Macior, Biol-
ogy Department, Akron University, U.S.A. for
reviewing the Latin version.
A NEW SPECIES OF EUAGORAS (HETEROPTERA :REDUVIIDAE :
HARPACTORINAE) FROM WESTERN GHATS, INDIA 1
David Livingstone and G. Ravichandran2
(With a text-figure)
A new species of the genus Euagoras Burm., E. erythrocephala sp. nov. from the Western Ghats has been
described and illustrated.
Introduction
The genus Euagoras Burm. is endemic to the
tropical rain forest and is characterised by the
presence of very long, slender, often curved spines
at the lateral angles of the posterior lobe of pronotum
and also by having a short tubercle at the base of
each antenna. Distant (1904) recorded only two
species from the Orient, one from East Garo Hills,
Assam, and another from Kandy, Sri Lanka. The
present paper describes one more species from the
Oriental region.
Euagoras erythrocephala sp. nov.
female: Length 15 mm, width across the ab-
domen 4 mm; elongate, slender; fusco-ferrugineous;
eyes, the median dorsal area of the posterior lobe of
pronotum, tibiae and longitudinal fascia on the
under surface of the abdomen piceous; head elon-
gate, cylindrical, ante-ocular area a little shorter than
postocular area; ocelli reddish brown, set wide apart,
ocellar prominence moderately elevated; antennae
Contribution No. 76 Division of Entomology, Bharathiar
University, Coimbatore 641 046 .Accepted December 1989.
2Division of Entomology, Bharathiar University,
Coimbatore 641 046.
far removed from the eyes; head declivent in front
of the antennal base; scape a little longer than the
head and thorax combined; pedicel almost one third
as long as scape; first segment of the rostrum not ex-
ceeding the eyes, second segment longest, a little
longer than postocular area, third segment minute,
luteous; head with a few white hairs dorsally;
anterior lobe of the pronotum almost half as long as
the posterior lobe, with a robust inwardly curved
spine at its anterolateral angles; the median lon-
gitudinal fissure widening beyond the middle and
shallowing out at the posterior lobe; epimeron of the
thoracic segments fuscous; posterior lobe of
pronotum bicolourous, medially piceous, laterally
fusco-ferrugineous; lateral spines elongate, piceous,
slightly curved anteriorly; scutellum rufescent, tri-
angular, unarmed; median dorsal foveation shallow
and continues as a median dorsal longitudinal
carination; clavus and membrane piceous; corium
fusco-ferrugineous; coxae rufescent; abdomen with
a median carination stramineous, laterally with a
submarginal black fascia; connexivum rufescent;
hind tibiae much longer than the femora; fore and
mid tibiae slender, sub-equal.
This species resembles Euagoras plagiatus
Burm. in the pattern of pronotal coloration, prono-
tal spines, hemelytra, and submarginal ventral fas-
280
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Fig. 1. Euago) as erythrocephala sp. nov. (Female)
cia of the abdomen. But it differs from it by its larger
size, rufescent femora, coxae, head and anterior lobe
of the pronotum, vary prominent spines of the
anterolateral angles of the pronotum and by the
bicolourous nature of the thoracic stemites.
TYPE information: Holotype: Monotypic,
female; serial No. 88; pinned specimen deposited
for the present in the reduviid collection of the
Division of Entomology, Bharathiar University,
Coimbatore, South India. _
Etymology: The name erythrocephala refers to
the sanguineous head and the anterior lobe of the
pronotum.
Collection information:
Specimen collected from Tropical Rain Forest,
near five falls, Courtrallam, Tamil Nadu, on 10 Oc-
tober 1983 at 325 MSL, temperature 27°C and
humidity 80%.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the authorities of the
Bharathiar University, Coimbatore for providing
facilities and to the Department of Science and Tech-
nology, New Delhi, for financial assistance during
the course of investigation. Our sincere thanks to Dr.
S.K. Tandon, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta
for his assistance in comparing this specimen with
the National Collection of Reduviidae.
References
Distant, W.L. (1904): Fauna of British India including Ceylon Francis, London, pp. 329-389.
and Burma, Rhynchota, Vol. II, Heteroptera : Taylor and
LECANTHUS PEDUNCULARIS (ROYLE) WEDD. VAR. GARHWALENSIS:
A NEW VARIETY FROM GARHWAL HIMALAYA1
R.A. Silas and R.D. Gaur2
( With a text- figure)
During a recent floristic collection (1982-86),
from a remote Dudhatoli Region of District Pauri-
Garhwal, Uttar Pradesh, we collected some interest-
ing specimens allied to Lecanthus peduncularis
(Royle) Wedd. (Urticaceae). The perusal of litera-
ture and critical study of the specimens, at the Plant
Accepted March 1990.
2Plant Systematic Laboratory, Garhwal University,
Srinagar (Garhwal), Uttar Pradesh 246 174.
Systematic Laboratory GUH, Srinagar; BSD and
DD Herbaria, Dehra Dun, has warranted separating
them as a distinct variety, which is described and il-
lustrated.
Lecanthus peduncularis (Royle) Wedd.
var. garhwalensis var. nov.
Varietati pedunculari (Royle) Wedd. affinis,
sed differet caulibus brevioribus delicatis, foliis par-
cm
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
281
Fig.l. Lecanthus peduncularis (Royle) Wedd. var. garhwalensis
var. nov. A. Habit; B. Male flower, C. Female flower, D. Achene.
vioribus, glabrescentibus, receptaculis 0.3-0.8 cm
longis, floribus minutis, 0.15-0.25 cm diam.,
acheniis apiculatis, 0.08 cm longis, rubro-brunneis,
sine caespite pilorum.
Annual dark green herbs. Stem delicate, erect,
1-3 cm long, nearly glabrescent. Leaves opposite,
membranous, sub-sessile, crowded towards the tip
empty space (frame)
of the stem, elliptic-ovate, 0.3-0.6 x 0.2-0.5 cm, base
cuneate or subcordate, apex acute or obtuse, margins
nearly entire, sparsely ciliated, 3 to penninerved.
Stipules linear, 0.1 -0.2 cm long, bifid, hyaline.
Rower minute, pale green, 1-2 sexual, crowded on
0.3-0.8 cm long receptacles, 0.1-0.25 cm across.
Male flowers: perianth 3-4 partite, lobes equal, 0.08-
0.15 cm long, ovate, apiculate, style short, glabrous,
stamens 4-5, smaller than the perianth lobes. Female
flowers: perianth 3-partite, lobes unequal, ovate,
apiculate, style short Achenes red-brown, up to 0.08
cm long, oblong, apiculate, smooth, exceeding the
lobes, without a tuft of hairs (Fig. 1 ).
L. peduncularis (Royle) Wedd. var.
garhwalensis is allied to Lecanthus peduncularis
(Royle) Wedd., differing by its comparatively short,
delicate stem and smaller leaves with glabresent sur-
faces; receptacles 0.3-0.8 cm long; flowers minute,
0.15-0.25 cm across; achenes apiculate, 0.08 cm
long, red-brown, without a tuft of hairs.
Flowers : August-September.
Fruits: September-October.
Holotype: GUH 6868-A ,RA. Silas , 8 Septem-
ber 1985, Dudhatoli, District Pauri Garhwal, Uttar
Pradesh, 3000 m.
Isotypes: GUH 6868-B,C,D ,/? A Silas, 8 Sep-
tember 1985, Dudhatoli, District Pauri Garhwal,
Uttar Pradesh, 3000 m.
Distribution and Ecology: Rare annual herbs
of shaded, moist localities. Found growing on moist
old walls and crevices with mosses and other small
herbs. Presently, this variety has been collected from
temperate Garhwal Himalaya (Binsar-Dudhatoli
trek) in the Dist. Pauri Garhwal, at an elevation of
3000 m.
The varietal epithet is based on the name of the
Garhwal region.
Acknowledgements
We are thankful to the Herbarium authorities
of BSD and DD Herbaria, Dehra Dun, for providing
herbarium facilities and to Dr. N.C. Majumdar, In-
dian Botanic Garden, Howrah, for rendering the
Latin diagnosis.
282
JOUREJAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
A NEW EURYA THUNB. (THEACEAE) FROM ARUNACHAL PRADESH1
G.S. Girl G.D. Pal2 and T.K. Pal3
(With a text-figure)
Eurya arunadialensis sp„ nov.
Eurya nitidae Korth. affinis, sed differt
ramulis hirsutis, foliis supra cum venis depressis,
disco florali piloso, staminibus 5 et ovario cum stylis
duobus.
Typus: India: Arunachal Pradesh, Subansiri
F.D., Saling vicinity about 32 km S.E. of Hapoli, 18
April 1965 yA.RX. Sastry 42065 (Holotypus: CAL).
Shrubs, 3-4 m high; young stems and branches
striate, hirsute with ferrugineous hairs, become
glabrescent at maturity. Leaves alternate, elliptic or
oblong-lanceolate, 2.5-4.5 x 1. 0-2.0 cm; apex acute
or shortly acuminate; base acute; margin serrate
towards the apex, lower half subentire to entire,
slightly revolute at maturity; coriaceous, both sur-
faces glabrous, shiny, become dull green to yel-
lowish brown on drying; veins 7-10 on either side of
midvein, arcuate, midvein and lateral veins
prominently depressed above, raised underneath,
midvein with a few simple ferrugineous hairs
towards the base; petioles strong, canaliculate, 1-2
mm long with a few simple ferrugineous hairs.
Flowers axillary, solitary or two together,
sometimes from the axils of fallen leaves, dioecious,
fragrant; pedicels 1.0- 1.5 mm long, glabrous; bracts
broadly triangular or suborbicular with obtuse to
rounded apex, 1.0- 1.5 x 1.0 mm, glabrous; brac-
teoles 2, adpressed at the base of sepals, broadly tri-
angular to ovate-acute, 1. 0-1.5 x 1.0 mm, glabrous,
persistent. Floral disc pilose. Sepals 5, free, oblong-
orbicular, 2.0 x 1.5 mm, apex obtuse, rounded or
rarely mucronate, fleshy, deeply concave, margin
membranous, finely ciliate or fringed, glabrous
without, golden-brown adpressed hairy within.
Corolla 5- lobed, connate below the middle, fleshy,
glabrous, white; tube c. 0.75 mm long; lobes broad-
ly ovate, 2.0-3.0 x 1.75- 2.0 mm, apex obtuse, mar-
gin entire. Stamens 5, free; filaments ribbon-like,
1.5-1.75 mm long, glabrous; anthers oblong, 0.75-
1.0 mm long, dorsifixed, longitudinally dehiscent.
Ovary subglobose, c. 1 mm long, bilobed, bilocular;
styles 2, connate below the middle, upper free part
slightly reflexed, glabrous; stigma simple.
Flowers: March-May.
Fruits: not seen.
Specimens examined: INDIA: Arunachal Pradesh,
Saling vicinity about 32 km S.E. of Hapoli, Suban-
siri F.D., 18 April 1965, A.R.K. Sastry 42065
(Holotype, CAL); Pariea, Kameng F.D. 9150 ft.
(2781 m), 2 April 1957, G. Panigrahi 6375 (CAL, 3
specimens).
Eurya arunachalensis sp. nov. is allied to
Eurya nitida Korth. but differs in having hirsute
branchlets, leaves with depressed veins above, floral
disc hairy, stamens 5 and ovary with 2 styles;
whereas the latter species has branchlets glabrous,
veins on the upper surface of leaves not depressed,
floral disc glabrous, stamens 15 and ovary with 3
styles.
Acknowledgements
We thank the Director, Botanical Survey of
India, Calcutta and Scientist-in-charge, Arunachal
Field Station, Itanagar, for all facilities. Thanks are
also due to Dr. N.C. Majumder, Scientist SD,
Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, for the Latin
diagnosis of the new taxon.
Accepted March 1990.
2Botamcal Surveys of India, Arunachal Field Station,
Itanagar 791 111.
3Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta 700 001 .
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
283
Fig. 1. Eurya arunachalensis sp. nov
A. Habit; B. Rower, C; Sepals; D. Petals; E. Stamens; F. Gynoecium,
REVIEWS
PLANTS OF DHOFAR (THE SOUTHERN REGION OF OMAN) by Anthony G. Miller and Miranda Mor-
ris, illustrated by Susanna Stuart-Smith. pp. xv + 150 (23 x 16 cm). Published by the office of the Adviser
for Conservation of the Environment, Divan of Royal Court, Sultanate of Oman, 1988. Price not indicated.
This book gives traditional economic and medicinal
uses of plants of a special phytogeographical region. The
area is part of the Sultanate of Oman, most of which con-
sists of sparsely vegetated steppe.
The preface has been written by Dr Richard Evans
Schultes, Emerites Jeffrey, Professor of Biology and
Director of the Botanical Museum of Harvard University.
According to him, ‘The historical connection between
Oman and Eastern Africa on the one hand and India on the
other has resulted in an interchange of knowledge of plant
usage and possibly in the introduction from these areas of
various plants’.
The authors do not give a definite figure for the
number of species represented in this book, but physical
verification shows that 144 plates in the book illustrate
180 species of flowering plants. This, together with dis-
tinguishing characters between allied species found in the
region (as detailed in the text), may put the total figure
somewhere around 200 species.
The book mentions common Indian species found
in the area as follows: Paracaryum coelestinum. Lobelia
heyneana , Ipomoea turbinata , Canscora concanensis ,
Stictocardia macalusi and Gossypium stocksii.
However, the following plants could also be added
to the list: Justicia diffusa Willd., Remusatia vivipara
Schott., Calotropis procera (Ait.) Ait., Impatiens bal-
samina L., Suaeda fruticosa Forsk. ex Gmel., Ipomoea
pes-caprae (L.) R. Br., /. nil L., Roth., Citrilus colocyn-
this (L.) Schradr., Cucumis sativus L. Schoenoplectus lit-
toralis (Schrader) Palla, Acalypha indica L. Fluggea
virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Wight, Plectranthus barbatus
Anders, Delonixelata (L.) Gamble, Salvador a persica L.,
Psoralea corylifolia L., Chlorophytum Ipxum R. Br.,
Plumbago zeylanica L., Solanum nigrum L. and Portulaca
oleracea L.
In addition, the following plants are also found in
India as cultivated species: Abelmoschus esculentus (L.)
Moench., A. manihot (Linn.) Medic., Lawsonia inermis
L., Ricinus communis L., Cissus quadrangular is L.,
Tamarindus indica L.
Although there has been every effort to collect in-
formation, as is evident from the enormous amount of data
presented, the authors say modestly that "This book lays
no claim to being a comprehensive study of all the plants
in Dhofar which were of traditional economic and
medicinal importance."
Families are arranged in alphabetical order irrespec-
tive of whether they are monocotyledons or dicotyledons;
and within the families, genera and species are described
at random without any particular order. The book gives in-
formation under the following headings: 1. Botanical
names with complete references, 2. Local names wherever
available, 3. Complete description, 4. Ecological notes, 5.
Phytogeography of the species and related taxa and 6.
Colour illustration of the species, on the facing page. Both
description and ethnobotanical data are meticulously col-
lected and presented. The colour plates by Susan Stuart-
Smith are really praiseworthy.
From the point of view of Indian floristic studies,
critical study of the following taxa may be of some sig-
nificance: Bentia fruticosa Rolfe, Blepharia linear if olia
Pers., Pentatropis nivalis (J.F. Gmel.) Gield and Wood,
Cordia perottettii Wt., Commicarpus boissieri (Heimerl.)
Cufod.
This book should serve as a model for ethnobotani-
cal field studies.
M.R. ALMEIDA
FURTHER ILLUSTRATIONS ON THE FLORA OF THE TAMIL NADU CARNATIC, Vol. 4 by K.M.
Mathew, pp. xxxvi + 916 (24 x 16 cm.). The Rapinat Herbarium, St. Joseph’s College, Tiruchirapalli 620
002, 1988. Price: Rs. 180; US $ 60.
This is the fourth volume of the series entitled ‘The
Flora of the Tamil Nadu Carnatic’ by the author. The first
volume gives miscellaneous information about the flora
including the inventory of old as well as freshly made
botanical collections. The second gives the representative
genera of the flora of Tamil Nadu Carnatic, and the third
(initially in two parts and later divided into three) gives a
taxonomic account of the flora.
The fourth volume consists of 834 plates covering
820 species and 74 genera of flowering plants not included
in the second volume represent cultivated and exotic gar-
den plants. As in the previous volume, sketches in this
volume also are contributed by various artists, and have
been very carefully and methodically prepared. However,
most of the plates are not complete in a sense that all the
parts of the plants are not shown in the diagrams. Most of
REVIEWS
285
the figures lack in representation of fruit in the plate. Plate
no. 324 is lacking in basal rossete of leaves.
There are almost no typographical errors.
Randia spinosa (Thunb.) Bl., R. dumetorum (Retz.)
Poir and Randia brandisii Gamble are treated in recent
taxonomic work as synonymous. In the present work the^
latter two are illustrated as different distinct species with
the help of line drawings of morphological features.
This volume has three appendices, of which the first
(6 pages) gives of additions, corrections and emendations
to names of taxa published in earlier volumes.
Nomenclature has been the weak point of the Flora
of Tamil Nadu Carnatic from the beginning. The author
follows the nomenclature after earlier authors and more
particularly overseas authors. In earlier reviews of this
series I have already pointed out that the total leaning on
opinions of foreign authors has resulted in a number of
nomenclatural errors in the work.
Nomenclature of the following species names may
require a fresh look: Portulaca gradiflora Hook. (Plate
23), Dopatrium lobelioides Benth. (Plate 418),
Paspalum compaction Roth. (Plate 811).
One of the plate remains unidentified (Plate 428)
identity of following plates must be rechecked: Glycosmis
pentaphylla (Retz.) DC. (Plate 78), Crotalaria retusa L.
(Plate 142), Crotalaria nana Burm. f. (Plate
X35),Tephrosia pulcherrima (Baker) Gamble (Plate 203),
Menuscylon umbellatum Burm. f. (Plate 267), Asystasia
crispala Benth. (Plate 439), Asystasia dalzelliana Sant.
(Plate 440), Premna serratifolia L. (Plate 475), Brachiaria
distachya (L.) Stapf (Plate 724), Sacciolepis curvata (L.)
Chase (Plate 817).
Repetition of epithet of typical sub-species, variety
and forma is simply waste of space. Use of such repeti-
tions is only relevant when both typical intraspecific taxa
as well as allied taxa of the same rank are simultaneously
exisiting in the area and repeated epithets are used to dis-
tinguish between them. Repetitions of epithets in the fol-
lowing cases are unnecessary: Rhynchosia viscosa (Roth.)
DC. ssp. viscosa var. viscosa, Dimocarpus longan Lour,
ssp. longan var. longan, Teramnus labialis (L.f.) Spreng
ssp. labialis var. labialis
No doubt it is a valuable addition to Indian floristic
contributions and the price being suitable to all pockets, it
is recommended to all research institutes and college
libraries as well as for personal collections.
M. R. ALMEIDA
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
1 . ON THE LONGEVITY OF TWO SPECIES OF INDIAN WILD CATS IN CAPTIVITY
Not much information is available on the longevity
of different species of Indian cats. In this note we record
some data on the longevity of the golden cat Fells tem-
mincki and leopard Panther a pardus observed at the Nan-
dankanan Biological Park, Orissa.
Golden cat: One female golden cat bom in the park on
2 March 1972 died on 13 January 1987 at the age of 14
years, 10 months and 11 days. It was housed along with
its parents in an enclosure with a cemented floor space of
approximately 16.5 sq. m and height 2.80 m. 750 g of goat
meat and 250 g of beef with bones were fed six days a
week with only 375 g of goat meat once a week. It was
also given one live chicken instead of beef and goat meat
once a month.
None of this species survived at the New York
Zoological Park for more than 2 years but one, however,
lived for 17 years, 8 months and 25 days at St. Louis
Zoological Park (Crandall 1965). A golden cat has lived
for a maximum period of 5 years at Alipore Zoological
Garden, Calcutta (Sanyal 1892). Acharjyo and Mishra
(1981) have recorded the death of a male at an estimated
age of 15 years.
Leopard: A 15 day old female leopard received in the Park
on 20 June 1964 died on 1 July 1987 after remaining for
23 years and 11 days in captivity. During her lifetime she
gave birth to 19 cubs in 10 litters.
Another approximately one month old female
leopard was received in the park on 14 August 1966. She
died on 14 April 1986 after 19 years and 8 months. She
also gave birth to 19 cubs in 10 litters during her lifetime.
The leopards of the Park are housed in spacious
covered enclosures with suitable vegetation and sandy
floors. Each enclosure has a set of cells with cemented
floor for protection from extreme weather conditions and
for feeding. On an average each animal is fed about 3 kg
of fresh raw beef with bones six days a week. They are
kept in pairs or in small groups.
A leopard has lived for a maximum period of 14
years at the Alipore Zoological Garden, Calcutta (Sanyal
1892). The best longevity for this species recorded at the
New York Zoological Park was 17 years, 1 month and 18
days but another specimen had exceeded that span by Oc-
tober 1963 (Crandall 1965).
L.N. ACHARJYO
August 30, 1989 S.K. PATNAIK
References
Acharjyo, L.N. & Mishra, CH. G. (1981): Some notes on the
longevity of two species of Indian Wild Cats in captivity.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 78: 155-1*56.
Crandall, Lee S. (1965): The Management of Wild Mammals
in captivity. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago &
London, pp. 359-413.
Sanyal, R.B. (1 892): A hand-book of the management of animals
in captivity in lower Bengal. Bengal Secretariat Press, Cal-
cutta, pp. 51-56.
2. RELATIVE TOXICITY OF THREE ACUTE RODENTICIDES AGAINST
RATTUS RATTUS RUFESCENS
Numerous chemical control methods have been
adopted world- wide as the most practical way to solve rat
problems. Single dose acute rodenticides like red squill,
barium carbonate, zinc phosphide and arsenous trioxide,
thallium sulphate, alpha naphthylthiourea (ANTU) etc. are
the oldest toxicants, out of which zinc phosphide is the
only one still being used extensively (but with limited suc-
cess).
The present study was conducted to evaluate the
comparative efficacy of three acute rodenticides, Silmurin,
Abrus precatorius and zinc phosphide against Rattus rat-
tus.
No-choice feeding tests were conducted on the R.
rattus caught from the local area. Trials were conducted
on acclimatized healthy adult animals. The animals were
sexed, weighed and after 24 hours of starvation were ex-
posed to poison bait All the three rodenticides were ex-
posed in two concentrations and for each concentration 10
animals were used. The poison bait was prepared by
mixing the desired amount of rodenticide with wheat flour,
1% groundnut oil and 1% molasses. Fresh bait and water
was supplied ad libitum. The amount of consumed bait
was recorded daily up to three days. After three days of
poison baiting the rats were maintained on normal feed
until death.
Results reveal that the consumption of zinc phos-
phide bait decreases after the first day of feeding. This in-
dicates poison aversion of rats towards this rodenticide. In
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
287
Table 1
RELATIVE TOXICITY OF THE THREE ACUTE RODENTICIDES IN LABORATORY AGAINST R. rattus rufescens
the case of Abrus precatorius and Silmurin the acceptance
of poison bait was fairly good and consumption of poison
bait continued for all three days. Comparative efficacy
revealed that Silmurin resulted in 100% mortality in less
time as compared to Abrus precatorius and zinc phosphide
(Table 1).
High efficacy of Silmurin against R. rattus L.
(Pahwa and Doharey 1980, Rai et al. 1982), Bandicota
bengalensis and Tatera indica (Srivastava et al. 1980) has
already been reported. Abrus precatorius followed Sil-
murin in efficacy during no-choice feeding test with
respect to acceptancy of bait and lethal dose required to
get 100% mortality. The efficacy of powdered seeds of A.
precatorius against the black rat has been reported by
Doharey et al. (1980).
The present study indicates the sign of poison shy-
ness with zinc phosphide, which is in accordance with the
findings of Barnett et al. (1975) and Htun and Brooks
(1979) against B. bengalensis.
Analysis of the study reveals that the three acute
rodenticides differ significantly from each other with
respect to time taken for causing death at various con-
centrations.
From the above reports and present findings it may
be concluded that Silmurin can be effectively used to con-
trol rat populations.
August 17, 1989 Y. SAXENA
References
Barnett, S.A., Cowan, P.E., Radford, G.C. & Prakash, I.
(1975): Peripheral anosmia and the discrimination of
poisoned food by Rattus rattus L. Behavioural Biology 13 :
183-190.
Doharey, R.B., Arora, K.K. & Pahwa, R. (1980): Abrus
precatorius as a rodenticide. Rodent Newsl., 4(4): 29-30.
Htun, P.T. & Brooks, J.E. (1979): Laboratory evaluation of Zinc
phosphide as rodenticide against Bandicota bengalensis.
PANS 25(3): 246-250.
Pahwa, R. & Doharey, R.B. (1980): Laboratory evaluation of
silmurin against black rat Rattus rattus (Linn.). Rodent
Newsl. 4(4): 31.
Rai, R.S., Lal, P. & Srivastava, P.K. (1982): Laboratory evalua-
tion of silmurin against black rat Rattus rattus (L.). Rodent
Newsl. 6(2): 15-16.
Srivastava, A.S., Maihur, Y.K. Upadhyay, K.D., Bhadauria,
A.S. & Srivastava, J.P. (1980): Evaluation of silmurin
(Scilliroside) against field and domestic rats. Rodent
Newsl. 4 (3): 19.
3. REACTION OF A GROUP OFGAUR BOS GAURUS TO THE PRESENCE OF AN UNIDEN-
TIFIED PREDATOR IN BANDHAVGARH NATIONAL PARK, MADHYA PRADESH
On 1 February 1989, while driving through the
Bandhavgarh National Park, Madhya Pradesh, early in the
morning, I came across a herd of gaur Bos gaurus feeding
on either side of the road. 11 individuals were present of
which I identified 9 : 1 adult bull, 4 adult cows, 2 juveniles
and 2 very young calves. The jungle here is fairly dense
mixed forest with patches of undergrowth, interspersed
with extensive clumps of bamboo Dendrocalamus stric-
tus.
About 40 m away, clearly visible, was one of the
adult females who was the mother of one, or both, of the
calves. She seemed to be the sentinel of the herd because,
while the others were feeding in a relaxed manner, she was
staring alertly into the forest with ears pricked up. Oc-
casionally she would lift her head to scent the wind. Once
she lifted her muzzle and I could see that her lips were
pursed, forming an ‘O’ with her mouth with only the tip
of her tongue showing. She was straining her neck out-
wards and upwards but making no sound that I could hear.
20 minutes later during which time the look-out
female had not relaxed her vigil, a groups of langurs Pres-
bytis entellus about 50-60 m away, started making the
8.
288
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
alarm call followed immediately by some chital Cervus
axis. These alarm calls were from the same area that the
sentinel female had been looking towards. One of the lan-
gurs that I could see was looking directly below its own
perch while calling.
On hearing the alarm calls, all the gaur stopped
moving and feeding and looked intently towards the
source of the calls. The sentinel then began snorting and
blowing spray through her nostrils and emitting short,
hoarse, loud bellows which were echoed by some of the
other gaur. The "pff-hong" alarm call described by Brander
(1923) was not heard. As the sentinel’s agitation increased
she started making short rushes in the direction of the
predator, began to paw the ground and leap violently
around, kicking her legs high into the air. Because of the
poor visibility, I could not make out whether the gaur
deeper in the forest were also indulging in these gyrations,
but they were certainly extremely noisy. This went on for
about 10 minutes. Meanwhile another cow, possibly the
mother of the second young calf, was far more restrained,
only emitting a few snorts. She remained close to the two
young calves who appeared a little nervous but not
frightened.
Suddenly the sentinel charged towards the unseen
predator, upon which two of the other females also
charged. I quickly lost sight of them because of the thick
growth but could hear them about 100 m away. After a few
minutes the frequency of the alarm calls tapered off in-
dicating that the predator had moved away. Since the bull
remained hidden I could not see his reaction. Unfortunate-
ly the identity of the predator remained unknown, although
I had earlier seen the fresh tracks of a tigress heading in
this direction. It is therefore quite likely that she was the
predator in question.
There are two points of interest here: 1) The very dif-
ferent reactions of the ‘sentinel’ and the second cow —
one alert, agitated and aggressive, the other more
restrained, staying with the young during the crisis.
2) The extreme reaction of the gaur was probably in-
duced by the presence of the two young calves. This per-
haps was compounded by the dense nature of the forest
which effectively concealed the predator. This provides an
interesting contrast to the reaction of an alarmed bull gaur
in Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary, which rushed out of a teak
forest into a clearing around a waterhole and then allowed
a tigress to approach to within 20 m, perhaps because he
could see her and gauge her unaggressive intention
(Karanth 1984).
August 9, 1989 HASHIM N. TYABJI
References
Brander, A.A. Dunbar (1923): Wild Animals in Central India. Karanth, K. Ullas (1984): Interaction between Gaur and Tiger
(London). in Bhaddra Wildlife Sanctuary, J. Bombay nat. Hist . Soc.
81(2): 460.
4. RECTO-VAGINAL PROLAPSE IN A WILD CHITAL CERVUS AXIS
On the evening of 19 February 1988 in Sariska Tiger
Reserve, Rajasthan, a chital Cervus axis doe was seen
resting near a wallow with some portions of intestine, in-
cluding rectum hanging outside. Soon it got up and walked
for a short distance and laydown near a Capparis bush.
Meanwhile a jackal went to the place where the doe was
previously resting, sniffed, took up the trail, tracked and
started chasing the doe. After 200 m of chase the doe was
cornered and killed by the jackal. However, the jackal had
to soon abandon the kill because of the disturbance caused
by tourists in a vehicle.
Based on the presence of milk in the engorged udder
and the tucked up abdomen, I concluded that the animal
had given birth recently. As happens in domestic ungu-
lates, the retention of placenta or weakening of peritonial
muscle or dystokia might lead to either prolapse of vaginal
mass alone or vaginal and rectal mass together (vaginal
prolapse or recto-vaginal prolapse). This has been reported
in wild ungulates in captivity (Fowler 1978). Animals in
the wild with this post-partum condition may have tittle
chance of survival and they fall easy prey to predators, as
it happened in this case.
November 26, 1988
K. SANKAR
References
Fowler, Murray E. (1978): Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine.
W.B. Saunders Company. London.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
289
5. GREAT CRESTED GREBE PODICEPS CRISTATUS CRISTATUS
NEAR BHILWARA, RAJASTHAN
I reached Rampura Agucha Mines near Bhilwara,
Rajasthan on 23 December 1982 to conduct a faunal sur-
vey. The following day, while scanning the shallow lake
at Agucha village for aquatic birds I sighted two pairs of
birds on the opposite shore of the lake. The birds were very
active and occasionally diving like cormorants. Since the
distance was too great to identify them even with field
glasses of 10 x 50, 1 reduced the distance till I was able to
see the details of the birds. They had long necks and
pointed bills and two black eartufts pointing backwards.
Due to elongated black feathers below the head the throat
appeared puffed up. The upper parts were dark brown.
HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN (compact
edition) by Salim Ah and S. Dillon Ripley. The charac-
teristics of the birds were similar to great crested grebe.
Strangely enough the lake has almost no reeds or other
aquatic vegetation.
According to the HANDBOOK, apart from Bharatpur
this is the first sighting of these birds in Rajasthan.
January 15, 1988 RAZATEHSIN
6. BLACK BITTERN IXOBRYCHUS FLAVICOLUS (LATHAM),
AN ADDITION TO THE AVIFAUNA OF MAHARASHTRA
On 23 February 1987 we were birdwatching at the
water’s edge of Vihar Lake in the Sanjay Gandhi Nation-
al Park, Borivli, Bombay, when, around 0800 hrs, our at-
tention was drawn to a dark-coloured bird which flew out
of the reedbed, disturbed by an approaching fisherman. It
flew towards us, appeared as if to land, then circled thrice
low overhead at eye level and dropped into another reed-
patch. As there was perfect visibility we had a good look
at the bird in flight and identified it as a black bittern
Ixobrychus flavicollis.
This bittern has an unmistakable plumage distin-
guishing it from other bitterns. It is about the size of a pond
heron Ardeola grayii , black above with a white cheek
patch and prominent chestnut and black markings on the
underparts. The bird was an adult male. This species is
crepuscular in nature and had it not been for the fisherman
we would have certainly missed it. Despite our regular
weekend visits to ViLar lake we have not seen this species
before in this area. We later confirmed its identity by
checking specimens in the BNHS collection.
The black bittern is not recorded from Maharashtra
(Abdulali 1981). Its distribution is given as ‘Resident,
shifting locally with water condition. Thinly and patchily
distributed throughout the better watered parts of the
subcontinent’ (Ali and Ripley 1978). It is generally found
in reedy inland swamps, and lakes bordered by forests.
It is quite possible that the prevailing drought con-
ditions in many areas of the peninsula this season have
caused this species to shift residence locally to areas where
water is more abundant. It is also possible that this species
may have been missed in the state due to its crepuscular
and secretive nature and to a paucity of people looking out
for birds in general.
NTTIN JAMDAR
April 12, 1988 KIRAN SRIVASTAVA
References
Abdulali, H.A. (1981): Checklist of the birds of Maharashtra. Ali, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1978): Handbook of the Birds of India
Bombay Natural History Society. (Published by Author) and Pakistan. Vol. I. Second Edition. Oxford University
Press, Delhi.
7. OCCURRENCE OF SPOONBILL PLATALEA LEUCORODIA LINN. IN KERALA
To our knowledge, the spoonbill does not appear to
have been recorded in Kerala at any time and is not men-
tioned in Salim Ali’s BIRDS OF KERALA (1969). The Ver-
nay Survey report ( JBNHS 39: 450) says the spoonbill ap-
pears to have been recorded only from the eastern side of
Madras presidency.
On 25 January 1988 we were at Manakkody Kole
lands 10 km southwest of Trichur town. Here paddy is cul-
tivated in the marshy fields (Kole fields) after pumping out
the monsoon water which submerges the fields for nearly
half of the year. This vast marshland is a haven for birds
like egrets, waders, gulls, terns, teals and many other
species.
While watching the egrets through binoculars we
noticed that some of the birds exhibited a peculiar feeding
behaviour — sweeping semi-circular movements from side
to side, with bill immersed in the mud. This struck us and
there was no difficulty in identifying them as spoonbills
290
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
when the birds came into closer view. We went to the spot
again on 1st and 2nd of February and were lucky enough
to see 3 and 5 spoonbills respectively. One of us, (A.P.J.)
photographed these birds using a 300 ram telephoto lens.
On our first visit (25 February 1988) we observed the birds
(7) from 17 00 to 1800 hrs and all of them were feeding ac-
tively. On our subsequent visits (1st and 2nd of February)
we observed the birds from 1 600 to 1 800 hrs but the birds
were resting and preening and not feeding. The birds were
quite at home among little and large egrets which were
present in hundreds.
A.P. JAIRAJ
March 15, 1988 V.K. SANJEEV KUMAR
8. BRAHMINY DUCK TADORNA FERRUGINEA (PALLAS) BREEDING IN SIKKIM
On 12 August 1987 while returning from Kupup (c.
3700 m) in East Sikkim, I kept a sharp look-out for the
‘golden ducks’ which people in the army said were
‘always’ around the few high altitude lakes there. Besides,
on our earlier visit on 7 May 1987 they took us to a lake
at Kupup called Batang Chu where at 1005 hrs I could
clearly hear the ducks calling nearby, but could not sight
them due to a thick fog which reduced visibility to a few
feet. (Recently, during the Asian Waterfowl Census con-
ducted here on 11 January 1988 two adult brahminy ducks
Tadorna ferruginea were finally sighted at a 60% frozen
Batang Chu.)
This day, the fog cleared up by afternoon and sure
enough at 1555 hrs on the bank of Sherathang lake (3650
m) which was just below the road we saw a group of seven
brahminy ducks clearly visible due to the stunted vegeta-
tion. A closer look confirmed that there were two adult
birds and five large chicks a shade darker than the adults.
They were quite tame and not at all disturbed by our
presence 100 m above them. We watched them moving
around placidly and aimlessly, not feeding, for a few
minutes and then moved on.
Earlier on 19 May 1982, a pair of 1 year old chicks
were handed over to the Forest Department by a police
constable, Bir Bahadur Rai. He had collected them as
chicks and hand-reared them for a year at Muguthang (c.
5000 m), west of Thangu, in north Sikkim. These chicks
were released into the aviary at the Deer Park in Gangtok
and have over five years grown into healthy, vociferous
adults.
Members of the Botanical Survey of India, Sikkim
Circle, after a tour of north Sikkim in August 1987 reported
sighting about a dozen free brahminy ducks and two birds
caged by the army personnel stationed at Chho Lhamo (c.
5300 m) where there are warm water lakes.
Salim Ali, in his BIRDS OF SIKKIM (1962) lists the
brahminy duck in the Appendix amongst "Birds recorded
as occurring, or having occurred, in ‘Sikkim’ including the
terai, foothills, mountains and the Tibetan plateau facies,
of which either the status is indeterminate or no recent or
sufficient data are available."
Hence these records from Batang Chu (3700 m)
Sherathang (3650 m), Muguthang (c. 5000 m) and Chho
Lhamo (c. 5300 m) provide sufficient evidence to include
the brahminy duck in the bird list of Sikkim.
March 24, 1988 USHA GANGULI-LACHUNGPA
9. SPOTBILL DUCK ANAS POECILORHYNCHA J.R. FORSTER IN KERALA
In the HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKIS-
TAN (Compact Edition, 1983), Salim Ali and Dillon Ripley
say that the spotbill duck Anas poecilorhyncha is found
only up to Mysore in the south. Also it is not mentioned in
Salim Ah’s BIRDS OF KERALA (1969).
On 11 March 1983, 1 saw four spotbill ducks in the
Mangalam reservoir in Palghat district of Kerala. Due to
the failure of both the monsoons in 1982, there was an un-
precedented drought in Kerala during the first half of 1 9 83 .
The reservoir was almost completely dried up and there
was very little water near the dam. In this water four spot-
bill ducks were swimming.
On 15 February 1987 1 and L. Namasivayam of the
Kerala Natural History Society saw three spotbih ducks in
the Kadalundy estuary, 20 km south of Kozhikode. It was
high tide and the birds were resting among reeds in one of
the exposed reedbeds, near a group of openbill storks, also
a rare sight in Kerala now. Again we two saw four spotbill
ducks in the estuary of the Bharatapuzha, near Ponnani in
Malappuram district. There were over 2000 garganey teals
and pintail ducks in the estuary. But the spotbill ducks kept
away from all other birds there. Namasivayam saw two
spotbill ducks in Kadalundy on 9 September, 1985 (pers.
comm.). Thus, the spotbill duck has begun to appear in
north Kerala regularly, even though in small numbers.
Its occurrence in Kadalundy and Ponnani is interest-
ing in another respect also. Hugh Whistler says: "Fresh
water is essential to them (spotbill ducks), even brackish
water like the Sunderbunds not fcfeing to their taste."
(POPULAR HANDBOOK OF INDIAN BIRDS. Natraj Publishers,
1986).Butin Kadalundy and Ponnani the birds are seen
in brackish water.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
291
A flock of spotbill ducks is not a rare sight in Tirunel-
velli district in the southern part of Tamil Nadu. I have seen
them several times in the irrigation tanks in Nanguneri
Taluk and flocks of 25-50 birds flying to farther south. It
is clear that the distribution of the spotbill duck extends
far south of Mysore.
April 12, 1988 P.K. UTHAMAN
10. RED KITE MILVUS MILVUS IN LADAKH
On 20 July 1987 a raptor flying over Leh (Ladakh)
attracted our attention. We identified it as a red kite Mil-
vus milvus , a species which we are familiar with, it being
common in France. The main field marks seen were the
overall reddish coloration, the forked, red tail, the large
white patches on the underwing and the light coloured
head. A few black kites M. migrans flying around provided
additional references for comparison. On 21 July, 2 red
kites were seen again, flying low over the town. One of
them could be identified as an adult, and one was carrying
some prey. On returning to Leh on 2 August, none of them
could be seen again.
Ali and Ripley (1983) mention 4 previous observa-
tions in the Indian subcontinent, in Kutch, Gujarat and
Orissa; a fifth one was made recently in Bharatpur (V.
Prakash, pers. comm.). Ours seems to be the first record
of the red kite occurring in India within its known breed-
ing season in Europe; the record of 2 birds (a pair?) is
noteworthy, though breeding was not even suspected.
M. FILY
May 21, 1988 C. PERENNOU
References
Ali, S. & Rbpley, S.D. (1983): Handbook of the birds of India Delhi,
and Pakistan. Compact edition. Oxford University Press,
1 1 . OSPREY PANDION HAUAETUS IN SIKKIM
In the second week of November 1986, an adult
osprey Pandion haliaetus was trapped by the trout keeper
of the Fisheries Department with the help of a glue-trap
called ‘lisso’, while catching trout from the trout farm at
Yoksum in west Sikkim (alt. 1515 m). The bird which was
skinned and displayed in their office, was noticed by the
local wildlife warden who brought it to me for identifica-
tion. It is now in the museum of the Forest Department at
Gangtok.
Salim Ali, in his BIRDS OF SIKKIM (1962) mentions
the osprey as one of the "Birds recorded as occurring, or
having occurred, in ‘Sikkim’ including the terai, foothills,
mountains and the Tibetan Plateau facies of which either
the status is indeterminate or no recent or sufficient data
are available." HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND
PAKISTAN (1 983) by Ali and Ripley mentions that it "breeds
in small numbers ... along the Himalayas between 2000 m
to 3300 m altitude (Ladakh, Kashmir, Garhwal, Kumaon)
and in Assam (Cachar). Observed throughout the year in
Nepal valley. Mainly winter visitor, September through
March, throughout the subcontinent." The book also men-
tions that it is locally called ‘pantiong’ by the Lepchas.
The osprey is placed in Schedule I of the Indian
Wildlife Protection Act (1972).
March 24, 1988 USHA GANGULI-LACHUNGPA
12. SUCCESSFUL NESTING OF SHAHEEN FALCON FALCO PEREGRINUS PEREGRIN ATOR
IN TAMIL NADU
The Indian peregrine, or shaheen falcon Falco
peregrinus peregrinator , is a rare breeding bird found in
scattered populations throughout the entire Indian Union
(Baker 1917, Ali and Ripley 1968). Despite its widespread
geographic occurrence, no information has been published
on its present-day reproductive success rate. North
temperate peregrine falcons Falco peregrinus have ex-
perienced drastic population declines resulting from the
use of certain pesticides such as DDT (Peakall 1976).
Such pesticides are presently used in many parts of India
(Kalra and Chawla 1981). It is noteworthy, therefore, to
report on a recent, successful nesting of the shaheen fal-
con in the Eastern Ghats of Tamil Nadu. I hope that this
account will promote intensive shaheen falcon censusing
to assess present population trends in this raptor (see also
Naoroji 1986a, b).
On 29 and 30 May 1982, Preston and Anne Ahimaz
and myself visited Gingee Fort in northeastern Tamil
Nadu. The site is administered and protected by the Ar-
chaeology Survey of India. The terrain is typical for that
of the southern Eastern Ghats and consists of rocky, iso-
lated hills and low mountains surrounded by large expan-
292
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
ses of sparsely wooded, low agricultural land (elevation
less than 100 m). Climatically, the area is categorized as
tropical dry deciduous (All and Ripley 1968).
The shaheen falcons resided on the high butte (eleva-
tion 307 m) supporting the ruins of Gingee Fort in the Mut-
takadu Reserved Forest. The falcons used several of the
overhung, horizontal ledges on the sheer, south-facing cliff
for resting and feeding. Accumulated guano (‘white
wash’) on these ledges marked the location of several pos-
sible nest sites. The cliff varied in height from 50 to 70 m,
and was approximately 180 m in length.
The falcons were observed on the evening of 29 May
for a total of 2 hours and on 30 May for nearly the entire
day. During this period they were active frequently. At
several times clear views were had of both adult falcons
and their two fully-fledged young. The young birds were
already accomplished fliers, capable of following the
adults about the butte and engaging in diving food-ex-
change manoeuvres.
One prey item being carried by an adult was iden-
tified as a roseringed parakeet Psittacula krameri. Falcon
vocalizations heard included: begging screams of the
young, mate recognition e-chuck calls of the adults, and
defensive screaming of the adults when they chased off
black kites Milvus migrans who strayed too close to the
home cliff. The presence of human visitors passing the cliff
on their way to the archaeological site did not appear to
disturb the falcons. Indeed, I was able to observe one of
the immature shaheens while it sat in a tree not more than
20 m away.
I judged the young falcons to be 7 weeks old, based
on their advanced fledgling stage (see Cade 1960). This
implies that they hatched during the first week of April, in
turn suggesting that the eggs were laid in the first week of
March. Ali and Ripley (1968) report laying dates of
shaheen falcons in southern India from March to April. In
contrast, Baker (1928) described their laying period as
January to February for the same region. Heller and Heller
(1984) observed nesting behaviour in shaheen falcons
which indicated the presence of advanced young at a Sri
Lankan eyrie site on 10 August, implying a possible egg
laying date in May.
As many as six separate complexes of mountains
and buttes lie within a 40 km radius of Gingee Fort.
Despite heavy agricultural use, the area may be excellent
habitat for shaheen falcons. Impaired peregrine falcon
reproduction suggests that persistent pesticides are present
in the environment (Peakall 1976). Consequently, a sur-
vey of nesting shaheen falcon populations in this area
would provide valuable information, allowing one to as-
sess potential environmental threats to their survival.
Acknowledgements
I wish to express my gratitude to Preston and Anne
Ahimaz for showing me the falcons at Gingee, to the Ar-
chaeological Survey of India for permission to visit their
site, and Julie Smith for her helpful comments on the
manuscript. I thank Prof. Rudolf Altevogt of the Zoology
Institute, Munster University (F.R.G.), for introducing me
to India, and Mr. Romulus Whitaker, Madras Snake Park
Trust, for his hospitality.
January 16, 1988 DOUGLAS A. BELL
References
Ali, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1968): Handbook of thtybirds of India and
Pakistan. Vol. I. Oxford University Press, Bombay, pp.
350-352.
Baker, E.C.S. (1917): Notes on the nidification of some Indian
Falconidae. Ibis 5: 35.
(1928): The Fauna of British India. Birds — Vol. V.
Taylor and Francis, London, pp. 34-36.
Cade, T.J. (1960): Ecology of the peregrine and gyrfalcon popula-
tions in Alaska. Univ. Calif. Publ. Tool. 63 (3): 151- 290.
Heller, M. & Heller, I. (1984): Ein Wanderfalkenhorst Falco
peregrinus peregrinatorim Dschungel Ceylons. Verh. orn.
Ges. Bayern 24(1): 139-140.
Kalra, R.L. & Chawla, R.P. (1981): Impact of pesticidal pollu-
tion in the environment. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 78: 1-
15.
Naoroji, R. (1986a): Raptors and their habitat in danger. Hornbill
1986(3): 29-33.
(1986b): Raptors and their habitat in danger. Hornbill
1986 (4): 28-33.
Peakall, D.B. (1976): The peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus)
and pesticides. Canadian Field-Naturalist 90: 301-307.
13. REAPPEARANCE OF COMMON PEAFOWL PAVO CRISTATUS LINN.
IN PARAMBIKULAM WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, KERALA
The first Working Plan for Nemmara Forest Division not appear in the bird list of the area by Vijayan (J. Bom-
(1976) mentions ‘very rare’ occurrence of common bay nat. Hist. Soc. 75(3): 888-900). I have also not seen
peafowl Pavo cristatus around Sungam in Parambikulam the bird during the last seven years of my work in the area.
Wildlife Sanctuary (10° 25’N, 76° 43’E). The species does A pair (a male and a female) is now commonly sighted
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
293
near S ungam watch tower area. This pair must have moved eleven years remain obscure,
from the adjacent area of Anamalai Wildlife Sanctuary of
Tamil Nadu where it is normally seen in some parts. The
reasons for its disappearance and reappearance after about March 22, 1988 P.S. EAS A
14. ON THE VOICE OF THE KORA OR WATERCOCK GALUCREX CINEREA
Since Salim Ali and Ripley in the HANDBOOK (1983)
and Dillon Ripley (1977) in his comprehensive
monograph on the Rallidae have based their description of
the kora’s voice on a note contributed by me to this Jour-
nal in 1958 C JBNHS 55: 560-6 1 ), I deem it my duty to bring
that note up to date in the light of more recent observa-
tions.
Although the 1958 note was based on a single ex-
perience, subsequent observations stretching over two
years (1986 and 1987) and involving more than 70 en-
counters with the bird at Kavassery (Palghat Dt., Kerala)
have validated it. But something has to be added to the
description given therein.
At Kavassery the kora G oilier ex cinerea is a mon-
soon visitor and is heard only from the middle of June to
late September. As no male seen here develops red legs
during this period, I suspect that all males are birds that
have not started breeding. The total absence of violence
when males meet seems to support this suspicion.
On 18 August 1986 1 was able to get very close to a
male calling in a field of tall paddy. This enabled me, for
the first time, to hear a brief, low drrr , which the bird ut-
tered at the beginning of each of a number of runs. This
sound resembled nothing so much as that of a distant
scooter starting. Once I became aware of this brief and sub-
dued practice, I was able to hear it even when the bird was
at a greater distance.
Thereafter I found that whenever a kora began a run
with a set of utumb* s, he prefixed the low ‘drumming* (as
I named it), but not if the run began with either of the other
notes. A single exception was noted on 5 August 1987
when a bird drummed and then uttered a series of kok! s.
The drumming, like the utumb ’s, was always uttered with
the neck arched and the head held very low.
The kok ’s were uttered almost at the same rate as the
utumb's. The sharp kkow ’§ were produced at a lower rate
and were also fewer. Generally, a male would begin a run
with the drumming, follow it with a variable number of
utumb *s and, without a pause, raise its head and emit a
series of kok ’s and wind up the run with a small number
of kkow’ s. Sometimes it would straightaway lower its head
and, omitting the drumming, begin uttering another set of
utumb ’s, kok ’s and kkow ’s.
On some evenings a bird would go on calling like
this with occasional brief intervals of silence for two hours
or more. On 4 August 1987 between 1750 and 1815 hours
I timed six runs at random with a stopwatch. The 1st and
5th runs lasted 19 seconds each; the 2nd 5 seconds; the 3rd
7 seconds; the 4th 10 seconds; and the 6th only 3 seconds
(average 10.5 seconds). But on 6 August 1987 a male ut-
tered extraordinarily long runs, one of which lasted near-
ly 120 seconds.
Regardless of the nature of the note emitted, the kora
keeps its bill open while uttering it, snapping the bill shut
at the end of each note. Generally, each kok is accom-
panied by a downward jerk of the head while the kkow *s
were not.
During 1986-87 various birdwatchers including
Suresh Elamon, Dr K.V. Sreenivasan, P.K. Uthaman and
R. Venugopalan who visited Kavassery were able to listen
to the calls of the kora including the drumming. P.S.
Sivaprasad recorded the drumming and the other sounds
using a parabolic reflector.
May I take this opportunity to point out that an error
has crept into the account of the kora’s call given in
Ripley’s book? The opening words of the sentence ‘With
its back in the original position ...’ should read ‘With the
head back in the original position ...’I was able to go
through Ripley’s text only because of his kindness in send-
ing me photostats of ten pages of the expensive volume. I
am deeply obliged to him for his generosity.
May 10, 1988 K.K. NEELAKANTAN
References
Ali, Salim & Ripley, S.D. (1983): The Handbook of the Birds Press, Oxford University Press, Delhi, p. 138.
of India and Pakistan. Compact edition. Oxford University Ripley, S.D. (1977): Rails of t he World, p. 265.
294
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
15. RECENT BREEDING RECORDS OF THE LESSER FLORICAN SYPHEOTIDES INDICA
(MILLER) FROM ANDHRA PRADESH
(With a text-figure )
While the breeding range and biology of the lesser
florican Sypheotides indica has been well documented
(Jerdon 1864, Baker 1921, Dharmakumarsinhji 1950), the
non-breeding range and movements are as yet obscure ( Ali
and Ripley 1969, Ali el al. 1985, Sankaran and Rahmani
1986). The birds appear to winter in peninsular and
southern India (Jerdon 1864, Dharmakumarsinhji 1950).
Jerdon (1864) also wrote that a few birds breed in all parts
of southern India, from July to November, and in an in-
stance a hen was seen incubating as late as January. In
Maharashtra, it was reported to be common and bred
around Solapur (Davidson and Wenden 1878, Butler
1880). However, between 1981 and 1984, while R.M. was
studying the great Indian bustard Ardeotis nigriceps at
Solapur the lesser florican was seen only on two occasions.
Breeding was not recorded from that area.
The' lesser florican is a monsoon breeder, utilizing
the grasslands of northwestern India as the breeding
habitat (Magrath et al. 1985). Males arrive into the
grasslands with the southwest monsoons. Fluctuations are
seen in the population of floricans in a given area depend-
ing on the vagaries of rains. For instance, at Sailana near
Ratlam, Madhya Pradesh, (where R.S. has been studying
the lesser florican since 1985) the number of floricans that
entered the grasslands and settled to breed varied widely
depending on the time of commencement of the rains and
the amount of rainfall received (Sankaran and Rahmani
1986). By early October males stop displaying and disap-
pear from the grasslands.
Andhra Pradesh is the only region from where the
lesser florican has been sighted regularly during the post
breeding periods (Ali et al. 1985, Sankaran and Rahmani
1986). At Rollapadu near Kumool, Andhra Pradesh
(where R.M. studied the great Indian bustard between
1985 and 1987) the lesser florican has been seen oc-
casionally every winter. Trappers of the ‘Neel shikari*
community from the Kumool, Guntakal, Bellary and
Raichur areas know the florican (they call it ‘Dhabhor*),
and noted that it was now infrequently seen. They have
seen its display and nest and claimed that the display was
usually seen from Dussera onwards, i.e. October/Novem-
ber but none for the last 8 to 10 years.
Results
Between June 1986 and January 1989, lesser
floricans were seen on 29 occasions at Rollapadu (Table
1). As locating displaying males is much easier compared
to chance flushing of a non-displaying male, the three or
Table 1
LESSER FLORICAN SIGHTINGS AT ROLLAPADU
Table 2
DISPLAYING MALE LESSER FLORICANS SEEN AT ROLLAPADU
four males seen displaying regularly in January 1988 have
been taken into account as four sightings. Nesting females
have not been taken into consideration. Though the data
(Table 1) shows a trend of more florican sightings in the
winter, the total number of sightings (29 in two and a half
years) is too small to draw a conclusion.
In the winter of 1987/1988, displaying lesser
floricans were recorded for about 30 days (Table 2). Bet-
ween 7 January and 21 January at least 3 to 4 males were
displaying regularly in the grassland. Nest and/or chicks
were located 7 times (Table 3). Breeding of the lesser
florican was thus recorded from Andhra Pradesh after a
gap of at least 8 to 10 years.
Neither in the winter of 1986/87 or 1988/89 was
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
295
Table 3
NESTING RECORDS FROM ROLLAPADU
breeding recorded in spite of the presence of both males
and females within the grassland at Rollapadu (Table 1).
Only one nest was reported from Banganpalle near Kur-
nool in January 1989.
Discussion
In 1987 northwestern India (the main florican breed-
ing range) was under severe drought. At Sailana very few
floricans came, and displaying males were seen irregular-
ly. In Saurashtra — the main breeding area of the lesser
florican — the condition was very much worse and almost
no floricans were seen. This was in sharp contrast to 1986,
when due to copious rainfall at least 50 territorial males
were present at Sailana. In 1988 northwestern India had
very high rainfall during the monsoons and the floricans
were recorded as breeding from several places in Gujarat
and western Madhya Pradesh.
The breeding of the lesser florican in Andhra Pradesh
appears to be distinctly linked with the amount of rainfall
in northwestern India. Floricans were not seen display-
ing/nesting at Rollapadu during years when rainfall was ex-
cellent (1988), normal (1986) or sub normal (1985) in
northwestern India. They however bred in the Rollapadu
area in a year when northwestern India was under severe
normal breeding range of lesser florican.
drought and where very few floricans were successful in
having territories or finding adequate nesting habitat.
The first male lesser florican to be seen displaying at
Rollapadu was on 11 October. This is about 10 to 15 days
after display stops at, and the birds disappear from, areas
like Sailana and Dahod in northwestern India. In 1985,
1986 and 1988 displays were last seen at Sailana between
28 September and 3 October.
During years of normal rainfall male lesser floricans
begin immigrating into grasslands of northwestern India by
the end of June. At this time males can be seen moulting
into their complete breeding plumage. While doing this
males begin establishing territories and start displaying
(Sank ar an and Rahmani 1986). The complete breeding
plumage is maintained up to the end of the season, i.e. early
October when display tapers to a finish. Reversal to a non-
breeding plumage was never seen while males were dis-
playing during the regular breeding season.
In contrast, males at Rollapadu were seen displaying
while moulting out of their breeding plumage. Unlike at
Sailana where territorial males are seen displaying for be-
tween 75 and 100 days, at Rollapadu they were not a con-
sistent feature at the grassland. Between mid October and
end January, barring a two week period when three to four
males displayed every day, display was recorded only
sporadically (Table 2).
Conclusions
From the evidence available, it seems that the lesser
floricans breed in suitable habitat in southern India when
unfavourable conditions like droughts severely affect the
regular breeding season in northwestern India. However, as
the birds show a tendency to prolong the breeding season
under unfavourable conditions, individual birds which
have been unsuccessful in holding territories or in nesting
may breed in the wintering range.
Acknowledgements
This study was done under the Endangered Species
Project of the Bombay Natural History Society which is
sponsored by the Department of Environment, Government
296
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
of India, and funded by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
We wish to thank Dr Asad R. Rahmani, Senior Scientist of
the Project, for critically evaluating the manuscript, and Mr
J.C. Daniel, Curator of the BNHS, for his constant en-
couragement.
January 5, 1988
Updated Feb. 10, 1989
RAVI SAN KARAN
RANJIT MANAKADAN
References
Ali, S., Daniel, J.C. & Rahmani, A.R. (1985): Study of the ecol-
ogy of certain endangered species of wildlife and their
habitats. The Floricans. Annual report I, 1984- 85. Bom-
bay Natural Histoiy Society, Bombay.
Ali, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1969): Handbook of the Birds of India and
Pakistan. Vol. II. Oxford University Press, Bombay.
Baker, E.C.S. (1921): The Game birds of India, Burma, and
Ceylon. Vol. II. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.
Butler, E.A. (1880): A tentative catalogue of the Deccan and
south Maharashtra country. Stray Feathers 9: 424.
Davidson, C.S. & Wenden, C.E. (1878): A Contribution to the
avifauna of the Deccan. Stray Feathers 7: 68-95.
Dharmakumarsinhji, K.S. (1950): The lesser florican: Its
courtship display, behaviour and habits. J. Bombay nat.
Hist.Soc.49: 201-216.
Jerdon, T.C. (1864): Birds of India. Vol II. (Published by the
author), Calcutta.
Magrath, R.D., Ridley, M.W. & Woinarski, J.Z. (1985): Status
and habitat requirements of the lesser florican in
Kathiawar, Western India. Bustard Studies 3: 185-193.
Sank aran, R. & Rahmani, A.R. (1986): Study of the ecology of
certain endangered species of wildlife and their habitats.
The lesser florican. Annual Report II. 1985-86. Bombay
Natural History Society, Bombay.
16. BLACKTAILED GODWIT LIMOSA UMOSA AND LARGE INDIAN PRATINCOLE
GLAREOLA PRATINCOLA - TWO NEW RECORDS FROM KERALA.
On 27 February 1986, 1 was observing birds on the
extensive mud-flats at the estuary of the Baliapattam river,
about 9 km north of Cannanore. Two large waders feed-
ing at the water’s edge caught my attention immediately.
One of them was identified unmistakably as the oyster-
catcher, which is a rare winter visitor to the Kerala coast.
The other bird had longer legs, long rufous-tinged neck
and breast and a slightly upcurved long bill. In flight, a
black band across the tip of white tail similar to that of the
oystercatcher and white wingbars confirmed the identity
of the bird as a blacktailed godwit Limosa limosa. This
bird has not been reported earlier from Kerala.
While observing birds in a wetland about 10 km
northeast off Cannanore on 28 April 1984, 1 came across a
group of 8 birds flying over fallow fields, with tern-like
flight on narrow pointed wings. After flying zig-zag hawk-
ing insects obviously for some time, the birds alighted in
a ploughed paddy field and could be observed for more
than 20 minutes as they picked food on the ground, run-
ning in short spurts and resting at intervals. The birds were
identified as the large Indian pratincole G l areola pratin-
cola, another new record from Kerala.
April 6, 1988 SASI KUMAR
17. MARSH SANDPIPER TRINGA STAGNATIUS EATING A FROG
On 31 December 1987, in Dihaila jheel in the
Karera Bustard Sanctuary, Shivpuri district, Madhya
Pradesh, we saw a reeve Philo mac has pugnax with a
small frog. The frog was alive and the bird was trying to
kill it. Several times, it put the frog in the shallow water,
then caught it again and shook it vigorously. Soon a marsh
sandpiper Tringa stagnatilis appeared and started follow-
ing the reeve, but the latter did not let go the frog. The
marsh sandpiper kept following the reeve and the
prospective meal.
A couple of minutes later it was joined by a second
marsh sandpiper. Seeing two sandpipers, the reeve
dropped the frog. The first sandpiper immediately dived
for the frog and after a few seconds of struggle swallowed
it head first while the reeve continued to watch.
As the frog was perhaps too big a food item for the
bird, for about 40 seconds, a bulge was seen in the neck
of the sandpiper and the bird appeared to be visibly un-
comfortable. To facilitate swallowing the frog, the
sandpiper walked slowly and drank water twice. When
the frog was gulped down fully, the sandpiper stood for
a few minutes and then resumed foraging. Meanwhile the
second sandpiper made no attempt to grab the food from
the first sandpiper.
Frog as a food item has not been reported for
Philomachus pugnax or Tringa stagnatilis. According to
Ali and Ripley (1969), the food of Philomachus pugnax
is molluscs, crustaceans, insects, worms and large quan-
tities sometimes exclusively of vegetable matter, while
that* of the marsh sandpiper is "small molluscs, crus-
taceans, insects and worms".
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
297
The reeve could not eat the frog but the way it was
struggling to dismember the prey, suggests that if the frog
had not been taken away by the marsh sandpiper, it would
have eaten it Though frogs may not be a regular food
item for these small waders, they should be included as
an occasional prey, especially for the marsh sandpiper.
ASAD R. RAHMANI
R.K. MOHAPATRA
April 9, 1988 CARL D’SXLVA
References
Ali, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1969): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. VoL 2. Oxford University Press, Bombay.
18, FOOD OF THE SPOTTED SANDPIPER TRINGA GLAREOLA LINN.
On one of my regular trips to Kali v el i tank near Pon- the process recurred two or three times, before the frog was
dicherry on 5 January 1988, I happened to observe a
spotted sandpiper Tringa glareola Linn. The bird was hop-
ping about and pecking at a food item which had mingled
with the grass and debris. When it finally lifted it up, I
found it was a frog, a subadult of Rcma sp. The frog was
larger than the bird’s beak, and was struggling in vain to
escape from its captor. The frog was soon overpowered,
and minced in the end, whereupon the bird started gulping
it down. After gulping the bird started regurgitating, and
19. SKUAS STERCORARIUS
Skuas are among the seabirds rarely reported from
the Indian west coast. My experience from Gokam in
North Kanara district indicates that these birds are not dif-
ficult to see provided a telescope is at hand.
On 6 September 1987 at 0800 hrs the first was ob-
served from Gokam beach as it attacked a tem. Its under-
parts were almost white with no breastband visible. Wings
and upperparts were uniformly dark brown apart from
white wing patches. It was more elegant than a pomator
hine skua Stercorarius pomarinus , but not as sleek as the
longtailed skua Stercorarius longicaudus. The tail
streamers were not visible on this or any of the skuas sub-
sequently observed. The observation corresponds well
with Peter Harrison’s description of an Arctic skua Ster-
corarius parasiticus of the light morph variety in its breed-
ing plumage (Harrison 1985). Another Arctic skua was
seen on 22 November from a beach near Gokam. It was
probably a subadult bird. None of the other skuas observed
were positively identified but, a few birds apart, all ap-
peared to be Arctic skuas.
The total number of «kvas observed was 50. Some
of these may have been repeaters moving around in the
area. In fact, 22 birds did not move in any specific direc-
tion.
As is the case with the gulls and terns along this
finally consumed. The handbook of birds (Ali and
Ripley, comp. ed. 1983) gives the diet of this bird as tiny
molluscs, crustaceans, insects, worms and small fishes.
But its feeding on a frog is being reported for the first time.
A similar observation of a marsh sandpiper Tringa stag -
natilis was made by Asad R. Rahmani (pers. comm.).
June 15, 1988 K. SAMPATH
SP. ON THE WEST COAST
coast, skuas were seen moving both northwards (12) and
southwards (16).
Only one bird was seen in September during 4 hours
of observation. 13 were recorded in October (11th: 3, 12th:
5, 13th: 2, 17th: 3) during 4 hours and 30 minutes of ob-
servation, i.e. about 3 skuas were seen per hour of obser-
vation.
In November 32 were recorded (5th: 6 of which one
was doubtful, 15th: 22, 22nd: 4. 4 skuas were seen per
hour. In December skuas went unnoticed on the 9th while
I was aboard a purse-seiner, and on the 25 th. Three were
recorded on 12 December. In December there was less than
half a skua per hour of observation.
On 17 January 1988, Ranjit Daniels, who has spent
five years studying birds in this district, and I visited
the rocky shore near Gokam for about one hour and 30
minutes. We saw on >kua though the number of gulls and,
even more so, terns 1 dropped sharply.
Skuas were no n ported by Davidson from the dis-
trict (J. Bombay not . t'st. Soc. 11: 652-679 and 12: 43-
72). According to S.A. Hussain (pers. comm.) the last
report from the west coast was by J.C. Sinclair in 1974.
February 4, 1988 STIG TOFT MADSEN
Harrison, P. (1985): Seabirds. London.
References
298
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
20. INDIAN RIVER TERN STERNA AURANTIA ,
A COASTAL SPECIES OR A CASE OF MISTAKEN IDENTITY?
Lai Mohan (1986) in a note on the recovery of a
ringed sandwich tern Sterna sandvicensis in the Pil-
laimadarrt lagoon, a coastal area of Mandapam in Tamil
Nadu, makes reference to the common species of terns
seen there. These include the Caspian tern Hydroprogne
caspia , gullbilled tern Gelochelidon nilotica , and Indian
river tern Sterna aurantia. The last of this list deserves
some attention.
The Indian river tern as the name suggests, is a
denizen of rivers, reservoirs, and other freshwater courses,
and is rarely seen on the coast (Ali and Ripley 1983). A
marine tern that on casual observation may be mistaken
for the Indian river tern is the Indian lesser crested tem
Sterna bengalensis. The latter species is regarded as com-
mon along both seaboards of India (Ali and Ripley, loc.
cit.). Sugathan (1983) lists both species from Point
Calimere, further north along the same coast in Tamil
Nadu, but does not mention the habitat of his sightings.
However, Lai Mohan (in press), lists the gullbilled tern,
Indian lesser crested tem, large crested tem Sterna bergii ,
Caspian tem, and sandwich tem, in decreasing order of
capture by nomadic tribals on the coast in Mandapam
during the same period of time. The author makes no
reference to the presence of the Indian river tern.
Balachandran (pers. comm.), who has been trapping coas-
tal birds for ringing in the same area, confirms that the In-
dian lesser crested tem is very common along that coast.
and that there have been no sightings of the Indian river
tem on the coast or at a freshwater lagoon about 7 km in-
land.
Both species are of a similar size and overall general
coloration. However, the bill of the Indian river tem is
smaller and is yellow in colour, while that of the other
species is larger in size and is yellow to orange yellow in
colour. The colour of the legs can be used to differentiate
the two, red in the former and black in the latter species.
The former has a black crown in summer, while in the lat-
ter the crown and nuchal crest are black.
From my experience in the Gulf of Kutch in par-
ticular, and Gujarat in general, the Indian lesser crested
tem is a common species along the coast throughout the
year, and is often seen foraging in tidal creeks and lagoons.
The Indian river tem on the other hand, is ubiquitous on
fresh water and even nests at some reservoirs during early
summer. On no occasion have I seen these species in each
other’s normal habitat. I have personally known
birdwatchers to confuse these two species in marine waters
in Gujarat.
In the light of the above, it would be of interest that
the Indian river tem, if the identification is valid, is in fact
a common species along the coast in the Mandapam area
of Tamil Nadu.
March 5, 1988 TAEJ MUNDKUR
References
Ali, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1983): Handbook of the birds of India and
Pakistan. Compact Edition. Oxford University Press,
Delhi.
Lal Mohan, R.S. (1986): Recovery of a ringed sandwich tem
Sterna sandvicensis sandvicensis from Rameshwaram is-
land, Tamil Nadu. J. Bombay not. Hist. Soc. 83: 664.
(1988): Occurrence of coastal birds in nets at the Pil-
laimadam lagoon during 1982 and 1983. Proc. Symp. En-
dangered Marine Animals and Marine Parks, Cochin,
India; 12 to 16 January 1985.
Suoathan, R. (1983): Some interesting aspects of the avifauna of
the Point Calimere Sanctuary, Thanjavur district, Tamil
Nadu. J. Bombay not. Hist. Soc. 79: 567-575.
21. ON THE STATUS OF THE SANDWICH TERN STERNA SANDVICENSIS
ON INDIA’S WEST COAST
(With a text-figure)
Considerable uncertainty seems to shroud the status
of the sandwich tem Sterna sandvicensis in India.
Alexander (1929) includes both the Arabian Sea and the
Bay of Bengal in the wintering range of this maritime tern,
while Ripley (1982) restricts its occurrence in the Indian
subcontinent to the coast of Pakistan and Gujarat In the
light of recent records from the southern peninsula (Am-
bedkar 1985 and Lal Mohan 1980) my own observations
from Goa might be of interest
Since March 1982 1 have been visiting a sandspit on
Moijim Beach at the mouth of the river Chapora in North
Goa district (c. 15° 32’N, 73° 53 ’E) that seems to be the
only regular resting place of maritime terns on Goa’s 160
km long coastline. The main constituents of this congrega-
tion through the year are the large crested tem Sterna ber-
gii with up to 150 individuals in August and the Indian
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
299
Table 1
MONTHLY MAXIMUM NUMBERS OF SANDWICH TERNS IN THE YEARS 1982-86
n.d. = no data
Fig. 1. Monthly maximum numbers of sandwich terns,
averaged for the period 1982-86
lesser crested tern Sterna bengalensis with up to 800 in-
dividuals in March. Gullbilled tern Gelochelidon nilotica,
Caspian tern Hydroprogne caspia, common tern Sterna
hirundo, brownwinged tern Sterna anaethetus and little
tern Sterna albifrons are also regular or occasional visitors.
The most regular visitor and the one arriving in the
greatest number I found to be the sandwich tem. From
March 1982 to December 1986 1 undertook a quantitative
survey of this species at Moijim Beach. Counts and es-
timates of birds at rest were generally done at about ten
day intervals and usually at midday, when the fewest terns
are likely to be off-shore on foraging trips, and preferably
at low tide, when exposed tidal sandbanks offer addition-
al and undisturbed resting places. Estimates during the
winter months November to April are very much on the
low side since the relatively small flock of terns is then
dwarfed and partly obscured by a huge number of winter-
ing gulls. The optical equipment used comprised Zeiss
10/40 binoculars and a Zeiss 30/60 telescope. The results
of this survey are shown in Table 1 . All the sandwich terns
seen between April and August were in sub-adult plumage
A detailed discussion of these results would be
premature in view of the relatively short period of obser-
vation and the consequent lack of statistical significance.
However, in the light of these observations on Morjim
Beach, the sandwich tem can be categorized as a regular
winter visitor in substantial numbers, with a sizeable sum-
mering population of non-breeding birds. Singles and
groups of up to 10 individuals can be seen along Goa’s
coastline at all seasons, so it would seem that this species
is largely overlooked, as Ambedkar (1985) suggests.
Or could it be that the mouth of the river Chapora is
an isolated resting place of the sandwich tem that has es-
caped the attention of ornithologists? But in that case, how
could these mainly non-pelagic and easily identifiable
terns reach this site without being noticed during their
migration?
February 4, 1988 HEINZ LAINER
References
Alexander, W.B. (1929): Birds of the Ocean. London.
Ambedkar, V.C. (1985): Occurrence of the sandwich tem Sterna
sandvicensis in India - a ring recovery. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 82(2): 410.
Lal Mohan, P.S. (1986): Recovery of a ringed sandwich tem
Sterna sandvicensis from Rameswaram Island, Tamil
Nadu. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83(3): 664.
Ripley, S.D. (1982): A synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakis-
tan. Second edn. Bombay Natural History Society, Bom-
bay.
22. INCUBATION PERIOD OF INDIAN LITTLE BROWN DOVE
STREPTOPELIA SENEGALENSIS (LINN.)
The incubation period of one of the commonest
birds, the Indian little brown dove Streptopelia senegalen-
sis is not known, although its breeding season is recorded
as from January to October (Ali and Ripley 1983). For-
tunately we got an opportunity to record the incubation
period of this bird.
In the first week of February 1987, we saw its nest
with two eggs on a dicotomous branch of a guava Psidium
300
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 87
guajava tree in the small backyard of our house. Unfor-
tunately the eggs were preyed upon by some predator.
After a week, it laid two more eggs, the first egg on 21
February and the second, the following day. The eggs
hatched on 8 March, taking 14 days for incubation.
According to Ali and Ripley (1983), both male and
female share incubation. However, during our observation
it was difficult to differentiate between the male and
female. The incubation shift was not immediate, leaving
the nest unprotected for a long time in the day, which may
be the reason for the predation.
C.R. AJITH KUMAR
January 9, 1988 N.K. RAMACHANDRAN
References
Ali, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1983): Handbook of the birds of India and Pakistan. Compact ed. Oxford University Press, Delhi.
23. INDIAN GREAT HORNED OWL BUBO BUBO (LINN.) AND
PEAFOWL PAVO
V
Chandesra, a village c. 20 km from Udaipur (Rajas-
than) and its surroundings abound in peafowl, because the
inhabitants of the village religiously protect these birds.
On the evening of 22 April 1988 we were standing near a
big mango tree at the base of a hill on the outskirts of the
village. Many birds had already settled on the tree for the
night. The sun had already set and hence the light was dim.
A full grown peafowl Pavo cristcUus with a long train flew
down the hill and perched on top of the tree. A great homed
owl Bubo bubo suddenly came and struck the bird, which
CRJSTATUS LINN.
dropped to the ground with a thud. The owl took a long
turn and came back to its prey. Meanwhile three pie-dogs
which were already under the tree dashed towards the crip-
pled or probably dead bird and started tearing it to pieces.
The owl, on seeing its prey in the possession of the dogs,
turned and flew away.
RAZA TEHSXN
June 14, 1988 FATEMA TEHSIN
24. UNUSUALLY LARGE CONGREGATION AND BEHAVIOUR OF
INDIAN ROLLERS CORACIAS BENGHALENSIS
Normally, Indian rollers Coracias benghalensis , a
common species, are to be seen sitting singly on
electric/telephone wires, pouncing on prey like frogs,
lizards, insects etc. on the ground and returning with the
prey either to the same perch or to another nearby. Black
drongos Dicrurus adsimilis , in contrast, hunt flying insects
from a perch singly or in small parties and return to the
perch with prey.
In the evening of 17 September 1987 about 40 In-
dian rollers and 20 black drongos were noticed gathered
on one span (70 m) of an electric line, passing over a piece
of ploughed land with scanty patches of grass and several
pools of accumulated rain water. The mixed hunting party
25. COMMON GREY HORNBILL TOCKUS
During the course of a field outing to the Mamundur
Reserve Forest (East Chittor district, Andhra Pradesh), I
came across several grey hombills Tockus birostris in the
open scrub jungles with a few trees, close to the Mamun-
dur Forest bungalow. There were at least 15-20 birds in
the locality, which were often seen flying about from tree
to tree. They were quite vocal and their commonest call
was somewhat reminiscent of the calls of the pariah kite
Milvus migrans.
was busy hawking winged insects in the air, in the manner
of bee-eaters, and returning to the same stretch of electric
wires.
What was unusual was the abnormally large con-
gregation of rollers and the manner of hunting the winged
insects, which do not form part of their regular diet. In-
stead of pouncing upon the insects on the ground, they
were catching their food in mid-air.
The abundance of insects on the wing in that par-
ticular locality could be the reason for the unusually large
congregation and the changed hunting technique.
April 6, 1988 A.M.K. BHAROS
BIROSTRIS (SCOPOLI) DUST BATHING
On the morning of 3 January 1988, around 0840 hrs,
I saw a grey hombill on the ground along a dry, dusty forest
path. The bird was seen hopping on the ground very brief-
ly before flying off. After some time, I noticed another in-
dividual fly down to the ground. As I was watching, the
bird pressed its belly on to the ground with its wings held
loose, and proceeded to dust-bathe. Soon another bird
joined it and followed suit. The birds appeared to be very
wary and were seen at the bath only for about a minute or
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
301
two, after which they flew off to a nearby tree.
The grey hornbill has been recorded descending to
die ground for feeding on fallen fruit (Ali and Ripley,
HANDBOOK Vol. 4). But there is no mention of this species
dust-bathing. However, the Indian pied hornbill
Anthracoceros malabaricus is said to be ‘very fond of
dust-bathing’. (Primrose, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 27:
950).
February 26, 1988 V. SANTHARAM
26. INDIAN BLACK DRONGO DICRURUS ADSIMIUS EATING A BIRD
(With a text-figure)
Fig. 1 . Indian black drongo Dicrurus adsimilis
eating a martin (Riparia sp.)
On 10 January 1988 in Berkhera Taal in the Karera
Bustard Sanctuary, Madhya Pradesh, our attention was
drawn towards stands of Ipomoea carnea by a redvented
bulbul Pycnonotus cafer calling agitatedly. Upon closer
observation we discovered about a metre from the bulbul,
a drongo devouring a sparrow-sized bird about six to eight
metres away from where we were standing. We edged
closer, and photographed the bird. The drongo at first was
disturbed and flew down into the base of the Ipomoea
clump, but a few minutes later it came up in full view. The
bird was so busy devouring its food that we managed to
get to within one metre of it. The drongo must have started
eating much earlier as only the tail and a part of one wing
remained in its talons. From the shape, length and colour
of the remains we think that the prey was a martin.
According to Ali and Ripley (1972) small birds
( Prinia , Aegithina and Zozterops ) are recorded to be taken
by drongos, but ours is possibly the first photographic
evidence of a drongo eating a bird.
CARL D’SILVA
RAVI SANKARAN
K.K. MOHAPATRA
February 17, 1988 JAGDISH CHANDRA
References
Ali, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1972): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan, Vol. 5: 1 15. Oxford University Press, Bombay.
27. INDIAN HOUSE CROW CORVUS SPLENDENS PREYING UPON PIED GROUND
THRUSH ZOOTHERA WARDII AT POINT CALIMERE, TAMIL NADU
On 13 October 1987 at 1220 hrs I heard the distress
call of a thrush (later identifed as an adult male of the pied
ground thrush Zn other a ward'd ) near the fence of our of-
fice campus at Point Calimere, Tamil Nadu. Simultaneous-
ly I noticed a house crow carrying the thrush in its bill and
flying towards an Ixora parviflora tree. The house crow
perched on the tree, transferred the thrush to its feet and
started pecking and tearing at it. The thrush was still call-
ing, and was surrounded by two more house crows.
Around 1225 hrs the thrush stopped calling. By the
time I went near the tree to rescue it, the thrush was dead
and partly eaten. I collected the dead specimen and cut
open the stomach, which held two species of beetles, a fly
and a centipede.
Ali and Ripley (HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA
AND PAKISTAN. Compact edition, pp. 386, 1983) mention
that house crows are omnivorous and eat grain, fruits,
flower, nectar, lizards, small rodents, fish, insects, crabs,
and young or sickly birds. It is interesting to note that the
house crow caught an adult bird but probably exhausted
302
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
after its migratory flight.
The HANDBOOK (op. cit.) mentions that the pied
ground thrush’s food includes insects and berries. The
stomach contents reveal that in addition to insects they also
feed on other invertebrates such as centipedes.
January 15, 1988 P. BALASUBRAMANIAN
28. YELLOW-EYED BABBLER CHRYSOMMA SINENSIS IN KERALA
Although Whistler and Kinnear in the Vemay Sur-
vey Report (/. Bombay nat. Hist . Soc. 35: 745) say that
Jerdon found the yellow-eyed babbler at ‘Wulliar’
(Presumably Walayar on the Palghat- Coimbatore border),
Salim Ali did not include the species in his BIRDS OF
KERALA (1969). Ripley’ SYNOPSIS (revised edition, 1982)
too, has not specifically mentioned Kerala in its range.
I first saw the yellow-eyed babbler in Kerala on 29
October 1950, and Wgain on 10 December 1950 (12-15
together, their tails appearing as if they were split into two,
probably owing to the moulting of the middle tail feathers)
and on 13 March 1955, all atMalampuzha (c. 15 km NNE
Palghat town).
At 1000 hrs on 19 May 1988 when birding at Anak-
kappara (Alatur Taluk, Palghat Dt., 10°84’E, 76°36’N)
with Jamal, Mohanan and Shaji, I saw a single yellow-
eyed babbler on a bush in a large patch of scrubland at the
foot of a line of small hills. We watched the bird through
lOx Trinovid and Swift Audubon binoculars from a dis-
tance of 8 m with the sun behind us. The bird sang and
chirped, but no other individual of the same species was
seen by us.
The yellow-eyed babbler is resident at least in the
Palghat Gap and has to be included in the list of birds oc-
curring in Kerala.
May 26, 1988 K.K. NEELAKANTAN
29. SIMLA BLACK TIT PARUS RUFONUCHAUS AND RUFOUSBELLIED CRESTED TIT
PARUS RUBIDIVENTRIS BREEDING SYMPATRICALLY IN KASHMIR
Table 1
MEASUREMENTS OF 2 P. rubidiventris AND 2 P. rufonuchalis CAUGHT ON CONSECUTIVE DAYS (26 AND 27 MAY 1987) IN
OVERA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
Martens (1971) produced evidence that two forms
of black tit. Par us rubidiventris rubidiventris and P.
rubidiventris rufonuchalis occur sympatrically in central
Nepal, but do not interbreed, and therefore should be given
specific status. Vaurie (1950) had classified both forms as
subspecies, and Ali and Ripley (1983) accepted Vaurie ’s
classification. During our studies in Kashmir, we have
found evidence similar to Martens’. Par us rubidiventris
and P. rufonuchalis appear to be good sympatric species
over a broad area of the Himalayas.
3On 1 June 1989 a nest of P. rubidiventris was observed in a crack
in a silver birch tree Betula sp. 6 m from the ground. The site was
at approx. 4000 m in mixed birch, rhododendron, and juniper
forest. Contents of the nest could not be closely examined as it
would have damaged the nest. The bird was apparently incubat-
ing eggs.
#In May 1987 we noted a species of black tit that had
a rufous underbelly in our study area (the Overa Wildlife
Sanctuary near Pahalgam, Kashmir). We subsequently
captured a pair together in a mist net. Both individuals had
extensive rufous on their undersides and fit the description
for rubidiventris given by Ali and Ripley (1983). In June
and July we observed pairs of P. rubidiventris on several
occasions, but only between c. 3,300 m and the tree line
(3,700 m). Although we did not locate a nest we saw in-
dividuals carrying food, and the species clearly breeds in
the area3. This is a first record for the species in Kashmir,
although it is found in Uttar Pradesh (Green 1986).
P. rufonuchalis , which does not have the rufous un-
derbelly, breeds commonly over much of the elevational
range of Overa Sanctuary — from at least 2,200 m to c.
3,400 m. This is the form recorded as Lophophanes
rufonuchalis rufonuchalis by Bates and Lowther (1952),
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
303
and P. rubidiventris rufonuchalis by Ali and Ripley, and
known to occur commonly in Kashmir. In total we cap-
tured 4 P. rubidiventris and 8 P. rufonuchalis. We have
never observed a mixed rufonuchalis-rubidiventris pair or
captured an individual with hybrid appearance. In Table 1
measurements of a pair of P. rubidiventris captured
together on May 1987 are compared with measurements
of a pair of P. rufonuchalis captured together two days later
Refe
Ali, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1 983): Handbook of the birds of India and
Pakistan. Compact edn. Oxford University Press, Delhi.
Bates, R.S.P. & Lowther, E.H.N. (1952): Breeding Birds of
Kashmir. Oxford University Press.
Green, M.J.B. (1986): The birds of Kedamath Sanctuary,
Chamoli District, Uttar Pradesh: status and distribution. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83: 603-617.
in a net less than 50 m away. A third species of black tit,
the crested black tit P. melanolophus, also breeds com-
monly in the Sanctuary, and is abundant close to the tree
line (Price and Jamdar 1990)
We thank K. Forney for translating Martens’ paper.
NTTIN JAMDAR
January 16, 1988 TREVOR PRICE
NCES
Martens, J. (1971): Artstatus von Parus rufonuchalis Blyth. J.
Orn. 112: 451-458.
Price, T. & Jamdar, N. (1990): The Breeding Birds of Overa
Wildlife Sanctuary, Kashmir./. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 87:
1-15
Vaurie, C. (1950): Notes on some Asian titmice. American Mus.
Nov. 1459: 1-66.
30. NEST TRANSPLANTS AND BEHAVIOUR OF BLACKTHROATED WEAVER BIRD
PLOCEUS BENGHALENSIS
(With two plates and seven text-figures)
Introduction
Many experiments were conducted by Salim Ali to
determine the level of intelligence of male baya weaver
birds Ploceus philippinus (Ali and Ambedkar 1957). This
note describes certain transplant experiments done on the
nests of P. benghalensis at the Forest Mixed Plantation
Area Tatarpur ‘B’ in Alwar district, Rajasthan, during the
1983 breeding season.
To determine the response of male and female birds,
many removal, addition and exchange experiments were
done with entrance tubes of completed nests occupied by
females. Alterations were done with scissors, needle and
fine thread of khaki colour for camouflage.
Transplanting was of two types: (i )Inter-nest
transplants: When the entrance tube of any nest was
transplanted on the same nest at a different position or
transplanted on other nests of the same cock or nests of
other cocks of the same species.
(ii) Intra-nest transplants: When the entrance tube
was transplanted on to the nests of another species of baya.
Experiment 1: To study the behaviour of Ploceus ben-
ghalensis for exogeneous nest transplant, I cut the entrance
tube of a completed nest from PB 1 colony and stitched it
on the entrance tube of another completed nest of PB 6
colony. The additional entrance tube was transplanted on
a circular opening of 5 cm diameter made near the egg
chamber. This arrangement was made three days after
hatching of the First egg. I manipulated the nest so that the
original entrance tube faced a different direction while the
addition gained the position of original tube.
This arrangement was done at 1200 hrs in the ab-
sence of the female. At about 1217 hrs the female came
back to her nest with food for the nestlings. She realized
the disturbance at once and seemed very suspicious. She
hovered restlessly around the nest twice without alighting.
Finally, at 1222 hrs she alighted on the nest at the junc-
tion point of the two entrance tubes. After a suspicious ex-
amination, she entered the nest at 1225 hrs through the
original entrance tube after much hesitation.
The response of the cock to an additional tube was
very interesting. He tried his best to pull out the thread,
used for stitching the additional tube, but finding the thread
unbreakable, left it after a few attempts.
I examined the same nest the next day at 1130 hrs
and found the additional tube sealed off at its base near the
the egg (Fig. 1).
Experiment 2: A completed nest of Ploceus benghalen-
sis with a three day old first chick in PB 9 colony was
selected. I took four pieces of entrance tubes, each of 25
cm from four completed nests of P. philippinus and
stitched them together to form a 100 cm long hollow tube,
which was then stitched to the mouth of the entrance tube
of the selected nest in PB 9 colony (Plate 1).
This arrangement was completed at about 0900 hrs.
The female came to the nest once when the process was
still going on but due to my presence she remained away,
showing her agitation. She kept herself away from the nest
as long as I stayed near it.
At about 0909 hrs she alighted on her nest. Unable
9.
304
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIKIY, Vol. 87
Figs. 1 - 7. Nest transplanting and behaviour of Ploceus benghalensis
1. Importance of orientation of original tube in completed nest ; 2. Abrupt rejection of entrance tube created by abrupt lengthening;
3. Gradual extension of entrance tube and behaviour of P. benghalensis ; 4. Response to additional entrance tube grafted towards
egg-chamber, 5. Relative length of original and additional side tube and preference of female for first entrance; 6. Relative length
of original and additional side tube and preference of female for first entrance; 7. Response to two additional side entrance tubes.
EC = Egg Chamber, OT = Original entrance tube; AT = Grafted additional tube; S = Opening sealed;
AET = Abruptly extended entrance tube; TS = Tube stump; GET = Gradually extended entrance tube; OTS = Original entrance
tube shortened; OTN = Original entrance tube normalized; Z = Circular additional opening;
FI = First entrance of female through original tube.; F2 = First entrance of female through additional tube;
PTI = Paper tube inserted; R = Rubber ring; BL = Blobs of dung.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 87
Sharma: Ploceus benghalensis
Plate 1
Above left: Entrance tube of nest lengthened abruptly by transplanting pieces of tubes from other nests: Right: Transplantation of
two side tubes; two additional circular openings are made, one on the upper side tube and another on the original tube.
Below: Both circular openings have been darned neatly by the cock.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
305
to comprehend the situation, she frequently hovered
around the clump of Saccharum munja which was the
base. She alighted five times on the nest till 0939 hrs but
failed to notice the new opening of the nest which was ap-
proximately 125 cm away from the egg chamber. After ex-
haustive scrutiny, she climbed down along the tube in slow
short jerks. Ultimately at about 0951 hrs, she entered the
nest, but did not stay there more than 35 seconds before
flying off. I re-examined the nest the next morning and
found many pieces of tube below the nest. The remaining
part of the tube was hardly 5 cm long (Fig. 2).
Experiment 3: When the first chick was six days old, the
same nest in PB 9 colony was used for a further experi-
ment. This time the tube stump was lengthened bit by bit
(rather than all at once) by adding small pieces of tubes
taken from completed nests of P. philippinus. This process
continued for three successive days and the entrance tube
attained a length of 60 cm. But, when more attempts were
made for further extension, on fourth day, the cock rejected
a big portion of the transplanted tubes (Fig. 3).
Experiment 4: A completed nest of PB 17 colony having
a one day old chick had its original entrance tube
removed, leaving behind a small stump of tube. The
removed tube piece was transplanted on the same nest on
a circular hole of 5 cm diameter made at the bottom of the
egg chamber.
Anew tube was prepared on the stump of the original
tube within two days by the cock and the transplanted tube
was sealed off at its free end. Two days later I made a cir-
cular hole on the transplanted tube. Again it was darned
the very same day by the cock (Fig. 4).
Experiment 5: To study the importance of the original
entrance tube, an experiment was conducted on a nest in
PB 16 colony, containing a one day old first chick. A 10
cm long entrance tube of the selected nest near its base
opposite the egg chamber. Thus, the first entrance of the
female was through the original tube (Fig. 5, Plate 1).
A khaki coloured paper tube of 10 cm length and 5
cm diameter was then inserted in the main tube. In this
situation the first entrance of the female was through the
side tube and the exit through the main tube. After removal
of the paper tube, the first entrance of the female was again
through the main tube, but she came out through the side
tube (Fig. 5).
The latter half of the experiment was repeated on
another nest of PB 27 colony on the first day of hatching.
The original entrance tube of the nest was removed, leav-
ing behind a stump 10 cm in length. A 25 cm long entrance
tube taken from A/PB 4 colony, was transplanted on the
stump tube on a hole of 5 cm diameter made near the egg
chamber as done in PB 16 colony. The first entrance of the
female was through the stump of the original tube (Fig. 6).
These experiments prove that the female prefers the
original tube for its parental duties.
Experiment 6: An elaborate transplanting experiment
was conducted on a nest in PB 16 colony (the same nest
that had been used in experiment 5) with a six day old first
chick. I transplanted one more side tube on a circular hole
of 5 cm diameter made towards the lower half of the main
tube. The top side tube was also replaced using a new piece
of tube. The opening of the original tube was sealed off
using two closely spaced rubber bands.
The nest was again examined the next evening. The
main tube had been reopened by the cock and the rubber
bands, along with a small piece of tube, were found below
the nest. It was worth noting that both the side tubes were
untouched. During the next two days nothing new hap-
pened. On the morning of the third day I was astonished
to note that the cock was busy darning the junction points
of the tubes; the work was completed on the joints by noon
the same day. Both the side tubes were still open and no
alteration was noticed except deposition of a few blobs of
dung in the upper side tube, near its mouth.
At noon on the third day, I made two circular open-
ings, one on the upper side tube and another on the main
tube, between the two side tubes (Plate 2) to study the
tolerance power of the cock and the hen. I re-examined the
nest in the evening, by which time the cock had neatly
darned both openings. (Plate 2, Fig. 7).
Conclusions: On the basis of these experiments, the fol-
lowing inferences can be drawn.
(i) The original position and orientation of the main
tube is important.
(ii) Abrupt changes are not generally accepted.
Slow and gradual changes may be accepted up to a certain
extent.
(iii) Generally, just after hatching (1st to 10th day),
transplanting is hardly accepted. As the hatchling grows,
the bird becomes indifferent to transplantation and altera-
tion in the nest.
(iv) After each transplant, both male and female take
their own time to adapt themselves to the new situation.
(v) Intra-nest transplanting is possible in P. ben-
ghalensis.
September 26, 1987 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA
(1957): Further notes on the Baya weaver Bird
Ploceus philippinus Linn. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 54(3):
491-502.
References
Ali, S. & Ambedkar, V.C. (1956): Notes on the Baya weaver
bird, P. philippinus Linn. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 53(3):
385-393.
306
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
31. STATUS OF SOME BIRDS IN SOUTHEASTERN INDIA
The status of various species of birds in southeastern
India appears to be poorly known (Ali and Ripley 1983).
In some cases this is due to the difficulty in field identifica-
tion, and these authors rightly predict that many species
may in fact prove to be less uncommon than suspected.
Regular observations have already contributed to defining
the status of a few species previously regarded as uncom-
mon or absent from southern India. Actually, they proved
to be wintering down to c. 12°N (Perennou 1989); they in-
clude the white stork, greater spotted eagle, brahminy
duck, common and tufted pochards and blacktailed god-
wit. Their presence in winter appears to be a regular fea-
ture, as seen from a second wintering season. This note
presents recent information on the status of several other
species in southeastern India.
Black stork Ciconia nigra: First record. This stork occurs
south to c. 18°N, and had not been previously recorded
from southern India (Ali and Ripley 1983), although a
couple had been seen in Sri Lanka decades ago (Henry
1971).
On 30 January 1988, a single bird was seen feeding
in Kaliveli tank (c. 12° N). A close approach facilitated its
identification as a juvenile, the characters of which are not
fully described by Ali and Ripley (1983). The upperparts,
neck and head were dark brown instead of black; the bill
homy brown and the legs a dull orange, instead of bright
red. This stork was again observed in Kaliveli on 5
February (G. Doha, pers. comm.). This seems to be the
first record for southern India.
Glossy ibis Plegadis falcinellus: Regular. This ibis used
to be resident in southern India (Baker and Inglis 1930)
and in Sri Lanka where breeding occurred one century ago
(Henry 1971). It later vanished from the island, where a
few birds have been again seen regularly in recent years
(Hoffmann 1987). The glossy ibis also became apparent-
ly rarer in southern India: Ali and Ripley (1983) mention
its presence only south to the Deccan. However, oc-
casional winter observations were made in various wet-
lands along the Coromandel coast, mainly in the Vedan-
thangal Bird Sanctuary (pers. obs.; Kannan 1984;
Stromaney 1984; Van der Ven 1987).
It was not until 1986-87 and 87-88 that regular
wintering could be proved. Flocks of 30 to 60 (max. 80)
birds wintered in Kaliveli and Ousteri tanks near Pon-
dicherry, between 10 October and 14 April; occasional
sightings were made as early as 14 August.
Barheaded goose Anser indicus: Regular. This goose has
recently been found regularly wintering in the extreme
south of Tamil Nadu (Krishnan 1987). It was also observed
in winter in Pulicat lagoon (pers. obs.) and Point Calimere
(Van der Ven 1987, A. Perennou, pers. comm.). Kaliveli
tank is a regular stop-over for the birds migrating further
south, which are seen from late November to mid Decem-
ber, and unidentified geese, most likely barheaded, have
been seen in Madras. This goose is therefore more
widespread in the south than previously supposed, al-
though in small numbers.
White-eyed pochard Aythya nyroca: Rare. Occasionally
seen around Madras in winter (pers. obs.; W.G. Harvey,
pers. comm.), it had not been recorded from the eastern
side of the peninsula further south (Ali and Ripley 1983).
Two drakes were observed in Ousteri tank, close to Pon-
dicherry, on 4 February 1988.
Cinereous vulture Aegypius monachus: First record. An
uncommon bird even in north India, it occurs down to c.
21° N (Ah and Ripley 1983). On 11 January 1988, close
to Nelapattu pelicanry (Andhra Pradesh, c. 13°45’ N), a
bird was seen among a flock of c. 50 whitebacked vultures
taking off from a low, degraded scrub. Its size was enor-
mous (wingspan 30% larger than whitebacked); its com-
pletely black plumage, both above and below, contrasted
with the light-coloured feet even at a distance, and its head
showed a clear contrast between dark and light parts. Its
wings were held flat or slightly drooping when soaring.
All these characters readily identified it as a cinereous vul-
ture. This seems to be the first record for southern India.
Bronze winged jacana Metopidius indicus: Rare. Al-
though it is described by Ali and Ripley (1983) as com-
mon and widespread throughout peninsular India, it is ac-
tually a rare bird along the southern Coromandel coast, be-
tween Pulicat lagoon and Pichavaram mangroves (c. 11°
to 14°N). Only one recent record from Madras exists.
Avocet Recurvirostra avosetta : Regular/common. In
Tamil Nadu, it is mentioned by Ali and Ripley (1983) as
merely ‘recorded from Rameshwaram and Point
Calimere’. It is actually regular in early and late winter
around Pondicherry and in Madras (Ady ar estuary), where
overwintering has been observed. The 845 birds seen in
Pulicat lake in January 1988 probably represents the
largest congregation ever recorded in the south.
Eastern knot Calidris tenuirostris : Regular? Its status is
not precisely known in southern India; Ali and Ripley
(1983) only state: ‘recorded from Madras*.
In recent years, this species has been identified from
various coastal places in Tamil Nadu: Kaliveli tank (7 +
birds on 6 Nov. 1987; 2 on 20 Feb. 1988); Adyar estuary
(1 between 1 Feb. and 16 Feb. 1986; 1 on 18 Oct. 1987);
Pichavaram mangroves (10 on 20 Jan. 1988, A. Perennou,
pers. comm.); Ramnad district (10 on 11 Jan. 1987, in Van
der Ven 1987).
Therefore, the eastern knot is likely to be a regular
visitor in small numbers to southeastern India, often over-
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
307
looked among other waders.
Longtoed stint Calidris subminuta : Regular. Although
Henry (1971) records it as an abundant winter visitor in
Sri Lanka, Ali and Ripley (1983) curiously do notmention
its presence in southern India, where it is regarded as un-
common in Point Calimere (Sugathan 1982) and Adya^
Estuary (pers. obs.). Recent observations show that it is
actually a regular and sometimes even common species in
Pondicherry marshes, from at least early October
throughout winter till April. A migratory passage seems to
occur in March-April, when up to 30 (and probably 50)
birds can be seen among little stints.
Whitewinged black tern Chlidonias leucopterus : Com-
mon. This tern is regarded as a rare visitor to northeastern
India and Sri Lanka (Ali and Ripley 1983). However, Kan-
nan (1986) mentions a few recent sightings in Madras,
Sugathan (1982) records it as common in Point Calimere
and Henry (1971) as a regular winter visitor to Sri Lanka.
Between 1982 and 1988, it proved to be common in
spring along the Coromandel coast: Pondicherry marshes,
Ousteri tank, Kaliveli, Madras (Adyar estuary) and
Covelong (35 km south of Madras). Flocks of 20 to 100
birds were often seen and all the observations (over 40)
but one were made between 5 March and 26 May, when
some birds at least had started to acquire their breeding
plumage. On 25 March 1988, a large roost of c. 50,000
migrant terns in Kaliveli held over 2,000 whitewinged
black terns: the bulk of the northwards migration may
Refe
Ali, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1983): Handbook of the Birds of India
and Pakistan. Compact Edition. Oxford University Press,
Delhi.
Baker, H.R. & Inglis, C.M. (1930): Birds of southern India.
Madras.
Henry, G.M. (1971): A guide to the birds of Ceylon. Oxford
University Press, Bombay.
Hoffmann, T. (1987): The 3rd Mid-winter Waterfowl count in Sri
Lanka (January 1986). In: Van Der Ven, J. (1987) Asian
waterfowl 1987. IWRB Report, Slimbridge.
Kannan, R. (1984): The glossy ibis in Vedanthangal heronry.
Newsletter for birdwatchers 24 (1&2).
(1986): Whitewinged black tem Chlidonias leucop-
terus in the Coromandel coast Newsletter for birdwatchers
26 (1&2).
occur by late March. The species was noticed only once
during autumn migration (25 Sept. 1983 in Adyar estuary).
Due to the problems in identifying the species in
non-breeding plumage, we cannot assess whether it
regularly winters in south-eastern India or not. However,
ringing results in Point Calimere suggest that it does
(Krishna Raju and Shekar 1971) since many birds were
caught in December.
The whitewinged black tem is therefore at least a
regular and common passage migrant along the Coroman-
del coast.
Collared sand martin Riparia riparia: First records;
regular? Ali and Ripley (1983) only mention its presence
in northern India. From 1980 to 1988, eight observations
(up to 30 birds together) were made in Adyar estuary, Pon-
dicherry marshes and Kaliveli tank between 28 Septem-
ber and 1 1 April. This suggests the regular winter occur-
rence in southeastern India of a bird probably overlooked
among the much more common swallows.
Acknowledgements
Our thanks are due to A. Perennou who participated
in some of these observations and contributed to confirm-
ing them, and to Dr. Priya Davidar for commenting on the
manuscript.
C. PERENNOU
May 21, 1988 V. SANTHARAM
. N C E S
Krishnan, M. (1987): Occurrence of the barheaded goose in
South India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84: 204.
Krishna Raju, K.S.R. & Shekar, P.B. (1971): Some interesting
bird records from Point Calimere. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
68: 457-459.
Perennou, C. (1989) Southern wintering range of some water-
birds. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86(2): 247-248
Siromaney, G. (1984): Occurrence of the Glossy ibis at Vedan-
thangal. Newsletter for birdwatchers 24 (3 & 4).
Sugathan, R. (1982): Some interesting aspects of the avifauna of
the Point Calimere sanctuary. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 79:
567-575.
Van der Ven, J. (1987): Asian waterfowl 1987. IWRB Report,
Slimbridge.
32. MARSH CROCODILE CROCODYLUS PALUSTRJS (LESSON) AT POINT CALIMERE,
TAMIL NADU
On 17 December 1989 the villagers of Kodikkadu crocodile in a pond called Thazhankulam. The Forest
near Point Calimere Sanctuary (10°18’N; 79°51’E) in- Department officials captured the crocodile with a fishing
formed the Forest Department of the presence of a net and we identified it as a mugger or marsh crocodile
308
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Crocodylus palustris based on the four distinct post-oc-
cipitals behind the head. The measurements of the
crocodile are as follows:
large bodies of water in the plains and upto 600 m in the
hills, throughout the Indian subcontinent, from Baluchis-
tan in the west to Assam in the east, and from Nepal in the
north to Tamil Nadu in the south (Daniel 1983).
All Indian river systems and their connected
streams, lakes, sizeable ponds and jheels once had their
quota of mugger (Daniel 1983). Till now, there was no
record of mugger at Point Calimere Sanctuary. Point
Calimere forms the seaward apex of the Cauvery river
delta and its major tributaries the Manakundan, Valavanar
and Uppanar mix with the Great Vedarany am S wamp. This
crocodile might have reached Point Calimere during the
monsoon flooding when these tributaries mix with the
waters of the Sanctuary.
Acknowledgements
We are thankful to L. Nathan, Wildlife Warden, M.
Muthu, Forest Range Officer, N. Batcha, Forester, Point
Calimere Wildlife and Bird Sanctuary, Kodikkarai, for
their cooperation and help.
V NATARATAN
January 9, 1990 S. BALACHANDRAN
References
Daniel, J.C. (1983): The Book of Indian Reptiles. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.
33. A BATH BY A COMMON GARDEN LIZARD CALOTES VERSICOLOR
On 25 June 1989, in the Herbal Garden of World
Forestry Arboretum, Jaipur at about 0945 hrs I saw a com-
mon garden lizard Calotes versicolor which was bathing
in the water under the shade of a Parkinsonia aculiata bush
at the fringe of Herbal Garden. Due to leakage in the ir-
rigation pipe the water was dripping down and formed a
tiny pond of hardly 30 cm in diameter and less than 2 cm
deep. I observed the animal coming down several times
and wallowing in the muddy water again and again at short
intervals. It continued this activity for approximately 3
minutes.
Though many birds are known to bathe, terrestrial
reptiles are hardly ever seen bathing. In the present case,
the lizard was perhaps bathing to keep cool.
September 14, 1989 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA
34. FOOD OF THE DHAMAN PTYAS MUCOSUS
On 22 December 1989 afternoon while watching
birds along the Nyari Dam, Rajkot, I saw a snake inside
a well about 4 m deep and about 50 m from the dam,
with its head above water. The snake was dark dorsal-
ly and mustard yellow ventrally with its lips margined
with black lines distinct and large conspicuous eyes. I
later identified the snake as a dhaman or common rat
snake Ptyas mucosus.
The well is full of small fish and frogs. Half an
hour later when at the site again, I saw the rat snake
holding a fish in its mouth, which it swallowed. The
snake then went into a small hole on the well wall.
According to Daniel (1983) the rat snake feeds on
geckos, toads, frogs, young pond turtles, nestling birds,
skinks, agamids lizards and snakes.
On three successive visits to the site the snake was
seen in the well. Abundant food supply in a limited area
can be the reason that the dhaman was staying in the
well although the area around had abundant Indian ger-
bil Tatera indica , Jerdon’s snake-eye Opisops jerdoni ,
fanthroated lizard Sitana ponticeriana etc.
No other snake was sighted in the area. It is interest-
ing to note that the snake was active in winter, where the
ambient temperature falls to 10° C in the coldest hours of
the day. One would have expected the snake to be in a
winter torpor at this time.
February 17, 1990 JUGAL KISHOR TIWARI
References
Daniel, J.C. (1983): The book of Indian Reptiles. Bombay
Natural History Society, Bombay.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
309
35. GOLDEN TREE SNAKE CHRYSOPELEA ORNATA SHAW
I received a snake from C.B. Jhala for species con-
firmation. It had been collected in October 1987 by a local
Dangi boy at the school of Saputara Hills, Dangs district,
Gujarat It was a golden tree snake Chrysopelea ornata.
Measurements: Total body length 77.5 cm; tail 21.0 cm;
supralabial 10, 4, 5, 6th touching the eye; loreal present; 1
pre-ocular; 2 post-ocular, temporal 2 + 2; body scale 17
rows (15:17:14); ventrals 220, last two are divided; caudal
128; anal plate 2; 74 cross bars on the body with dorsal
rosette spots.
Recently a golden tree snake was reported by Basu
(1989) from Katemia Ghat Bahraich district Uttar
Pradesh. That snake had dorsal scale rows 18:16. Accord-
ing to Smith (1943) golden tree snakes have 17:17:15 scale
rows. From the taxonomic view point, the Katemia Ghat
specimen is significant.
September 22, 1989 RAJU VYAS
References
Basu, D. (1989): Range extension of Chrysopelea ornata Shaw (1): 110-111.
(Reptila: Colubridae) with comments of the distribution of Smith, M.A. (1943): The fauna of British India, Reptilia and Am-
some snakes in North India, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86 phibia, Vol. 3; Seipentes. Taylor and Francis, London.
36. KING COBRA OPHIOPHAGUS HANNAH IN GRASSLAND: AN UNUSUAL HABITAT
The king cobra or hamadryad Ophiophagus hannah
is the largest venomous snake in the world, second in size
only to the pythons. Rare in India, it occurs in the dense
forests of Western Ghats, Nilgiris, Palnis, up to 2000 m on
the Himalayas and its foot hills, and Andamans. It is also
found in the forests of the hills, plains and estuaries of Oris-
sa, Bihar, Bengal and Assam. The king cobra’s habitat is
usually described as rain forests or evergreen forests with
high rainfall and dense undergrowth (Whitaker 1978,
Daniel 1983).
It is not a common snake of Manas Wildlife
Sanctuary (90°45 ’ to 91°25 ’E and 26°40’ to 26°50’N) and
is seen occasionally in its dense riverine forests. During
our nine month stay there between February 1987 and Sep-
tember 1988 we encountered king cobra in the open ex-
tensive treeless grasslands on three occasions.
The first time the snake was seen in an open grassland
(altitude c. 60 m) near the forest department mahout camp
at Basbari on 25 May 1987. While searching for a florican
nest, we were startled by a huge snake which was in the
process of rendering a yellow monitor lizard Varanus
flavescens immobile. The prey escaped the clutch of the
snake in the resultant commotion created by four of us.
However, the snake pursued its prey and this is when we
identified it as the king cobra. As we tried to take a closer
look at the snake it slithered away into dense growth of
grass leaving its prey. The yellow monitor was limping
away and when we approached it for taking photographs it
hissed but could not run away. After a few minutes its move-
ments became sluggish and it succumbed to the poison in
less than half an hour.
The grasslands around Basbari comprise mainly of
thatch grass, ImperaXa cylindrical Saccharum narenga and
small shrubs. In the month of May the grass height is be-
tween 50 and 100 cm and it reaches a maximum height of
200-250 cm after the monsoon. The nearest dense tree
forest is about 2 km away across the seasonal rivers Mora
Manas and Naryanguri. The nearest patch of forest where
the king cobra was seen (S.K. Saima, pers. comm.) is about
10 km away.
On another occasion in May 1988, while working in
the adjacent similar grasslands of Kasimdaha we wit-
nessed one of our assistants coming face to face with a
king cobra which emerged from the short grass and raised
its head to about 150 cm above ground. The assistant was
startled but the snake was equally surprised and it disap-
peared quickly after crashing loudly to the ground. The
third encounter was in the Kuribeel grasslands about 3 km
away under similar circumstances in the same month.
In Manas it starts raining intermittently from March
and the grasslands are wet and green after that. The annual
rainfall is 300-400 cm. Like the Mahout Camp fields the
last two areas are more or less treeless and far from dense
forests.
The presence of the king cobra in the open grasslands
is unrecorded. Its foraging activity indicates that it might
visit the grasslands in search of prey like the monitor lizard
and snakes. R. Whitaker (pers. comm.) notes that these
sightings are unusual and adds that so far the king cobra has
been recorded in India from ‘Sal forest in Uttar Pradesh,
mangrove swamps in Orissa, West Bengal and Andamans,
in addition to ‘more typical’ habitat near tea estates in south
India and Assam.’ In an area south of Port Blair
(Garachama) which is now primary forests converted to
grasslands, king cobras are also frequently seen."
GOUTAM NARAYAN
August 30, 1989 LIMA ROSALIND
310
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
References
Daniel, J.C. (1983): Book of Indian Reptiles. Bombay Natural Whitaker, R. (1978): Common Indian Snakes - A Field Guide.
History Society, Bombay. Macmillan, New Delhi.
37. RAN A BHAGMANDLENSIS : A JUNIOR SYNONYM OF RAN A AURANTIACA BOULENGER
(ANURA: RANIDAE)
Rana aurantiaca , previously known only from
southern India, was reported by Grandison and
Senanayake (1966) from Sri Lanka. Their description was
based on six adult females collected on a herpetological
trip made in December 1965 by Senanayake and V.
Atukoralei in the Kanneliya Forest, south Sri Lanka.
Rana aurantiaca was considered by Rao (1922) as
very closely related to his new species, Rana bhag-
mandlensis, in his original description of the species. The
latter was still accepted as a valid taxon in the most recent
taxonomic survey of Rana (Frost 1985).
I have compared the holotype of bhagmandlensis ,
which is one of the two available specimens (the other one
is at the Indian Museum, Calcutta), and have compared it
with the holotype and a series of other specimens of auran-
tiaca from India and Sri Lanka. Rao (1922) pointed out
that the holotype of bhagmandlensis was examined by
Miss Procter of the British Museum, London, and she
wrote to Rao that the holotype agrees well with
Boulenger’s (1920) description of aurantiaca. Rao (1922)
also compared the types with aurantiaca and commented
that their characters and coloration are alike except for the
smaller size of bhagmandlensis.
My examination of all available pertinent material
revealed that Rao ’s (1922) bhagmandlensis agrees with
the characters of aurantiaca , and accordingly I here con-
sider bhagmandlensis as a junior synonym of aurantiaca.
Refe
Boulenger, G.A. (1904): Descriptions of three new frogs from
southern India and Ceylon. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 15(3):
430-431.
(1920): A monograph of the south Asian, Papuan,
Melanesian and Australian frogs of the genus Rana. Rec.
Indian Mus. Calcutta 20: 157-158.
Rana aurantiaca Boulenger, 1904
Rana aurantiaca , 1904, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 15(3):
430-431; Rec. Indian Mus., Calcutta 20:157-158 (1920);
Rao, 1937, Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 6(6): 424-425; Gran-
dison and Senanayake, 1966, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 13(9):
419-421; Frost, 1985, Amphibian Species of the World.
Specimens examined: BM 1947.2.2.92 (holotype of Rana
aurantiaca: Trivandrum, Travancore, Kerala); BM 1967.
533- 535, 537-538 (Kanneliya Forest, Sri Lanka); AMNH
80086 (Southern Province, Kanneliya, Sinharaja, Sri
Lanka); AMNH 78924 (Southern Province, Kanneliya, Sri
Lanka); CAS 101609 (South Kanara, Kadnjar Khan a,
Mysore, India); BM 1947 .2.2. 12 (holotype of Rana bhag-
mandlensis): forests of Bhagamandla, Coorg, Mysore.
Distribution: Trivandrum, Kerala; Coorg and Kadnjar
Khana, Karnataka (India); Kanneliya Forest, Udugama
(Sri Lanka).
Acknowledgements
I thank B.T. Clarke , British Museum, R. G. Zweifel,
American Museum of Natural History, and RobertDrewes,
California Academy of Sciences, for allowing me to ex-
amine specimens in their respective Museums.
June 15, 1989 SUSHIL K. DUTTA
NCES
Frost, D.R. (1985): Amphibian species of the world. Lawrence,
Kansas, Assoc. Syst. Coll., 732 pp.
Grandison, A.G.C. & Senanayake, F.R. (1966): Redescription
of Rana (Hylarana) aurantiaca Boulenger (Amphibia:
Ranidae). Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 13(9): 419-421.
Rao, C.R.N. (1922): Notes on Batrachia. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 28(2): 439-447.
38. AMPHIBIANS FROM INDIA - SOME FURTHER SPECIES
The most recent review of the diversity and
zoogeography of the amphibian fauna of India by Inger
and Dutta (1986) listed 181 species, distributed in 9
families. Chanda and Ghosh (1988) added 13 more
species, which were omitted in the earlier review, but in-
cluded Bufo sulphureus Grandison and Daniel (1964)
which had been synonymised under Bufo koynayensis
Soman (1963) by Frost (1985). Aliterature search revealed
that 12 more valid species of Indian amphibians, belong-
ing to 4 families, were still not incorporated, being over-
looked or described subsequent to the aforementioned
compilations. These, along with their sources, have been
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
311
listed below. Sources of information on type localities and
nomenclature, if uncited, is Frost (op. cit.).
Anura: Microhylidae
1. Kaloula baleata ghoshi Cherchi, 1954.
Type locality: Andaman Islands, India (Cherchi 1954,
see also Whitaker 1978). Known only from type
locality.
2. Microhyla heymonsi Vogt, 1911.
Type locality: Kosempo, Taiwan, China.
Indian record: Great Nicobar (Mehta and Rao 1987)
Ranidae
3. Pterorana khare Kiyasetuo and Khare, 1986.
Type locality: Sonuoru and Rukhroma rivers, Kohima
district, Nagaland (Kiyasetuo and Khare 1986).
Known from type localities only.
4. Rana barmoachensis Khan and Tasnim, 1989.
Type locality: Barmoach, Goi Medan, Kotli district,
Kashmir (Khan and Tasnim 1989). Known from type
locality only.
5. Rana ghoshi Chanda, 1990
Type locality: Khuigairk Reserve Forest, Manipur
(Chanda 1990a). Known from type locality only.
6. Rana mawlyndipi Chanda, 1990
Type locality: Mawlyndip, Khasi Hills, Meghalaya
(Chanda 1990b). Known from type locality only.
7. Rana tuberculata Tilak and Roy, 1985.
Type locality: Kheel Gad, west of Purari, Dehra Dun
(Uttar Pradesh). Known from type locality only.
Rhacophoridae
8. Chirixalus vittatus (Boulenger, 1887).
Type locality: Bhamo, Burma.
Indian record: Near Kohima, Nagaland (Romer
Refe
Chanda, S.K. (1990a): A new frog of the genus Rana (Ranidae:
Anura) from Manipur, northeastern India. Hamadryad 15
(1).
(1990b): Rana mawlindipi, a new frog (Ranidae)
from Khasi hills, Meghalaya, India. J. Bengal nat. Hist.
Soc. [n.s.] 9 (1): 44-48.
& Ghosh, A.K. (1988): Addenda to the amphibian
fauna of India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85(3): 626-627.
(1989): A new frog of the genus Philaulus Gistel,
from the proposed Namdapha Biosphere Reserve,
Arunachal pradesh, northeast India, ibid. 86 (2): 215-217.
Cherchi, M.A. (1954): Una nuova sottospecie de Kaloula
baleata delle Isole Andamane. Doriana ( Genova ) 1 (47).
[In Italian].
Das, S.M. (1967): Palearctic elements in the fauna of Kashmir.
1948).
9. Philautus namdaphaensis Sarkar and Sanyal, 1985.
Type locality: Farmbase Camp, Changlang district,
Arunachal Pradesh (Sarkar and Sanyal 1985). Known
from type locality only.
10. Philautus shamrupus Chanda and Ghosh, 1989.
Type locality: Hombill, Namdapha Tiger Reserve,
Changlang district, Arunachal Pradesh (Chanda and
Ghosh 1989). Known from type locality only.
11. Rhacophorus namdaphaensis Sarkar and Sanyal,
1985.
Type locality: Near Miao, Changlang district,
Arunachal Pradesh (Sarkar and Sanyal 1985). known
from type locality only.
Gymnophiona: Ichthyophidae
12. Ichthyophis longicephalus Pillai, 1986.
Type locality: Silent Valley, Kerala (Pillai 1986).
Known from type locality only.
A few comments on the reports of the occurrence of
salamanders in India may be pertinent here. Commenting
on the Palaearctic elements in the fauna of Kashmir, Das
(1976) reported two species of salamanders, Hynobius
chinensis , otherwise known from western China, and
Tylototriton verrucosus , reported from the Himalayan
foothills, including Nepal and northeastern India, extend-
ing into Thailand and China. These two taxa have not been
since reported from Kashmir, and collections from the said
area are apparently unrepresented in any major museum
collection, and thus the report has not been verified.
I thank Dr Alain Dubois, Laboratoire des Reptiles et
Amphibiens, Museum National d’Histoire Naturelle,
Paris, for commenting on an earlier draft of the manuscript.
August 21, 1990 LNDRANEIL DAS
NCES
Nature 212 (5068): 1327-1330.
Frost, D. R. (1985): Amphibian species of the world: A
taxonomic and geographic reference. Allen Press, Inc. &
The Association of systematics collections, Lawrence,
Kansas. 732. pp.
Inger, R.F. & Dutta, S.K. (1986): An overview of the amphibian
fauna of India. J. Bombay nat. Hist . Soc. 83 (Centenary
Supplement): 135-146.
Kiyasetuo & Khare, M.K. (1986): A new genus of frog (Anura:
Ranidae) from Nagaland at the north-estem hills of India.
Asian J. Exp. Sci. 1: 12-17.
Khan, M.S. & Tasnim, R. (1989): Anew frog of the genus Rana,
subgenus Paa , from southwestern Azad Kashmir. Her-
petol. Rev. 23 (4): 419-423.
Mehta, H. S. & Rao, G.C. (1987): Microhylid frogs of Andaman
312
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
and Nicobar Islands. J. Andaman Sci. Assn. 3(2): 98-104.
Pillai, R.S. (1986): Amphibian fauna of Silent Valley, Kerala,
India. Rec. Zool. Surv. India 84 (Special issue on Silent Val-
ley, Kerala, India): 229-242.
Romer, J.D. (1948): Herpetological observations in Assam and
Bengal (1944). /. Bombay not. Hist. Soc. 48(3): 376-295.
SARKAR, A.K. &SANYAL, D.P. (1985): Amphibia: Anura .Rec.
Zool. Surv. India 82 (Special issue on Fauna of Namdapha:
Arunachal Pradesh: A proposed Biosphere Reserve); 285-
295.
Tjlak, R. & Roy, P. (1985): Description of a new species of the
sub-genus Rana ( Paa ) Dubois from Chakrata Hills, Dis-
trict Dehra Dun, Uttar Pradesh, India (Ranidae, Anura)
Zool. Am. 215 (314): 231-239.
Whitaker, R. (1978): Herpetological survey in the Andamans.
Hamadryad 3(1): 9-16.
39. NOTES ON MORPHOMETRY, ECOLOGY, BEHAVIOUR AND FOOD OF TADPOLES OF
RANA CURTIPES JERDON, 1853
(With two text-figures)
At the end of March 1989 1 collected some tadpoles
of the bicoloured frog Rana curtipes from two localities
in Karnataka: (1) a small stream 3 km north of Londa (30
km NW of Dandeli) on 31 March 1989, and (2) Beadthye
river between Nalur and Agumbe on 8 April 1989. From
both localities totally 1 10 tadpoles of different stages were
collected (prehindlimb stage 25, hind limb bud stage - 39,
hind limb stage 46). The morphometry, ecology, behaviour
and food items of tadpoles are described in this note.
Morphometry: The body of the tadpoles is oval, stout and
wider than high, flattened dorso-ventrally. The average
body length in 20 tadpoles is 33.6 mm (± 1.5) (Table 1)
and the average tail length is 53.7 mm (± 4.1). The tail is
about one and a half times as long as the body. The tail
muscle is fairly strong, and tapers to a point. The tip of the
tail is moderately rounded; dorsal fin is slightly deeper
than the ventral fin.
Head depressed, with a rounded snout; nostril dor-
sal, nearer to the eye than the tip of snout. The eyes are
dorso-lateral; pupils round. There is a groove-like line
from nostrils to eyes. Interocular space is greater than in-
temasal space. A pair of very prominent parotoid glands
(Fig. 1) in size averaging 7.6 mm (± 1.2) . Spiraculam
sinistral, directed upward and backward. Vent in median
line in front of the ventral fin. Edge of dorsal and ventral
fins with glandular warts, in a row, which are more in front
of the tail than near the end.
Mouth antero-ventral with 3 or 4 rows of papillae on
the sides of the upper and lower lip and a single row of
papillae on the edge of the lower Up. The front edge of the
upper Up is without papillae. Teeth rows have the formula
2:5 +5/1 + 1 :4-7 (Fig. 2) or 3:4 + 4/1 + 1 :4-7. In the upper
labium the number of rows (7) seem to be constant. The
first two rows are unbroken, the third may be broken or
unbroken and the remaining rows are broken. In the lower
labium the innermost row is broken and the other rows
numbering 4 to 7 are unbroken.
The body is blackish brown with a few black dots
on dorsal region and grey with slight metallic blue on
ventral region. Tail muscle is copper coloured near the
Table 1
MEASUREMENTS OF 20 TADPOLES IN HINDLIMB STAGE OF Rana curtipes
All measurements are in millimetres.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
313
Fig. 1. Tadpole of Rana curtipes: lateral view. Fig. 2. Mouth of tadpole of Rana curtipes.
body and black at the end with dots. Tail fins are black.
Parotoid glands are also copper in colour.
Ecology and behaviour: The tadpoles were collected
from stagnant pools of water in the stream as well as in the
river at depths of 30-80 cm. They were swimming on the
surface in shoals. Four shoals were observed in the stream.
They came to the shore to feed on the algae growing on
the decaying leaves and twigs. When the shoals were dis-
turbed tadpoles dispersed, and some of them hid under
leaves and stones in the water, while others mixed with the
other shoals. The shoals moved very slowly and could be
caught easily. The stream was shaded by trees but the river
had no trees nearby. Live tadpoles put in formalin excreted
a white creamy substance from the parotoid glands and the
warts on the fins of the tail.
Food: Gut analysis revealed the various species of algae
such as diatoms, Cosmarium , Closterium, Scenedesmus,
Oedogonium, along with fine sand.
The description of the tadpoles of Rana curtipes by
Rao (1914) almost fits with these tadpoles, except the
parotoid glands, which were mentioned as not con-
spicuous. But in the present collection the parotoid glands
are very prominent. Also, the maximum total length
recorded by Rao was 68 mm; but this collection has tad-
poles 94 mm in total length.
January 6, 1990 A.G. SEKAR
References
Rao, C.R.N. (1914): Larva of Rana curtipes Boul. Rec. Ind. Mus. 10: 265.
40. OCCURRENCE OF A TRIGGER FISH (PISCES: BALISTIDAE) IN BOMBAY SEAS
(With a text-figure )
On 23 June 1989 a fisherman brought a live
specimen of trigger fish from Colaba (Bombay). The fish,
after requisite quarantine, was kept in a display tank at the
Taraporevala Aquarium. Contrary to the usual trend of
newly captive fishes to refuse food for several weeks, this
fish started feeding the very next day.
Except for a slight fungal infection on the edge of
the caudal fin, the fish was healthy, but it suddenly died
on 2 September 1989. Due to lack of facilities for preser-
vation, such as formaldehyde or refrigeration, the
specimen was thrown away. This was unfortunate because
the species could not be identified.
Day (1878-88) described 13 species of trigger fish
from the then undivided Indian seas [now comprising
Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Myanmar (Burma), Sri Lanka
(Ceylon) and the Maidive Islands]. All the species were, at
that time, placed under the genus Batistes. Munro (1955)
recorded 11 species from Sri Lanka, but by this time, the
genus Batistes had been split up into many genera. Thus
Munro’s species fall under several genera. The fishes are:
Abalistes stellatus, (= Batistes stellatus of Day), Balistapus
undulatus (= Batistes lineatus and B. undulatus of Day),
Balistoides viridescens, Canthidermis rotundatus,
Hemibalistes chrysopterus (= Batistes niger of Day),
Melichthys r ingens, Odonus niger (= Batistes erythrodon
of Day), Pseudobalistes fuscus , Rhinecanthus aculeatus
314
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Fig. 1. Profile of a typical trigger fish.
and Sufflamen capistratus (= Batistes mitis of Day).
Although, as stated earlier, identification could not
be carried out, from the authors’ previous experience and
from colour descriptions, the following species can be
ruled out: Abatistes stellaris , Batistapus undulatus. Batis-
tes vetula, Batistoides conspicillum, Canthidermis rotun-
Refe
Chhapgar, B.F. & Deshmukh, S.K. (1964): Further records of
lobsters from Bombay. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 61(1):
203-207, 1 pi.
Chhapgar, B.F. & Jatar, J.K. (1968): Records of rare fishes of
the family Chaetodontidae from Bombay, ibid. 65(1): 58-
41. HYP OCALA VIOLACEA BUTLER — A
datus, Melichthys ringens , Pseudobalistes fuse us y
Rhinecanthus aculeatus , R. rectangulus and Sufflamen
capistratus. Most probably it is Odonus niger (Ruppell).
In our experience of over 40 years, we had never
come across any live trigger fish at Bombay. Enquiries
with old fishermen also confirmed this, as they too had
never seen one. Hence this is the first record of a trigger
fish from Bombay.
This is not the first occasion that occurrence of fish,
which had never been found at Bombay, has been noticed.
Chhapgar and Deshmukh (1964), while commenting on
rare occurrence of spiny lobster Panuliriis ornatus in 1962,
surmised that their presence could be attributed to tempera-
ture fluctuations and the veering of currents which also
brought in two coral reef fishes, viz. Moorish idol Zanclus
cor nut us and squirrel fish Holocentrum rubrum - a first
record from Bombay. Subsequently, Chhapgar and Jatar
(1968) had observed the occurrence of four species of but-
terfly fish (Chaetodon) from Bombay in 1966, which was
also a first record of these fishes from this region.
B.F. CHHAPGAR
January 27, 1990 A.M. RINGANGAONKAR
NCES
63, 5 text-figs.
Day, F. (1887-88): The fishes of India 1: i-xx, 1-816.
(1889): ibid. 2: 1-11, pis. 1-195.
Munro, I.S.R. (1955): The marine and freshwater fishes of
Ceylon: i-xvi, 1-351, pis. 1-56, 19 figs.
CASE OF STRONG MORPHO VARIATION
(With three text-figures)
On the basis of maculation alone, Butler (1892) and
Hampson (1 894) recorded a type of morphovariation in the
species Hypocala violacea Butler. While conducting inten-
sive surveys for the collection of Ophiderines, 60 in-
dividuals of this species were collected. The male and
female genitalia of this polymorphic species have not been
studied so far. The study of genital organs of polymorphic
species in particular and other species in general is neces-
sary for determining their limits/identification. In view of
this, these structures have been studied to establish the iden-
tity of this species complex.
Hypocala violacea Butler
Butler, 1879, Tr. Ent. Soc. Lond.: 6 (Hypocala).
Genitalia (male, Figs. 1,2). Uncus unique (of rare oc-
currence), bowl shaped, strongly sclerotised, produced dis-
tally into two identical processes directed ventrally, distal
half ‘U’like in dorsal view, with a mid-dorsal short pointed
spine; socii wanting; tuba analis long, well marked;
tegumen well developed, saccus conical; reduced; valva
symatrical, uniformly sclerotised, coastal region well
marked; sacculus prominent; harpe conspicuous; juxta well
sclerotised; aedeagus moderately long, with differentiation
into base and apex, vesica armed with series of spine like
comuti.
Female (Fig. 3): Ovipositor lobes well developed,
finely setosed; an anterior apophyses longer than posterior
apophyses; ostium bursae sclerotised; ductus bursae of
moderate length, lightly sclerotised; ostium bursae thin,
membranous, globular in shape, signum wanting.
Wing expanse (half): Male 24 mm, female 23 mm.
Material examined : Assam: North Cachar Hills, Jatinga
46 males, 14 females, 13-20 September 1985.
Old distribution: Sri Lanka (Ceylon), Cachar (India),
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
315
Figs. 1-3. Hypocala violacea Butler: 1, 2. Male genitalia; 3. Female genitalia.
Abbreviations: AED, Aedeagus; ANT. APO, Anterior apophyses; CRP. BU, Corpus bursae; DU. BW, Ductus bursae; DU. EJ, Duc-
tus ejaculatorius; HRP, Harpe; JX, Juxta; PO. APO, Posterior apophyses; SA, Saccus; TG, Tegumen; UN, Uncus; VIN, Vinculum.
Burma.
The heterogeneous sample consisting of 60 in-
dividuals appeared as if the individuals represented a
species complex. However, sorting them followed by dis-
sections of the male and female individuals indicated that
all these individuals are conspecific and thus pertain to only
one species.
I wish to thank the CSIR, New Delhi for providing
financial assistance .
March 17, 1989
A. SRIVASTAVA
References
Butler, A.G. (1892): On the genus Hypocala , a group of Noc-
tuid moths. Ann. NH. (6) 10: 17-22 (Lep.)*
Hampson, G.F. (1894): The Fauna of British India, including
Ceylon and Burma. Moth. 2: XXII + 609 pp. Taylor and
Francis Ltd., London.
42. STUDIES ON THE BIOLOGY OF APOTOMORRHINUS CRIBRATUS SCH.
(COLEOPTERA : CURCULIONIDAE)
(With ten text-figures )
Introduction
Apotomorrhinus cribratus Sch., a member of the
subfamily Baridinae, attacks the fruits of Eugenia
cuspidata and Eugenia jambolana (Family Myrtaceae).
There is no information on the biology of genus Apotomor-
rhinus, but some observations on the host association and
development of a few other members of the subfamily
have been recorded both in India and abroad.
Kushwaha (1962) recorded the association of
Barioscapus cordiae (Mshl.) with the fruits of Cordia
myxa. The present communication records some general
observations on the biology of A. cribratus Sch.
Observations
The adults of A. cribratus Sch. are medium sized,
dark brown and ovoid (Figs. 1 , 2). They appear on the host
tree in the middle of June when the tree is in bloom. The
weevils feed and oviposit on the young fruits. The larva
tunnels through the fleshy layers of fruit to reach the ker-
nel within which it completes its development. The newly
formed adults come out of the dry fallen fruits and remain
316
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Figs. 1-9. Apotomorrhinus cribratus Sch.
1. Male; 2. Female; 3. Copulation; 4. Section of fruit showing eggs embedded in mesocarp (A);
5. 1st instar larva; 6. 2nd instar larva; 7. 3rd instar larva; 8. 4th instar larva; 9. Pupa;
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
317
EGG
LARVA
PUPA
YOUNG ADULT
D1APAUSING ADULT
NON D1APAU SING ADULT
Fig. 10. Seasonal life cycle of Apotomorrhinus cribratus Sch.
on Eugenia jambolana during 1986 and 1987.
in a state of diapause till the next fruiting season.
The adults are poor fliers. They generally hide them-
selves in between the closely appressed fruits of a bunch.
The beetles feign death on being disturbed and drop to the
ground where they lie motionless for 3-4 minutes before
taking to their wings. The fresh adults feed on the nectar
contained in the nectaries inside the calyx cup. Later on,
they also feed on young and ripe fruits by inserting their
snouts into the fruit.
Copulation: The adults attain sexual maturity towards the
end of June after feeding on the flowers and fruits for a
period of 16 to 23 days. Pairing occurs mostly in the after-
noons. As the male approaches a female, she moves for-
ward but the male continues to chase her till she becomes
stationary. The male mounts the body of the female either
from left side or right side and holds the female with its
legs (Fig. 3). When not receptive, the female jerks off the
attempting male by rapidly moving her body right and left
and quickly disappears among the fruits. A couple mates
for a period varying from 27-35 minutes. Both the male
and the female have been found to copulate several times
after the first copulation.
Oviposition: Egg laying begins 1-3 days after the first
copulation, in the first week of July. The usual site of
oviposition is the area around the middle of the young fruit.
The female drills an ovipositional tunnel with its snout
which extends up to the inner layer of mesocarp. The egg
is deposited in a spacious chamber at the end of the tunnel
(Fig. 4). After oviposition, the female displaces the egg a
little away from the entrance with the help of its snout. The
ovipositional hole later on gets blocked by the growth of
<=9
I
■m
the surrounding tissue. The female sometimes gives out a
secretion from its anal aperture and applies it around the
ovipositional hole with its snout.
Usually, 2 to 3 eggs are deposited in one fruit but
their number rises to 8 in crowded conditions. The total
number of eggs laid by a female varies from 9-88 with an
average of 51 eggs. The oviposition period among dif-
ferent females extends for 9-37 days when 1-8 eggs are
laid daily. Nearly 50% eggs are laid during the first half of
the oviposition period.
Life cycle: (Fig. 10): Freshly laid eggs are cream coloured,
oval and measure on an average 0.50 mm in length and
0.38 mm in breadth. The eggs extracted from the fruits and
kept on moist cotton hatch within 5-6 days.
The newly hatched whitish legless larva (Fig. 5) tun-
nels through the endocarp in an irregular fashion, filling
the space behind with its faecal matter and thus imparting
the tunnel a brown colour. It ultimately settles in the ker-
nel, feeds actively and moults three times before attaining
full growth (Figs. 6, 7). The mature fourth instar larva is
stout, strongly curved and possesses a dark brown head
capsule with sharp mandibles (Fig. 8).
Usually, 3-6 larvae in various stages of development
are encountered in one fruit but only one larva reaches
maturity, the others dying sooner or later. By the time the
ripe fruits begin to drop, most of the larvae are in advanced
stages of development. The outer layers of the fruits, i.e.
the thin epicarp and juicy mesocarp shrivel after 2-3 days
but the cotyledons remain green for 8-13 days and serve
as a source of nourishment to the growing grubs.
The grubs start transforming into pupae in the first
week of September. Pupation takes place inside a wide
chamber prepared in the dried cotyledons by the full grown
larva. The larva stops feeding and stretches out its body to
attain the prepupal stage in preparation for the pupation.
The pupal stage lasts for 8-12 days (Fig. 9). Adults
start emerging in the middle of September and continue to
emerge till the first week of October. The freshly formed
adult remains inside the fruit for 3 to 4 days, during which
the sclerotization and pigmentation of the body is com-
pleted. It then cuts its way out and flies away.
Diapause: The adults of A. cribratus Sch. are not seen
anywhere till the next flowering season of the host plants.
They presumably hide and enter a phase of imaginal
diapause. When released in a jar containing soil, the beet-
les fail to burrow into it. The hiding place for the adults
thus does not appear to be underground.
Longevity: The adults of A. cribratus Sch. appear in the
middle of June and remain on their host tree up to third
week of August. Out of 32 adults kept in the laboratory,
56% survived for 40-48 days, 32%. for 33-38 days, 9% for
12-15 days, 3% for 58-61 days and 2% died in 3-6 days.
Nature and extent of damage:. The injury is caused to the
3*8
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
fruits both by the adults and the grubs. The weevils feed
on both young and ripe fruits. The feeding holes are exter-
nally marked with whitish fungal material. The serious
damage is, however, caused by the grubs which bore
through the fleshy mesocarp into the kernel. As a result,
irregular galleries are formed, which are dumped with ex-
creta as the larva feeds. Thus the entire seed is rendered
useless.
We are grateful to the Indian Council of Agricultural
Research and the U.S. Department of Agriculture for
financing a five year project on Indian Curculionidae. We
are also thankful to the Chairman, Department of Zoology,
Punjab University, Chandigarh, for providing necessary
research facilities.
H.R. PAJNI
December 15, 1988 NEELIMA NANDA
References
Kushwaha, K.S. (1962): Some observations on the biology and Mshl. (Col. : Cure.) a serious pest around Udaipur (Rajas-
extemal morphology of Lissora weevil Baris cordiae than). Proc. 1st All India Congr. Zool., Calcutta: 498-509.
43. INTR ASEXUAL COMBAT IN ONTHOPHAGUS PYGMAEUS (SCHALLER)
(COLEOPTERA: SCARAB AEIDAE)
Having extensively surveyed the literature, Halffter
and Matthews (1966) reported that of all the tribes in the
subfamily Scarabaeinae, individual combat is exclusive to
the tribe Scarabaeini. Observations made on Onthophagus
pygmaeus (Tribe: Onthophagini) however, contradict the
above statement.
Results and Discussion
Intraspecific male combat was observed on five oc-
casions in O. pygmaeus at Bangalore in 1985.
In the first instance an intruding male displaced a
male from beneath a sheep pellet by butting it away from
the female with which it was present. Then, with antennae
waving feverishly, it remained in copula with the female
for two minutes. The displaced male kept roving around
the mating pair for some time and then hid beneath a blade
of grass. Once the pair had completed mating, it emerged
from concealment and approached the female. The in-
truder-male tossed him off with his clypeus and persist-
ently stayed behind the female. All attempts by die dis-
placed male to possess the female were thwarted by the
new male.
Finally, the displaced male withdrew to a distance of
10 cm from the pair. It kept waiting there till the male-
female pair commenced digging. When the displaced male
was placed (by the author) in their vicinity, it feigned death
for four minutes, by which time the pair had dug into the
soil.
In two other instances three males, and in one in-
stance four males, were involved in combat to gain access
to the respective females beneath sheep pellets. In all
cases, a male was originally represent with a female
beneath a sheep pellet. At the end of the butting and toss-
ing it was always one of the larger males that succeeded
in mating with the female. The female never took part in
any of these combats but remained passive as in females
of Gymnopleurus spp. (pers. obs.)
It is thus evident that greater size confers some ad-
vantage to males in winning battles with other males. It
may therefore be said that large size increases fitness in
males. But then, the fact that in one instance, a displaced
male kept waiting for an opportunity to mate with a female
that had already mated with another male suggests the pos-
sibility of sperm precedence in this species (Parker 1970,
Klemperer 1983). This is further strengthened by the fact
that the successful male keeps guarding the female for a
period after having mated with her. Only further observa-
tions supported by experiments can establish the truth of
these surmises. However, the observations amply
demonstrate that this Onthophagine species does engage
in intrasexual male combat, proving that such behaviour
is not restricted to members of the tribe Scarabaeini.
We are grateful to Dr R. Madge, British Museum
(Natural History) for identifying the specimens.
K. VEENAKUMARI
December 16, 1988 G.K. VEERESH
References
Halffter, G. & Matthews, E.G. (1966): The natural history of Scarabaeinae (Coleoptera, Scarabaeidae): an experimental
dung beetles of the subfamily Scarabaeinae (Coleoptera: approach. Ecol. Ent. 8: 49-59.
Scarabaeidae). Folis Ent. Mex. 12-14: 312. Parker, G.A. (1970): Sperm competition and its evolutionary
Klemperer, H.C. (1983): The evolution of parental behaviour in consequences in the insects. Biol. Rev. 45: 525-567.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
319
44. UTILIZATION OF DRY DUNG AND INTRASPECIFIC COMPETITION
IN ONTHOPHAGUS TRITINCTUS BOUCOMONT (COLEOPTERA: SCARAB AEIDAE)
( With a text-figure)
Introduction
Different species of scarabaeines are attracted to ex-
crement of varying consistency. While liquid excrement
attracts members of some species that feed in situ , excre-
ment of a more pasty consistency is required by those
species which indulge in ball making for overland
transportation of food. However, the extreme case in
which very dry dung is consistently utilized has so far been
noticed only in the neotropical scarabaeine sub-tribe
Eucraniina, which includes all species belonging to the
genera Eucranium, Clyphoderus and Anomioproides . In
these species the beetles carry dung by grasping dry pieces
between the forelegs and head, and then by elevating the
forebody with the food, they run rapidly forwards on their
mid and hind pairs of legs. This is thought to be an adap-
tation to semi-desert conditions (Halffter and Matthews
1966). For the first time Onthophagus tritinctus (Tribe:
Onthophagini) has now been observed to transport pieces
of dry dung for food.
The following observations were made in Ban-
galore, south India, during the months May to July in the
years 1983 to 1985.
Transportation of Dung by Butting
Adults of O. tritinctus were found to be attracted. to
dry dung. They were seen to be pushing flat dry pieces of
either cow dung (Fig. 1) or dog exrement. Getting partial-
ly beneath the dung piece they kept shovelling it by means
of their clypeus and forelegs.
Lifting one end of the dung piece they tossed it over,
such that they could have the opposite end in proximity to
themselves, to which they then applied their clypeus and
forelegs. In this manner they transported the dung pieces
over a mean distance of c. 68 cm (Table 1). At times a
strong gust of wind would blow them over. However, they
would right themselves and resume their original position
to continue butting the dung piece.
Halffter and Matthews (1966) state that the butting
technique appears to enable the beetles to transport ‘very
large pieces of food’. In line with this argument it can be
seen from Table 1 that as compared to both the Gym-
nopleurus spp. which are rollers of spherical dung masses,
O. tritinctus does succeed in transporting (by butting) a
greater mass of dung. This is so despite the fact that O.
tritinctus is much smaller than Gymnopleurus and that it
transports dry dung fragments unlike the Gymnopleurus
spp. Current observations also reveal that relative to its
Fig. 1. Onthophagus tritinctus
transporting a flat piece of dry dung.
mass O. tritinctus transports food over much greater dis-
tances than the Gymnopleurus spp. Its speed is however,
much less than the two species of Gymnopleurus (Table
1).
O. tritinctus has thus evolved a unique combination
of traits for obtaining food. It combines the capacity of the
eucraniines to utilize dry dung, with the ‘butting’ techni-
que of Dichotomius nisus (Oliver) (Luederwall 1914, as
in Halffter and Matthews 1966), Oxysternon conspicil-
latum Weber (Daniel 1940, as in Halffter and Matthews
1966) and several species of Phanaeus (Halffter and Mat-
thews 1966).
Even though it had to transport flat, relatively large
fragments of dung, O. tritinctus did succeed in pushing the
fragments over obstacles encountered during transporta-
tion. But then, it adopted a variable strategy when en-
countering obstacles, perhaps dependent on the quantum
of energy it had to expend in the effort to push the frag-
ment over, as is evident from the following observations.
When a fallen stem was first encountered as an obstacle,
an individual O. tritinctus succeeded in butting the piece
of dung over it. However, when it encountered a second
stem in its path it was unable to surmount it. The beetle
then took the other alternative of digging at the base of the
obstacle. It got beneath the dung piece and started digging
with its clypeus and forelegs. As the digging continued the
fragment gradually disappeared into the soil. Digging up
the spot after two days revealed partially eaten dung and
faecal pellets of the beetle at a depth of 2.5 cm.
Intraspecific Competition
Intraspecific competition for the fragment of excre-
ment was observed in O. tritinctus. As observed in
10
320
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Table 1
COMPARATIVE EFFICIENCIES OF 2 MODES OF FOOD TRANSPORTATION IN 3 SPECIES OF DUNG BEETLES
Sisyphus schaefferi (L.) and Gymnopleurus geoffroyi
Fuessly by Prasse (1958), fights were always between two
beetles only; although in the sequence of events described
below, situations did arise when more than two beetles
were present in the vicinity of the dung fragment and so
could have been involved in multiple combat.
One beetle that was butting along a piece of dung
was seen to be followed by a conspecific. This beetle did
not try to wrest the dung piece from its owner but instead
appeared to be following it for some distance and then
buried itself in the soil. A few minutes later a third beetle
of the same species arrived and attempted snatching away
the piece of dung, but the owner did not yield. It continued
pushing along its piece of dung. Nevertheless, owing to
the rugged nature of the terrain, the owner stumbled and
fell away from the dung fragment. This opportunity was
utilized by the beetle that had arrived last. It took posses-
sion of the piece of dung and began butting it along. At
this juncture yet another beetle alighted about 15 cm away
from the beetle engaged in transporting the dung. It
however, did nothing but remained still for a while and
then flew away.
Meanwhile, the beetle that had fallen and lost the
dung piece fought and regained possession of it from the
beetle that was transporting it. It butted it along for some
distance and finally buried it. In spite of potential rivals
and actual loss of the dung fragment for a while, the
original beetle succeeded in finally regaining control over
its piece of dung. Thus, O. tritinctus engaged in sequen-
tial combat, where one beetle may fight with more than
one beetle but only one at a time, during the course of food
transportation.
O. tritinctus appears to save energy by generally
avoiding direct combat with conspecifics for the posses-
sion of dung fragments. On the other hand, it appears to
wait for a chance to sneak up to a faltering individual and
then snatch away the fragment. Thus, while it saves ener-
gy by avoiding physical combat, it expends considerable
time in following a conspecific engaged in food transpor-
tation and waiting for it to falter before gaining possession
of the dry fragment. This may be a male strategy for
reproductive success as the cost of finding a free female
may be greater than the benefit that accrues from waiting
for an opportune moment to take possession of a female
from its attendant male. As Halffter and Matthews (1966)
state, gaining possession of the fragment of food is only
apparently the objective of intraspecific combat, but, in
fact is a form of sexual behaviour.
Acknowledgements
We thank Dr R. Madge, British Museum (Natural
History) for identifying the specimens and Prashanth
Mohanraj for suggestions.
K. VEENAKUMARI
February 14, 1989 G.K. VEERESH
References
Halffter, G. & Matthews, E.G. (1966): The natural history of Prasse, J. (1958): Kampfe der Pillenwalzer Sisyphus schaefferi
dung beetles of the subfamily Scarabaeinae (Coleoptera : (L.) and Gymnopleurs geoffroyi Fuessl. (Col.: Scarab.).
Scarabaeidae). Folia Era. Mex. 12-14: 312. Wiss. Z. Univ. Halle, Math.-Nat., (I):89-92.
45. ODONATA OF VEDANTHANGAL WATERBIRD SANCTUARY, TAMIL NADU,
WITH NOTES ON THEIR FIELD ECOLOGY
Introduction
The Odonata fauna of south India is generally not so
well known. Our knowledge of the dragonflies of the
peninsula is confined to the works of Fraser (1924, 1932,
1933, 1934 and 1936). Recently Rao and Lahiri (1982)
listed the dragonflies of Silent Valley and Kumar and
Khatri (1985, 1986) recorded the dragonflies of Eastern
Ghats in Tamil Nadu, to add to our knowledge of
dragonflies of south India.
I have been engaged in a detailed study on the
hydrobiology of Vedanthangal Tank Sanctuary during the
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
321
years 1986 and 1987. In course of these investigations col-
lections were simultaneously made of the dragonfly larvae
(which form a part of the zooplankton) and imagos from
and around the tank. Field observations were taken on their
flight period, oviposition and emergence period and the
larval habitats. It is the first such record of dragonflies from
this Sanctuary. A number of the species are common with
those of Silent Valley in Kerala and of Javadi, Koli and
Shevroy hills of Eastern Ghats in Tamil Nadu.
Vedanthangal Sanctuary (120 m above MSL) is
about 82 km south of Madras city and 48 km inland from
the Bay of Bengal. It is one of the oldest known bird
sanctuaries in south India. The average rainfall is 1 150 mm
per annum, during the months of November to January,
under the influence of the retreating NE monsoon. The
sanctuary includes the c. 30 hectare Vedanthangal tank.
For detailed topography of the sanctuary and the list of
waterbirds visiting the Sanctuary, see Spillett (1968).
Systematic Account
Suborder Zygoptera, Family Platycnemididae
1. Copera marginipes (Rambur)
Platycnemis marginipes Rambur, 1842, Ins.
Neurop.: 240.
Field ecology: Flight period - April to January; oviposi-
tion - November; emergence - November to February; lar-
val habitat - among weeds at the bank.
Distribution: India: common. Rao and Lahiri (1982)
recorded it from Silent Valley, Kumar and Khatri (1986)
from Eastern Ghats.
Family: Coenagriidae
2. Pseudagrion rubriceps Selys
Pseudagrion rubriceps Selys, 1876, Bull. Acad.
Belg. (2) 42:510.
Field ecology: Flight period — February to November;
oviposition — November to January; emergence —
January to February; larval habitat — among the weeds in
shallow water.
Distribution: India: common.
3. Ceriagrion coromandelianum (Fabricius)
Agrion coromandelianum Fabricius, 1798, Ent.
Syst. suppl.: 287.
Field ecology: Flight period — uncommon but occurs on
wings almost round the year; oviposition — November to
April; emergence-occurring almost round the year; larval
habitat — perching on submerged roots.
4. Ischnura aurora aurora (Brauer)
Agrion delicatum Hagen, 1858, Verh. Zool.-Bot.
Ges. Wien. 8: 479.
Field ecology: Flight period — common round the year;
oviposition — November to April; emergence — continues
round the year; larval habitat — occurs among the roots
of floating plants.
5. Agriocnemis pygmaea (Rambur)
Agrion pygmaea Rambur, 1842, Ins. Neurop.: 278.
Field ecology: Flight period — October to April; oviposi-
tion — November to April; emergence — January to April;
larval habitat — among weeds in turbid water near the
bank.
Distribution: India: common.
Family : Lestidae
6. Lestes alata Hagen
Lestes alata Hagen, 1858, Verh. Zool. - Bot. Ges.
Wien. 8:478.
Field ecology: Flight period — common on wings from
November to January; emergence — October to January;
larval habitat — in marshy areas of the lake.
Distribution: India: peninsula. Kumar and Khatri (1985)
recorded it from Javadi hills in Eastern Ghats.
Suborder: Anisoptera Family : Gomphidae
7. Ictinigomphus rapax (Rambur)
Diastatoma rapax Rambur, 1 842, Ins. Neurop : 169
Field ecology: Flight period — April to January; oviposi-
tion— November to January; emergence — October to
November; larval habitat — amidst bottom debris in shal-
low turbid water near the bank.
Distribution: India: common.
Family : Aeshnidae
8. Anax guttatus (Burmeister)
Aeshna guttatus Burmeister, 1839, Handb. Ent. 2:
840.
Field ecology: Flight period — October to January;
oviposition — November; emergence — January; larval
habitat — at bottom and among weeds a little away from
the bank.
Distribution: India: common.
9. Anax immaculifrons Rambur
Anax immaculifrons Rambur, 1842, Ins. Neurop .:
189.
Field ecology: Flight period — September to May, rarely
seen; oviposition — March to April; emergence — Oc-
tober to November; larval habitat — in small rivulet near
the lake.
Distribution: India: common in NW India. Kumar and
Khatri (1986) recorded it from Javadi hills in Eastern
Ghats.
Family : Libellulidae
10. Potamarcha obscura (Rambur)
Libellula obscura Rambur, 1842, Ins. Neurop.: 64.
Field ecology: Right period — October to April; ovipos-
tion — November to December; emergence — April to
322
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.87
May; larval habitat on muddy bottom near the bank.
Distribution : India: Common.
11. Orthetrum sabina sabina (Drury)
Libellula sabina Drury, 1770, III. Exot. Ins., 1: 114.
Field ecology : Flight period — common on wings
throughout the year; oviposition — almost round the year;
emergence - — same period; larval habitat — occurs in
marshy side pools on sandy substratum.
Distribution: India: common. Rao and Lahiri (1982)
recorded it from New Amarambalam R.F., Kerala; Kumar
and Khatri (1985) from Javadi hills in Eastern Ghats.
12. Orthetrum pruinosum neglectum (Rambur)
Libellula neglecta Rambur, 1842, Ins. Neurop .: 86.
Field ecology : Flight period — occurs on wings
throughout the year; oviposition — almost round the year;
emergence — more common from January to April; lar-
val habitat — at bottom amidst sand and mud.
Distribution: India: common. Rao and Lahiri (1982)
recorded it from Silent Valley; Kumar and Khatri (1985,
1986) from Koli, Javadi and Shevroy hills in Eastern
Ghats.
13. Orthetrum triangulare triangulare (Selys)
Libellula triangularis Selys, 1878, Mitth. Mus.
Dresden, : 314.
Field ecology: Flight period — October to February;
oviposition — April to May; emergence —January to
March; larval habitat — occurs in muddy substratum.
Distribution: India: common.
14. Palpopleura sexmaculata sexmaculata
(Fabricius)
Libellula sexmaculata Fabricius, 1787, Manx. Ins.,
7:338.
Field ecology: Flight period — October to April; oviposi-
tion — January to February; emergence — April; larval
habitat — among weeds near the bank.
Distribution: India: Common.
15. Acisoma panarpoides panarpoides Rambur
Acisoma panarpoides Rambur, 1842, Ins.
Neurop. :28.
Field ecology: Flight period - on wings almost round the
year; oviposition - continuous round the year; emergence
- commonly in September to October and January to
February; larval habitat - among aquatic vegetation.
Distribution: India: common.
16. Brachythemis contaminata (Fabricius)
Libellula contaminata Fabricius, 1793, Ent. Syst., 2:
382.
Field ecology: Flight period — common on wings round
the year; emergence — February to March; oviposition —
November to December; larval habitat — in muddy sub-
stratum.
Distribution: India: common. Kumar and Khatri (1986)
recorded it from Shevroy hills in Eastern Ghats.
17. Diplacodes trivialis (Rambur)
Libellula trivialis Rambur, 1842, Ins. Neurop:. 115.
Field ecology: Flight period — common from September
to April; oviposition — almost continuously; emergence * —
occurs at irregular intervals; larval habitat in weeds at
muddy bank.
Distribution: India: common. Rao and Lahiri (1982)
record it from Silent Valley, Kumar and Khatri (1985,
1986) from Javadi and Koli hills in Eastern Ghats.
18. Neurothemis tullia tullia (Drury)
Libellula tullia Drury, 1773, III. Exot. Ins , 2:85,
Field ecology: Flight period — November to February;
emergence —October to November; larval habitat —
among weeds in swampy part of the lake. Imagos occur in
isolated colonies, Fraser (1936) recorded its colonies from
swamps or weedy tanks along the Western Ghats and
peninsula.
Distribution: India: common in peninsula. Rao and Lahiri
(1982) recorded it from New Amarambalam R.F. in
Kerala.
19. Trithemis festiva (Rambur)
Libellula festiva Rambur, 1842, Ins. Neurop.: 92.
Field ecology: Flight period — common on wings almost
round the year; oviposition — January to March; emer-
gence — July to November; Larval habitat — in weeds,
cinging to roots, etc.
Distribution: India: common. Kumar and Khatri (1985)
recorded it from Javadi hills in Eastern Ghats.
20. Pantala flavescens (Fabricius)
Libellula flavescens Fabricius, 1798, Ent. Syst.
suppl. 1285.
Field ecology: Flight period - November to February;
oviposition - November to December; emergence -
December to January; larval habitat - among weeds. Im-
agos are known migrants and their presence at the
Sanctuary corresponds with that of NE monsoon.
Distribution: India: common. Kumar and Khatri (1985,
1986) recorded it from Javadi, Koli and Shevroy hills in
Eastern Ghats. Kumar (1989) studied its biology and
seasonal distribution in Madras (Tamil Nadu).
21. Tramea Virginia (Rambur)
Libellula Virginia Rambur, 1842, Ins. Neurop., 33
Field ecology: Flight period — November to April;
oviposition —October to November; larval habitat — in
submerged weeds and roots in deep water. A rare species.
Distribution: India: common in north India. Kumar and
Khatri (1985) recorded it from Javadi hills in Eastern
Ghats.
Discussion
Shape, size and nature of a water body are very im-
portant in habitat selection of dragonflies. If a comparison
is made between the dragonflies of Vedanthangal
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
323
Sanctuary and those of the Renuka Wildlife Sanctuary in
western Himalaya (Kumar 1978), it is observed that a
number of dragonflies, which occur along the stream in
Renuka, are absent at Vedanthangal. On the other hand,
species which occur around the lake are mainly common
species. This is significant in view of the geographical
location of the two sanctuaries.
I am grateful to the Director, Zoological Survey of
India, and the Officer-in-Charge, Environmental Monitor-
ing Wing, Zoological Survey of India, Madras, for permis-
sion to undertake the present study and field and laboratory
facilities.
April 20, 1989 ANIL KUMAR
References
Fraser, F.C. (1924): A survey of Odonata (Dragonfly) fauna of
Western India with species remarks on the genera Macro-
mia and I dionyx and descriptions of thirty new species with
appendices I and II. Rec. Indian Mus. 26: 423- 522.
* (1932): Addition to the survey of Odonata fauna of
Western India, with descriptions of nine new species. Rec.
Indian Mus. 35:443-474.
(1933, 1934 & 1936): The Fauna of British India, in-
cluding Ceylon and Burma (Odonata, 1-3). .
Kumar, A. (1978): Field notes on the Odonata around a fresh
water lake in Western Himalayas. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
74(3): 506-510.
Kumar, A. & Khatri, T.C. (1985): On a small collection of
Dragonflies (Odonata) from the Eastern Ghats, Tamil Nadu
uplands - 1. Eastern Ghats Insects, 1: 6-9.
(1986): ibid. - II. Eastern Ghats Insects, 2: 23-25.
Rao, K.R. & Lahiri, A.R. (1982): First records of Odonates
(Arthropoda: Insecta) from the Silent Valley and New
Amarambalam reserved forests. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
79(3): 557-562.
Spillett, J.J. (1968): A Report on Wildlife Surveys in South and
West India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 65(3): 646-653.
46. SEASONAL CHANGES IN THE POPULATION OF EARTHWORMS
(OLIGOCHAETA) IN AN ORCHARD
(With two text-figures)
Introduction
Ecological studies on earthworms are of special in-
terest since they play an important role in enhancing soil
fertility (Edwards and Lofty 1977). But such studies on the
oriental earthworms have remained more or less
neglected. There are, however, a few informative publica-
tions on the seasonality and population dynamics of Indian
earthworms (Roy 1957, Gates 1961, Dash and Patra 1977,
Reddy and Alfred 1978, Senapati et al. 1979, Chauhan
1980, Senapati and Dash 1981, 1984, Julka and Mukher-
jee 1984, Krishnamoorthy and Ramachandra 1988, Mish-
ra and Ramakrishnan 1988). This paper deals with
seasonal fluctuations in the population of earthworms in a
plum orchard during the course of a year (September 1984
to September 1985).
which was subsequendy ploughed. The climate of the area
can be divided into four distinct seasons: spring (late
February to April), summer (May to August), autumn
(September to middle of November) and winter (middle
of November to middle of February).
Material and Methods
Worms were extracted at monthly intervals by ap-
plication of 0.55% formalin solution (Raw 1959) over ten
randomly selected quadrats (25 x 25 cm each). Soil
temperature, soil moisture and soil organic matter were
determined for surface soil at 10 cm depth with a soil ther-
mometer, oven-drying method at 100° C for 24 hours and
Walkley Black’s rapid titration method respectively. Rain-
fall data were procured from Y.S. Parmar, University of
Horticulture and Forestry at Solan.
Study Area
An area of approximately 75 sq. m was selected for
this study in a 15 year old plum orchard on a hill terrace
at Kailar village (alt. 1450 m; 30°55’ N; 70°10’ E) about
5 km from Solan on Sabathu road in Himachal Pradesh.
The undergrowth in the orchard consisted of grasses and
weeds which were cut periodically. They remained green
during M arch-October, and became dry and pale in
November-February. In January 1985, a mixture of super-
phosphate and potash fertilizers was added to the soil
Observations
The soil was brown clayey loam with an alkaline pH
range of 7.9 to 8.3. Seasonal changes in soil temperature,
soil moisture, soil organic matter and rainfall are depicted
in Fig. 1.
Five different species of earthworms, viz. Oc-
tolasion tyrtaeum (Savigny), Bimastos parvus (Eisen),
Drawida japonica Michaelsen, Lennogaster pusillus
(Stephenson) and Plutellus sp. were recorded in the or-
chard during the period under study. Data on the relative
324
JOURNAL, BOMBA? NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Table 1
RELATIVE DENSITY AND RELATIVE FREQUENCY OF EARTH-
WORMS IN A PLUM ORCHARD IN HIMACHAL PRADESH
density and relative frequency (Table 1) showed that O.
tyrtaeum was the most dominant and common species, fol-
lowed by D.japonicciy B. parvus , L. pusillus and Plutellus
sp.
Monthly fluctuations in the population density of
earthworms are shown in Fig. 2 A. Two major peaks - one
in April and another in July-September, were observed.
The population was at a low level in October to March and
May to June. The maximum biomass (wet weight) for the
total earthworm population was recorded in July-Septem-
ber (Table 2). The average monthly biomass was 9.02 g
wet weight/sq.m.
Seasonal changes in the population of Octolasion
tyrtaeum represented by different age groupings are il-
lustrated in Fig. 2B. The juvenile population structure had
two distinct peaks, one in April and another in September.
Between these two peaks there were phases when they
were absent, as during January -March, May and Novem-
ber. Except in November, clitellate adults were en-
countered throughout the year. Their population was at a
higher level during July -October.
Fig. 1. Seasonal changes in rainfall and soil parameters.
Beginning in July, the juvenile population of
Drawida japonica (Fig. 2C) increased to a maximum in
July, followed by a gradual decline to zero in October. The
population of clitellate adults rose from August to reach
the maximum in September. A few specimens were also
found in February. This species was not encountered
during October- January, March and May- June. Only 1-3
specimens of Bimast os parvus , Lennogaster pusillus and
Plutellus sp. each were recorded during August-Septem-
ber and their seasonality could be ascertained.
Discussion
Soil temperature and soil moisture are considered to
affect seasonal fluctuations in the population density of
earthworms (Reynolds and Jordan 1975, Edwards and
Lofty 1977). During the present studies, the correlation be-
tween worm density and soil moisture (r = 0.476) and soil
temperature (r = 0.529) were analysed, and were found to
be non-significant statistically. But the combined in-
fluence of these two parameters on the seasonality of the
worms showed a significant positive correlation (r =
0.672; p <0.02). The correlations between total biomass
(wet weight) and soil moisture (r = 0.572; p <0.05), soil
temperature (r = 0.557 ; p <0.05), and combined soil mois-
ture and temperature (r=0.754; p <0.01) were positively
significant. The impact of changes in the rainfall and soil
organic matter on the worm density was non-significant
(rainfall/worm density (r) = 0.3222; soil organic mat-
ter/worm density (r) = 0.065). Kale and Krishnamoorthy
(1978) also support the view that the worm population
density is not related to organic matter.
sol
JUVENILE C:D. JAPONICA A,
ACLITELLATE
05 CLITELLATE ' S'
t <290) B:0. TYRTAEUM
Fig. 2. Monthly fluctuations in population density of earthworms.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
325
Table 2
BIOMASS (WET WEIGHT) IN G% OF EARTHWORMS IN A PLUM ORCHARD IN HIMACHAL PRADESH
The average monthly biomass of total earthworms
(9.02 g wet weight/sq. m in the orchard under study was
much lower as compared to pastures /grasslands of Oris-
sa, viz. 30.25 g/sq. m in a grassland (Dash and Patra 1977);
56 g/sq. m and 41 g/sq. m in ungrazed and grazed pastures
repsectively (Senapati and Dash 1981). Highly leached
thin mountain soil may be one of the reasons for lower
production of worm biomass.
Emergence pattern of juveniles of O. tyrtaeum (Fig.
2B) shows one peak in April and prolonged emergence
from June to a second peak in September. This corresponds
to the soil temperature varying between 20-25° C and soil
moisture between 20-40%. A sharp decline to nil popula-
tion of juveniles in May can be due to low level of soil
moisture (<10%). According to Dash and Senapati (1980),
worms undergo diapause when the soil moisture level
reaches around or below 10%. The population structure of
D. japonic a indicates a unimodel emergence of juveniles
from July to September with a single peak in August.
During this period the soil temperature is around 25 °C and
soil moisture between 30-40%.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the Director, Zoological Survey
of India, Calcutta and Officer-in-Charge, HAZFS, ZSI,
Solan for providing necessary facilities.
J.M. JULKA
July 6, 1989 R. PALIWAL
References
Chauhan, T.P.S. (1980): Seasonal changes in the activities of
some tropical earthworms. Comp. Physiol. Ecol. 5: 288-
289.
Dash, M.C. & Patra, U.C. (1977): Density, biomass and energy
budget of a tropical earthworm population from a grassland
site in Orissa, India. Rev. Ecol. & Biol. Sol. 14: 461-471.
Dash, M.C. & Senapati, B.K. (1980): Cocoon morphology,
hatching and emergence pattern in tropical earthworms.
Pedobiologia 20: 316-324.
Edwards, C.A. & Lofty, J.R. (1977): Biology of earthworms.
Chapman and Hall, London (2nd edition).
Gates, G.E. (1961): Ecology of some earthworms with special
reference to seasonal activity. Am. Midi. Nat. 66: 61-86.
Julka, J.M. & Mukherjee, R.N. (1984): Some observations on
the seasonal activity of earthworms (Oligochaeta: An-
nelida) in hill forest soil. Bull. zool. Surv. India 5: 35-39.
Kale, R.D. & Krishnamoorthy, R.V. (1978): Distribution and
abundance of earthworms in Bangalore. Proc. Indian Acad.
Sci. 87 B (3): 23-25.
Krishnamoorthy, R.V. & Ramachandra, S. (1988): Population
structure of earthworms in woodlands of Karnataka, ibid.
97: 355-362.
Mishra, K.C. & Ramakrishnan, P.S. (1988): Earthworm popula-
tion dynamics in different jhum fallows developed after
slash and bum agriculture in northeastern India, ibid. 97:
309-318.
Raw, F. (1959): Estimating earthworm population by using for-
malin .Nature, Lond. 184: 1661.
Reddy, V. & Alfred, J.R.B. (1978): Some observations on the
earthworm population and biomass in a subtropical pine
forest soil. In: Soil Biology and Ecology in India, UAS
Tech. Ser. Bangalore No. 22: 78-82.
Reynolds, J.W. & Jordan, G.A. (1975): A preliminary concep-
tual model of megradrile activity and abundance in the
Haliburton highlands. Megadrilogica 2(2): 1-8.
Roy, S.K. (1957): Studies on the activities of earthworms. Proc.
zool. Soc., Calcutta 10: 81-98.
Senapati, B.K., Dash, H.K. & Dash, M.C. (1979): Seasonal
dynamics and emergence pattern of a tropical earthworm,
Drawida calebi (Oligochaeta). Int. J. Invert. Rep. 1: 271-
277.
Senapati, B.K. & Dash, M.C. (1981): Effect of grazing on the
326
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
elements of production in vegetation and oligochaete com-
ponents of a tropical pasture. Rev. Ecol. Biol. Sol. 18: 487-
505.
(1984): Influence of soil temperature and moisture on
the reproductive acitivity of tropical pasture earthworms of
Orissa. J. Soil. Biol. Ecol. 4: 13-21.
47. TAXONOMICAL AND DISTRIBUTIONAL NOTES ON POLYGALA TELEPHIOIDES KLEIN
EX WJLLD. IN INDIA
(With a text- figure)
St?
i
■'nvm
Jk^
~ TiYm
Fig. 1. Poly gala telephioides Klein ex Willd.
A. Plant; B. Calyx; C. Flower, D. Middle lobe of corolla;
E. Keel petal with crest; F. Androecium; G. pistil;
H.V.S. of fruit; I. Seed; J. Embryo; K. Strophiolar appendage.
While working on the family Polygalaceae, Ben-
nett (in Hook, f., FI. Brit. India 1: 205.1872) recorded
the name 'Poly gala telephioides Willd. sp. pi. 3(2): 876.
1802’ and erroneously accepted the description of P.
buxiformis Hussk. [in Miq., Mus. Bot. 1:161. 1863-64]
considering the latter species along with P. serpyllifolia
Poir. as synonyms oiP. telephioides Candolle (Prodr. 1:
332. 1824) diagnosed P. telephioides referring
Willdenow’s work which matched exactly with Klein’s
material [Klein 936, 1795, India, Willdenow Cat. No.
12952 (Type at B), Photo at CAL]. Gamble [in FI.
Madras 1: 59 (42). 1915] and Mathew [in FI. Tamil.Kar-
natic 1:74, f. 1983] have diagnosed P. telephioides fol-
lowing Bennett’s (loc.cit.) description.
However, on critical examination it appears that
P. serpyllifolia and P. buxiformis are conspecific while
P. telephioides is a distinct species and is easily distin-
guishable by " caule simplici erecto ". The
incomplete characters of P. telephioides noted on the
specimen (at B) attributed by Klein and endorsed by
Willdenow is insufficient for identification. So, a
detailed description with illustration (Fig. 1) is
provided herewith for the easy recognisation of this
neglected taxon.
Polygala telephioides Klein ex Willd., Sp. PI.
3(2): 876. 1802; DC., Prodr. 1: 332. 1824; Roxb., FI.
Ind. 3: 218. 1832; Wt. et Am. Prodr. 36. 1834.
Erect annual, ±21 cm tall, unbranched or rarely
with 1-2 branches from the base. Stem terete, faintly
ridged, scabrid-pubescent; intemodes 5-6 mm. Leaves
simple, alternate, exstipulate; petiole ± 1 mm, hairy;
lamina obovate-elliptic to oblong -lanceolate, 22-24 x
8-10 mm, margin recurved, apex rounded with a minute
mucro, glabrous, dorsally glauscesent; midvein slight-
ly depressed above and elevated below, lateral veins
obscure. Flowers 4.5 -5.5 x 3. 7 -3. 9 mm, fascicled on
minute (± 1 mm) axillary and/or extra-axillary
peduncles; bracts 1 mm long, scaly, narrowly lanceo-
late. Sepals 5, unequal, persistent; outer 3 small, 1.3-
1.7 x 0.9- 1.2 mm, acute, pubescent; largest sepal 4.5-
5.5 x 3.5-3. 8 mm, oblique, acuminate, glabrous, enclos-
ing other parts of the flower. Petals united at the base,
3-lobed, middle lobe clawed, reniform, undulated, ir-
regularly dentate, 1.2-1.4 mm long; keel petal 3.5-4.5
mm long, crested; crest 1-1.2 mm long, stamens 8,
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
327
lower half united into a 1-1.3 mm long transparent
sheath; filaments 1-1.3 mm long; anthers elliptic. Ovary
superior, globose, hairy, 0.5 mm in diam., 2-loculed;
one pendulous ovule in each locule on axile placenta;
style undulating, 2.8-3 .2 mm long; stigma elongated,
flat, 0.9- 1.1 mm long. Capsules loculicidal, 4.3-4.7 x
3. 6-4.0 mm, 2-seeded, margins hairy, apex deeply
noticed. Seeds oblong, silky, 2.8-3 .3 mm, albuminous;
strophiolar appendage 3-lobed, unequal, 1-1.4 mm
long. Embryo straight, 1. 8-2.3 mm long; cotyledons
thick.
Specimen examined: Brook’s Hill, Sambalpur (Orissa), 10
July 1987, Das et Panda 694 (FIs. & frts.).
Ecology: Less common in open places among grasses and
other small herbaceous plants on red lateritic soil.
Distribution: Indian Archipelago, China and Philippines.
In India it was known to grow in Karnataka, Travancore,
Tamil Nadu and Kerala. The present record of occurrence
of the species in Orissa also is the first report of this plant
from eastern India.
Acknowledgements
We thank the Director, Botanical Survey of India,
for permitting us to use its herbarium and library and also
for awarding a Senior Research Fellowship to one of us
(S.P.). We are also thankful to the Principal, Presidency
College, Calcutta, for providing various research facilities.
SAURIS PANDA
R.N. BANERJEE
September 21 , 1989 A. P. DAS
48. DISTRIBUTION OF SOME RARE AND LESS KNOWN SPECIES FROM DUDHATOLI
REGION (GARHWAL HIMALAYA)
(With two text- figures)
The present communication highlights the recent
occurrence and distribution of some less known,
threatened angiospermic species of the Himalayan
region. During a detailed floristic exploration (1982-86),
of Dudhatoli hills (29°55’N to 30°10 N and 78°40’E to
79°14’E) in the Pauri Garhwal district, the authors could
collect Berberis petiolaris Wall, ex G. Don (Ber-
beridaceae); Brassaiopsis aculeata (Buch.-Ham. ex D.
Don) Seem. (Araliaceae) and Gerbera maxima (D. Don)
Beauv. (Asteraceae).
These curious taxa are poorly represented in the Na-
tional Herbaria of BSD and DD, Dehra Dun. Previously,
Hooker (1872, 1879, 1881); Duthie (1906, on the basis of
the collections of Strachey and Winterbottom in the years
1846-1849) and Osmaston (1927) have recorded these
species and marked them as very rare or scarce. These taxa
have no other record of their occurrence from the Western
Himalaya (Gurucharan and Kachroo 1976, Dhar and
Kachroo 1979 andNaithani 1984).
Hence, the present collection and distributional
notes of these taxa would be of interest in the conserva-
tion of the rare germplasm in situ as well as ex situ.
Moreover, these species have several folk uses in this
region. Consequently, they are facing the problems of
over exploitation and destruction of their natural
habitats. This note gives a brief description, illustrations
of some parts, population status and the ecology of the
species.
Berberis petiolaris Wall, ex G. Don, Gen. Syst.
1:116, 1831; Osmaston, For. FI. Kum. 18, 1927. B.
pachyacantha Kohne. Deutsch. Dendr. 170, 1893;
Andrendt, J. Linn. Soc. 57, 191, 1961. B. vulgaris Linn.
var. vulgaris Hook. f. FBI. 1: 109, 1878; Duthie, Cat. PI.
Kum. and Garh. 8, 1906.
Local name: Chottar.
Large sub-deciduous, spiny shrubs reaching up to 4
m high. Leaves clustered on the nodes, 1.2-6 x 2-3.5 cm.
Inflorescence in lax 4-8 cm long drooping racemes. Sepals
petaloid, 6 in 2 whorls, yellow. Style extremely short (Fig.
1 AandB).
Flowering: April-May;
Fruiting: August-September.
Distribution and ecology: Western Himalaya (temperate
to alpine zones). The species grows at an elevation of 300
m in Dudhatoli region, forming gregarious patches in as-
sociation with species of Berberis , Cotoneaster , Vibur-
num, Rosa etc.
Local uses: The species has high medicinal value locally.
The yellow dye in the form of decoction, obtained from
roots and stem bark, is used in eye complaints and fever.
Besides, the ripened fruits are largely collected for eating.
Specimen examined: GUH. 6152, R.A. Silas, Sept. 1984,
Dudhatoli (Kodiabagarh area), 3000 m Pauri Garhwal,
Uttar Pradesh; BSD, 37387, B.D. Naithani, 1967, Tehri
Garhwal, 3246 m.
Brassaiopsis aculeata (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don)
Seem. J. Bot. 2: 293, 1864: Hook. f. FBI. 2; 738, 1879;
Duthie, Cat. PI. Kum. and Garh. 76, 1906; Osmaston, For.
FI. Kum. 263, 1927.
Moderate evergreen trees, reaching up to 5.5 mhigh
and 30-75 cm in dia. Young twigs and inflorescence un-
armed, rusty tomentose. leaves 30-60 cm long, alternate,
digitately compound. Inflorescence lax umbellate, many
flowered, 30-60 cm long panicle (Fig. 2 A-E).
328
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Fig. 1 Brassaiopsis aculeata (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) Seem.
A. Flowering twig; B. Single flower, C. Petal and stamen; D. Ovary with short style.
Fig. 2. Gerbera maxima (D. Don) Beauv.
A. Habit; B. Involucral bracts; C. Involucral bracts (inner); D. Tubular florets; E. Tubular florets dissected.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
329
Flowering : September-October;
Fruiting: January -June.
Distribution and ecology : Temperate Himalaya (1700-
2200 m). A solitary specimen of this species was observed
in the investigated area, growing near a fresh water ravine,
at an elevation of 2200 m, associated with species of Skim-
mea> Viburnum , Prinsepia etc. near village Daira of Dud-
hatoli, Pauri Garhwal, Uttar Pradesh.
Local uses: The foliage of the tree is lopped for cattle as
green fodder in the area.
Gerbera maxima (D. Don) Beauvered in Bull. Soc.
Bot. Geneve’ Ser. 2, 2:44, 1910; Kitamura, FEH. 391,
1966. Chaptalia maxima D. Don Prodr. 166, 1825. Ger-
bera macrcphylla Benth. ex Hook. Gen. PI. 2: 497, 1873;
Hook. f. FBI.3: 391, 1881; Duthie, Cat. PI. Kum. andGarh.
98, 1906.
Local name: Kabasee.
Perennial, woolly-tomentose and rhizomatous
herbs. Leaves up to 30 cm long, 8-12 x 4-8 cm, base sagit-
tate, dark green and coriaceous above, woolly white-
tomentose beneath. Heads radiating, terminal solitary,
divergent, 2-5 cm across, purplish- white. Involucral bracts
3-4 seriate (Fig. 3 A & E).
Flowering: May- July;
Fruiting: August-September.
Distribution and ecology: Temperate Himalaya (Garhwal
to Arunachal Pradesh), 1 800-2000 m. The species has been
collected after the collection of Strachey and Winterbot-
tom (1846-1849), from the Dudhatoli region, at an eleva-
tion of 2000 m growing as an undergrowth of dense oak
(< Quercus leucotrichophora) forests.
Local uses: The white cottony layers of leaves, found on
lower surface, is commonly used to ignite the tobacco
packed in local pipes made of oak leaves by the in-
habitants.
Specimen Examined: GUH, 6240, R.A. Silas, 8 July 1985,
enroute Binsar-Dudhatoli trek, Pauri Garhwal, Uttar
Pradesh.
Acknowledgements
We are thankful to the Herbarium authorities of BSD
and DD Herbaria, Dehra Dun, for providing the Herbarium
facilities and the literature.
R.A. SILAS
February 15, 1990 R.D. GAUR
References
Dhar, U. and Kachroo, P. (1979): Alpine Flora of Kashmir
Himalaya. Jodhpur.
Duthie, J.F. (1906): Catalogue of Plants of Kumaon and adjacent
portions of Garhwal and Tibet, based on the collections of
Strachey and Winterbottom (1846-1849). (Rep. 1974,
Dehra Dun).
Hooker, J.D. (1872): Flora of British India. Vol. 1: 109. (Rep.
1982, Dehra Dun).
(1879): Flora of British India. Vol. 2: 738. (Rep.
1982. Dehra Dun).
— — — — (1881): Flora of British India. Vol. 3: 391. (Rep.
1982, Dehra Dun).
Gurucharan, S. & Kachroo, P. (1976): Forest Flora of
Srinagar and Plants of Neighbourhood. Dehra Dun.
Nair, N.C. (1977): Flora of Bashahr Himalaya. Hissar.
Naithani, B.D. (1984): Flora of Chamoli. Vol. I. Howrah.
OSMASTON, A.E. (1927): Forest Flora For Kumaon. Allahabad.
49. XANTHILJM SPINOSUM L.-A NEW RECORD FOR THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT
(With a text-figure)
Xanthium spinosum L. has not so far been reported
from the Indian subcontinent. During the course of plant
exploration in Kashmir Himalaya, we came across
specimens of Xanthium spinosum L. (Asteraceae), grow-
ing on wasteland, roadsides and sheep dung at some places
in the Kashmir valley. This is thus a new report for Indian
subcontinent. The voucher specimens are housed in the
Herbarium of Kashmir University (KASH). The following
description is based on these specimens.
Xathium spinosum L., Sp. PI. 987. 1753.
Erect, annual, usually densely branched, coarse
herbs. Stem tomentose, with strong, yellowish, trifid (-4-
fid) spines on 2-4 mm long stalk, upto 3 cm long. Leaves
with 2 mm-1 cm long, tomentose petioles; blade narrow-
ly lanceolate, up to 8 cm long, 2.5 cm broad below the mid-
dle, lobed or not, base cuneate, apex gradually narrowed
into an acute-acuminate tip, upper surface canescent, more
so on veins, lower densely canescent, silvery. Flowers
unisexual, monoecious, in axillary and terminal heads,
male above and female below. Male heads spherical, c. 6
mm across, comprising numerous, crowded florets, each
with tubular, 5 -toothed, green corolla; anthers 5, free,
oblong, c. 1 x 0.36 mm, basifixed, tips mucronate, in-
flexed; filaments monadelphous, 1.2 mm long. Female
heads ovoid, c. 6 mm long, each comprising 2 florets
within a prickly envelope formed by involucral bracts and
terminating in two short beaks; styles thread-like, dark
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Fig. 1 . Xanthium spinosum L.
1. A portion of plant; 2. Leaf variation; 3. A trifid spine; 4. Male floret; 5. Female floret; 6. Fruit.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
331
brown, protruding through the beaks. Fruit elliptic, 12 x
4-5 mm, densely covered with hooked bristles. Seeds 4-6
mm long, oblong, glabrous.
Specimens examined: Ganderbal (Rangil), 1,750 m,
in Soil Conservation Farm, above water treatment plant,
14 June 1981, GJI. Dar 2056 (KASH); Sind valley (Pran-
shur), 3,350 m (an alpine meadow at one days journey on
foot from Sonamarg), on heaps of sheep dung, 22 August
1983, GJI. Dar 7934-35 (KASH); Srinagar (Hazratbal), 10
km north of Srinagar), 1,625 m, near electric substation,
on waste places, in association with X. strumarium L. and
Cannabis sativa L., 1 September 1983, A.R. Naqshi 8148-
8149 (KASH); Srinagar (Chatterhama), 18 km north of
Srinagar, 1,700 m, along the lower bank of Bijili Canal, 2
September 1983, G.H. Dar 8357, 8358 and 8359 (KASH);
Srinagar around the graveyards, very common) July 1988,
A.R. Naqshi s.n. (KASH).
Flowering and fruiting: Mid August-October.
Xanthium spinosum L., a recent introduction to
India, differs from X. strumarium L. which is also an ex-
otic, in the essential characters as shown in the key.
It is probable that the species, due to the presence of
‘Bur has come to India through the improved sheep breed
KEY FOR SEPARATING TWO SPECIES OF Xanthium
Leaves attenuate to both ends, usually with trifid (4-fid) spines
at base; fruiting bur blunt or with 2 inconspicuous beaks
X. spinosum
% Leaves cordate, rounded or sub-deltoid, unarmed in the axils;
fruiting bur with usually 2 strong, porrect beaks
X. strumarium
brought from different European countries. This is
strengthened by our collection of its specimens on the
heaps of sheep dung in an alpine meadow of Sind valley.
The specimens of the taxon observed during the
present exploration showed vigorous growth and seemed
to have adapted fully to the environmental conditions of
their localities. This, coupled with the spiny nature of the
plant (which affords protection against grazing, lopping
and trampling), is indicative of its becoming a troublesome
weed in the near future.
Financial assistance of the CSIR, New Delhi, is ac-
knowledged.
G.H. DAR
A.R. NAQSHI
June 15, 1989 SHOWKAT ARA
50. RICHARDIA SCABRA LINN.- AN ADDITION TO THE FLORA OF ORISSA
Phulbani district in central Orissa covers an area of
11070 sq. km of which 7336 sq. km is under forest cover.
The main vegetational types occurring in this district are
tropical dry deciduous, tropical moist deciduous, riverine
forest, mixed forest, sal forest and teak forests. However,
major parts of this district are yet under-explored from the
botanical point of view except for a few sporadic reports
by Haines (1921-25), Mooney (1950) and others. In
recent times, while collecting plants from different parts
of the district in connection with an ethno -botanical inves-
tigation, we have collected a herbaceous specimen belong-
ing to the family Rubiaceae which is apparently similar to
the species of Borreria G.F. Mayer. Gn critical examina-
tion, the taxon is identified as Richardia scabra Linn. The
generic difference between Richardia Linn, and Borreria
F. Mayer is as follows;
Calyx and corolla 6 partite, stamens 6 (rarely 8), capsule 3-celled
Richardia
Calyx and corolla 4 partite, stamens 4, capsule 2-celled
Borreria
The available distributional data of the taxon shows
that Richardia scabra was reported from Andhra Pradesh,
Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. The occurrence of this
species in Orissa extends the distributional range and
forms a new record for this state. The specimen has been
housed in the Herbarium, P.G. Department of Botany,
Utkal University, Bhubaneswar. The nomenclature,
phenology, ecological notes etc. have been provided
below.
Richardia scabra Linn. Sp. PI. 330. 1753; Mathew and
Rani in Mathew, FI. Tam. Cam. 3(2):740. 1983; Babu,
Herb. FI. Dehradun 230. 1977; Balakrishnan, Bull. Bot.
Surv.Ind. 6(1): 85.1964.
A procumbent hispidly pubescent herb, growing in
hilly tracts.
Flowers and fruits: October-December.
Specimen examined: Kallinga Hills, 1 100 m, Phulbani dis-
trict - H.N. Subudhi.
Distribution: Native of South America, now introduced to
many parts of the tropical old world.
Illustration: Mathew, Illustration FI. Tamil Nadu Carnatic
2: f. 346. 1983.
H.N. SUBUDHI
B.P. CHOUDHURY
December 12, 1989 P.C. PANDA
References
Haines, H.H. (1921-25): The Botany of Bihar and Orissa, 6 parts. Mooney, H.F. (1950): Supplement to the Botany of Bihar and
London. Orissa. Catholic Press, Ranchi.
332
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
51. CHANGES IN THE STATUS OF TWO SPECIES IN THE GENUS ARGOSTEMMA
(RUBIACEAE)
1. Hook. f. (1880) on describing Argostemma
tavoyanum Wall . observed ‘This may prove to be a variety
of A. courtallense but the leaves are more acute, the calyx
lobes more obtuse and the corolla smaller with shorter
lobes’.
Working after more than a century of Hooker ’s study
we got the opportunity of examining not only the earlier
collections but also those collected since then and extant
in different herbaria in India and abroad. Study of all these
specimens throws light on the variability of taxa con-
cerned, which were not observed by Hook. f.
A comparison of the descriptions of A. courtallense
and A. tavoyanum in consideration of the specimens avail-
able now, shows that obtuse lobes of calyx, smaller corol-
la with shorter lobes and acute leaf apex are present in both
the species. On the other hand, there is no other significant
character on the basis of which they may be kept distinct
to any extent. Thus A. courtallense and A. tavoyanum are
conspecific although originally described from distant
localities.
2. A. anupama Sivarajan (1984) was described on
the basis of a single gathering Sivarajan 28706 from
Kerala, near Calicut University campus. It was initially
determined as A. courtallense (Sivarajan loc. cit.) but sub-
sequently on closer examination described as a new
species, being distinct from it ‘in having more than 4
prominently petiolate leaves, and much smaller flowers
about half the size of the latter’. This distinction may be
noted when compared with its original description. But
subsequent gatherings mentioned above lead to modifica-
tion or enlargement of the description and the distinction
does not hold good. More than 4 petiolate leaves and
smaller flowers are evident in some specimens. Moreover,
the anthers are free and curved, not connivent in a cone
around the stigma as depicted by the author in the illustra-
tion — a characteristic evident in many species in young
flowers before anthesis.
Thus A. anupama Sivarajan does not stand as a dis-
tinct species, and is conspecific with A. courtallense. The
synonymy is presented below.
Argostemma courtallense Am. in Ann. Nat. Hist
3:22.1839 (Type: Peninsular India, Courtallum, 1835,
Wight s.n. K); Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 3:42. 1880.
A. tavoyanum Wall, in Benn. PI. Jav. Rar. 95.1839
(Type: Burma, Tennaserim, Tavoy, Wall. Cat. 8393 K-W
microfiche); Hook.f. FI. Brit. Ind. 3:43.1880, synon. nov.
A. anupama Sivarajan in Joum. Ind. Bot. Soc.
63:462. 1984 (Type: Kerala, near Calicut University cam-
pus, Sivarajan 28706 holo. CAL), Synon. nov.
Distribution: Peninsular India, Andaman Islands;
Burma.
Note: Exsiccata studied will be cited in a forthcom-
ing report.
Acknowledgements
Thanks are due to the Scientist S E-in-Charge of the
Central National Herbarium, Indian Botanic Garden,
Howrah, for facilities provided.
D.B. DEB
September 6, 1989 S.K. BASU
52. ON THE GENUS NEANOTIS LEWIS (RUBIACEAE) IN INDIA
In the course of taxonomic study of the genus
Neanotis Lewis (Rubiaceae) in India, we observed some
incongruity in taxonomic status and nomenclature of some
taxa, which are presented here with necessary corrections.
1. Neanotis monosperma (Wt. & Am.) Lewis var.
tirunelvelica Henry and Chandrabose in Bull. Bot. Surv.
India 17:188. 1975, was described on the basis of AN.
Henry 17454 (holo. CAL; iso. MH) collected from
Tirunelveli dist., Tamil Nadu. The authors stated, inter alia,
in the protologue ‘there are 2-3 ovules in each locule on
placenta arising from near the base of the partition wall’.
But on examination of the holotype it is evident that the
ovary is two loculed having one ovule attached at the mid-
dle of each locule, and that the fruit bears in each locule
one seed provided with a broad ventral groove.
Further, the inflorescence is an axillary few-
flowered cyme and calyx lobes are without intervening
sinus. All these characteristics evidently indicate that the
taxon represents the genus Spermacoce and not Neanotis.
Moreover, the elliptic-lanceolate calyx lobes, filiform
hyaline bracteoles, shape and size of the capsule, form of
the seed etc. are characteristic of S. latifolia Aubl.
It is worthwhile to point out in this connection that
Borreria eradii Ravi recently described from Kerala has
been reduced by Deb and Dutta in Bull. Bot. Surv. India
18:216. 1976 to a synonymy of Spermacoce latifolia.
Thus the synonymy is as follows:
Spermacoce latifolia Aubl. Hist. PI. Guiane Fr. 55 .t. 1 9 1 1 .
1775 (Type: French Guiana, Cayenna, Aubl. s.n. P); Deb
and Dutta in Joum. Econ. Tax. Bot. 5(5): 1037.1984. Bor-
reria latifolia (Aubl. K. Schum. in Mart. FI. Bras. 6(6): 61.
1888. B. eradii Ravi in J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 66(3):
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
333
539.L1. f.1-10.1969 (Type: Kerala, Punalur, 20 June 1968;
N. Ravi 2372 (B-D) iso. CAL). Neanotis monosperma
(Wt. & Arn.) Lewis var. tirunelvelica Henry and
Chandrabose in Bull. Bot. Surv India 17:188.1975 (Type:
Tamil Nadu, Tirunelveli dist., Singampatti R.F., Man-
janamparai, 4 September 1963, Henry 17454 A holo.
CAL), Syn. nov.
Distribution: INDIA: Assam, Meghalaya, West Bengal, Sik-
kim, Kerala, Tamil Nadu; Nepal; Bhutan; Malaya Penin-
sula; Java, Sri Lanka.
2. N. longiflora (Hutch.) Lewis in Ann. Miss. Bot.
Gard. 53:39. 1966 is based on Anotis longiflora Hutch.
(1916), a later homonym of A. longiflora Benth. (1839).
Hence the name N. longiflora (Hutch.) Lewis is il-
legitimate as per Art. 64 ICBN (1988) and as such it can-
not stand. This species is given a new name as follows:
Neanotis hutchinsonii Deb et Dutta, nom. nov.
N. longiflora (Hutch.) Lewis in Ann. Miss. Bot.
Gard. 53:39. 1966, nom. illegit; being based on Anotis lon-
giflora Hutch, in Kew Bull. 1966: 35. 1916 (Type: Pulney
Hills edge of evergreen forest, 2100 m, 6 September 1911,
C.E.C. Fischar 2914 CAL), non Benth. (1839); Gamble,
FI. Pres. Madras 604. 1921; Fyson, FI. S. Indian Hill St.
1:276. t. 222. 1932.
Distribution: INDIA: Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
3. Hedyotis latifolia Dalz. in Joum. Bot. 2:133.
1850. (Type: Mai wan, Dalzell s.n. K.); Dalz. in Dalz. and
53. REDISCOVERY OF
KUMAUN HIMALAYA
During the year 1988, several collection trips were
conducted by us especially to inaccessible areas of
Kumaun Himalaya, which resulted in the collection of 6
species of ferns belonging 6 genera and 4 families. A
perusal of earlier published records indicated that these
ferns were not collected after the original collection, and
subsequent workers included them on the authority of pre-
vious reports only (Dhir 1980, Pangtey and Punetha 1987).
Therefore, these species were considered presumably ex-
tinct or on the verge of extinction in Kumaun Himalaya.
As no published record is available other than the first
reports, this note provides information about the redis-
covery of 6 rare species of ferns of Kumaun Himalaya with
other relevant information.
Voucher specimens are housed in the Herbarium,
Department of Botany, D.S.B. College, Kumaun Univer-
sity, Naini Tal.
Family: Grammitaceae
Ctenopterissubfalcata (Bl.)Kunze,Bot.Zeit. 120. 1848;
Dixit, Census Indian Pterid. 3 1 . 1984. Polypodium subfal-
catum Bl., Enum. PI. Jav. 2: 130. 1828; Clerks, Trans.
Gibs. Bombay FI. 116. 1861, was reduced to a synonym
of Anotis rheedei Wt. and Am. by Hook. f. FI. Brit India
3: 73, 1880 erroneously as this is distinguishable from A.
rheedei Wt. and Am.in (1) the flowers long pedicelled,
solitary or in di trichotomously branched peduncle in the
panicle, (2) hypanthium glabrous, (3) corolla broadly
tubular, lobes glabrous, not puberulous or pubescent out-
side, (4) stamens adnate at the sinus of the corolla lobe and
not at the throat of the corolla tube, anthers oblong and not
linear, (5) capsules glabrous, rarely puberulous in the
protruded portion, (6) seeds 2-4 in each locule, boat
shaped, rounded to the back, longitudinally keeled on the
hollow groove etc. Hence this is recognized as a distinct
species as follows:
Neanotis latifolia (Dalz.) Deb et Dutta, comb. nov.
Hedyotis latifolia Dalz. in Joum. Bot. 2:133.1850
and in Dalz. and Gibs. Bomb. FI. 116. 1861 (Type: Mal-
wan, Dalzell s.n. K.); Hook. f. FI. Brit. India 3:73.1880. in
syn., non Anotis rheedei Wt. and Am. (1834). A. rheedei
sensu Cooke, FI. Pres. Bomb. 2:21. 1903; Gamble, FI.
Pres. Madras 605. 1921, pro parte.
Distribution: INDIA: Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala, and
Tripura.
D.B. DEB
September 6, 1989 RATNA DUTTA
DME RARE FERNS OF
(WESTERN HIMALAYA)
Linn.Soc. Lond.2.Bot. 1:549. 1880; Bedd.,Handb. Ferns
Brit. India 314. 1883; Duthie, Cat. PI. Kumaun 230. 1906.
This extremely rare species was collected by
Strachey and Winterbottom (1848) from Kalamundi
around 2750 m. Later, Duthie (1884) collected it from Gini
between 1800-2000 m and from Sosa between 2700-3300
m. This species has not been collected again from Kumaun
Himalaya. This rare species is being collected after over
one hundred years.
Status: Rather scarce and grows on moist, shaded, moss
covered rocks between 1800-2400 m.
Specimens examined: Kumaun : Almora district, between
Loharkhet and Dhakuri (SSS 1390); Wachham near Khati
(SSS 1989); below Jatoli en route Sundardhunga Glacier
(SSS 1255).
Family : Sinopteridaceae
Notholaena marantae (Linn.) Desv., J. de Bot. Appl. 1:
92. 1813; Clarke, Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond. 2. Bot. 1: 567.
1880; Bedd., Handb. Ferns Brit. India 393. t. 213. 1883;
Duthie, Cat. PI. Kumaun 230. 1906; Dhir, Biblioth. Pterid.
1 : 42. 1980; Dixit, Census Indian Pterid. 62. 1984. Acros-
334
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
tichum marantae Linn., Sp. PI. 2: 1071. 1753.
In Kumaun Himalaya, this extremely rare fern was
collected by Strachey and Winterbottom (1848) from Kali
Valley between 2800-3300 m. Later, Duthie (1884) and
Reid (1891) collected it from Pindari Gorge around 2700
m. However, this species has not been collected from
Kumaun since then. It has been collected again after near-
ly a century.
Status: Rather scarce and prefers to grow on dry rock sur-
faces, crevices and large boulders between 3500-3700 m.
Specimen examined: Kumaun : Almora District, Sun-
dardhunga Glacier (SSS 1205).
Family : Woodsiaceae
Woodsia andersonii (Bedd.) Christ, Mem. Soc. Bot.
France 1 : 45. 1905; Dixit, Census Indian Pterid. 124.
1984. Gymnogramme andersonii Bedd., Ferns Brit. India
t. 190. 1867; Clarke, Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond. 2. Bot. 1 :
569. 1880; Bedd., Handb. Ferns Brit. India Suppl. 100.
1892 (pro parte)-, Duthie, Cat. PI. Kumaun 230. 1906.
This species has been collected from several
localities in Kumaun Himalaya in the past by a number of
workers, viz. Strachey and Winterbottom (1848) from Pin-
dari around 3300 m; Anderson from Sundardhunga Valley
around 3400 m; Duthie (1884) from above Garbyang be-
tween 3000-3300 m; Byans above Chalek between 3000-
3400 m and Palang Gadh around 3200 m. This species has
not been included in recent checklists of ferns of
northwestern Himalaya and Kumaun Himalaya by Dhir
(1980) and Pangtey and Punetha (1987) respectively. It is
being collected well after a century from Kumaun
Himalaya.
Status: Extremely rare. Grows preferentially on dry rocks
and rock crevices between 3300-3700 m.
Specimens examined: Kumaun : Almora District, Sun-
dardhunga Glacier (SSS 1210), Pindari Glacier (SSS
1285).
Family : Athyriaceae
Cystopteris montana (Lam.) Berh. ex Desv., Mem.
Soc. Linn. Paris 6: 264. 1827; Bedd., Handb. Ferns Brit.
India Suppl. 15. 1892; Dhir, Biblioth. Pterid. 1 : 81. 1980;
Dixit, Census Indian Pterid. 131. 1984. Polypodium mon-
tanum Lam., FI. France 1 : 23. 1778.
Duthie (1884) collected this rare fern from near
Ralam Glacier between 3200-3800 m, Dhauli Valley be-
tween 3200-3600 m and Kutti Valley between 3200-3600
m. Not collected since then. The present collection is well
after a century.
Status: Rare fem. Usually grows on humus-rich soils espe-
cially under rhododendron bushes between 3400-3700 m.
Specimens examined : Kumaun : Almora District, Pindari
Glacier (SSS 1282).
Diplazium squamigerum (Mett.) Christ, Bull. Soc. Fr.
52. Mem. 1: 51. 1905; Dixit, Census Indian Pterid. 134.
1984. Asplenium squamigerum Mett., Ann. Lugd. Bot. 2 :
239. 1866; Hope, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 14: 245. 1902;
Duthie, Cat. PI. Kumaun 226. 1906.
This rare species was collected by Strachey and
Winterbottom (1848) from near Khati (Almora district)
around 2200 m and Pindari Gorge near Khati around 2200
m by Trotter (1891). However, this species was not col-
lected by later workers from Khati so far. Recently, a
specimen of this species has been collected by us from
Khati after nearly a century.
Status: Rather rare species of fem and usually grows on
humus-rich, dark shaded forest floors and forest margins
around 2200 m.
Specimen examined: Kumaun: Almora District, Khati
(SSS 1388).
Gymnocarpium dryopteris (Linn.) Newman, Phytol. 4:
371. 1851; Dhir, Biblioth. Pterid. 1 : 106. 1980; Dixit, Cen-
sus Indian Pterid. 135. 1984. Poly podium dryopteris
Linn., Sp. PI. 2: 1093. 1753; Duthie, Cat. PI. Kumaun 228.
1906. Polystichum dryopteris (Linn.) Roth, Tent. FI.
Germ. 3 : 80. 1799; Pichi Sermolli, Index Fil. Suppl. 4 :
253. 1964. Phegopteris dryopteris Fee, Gen. FU. 243.
1850-1852; Clarice, Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond. 2. Bot. 1 :
545. 1880; Bedd., Handb. Ferns Brit. India 293. 1883;
Dryopteris linnaeana C. Chr., Index Fil. 275. 1905.
Duthie (1884), Trotter (1888) and McLeod (1894)
reported this species from Kumaun Himalaya without
giving any definite locality. Dhir (1980) recorded it from
en route Amamath (Kashmir) but not from Kumaun. Fur-
ther, no subsequent workers collected it from Kumaun
since then. The present collection of this fem is after near-
ly a century.
Status: Extremely rare fem that grows in rock crevices and
under the shade of large boulders between 3000-3200 m.
Specimen examined: Kumaun : Almora District en route
Sundardhunga Glacier (SSS 1211).
We are thankful to Head, Department of Botany,
D.S.B. College, Kumaun University, Naini Tal,for
facilities and encouragement.
S. S. SAM ANT
April 4, 1989 Y. P. S. PANGTEY
References
Dhir, K.K. (1980): Ferns of northwestern Himalayas. Bibliotheca Kumaun Himalaya : An updated list In: Western Himalaya
Pteridologia 1: 1-158. Environment, Problems & Development, eds. Y.P.S.
Pangtey, YP.S. & Punetha, N. (1987): Pteridophytic Flora of Pangtey & S.C. Joshi 1: 389-412.
INDEX OF AUTHORS, MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Achaijyo, L.N.
Ajith Kumar, C.R.
Ara, Showkat
Balachandran, S.
Balasubramanian, P.
Baneijee, R.N.
Basu, S.K.
Bell, Douglas A.
Bharos, A.M.K.
Chandra, Jagdish
Chhapgar, B.F.
Choudhury, B.P.
D’Silva, Carl
Dar, G.H.
Das, A.P.
Das, Indraneil
Deb, D.B.
Dutta, Ratna
Dutta, Sushil K.
Easa, P.S.
Fily, M.
Ganguli-lachungpa, Usha
Gaur, R.D.
Jairaj, A.P.
Jamdar, Nitin
Julka, J.M.
Kumar, Anil
Lainer, Heinz
Madsen, Stig Toft
Manakadan, Ranjit
Mohapatra, K.K.
Mundkur, Taej
Nanda, Neelima
Naqshi, A.R.
Narayan, Goutam
Natarajan, V.
Nandankanan Biological Park, P.O. Barang, Dist. Cuttack (Orissa) 754 005.
BNHS Ecological Research Centre, 331 Rajendra Nagar, Bharatpur 321 001.
Centre of Plant Taxonomy, University of Kashmir.Siinagar 190 006 (India).
BNHS Research Station, Point Calimere Wildlife and Birds Sanctuary,
Kokikarai, Tanjavur Dist., Tamil Nadu 614 807.
Point Calimere Ecology Project, Point Calimere, Thanjavur (Dist.) 614 807.
Central National Herbarium, Indian Botanic Garden Howrah, India.
Central National Herbarium, Botanical Survey of India, Howrah.
Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, 2593 Life Sciences Building, Deptt. of Zoology,
University of California, Berkeley, California, U.S.A. 94720.
Madhya Pradesh Electricity Board, M-532, Padmanabhpur, Durg 491 001,
Madhya Pradesh.
Bustard Sanctuary, Karera, Madhya Pradesh.
Taraporevala Aquarium, Netaji Subhash Road, Bombay 400 002.
Department of Botany, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar 75 1 004.
Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,
Bombay 400 023.
Centre of Plant Taxonomy, University of Kashmir, Srinagar 190 006.
Department of Botany, Presidency College, Calcutta 700 073.
Madras Crocodile Bank, Vadanemmeli, Perur Post, Mahabalipuram Road,
Madras, Tamil Nadu 603 104.
BB 109 Bidhan Nagar, Calcutta 700 064.
Central National Herbarium, Botanical Survey of India, Howrah.
Department of Zoology, Utkal University, Bhubaneshwar 75 1 004, Orissa.
Division of Wildlife Biology, Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi 680 653.
13, Rue E. Zola, Ramonville, France 31520.
Sikkim Forest Department, Gangtok, Deorali 737 102.
Dept, of Botany, Garhwal University, Srinagar-Garhwal, Uttar Pradesh 246 274.
Sahyadri Ecological Group, Post Box No. 2, Trichur 680 009..
5A, Samta, Gen. J. Bhosale Road, Cooperage, Bombay 400 021.
High Altitude Zoology Field Station, Zoological Survey of India, Solan,
Himachal Pradesh 173 212.
Northern Regional Station, Zoological Survey of India, Dhra Dun 248 195.
Praias de St. Antonio, Anjuna 403 509, Bardez, Goa.
I..D.F.P, Gokam, Karnataka 581 326.
Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,
Bombay 400 023.
Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,
Bombay 400 023.
Department of Biosciences, Saurashtra University, Rajkot 360 005.
Department of Zoology, Punjab University, Chandigarh (India).
Centre of Plant Taxonomy, University, of Kashmir, Srinagar 190 006 (India).
Bombay Natural History Society, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023.
BNHS Research Station, Point Calimere Wildlife and Birds Sanctuary, Koikkarai,
Tanjavur Dist., Tamil Nadu 614 807.
286
299
329
307
301
326
332
291
300
301
313
331
296, 301
329
326
310
332
332
310
292
291
290,291
327
289
289, 302
323
320
298
297
294
296, 301
298
315
329
309
307.
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CONTENTS
ISSN 0006-6982
Page
THE PAST AND PRESENT DISTRIBUTION OF THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD
Ardeotis nigriccps (VIGORS) IN INDIA (With two text-figures)
By Asad R. Rahmani and Ranjit Manakadan 175
RESULTS OF A PILOT SALTWATER CROCODILE Crocodylus porosus
SCHNEIDER RESTOCKING IN BHITARKANIKA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY,
ORISSA ( With two text- figures )
By S. K. Kar and H. R. Bustard 195
A PRELIMINARY ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF ALGUAL SPRING, SARISKA
TIGER RESERVE, RAJASTHAN (With two plates and five text- figures)
By W. A. Rodgers 201
SCALING MODELS FOR FLIGHT PATTERNS AND SEXUAL DIMORPHISM
IN RAPTORS (With five text-figures)
By Ramana M. Athreya and Vijay A. Singh 210
POLYMORPHISM IN Acanthaspis siva DISTANT (REDUVIIDAE : HETEROP-
TERA), A PREDATOR OF THE INDIAN HONEY BEE (With two text-figures)
By Dwnston P. Ambrose and David Livingstone 21 S
OBSERVATIONS ON THE DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES OF TADPOLES OF
THE MALABAR GLIDING FROG Rhacophorus malabaricus JERDON, 1870
(ANURA: RHACOPHORIDAE) (With three plates and three text-figures)
By A. G. Sekar 223
STRATEGIES OF BROODING AND PARENTAL CARE AND INFLUENCE OF
STRESS CONDITIONS IN THE LABORATORY IN Heteropoda venatoria
(ARANEAE: HETEROPODIDAE) (With a text-figure)
By K. Vijayalakshmi and S. Sivaraman 227
NEW RECORD AND DESCRIPTION OF Aethalotus horni BREDDIN (INSECTA:
HETEROPTERA: LYGAEIDAE) WITH ITS IMMATURE STAGES FROM
NORTHEAST INDIA (With twelve text-figures)
By A. Mukhopadhyay, P. Roy and S. Dais 235
AN ANALYSIS OF SOME EXTERNAL FACTORS IN THE SEXUAL PERIODI-
CITY OF THE INDIAN BAT Megaderma lyra lyra (GEOFFROY)
(With five text-figures)
By A. Gopalakrishna and N. Badwaik 240
TICKS ( ACARI : IXODIDAE) COLLECTED ON CHELONIANS (REPTILIA)
FROM INDIA AND BURMA
By J. G. Frazier and J. E. Keirans 247
STATUS OF THE SWAMP DEER Cervus duvauceli duvauceli IN THE DUDWA
NATIONAL PARK, UTTAR PRADESH (With three text-figures)
By Ravi Sankaran 250
NEW DESCRIPTIONS 260
REVIEWS 284
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 286
Printed by Bro. Paulinus at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Bombay 400 103
and published by J. C Daniel for Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House.
Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400023.
of the
Bombay Natural History
Society
r
BOARD OF EDITORS
Executive Editor
J. C. DANIEL
H. ABDUL ALI
B. V. DAVID
M. R. ALMEIDA
A. J. T. JOHNSINGH
P. V. BOLE
R. M. NAIK
B. F. CHHAPGAR
R. WHITAKER
Assistant Editor
A. VARADACHARY
L
j
INSTRUCTIONS TO CONTRIBUTORS
1 . Papers which have been published or have been offered for publication
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2. All words to be printed in italics should be underlined.
3. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where identification
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4. Photographs for reproduction must be clear, with good contrast. Prints
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5. Text-figures, line drawings and maps should be in Indian ink, preferably on
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Banerji, M. L. (1958): Botanical Exploration in East Nepal, J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 55(2): 243-268.
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Titles of papers should not be underlined.
7. Each paper should be accompanied by a concise, clearly written synopsis,
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contribution earlier than a non-member’s.
Hombill House, Editors,
Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Journal of the Bombay
Bombay 400 023. Natural History Society
VOLUME 87(3): DECEMBER 1990
Date of Publication: 20-2-1991
CONTENTS
cjAVTHSOi V^
DEC 1 3 1991
t/8RARl£S
Page
INSECT SPECIES DIVERSITY IN THE TROPICS: SAMPLING METHODS AND A CASE STUDY (With ten text-
figures)
By Raghavendra Gadagkar, K. Chandrashekara and Padmini Nair 337
AN ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY OF SOME WETLANDS IN SOUTH-EAST INDIA (With three text-figures )
By C. Perennou and V. Santharam 354
HABITAT, NESTING AND REPRODUCTIVE ADAPTATIONS IN NARROW-HEADED SOFT-SHELL TURTLE
Chitra indica (GRAY) (REPTILIA: CHELONIA)
By Ravindra Singh Bhadauria, Ashok Pai and Dhruvajyoti Basu 364
DUGONG Dugong dugon MULLER IN THE GULF OF KUTCH.GUJARAT (With two text-figures )
By J.G. Frazier and Taej Mundkur 368
RANGE EXTENSION AND NOTES ON Rana erythraea (SCHLEGEL, 1837) (ANURA: RANLDAE) FROM
DUDHWA NATIONAL PARK, UTTAR PRADESH (With five text-figures )
By Raj Tilak and Pranjalendu Ray 380
VARIATION ANALYSIS OF COALESCENCE OF SPOTS IN THE MELANICS OF Coccinella septempunctata L.
(COCCINELLID AE : COLEOPTERA) (With twenty text-figures)
By M. Rhamhalinghan 385
SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL FLUCTUATIONS IN THE POPULATION OF COMMON MYNA Acridotheres tristis
(LINN.) IN AND AROUND AN INDIAN CITY (With three text-figures)
By Anil Mahabal, D.B. Bastawade and V.G. Vaidya 392
BLOTCH STRUCTURE IN INDIVIDUAL IDENTIFICATION OF THE INDIAN PYTHON Python molurus molurus
LINN. AND ITS POSSIBLE USAGE IN POPULATION ESTIMATION (With two plates and three text-
figures)
By S. Bhupathy 399
A STUDY OF THE MIGRATION OF THE COMMON TEAL Anas crecca LINN., BASED ON RING RECOVERIES
IN INDIA AND THE U.S.S.R. (With five text-figures)
By V.C. Ambedkar and J.C. Daniel 405
ECOLOGICAL AND MORPHOLOGICAL NOTES ON Piper SPP. FROM THE SILENT VALLEY FORESTS,
KERALA (With a text-figure )
By P.N. Ravindran, R. Asokan Nair, K. Nirmal Babu, K. Chandran and M.K. Nair. 421
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
ON THE GENUS Chrysosarus MITCHELL (HYMENOPTERA: APOIDEA: MEGACKHIDAE), WITH DESCRIP-
TION OF A NEW SPECIES FROM SOUTH INDIA (With six text-figures)
By Rajiv K. Gupta 427
A NEW SPECIES OF Dasineura (DIPTERA: CECIDOMYBDAE) INJURIOUS TO BUDS OF Brassica SPP.
(CRUCIFERAE) IN HARYANA (With thirteen text-figures)
By R.M. Sharma and Harvir Singh 429
Ophiorrhiza talevalliensis (RUBIACEAE): A NEW SPECIES FROM ARUNACHAL PRADESH (With a text-
figure)
By G.D. Pal and G.S. Giri 433
A NEW SPECIES OF Maesa FORSK. (MYRSINACEAE) FROM ARUNACHAL PRADESH (With a text-figure)
By G.S. Giri and G.D. Pal '435
DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES OF GENUS Coelioxys LATREILLE (HYMENOPTERA: APOIDEA:
MEGACHILIDAE) (With four text-figures )
By Rajiv K. Gupta 437
NOMENCLATURE OF INDIAN SPECIES OF Oxytenanthera MUNRO
By H.B. Naithani 439
A NEW Utricularia L. (LENTIB ULARI ACE AE) FROM PENINSULAR INDIA (With a text-figure)
By M.K. Janarthanam and A.N. Henry
441
OBITUARIES
Prof. M.L. Roonwal 443
Prof. T. A. Davis 444
MAMMALS:
1 . Rusty spotted cat Fells rubiginosa Geoffroy : a new
record for Gir Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park.
By Bharat J. Pathak 445
2. Observations at a hyena Hyaena hyaena den
By E.R.C. Davidar
3. Response to bird call mimicry by Himalayan weasel
Mustela sibirica Pallas
By H.S.A. Yahya
4. Is Rhinopoma a rhinolophoid bat?: an addendum
By A. Gopalakrishna and N. Badwaik
5. Insectivory by threestriped palm squirrel Funam-
bulus palmarum (Linn.)
By S. Balachandran
6. Food of the Indian gerbil Tat era indie a indie a
(Hardwicke) in an arid environment
By Farzana Praveen and Nisha Kashyap
BIRDS:
7. Red-billed tropic bird Phaethon aether eus Linnaeus
from Neendakarai, Kerala.
By Omkar G. Krishnan
8. Masked booby Sula dactylatra melanops Heuglin
from Kerala
By D.K. Narayana Kurup 449
9. An unrecorded feeding habit of the pariah kite Mil-
vus migrans govinda Sykes
By S.M. Satheesan 450
10. Sighting of the lesser florican Sypheotides indica
(J.F. Miller) in Karunagappally, Kerala
By Omkar G. Krishnan 450
11. Woodcock Scolopax rusticola Linn, in the Jatinga
bird phenomenon
By Sudhin Sengupta 451
12. Great blackheaded gull Larus ichthyaetus Pallas in
early summer plumage
By Dhirendra Devarshi 451
13. Additional notes on the occurrence of black tem
Chlidonias niger (Linn.) in India
By V. Natarajan, P. Balasubramanian 451
14. Biometrics and food of some doves of the genus
Streptopelia
By S.M. Satheesan, Prakash Rao
and Hemant Datye 452
Large Indian parakeets Psittacula eupatria
(L.)harassing a pariah kite Milvus migrans govinda
By Raza Tehsin and Arefa Tehsin 453
16. New call record of greenbreasted pitta Pitta sordida
(P.L.S. Muller) in Dehra Dun, Uttar Pradesh
By Dhananjai Mohan and Ravi Chellam 453
17. Large scale migration of swallows to Kerala
By Shaju Thomas .....454
1 8 . Orientation of nest colonies by baya weaver birds
By Satish Kumar Sharma 454
19. Some alitudinal records of birds from the High
Range, Kerala
By Andrew Robertson 456
20. Bird records from Mandapam and neighbouring is-
lands, Tamil Nadu
By S. Balachandran 456
21 . Further additions to the avifauna of Point Calimere
By V. Natarajan, P. Balasubramanian, S. Alagar
Rajan and Ranjit Manakadan .457
22. Site fidelity and power of recognition in pariah kite
Milvus migrans govinda Sykes
By A.K. Malhotra 458
REPTILES:
23. Age at sexual maturity of Gharial Gavialis gan-
geticus (Gmelin) (Reptilia: Crocodilia)
By L.N. Acharjyo, L.A.K. Singh and
S.K. Pattanaik 458
24. Indian flapshell turtle Lissemys punctata (Lacepede)
in the food of the adjutant stork Leptoptilos dubius
By C. Sivasubramanian and S. Bhupathy 460
25. Observations on the food of the Ganges soft-shell
turtle Trionyx gangeticus Cuvier in Keoladeo Na-
tional Park, Bharatpur
By S. Bhupathy 460
26. Incubation and hatching of the Indian star tortoise
Geochelone elegans (Schoepff) in captivity
By K. Thulasi Rao and M.V. Subba Rao 461
27. Double headed common sand boa Eryx conicus
(Schneider)
By A. Surya Narayana Rao 462
28 . First record of the pied-belly uropelt Melanophidium
punctatum Beddome (Serpentes: Uropeltidae) from
Maharashtra
By H.V. Ghate and G.M. Yazdani
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
15.
445
447
447
447
448
449
463
FISHES:
29. Taxonomic status of the gobioid fish Oxyurichthys
dasi Talwar, Chatterjee and Roy
By A.G.K. Menon and K. Rema Devi 464
30. Nematolosa nasus (Bloch, 1795) (Pisces:
Clupeidae): a new record from the freshwaters of
Tripura
By R.P. Barman 464
INSECTS:
31. Occurrence of Odynerus ovalis Sauss. on fennel
Foeniculum vulgare Miller
By A.S. Vastrad, S.N. Holihosur and
K. Basavanagoud 465
32. First report of Chrysis fuscipennis Brulle in south
India
By P. Kadirvelu 466
33. An interesting specimen of Neptis radha (Moore).
By Pumendu Roy 466
34. Insects infesting mesquite Prosopis chilensis
(Molina) S. at Point Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary,
Tamil Nadu
By V. Natarajan 467
BOTANY:
35. Standardization of spore germination technique in
Asp lenium nidus L.
By A.K. Banerjee, H.S. Pandey and
A.P. Bhattacharya 467
36. Range extension of three exotic aquatic macrophytes
in north India
By Chaman Lai and Malavika Sah 469
37. Eupatorium triplenerve: A good forage for flower
visiting insects
By T. Byragi Reddy and C. Aruna 470
38. Additions to the Verbenaceae of Andhra Pradesh
By V. Ramakrishnaiah, D. Ali Moulali and
T. Pullaiah 471
39. An infra- specific nomenclatural combination in the
genus Leucas L. ( Lamiaceae)
By D. Ali Moulali and T. Pullaiah 471
40. Seed dispersal of Cassytha filiformis at Point
Calimere, Tamil Nadu
By P. Balasubramanian 472
41 . Records of two new tax a from Orissa
By Papia Mondal and P. K. Mukherjee 472
JOURNAL
OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY
SOCIETY
December 1990 Vol. 87 No. 3
INSECT SPECIES DIVERSITY IN THE TROPICS :
SAMPLING METHODS AND A CASE STUDY1
Raghavendra Gadagkar, k. Chandrashekara and PadminiNair2
(With ten text-figures)
The tropical regions of the world generally have a richer store of biological diversity than other regions of the
globe. But most tropical habitats face a significant threat of destruction. Yet, little is known about tropical biotic com-
munities. Suspecting that at least part of the reason for the poor documentation of tropical insect communities is the
lack of appropriate research methodology, we have endeavoured to standardize a package of methods for quantitative
sampling of insects, suitable for tropical ecologists with modest research budgets. This methodology includes the use
of a small light trap as well as net sweeps, pitfall traps and scented traps. The methods have beat used to sample in-
sect species diversity patterns in three replicate one hectare plots each in twelve selected sites in the Uttara Kannada
district of Karnataka, India. During this case study, we have encountered 16,852 adult individuals belonging to 1,789
species, 219 families and 19 orders of insects. Here, we provide evidence that this methodology is adequate for sam-
pling insects and differentiating habitats on the basis of the distribution of insect species. Some interesting biological
problems that tropical ecologists can study with the data generated from the application of these methods are also brief-
ly illustrated.
Introduction
One of the few relatively undisputed
generalizations in community ecology is a
latitudinal gradient of increase in biological species
richness and diversity from the temperate regions to
the tropics (see Krebs 1985, Colinvaux 1986). Apart
from being something of a rule in community ecol-
ogy this means that those of us who live in the tropics
enjoy a biologically rich environment. Recent work
suggests that the richness of the tropical insect
fauna is beyond all earlier expectations (Erwin and
Scott 1980, Erwin 1983 and Stork 1988). It is equal-
ly undisputed, however, that most tropical or-
ganisms are poorly studied and the little that we do
know about any group of organisms comes largely
Accepted August 1990.
Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science,
Bangalore 560 012..
from studies of temperate species. This is expressed
most dramatically in the statement that the number
of biologists is negatively correlated with the num-
ber of biological species in different regions of the
globe (Robinson 1978). The poor state of our under-
standing of tropical biology may be partly attributed
to the relative economic backwardness of tropical
countries, the lack of facilities for research and
sometimes to the lack of the tradition of modem
scientific work.
We suggest, however, that at least sometimes
this is due to the lack of appropriate research
methodology suitable for tropical conditions.
Studies on insect species diversity and the long term
monitoring of insect species and populations in dif-
ferent habitats are good examples. Almost all the
major long term insect monitoring programmes are
based on light trap catches, a method that requires
uninterrupted supply of electricity, often in the mid-
338
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Fig.l. Map of Uttara Kannada district showing the 12 sites used in the study.
1. Santagal R.F., 2. Nagur R.F., 3. Mitjan M.F., 4. Chandavar M.F., 5. Bengle M.F., 6. Bidaralli R.F., 7. Sonda R.F., 8. Bhairumbe
M.F., 9. Betta land, 10. Eucalyptus plantation, 1 1 . Teak plantation, 1 2. Areca plantation.
SAMPLING METHODS FOR INSECT SPECIES DIVERSITY
339
die of a forest (Holloway 1983, 1987; Taylor 1978,
Taylor et al 1976, Wolda 1983a, b; Wolda and
Roubik 1986). Sometimes the light traps are
operated for years together without interruption. In
most tropical situations, uninterrupted supply of
electricity is nearly impossible even in cities and
towns, let alone in the middle of a forest. The estab-
lishment and long term maintenance of electricity
generating devices is prohibitively expensive for
most ecologists working in tropical countries.
Suspecting that this has prevented many tropi-
cal ecologists from undertaking insect species diver-
sity studies (see Wolda 1981a), we have attempted
to standardize a package of methods for quantitative
sampling of insects, suitable for tropical ecologists
with modest research budgets. Our methodology is
based on the use of a small light trap using routine-
ly available dry batteries but substantially supple-
mented by other methods such as net sweeps, pitfall
traps and scented traps. We show here that such a
methodoloy is adequate for sampling insects and
differentiating habitats on the basis of insect species
distribution. We also briefly illustrate some interest-
ing biological questions that ecologists in tropical
countries can begin to ask with the data generated
from such methodology.
Materials and Methods
Study sites: All our study sites were located in the
Uttara Kannada district of the state of Karnataka,
India (Fig. 1). The forested study sites fall broadly
into two categories reflecting different levels of dis-
turbance, namely, the Reserve Forests (R.F.) (rela-
tively iess disturbed) and the Minor Forests (M.F.)
(relatively more disturbed). Sites representing both
these categories were chosen in the coastal plains as
well as at higher elevations (approximate altitude
600 m).
Selection of study sites in this manner ensured
that these sites represent habitats under different en-
vironmental conditions and levels of disturbance. In
addition to these forested habitats, three monocul-
ture plantations (PI.) and a leaf manure forest (Betta
land) were also chosen for the study. At each of these
sites, sampling was carried out in three one hectare
plots. Thus a total of 36 one hectare plots from 12
habitat types were sampled (Table 1). A brief
description of each study site is given in Table 2. All
sampling was carried out during December, January,
February and March which is part of the dry season
in these localities.
Sampling methods: To develop a package of
methods for quantitative sampling of insect species,
collections were made using four different methods
which were standardized after extensive field trials.
1. Light trap: A portable light trap which can be
easily assembled and dismantled was fabricated
using locally available inexpensive material. The
light trap uses a fluorescent light source (Eveready
Fluorolite 7.5 inch; 6 watts) powered by routinely
available battery cells. The main framework of the
trap consists of four iron legs, an aluminium roof and
two aluminium baffles, between which the light
source is placed. Insects attracted to the light were
collected through a funnel in a cyanide jar, below
the light. One light trap was placed in the centre of
the plot. The light was switched on at dusk and al-
lowed to bum itself out as the batteries drained after
about seven hours. The insects trapped in the jar
were collected the next morning and preserved in
70% alcohol.
2. Net sweeps: Net sweeps were carried out to col-
lect insects off the vegetation. The nets used in sys-
tematic sweeping of the ground level vegetation
were made of thick cotton cloth with a diameter of
30 cm at the mouth and a bag length of 60 cm.
For carrying out net sweeps the plot was
divided into 100 quadrats, measuring 10 m x 10 m
each. Six such quadrats were chosen at random and
the entire ground level vegetation in the chosen
quadrat was covered during the sweeping. Net
sweeps were always done between 1000 h - 1200
hrs. The insects collected from each quadrat were
transferred into polythene bags containing a cotton
wad dipped in chloroform. Insects were later
separated from the litter and preserved in vials con-
taining 70% alcohol.
3. Pitfall traps: The pitfall traps consisted of a 2.5
litre plastic jar with an opening of 9 cm in diameter,
buried at ground level and protected from rain by a
tripod stand carrying a plastic plate of about 30 cm
diameter at a distance of about 15 cm above the
ground. One pitfall trap was placed in each of five
randomly chosen 10 m x 10 m quadrats. Each jar
carried 25 ml of 0.05% methyl parathion. The traps
were set up between 1500 and 1700 hrs and were
collected the next morning. Insects trapped in the
jars were preserved in 70% alcohol.
340
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Table 1
STUDY SITES, PLOTS AND SAMPLING PERIOD
SAMPLING METHODS FOR INSECT SPECIES DIVERSITY
341
4. Scented traps: A plastic jar of 2.5 litre capacity
was used to fabricate a scented trap. The mouth of
the jar was shielded from rain water using a plastic
plate allowing a gap of 6 cm between the mouth of
the jar and the plastic plate so that insects could free-
ly move into the jar. The trap was baited with 200
ml of saturated jaggery (unrefined cane sugar) solu-
tion with two tablets of baker’s yeast, 0.05% (final
concentration) methyl parathion and 0.5 ml of
pineapple essence. The traps were hung at about 1
m from the ground on a wooden peg. Five such traps
were used, one each in the centre of a randomly
chosen 10 m x 10 m quadrat. The scented traps were
also set between 1500 -1700 hrs and collected the
following morning. Insects trapped in the jaggery
solution were filtered, washed and preserved in 70%
alcohol.
Thus one light trap placed in the middle of a
one hectare plot working for about 7 hours (1900 to
0200 hrs), net sweeps in 6 randomly chosen 10 m x
10 m quadrats, 5 randomly placed pitfall traps and
5 randomly placed scented traps, both working for
about 18 hrs each constituted one sampling unit.
Each of the 36 plots were subjected to one such sam-
pling unit.
Preservation of Specimens and Data Recording
All insects (except large moths) were stored in
alcohol for future sorting. The insects were iden-
tified up to the family level and within each family,
recognizable taxonomic units (RTU) were separated
based on morphological differences. For con-
venience, the RTUs will be referred to as species
throughout this paper. Each such specimen was
given a serial number within that family. For each
plot, site and quadrat, information on the order,
family, serial number, number of nymphs or larvae
and the number of adults were recorded. Only data
on the adult insects are presented here.
Canopy cover index: It was obvious from our
preliminary results that a subjective classification of
habitats into more disturbed and less disturbed
categories is insufficient to discern any relationship
between patterns of diversity and levels of distur-
bance. An attempt was therefore made to develop an
index to quantify levels of disturbance. One of the
major causes of disturbance in tropical forests is a
tree fall, either man made or natural, which leads to
large scale changes in the understorey vegetation.
The extent of canopy cover could thus be one good
measure of disturbance.
A relative estimate of the extent of canopy
cover was obtained by the presence or absence of
canopy at randomly chosen points in the study plots.
50 such points at the comers of 10 m x 10 m quad-
rats were chosen to make observations on the
canopy cover. At each of these points the observer
counted the number of trees whose canopy inter-
sected his line of sight immediately above his head.
Shrubs, tree branches and leaves obstructing the line
of sight at less than about 3 m from the ground were
not counted. The number of trees which formed a
canopy over these 50 points was used to obtain a
mean value for the plot, which we call the Canopy
Cover Index.
Data analysis:
1. a Diversity: Several indices of alpha
(within site) diversity such as the Shannon Weiner
index (Margalef 1958), Simpson’s index (Simpson
1949), Hill’s diversity indices Ni and N2 (Hill 1973,
see also Gadagkar 1989), Sm (Hurlbert 1971, Wolda
1983a and a of the log series Fisher et al. 1943)
were computed. For the sake of brevity only results
using a of the log series are given in this paper, a of
the log series was computed by an iterative proce-
dure using the equation.
S = aloge (1 +N/a)
where S is the number of species in the sample,
N is the number of individuals in the sample, and a
is the index of diversity. The standard deviation of
a was estimated as a /-log (1-X) where X = N/(N
+a) (Anscombe 1950). Using this standard devia-
tion, significant differences in diversity between
habitats were judged by a z test.
2. p Diversity: P (between site or between method)
diversity was estimated as coefficients of similarity
given by the Morisita-Hom Index (after Wolda
1981b),
2 X (nu.n2i)
C*=
where,
xj=
where nji
(X.1+X.2).N1N2
Nj2
is the number of individuals
of
342
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Table 3
SUMMARY OF CATCH DATA
species i in sample j and nj is the number of in-
dividuals in sample j. The index was computed with
data logarithmically transformed as In (nji+1).
Cluster analysis was performed using a single-
linkage algorithm.
Results
Summary of catch data: A summary of the insect
catch data in the form of the number of orders,
families, species and individuals and a of the log
series as an index of diversity for each of the 36 plots
are shown in Table 3. In any given plot we en-
countered from 4-12 orders, 24-77 families, 43-239
species and 86-1331 individuals. In all the 36 plots
put together we encountered 19 orders, 219 families,
1789 species and 16,852 individuals. Some patterns
in this data are immediately apparent. The highest
number of individuals, species and the highest diver-
sity were seen in one or more of the Eucalyptus plan-
tation plots, while the lowest number of individuals,
species and the lowest diversity were seen in one or
more of the teak plantation plots. Natural forest
plots, including relatively less as well as the relative-
ly more disturbed ones, were between these two ex-
tremes shown by the monoculture plantations.
SAMPLING METHODS FOR INSECT SPECIES DIVERSITY
343
200-q
100 -i
01
300-
200-
100-
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in
LIGHT
1
NET
TRAP
SWEEPS
I
PIT FALL TRAPS
50
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70 -1
40
I I
1
L
SCENTED
TRAPS
0 _ m — ■ — B K M - ~I
ALL METHODS n
400- POOLED n J -i|
"Qji
3 < < 2 2 2 2
2.8
2.0
1.0
:3
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1
0
1-1.5
j-1.0
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=-1.5
j-1.0
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Ho
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Fig.2. Numbers of orders, families, species, individuals and Fig.3. Taxonomic break up of insects trapped by different
diversity of insects trapped by different methods. methods. Closed bars = species , open bars = individuals.
INDIVIDUALS
(Thousands)
344
JOURNAL, BOMBA? NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. 87
UGHT TRAP
NET SWEEPS
PIT FALL TRAPS
SCENTED TRAPS
0 0.2 1 0.4 " 0.6 ' 0.8 ' 1.0
DISTANCE
Fig. 4. Dendrogram comparing insects caught by different
methods (Distance = 1 -Morisita-Hom Index of Similarity). Data
pooled from 36 plots.
Comparison of methods of collection: Net sweeps
yielded not only the maximum numbers of orders,
families, species and individuals but also the highest
diversity of insects. But the remaining three
methods, namely, the light trap, pitfall traps and
scented traps together accounted for at least 50% of
the catch (Fig. 2). The light trap yielded more
Coleopterans than any other method. Most of the
Hemipterans caught were in the net sweeps although
net sweeps yielded an equally rich collection of
Hymenopterans and Dipterans. Pitfall traps yielded
more Hymenopterans than any other order while
scented traps caught more Dipterans (Fig. 3).
Comparison of different species and their
abundance among catches by different methods
using the Morisita-Hom Diversity Index shows that
each method yielded quite a different sample of in-
sects. The similarity coefficient between any two
methods ranges between 0.13 and 0.28. The conse-
quent large distance (defined as 1 - coefficient of
similarity ) between insect samples obtained by dif-
ferent methods are shown in Fig. 4.
Since one light trap, 6 net sweeps, 5 pitfall traps
and 5 scented traps were employed in each plot, we
can compare the catches between different repli-
cates of the same method. Employing the Morisita-
Hom Similarity Index, we find that catches from dif-
ferent replicates of the same methods were by and
large more similar than catches by different
methods. It is important to note, however, that there
Table 4
COMPARISON OF DIVERSITY IN DIFFERENT CAPTURE SITES
Pairs of sites that are significantly different from each other in their levels of insect diversity as measured by a of the log series.
A *+* in any cell indicates that the site mentioned in the row is significantly more diverse than the site mentioned in the column (p
<0.05). Numerals (1) to (12) in row and column headings refer to different sites. The mean and standard deviation of a for each site
are given in the row titles. Names of sites in row titles and column titles are ordered according to diversity.
PJT FALL TRAP 4
SAMPLING METHODS FOR INSECT SPECIES DIVERSITY
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SAMPLING METHODS FOR INSECT SPECIES DIVERSITY
347
Fig. 9. Relationship between canopy cover index and number of
species, a diversity index and number of individuals.
There is a significant negative correlation between canopy cover
index and number of individuals (Bottom panel). (Kendalls Rank
Correlation Coefficient T = - 0.271 1; P< 0.05; the straight line is
given by Y = -31 1.68 x + 800.74; P < 0.01). Each point repre-
sents one of the 36 plots.
are occasional exceptions. This is illustrated in an
example of comparison of the 17 traps employed in
plot number 1 (Fig. 5). The catches from pitfall traps
1 and 3 have a greater similarity to catches from
scented traps than to catches from the remaining pit-
fall traps. Similarly the catch from netsweep 3 stands
out as being different from everything else. These
anomalies may be on account of random fluctua-
tions in the small samples of insects caught in each
individual trap.
Pooling the insects from each replicate of the
same method (except of course in the case of the
light traps where only one was employed in each
plot ) leads to fewer anomalies. This is illustrated by
comparing data from each method across the three
replicate plots within a study site. For most sites the
pattern is as distinct as in the example shown in Fig.
6 for plots 7,8 and 9 in Mirjan M.F. It is thus clear
that relatively similar insects are caught by repeat-
ing the same method in different replicate plots
while relatively different insects are caught by dif-
ferent methods. This is by and large the pattern we
find in all sites although there are some minor ex-
ceptions in some plots.
Comparison of plots and sites: Pooling catch data
from all 17 traps in each plot, the 36 plots may be
compared using the Morisita-Hom Similarity Index.
Generally, the 3 replicate plots in each site are
similar to each other and form a cluster before they
"join" other clusters. This pattern was seen in 9 out
of 12 sites, namely, Santagal R.F., NagurR.F., Mir-
jan M.F., Areca Plantation, Eucalyptus Plantation,
Sonda R.F., Bhairumbe M.F., Betta land and Teak
Plantation. But there are some exceptions such as
Chandavar M.F. and Bidaralli R.F. where at least one
plot had greater similarity to plots from some other
site than to other plots from the same site (Fig. 7).
Insect catches pooled from all methods and
from the three replicate plots constitute a combined
sample for a site. Such combined samples permit
comparison between the habitats represented by dif-
ferent sites. Because the variances of a can easily be
computed, it is possible to conclude that the insects
caught in Bidaralli R.F. are significantly more
diverse than those caught in Santagal R.F. and all
other sites of lower diversity (Table 4, P<0.05).
Similarly, insects caught in Santagal R.F. are sig-
nificantly more diverse than those caught in
Bhairumbe M.F. and all other sites of lower diver-
sity (Table 4, P <0.05). The 12 sites are ordered ac-
cording to diversity and all pairs of sites that are sig-
nificantly different from each other in diversity are
shown in Table 4. Pooled catch data for each site can
also be used to compare the sites using the Morisita-
Hom Index. This leads to the remarkable result that
with the exception of teak plantation, all coastal sites
form one cluster and all elevation sites form a
separate cluster, although it is not clear whether this
result is statistically significant (Fig. 8).
Effect of canopy cover: Reserve forests, minor
forests and plantations were initially chosen because
they were expected to represent different levels of
disturbance. To obtain a more objective and con-
tinuous index of disturbance, however, we have
348
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. 87
measured the extent of canopy cover in each plot.
This was achieved through the canopy cover index,
which is the mean number of trees whose canopies
overlap with each other at any given point in the plot
(see methods). Clearly, canopy cover is only one of
the many factors that must affect the distribution and
abundance of insects on the floor of the forests. This
is reflected by the considerable scatter in points
when we plot the number of species, and diversity
or number of individuals as a function of the canopy
cover index (Fig. 9). Nevertheless there is a statisti-
cally significant inverse correlation between the
canopy cover index and the number of individuals
(P< 0.02).There is also a suggestion that both the
number of species and diversity are more variable
and can reach very high levels at intermediate levels
of canopy cover while relatively fewer species and
lower diversity are obtained at very high or very low
value of canopy cover index.
Sampling strategy: Our sampling strategy, aimed
at making the methods quantitative and unbiased,
involved three steps. First, we employed 5-6 repli-
cates of each method within each plot (except in the
case of light trap). Second, we employed four
methods (light trap, net sweeps, pitfall traps and
scented traps) within each plot. Finally, we sampled
from three replicate one hectare plots within each
site or habitat type (Twelve sites drawn from two
elevations were sampled but this was meant to apply
the underlying methodology).
In an attempt to evaluate each of these steps in
our strategy, we have performed a nested ANOVA
and partitioned the variance in the number of in-
dividuals of each species into the following com-
partments: (1) between replicates of the same
method within a plot, (2) between methods within a
plot, (3) between replicate plots of the same habitat
type, (4) between different habitat types and (5) be-
tween elevations. Repeating this analysis separate-
ly for each of the 1,789 species, we present the min-
imum, maximum, mean and standard deviation of
the percentage variance at each level in Table 5. On
an average, 73.6% of the variance is seen between
replicates of the same method within a plot, 23.7%
between different methods within a plot, 1.7% be-
tween replicate plots of the same site or habitat type
and a negligible amount of variance is seen between
habitat types and between elevations. We conclude
from this that the two most important steps in our
sampling strategy required to ensure the collection
of a wide variety of insects from each locality are to
use replicate traps of each method within a plot and
to use different methods to trap insects within each
plot. Sampling from replicate plots of each site, on
the average, adds only a minor component of the
variance but we nevertheless recommend at least
some replication of plots because in specific cases
such replicate plots may be useful. For instance, in
Chandavar M.F., Bengle M.F. and Bidaralli R.F. one
of the three replicates was quite different from the
other two (Fig. 7.)
Habitat "Specializations:” Comparing the relative
contributions of different insect orders both in terms
of number of species and in terms of number of in-
dividuals, we find that in some sites a very large
proportion of the spelcies or individuals belong to
one insect order and the dominant order varies from
site to site. While some sites are so "specialized"
others appear to be more "generalized" with a fairly
even distribution of species and individuals across 4
or more orders.
A few of the relatively clear examples of this
phenomenon are shown in Fig. 10. 75% of all in-
sects caught in Mirjan M.F. belonged to Coleoptera.
58% of all insects caught in Chandavar M.F.
belonged to Diptera whereas in Bhairumbe M.F.
28% of the insects belonged to Hemiptera, 25% to
Coleoptera, 22% to Hymenoptera and 17% to Dip-
tera. Similarly 40% of all species caught from Mir-
jan M.F. belonged to Coleoptera, 38% of all species
caught in the Eucalyptus plantations belonged to
Hymenoptera but in Bengle M.F., 25% of the
species belonged to Hymenoptera, 25% to Diptera,
22% to Hemiptera and 19% to Coleoptera.
Trophic structure of insect communities: Since all
specimens are identified up to the family level, it is
possible to determine the approximate trophic struc-
ture of the insect communities encountered in this
study. Most insect families can be assigned to any
one trophic level such as phytophages, predators,
parasites and scavengers. The greatest difficulty in
doing this was encountered in the family For-
micidae. The ants have therefore been set aside as a
separate category. The relative contributions of dif-
ferent trophic levels vary enormously. As in the case
of the distribution of orders, we find that in some
sites a very large proportion of the species or in-
dividuals belong to a particular trophic level and that
ORDERS TROPHIC LEVELS
INDIVIDUALS SPECIES INDIVIDUALS SPECIES
350
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Table 5
NESTED ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE TO PARTITION VARIANCE
BETWEEN DIFFERENT COMPONENTS OF THE SAMPLING STRATEGY.
the dominant trophic level varies from site to site. A
few clear examples of this are shown in Fig. 10.
Nearly 82% of all insects caught in Chandavar M.F.
were phytophages, nearly 54% of insects caught in
Miijan M.F. were phytophages whereas in Areca
plantation only 20% were phytophages. Instead,
scavengers account for 47% of the individuals
caught in the Areca plantation. Ants constituted
only 7% and 5% respectively of the individuals
caught in Chandavar M.F. and Mirjan M.F. but con-
stituted as much as 19% of the insects caught in
Areca plantation.
Similar patterns can be illustrated with
reference to the number of species rather than the
number of individuals. Less than 2% of the species
caught in Mirjan M.F. were parasites whereas near-
ly 29% of the species caught in the Eucalyptus
plantation were parasites. Just as in the case of in-
dividuals, scavengers constituted a very large
proportion of the species (31%) in the Areca planta-
tion.
Discussion
We have outlined here a strategy for quantita-
tive sampling of insects in forested habitats and
plantations that is likely to be useful to tropical
ecologists with modest research budgets and mini-
mal facilities. We argue that methods requiring the
operation of a light trap continuously for months or
years and especially in forested sites are inaccessible
to most ecologists living and working in the tropical
countries of the world. On the other hand it is
studies of tropical communities that are most urgent-
ly needed and most likely to provide adequate field
data required for understanding the principles of
community ecology. We have therefore stand-
ardized a package of methods involving a small,
portable, dry battery operated light trap and supple-
mented with other methods such as net sweeps, pit-
fall traps and scented traps. In an effort to make the
methods reproducible, we have, by careful stand-
ardization, attempted to hold the sampling intensity
or effort constant. One sampling unit thus cor-
responds to one light trap operated for a fixed num-
ber of hours in the middle of a one hectare plot, 6
net sweeps performed by a standardized method in
6 randomly chosen 10 m x 10 m quadrats, 5 pitfall
traps and 5 scented traps placed at randomly chosen
positions for 18 hours in a one hectare plot. Such a
sampling exercise can be completed in 24 hours and
therefore may be repeated every day by the same
people and the same equipment. We have shqwn that
such a sampling method yields a collection of in-
sects which may be said to broadly represent that
site. The method could thus be used to compare in-
sect communities in different habitats or across dif-
ferent seasons and can also be used for long term
monitoring of changes in tropical habitats (See
Hammond 1990 and Stork and Brendell 1990 for
similar efforts).
Traditional methods based exclusively on
operating powerful light traps every night represent
a very intense level of sampling compared to our
methods. The result is that it is impossible to use all
SAMPLING METHODS FOR INSECT SPECIES DIVERSITY
351
the insects caught in these light traps. Most inves-
tigators are forced to discard the bulk of the catches
and concentrate their attention on one or a small
group of insect species. The methods we describe
sample insects at a much lower intensity making it
necessary and possible to use all the insects col-
lected. Clearly, this is a more efficient procedure and
leads to minimal destruction of natural populations
of insects. Undoubtedly, the traditional powerful
light trap method is more convenient - little or no
work is required on the part of the investigators and
sorting and identifying insects belonging only to a
small, selected, familiar group is relatively easy.
Our method requires more work on the part of the
investigators both in terms of preparation and laying
out the traps and more significantly in sorting all the
insects belonging to different and often unfamiliar
groups. Tropical ecologists will inevitably have to
pay some price for not always being able to set up
well organized research stations and obtain large
budgets. We believe that the price in terms of man-
power required by the methods we describe is small
and a requirement of man-power is one price that
tropical countries can pay relatively easily. Besides,
the methods we have used will also help detect com-
munity level changes in the insect fauna. This is not
usually achieved when only a selected group of
species is monitored.
Because of the low intensity of sampling and
the consequent need to include all insects collected
in any analysis, we thought it best to use a variety of
different trapping methods so as to attract different
kinds of insects. Our finding that the catches for
each of the 4 methods are quite different from each
other justifies this. Because of the low intensity of
sampling and the consequent small numbers of in-
sects caught in each trap leading to random fluctua-
tions, we thought it necessary to include several
traps of the same kind in each plot and to use at least
3 replicate plots in each habitat site. Although the in-
sects caught by the same method have greater
similarity to each other rather than to insects caught
by other methods in the plot, there are a few excep-
tions. Similarly, although the insects caught in dif-
ferent replicate plots of a site have a greater
similarity to each other rather than to insects caught
in some other site, again there are a few exceptions
These exceptions justify the inclusion of replicate
traps and replicate plots, but the relative rarity of
these exceptions suggest that the extent of replica-
tion is fairly adequate.
In the process of standardizing these methods,
we applied diem to 12 carefully selected sites repre-
senting diverse habitat types so that, if the methods
were successful, we might have something to say
about the habitat types. We believe that the methods
are successful and we therefore rank the chosen sites
in their order of diversity values. The range of diver-
sity values obtained is sufficient to permit us to make
these comparisons with statistical significance.
Another interesting result we have is that with
the exception of the teak plantation, the coastal and
the elevation sites form 2 different clusters, suggest-
ing that geographical separation and altitudinal
variation override even extreme differences in
levels of disturbance. We obtained this result in
spite of including relatively undisturbed reserve
forests, relatively disturbed minor forests as well as
monoculture plantations both among the coastal as
well as elevation sites. This is not to say that there
was no difference among the various sites in one
region. Several statistically significant differences
in levels of diversity between sites in the same
geographical region and altitude were obtained.
And yet similarity between sites within one
geographical and altitudinal region was greater than
similarity across geographical or altitudinal regions.
In addition to providing a method of understanding
and comparing tropical habitats we believe that such
a method, if applied on a large scale, will permit
tropical ecologists to generate substantial field data
relevant to current ecological theory.
For example, we have made an attempt to un-
derstand the factors affecting the distribution of
diversity and abundance of insects. Using the
canopy cover index as an objective and continuous
measure of levels of disturbance, we have shown
that the number of individuals is inversely correlated
with the canopy cover index. As the canopy is
opened up, we find many more insects in the forest
understorey. This result is further evidence that the
insects we trap are at least loosely associated and
therefore characteristic of a given region. Canopy
cover is clearly only one of the many factors that
must affect distribution of insects. Despite the resul-
tant scatter in the data, we have an indication that in-
sect diversity can reach high levels at intermediate
levels of canopy cover. When the canopy is closed
352
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
there is little understorey vegetation and hence, lit-
tle insect activity. When the canopy is completely
opened up, it results in nearly dry and barren land.
It is at intermediate levels of canopy cover that a
rich mosaic of habitat types can form in the forest
understorey and lead to high levels of insect diver-
sity.
The sites we have studied are different from
each other in many ways. One of the more interest-
ing differences lies in the proportional repre-
sentation of species or individuals belonging to dif-
ferent insect orders. While some sites are "general-
ized" in that they have a fairly uniform distribution
across 4 or more orders, others are more "special-
ized". For instance, Mirjan M.F. is a Coleoptera
"specialist", Chandavar M.F. is a Diptera
"specialist". Similarly, some sites are dominated by
phytophages while others are either dominated by
other trophic levels or have a relatively even repre-
sentation of different trophic levels. Some sites have
few ants or parasites while others have a large num-
ber of these. Why is there such a pattern in the dis-
tribution of insects ? Data of this kind will help for-
mulate specific studies intended to understand the
factors governing insect distribution. We believe
that these methods will be equally useful for
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AN ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY OF SOME WETLANDS IN SOUTH-EAST INDIA1
C. Perennou2 and V. Santharam 3
(With three text-figures)
This paper presents the results of an extensive survey of waterbirds along the southern Coromandel coast in
January 1988. Special emphasis is laid on estimating the populations of ducks and egrets over a large area, identifying
the most important wetlands and assessing the importance of artificial habitats, irrigation tanks and paddy fields.
The coastal plains of Tamil Nadu and southern
Andhra Pradesh occupy some 65,000 km2 subjected
to roughly the same climatic regime and cultivation
system. They are dotted with many natural and ar-
tificial wetlands which attract large numbers of
waterbirds in winter, namely after the "north-east
monsoon" rains. However, the information on
these bird populations is remarkably poor, mainly
qualitative and confined to a few well-known
sanctuaries (Spillett 1968, Nagulu and Ramana Rao
1983, Raju and Shekar 1971, Abraham 1973,
Krishnan 1978, Ali and Hussain 1982, Sugathan
1982); quantitative data are seldom provided and if
so, only for individual wetlands (Anonymous 1984,
Pieter 1987).
The first attempt to assess the size of waterbird
populations in this large region took place within the
frame of the first Asian Waterfowl Count in January
1987. Van der Ven (1987) underlined how limited
the results for India were; "the data do not adequate-
ly reflect the richness and variety of species". For
example, in south-eastern India a single area of c.
6,300 km2 was adequately covered, by the Wildlife
Association of Ramnad District, Tamil Nadu (Hus-
sain 1987). However it included only minor wet-
lands, seldom holding more than 1,000 waterbirds.
The objectives of the present survey were
therefore (1) to assess the waterbird population in a
large region having many sizeable wetlands, in order
to get a basic idea about the importance of south-
eastern India for migrant and local species, (2) to
identify wetlands of major importance, i.e. holding
large populations of waterbirds, in order to provide
data for future conservation plans; the need for such
Accepted March 1990.
2French Institute, PB 33, Pondicherry 605 001. Present address:
Laboratoire de Biometrie, Universite Lyoni, 69622 Villeurbanne
Cedex, France.
3Salim Ali School of Ecology, 3 rue Vicomte de Souillac,
Pondicherry 605 001.
data, which was so far lacking, has been emphasized
by Vijayan (1986), (3) to assess the relative impor-
tance of artificial wetlands (tanks, paddy fields),
supposed to be adequate substitutes for the vanish-
ing, natural ones.
Study Site and Methods
The survey, held between 3 and 27 January
1988 encompasses c. 12,600 km2 spread over the
Coromandel coastal plains, between c. 11° 10’ and
14°10’N (Fig.l). This region contains some of the
largest wetlands in south-eastern India such as
Pulicat lagoon, Kaliveli and large irrigation tanks.
Most of them were surveyed. Many minor wetlands
depending on their accessibility were also visited,
although systematic counts were impossible:
Palanisami (1982) states that Tamil Nadu alone has
c. 39,000 irrigation tanks, many of them small.
Waterbirds were counted with the help of a 20-
45 x spotting scope from vantage points, and a boat
was used in the huge Pulicat lagoon. We deliberate-
ly focussed on the larger species: in the Palaearctic,
ducks and coots are regarded as good indicators of
the ornithological importance of wetlands (Atkin-
son-Willes 1976); in tropical countries, large species
such as pelicans, storks, flamingos and ibises are
more widespread in winter than in temperate regions
and can also be regarded as reliable indicators.
Various species were obviously overlooked, due to
their small size (waders), nocturnal habits (night
heron Nycticorax nycticorax ), or partiality for reed-
beds (rails, ibises, purple heron Ardea purpurea).
Species such as egrets, paddybirds ( Ardeola
grayii) and waders were widespread in cultivated
areas and therefore difficult to count accurately.
Since the roads travelled on during daytime (525
km) can be regarded as a transect representative of
the land utilization in the coastal plains, we counted
the waterbirds in 100 m -wide strips along either side
of the roads in order to assess their density in the cul-
ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY OF WETLANDS IN SE. INDIA
355
Fig. l.Arca and main wetlands surveyed
1. Gudur tank, 2. Ethirpattu, 3. Nelapattu, 4. Sulura marshes, 5.
Puli cat lagoon, 6. Adyar estuary, 7. Simpson Estate, 8. Chem-
barambakkam tank, 9. Madras to Kaveripakkam (4 minor tanks),
10. Kaveripakkam tank, 11. Chinglepet tank, 12. Uthiramerur
tank, 13. Madurantakkam tank + Vedanthangal, 14. Cheyyur
lagoon, 15. Kaliveli, 16. Ousteri tank, 17. Perumal Eri, 18.
Viranam Eri.
Boundary of area surveyed (c. 12,600 sq. km) shown by solid
line.
tivated plains. White birds (egrets) were obviously
recorded more accurately than paddybirds, and
waders were neglected due to their small size.
Results
Sixty wetlands were surveyed and over
2,37,000 waterbirds belonging to 76 species
counted, the bulk of them (75%) being ducks. The
extensive results are due to appear in the Internation-
al Waterfowl Research Bureau / Bombay Natural
History Society reports on the second Asian Water-
fowl Count.
Wetlands: The wetlands visited comprise mainly of
irrigation tanks (49) of varying sizes; a few natural
areas were found, all of them brackish lakes, es-
tuaries or lagoons located along the coast such as,
Pulicat, Kaliveli and Cheyyur.
The distribution of the main waterbirds in each
type of wetland is shown in Table 1.
Brackish waterbodies: Pulicat and Kaliveli are the
largest brackish wetlands in the surveyed area. The
southern part of Pulicat is an open, permanent
lagoon (Fig. 2). Its northern part, from where the
water had recently receded, consisted of extensive
stretches of shallow water and mudflats (over 20
km2). The open waterbody only attracted a few of
the birds (ducks, waders, egrets, flamingos), the
majority of them being concentrated on the northern
mudflats, along the Suluru-Sriharikota Island road.
Kaliveli, of which only 20-30% was under
water, is a large temporary expanse of shallow water,
dotted with many sedge beds ( Fimbristylis sp.). The
hydrology is complex, the lake ranging from almost
freshwater after the rains to highly saline before
drying-up in early summer. The waterbody acts as a
refuge for large concentrations of wintering ducks,
whereas the reed-beds attract herons, storks, ibises
and egrets. Fish-eating birds congregate in even
larger numbers at the end of winter, when the lake
starts drying up (Perennou 1987).
The other brackish estuaries or lagoons, much
smaller (Adyar estuary, Pondicherry marshes) or
heavily disturbed (Cheyyur), held reduced popula-
tions of waterbirds, mainly waders.
Irrigation tanks: Their condition has to be viewed
against the rains in the previous "north-east mon-
soon", which were locally either deficient or close
to the average, as calculated from ‘The Hindu’
Weather Reports.
Table 1
RELATIVE IMPORTANCE IN % OF EACH TYPE OF WETLANDS FOR THE MAIN GROUPS OF WATERBIRDS.
356
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
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ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY OF WETLANDS IN S.E. INDIA
357
I lagoon
. . partly and
periodically flooded
— : roads
A. Suluru marshes,
B. Sector surveyed along Sriharikota
island road, C. Sector surveyed by boat.
Most large tanks had over 50% of their total
areas under water; a few were almost dry
(Kaveripakkam, Mamandur; Madurantakkam to a
lesser extent) or partly invaded by aquatic vegeta-
tion (Chembarambakkam, Perumal and Viranam
Eri). Whatever be their physiognomy, they attracted
large numbers of waterbirds, mainly ducks; only 2
out of the 6 largest tanks (over 1.5 sq km) attracted
less than 1,500 ducks, and many of them had huge
populations of 10,000 or more: Uthiramerur,
Viranam Eri, Perumal Eri, Madurantakkam,
Kaveripakkam, Chembarambakkam.
On the other hand, most of the smaller tanks
showed a low water level, especially in Tamil Nadu.
The absence of sizeable bird populations (Table 1)
was striking: none of them held more than 200 ducks
and most of them had none.
Breeding colonies: Five mixed colonies of water-
birds were surveyed (Table 2): Ethirpattu, Nelapat-
tu and Tada in Andhra Pradesh, Simpson Estate and
Vedanthangal Bird Sanctuary in Tamil Nadu. Ethir-
pattu and Tada colonies are located in villages, the
former between a small tank and a river and the lat-
ter beside Pulicat lagoon. Simpson Estate lies within
Madras city (Anonymous 1984), and the other two
colonies are well-known (Spillett 1968, Nagulu and
Ramana Rao 1983). For the second consecutive
winter, Vedanthangal had neither water nor breed-
ing birds.
In order to avoid disturbance or due to their
high density, the nests in Nelapattu and Simpson Es-
tate could not be counted accurately and only the
358
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HINT. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Densities
(individuals/km2)
5
4-
3 -
2 -
100
/
A.
cr'
/
-£> Cattle egreij
EqretU
200 300 400
Fig. 3. Egret densities along the transect
500
krn (cumulative)
600
number of birds are reliable. The colonies altogether
held a large percentage of the pelicans, cormorants
and herons (Table 1).
The different species were not evenly dis-
tributed over the mixed colonies, as shown by Ethir-
pattu (Table 3). Differences in the breeding stage
were also observed both between species and be-
tween colonies (Table 2). While some juvenile night
herons had already fledged in Nelapattu, painted
storks Mycteria leucocephala had just begun breed-
ing.
Although the birds breeding in Simpson Estate
were in a less advanced stage than in other colonies,
the variations remain within the known breeding
dates in southern India (Ali and Ripley 1983).
The colonies also provided suitable roosts for
non-breeding birds. In Nelapattu, they came from
Pulicat lagoon (Forest Department watchman, pers.
comm.) and probably from the adjacent S uluru mar-
shes. Vedanthangal, although deserted as a breeding
colony, still provided a roost for several hundred
birds (night and grey herons Ardea cinerea , egrets,
Table 3
DISTRIBUTION OF NESTS WITHIN ETHIRPATTU COLONY
ibises,) from the nearby Madurantakkam tank and
paddyfields (A. Perennou, pers. comm.)
Cultivated areas: Most paddyfields were covered
with well-grown, dense paddy. ‘Flooded fields,
recently ploughed or planted, were estimated to ac-
count for less than 5% of the cultivated area.
However, they held the bulk of the paddybirds and
egrets counted along our transect, the only excep-
tion being a few small groups of cattle egrets Buhul-
cus ibis in dry, fallow land.
Densities in cultivated areas were obtained
from the counts along the 200 m wide transect: 3.6
cattle egrets/sq km, 1 .2 Egretta egrets/sq km and 1 . 1
pond herons/sq km. The latter figure is an underes-
timate due to the colour of the bird. Local densities
in areas subjected to the same cultivation system
showed much variation: for example, between 0 and
11 cattle egret/sq km were seen along various sec-
tors at least 30 km in length. The transect, although
525 km long, does not incorporate all these varia-
tions (Fig. 3), probably due to the distribution at
random of the flooded fields. Whereas the density
of cattle egrets, widespread in small groups (20-40)
fluctuates by ± 20% around the 3.6 ind./sq km
average, the density of Egretta spp. has not stabi-
lized after 525 km, since a large group (98) occurred
only once, in the last sector. Due to this bias, den-
sities should be regarded as mere estimates.
The only comparative figures result from a sur-
ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY OF WETLANDS IN SE. INDIA
359
Table 4
RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF COASTAL, BRACKISH WATERS FOR WINTERING DUCKS
vey in 1987 by the Wildlife Association of Ram n ad
Dt. (W.A.R.D.), Tamil Nadu. For the same species,
densities were respectively 0.24/ sq km, 0.24/ sq km
and 0.045/sq km (calculated from Van der Ven
1987). But the W.A.R.D. figures are absolute mini-
ma,obtained by dividing the populations counted
along the census roads by the total area visited (c.
6,300 sq km), only a small part of which could ac-
tually be covered: the true densities were undoub-
tedly much higher.
Stability of waterbird distribution in winter:
Kaliveli and Ousteri were visited twice, in early and
late January. Whereas the populations in Kaliveli
remained fairly stable, the numbers in Ousteri
changed drastically for most species: garganeys
Anas querqueduia dwindled from 3000 + to 1500,
pintails Anas acuta almost disappeared (3500 to
200) whereas pochards (250 to 770), storks (0 to 15)
and egrets (9 to 50) increased.
Waterfowl: The bulk of the duck population
belonged to 7 migrant species, the garganey, pintail
and wigeon Anas penelope being the most abun-
dant ones. Common teal Anas crecca and common
Aythya ferina , tufted Aythya fuligula and red-
crested pochards Netta rufina were also found in
large numbers, whereas local ducks (cotton teal Net-
tapus coromandelianus and spotbill duck Anas
poecilorhyncha) accounted for less than 1% of the
duck population. The absence of significant num-
bers of coots Fulica atra and the observation of 1 1
barheaded geese Anserindicus on Pulicat are note-
worthy.
The garganey was the only duck species in
which the males did not display their breeding
plumage; the first ones started showing it by the end
of January. The various species were not evenly dis-
tributed (Table 4), several of them being partial
either to brackish or to freshwater. The results for Sri
Lanka and all-India are shown for comparison (cal-
culated from Van der Ven 1987).
Discussion
Size and Composition of some Waterbird
Populations
The stability of waterbird distribution in
January is not complete, as shown in Ousteri, and a
count carried out over several weeks will therefore
bear some flaws when the numbers are added.
However, this first ever large-scale survey of the
wetlands of south-eastern India provided a first
basic idea about the populations of certain species.
Waterfowl and other migrants: 1,77,000 ducks
were counted over one fifth of the southern
Coromandel coastal plains, but our results cannot be
extrapolated since the survey included most of the
largest wetlands in this region. A few of these, like-
ly to hold large populations of ducks, could not be
covered: Red Hills Reservoir (Madras), Willington
tank in South Arcot Dt. and Point Calimere (22,000
ducks in 1987; Van der Ven 1987). Southern Tamil
Nadu (c. 20,000 sq km) also holds some duck
populations in tanks that are on the whole smaller;
6,500 were counted in January 1987 over 6,300 sq
km (in Van der Ven 1987), and good numbers were
again found in 1988 (Wildlife Association of Ram -
nad Dt., pers. comm.)
Therefore, a minimum of 2,00,000 ducks may
have wintered in south-eastern India in 1987-88, a
figure likely to increase with further surveys. This
360
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
can be compared with the 2 to 3,00,000 ducks es-
timated to winter in Sri Lanka (Hoffmann 1985,
1987a). The composition of the waterfowl was
similar to this island, where the 3 most common
species are also the garganey, pintail and wigeon
(Hoffmann 1985, 1987a, 1987b). The main dif-
ference was the significant presence in south-east-
ern India of 3 species of pochards which do not reach
Sri Lanka. The absence of sizeable populations of
coots from both regions identifies the southern sub-
continent as a minor wintering ground; the main
populations winter in Pakistan and northern India (in
VanderVen 1987).
The under-representation of the local duck
species seems to be the rule in tropical countries. It
was also observed in 1987 in Sri Lanka and all over
India (1.2% and 5.6% respectively, calculated from
Van der Ven 1987), and it had been noted earlier in
Western Africa (15%; Roux and Jarry 1984). It is
only partly due to habitat preferences: resident
ducks are widespread in small tanks rich in vegeta-
tion, and therefore more easily overlooked than the
migrant species which gather in large, open water-
bodies. However, the small populations of local
ducks mainly reflect the lack of equilibrium between
the populations which can be supported in winter
and in summer by the mostly seasonal, tropical wet-
lands.
The preferences for either brackish or fresh-
water evinced by several species of ducks have to be
viewed against the prevailing climatic conditions in
1987-88 winter. Most of the large inland tanks had
enough water to provide a suitable daytime refuge,
and they attracted almost all the garganeys, common
and tufted pochards, and local ducks. Their utiliza-
tion by pintails and wigeons may be overestimated,
since 65% of the unidentified ducks were seen in
brackish wetlands and probably comprised of these
two species, by far the most common ones in coas-
tal waters. These results suggest local trends, some-
times very different from those observed in Sri
Lanka or in the whole of India (Table 4): for ex-
ample, all the garganeys present in the island may
be found either in brackish or in freshwaters. The
only general trend is maybe the partiality evinced by
wigeons to brackish waters. On the whole, the dis-
tribution of ducks may actually reflect the
availability of each type of wedand rather than any
marked preferences.
We confirmed the fact that several species
have obviously become common since the first edi-
tion of the HANDBOOK (Ali and Ripley 1968). The
common and tufted pochards, and the blacktailed
godwit Limosa limosa among waders, were
widespread in 1988, with flocks going up to 7000,
700 and 300 respectively; this confirms Perennou’s
initial findings (1989). It seems difficult to attribute
the increase of such noticeable game birds to that of
observers, and it is likely to have taken place several
years ago (pers. obs.). A similar trend has been
noted in the case of the tufted pochard in Pakistan
(Van der Ven 1987).
For a few other species, reputed to be irregular
or rare in southern India, comparisons with the pre-
vious winter are possible. The red-crested pochard,
already known as "fairly plentiful in some years" in
Tamil Nadu (Ali and Ripley 1968), turned up in
large numbers mainly in Kaliveli (3500 against 90
in 1987). On the other hand, both the white stork
Ciconia ciconia and the brahminy duck Tadorna fer-
ruginea (39 and 2 respectively, against 2-300 and
30) were less numerous in this lake. All these trends
were confirmed by regular observations throughout
winter, including in other wetlands.
Such variations in the size of the populations
wintering so far south are possibly due to the condi-
tions prevailing in the usual, northern main winter-
ing grounds of these species, with southern India ac-
ting as a refuge when these conditions become too
severe (drought, disturbances). Similar shifts,
oriented southwards, occur in temperate countries
during cold spells (see for example, Blondel and
Isenmann 1981); in West Africa, they are oriented
east- west (Roux and Jarry 1984) or southwards
(Roux et al. 1976-77) during droughts. Several
more years of mid-winter counts in the Indian sub-
continent will be necessary before we start under-
standing such yearly fluctuations. As a first step, the
main wintering grounds for each species have to be
precisely identified and populations of waterbirds
wintering out of their usual range carefully
recorded.
Colonial waterbirds: Although the largest known
colonies in this region were visited (Vedanthangal,
Nelapattu, Simpson Estate), our results probably do
not reflect accurately enough the breeding distribu-
tion of colonial waterbirds, since other remote
colonies such as Ethirpattu possibly exist without
ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY OF WETLANDS IN S.E. INDIA
361
Table 5
DENSITY AND ESTIMATED POPULATIONS OF SOME WATERBIRDS IN CULTIVATED AREAS
being known. The colonies census (Table 2) is there-
fore primarily meant for future and local com-
parisons.
A tentative estimate of the size of the popula-
tions is possible, only for the species widespread in
cultivated areas (Table 5): 200-250,000 cattle egrets,
50-100,000 Egretta egrets and undoubtedly the
same number of pond herons may be present along
the southern Coromandel coast in winter. Bearing in
mind the imperfections of the method and the risks
of an extrapolation to non-visited areas, these
figures at least suggest a range for populations
otherwise impossible to estimate accurately. They
tally with the important migration passage of cattle
egrets observed in Pondicherry in October and early
November and with the minimum densities recorded
in southern Tamil Nadu in 1987 by the W.A.R.D.
In mixed colonies, a spatial segregation of
breeding species as in Ethirpattu was earlier noted
in Vedanthangal (Spillett 1968), in Ranganathittu
(Neginhall 1982) and in Camargue (southern
France), where Hafner (1977) has shown that it is
due to the differences in breeding dates: the first
species to arrive select the best nesting sites, and the
next species have to colonize the less suitable trees.
It may seem amazing that large numbers of
colonical waterbirds (storks, ibises, spoonbills,
herons, egrets) regularly occur in winter away from
any colony such as in Kaliveli and Point Calimere,
when the same species are breeding elsewhere along
the Coromandel coast. Several interpretations can
be put forward. Some of these non-breeding birds
may consist of immatures and of adults which do not
breed due to inadequate conditions in their usual
colonies. Some birds may also come from regions
with different breeding dates. This is suggested by
the observation of juvenile painted and openbill
storks Anastomus oscitans ; showing a large amount
of brown in their plumage, in early January in
Pulicat lagoon and even earlier (October) in Ousteri
tank. The breeding season in south-eastern India
(November to March; Ali and Ripley 1968) is un-
likely to account for such early observations, and a
local migration from other parts of the subcontinent
may be suspected.
Relative Importance of Different Habitats
The relative importance of the various types of
wetlands cannot be assessed through mere counts,
since more than one type may be used by a given
bird within the span of a day: egrets or ibises will
feed in a tank or a marsh and roost in a nearby
colony, whether active (Nelapattu) or not (Vedan-
thangal). However, a comparison between the main
habitats can be attempted for a few species.
The two largest natural wetlands, Pulicat
lagoon and Kaliveli, proved to be the most impor-
tant wintering sites for waterbirds, although many
could not be specifically identified and Pulicat was
only partly surveyed. These lakes held altogether
45% of the total duck populations including most of
the wigeons and red-crested pochards, all the
flamingos, large congregations of waders, storks
and egrets. The number of ducks (46,000 and 33,000
respectively) provide a clue to the international im-
portance of these wetlands, which in the case of
Kaliveli is confirmed by the counts made in the pre-
vious winter (22,000).
Although none attains the level of Pulicat or
Kaliveli individually, large irrigation tanks also
proved to be very important for waterbirds. Al-
together, they held over 50% of the duck popula-
tions, and several species were confined to this
freshwater habitat (Table 4). Large tanks also at-
tracted congregations of egrets, herons, storks,
ibises (Maduranthakkam) or waders (Kaveripak-
362
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
kam) when drying up. The large size of their water-
body warrants that at least part of it would always
remain free of human disturbance and therefore
suitable for birds.
Small man-made tanks, having a low water
level and usually subjected to human activity all
along the banks, did not provide a large enough
refuge free of disturbance. They were poorly used
by waterbirds and accounted for less than 1% of the
total. This result confirms that the population of
many species, especially that of the migrant ducks,
can be accurately estimated by a survey focussed on
the largest tanks.
Finally, paddyfields were a major, and probab-
ly the main foraging habitat for egrets (cattle, little
and smaller) and paddybirds. Their populations in
cultivated tracts (Table 5) are worthy of comparison
with the much lower figures, a few hundreds at most,
counted in tanks and natural wetlands.
Conservation: Two out of the three major wetlands
of south-eastern India, Pulicat and Point Calimere,
are already protected as bird sanctuaries; a similar,
much awaited status for Kaliveli is under considera-
tion by the Forest Department of Tamil Nadu. It
should help prevent poaching, which has been
regularly practised up to now: it should also be in-
strumental in doing away with the plans to drain the
lake for cultivation, which have come up peri-
odically.
The dispersal of many waterbirds over
numerous irrigation tanks implies that the bulk of
them cannot be protected through a few sanctuaries.
However, the number of such tanks warrants that in
case one becomes unsuitable, alternative habitats
are readily available. Since water conservation is a
regional priority, irrespective of wildlife conserva-
tion, the future of the tanks does not appear bleak.
Finally, the most appropriate conservation
plans for species widespread in cultivated areas
probably consist in having the main breeding
colonies protected. This seems to be on the whole
effective, be it thanks to the spontaneous protection
by villagers (Nelapattu, Ethirpattu), official
sanctuaries (Nelapattu, Vedanthangal), or to private,
motivated ownership (Simpson Estate).
Conclusions
This survey gave a first impression about the
numerical importance of south-eastern India for
wintering waterbirds. Even if we lack references for
comparisons with other regions, the southern
Coromandel coast definitely proved to be an impor-
tant wintering area both for Palaearctic migrants
(ducks, waders) and local waterbirds. The results
have to be viewed against the water availability in
the 1987-88 winter, locally scarce enough to reduce
the bird populations in some wetlands such as
Vedanthangal.
For a few groups of species (ducks, egrets), a
first estimate of the size of wintering populations
could be attempted, which needs validation through
further years of observations.
The importance of Pulicat lagoon and Kaliveli
tank was numerically assessed: together with Point
Calimere, they are likely to be the 3 most important
wetlands in south- eastern India for trans-Himalayan
migrants, in addition to holding large populations
of local waterbirds. We also proved the importance
of irrigation tanks and cultivated land for many
species.
Finally, the regular winter presence and in
some cases (pochards) the abundance of species still
described as rare in southern India was assessed.
Many more results can be expected from the
Asian Waterfowl Censuses to come, and other
analyses at a local level will prove very useful for
an all-India synthesis.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to V. Guruswami, who
provided the results for the Simpson Estate in
Madras, and to A. Perennou who surveyed Vedan-
thangal. Our thanks are also due to Dr Priya Davidar
and Dr Rauf Ali for critically commenting on earlier
drafts of the manuscript.
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HABITAT, NESTING AND REPRODUCTIVE ADAPTATIONS IN NARROW-HEADED
SOFT-SHELL TURTLE CHITRA INDICA (GRAY), (REPTILIA: CHELONIA)1
Ravindra Singh Bhadauria2, Ashok Pai3 and Dhruvajyoti B asu4
Introduction
The narrow-headed soft-shell turtle, Chitra in-
dica (Gray) ranges from the Indus river system in
the north-west of the Indian subcontinent to
Thailand in south-east Asia (Smith 1931, Pritchard
1979, Daniel 1983). It has recently been reported
from the Godavari river system in peninsular India
(Moll and Vijaya 1986). This trionychid turtle at-
tains a length of 90 cm (Pritchard 1979) or even
more (Daniel 1983). In spite of the wide distribu-
tion very little is known about the species’ natural
history or reproduction, Pritchard’s account of its
habits being probably based on that of Smith. This
paper presents observations on the nesting, eggs and
their incubation in Chitra indica and discusses the
reproductive adaptations of this species
Habitat
According to Smith, Chitra has been recorded
from both the upper reaches of rivers with clear
water and sandy bottoms, as well as from downriver
and deltas. In the latter type of habitat, conditions
are likely to be quite different, with muddy bottoms
and turbid, brackish water, although Pritchard has
emphasised the preference for the former type of
habitat. In his general comments on the habitat of
Trionychidae, Smith has included bodies of stagnant
water such as lakes and ponds. But he has omitted
to make an important distinction in the case of
Chitra , which is restricted exclusively to flowing
rivers (authors’ upublished observations).
Reproduction
Pritchard has stated that the reproductive
habits of the species are unknown. However, Daniel,
Accepted September 1989.
^Wildlife Preservation Organisation, Forest Department, Uttar
Pradesh, 17, Rana Pratap Marg, Lucknow 226 001.
3Endangered Species Project, Forest Department, Uttar Pradesh,
13, Lajpat Rai Marg, Lucknow 226 001.
4Crocodile Rehabilitation Project, Forest Department, Uttar
Pradesh, Kukrail Picnic Spot, P.O. Indira Nagar,
Lucknow 226 016.
citing Chaudhuri (1912), mentions that its hatc-
hlings are extraordinarily small, with carapace size
of even c. 2.9 x 3.3 cm. During collection of eggs
of soft-shell turtles from the Chambal river in north
India, as part of the Fresh Water Turtle Rehabilita-
tion Project under the auspices of the Ganga Action
Plan, several nests of Chitra were located and their
eggs collected for controlled incubation and rearing
of the hatchlings for the ‘grow and release’
programme.
Nesting: Nests of Chitra were located between 2
and 17 September 1988. The nesting, therefore, as
determined from the age of spoor found at the nest
sites, occurred between 23 August and 17 Septem-
ber 1988. Details of individual nests are given in
Table 1.
Nests were flask-shaped holes dug in sub-
strates of sand or sandy loam. The eggs were tight-
ly compacted in the sub-soil after laying. The dimen-
sions of the egg chamber at mid-depth of one nest
were 15 x 23 cm. The depths at the top and bottom
layer of eggs in the same nest were 15 cm and 33 cm
respectively. These measurements are repre-
sentative of the nest configurations of Chitra. The
distance from the water of 7 nests of 1988, ranged
from 8 m to 135 m and their mean distance was
44.9 m. The nests were located at safe heights above
the river level. Only one nest site (No. 2, 1988) was
flooded by the rise of the river level by 5. 1 1 m on 8
October 1988 over the lowest river level on 16 June
1988.
The temperature of the soil in the nests was
measured at the time of collection, by pushing the
bulb of a Hg thermometer (accurate within 0.5° C)
into the soil. Mean temperature of 6 nests of 1988,
measured between 0900 and 1700 hrs, was 36.25°
C. The temperature of one nest (No. 7, 1988) was
low in comparison (29.5° C).
Clutch size and description of eggs: The eggs of
Chitra are spherical, brittle-shelled, unpigmented
and translucent whitish in appearance when laid.
The mean weight and diameter of eggs (n = 80)
were 10.4 g (10.0-18.0) and 26.8 mm (25.4-28.2)
HABITAT, NESTING AND REPRODUCTIVE ADAPTATIONS IN CHITRA INDICA
365
Table 1
DETAILS OF INDIVIDUAL NESTS OF Chitra
respectively. Mean clutch size of the 3 nests located
in 1987, 7 nests located in 1988 and pooled data for
both years were respectively 99, 126 and 118 eggs.
The largest and smallest clutches located contained
178 and 65 eggs respectively.
Incubation: Soon after location of the nests, the
eggs were collected in wooden boxes filled with soil
from the nest site. They were subsequently
transported by road to the turtle rearing facility at
Kukrail near Lucknow, approximately 275 km away
on the 14 September 1988, or roughly 12 to 22 days
after the eggs were laid. Clutch no. 7 (1988) was
collected later for transportation to the Turtle
Rehabilitation Centre at Varanasi.
At the Kukrail turtle facility, incubation was
completed in the collection boxes which were kept
in a heated room. The temperature of the incubation
medium ranged between 25.5° C and 36.0° C and
the approximate mean temperature was 31.2° C.
Hatchlings emerged between 1 1 October and 29 Oc-
tober 1988, which approximates the time of emer-
gence of the hatchlings in nature, where emergence
has been observed in November (R.J. Rao pers.
comm.). The incubation period of Chitra is com-
puted to range between 40 and 70 days with a
Table 2
WEIGHTS AND MEASUREMENTS OF Chitra HATCHLINGS
median incubation period of 55 days.
The weights and measurements of the hatc-
hlings (n=6) are given in Table 2. The hatchling sizes
are in agreement with those given by Chaudhuri
(1912).
Discussion
The reproductive parameters of chelonians
have been reviewed by Ewert (1979, 1985) and Moll
(1979). The reproductive adaptations of Chitra are
discussed below in the light of these reviews and the
studies of Rao and Singh (1984, 1987a, 1987b) on
sympatric emydid species. Chitra indica conforms
to the tendency of large turtle species to lay large
clutches. Among the fresh water turdes only the
Pelomedasid Podocnemis expansa (1 m in length,
reported mean clutch size of 82) is comparable in
both clutch size and body size to Chitra. The size of
Chitra eggs is correlated inversely with clutch size
as is typical for chelonians, and lies at the lower end
of the scale similar to other trionychids (minimum
diameter of chelonian eggs, 20 mm Trionyx sinen-
sis).
Although the size of the females is not known,
it is logical to expect that the egg weight/body
weight ratios for Chitra would be very low as well
(<0.002). This parameter following a weak trend is
directly proportional to the species’ incubation
period. Chitra , with an incubation period of ap-
proximately 55 days, conforms to this trend (known
incubation periods of chelonians range from 42 days
to over 200 days). It is not known if Chitra is capable
3
366
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
of laying multiple clutches annually. Even without
multiple clutches it possesses a moderately high
reproductive potential on account of its large clutch
size. However, some species of chelonians are
known to possess large clutch sizes as well as lay
multiple clutches per season ( Chelonia mydas , 10 x
100). But these species are also known to have 2 to
4 year sexual cycles, which is rare among fresh
water species.
According to Moll, Chitra would be a primi-
tive species which has retained a large body size and
lays a large clutch of small eggs, whereas small body
size* clutch size and large egg size represent ad-
vanced characters and specialization in chelonians
and favour their survival. Moll has also quoted
several authors according to whom the timing of the
reproductive cycles of most species is determined
by the environmental conditions prevailing at the
time of emergence of the hatchlings. He has also
stated that the nesting season of most temperate
species allows the most vulnerable period of turtle
development to take place during the most
favourable season of growth. What then are the fac-
tors which have prompted Chitra to transgress the
above generalizations and influence the choice of its
nesting season whereby emergence of hatchlings
just precedes winter, the most unfavourable season
for growth?
The most appropriate interpretations emerge if
the reproductive adaptations of Chitra are
evaluated in the context of the adaptations of sym-
patric fresh water turtles which live in the Chambal
river along with Chitra. Rao and Singh (1984)
enumerated 3 trionychid and 4 emydid turtle species
in the Chambal. Subsequently Pai and Basu (1988)
identified another trionychid and these make up the
known complement of fresh water turtle species in-
habiting this river. These are, among the
Trionychidae, Chitra indica, Trionyx gangeticus, T.
hurum, Lissemys punctata and among the
Emydidae, Kachuga kachuga, K. dhongoka, K. ten-
toria, and Hardella thurgii.
The significant characteristics of nesting in
Emydidae that have been pointed out by Rao and
Singh are: (1) Kachuga nest after the monsoons
after final recession of the river level or in the post
winter dry season, thereby precluding chances of
nest flooding. (2) There is inter-specific temporal
and spatial separation of nests of the 3 Kachuga
species. (3) There is heavy predation of Kachuga
nests ranging from 38.5% to 95.4% for the 3
species, with the highest incidence of predation in
K. tentoria (whose eggs have the longest incubation
period).
Thus, apart from the energetics of egg produc-
tion and the developmental requirements of the
embryos, the major factors determining nesting
parameters of fresh water turdes are partitioning of
nesting habitat, preclusion of nest flooding and
predator avoidance at specific, generic and family
levels.
Nesting in the Trionychidae begins earlier than
in the Emydidae and occurs mainly in the period
August through October (authors’ unpublished ob-
servations), thus achieving temporal separation of
nesting from the Emydidae. Spatial separation of
nesting at the family level is also achieved by the
Trionychidae utilising steep river banks of clay and
loam and by the Emydidae utilising flat or gently
sloped sand banks.
Inter-specifically within the Trionychidae,
there is greater temporal and to a lesser extent, spa-
tial overlap of nesting. Even so a marked spatial
separation exists between nests of Trionyx and
Chitra. Nesting of both Trionyx and Chitra rough-
ly coincides with the monsoons but different
strategies are adopted by them to preclude flooding
of nests as a result of rise of the river level. (Details
of nesting in Trionyx will be presented elsewhere).
Separation of nesting habitat of Chitra from
that of Trionyx may have been influenced by a num-
ber of different overlapping factors, but seems
primarily to be an adaptation for survival of eggs
from predation, as is elucidated below.
(1) Chitra , with a large reproductive potential,
even through a single clutch, has adapted for the
rapid incubation of eggs. The obvious survival ad-
vantage of such a nesting strategy is a shorter ex-
posure of the delicate egg stage to environmental
hazards. It has to therefore seek nesting media
which are significantly warmer than that of Trionyx
and at the same time friable to facilitate emergence
of the hatchlings without having to wait for the mon-
soons to loosen the nest plug. Trionyx, on the other
hand, to attain an adequate reproductive potential,
produce multiple clutches (Rao 1986). They achieve
synchrony in the emergence of the hatchlings with
the most favourable period of growth following the
HABITAT, NESTING AND REPRODUCTIVE ADAPTATIONS IN CHITRA INDICA
367
onset of the monsoons, by genetic programming for
embryonic diapause and/or aestivation, (authors’
unpublished observations).
(2) Moll and Legler (1971) have ascribed the dif-
ferences in the reproductive patterns of 3 sympatric
species of turtles in the Panama, primarily to adap-
tation for predator avoidance of eggs and hatchlings.
They have emphasised the pervasive influence that
predation of eggs and hatchlings can have on the
success of chelonian populations in favourable
habitats.
The high rates of predation of Emydid nests in
the Chambal pointed out by Rao and Singh, attests
to the high priority that predator avoidance of nests
could receive in the evolution of Chitra’ s reproduc-
tive adaptations. Assuming that the energetics of
reproduction necessitates the concurrence of its
nesting season with that of Trionyx, Chitra would be
at a distinct advantage if it could utilise a different
nesting habitat. Carr (1967) mentions how egg
predators of community nesting turtles actually con-
verge on nesting areas, causing intense depredations
of their reproductive potential. Chitra nests, by spa-
tial separation from Trionyx nests, would escape
detection by predators if the major predatory efforts
were directed at Trionyx nests. Preliminary indica-
tions in the field suggest exactly this, that Chitra
nests suffer from significantly lower incidence of
predation than Trionyx nests (authors’ unpublished
observations).
(3) Hatchlings of most other species emerge just
prior to arrival of the monsoons, i.e. from mid-May
to mid-June. (Rao and Singh 1987, authors’ un-
published observations). Emergence of the hatc-
hlings of Chitra around November would enhance
hatchling survival against predators, which would
become increasingly active with the concurrent
emergence of the hatchlings of all other species at a
different time of the year.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the Divisional Forest Of-
ficer, National Chambal Sanctuary Project and his
staff, in particular Shri J. A. Lai, Research Assistant,
for their assistance with all aspects of egg collection
and data collection.
References
Carr, A. (1967): 100 turtle eggs. Natur. Hist. 76 (7): 46-51.
Chaudhuri, B. L. (1912): Aquatic tortoises of the Middle Gan-
ges and Brahmaputra. Rec. Indian Mus. 7: 212-214.
Daniel, J. C. (1983):The bode of Indian reptiles. Bombay Natural
History Society, Bombay,
Ewert, M.A. (1979): The embryo and its egg: Development and
Natural History. In: M. Harless and H. Morlock (eds),
Turtles: Perspectives and Research, pp. 333-413. John
Wiley and Sons, New York.
Ewert, M. A. (1985): Embryology of turtles. In: C. Gans, F. Bil-
let and P.F.A. Maderson (eds). Biology of the Reptilia,
Volume 14: Development -A, pp. 75-267. John Wiley and
Sons, New York.
Moll, E.O. (1979): Reproductive Cycles and Adaptations. In: M.
Harless and H. Morlock (eds). Turtles: Perspectives
and Research, pp. 305-331. John Wiley and Sons, New-
York.
Moll, E.O. & Legler, J. M. (1971): The life history of a
Neotropical slider turtle, Pseudemys scripta (Schoepff),
in PanamaJVtfL Hist. Mus. Los Angeles Cty. Sci Bull. 11:
1-102.
Moll, E.O. &Vuaya, J. (1986): Distributional records for some
Indian turtles. J. Bombay, nat. Hist. Soc. 83 (1): 57-62.
Pai, A. & Basu, D. (1988): Turtles of an ancient pilgrimage tank
in north India with notes on the distribution of the Peacock
Soft-shell Turtle ( Trionyx hurum). Hamadryad 13 (2): 11-
14.
Pritchard, P.C.H. (1979): Encyclopedia of Turtles. T.F.H.
Publications, Neptune, New Jersey.
Rao, R.J. (1986): Notes on the sexual cycle of the famale Trionyx
gangeticusmcexiitdXIndidi.Journal of Herpetology 20 (3):
455-457.
Rao, R. J. & Singh, L.A.K. (1984): Ecological Relationships
among Turtles in National Chambal Sanctuary. Interim
Study Report Field Camp of the Crocodile Research
Centre, Wildlife Institute of India, Deori, Morena, Madhya
Pradesh, 54 pp.
Rao, R. J. & Singh, L.A.K (1987 a): Notes on comparative body
size, reproductive effort and areas of management priority
for three species of Kachuga (Reptilia, Chelonia) in the
National Chambal Sanctuary. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84
(1): 55-65.
Rao, R. J. & Singh, L.A.K. (1987 b): Notes on Ecological
relationships in basking and nesting site utilisation among
Kachuga spp. (Reptilia: Chelonia) and Gavialis gan-
geticus (Reptilia: Crocodilia) in National Chambal
Sanctuary. J. Bombay nat. Hid. Soc. 84 (3): 599-604.
Smith, M. A. (1933): Fauna of British India Including Ceylon
and Burma. Reptilia and Amphibia. Vol. I. Loricata, Tes-
tudines. Taylor and Francis, London.
DUGONG DUGONG DUGON MULLER IN THE GULF OF KUTCH, GUJARAT1
J. G. Frazier2 and Taej Mundkur3
( With two text-figures)
A review of records of dugongs Dugong dugon from the Gulf of Kutch, Gujarat, is presented. Details of an im-
mature male found dead near Bet Dwarka Island are also given, with morphometries (including rarely measured inter-
nal organs), stomach contents and parasites. Stomach contents indicate that the small marine angiosperm Halophila
ovalis is an important food item. Three intestinal flatworms were found: Haerator caperatus, Rhabdiopoeus taylori ,
and Indosolenorchis hirudinaceus; the first two are new records for Indian dugongs. It is concluded that, although
formerly discounted as consisting of strays, the dugong population in the Gulf of Kutch is significant; there is evident-
ly a resident, breeding population. This population needs to be investigated and protected.
iNTRODUCnON
One species of Sirenia, Steller’s sea cow
Rhytina stelleri (Zimmermann), has been exter-
minated during historic times, and all four of the
living species of this order are regarded as vul-
nerable (Anon. 1988: 17). Of these, the dugong
Dugong dugon Muller has the largest geographic
distribution, having been recorded from as far west
and south as Mozambique (Hughes and Oxley-Ox-
land 1971), from along the east coast of Africa, in
the Red Sea (Gohar 1957), Persian Gulf (Gallagher
1976, 1978), at offshore and oceanic islands of the
Indian Ocean (Jones 1976, 1980), and as far east as
Australia, Papua New Guinea, Palau, and New
Caledonia and nearby islands of southeast
Micronesia (Prater 1928, 1980, Nair et al. 1975,
Husar 1978, Nishiwaki and Marsh 1985).
Of the populations around the Indian subcon-
tinent, those in the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay are
best known (Annandale 1906, Prater 1928, Jones
1959, 1967, 1976, 1980, 1981, Jonklass 1961,
Thomas 1966, James 1974, Nair et al 1975, Mohan
1976, Bhaskar 1986, Anon. 1987a, Silas andFeman-
do 1988). Hence, both southern India and Sri Lanka
are well known for dugongs. There seem to be no
records from farther north along the east coast of
India or from the Sunderbans (Nishiwaki and Marsh
1985), although there are records from the Chit-
accepted February 1990.
2Indo-American Fellowship Programme, c/o American Institute
of Indian Studies, D-176 Defence Colony, New Delhi 1 10 024.
Present address: Centro de Investigacion de Estudios, Avanzados
Del IPN, Unidad Merida, Apartado Postal 73, ‘Cordamex’,
Merida, Yucatan, Mexico.
3Department of Biosciences, Saurashtra University,
Rajkot 360 005, Gujarat.
tagong coast of Bangladesh (O’Malley 1908) and
Burmese waters (Tun Yin 1971, Jones 1981:44,45).
The species has been recorded from the Andaman
Islands (Anon. 1909:238, Jones 1980:236; James
1988), where it has been claimed that few remain
(Husar 1978:2). However, little attention has been
paid to this population.
Evidently, the animal once occurred along the
west coast of India, for Jerdon (1894:311-312)
stated that they were reported (as seals) from salt
water inlets off the south Malabar and Concan
(Konkan) coasts as far north as Canara (which cor-
responds to southern Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka
and Kerala today). The occurrence of dugongs along
the Malabar coast was also mentioned in the Im-
perial Gazetteer (Anon. 1909:238). However, Prater
(1928:85) later stated "I have not been able to obtain
any information regarding the present occurrence of
the dugong on the west coast of India." Jones
(1967:216, 1980:236) also commented on the lack
of contemporary records from the west coast.
At the beginning of the century this animal
was regarded as "approaching extermination in In-
dian seas" (Anon 1909:239), and 60 years ago
Prater (1928:86) concluded that the dugong was be-
coming increasingly rare in Indian waters. The
status of this species in the Gulf of Mannar and Palk
Bay has worsened over the years (Jonklass 1961,
Jones 1967:216, 1980, Anon. 1987a, Silas and Fer-
nando 1988). Claims to the contrary (e.g. Thomas
1966) are unsubstantiated and, as Jones (1980:236;
1981 :46) suggested, possibly the result of confusion
with porpoises and/or dolphins.
The Gulf of Kutch (spelled also ‘Cutch’, or
‘Kachchh’, or ‘Katchch’) is often omitted or under-
played in discussions of the dugong. Jones
DUGONG IN THE GULF OF KUTCH
369
Table 1
RECORDS OF DUGONGS IN THE GULF OF KUTCH, GUJARAT (SEE FIG. 1 FOR LOCATIONS)
*M = male; F = female; ? = sex unknown
(1959: 198) stated that there are probably "very stray
numbers in the Gulf of Cutch", and Nair et al.
(1975:8) commented that ‘stray numbers’ are caught
in the Gulf. The suggestion that the individuals
which occur in the Gulf of Kutch are vagrants has
been repeated recently (Jones 1981 :46). The present
paper reviews the information available on dugongs
in the Gulf of Kutch; it also describes the oppor-
tunistic discovery of bones and details from the ex-
amination of an intact specimen from the Gulf of
Kutch. The carcass was examined for morphologi-
cal features, and the resulting data and published ob-
servations relevant to them are discussed.
Review of records from the Gulf of Kutch:
Moses (1942:75) reported "The dugong is said to
have been caught in a bush vada (fence net) near
Sachana (northeast of Jamnagar) in 1877; he could
list no other record of dugong in his summary of the
Gujarat coast. A skull from Mandvi was presented
to the Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS) in
April 1893 by C.M. Sykes (Phipson 1895, see also
Prater 1928:85). This is apparently the same skull
which Phipson (1893) referred to under the name of
Dr. Ardeshir Dadabhai, under contributions to the
collections for the month of May 1893.
Two dugongs were landed at Bedi Bunder,
north of Jamnagar; the first was found floating dead
on 17 July 1959; the second, a female landed on 30
July, was reported to be 4.06 m (13’ 4") long (Mani
1960). The editors of this article (Ali et al.
1960:217) added that these specimens extended the
recorded distribution of the species northward in
India, evidently unaware of the earlier records (two
of which had been published in the same journal).
The skull of one of the animals from Bedi Bunder
was later reported to be of a male, so presumably
this was the specimen of 17 July, for the other
specimen was a female (Santapau and Abdulali
1961:264).
Silas (1961) commented on Mani’s report,
raising several points germane to the present paper.
He argued that marine mammals generally sink
when dead. Silas also pointed out that the length
given for the female was extraordinarily large, far
greater than either the average, or the maximum for
Indian specimens, which he stated are 2.5 m and 3.5
m respectively. He also posed the question of
whether or not dugongs are seasonal visitors to the
Gulf of Kutch.
Mohan (1963:152) reported two dead animals
from Pirotan island in October 1961 and a dead
female from Salaya on 6 March 1962. On 15 June
1978, Bhaskar (1978:10) found the decomposed
carcass of a male on Bhaidar island; as large pieces
370
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Fig. 1. Locality map of dugong records for the Gulf of Kutch.
A. Outline map of the Indian subcontinent with Gujarat shaded. B. Outline map of Gujarat with the Gulf of Kutch indicated within
the rectangle. C. Gulf of Kutch, showing localities of dugong records. Shading represents areas of present day mangrove vegetation.
The continuous line is the shore and the dotted line, the 20 m isobath. Map adapted from The Gulf of Kutch, Chart No. 203; published
by the Naval Hydrographic Office 1978, Dehra Dun .
of it were missing, he assumed that it had been at-
tacked by a shark (but this could easily have oc-
curred after death). Ved (1983) wrote about a
beached male and a beached female found at Bet
Dwarka on 3 September 1983. At least two popular
articles have been published on the carcass
described below (Anon. 1987b, c). These records are
summarized in Table 1 and Fig. 1.
Material and Methods
From 4 to 10 January 1987 we visited the Hin-
golgadh Nature Conservation Education
Programme camp at Bet Dwarka Island (also called
‘Bet Shankhodhar’ or simply ‘Bet’), at the south-
western extreme of the Gulf of Kutch (Fig. 1).
Casual walks along about 1.5 km of beach on the
eastern shore of the island were made on 5 and 6
January, and signs of dugong (stranded specimens)
were recorded opportunistically. On 7 January a
dead but intact specimen *(JGF 5137) was found
floating offshore of Poshitra Point, evidently having
been driven across the Gulf by a strong north-north-
easterly wind. This specimen was taken to the Na-
ture Camp to show the school children and dissected
on 8 January; it was estimated to have been dead
since at least 6 January.
Linear measurements (see Spain and Heinsohn
1975) were made with a flexible tape. Weights of
greater than 1 kg were measured with a ‘Champion’
spring balance, with a capacity of 11 kg; weights of
less than 1 kg were measured with a ‘Pesola’ 155
spring balance. Although the specimen had to be
weighed in pieces, there was little apparent loss of
body fluids. The organs and parts of the alimentary
tract were prepared for weighing by squeezing out
the contents, rinsing the tract, and draining it com-
pletely.
Hair densities were measured in one of two
ways. Over most of the body the jaws of a vernier
caliper were set 2 cm apart and a distance of 2 cm
was marked off along on each jaw, to produce a 2 x
2 cm square. This square was laid on the skin, after
it had been removed from the specimen, and hair fol-
licles were counted in the 4 sq cm area. Squares
were positioned randomly in mid-dorsal and mid-
ventral positions of the thoracic, abdominal and
caudal sections, as well as on dorsal and ventral sur-
faces of the flippers and flukes and on the dorsal sur-
face of the head. Because of the relatively small
area, but high density of stiff hairs on the face, the
square used for counting here was reduced in size.
The jaws of the caliper were set 1 cm apart and a dis-
tance of 1 cm was marked off along both jaws; the
1 cm squares were positioned randomly for count-
DUGONG IN THE GULF OF KUTCH
371
ing hair follicles.
Fishermen and boatmen of the area were asked
informally about dugongs, common names, when
they saw them, etc. These interviews were
facilitated by the presence of the intact specimen for
demonstration.
Results
Common names and information: The local
name of the dugong used by Hindu fishermen in the
Gulf of Kutch is ‘Bai Manas’, meaning ‘woman
human’, and they. claim that they release these
animals if they are caught in their nets. Muslim
fishermen in the Gulf have two names: ‘Suwar
Machi’ (meaning ‘pig fish’), or ‘Lulli’ (meaning
‘female cripple*). Because they believe the animal
is related to the pig, they claim that they will not eat
it but release it when accidentally caught. It is
relevant that the common names reported by Jones
(1959:198) (presumably from south India where
dugong are actively fished and eaten by Muslims)
are ‘avolia’ and ‘kadalpanni’, names which mean
‘sea pig’.
However, the oil of dugong is valued as a
preserver and conditioner of wooden boats in the
Gulf, and it is likely that both Muslim and Hindu
fishermen will use it when available. Because the
species is protected by wildlife protection laws of
both the state and central governments, but more im-
portantly because there is no commercial fishery for
dugong, there are no data available on accidental
Table 2.
EXTERNAL BODY MEASUREMENTS OF DUGONG JGF 5137
♦The specimen was bloated, so some girth values are slightly
larger than they would normally have been.
catches, much less on the number of animals utilized
(illegally) per year.
Local knowledge of the dugong varies tremen-
dously from person to person. One local
businessman reported that a dugong had been caught
about 3 years before and photographed; it was the
first one he had seen during his life, having lived
some 40 years on Bet Dwarka. However, fishermen
of both religions knew the animals well, and one
man reported having captured a dugong in a net near
Bet Dwarka about a month before our visit.
Fishermen along the north coast of the Gulf, as
far east as Mandvi, have occasionally caught
dugongs accidentally in nets, and later released
them. Until three years ago they could see groups of
up to 10 or 15 individuals (Pravez pers. comm.).
Stranded remains: On about 1 km of the eastern
shore of Bet Dwarka Island various bones of
dugongs were found. These include cranial and
postcranial material which came from at least 3 in-
dividuals: a badly weathered premaxillary of a ma-
ture animal (male ? having enormous sockets for
tusks); a relatively fresh lower mandible (having 6
tooth sockets on each side) and parts of the
zygomatic arch of an adult-sized individual of un-
known sex; and a weathered maxillary (having 4 dis-
tinct tooth sockets) and parts of the zygomatic arch
of an immature-sized individual. However, it is like-
ly that more than 3 individuals had been washed up
on this short length of beach during the past few
years. A few other bones were seen but not examined
during the brief visit to this site. Furthermore, 1 or 2
km of the eastern shore of Bet Dwarka represents a
tiny part of the total shoreline of the Gulf of Kutch,
so one could assume that the number of stranded
specimens in the entire Gulf might be considerable.
Specimen JGF 5137
External features: This carcass was very positive-
ly buoyant, and had evidently been floating for at
least 12 hours when it was found (c.f. Silas 1961).
It had been driven across a large expanse of open
water by a strong wind. Its colour was light grey dor-
sally and cream white ventrally; the dorsal surfaces
of the flukes were darker grey. Although there were
small scratches on the body, especially near the
ventral surfaces, there were no major scars, as has
been reported on animals, particularly males, from
other localities (see Prater 1928:93, Marsh et al.
372
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
1984a:780), including the Gulf of Mannar (Annan-
dale 1906:243, Jones 1967:219). There was also no
sign of epizoic algae on the skin, as has been
reported from captive dugongs in southern India
(Jones 1959:199, Jonklass 1961:3). See Frazier
(1989) for colour photos of JGF 5137.
Cause of death: A distinct impression of a line ran
around the animal’s neck, indicating that its head
had been caught and tightly held in a (gill) net. There
were less than 15 g of fluid in each lung, but a mas-
sive haemorrhage was conspicuous at the base of the
throat. This indicates death by asphyxiation - not
by drowning ( inhaling water).
Sex size and age class: The specimen was a male
with a total length of 172 cm (see Table 2 for other
external body measurements). This is considerably
smaller than the average from south India of 250 cm
given by Silas (1961) and is at the smaller end of the
range of body sizes reported by Mohan (1976), also
from south India. Of the three recognized size / age
classes for dugongs, the smallest - calf - includes
animals up to 180 cm long (Heinsohn 1972, Husar
1978:4).
Unfortunately, although the penis was found,
its testes were not. Harrison (1969:337) stated that
there is doubt about the exact position of the testis
and that they are probably between layers of ab-
dominal muscles, but Marsh et al. (1984b:725)
clearly described them as lying caudal and slightly
lateral to the corresponding kidney.
There were no signs of tusks in the upper jaw.
Marsh et al. (1984b: 729) reported that in no imma-
ture dugong had the tusks begun to erupt. Further-
more, erupted tusks are not unique to males, but may
also occur in mature females (Marsh et al.
Table 3
WEIGHTS OF VARIOUS BODY PARTS OF DUGONG JGF 5137
1978:162).
The light body colour (see Jones 1959:199),
relatively small body size (well within the calf size
class), and absence of conspicuous testis and tusks
all indicate that the animal was an immature.
The total weight of the specimen was nearly
120 kg (Table 3). The relationship between length
and weight (172 cm and 120 kg) is consistent with
the predictive lines presented by Nair et al.
(1975:Fig. 5 ) for the Gulf of Mannar, India, and by
Spain and Heinsohn (1975: Fig. 6) for Australia.
Skin and body wall: Skin (with attached adipose
tissue) accounted for more than 20% of the total
weight, and body wall muscles, etc. was nearly 30%
(Table 3). The skin was thick, most of which con-
sisted of adipose tissue with a remarkably dense
concentration of connective tissue. Dorsally it was
25 mm thick, and ventrally, 10 to 13 mm (Table 4).
In comparison, the skin of a 288 cm long female
from the Red Sea was 35 mm thick dorsally and 25
mm ventrally (Gohar 1957:11). Spain and Heinsohn
(1975:167) found that dorsal and ventral skin thick-
ness increase isometrically with body length. In the
Kutch specimen there was no thick layer of fatty tis-
sue, or ‘blubber’, that was low in connective tissue
and high in fat; this is consistent with what other
authors have reported (Marsh et al. 1978:165).
Hair: Thick hair follicles were conspicuous over al-
most the entire body. Although the hairs are some-
times said to be devoid of pigment (Annandale
1906:239; Gohar 1957:15; Husar 1978:3), the fol-
licles of JGF 5137 appeared to be brown in colour.
Prater (1980:94) described the hairs as ‘fine’, but on
our specimen they were nearly 0.5 mm thick. The
only surfaces where hairs were absent were the
ventral flippers and flukes (cf. Gohar 1957:13). On
the trunk, the ventral thorax (‘chest’) had the lowest
concentration and the dorsal abdomen, or sacral
region, had the highest; hairs were more than three
times denser dorsally than ventrally (Table 5).
Similarly, the dorsal surfaces of the flippers and
Table 4
THICKNESS OF ADIPOSE TISSUE OF DUGONG JGF 5137
DUGONG IN THE GULF OF KUTCH
373
Table 5
DENSITY OF HAIR FOLLICLES IN DUGONG JGF 5137
the tip of the second to the tip of the third digit, was
56 mm long and 18 mm wide on the right and 54 mm
long by 18 mm wide on the left.
It is commonly stated that, unlike the manatees
( Trichechius spp.), the dugong has no nails on its
forelimbs (Prater 1928:95, Husar 1978: 1). However,
many descriptions of dugongs refer to ‘callosities’
on the anterior ventral surfaces of the flippers (e.g.
Gohar 1957:9, Jones 1959:201). In Australia these
processes are reported to occur on all specimens ob-
served, and they are attributed to abrasions caused
during feeding activities (Marsh et al. 1978: 159). It
is notable that Marsh and colleagues in Australia
have worked on the largest sample of dugongs ever
studied, which includes foetuses, neonatal in-
dividuals, and numerous calves, as well as other age
classes from juveniles and adults to apparently
senile adults (Marsh et al. 1984a).
Although neonates have been found with food
remains in the mouth and gastrointestinal tract
(Marsh et al. 1982:64), it is unclear how these
young animals would have experienced enough
abrasion to develop flipper callosities. It is also
remarkable that these processes occur precisely at
the tips of digits; and in the case of JGF 5137, at
least, there is a symmetric arrangement of two cal-
losities each on both flippers. These features raise
questions as to whether these are only dermal thick-
enings produced by local abrasions or in fact ves-
tigial nails.
Skeletal features: A radiogram of the left hand
(Fig. 2) shows the following number of metacarpals
flukes had hairs, while the ventral surfaces did not.
By far the densest concentration, and longest hairs,
were on the face. As hairs are thought to be more
numerous and longer in younger animals (Jonklass
1961), the data in Table 5 can be considered typical
of only calves.
Flipper callosities: The specimen had 2 keratinous
areas along the edge of each flipper near the tip
(Fig. 2). The distal callosity, which was at the tip of
the fourth digit, was 14 mm long and 4 mm wide on
the right and 21 mm long and 4 mm wide on the left.
The longer, proximal callosity, which extends from
Fig. 2. Ventral view of left flipper of Dugong dugon JGF 5137,
based on a tracing from a radiogram, showing position of cal-
losities (cross-hatched areas) in relation to digits 2, 3 and 4, and
also the number of phalanges in each digit.
374
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Table 6
ORGAN WEIGHTS OF DUGONG JGF 5137
♦without contents of digestive tract.
+ phalanges in each digit: I = 1; II = 3; III = 4; IV =
4; V = 4. This condition is different from all three
examples illustrated by Annandale (1907) and also
different from the description given by James
(1974:178). Annandale ’s (1907) claim that there is
considerable variability in the skeletal elements of
the dugong manus is supported by these observa-
tions.
The vestigial pelvic girdle of JGF 5137 con-
sists of two elongate bones, forming an elongate
structure on both left and right sides, comparable to
the description in James (1974:178). Although ear-
lier anatomists had described only two bones on
each side of the pelvic girdle, Annandale (1907),
working with specimens from ‘Madras’ and
Australia, reported a third, small bone at the ‘distal
extremity of the lower of the two [bones] already
recognized.’ What this third bone might be was not
stated, and since the mammalian pelvic girdle con-
sists of three bones (ilium, ischium and pubis)
which all articulate with each other, and there is no
linear three-piece articulation found on each side, it
is unclear what Annandale ’s third bone is.
Internal organs: Weights of various internal organs
are given in Table 6. There were no gross signs of
putrefaction or decomposition, although some post-
mortem changes in histology are likely to have oc-
curred. Data on dugong organ weights are rarely
given.
Gastrointestinal tract and contents: The
gastrointestinal tract was more than 22 m long, of
which more than half was large intestine (Table 7).
Spain and Heinsohn (1975:166) reported that there
is an allometric increase in the length of the large in-
testine in relation to body length; in contrast, they
found that lengths of both the small intestine and
caecum increase isometrically.
The total weight of the contents of the Kutch
specimen’s alimentary tract was nearly 8 kg, of
which more than half was contained in the large in-
testine. It is relevant that the main chamber of the
stomach held only about 20% of the total weight of
contents.
Reporting on a full grown dugong from the
Gulf of Mannar, Thivy (in Jones 1959:200) stated
that the stomach contents were about 6.4 kg (14 lbs)
wet and 1.1 kg (2.5 lbs) dry; this is nearly the weight
of the entire contents of the alimentary tract of JGF
5 1 37. However, there is a paucity of information on
gross weight of stomach contents or daily feeding
intake (see Marsh etal. 1982). As Marsh etal. (1977:
291, 1978:162) explained, this species appears to
specialize in hind-gut digestion, which is supported
by the relatively great length, and weight of con-
tents, of the large intestines.
Unlike the observations reported by some
authors (Annandale 1906, and others cited by Prater
1928:92), no intact plant material was seen
anywhere in the stomach of the Kutch specimen, or
farther along its intestine. The contents, even in the
stomach, were greatly broken down and macerated,
as has been described in detailed studies with
Australian dugongs (Marsh et al. 1982:56).
Although no intact material was found, only
plant matter was present, and it was all consistent
with leaves and stipules of the angiosperm
Halophila sp. Dr. A.G. Untawale, National Institute
of Oceanography, Goa, identified remains of H.
ovalis (R. Br.) Hook, (in litt. 22 Feb. 1988). In con-
trast to the Australian stomach contents, which all
contained rhizomes (Marsh et al. 1982:59), there
was no evidence of rhizomes in the stomach of JGF
5137. These plant parts may have been obscured or
overlooked because of the highly macerated nature
of the material.
Although most indications are that the dugong
in Indian waters eats phanerogams (e.g. Jones
1959:199, Jonklass 1961:3, Nair et al 1975:19,
Silas and Femandol988), there are reports of the
remains of algae in the stomach (Annandale
1906:242, Mani 1960:217). Both algae and marine
angiosperm s cover large areas of intertidal and sub-
DUGONG IN THE GULF OF KUTCH
375
tidal habitats in the Gulf of Kutch (Murthy et al.
1978, Naik et al. 1987, Murthy pers. comm.; pers.
obs.).
Detailed, long term studies in Australian
waters (Marsh et al. 1982) indicate that although
dugongs selectively feed on marine angiosperms,
non-epiphytic algae can occur in more than half the
stomachs. As the amounts of algae were normally
small and the fragments undigested, it appeared that
the ingestion had been incidental to feeding on an-
giosperms. In the few cases where algae made up
major portions of the stomach contents, there was
evidence that there had been catastrophic reductions
in the standing crop of sea grasses. Although there
does seem to be avoidance of algae and the coarser
species of angiosperms, the dugong’s diet is thought
to be based mainly on availability and not on selec-
tion of specific species (Marsh et al. 1982:62).
There was no evidence anywhere in the
alimentary tract of JGF 5137 of sand or other sub-
strate matter. Given the low stature of Halophila
spp. and the sparseness with which this angiosperm
usually grows, it is remarkable that over 7 kg of plant
matter could be eaten without ingesting large
amounts of substrate, especially as this animal feeds
by ploughing deep troughs in the substrate (Hein-
sohn and Marsh 1982:1004, Fig. 8). While it is un-
likely that the animal uproots and stacks sea grasses
to allow the substrate to settle out (cf. Gohar
1957:42), it is clear that the dugong has a very effi-
cient means of separating plant material from sub-
strate.
Parasites: Flat worms were conspicuous in both the
small and large intestines of JGF 5137. These have
been identified as Indosolenorchis hirudinaceus
Cruz ,Rhabdiopoeus taylori Johnston, and Haerator
caperatus Blair (Blair in litt. 14 Aug. 1987). The
respective collection numbers are: USNM 79991,
79993, and 79992 (Lichtenfels in litt. 29 Oct. 1987).
I. hirudinaceus has been recorded from dugongs in
the Gulf of Mannar (Nair et al. 1975:27), Sri Lanka,
and from East Africa to Papua New Guinea (Blair
1980:512). R. taylori has previously been recorded
from the Red Sea (Gohar 1957:45) and Australia
(Blair 1981:36); and H. caperatus has been
reported from Australia (Blair 1981:44). All three
species are specific to dugongs.
There were no signs of roundworms, such as
described by Linstow (1906) from a dugong in the
Gulf of Mannar. Marsh et al. (1977:286) found that
97% of the specimens from Australia had
Paradujardinia halichoris (Owen) in the stomach
and / or cardiac gland, and Gohar (1957:43) reported
that 53% of the Red Sea dugongs that he examined
were infected with this worm.
Edibility: It has been commented elsewhere (An-
nandale 1906, Prater 1928: 87, Thivy in Jones
1959:200) that dugong flesh is good eating and that
it remains edible at least three days after death. This
is consistent with the information at our disposal.
Conclusions
Reviews of the dugong in Indian waters have
consistently treated the Gulf of Kutch as an area of
little significance, with frequent implications that
the animals which occur there are strays or vagrants
(e.g. Jones 1959:198, 1981:46, Nair el al. 1975:8).
While the records are not abundant, there have been
Table 7
LENGTHS OF PARTS OF THE GASTRO INTESTINAL TRACT AND WEIGHTS OF THEIR RESPECTIVE CONTENTS
OF DUGONG JGF 5 137
a = diameter, b = curved length, following the curvature of the chamber, c = total length; length of the blind pouch is 13 cm.
376
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
recurrent reports of dugongs from the Gulf of Kutch
for over a century (Table 1; Fig. 1). The paucity of
records must be considered in the light of the fact
that little scientific work has been done in this area.
In addition, the presence of immature-sized in-
dividuals and herds of up to 15 individuals (reported
herein) indicates that there are resident animals that
breed in the Gulf. Although no detailed data are
available, dugongs appear to be a regular part of the
fauna of the Gulf of Kutch, where there may be a
sizable population.
The status of this population is unknown, but
with the rapid increases in human populations,
levels of pollution, ship traffic and fisheries technol-
ogy (e.g. boat motors and synthetic fibres for nets)
that have occurred during the last few decades, it is
expected that the dugongs and their habitats have
come under ever increasing pressures. This is the
case throughout the range of this species, from
wherever data are available. An active, well or-
ganized - but highly illegal - fishery in the Gulf of
Mannar and Palk Bay has been described by Silas
and Fernando (1988; see also Anon. 1987a).
The question of seasonal movements into and
out of the Gulf of Kutch, raised by Silas (1961), still
remains unanswered and uninvestigated. Dugongs
have been caught round the year in the Gulf (Table
1). In addition, conversations with fishermen from
the south coast of Saurashtra and the Gulf of
Khambhat (Cambay) indicate that they have no
knowledge of this animal. This suggests that
dugongs do not migrate south along the Saurashtra
coast and that the Gulf of Khambhat is outside the
normal distribution - at least this seems to be the
case during the past decade or two.
Long distance migrations are unknown in
other, better studied populations (Husar 1978:5).
However, there may be localities in Australia where
extensive seasonal movements occur, and there may
even be resident and migratory populations in the
same areas (Heinsohn and Marsh 1982:1005; see
also Jones 1967:216).
If the Kutch dugongs do migrate, the nearest
known population would be northwest in the Persian
Gulf, some 1 ,500 km away. The next nearest popula-
tion is in the Gulf of Mannar, about 1,700 km to the
south. It is remarkable that dugongs do not feature
in a thorough treatise of the mammalian fauna of
Pakistan (Roberts 1977), and there is no evidence of
their occurrence along this coast (Jones 1981:44).
Nowadays dugongs are unknown along the west
coast of peninsular India. Hence, dugongs are not
known to occur between the Gulf of Kutch and
either the Persian Gulf or the Gulf of Mannar. Given
the great distances involved and the lack of any
evidence to suggest movements to or from the Gulf
of Kutch, it seems unlikely that there are regular,
long distance migrations into and out of this area.
If Neumayer’s (1983:41, 146) interpretations
of rock paintings at Gandhi Sagar, Rajasthan, are
correct, dugongs were depicted by Mesolithic
people at a site which is now more than 200 km from
the Gulf of Kutch. However, at the time when the
paintings were made, perhaps more than 10,000
years ago, the site was probably much closer to the
sea coast. It is argued that the Kathiawar Peninsula
become attached to mainland Gujarat during recent
times (Flam 1986:67, 68) and that in ‘subrecent
times’ parts of the Indus and Luni valleys were still
marine, after a large sea which covered western
Rajasthan began to recede to its present configura-
tion (Gupta and Prakash 1975a,b). It is remarkable,
however, that dugongs have not been reported from
any of the faunal analyses of archaeological work
done in this region.
The possibility that the Kutch animals are of
gigantic size, discussed by Silas (1961) in his com-
ments on data presented by Mani (1960), remains
unconfirmed. Mani’s (1960) length of 4.6 m and
weight of 908 kg are, respectively, about 50% and
100% greater than the maximum values from other
well studied populations. Although Silas (1961),
Spain and Heinsohn (1975:165) and Nishiwaki and
Marsh (1985:6) presented good reasons for ques-
tioning Mani’s data, these extreme values have un-
fortunately been repeated in recent reviews on the
species (Jones 1967:218, Husar 1978:1,4). The ease
with which exaggerated figures get into print is
shown by a recent news release (Anon. 1987b) con-
cerning JGF 5137, claiming that ‘A dugong grows
to more than 23.2 metres in length’.
Morphological data from the Kutch specimen
are consistent with those from specimens of other
populations, although some measurements are not
easily compared for a lack of comparable data -
such as organ weights. The importance of the hind
gut is clear from the relative length and weight of in-
testinal contents. The variability of phalangeal ele-
DUGONG IN THE GULF OF KUTCH
377
ments of the manus is also seen.
Dugongs, in contrast to the manatees, are said
to lack nails. However, the presence of symetrically
placed flipper callosities on the Kutch specimen,
and published evidence that these features occur in
very young individuals, suggest that dugongs have
vestigial nails.
Although it has been claimed that dugongs in
Indian waters may specialize on algae (Annandale
1906:242, Prater 1928:86), the stomach of the Kutch
specimen had macerated remains of only the marine
angiosperm, Halophila ovalis. This is consistent
with what is known of the feeding habits of these
animals elsewhere.
Two species of flatworms found in the Kutch
specimen are new records for India: Rhabdiopoeus
taylori Johnston and Haerator caperatus Blair.
Roundworms were not found.
Recommendations
A detailed, long term study of the Kutch
dugongs is urgently needed, as is a sensitive and
realistic program of environmental education and
extension. Although there are both state and central
government laws protecting the species, the pos-
sibilities of stiff fines for catching and killing
dugongs should be carefully considered in the social
context of the inhabitants of the Gulf.
The marine park gazetted in the Gulf of Kutch
is an important start toward establishing protected
habitats, but a great deal yet needs to be done. The
park must be given true protection if it is to function.
In terms of dugongs, critical habitats such as feed-
ing pastures, sleeping areas, and calving grounds
need the strictest of protection; no nets or motorized
vessels can be allowed in these areas.
Refe
Ali, S., Santapau, H. & Abdulali, H. (eds.). (1960): Footnote
to Mani (1960). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 57 (1): 217.
Anon. (1909): The Imperial Gazetteer of India. The Indian Em-
pire. Vol 1. Descriptive. Qarendon, Oxford, xxxi + 568 pp.
Anon. (1987a): Onslaught continues of underwater ‘cows’. The
Hindu. 3 May 1987. p. 6.
Anon. (1987b): Endangered marine animal dead. News (Centre
for Environment Education - News and Features Service,
Ahmedabad). 1987, No. 2, pp 1-2.
Anon. (1987c): Gentle mermaid rides again. Indian Express, Ah-
medabad. 18 May 1987. p. 3.
Anon. (1988): 1988 IUCN red list of threatened animals. IUCN
Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, U. K. vxiii
Jonklass (1961:8) raised the possibility of a
dugong farm, but given the great difficulty in keep-
ing these animals in captivity (Nishiwaki and Marsh
1985:21), this seems an impractical proposition.
Claims by Thomas (1966) that dugongs are hardy
and kept in captivity without much care are incon-
sistent with what is reported from more detailed
studies. Furthermore, it would require long term
commitments of technical and professional support,
major facilities and reliable and substantial funds.
Unfortunately, failure to implement the
detailed recommendations to protect the south In-
dian population, made by Dr. S. Jones (1980:257;
1981), former Director of CMFRI, three decades
ago, may result in the extinction of this population
(Silas and Fernando 1988).
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the Camp Director, Capt.
Nrupendrasinh Khachar, for organising our stay and
boat trips at the marine camp, and to Messrs. Siv-
rajkumar Khachar and Lavkumar Khacher for
having invited us to the camp and provided assis-
tance and encouragement there. Dr. N. V. Patel
generously assisted with the radiograms. Professor
R. M. Naik, Department of Biosciences, Saurashtra
University, has given generous guidance and sup-
port. Drs. D. Blair, P. S. B. R. James, H. Marsh and
E. Silas made useful comments on earlier drafts.
Rishad Pravez assisted with bibliographic work, and
Susana Silas helped with the typing of numerous
drafts. J. F. was supported by the Indo- American
Subcommission on Education and Culture and the
University Grants Commission, and T. M. was sup-
ported with a research fellowship grant from the
University Grants Commission, New Delhi.
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RANGE EXTENSION AND NOTES ON RAN A ERYTHRAEA (SCHLEGEL, 1837)
(ANURA: RANIDAE) FROM DUDHWA NATIONAL PARK, UTTAR PRADESH 1
Raj Tilak and Pranjalendu Ray 2
(With five text-figures )
Rana erythraea (Schlegel, 1837) has so far been known from Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram, West Bengal and
Orissa. The collection of this species from Dudhwa National Park, District Lakhimpur Kheri, Uttar Pradesh Terai, ex-
tends the range of distribution north-westward. The morphology has been discussed in detail and the taxonomid’status
of the species clarified . The sexual dimorphism based on different men Stic and morphometric characters have been
discussed and compared with earlier studies. The habitat is also discussed.
Introduction
Rana erythreae (Schlegel, 1837) has so far
been recorded from Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram,
and Lower Bengal (Boulenger 1920, Sarkar 1984,
Chanda 1986) and from Orissa (Mohan ty-Hejmadi
1974). During July 1987, We located a sizeable
population of the little known leaping frog in mar-
shy places near Kakraha Taal, Ranwass Taal and
along the bushy banks of the Joraha Nala within
Dudhwa National Park, District Lakhimpur Kheri,
Uttar Pradesh Terai. This species has never been
recorded from the northern part of India, specially
from Terai region of Uttar Pradesh. The present col-
lection extends the range of distribution of this
species from the north-eastern parts of India north-
westward as far as the Uttar Pradesh Terai.
Taxonomic Status of Rana e rythraea
(Schlegel, 1837)
Since the description of this species as Hyla
erythraea Schlegel (1837) from Java (Type in Rijks
Museum, Leyden), the taxonomic status has been
unclear. Recent literature cast doubts on distribution
of this species in India. Boulenger (1882) considered
this species under the genus Rana Linnaeus, includ-
ing Hylorana subcaerulea Cope. Later he
(Boulenger 1920) synonymised Limnodytes
erythraeus Dumeril and Bibron, Hylorana tytleri
Theobald, Rana tytleri of Annandale (in part) and
Rana taipehensis Van Denburgh under Rana
erythraea (Schlegel), quoting the notes of Annan-
dale on its habitat. Van Kampen (1923) recorded
Accepted June 1988.
Zoological Survey of India, Northern Regional Station, 218
Kaulagarh Road, Dehra Dun 248 195.
Rana erythraea (Schlegel) from Assam and Bengal
in India but does not mention Rana taipehensis Van
Denburgh or Rana tytleri Theobald. Subsequently,
Gorham (1974) considered Rana erythraea
(Schlegel) and Rana taipehensis Van Denburgh, as
two distinct species and broadly mentioned the dis-
tribution as Asia and south-east Asia respectively.
Inger and Dutta (1987) also recognised Rana
taipehensis Van Denburgh as a valid species from
India, without making a mention of Rana erythraea
(Schlegel) in their list. They included all materials
of Rana erythraea (Schlegel) by different authors
(Boulenger 1920, Mohanty-Hejmadi 1974, Sarkar
1984, Chanda 1986) from Assam, West Bengal and
Orissa as Rana taipehensis Van Denburgh, which is
characterised by the presence of web between the
third and fifth toes, not extending up to the disc, and
three phalanges of the fourth toe free from web,
small outer metatarsal tubercle, thighs and back with
black and white streaks. It has been observed in the
present material that webbing and the subarticular
tubercles, including the discs of toes and fingers, are
clearly visible in life and also in the material
preserved in formalin (4-5% formaldehyde solu-
tion), whereas the same features are not clearly seen
if the living material is preserved in alcohol (95%).
In alcohol the body fluids particularly of the soft
parts, i.e. skin of web, sub- articular tubercles and
the disc of toes and fingers, get dehydrated and
shrink. Earlier workers probably described new taxa
based on alcohol-preserved material.
The descriptions of Rana tytleri and Rana
taipehensis , therefore, appear to be examples of the
description of new taxa based on artifact of preser-
vations. In the light of the discussions of the dif-
ferent characteristics in which tytleri and taipehen-
sis differ from each other and those of erythraea , it
Figs. 1-5 .Rana erythraea (Schlegel, 1837)
1. Lateral aspect of head and thoracic region of male. 2. Lateral aspect of head and thoracic region of female. 3. Ventral aspect of
foreleg (palm) of male. 4. Ventral aspect of foreleg (palm) of female. 5. Ventral aspect of foot.
382
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
is evident that these are synonyms of Rana
erythraea (Schlegel, 1837) and have been correctly
treated by Boulenger (1920). In the same population
from the same locality some examples show some
variation in the pattern of webbing, which could be
misleading if a large number of examples are not
studied. The present material comprising 45 ex-
amples of Rana erythraea of different sizes. (27.00
to 47.5 mm SVL) and sexes has been thoroughly
studied in life and also in properly preserved condi-
tion under stereomicroscope in laboratory. Besides,
the collection of this species from Assam and West
Bengal (courtesy Zoological Survey of India, Cal-
cutta) have also been studied and compared. A con-
troversy exists regarding the relative length of the
first and second fingers, and ratio of maximum
diameter of eye to the maximum diameter of tym-
panum. In respect of the length of the fingers,
Boulenger (1882) mentioned "first not extending
beyond second", but in Fig. ‘a’ (p. 66) shows the
first finger longer than the second. Subsequently he
(Boulenger 1920) mentioned "first finger as long as
or a little longer than second." Van Kampen (1923)
observed in Rana erythraea (Schlegel) "the first
finger is not or slightly extending beyond the
second". The present study reveals that the relative
length of the first and second fingers and the ratio of
tympanum to eye diameter differ not only by the size
but also remarkably in different sexes. Apart from
these the descriptions of Rana erythraea (Schlegel)
by Boulenger (1882, 1920), Van Kampen (1923) are
too meagre for study of inter-relationship. In order
to record the differences in the morphology of the
species studied here and to elaborate the description
further, the present material from different localities
of Dudhwa National Park is described here in detail.
Description of Adult
Head and Body: Narrow, elongated, streamlined.
Head dorsoventrally flattened, longer than wide.
Width of head 1.17-1.29 in head length. Tip of snout
obtusely pointed and projects well beyond the
anterior extremity of lower jaw. Canthus rostralis
strong, slightly concave. Loreal region bordered by
elevated upper jaw. Nostrils nearer to the tip of snout
than eye. Maximum diameter of orbit 1.40-1.83
times in snout length. Interorbital distance equal to
intemarial distance as well as width of upper eyelid.
Maximum diameter of orbit 1.15 to 0.75 times in
maximum diameter of tympanum. Denticulated
oval patch of vomerine teeth obliquely placed in be-
tween the choanae; these are nearer to choanae than
each other. Tongue elongated, free and deeply
notched behind. Maxillary teeth sharp. Skin smooth
except the anal and surrounding areas below the
thigh, where it is glandular. Two dorsolateral glan-
dular folds start from the posterior comer of eye lid
and continues parallel to each other up to illiosacral
joint and then converge towards the tip of the uros-
tyle above anus. Ventral surface smooth with scat-
tered yellow glands embedded in skin. Another
ventrolateral glandular fold stretches from the upper
jaw, continues up to the ventral margin of tym-
panum and after a break there is a glandule behind
the angle of jaws. The fold continues as a broken line
on ventral aspect up to the angle of thigh.
Fore leg: Forearm slender. Fingers with discs at the
tip. Discs longer than wide with circum-marginal
groove. Disc of first finger less developed.
Proximal sub-articular tubercles on the ventral
aspect of each finger well developed. Small addi-
tional tubercle on the ventral aspect below the
proximal sub-articular tubercle on the metacarpal
present. First finger either equal to or smaller than
the second. First and second metacarpals free a lit-
tle distance above the base. The second and third
metacarpals free only at their distal halves. The third
and fourth metacarpals not free. Third finger the
longest, 1.20-1.40 times the length of fourth finger.
Two closely set palmer tubercles present.
Hind leg: Hind limb long and slender, contained
1.53-1.74 times in the tip of snout to vent length.
Tibial length 3.23- 3.68 times in tip of snout to vent
length. The diameter of tibia contained 3.80-5.33 in
tibial length. Diameter of femur 2.12-2.54 in the
length of femur. Length of tibia 1.03-1.17 times in
length of foot. Two metatarsal tubercles distinct,
outer is circular and small, inner elongate, 2.25-3.00
times in the length of first toe. Outer metatarsal
separated up to the base. Subarticular tubercles
prominent. First toe with single subarticular
tubercles at the joint of first metacarpal and first
phalange. Second similar to the first. Third toe with
two subarticular tubercles, the proximal one placed
at the joint of third metacarpal and first phalange,
the distal one at the joint of first and second
phalange. Fourth toe with three subarticular
tubercles, the proximal one placed at the joint of first
RAN A ERYTHRAEA FROM DUDIIWA NATIONAL PARK
383
phalange and fourth metatarsal, middle one placed
at the joint of first phalange and second phalange,
distal one on the joint of second phalange. Fifth toe
with two subarticular tubercles, proximal one placed
at the joint of fifth metatarsal and first phalange, the
distal one placed at the joint of first and second
phalange. The web stretches from the base of the
disc of first toe, incurves downwards and then up-
wards, meeting just at the level of first subarticular
tubercle of second toe; thereby the side facing the
first toe is free of web from subarticular tubercle to
the disc. The side of second toe, facing the third toe,
bears web originating from the base of the disc, and
stretching up to the level in between the first and
second subarticular tubercles of the third, leaving
the rest of toe free of web up to disc facing second
toe. In between third and fourth toe, the web
originates from the base of the disc of the third toe
and stretches up to the level just above the middle
subarticular tubercle, leaving three phalanges free
of the web except for a fringe on the side facing the
third toe. In between the fourth and fifth toe, the web
starts from a level just away from the distal subar-
ticular tubercle of fourth toe, incurves, and then
stretches up to the base of the disc of fifth toe. The
webbing is therefore absent on two phalanges of the
second and third toes, three phalanges on the inner
side and two phalanges on the outer side of fourth
toe.
Coloration: In life, cryptic, matching coloration of
the surrounding vegetation. Ground colour of dor-
sal side leafy green with two longitudinal dor-
solateral golden bands starting from the posterior
comer of eye lid to almost the sides of the sacral
region. Similar golden yellowish band runs on the
edges of the upper jaw up to the axil with a break
below the tympanic area and continues up to the
groin as a broken band on the ventrolateral side of
the body. In between dorsolateral glandular fold and
ventrolateral band, there is a black lateral stripe
starting from tip of snout, covering canthus-rostralis
and eye, continuing up to the groin. Limbs speckled
with green, black and yellow longitudinal stripes on
dorsal aspect. Ventrally immaculate in female, and
with a brown network on the lower jaw, forelimbs
and hind limbs in male. In both sexes yellow glands
present in the skin, on ventral side.
Sexual Dimorphism
Male: The breeding males (27-32 mm SVL) show
granulated nuptial pad on the inner dorsolateral
aspect of the first metacarpal. The relative length of
first and second finger is almost equal to or slightly
greater than second finger. The gap in between the
base of the first and the second metacarpals is com-
paratively less in males than females. The diameter
of tympanum is always greater (1.03 to 1.15 times)
than the maximum diameter of eye. The specimens
with ventral brown network, relatively light colour
and small size constitute the male population. Inter-
nally cream coloured testis is large, pear shaped,
tapering on the lower side and placed on the ventral
aspect of the kidney. Length of the testis 2.00-2.12
times in the length of the kidney and 9.50-10.00
times in tip of the snout to vent length. Diameter of
femur 2.40-2.54 in the length of femur. The inner
metatarsal tubercle 2.00-2.66 times in length of first
toe. The interorbital distance 1.00 -1.25 times in the
distance in between dorsolateral fold at sacral
region.
Female: The breeding females (41 to 47.50 mm
SVL) are longer than the males. The second finger
is always longer than first finger. Length of first
finger 0.83-0.92 times in the length of second finger.
The greatest diameter of tympanum is 0.75-0.89
times in the greatest diameter of eye. The diameter
of femur contained 2.12 - 2.28 in the length of the
same. The inner metatarsal tubercle 3.00-3.11 times
in the length of first toe. The interorbital distance is
0.75-0.87 times in the length of the inner distance of
dorsolateral fold at the sacral region. The distance in
between the dorsolateral fold near the posterior
comer of eye is 1.60-1.75 times in the distance of
the same at the sacral region. Internally the eggs are
0.80 mm to 0.90 mm in diameter.
Habitat: We have collected these frogs from mar-
shy places. The frogs conceal themselves under leaf
litter and also in moist tree holes near a perennial
water source. When disturbed, they come out, leap-
ing into the thick vegetation near waterbodies.
Sometimes, they jump into water and remain sub-
merged for a long time. They have been located on
wooden logs and dead tree trunks, partly submerged
under water in lakes. They are nocturnal, conceal-
ing themselves in holes during the day. At night, they
are very active, feeding and breeding. The stomach
384
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
contents comprises insects mainly Orthoptera,
Coleoptera, Diptera and Hemiptera and some of the
just metamorphosed larval forms.
Material examined: 1) 3 exs. (all females) from
Kakraha Taal, nearly 8 km. from Camp Sonaripur
F.R.H. on 17 June 1987, by Raj Tilak and R Roy.
2) 7 exs. (5 females and 2 males) from Joraha Nala,
on Sonaripur to Belraien forest road, on 18 June
1987, by Raj Tilak and P. Roy. 3) 30 exs. (21
females and 9 males) from Ranwas Taal, nearly 2.5
km north of Belraien, on 22 June 1987, by Raj Tilak
and P. Roy. 4) 5 exs. (three males and two females)
from Jorha Nala, nearly 3 km north of Masankhamb
F.R.H. on 27 June 1987, by Raj Tilak and P. Roy.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the Director, Zoological Sur-
vey of India, Calcutta, for encouragement and
facilities extended for field trips to the Dudhwa Na-
tional Park. The assistance received from the Forest
Department of Uttar Pradesh, during our stay in
Dudhwa National Park, is gratefully acknow-
ledged.
References
Ann and ale, N. (1917): Zoological results of a tour in the Far
East: Batrachia. Mem. Asiat. Soc. Beng., VI: 143-144.
Boulenger, G.A. (1882): Catalogue of the Batrachia Salientia S.
Ecaudata in the collection of the British Museum. London.
Reprinted in 1966: 65-66.
BOULENGER, G.A. (1890) Fauna of British India, including
Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia and Batrachia. London: 460-
461.
Boulenger, G.A. (1920): A Monograph of the South Asian,
Papuan, Melanesian, and Australian frogs of the genus
Rana. Rec. Indian. Mus., XX: 152-155.
Chanda, S.K. (1986): A study of Anuran (Amphibia) fauna of
North East India. Ph. D. Thesis, Kalyani University, West
Bengal.
Dumeril, A.M.C. & Bibron, W. (1841): Erpetologie generale ou
histoire naturelle complete due Reptiles Tome 8. Paris:
511, pi. LXXXVffl, Fig. 1.
Gorham, S.W. (1974): Checklist of World Amphibians: 143,
152.
Inger, R.F. & Dutta, S.K. (1987): An overview of the Amphibian
fauna of India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 83 (Supplement):
135-146
Mohanty-Hejmadi, P. M. (1974): Amphibian fauna of Orissa,
Prakruti Ulkal University Journal of Science (1974) 2 (1
& 2): 91-92.
Sarkar, A.K. (1984): Taxonomic and ecological studies on the
Amphibians of Calcutta and its environs. Rec. Zool. Surv.
India., 81 ( 3&4 ): 223-224.
Schlegel, H. (1837): Neuer oder unvollst. bek. Amphibia, Dis-
seldrof. Abbild.:27 , pi. IX, Fig. 3.
Theobald, W. (1868): Catalogue of Reptiles in the Museum of
the Asiatic Society of Bengal, J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. extra
number (1868): 84.
Van Denburgh, J. (1909): New and previously unrecorded
speceis of Reptiles and Amphibians from the island of For-
mosa. San Franscisco. Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci. ser. 4(3): 49-
56
Van Kampen, P. N. (1923): The amphibia of the Lido- Australian
Archipelago. Lieden, E. J. Brill. Ltd : 222-223.
VARIATION ANALYSIS OF COALESCENCE OF SPOTS IN THE MELANICS OF
COCCINELLA SEPTEMPUNCTATA L. (COCCENELLIDAE: COLEOPTERA)1
M. Rhamhalinghan2
(With twenty text-figures )
The melanics of Coccinella septempunctata show confluence of elytral spots. The combination type ‘complete’
and the coalescent pattern 1 -3-4-2 occur abundantly (41.18% and 37. 19% respectively). The scutellar and discal
spots coalesce more frequently than others (32.07%). The coalescent behaviour of individual spots reveals that the dis-
cal spot coalesces more frequently with others (35.84%). It appears that evanescence of spots is very rare.
Introduction
The intraspecific variations in colour patterns
in Coccinellidae give them polymorphic status
(Hodek 1973). The mechanism governing the ap-
pearance of these anomalies is still unknown and it
may be either genetic or epigenetic (Katakura 1974).
Ford (1975) is also of the opinion that though the
colour patterns are based on a series of multiple al-
leles, it is partly, but not entirely, controlled by them.
Studies on polymorphic coccinellids show that
there are two types of anomalies, the evanescence
(disappearance) and coalescence (fusion) of spots
on the elytra (Hodek 1973, Katakura 1974). The
elytral colour patterns in Coccinella septempunctata
L. in the Indian subcontinent have been observed by
Varma (1954), Kapur (1959), Sudha Rao (1962)
Singh and Mann (1977) and Rhamhalinghan and
Manavalaramanujam (1983). But the frequency of
different coalescent patterns of this species has not
been worked out. It is desirable that such studies are
undertaken, which may provide useful information
for further studies on the bioecology of the polymor-
phic aphidophagous coccinellids.
Material and Methods
The collection of melanics of C. septem-
punctata and their grouping methods have been
described in detail elsewhere (Rhamhalinghan
1988). Each elytral spot was numbered and named
following the systems of Varma (1954) and Kapur
(1959) (Fig. 1). The spot-1, which is situated mid-
suturally below the pronotum, is called the scutellar
spot. Spot-2, that lies on the linea externa, is termed
the anterior marginal spot. Spot-3, which is placed
Accepted December 1986.
department of Zoology, Government Arts College,
Ooty 643 002, Nilgiris.
near the mid-sutural line but below the scutellar
spot, is designated as the discal spot. The posterior
marginal spot (spot- 4) is found below the anterior
marginal spot, on the linea externa.
The coalescence of various spots is shown by
the combination of these numerals and their relative
frequencies are worked out (Katakura 1974).
Tentatively, two combination types have been
described as ‘island’ and ‘complete’ patterns. The is-
land pattern has been observed by Varma (1954) in
Kanpur, in which the 2nd, 3rd and 4th spots coalesce
to produce a non-melanic central region. In the ac-
companying tables it is represented as 3 — 2.
v
When the island form is connected to the spot-
1, it is termed the ‘complete’ pattern which is repre-
sented (Figs. 18-20) by the combination of numerals
Results and Discussion
The basic type in C. septempunctata is the spot
pattern. The spots occupy exact places on the elytra
(Hodek 1973). The variations may involve a num-
ber of spots, a number of fusions and the pattern of
fusions of spots (Katakura 1974). Thus in a given
pattern, the number of fusions may increase or
decrease and different spots coalesce to present vari-
able patterns.
C. septempunctata is a polymorphous species
in India (Kapur 1959) and in different regions of the
Indian subcontinent the spot size may vary (Kapur
1959, Singh and Mann 1977, Rhamhalinghan 1988).
In the Himalayan region and many parts of India,
this species occurs with confluent spots. The
melanic form C. septempunctata var. confusa
Wiedemann, occurs in North Bengal, Assam, Sik-
kim, Nepal, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Bihar
386
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Figs. 1-20. Variations in the elytral patterns of melanics in Coccinella sepiempunctata.
1. Right elytra, a = scutellar spot; b = anterior marginal spot; c = discal spot; d = posterior marginal spot.
2-20. Different elyt ral patterns.
and Nilgiri Hills (Table 6). The seasonal occurrence
of these melanics in the Nilgiris has been inves-
tigated and correlated with low temperature, high
humidity and low sunshine level (Rhamhalinghan
1986). Though 19 elytral colour patterns have been
noticed, no such variations with regard to the prono-
tal patterns have been found.
The frequency in general population: The num-
ber and frequencies of melanics of C. septem-
punctata collected from various regions of the Nil-
giri district during 1979 to 1985 are presented in
Table 1. The overall percentage of melanics for the
study period was 6.14%. The variation in the elytral
patterns was found to be exhibited mainly by the
coalescence of different spots that occur frequently
during winter. But evanescence of spots has not been
observed.The present study shows dial neither do all
the 19 patterns of melanics occur during a particular
sampling period (i.e. a period of one year) nor in a
specific locality (Table 1).
Different coalescent patterns: The type ‘complete’
and the coalescent pattern 1 -3-4-2 occur abundant-
ly during the peak seasons (41.18% and 37.19%
respectively). The relative frequencies of the pat-
terns 1-3 and 1-3 and 2-4 are 11.01% and 7.66%
respectively. The fifth place is occupied by the pat-
tern 1 -3-2-4 and other types are comparatively rare
(Table 2). Figure Types 15 to 20 are abundant in
those regions, where the winter temperature ranges
from 4 to 13°C. Other patterns (Figs. 2 to 14) are
abundant in regions where the minimum and maxi-
mum winter temperatures are about 3 to 4°C greater
than that of the coldest area.
The pattern occurring in a particular period
VARIATION OF COALESCENCE OF SPOTS IN COCCTNELLA SEPTEMPUNCTATA
387
Table 1
RELATIVE FREQUENCIES OF DIFFERENT ELYTRAL PATTERNS OF Coccinella septempunctata MELANICS
FROM NILGIRIS COLLECTED DURING 1979-85
may disappear in another period (Table 1). Further,
the melanics form 5.18 to 7.82% of the general
population, the average being 6.14% during the
study period. The percentage of melanics varies
from year to year (Table 1).
The different types of confluences of spots and
their relative frequencies are presented in Table 2.
Table 3
PREDOMINANT PATTERNS OF COALESCENCE OF ELYTRAL
SPOTS AND THEIR FREQUENCIES
IN Coccinella septempunctata MELANICS
Total
Since more than one combination can be observed
in the same specimen (Figs. 10, 11, 12), these com-
binations were considered separately counting each
coalescence as one unit, following the method of
Katakura (1974). Hence the total frequency of
coalescence is higher (1349) than the actual number
of specimens examined (1253) (Tables 3, 4). The
frequency of the ‘complete’ form (Figs. 18, 19 and
20) was greater than other patterns (38.25%). The
coalescent pattern 1-3- 4-2 (Figs. 15, 16, 17) attains
the second place (34.54%). The simple coalescence
of spots 1-3 (Figs. 2, 3, 4 and 5) and 2-4 (Figs. 10,
11 and 12) score 17.35% and 7.12% respectively.
Frequencies of other patterns are comparatively
lower (Table 3).
Table 4
PERCENTAGE RATIO OF FREQUENTLY LINKED ELYTRAL
SPOTS IN THE MELANICS OF Coccinella septempunctata
1349
Table 2
388
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
VARIATION OF COALESCENCE OF SPOTS IN COCCINELLA SEPTEMPUNCTATA
389
Linkage of spots: The percentage ratio of frequent-
ly linked elytral spots shows that the scutellar and
discal spots (Spots 1 and 3) coalesce more frequent-
ly than other pairs (32.07%). It appears that these
two spots are strongly linked. Similarly, the anterior
and posterior marginal spots (Spots 2 and 4) are
joined more often. Thus the order of occurrence of
the frequendy connected spots is 1-3 v (32.07%) >
2-4 (28.33%) > 3-4 (25.69%) > 2-3 (13.91%) (Table
4). This may presumably be due to the closely linked
genes in the multiple allelic systems that govern the
elytral colour patterns.
On the contrary, Singh and Mann (1977) ob-
served that the coalescence was much less in the dis-
tantly placed two lateral spots in comparison to the
medially placed discal spot with others. Further the
authors remarked that the scutellar spot also coales-
ces rarely, with the discal spot. Kapur (1959) opined
that these variations might be due to the differences
in the geographical and ecological traits.
Total number of fusions: Comparison of total num-
ber of fusions of individual elytral spots with others
throws light on the active involvement of the spots
in the formation of colour patterns. Thus the order
Table 5
COMPARISON OF OVERALL FREQUENCIES OF COALESCENCE
OF INDIVIDUAL ELYTRAL SPOTS IN THE MELANICS OF
Coccinella septempunctata
of occurrence of the frequency of coalescence with
other spots is, 3rd spot 35.84% > 4th spot 27.01 % >
2nd spot 21.12% >lst spot 16.03% (Table 5).
Geographical variations: Comparison of various
patterns of coalescence in C. septempunctata from
different regions of the Indian subcontinent sheds
light on the behaviour of the spots in relation to the
abiotic conditions (Table 6).
It could be observed from this data that some
of the coalescent types common in the Nilgiri Hills
are either rare or not represented in other areas and
vice versa. This observation strengthens Kapur’s
(1959) remark that the frequencies of patterns in a
given species often differ in different areas and oc-
Table6
COMPARISON OF THE TYPES OF COALESCENCE AND EVANESCENCE IN Coccinella septempunctata
REPORTED FROM DIFFERENT PARTS OF INDIA
third spot
+ = Present, — = Absent
390
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
casionaliy a pattern common in an area may be rare
or absent in another area, within the geographical
range of the same species. The data gathered from
previous literature presented in Table 6, also prove
the veracity of this statement. However, the
‘complete* pattern and the coalescence of spots 2
and 4 appear to be common and occur in all the
regions (Table 6).
Though the evanescence of the discal spot has
been reported by Singh and Mann (1977) in the
specimens from the semi-desert area of Bhatinda,
Abohar and Fazilka of Punjab, it appears that
evanescence of spots is very rare in C. septem-
punctata. The report of Singh and Mann may, per-
haps, be the only report on the evanescence of elytral
spots (Table 6) from India, though the disappearance
of spots has been reported in the specimens from
Persia and Turkestan previously (Dobzhansky
1933).
Variations of spots: The available literature and the
specimens collected, further throw light on the
variations of the spots. The pigmented area of the
spots increases almost on all sides, though there are
exceptions. The spreading power or the active in-
crease of the pigmented area of the spot is deter-
mined by the total number of fusions of individual
spots with others on the elytra. Varma (1954) ob-
served that the coalescing of the spot is by the
gradual spreading of the black pigmented area along
certain well-defined lines. The successive stages in
the spreading of pigments are well illustrated by the
individual patterns themselves given in Figs. 2 to 20.
Further, the gradual accumulation of black pigments
around the spots could be observed in the laboratory,
in the freshly emerged adults. The seven spots ap-
pear first on the elytra and the connecting bridges
follow them a little later.
The scuteliar spot is more or less inactive and
never spreads along the basal region of the elytra,
touching the base of pronotum. On the contrary, it
always extends downwards to join the discal spot.
The total number of fusions of this spot is the lowest
when compared to others (Table 5). Further, it never
spreads sideways to coalesce with the anterior mar-
ginal spot.
As for the anterior marginal spot, its spreading
is also limited. It enlarges towards the posterior side
to meet the posterior marginal spot by a thin black
line. Further, the lateral extension of the same, to
join the discal spot is very much restricted. When
compared to the spreading power of the discal and
posterior marginal spots, the anterior marginal spot
shows passive expansion or restricted increase. In
no specimens does it touch the linea externa.
It appears that the most active spot on the elytra
is the discal spot. It extends towards the linea inter-
na and increases also laterally, towards linea exter-
na. Anteriorly and posteriorly also it meets the
scuteliar and posterior marginal spots respectively.
Further it enlarges at an angle of about 45° to join
the anterior marginal spot. Its active involvement in
the formation of different colour patterns is shown
by its highest number of fusions (35.84%, Table 5).
The posterior marginal spot is also active and
its frequent increase on all sides has been witnessed
in a number of specimens. Its overall frequency of
fusions lies next to the discal spot (Table 5).
Conclusions
When multiple alleles are involved in colour
patterns, each pattern represents a stage in the mul-
tiple interacting systems, that shows the involve-
ment of a certain number of alleles, influenced by
environmental factors. Either the absence of the al-
leles or the lack of conducive external factors, leads
to the appearance of the typical spotted pattern and
their presence by the enlargement of spots and the
degree of confluence of different spots. The full
complement, perhaps, is represented by Fig. 20.
Many isoalleles and modifier genes may also be in-
volved (Houston and Hales 1980). This is evidenced
by the different patterns, and warrants further inves-
tigation.
References
Dobzhansky, T.H. (1933): Geographical variation in lady beet- Houston, KJ. & Hales, D.F. (1980): Allelic frequencies and in-
les. Amer. Naturalist 67: 97-126. heritance of colour pattern in Coelophora inequalis F.
Ford, E.G. (1975): Ecological Genetics. 4th Edition. Chapman Aust. J. Zool. 28: 669-677
and Hall, London. Kapur, A.P. (1959): Geographical variations in the colour pat-
II ode K, I. (1973): Biology of Coccinellidae., 260 pp. Dr. W. Junk, terns of some Indian lady beetles. Part I. Coccinella sep-
N.V. Publishers, The Hague. tempunctata L., C. transversalis Fabr., and Coelophora
VARIATION OF COALESCENCE OF SPOTS IN COCCINELLA SEPTEMPUN CTATA
391
bisellata Muls. Proc. 1st All India Congr. Zool. Part II:
479-492.
Katakura, H. (1974): Variation analysis of elytral maculation in
Henosepilachna vigintioctomaculata complex. J. Fac.
Sci., Hokkaido Univ., Series vi, Zool. IQ: 445-455.
Rhamhalinghan, M. (1988): Seasonal variations in the colour
patterns of Coccinella septempunctata in Nilgiri Hills,
India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85(3): 551-558.
Rhamhalinghan, M. & Manavalaramanujam, R. (1983): First
report on the occurrence of Coccinella septempunctata var.
confusa Wiedmann from Nilgiris. Indian Zool. 7: 21 1-214.
Singh, J.P. & Mann, J.S. (1977): Colour aberrance in Coccinel-
la septempunctata. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 74: 202-204.
Sudharao, V. (1962): The status of Coccinella septempunctata
and its variates divaricata Oliv. and confusa Wied. Can.
Era. 94: 1341-1343.
Varma, B.K. (1954): Evolution of colour pattern in Coccinella
septempunctata var. divaricata Oliv. Indian J. Agric. Sci.
24: 133-136.
SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL FLUCTUATIONS IN THE POPULATION OF COMMON
MYNA ACRIDOTHERES TRISTIS (LINNAEUS) IN AND AROUND AN INDIAN CITY1
Anil Mahabal2, D.B. Bastawade3 and V.G. Vaidya4
(With three text -figures )
The common (Indian) myna Acridotheres tristis (Linnaeus) is a familiar bird in urban areas distributed over the
entire Indian subcontinent. The monthly collection of data on its population ecology was carried out at Pune
(Maharashtra) from June 1973 to August 1976. Three well marked seasons were observed in its annual cycle - the pre-
breeding, the breeding and the post -breeding seasons. Monthly and seasonal changes were noticed in its population
size. The dispersal of its population among different communal roosts also showed regular seasonal and yearly fluc-
tuations. The population density of mynas during daytime changed according to seasons and habitats.
Introduction
The common myna (also called Indian myna)
Acridotheres tristis (Linnaeus) is a familiar bird in
urban areas distributed over the entire Indian sub-
continent. It occurs in plains and in wooded and cul-
tivated areas. It is omnivorous. In all the seasons, it
roosts communally at night. Though the common
myna has been associated with man for many cen-
turies, there is very little information on various
aspects of its population structure. A few observa-
tions on number, flock size and roosting behaviour
of the mynas have been reported by Coleman
(1945), Hindwood (1948), Wilson (1973), Counsil-
man (1974), Feare (1976) and Sengupta (1982).
The present paper deals with observations on
the seasonal fluctuations in population, dispersal of
population among roosts and population density of
common myna at Pune (Maharashtra).
Material and Methods
The studies on common myna were carried
out at Pune (18°30’N and 73°53’E) and surrounding
areas. Altogether 27 communal roosts of mynas
within a radius of 24 km were located (Fig. 1) and
censused. Of these, 19 communal roost (R-I to R-
XIX in Fig. 1) were centrally located within a radius
of 8 km. The remaining 8 roosts were situated in the
surrounding areas.
Accepted February 1990.
Present address: High Altitude Zoology Field Station,
Zoological Survey of India, Hospital Road, Solan 173 212,
Himachal Pradesh.
Zoological Survey of India, Western Regional Statical,
Pune 411 005.
4M.A.C.S. Research Institute, Law College Road, Pune 411 004.
Population counts: The 19 centrally located roosts
were censused intensively once in each month from
June 1973 to August 1976 and later in the repre-
sentative months, August 1978 and February 1979.
At these roosts, observations were recorded between
1645 and 1930 hrs on the number of birds (accom-
panied by their young ones, if any) arriving at every
5 minute interval. In addition to this, morning counts
were made between 0500 and 0730 hrs fortnightly
at two roosts R-III and R-IV for a fixed period from
August 1975 to September 1976. The remaining 8
roosts were censused twice a year during 1974-1977
only for their population counts. Besides this, the ar-
riving mynas were censused for ten days consecu-
tively in the evenings at three roosts R-III, R-IV and
R-I during October, November and December 1975
respectively.
During the census of mynas carried out in the
evening, the number of young ones fledged during
the season, was recorded separately at eight roosts
R-I to R-VIII from June to December in 1974 and
1975. The young ones differ from the adults in their
smaller size and in their faltering flight. Therefore,
they can be identified in the flocks, though with
some difficulty, until December. After December,
the young ones cannot be distinguished in the
population because of the increase in their body size.
Population density: The feeding areas of various
roosts (Fig. 1) were marked by following the mynas
in the morning and evening and also by observing
their directional routes. Population density of mynas
during day time was studied once a month at three
different localities - Model Colony, Poona Univer-
sity Campus and Paud Road - from April 1974 to
September 1975 (Fig. 1). The census was carried out
by line transect method four times a day at each
POPULATION OF COMMON MYNA
393
Fig.l. Locations of communal roosts of common myna in and around Pune with their respective feeding areas.
R-I: Police Ground, R-II: St. Vincent, R-IIt: Film Institute, R-IV: Peshave Park, R-V: Race Course, R-VI: Koregaon Park, R-VII
Yerawada, R-VI1I: Pashan, R-IX: Diwagi Metal Works, R-X: Pune Railway Station, R-XI : Bund Garden, R-XII: Valkunth, R-XHI
N.C.L., R-XIV: Agricultural College, R-XV: Cantonment Hospital, R-XVI: Deccan College, R-XVII: Sancheti Hospital, R-XVIH
Engineering College, R-XIX: Wanowori.
locality covering an area of approximately 1 sq km.
Details of the localities are as follows: (1) Model
Colony Area: The housing colony has number of
bunglows with gardens around them. The whole area
has substantial amount of greenery. (2) Poona
University Campus: This area has residential
quarters, buildings, garden, number of trees, Acacia
shrubs, barren land and short grass patches. (3) Paud
Road Area: The area consists of open land with short
grass patches and some Acacia shrubs near residen-
tial quarters. Hardly any trees can be seen.
Observations and Results
After a period of rest, mynas slowly become
active in the early morning by vocalizing and vacate
the roost around the time of sunrise. They spend the
daytime in the feeding area in various activities.
They start their return journey towards the com-
munal roost in the evening, arrive at the roost around
the time of sunset and vocalize loudly till they final-
ly rest for the night. The birds were counted while
they departed from the roost in the morning and
while they arrived at the roost in the evening.
Fluctuations in total population: The total popula-
tion of mynas in the city (considering all the 19 com-
munal roosts) was observed to fluctuate monthly,
seasonally and yearly.
Fig. 2 shows that there were two peaks, each
followed by a trough in the number of mynas arriv-
ing at the roosts during every 12 month period from
August to July. The highest peak in August and the
lowest trough in June seem to be characteristic fea-
394
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Fig.2. Monthly fluctuations in total number of common mynas arriving at 19 communal roosts.
tuations in the roosting population estimated by the
above two methods gave comparable results.
The following three phases were observed in
the annual cycle of common myna - the pre-breed-
ing season (November to March), the breeding
season (April to July) and the post-breeding season
(August to October). Changes in the average num-
ber of mynas during these three seasons showed that
the post-breeding season had the highest population
as compared to the remaining two seasons during all
the years of observations (Table 1).
When population fluctuations were considered
on yearly basis from August to July 1973-74, 1974-
75 and 1975-76, it was observed that the mean
population for these years was 12221 .6 ,12630.4 and
14966.6 respectively. This shows that there was an
tures for the number of birds at communal roosts.
The timings of second peak and following trough,
however, were variable. Another study undertaken
for a period of 14 months in the mornings, when the
number of birds leaving the roosts R-III and R-IV
only were counted, revealed that the monthly fluc-
Table 1
SEASONAL CHANGES IN THE AVERAGE NUMBER OF COM-
MON MYNAS IN PUNE DURING 3 OBSERVATIONAL YEARS
POPULATION OF COMMON MYNA
395
Table 2
ROOSTWISE DISPERSAL OF MYNA POPULATION IN DIFFERENT SEASONS
Average percentage of mynas at different roosts *
* Roosts R-I to R-X1X have been arranged according to locations of feeding areas.
increase of 3.3% from 1973-74 to 1974-75 and a fur-
ther increase of 15.6% from 1974-75 to 1975-76.
Isolated observations during August 1978 and
February 1979 indicated the possibility that there
was a further increase in population of mynas during
the intervening years 1976-77 and 1977-78 (Fig. 2).
The populaion counts of mynas at eight com-
munal roosts of outer rings (Fig. 1) during 1974 to
1977 were as follows: Alandi 500-800, Wagholi
500-600, Loni-Kalbhor 500-600, Khed-Shivapur
500-700, Gorhe-Budruk 500-560, Mulkhed 300-
400, Pimpri 600-800 and Dehu 500-700.
Population of young ones: The monthly mean per-
centage of young ones in the population was calcu-
lated and presented in Fig. 3. During the month of
June, the number of young ones was found to be
relatively less in the population. After this month,
the number of young mynas increased in the popula-
tion; during 1974, percentage of young ones' was
maximum in the month of July, whereas in 1975 it
was maximum in the month of August. Thereafter,
the number of young ones decreased and reached its
lowest level in the months of November-December.
Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. After December, the young mynas could not be dis-
M0NT HS OF OBSERVAT ION tinguished from adults in the population.
Fluctuations ip dispersal of population among
Fig. 3. Monthly mean percentage of young ones different roosts: The total population of the com-
in the common myna population. mon mynas in the city area (inner ring of 8 km
396
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
radius) is dispersed among 19 communal roosts. Of
these, only 10 roosts were found to be permanent
and the remaining 9 roosts were temporary (Fig. 1).
The permanent roosts were present throughout the
period of study and had an average population over
300. Temporary roosts were abandoned frequently
or totally at some time during the study period. As
the populations at the temporary roosts were rela-
tively small, they were considered together as a
single unit in Table 2. The table indicates that the
dispersal of population among various roosts was
not uniform. There were one major roost (R-I)
where more than 30% of the Pune birds roosted, two
medium-sized roosts (R-II and R-III) where 10 to
30% roosted and a number of small-sized roosts (R-
IV to R- XIX) where less than 10% roosted (Table
3). At these roosts, the populations seemed to under-
go regular changes during different seasons and
years (Table 2).
(1) The major roost R-I had a large feeding area and
it overlapped those of the medium-sized (R-III) and
small-sized (R- VII and R-VIII) roosts (Fig. 1). The
relative percentage of population roosting at R-I
decreased from breeding to post-breeding season
and increased towards pre-breeding season during
the year 1974-75 and 1975-76. Exactly reverse con-
ditions were noticed at roost R-III more or less in the
same ratio. As against these complementary chan-
ges, there was a small but parallel increase in
population at roost R-I as well as R-III from pre-
breeding to breeding season.
(2) Although rather small, some complementary
changes in relative percentage of population were
noticed at the medium-sized roost R-III and the
small-sized roost R-XII during most of the seasons
(Table 2). The feeding areas of these two roosts
again overlapped each other.
(3) The feeding area of the medium-sized roost R-II
overlapped those of small-sized roosts R-IV, R-XV
and to certain extent the area of the roost R-V (Fig.
1). The decrease or increase in the population at
roost R-II had complementary effects mainly on the
roost R-IV and to some extent on the roosts R-XV
and R-V during all the seasons.
(4) In general. Table 3 indicates that the roost R-III
showed an increase in population from 1973-74 to
1974- 75 and then a decrease of about 3% towards
1975- 76. On the other hand, at the roost R-XII
showed a decrease in population from 1973-74 to
1974- 75 and then an increase of about 3% towards
1975- 76. The feeding areas of these above two
roosts overlapped each other. Secondly, a steady in-
crease in population was noticed at roosts R-XV and
R- IV and a decrease at roosts R-VIII and R-II during
all the three years of observation.
The feeding areas of communal roosts of the
inner ring and those of the outer ring showed over-
lapping (Fig. 1). This indicates that exchange of
myna population may also be taking place between
the roosts of inner and outer rings during favourable
or lean seasons.
Day-to-day variations in population at three
roosts: The arriving mynas were censused for ten
days consecutively in the evenings at three roosts
R-III, R-IV and R-I during October, November and
December 1975 respectively. The purpose of this
study was to determine the day-to-day changes in
the population of mynas at the above roosts.
Table 3
YEARLY TRENDS IN THE ROOSTWISE DISPERSAL OF COMMON MYNA POPULATION
♦Roosts R-I to R-XIX have been arranged according to locations of feeding arenas.
POPULATION OF COMMON MYNA
397
Table 4
SEASONAL DIFFERENCES IN THE POPULATION DENSITY OF COMMON MYNAS DURING DAYTIME AT THREE DIFFERENT
LOCALITIES DURING 1 974-75
It was observed that there were day-to-day
variations in the arriving population at each roost.
The range of these changes on any two consecutive
days was found to be between - 9.6% and + 6.9% at
R-I (major roost), - 6.3% and + 17.1% at R-III
(medium-sized roost) and - 25.3% and + 18.2% at
R-IV (small-sized roost). These observations sug-
gest that there was a local shift of mynas from roost
to roost. Further, they also suggest that the mag-
nitude of dispersal varied according to the size of the
roost; the day-to-day variations in the population of
mynas at a major roost R-I were the least, at a
medium-sized roost R-III slightly more and at a
small-sized roost R-IV still more.
Population density: Mynas from different com-
munal roosts disperse into their feeding areas in the
morning. They cover a roughly circular area of 1 0 1 8
sq km with a radius of 18 km (Fig. 1). The mean
population of mynas in Pune city, obtained from data
collected over three years was about 13273 (see
above). Therefore, the population density of mynas
in the city area during daytime works out to about
13 birds per sqkm irrespective of habitat and season.
In the evening, most of the mynas concentrate
at the communal roosts located in the city area
covering only about 138 sqkm. This corresponds to
a population density of 96.2 birds per sq km, which
is 7.4 times the population density of feeding mynas
during the daytime. Further, about 61% of the total
population was restricted to roosts R-I, R-II, R-X,
R-XII and R-XIV, which lie within a circular area of
2.3 km radius. This central area had thus the highest
population density of 491.1 birds per sq km, which
is 37.8 times the population density of the feeding
mynas during daytime. This showed a very highly
clumped distribution of mynas in the city area
during night time.
A study was undertaken to assess the popula-
tion density of mynas in the feeding area during
daytime at three different localities in different
seasons. The average number of mynas were calcu-
lated at each locality during each season (Table 4).
The table indicates that at each locality, the popula-
tion density of mynas was highest in the breeding
season followed by that in the post-breeding season.
It was lowest in the pre-breeding season. The annual
mean population density of mynas was higher at the
Poona University campus than at the other two
localities selected for this study.
Discussion
Monthly changes in the population of mynas
have shown similar trends during the three consecu-
tive years of observation. A considerable increase
was seen in the number of individuals in July-
August, which seemed to be mainly due to the addi-
tion of juveniles to the population. A part of the in-
crease may be due to the breeding females or one
partner of the mated pairs who now returned to the
roost after nesting. The decrease in number of mynas
from August to September/October could be be-
cause of deaths of young ones due to disease or
predators (young coming down on ground for feed-
ing were sometimes attacked by domestic cats). Fur-
ther fall in population from September/October to
December could be explained as local migration
outside the study area (emigration).
Towards the middle of the pre-breeding season
(January onwards), there was a slow increase in the
population till the beginning of the breeding season
(April). This may be because of returning of mynas,
which had emigrated outside the study area, to
secure safer nesting sites before the commencement
of the breeding season. The sudden drop in the roost
populations from early to middle of the breeding
season (April/May to June) could be related to the
females or one partner of the mated pairs remaining
at the nest for various nesting activities. Often, one
partner of the mated pair was observed to be staying
at the nest at night. Counsilman (1974) has also
5
398
JOURNAI BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
made similar observations with Indian mynas at
Auckland, New Zealand.
The yearly mean population of mynas in the
study area was found to be increasing slowly during
the period of observation. This was probably linked
with the following ecological factors: the nesting,
roosting and feeding habits of mynas. Mynas are
camp followers of man. They roost communally in
large numbers. The roost provides a relatively safe
shelter at night. It is a fact that every year the human
population in Pune city is increasing with a conse-
quent expansion of residential quarters associated
with trees and gardens. This in turn provides addi-
tional nesting sites and feeding areas for mynas and
leads to an increase in their population.
Some fluctuations in the dispersal of myna
population among different roosts have been ob-
served every year. These could be due to seasonal
changes in the quality and quantity of food in the
feeding areas attached to the different roosts. The
data reveal that, in spite of the above mentioned fluc-
tuations, a definite minimum level of population
was normally maintained at each roost and that a
major roost has relatively more stability of popula-
tion size as compared to the medium and small-sized
roosts.
The daytime population density of mynas at
the three selected areas was higher during the breed-
ing season, when the nesting activities were in full
swing. In this season, the mynas lingered in the city
area for selecting safer nest holes, for collecting
suitable nesting material and searching for food for
themselves and for their young. In the post-breeding
and the pre-breeding seasons, there were no nesting
activities. The search for better feeding localities
may result in their moving outside the city area, thus
decreasing the daytime population density in these
seasons.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the Director, Zoological Sur-
vey of India, Calcutta, and Officer-in-Charge,
Zoological Survey of India, Western Regional Sta-
tion, Pune, for providing facilities and to Prof. Mad-
hav Gadgil, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore,
for stimulating this investigation.
References
Coleman, E. (1945): Hocking of Indian Mynas at Blackburn.
Viet. Nat. Melbourne 62: 101-102.
COUNSILMAN, J.J. (1974): Waking and roosting behaviour of the
Indian Myna. Emu 74(3): 135-148.
Feare, C.J. (1976): Communal roosting in the Mynah,
Acridotheres tristis. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 73(3): 525-
527.
Hindwood, K.A. (1948): A communal roost of the Indian Myna.
Emu 47: 315-317.
Sengupta, S. (1982): The Common Myna. S. Chand & Company
Ltd; New Delhi, pp. 1-118.
Wilson, RR. (1973): The ecology of the Common Myna
Acridotheres tristis L. in Hawke’s Bay. Ph.D. Thesis .Vic-
toria University, Wellington, New Zealand. Not referred to
in original
BLOTCH STRUCTURE IN INDIVIDUAL IDENTIFICATION OF THE INDIAN
PYTHON PYTHON MOLURUS MOLURUS LINN. AND ITS POSSIBLE USAGE
IN POPULATION ESTIMATION1
S. Bhupathy2
(With two plates and three text-figures )
Identification of individuals of Indian python Python motor us mo turns in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur,
was made using the structure of the blotch pattern. A total of 35 individuals could be identified in the intensive study
area and the blotch structure seems to be unique for each individual.. The advantages of using this method in the es-
timation of python population is discussed.
Introduction
Studies on the populations of the reptilian
fauna in India are rare. However, information on
general status, distribution and habits of Indian rep-
tiles are available (Smith 1933, 1944; Whitaker
1978, Daniel 1983). The Indian python Python
molurus molurus is classified as endangered in the
IUCN Red Data Book, and listed under Schedule I
of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972. In the
present study an attempt has been made to identify
individual pythons using blotch structure and to ex-
amine the possibility of using this method in es-
timating populations. The paper also deals with the
size classes of python in the study area.
Study Area and Methodology
The Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur (27°
7.6’ to 27°12.2’N and 77° 29.5’ to 77°33.9’E) is
situated 50 km west of Agra and 180 km south of
New Delhi. The total area of the park is 29 sq km of
which 8.5 sq km is wetland. The park has about 46
sites where pythons are frequently seen (Bhupathy
and Vijayan 1989). The present study was conducted
in an area of about 27 ha having 6 sites which the
pythons frequent. These sites are termed hereafter as
python points and referred to as PI, P2, P3, P4, P5
and P6 (Fig.l). The nature of the soil is saline with
least or no ground cover and the vegetation is of Sal-
vadora-Prosopis community. A detailed account
of the abiotic and biotic features is available else-
where (Ali and Vijayan 1986 ,Vijayan 1987).
In an earlier study (Bhupathy and Vijayan
1989), the population of python was estimated by
Accepted May 1990.
2BNHS Ecological Research Centre, 331, Rajendra Nagar,
Bharatpur 321 001, Rajasthan .
checking the probable sites and counting them at
each site. The maximum number of snakes seen at
each site was accounted for the total population.
One of the serious limitations of this method is that
at a given time one cannot expect to see all the
snakes of a particular point because of partial hiber-
nation and foraging movement Hence population
might be underestimated. Inter-point movement
may lead to overlap in counting. Therefore, in the
present study an attempt has been made to identify
each snake individually and a new method to iden-
tify individual snake using the variation in blotch
structure was developed.
Regular surveys were made on foot between
0900 and 1500 hrs from November 1988 to March
1989. All the six points in the intensive study area
were covered at a stretch in each survey. At each
sighting of a python, dorsal blotches were closely
observed and shape of a few anterior ones was
drawn. In most cases photographs were taken using
Pentax K1000 camera. The number of snakes seen
at each point and approximate length of each in-
dividual were also noted.
The probability of repetition of two similar
blotch pattern among pythons was calculated by
comparing a few anterior dorsal blotches individual-
ly and collectively.
Results and Discussion
General description of blotches: All the markings
which are pigmented darker than the body colour of
the snake are referred to as "blotches". Some infor-
mation of the colour, size and shapes of the blotches
of python is available (Smith 1943, Whitaker 1978,
Daniel 1983).
The prominent blotches in the body colour pat-
tern of the Indian python considered in the present
400
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Fig.l. Map of Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, showing intensive study area.
study are:
1) head blotch - single, lance shaped and
fading anteriorly, 2) eye marking - an oblique
streak behind the eyes, 3) dorsal (vertebral) blotches
in series, starting immediately after head and ex-
tending up to tail tip; varied in size and shape, 4)
dorso-lateral blotches in series, parallel to dorsals on
either side; smaller in size up to the tail, 5) lateral
blotches in series, next to dorso-laterals; smaller in
size, contrary to the blotches of other series, most of
them have a pigmentless portion in the centre which
is partially visible from the side (Fig.2).
Identification of individual python using dorsal
blotches: The size and shape of the blotches of dor-
sals or vertebrals varied considerably. In this study a
few dorsals of the anterior end were considered for
individual indentification. Some of the most com-
monly occurring blotches and their shapes are given
in Table 1, and a few are shown in Plates 1 and 2.
These blotches appeared in different size and group
combinations. The anterior blotches are better for
comparison as they are larger than the posterior
ones. In some cases, dorso-laterals and the size of
the python were used to substantiate the identity of
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 87
Bhupathy: Python molorus molorus
Plate l
Above: Dorsal blotches (3 ,4,5 ,6) connected with the dorso-laterals. Note the connection of first dorso-lateral with the head blotch.
Below: First few dorsal blotches completely fused with the head blotch. Note the spots on either side of the 5th dorsal blotch.
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 87
Bhupathy: Python molorus molorus
Plate 2
Above: First dorsal blotch is beaded by the partial fusion of a few olotches. Note the centrally pigmentless lateral blotches.
Below: First dorsal blotch is bridged with the second.
INDIVIDUAL IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN PYTHON
401
Table 1
SOME COMMON SHAPES OF ANTERIOR DORSAL (VERTEBRAL) BLOTCHES OF INDIAN PYTHON
two snakes having apparently similar dorsal blotch
pattern (Plate 1).
24 surveys were conducted and a total of 132
individuals were sighted during the study period.
Altogether 35 snakes were identified by their blotch
pattern (Fig.3). Identification marks, approximate
length and the name of the points are given in Ap-
pendix I.
Population: Altogether, 35 pythons were identified
using the blotch structure, whereas only 24 could be
recorded using the earlier method (Bhupathy and
Vijayan 1989) of repeated survey and taking the
highest number seen at each point as the popula-
tion. It is clear that individual identification was the
best method as the figure obtained by the other
method was a 30% underestimation. Again, at one
point (Pi) as many as 10 pythons could be recog-
nised by blotch structure, whereas only 3 were seen
by the other method. It is to be mentioned that in all
eye
EYE STREAK
HEAD BLOTCH
DORSAL OR VERTEBRAL BLOTCHES
DORSO-LATERAL BLOTCHES
LATERAL BLOTCHES
the points similar phenomenon was recorded (Table
2).
Of the 132 pythons encountered only 4 were
seen 25-100 m away from python points, and might
have been foraging. Four out of the 35 individually
distinguished snakes (11.6%) were seen in points
other than from where they were first recorded.
These possibilities will not affect the estima-
tion of the population if individual identities are
known.
Size class: The intensive study area had pythons of
different size classes. The most represented size
class was 2. 1-2.7 m (51.4%) followed by 2.7-3. 3 m
(25.7%) and 1. 5-2.1 m (17.1%) CTable 3). There
Table 2
COMPARISON OF NUMBER OF SNAKES RECORDED BY
DIFFERENT METHODS BETWEEN NOV. 1988 & MARCH 1989
Fig.2. Blotch structure of Indian python.
402
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Fig.3. Dorsal blotch pattern of pythons identified in the intensive study area.
INDIVIDUAL IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN PYTHON
403
was no blotch pattern characteristic of any of the size
class.
Pythons of more than 3.6 m were absent in the
intensive study area, and infrequent elsewhere in
the park. Smith (1943) also records the rarity of such
large pythons. Dattatri (1990) reported that in cap-
tivity python hatchlings measure on an average 70
cm and double in length (1.4 m) by the end of the
first year. The absence of individuals smaller than
1.5 m in the present population might be due to ab-
sence of breeding as a result of drought in the area
in 1987 and 1988.
Validity of the method: When the characteristics of
the first blotch of all the 35 snakes were compared,
similarity was found only in 7-8%, i.e. in 92-93% of
pythons the first blotch showed a distinct individual
pattern. In the case of the second blotch also, similar
blotches were seen only in 7-8%. When the charac-
teristics of first and second are considered as a unit,
the overlap was < 2%. The characteristics of the first
four blotches when considered together, then each
snake had a separate pattern. In other words no two
snakes exhibited an identical pattern in the charac-
teristics of the first four blotches.
Therefore it is assumed that the pattern of
blotch structure is unique for individual snakes.
However, changes of blotch structure, if any, with
age is to be investigated. Even if there is any varia-
tion with age it would not cause any problem in a
short term assessment of population, at least within
one season.
Acknowledgements
This paper is an offshoot of the Keoladeo Na-
tional Park Ecology Project of the Bombay Natural
History Society, sponsored by the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service through the Ministry of Environ-
ment, Government of India.
I am grateful to Rajasthan Forest Department
officials, especially Mr. K.L. Sainy, Deputy Chief
Wildlife Warden, for extending, co-operation during
the period of study; Mr. J.C. Daniel, Curator, and
Dr. V.S. Vijayan, Project Scientist, BNHS, for criti-
cal comments and encouragement; to Dr (Mrs)
Lalitha Vijayan for going through the earlier drafts
of the manuscript and Mr. U. Sridhaian, Scientist,
BNHS Ecological Research Centre, for offering his
camera during the study.
ENCES
Ali, S. & Vuayan, V.S. (1986): Keoladeo National Park Ecologi-
cal Study Summary Report 1 980-85. Bombay Natural His-
tory Society, Bombay.
Bhupathy, S. & Vuayan, V.S. (1989): Status, distribution and
general ecology of Indian Python ( Python molurus
molurus Linn.) in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur. J .
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 86 (3): 381-387
Daniel, J.C. (1983): The Book of Indian Reptiles. Bombay
Natural History Society, Bombay.
Dattatri, S. (1990): Breeding the Indian Python ( Python m.
molurus ) under captive conditions in India. Proceedings
of Centenary Seminar, pp. 656. Bombay Natural History
Society, Bombay.
Smith, M.A. (1933 &1943): Fauna of British India, Ceylon and
Burma, including the whole of the Indo-Chinese sub-
region, Reptilia and Amphibia (I-HI Volumes). Taylor &
Francis Ltd., India.
Vuayan, V.S. (1987): Vertebrate fauna of Keoladeo National Park
(Contribution I). Bombay Natural History Society, Bom-
bay.
Whitaker, R. (1978): Common Indian Snakes: a field guide. The
MacMillan Company of India Ltd., New Delhi.
404
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Appendix I
INDIVIDUAL IDENTITY OF THE PYTHONS OF THE PYTHON POINT AREA IN KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK
A STUDY OF THE MIGRATION OF COMMON TEAL ANAS CRECCA CRECCA
LINNAEUS BASED ON RING RECOVERIES IN INDIA AND U.S.S.R.1
V.C. Ambedkar and J.C. Daniel2
( With five text-figures )
Introduction
The common teal Anas crecca L. is a regular
winter visitor (August/September to March/ April)
to the Indian subcontinent (Ali and Ripley 1978).
However, there is very little quantitative and qualita-
tive data published on its migratory movements in
India. Except for a few earlier stray and sporadic at-
tempts3, bird ringing has not been undertaken on a
large scale.
In 1959 Dr Salim Ali, on behalf of the Bombay
Natural History Society (BNHS), attended a meet-
ing of ornithologists and virologists at Geneva spon-
sored by World Health Organisation (WHO) to con-
sider research on birds as possible disseminators of
arthropod-borne viruses, and the possible connec-
tion between bird migration ana the outbreak of en-
cephalitis (K.F.D.) in Kayasanur Forest area in Kar-
nataka (13° 55’ N, 75° 34’ E) India, similar to a dis-
ease occurring in the Omsk Region (c. 55° N; 73°
22’E) of U.S.S.R. (Ali, S. 1963b; 1972; Netsky et.
al 1978).
A pilot scheme from the BNHS to study bird
migration in India was approved and financial assis-
tance was received from the WHO. Ringing stations
in various parts of India were established with Dr
Salim Ali as Chief Investigator (Ali 1962 b,c, 1963a,
1964). The Bharatpur bird ringing station was estab-
lished in 1961 and started ringing first passerines
and later ducks and waders. The first teal was ringed
on 3 October 1965 at Bharatpur.
This paper analyses the data obtained on the
migratory movements of common teal ringed at
Accepted August 1990.
2Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Shaheed
Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023.
3The very first ring recovery outside the Indian subcontinent was
reported as follows:
Maharani at Dhar Series, Ring No. 116, male
Ringing details: 23-2-1929, Dhar State 22°35"N, 75°20"E
Recovery details: 6-10-1931, Near Vasugana River, Tomsk,
Siberia, c. 58°N, 77°E
Manner of recovery? (JBNHS 35: 901 , 47:690 )
Bharatpur and recovered in the U.S.S.R. and in the
Indian subcontinent, between the years 1965 and
1974.
Study Area
Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary, presently the
Keoladeo National Park (27°15’N, 77°30’E), is
situated 178 km south of New Delhi at a height of
174 m.a.s.l. The area of the National Park is approx.
29 sq.km, of which 8.5 sq. km is wetland. It is
among the best winter wildfowl refuges in the
country (for details see Ali 1953, 1985, Ali and
Vijayan 1983, Bates 1925. Breeden, S. and B. 1982,
Ewans 1989, Mathew 1971, McClure 1974, Sauey,
1985, Scott 1966).
Professional bird trappers from Bihar, namely
Mirshikars and Sahanis, were used for trapping
wildfowl (for methodology see George 1964,
Akhtar 1987). The ring used was ‘C’ size split-ring,
manufactured by I.O. Mekaniska HB, Sweden, with
the following specifications: diameter 6.5 mm,
height 9.0 mm, thickness 1 .0 mm and weight c. 0.6g.
The ring was made of aluminium and brass alloy
(BA 21) and bore the following inscription on its
outer surface: C-00 (i.e. numbers) INFORM BOMBAY
NAT. HIST. SOCIETY.
The key word in the inscription was and is still
‘Bombay,’ the return address. Between 1965 and
1974 the BNHS ringed 10,958 common teals at
Bharatpur.
Methods of Analysis
Recoveries were grouped into two classes.
1. Recoveries from the U.S.S.R. These were
reported by the U.S.S.R. Academy of Sciences, The
Centre of Ringing and Marking of Birds and Ter-
restrial Mammals, Moscow (485 recoveries). Only
one ring recovery was reported directly to us by a
school teacher from Chimkent, Kazakh, S.S.R.
2. Recoveries in the Indian subcontinent including
Pakistan and Bangladesh (85 recoveries). These
were reported by individual hunters and sportsmen
406
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HITT. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
as
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H H
a o
Z
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00 cs
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ts — • t~~
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TIME LAPSE BETWEEN RINGING IN BHRATPUR AND RECOVERY OF RINGS IN THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT 1965-1974
MIGRATION OF COMMON TEAL
407
Table 2
NUMBER OF COMMON TEAL RINGED AND RECOVERED IN THE PERIOD 1965-74
lrThe Moscow Bird Banding Bureau symbols are followed in this paper. 2Unknown means the reporter has failed to inform the centres
on how he obtained the ring. Sex ratio of birds shot in both the countries, 45.1 males: 54.8 females (1:1.2)
M = male, F = female, U = unsexed.
to the Bombay address.
All these recoveries were written on separate
cards for classification.
In addition , we received eight recoveries from
Iran and Afghanistan, and three MOSKWA rings were
recovered in India. Details of these recoveries are
shown in Appendix 2.
Results
Computer analysis: Analysis was carried out on a
main-frame computer DEC System- 10 at National
Centre for Software Technology, Tata Institute of
Fundamental Research, Bombay, using the SPSS
package. From the complete bird-banding data base
holding data for about 200,000 birds, data relating
to Anas crecca were extracted and analysed. Cross
tabs procedure in SPSS was used to analyse
monthwise banding history. A fortran
programme was written to produce a simple graphic
display of banding schedules.
Bias in the results: There were striking differences
between the number of rings recovered in the
U.S.S.R. and the Indian subcontinent (Table 3). The
chance of a ringed teal being recovered in the two
countries depends upon many factors. Probably the
first and crucial factor is that Russian duck hunters
are well informed about ringing operations and are
aware of the importance of rings being recovered.
408
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
They also know where to send details of ring
recoveries. The Centre of Ringing and Marking of
Birds in Moscow is responsible for collecting and
disseminating information to duck hunters (Pok-
ravsky 1963, Priklonsky and Sapetina 1981).
In India, on the contrary, the people are large-
ly illiterate and unaware of the importance of
recovered rings, probably keeping rings as memen-
tos of their duck shooting days. Obtaining such rings
from local hunters is a very difficult task, as in many
instances the shooting may have been without a
licence and therefore illegal. Other factors, such as
religious taboos in certain communities, political
and cultural constraints and delay in postal services,
are all responsible for low recoveries. The Wildlife
Protection Act (1972) no doubt, plays an important
role in the non-recovery of the rings.
Although all these factors cannot be rectified
immediately, we feel that a documentary film and
ether audiovisuals on ringing operations will no
doubt enlighten people.
We selected this particular period, 1965 to
1974, not because we had continuous data for 10
years (Tables 1, 2), but on the assumption that the
teals ringed during the period are now dead and no
more rings would be recovered. The last ring
recovered and reported from this period was in 1978
(Ambedkar 1980). We stopped our ringing activities
at Bharatpur under this scheme in 1974.
The Society again started ringing at Bharatpur
from 1980, under the project ‘Studies on the Move-
ment and Population Structure of Indian Avifauna’,
sponsored by the Ministry of Environment and
Forests, Government of India and the US Fish and
Wildlife Service. Unfortunately permission was
denied to us to continue ringing by the Rajasthan
Forest Department in 1982 as the? area had been
declared a National Park and this type of research
where birds are handled was felt by the authorities
to be harmful to the birds! We have not been able to
convince them so far that millions of birds are hand-
led and ringed all over the world without any
deleterious effects.
Discarded data: In the analyses, the following
recoveries have been excluded.
1. Those with incomplete ring numbers and omis-
<r*Due to destruction of habitat, egg collection and shooting the
mallard no longer breeds in the Kashmir Valley (Shah, G.M.,
Qadri, M.Y. JBNHS 85 (2): 325-331.
sion of the key alphabet letter as reported by hunters
2. Eroded rings, where the alphabet and/or, ring
number could not be deciphered correctly.
3. When year, month and day are wrongly reported
(6 recoveries). In one case the recovery date was
supplied as 29 February 1967.
4. When the same recoveries were reported again
and again after a lapse of time (11 recoveries). Here
only the first report was accepted unless a correction
was made.
5. The ringing and recovery data of other field sta-
tions like Kabar Tal, Begusarai dist. (Bihar), Chilka
Lake (Orissa), Calcutta (West Bengal) have not been
incorporated here in order to keep the data
homogenous for critical analysis.
Distribution and Present Status of Common Teal
The typical race crecca breeds throughout the
Palearctic Region between April and June (Cramp
and Simmons 1977, Dementiev et al. 1952). As
regards the Indian subcontinent, Hume and Marshall
(1881) wrote, "No record exists of the common teal
breeding within our limits, but it breeds generally in
suitably secluded spots in Europe and Asia
throughout the temperate zone, north of the 40th de-
gree N. latitude, and I should not be at all surprised
if it bred with us in Kashmir just as the mallard4
does. Not only there, but in a small lake not far from
Hanle, I have known teal killed in June and July".
Ornithologists who surveyed the northernmost
part of the subcontinent, Kashmir and Ladakh,
during the past 80 years or so, did not obtain any
breeding records of the teal. (Ward 1906, Ludlow
1920, spring and summer, Osmaston 1931, April to
August, Bates and Lowther 1952, Holmes 1986).
Recent field work undertaken by the BNHS, in
search of nests of the blacknecked crane Grus
nigricollis also did not report any nesting activities
of the teal in and around Hanle and Chushul (Hus-
sain 1985).
Migration
General: Common and garganey teals Anas quer-
quedula are the earliest migratory ducks, visiting
the Indian subcontinent in early autumn (Ali and
Ripley 1978). An examination of the literature sug-
gests that the common teal is widely distributed
from such far-flung areas as Manipur (eastern India)
and Kutch (western India) (Appendix 1), and their
MIGRATION OF COMMON TEAL
409
Fig. 1 Number of common teal ringed in Bharatpur, 1965-1974.
influx continues till November, with the birds
spreading out widely in the country. They start ar-
riving in Bharatpur in small flocks, reaching a max-
imum in October or early November when the first
heavy flights have been noted (Fig. 1).
An interesting but complicated problem, as
Baker (1908) rightly points is: "It is possible, indeed
probable, that our eastern birds are those which
come from China; and as they breed there as far
south at least as the 40th degree latitude, they have
not nearly so far to come as those which travel from
the west, few of whom really come from further
south than about the 50th degree." This suggests that
we have birds from the northwest as well as the
northeast intermingling in the subcontinent in
winter. How far the teals from the northeast popula-
tion penetrate into the territory and in what propor-
tion they get mixed up in the subcontinent with the
northwest population is difficult to answer at this
stage.
During their stay in natural habitat like jheels,
marshes and open water in the subcontinent, the
common teal associates freely with pintail Anas
acuta , shoveller Anas clypeata etc.
Shooting records (Cunningham 1927, Wright
and Dewar 1925) suggest that the mallard Anas
platyrhynchos was the commonest duck in India,
the common teal stood second; while Ali and
Vijayan (1983) state that "Among the migratory
species, which came to Bharatpur, Anas acuta
(19.0%) had the maximum number, followed by
Anas crecca (13.3%)". The latter statement was also
confirmed by the Asian Waterfowl Count.
Moult migration: The phenomenon of moult
migration was apparently unknown to Indian or-
nithologists till the Bikaner Darbar’s Secretary
(1940) reported a flightless teal which was shot in
Bikaner on 4 October 1940. He wrote, "The only
feasible explanation is that it migrated and arrived
at the end of August or early in September in the
lake, and for some unnatural and extraordinary
reason, moulted after arriving here. A lot of feathers
on both wings are in a growing state and still bluish
in colour and soft".
Commenting on this incident, Salim Ali (loc.
cit., p. 445) wrote: "Till I caught several such flight-
less teals and shovellers for ringing on the Ghana
jheel in Bharatpur last October (1939), I did. not
know that some of our migrant ducks underwent the
complete post-nuptial or autumn moult after flying
thousands of miles to their winter quarters on then-
old remiges (wing quills)". Some individuals among
the ducks, however, seem to be in such a hurry to get
back to their winter quarters (they often arrive as
early as August or September) that they forsake then-
breeding grounds before the autumn moult has
begun and go through this process at this end. Such
birds, presumably, are yearlings that will not breed
till the second season". Abdulali (1943) did not
come across moulting ducks in Nasik district
(Maharashtra) except one record of a moulting
wigeon. It appears that the Bharatpur National Park
is a moulting ground where the migratory teals get
maximum protection from predation, sufficient food
and water during this critical time of the life cycle.
We do not have any other special moulting
places for ducks on record, but Prof. Stresemann, as
quoted by Salomonsen (1968), observed a similar
phenomenon from a secluded lake, at an altitude of
about 4,500 m on the Tibet-Sikkim border, where
dabbling ducks moulted their flight feathers after a
migration of nearly 2,000 km. He further suggested
that these ducks came from northern Siberia.
Ringing
Between 1965 and 1974 we ringed 10,958
teals: 3873 males, (35.3%), 6682 females (60.9%)
and 403 unsexed(3.6%) (Table 2). We gathered data
410
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
on the arrival and departure, general trend of migra-
tion, sex ratio, seasonal patterns (Fig. 1) and the
recovery rate (Table 2). The preponderance of
females over males was an interesting feature of the
ringing operation. Biometric analysis of wings and
weights will be dealt with elsewhere.
General pattern of arrival and departure:
Grouping the ringing data monthwise in the season
(Table 1), it suggests that by September the teals had
started to arrive. However, the published records
suggest that the teals start to visit the Indian subcon-
tinent one week earlier, by the end of August, in far-
flung areas like Manipur (eastern India) and Kutch
(western India) (Appendix 1). In September we
ringed 5 birds, 2 males, 1 female and 2 unsexed. The
first heavy flight occurred in October when we
ringed 1,159 teals. Out of these 635 (54.7%) were
males. The female and unsexed or yearling birds
were almost in equal number, 256 (22.0%) and 268
(23.1%) respectively. This suggests that males ar-
rived in the Bharatpur area early in large numbers
before females and unsexed teals arrive. October
was probably the period where the teals after the
migration, gathered in Bharatpur for moulting.
In November we ringed almost an equal num-
ber of males and females, 926 (48.4%) and 913
(47.7%) respectively, but fewer unsexed birds, 74
(3.8%) only. From December onwards the sex- ratio
shifted toward the females; our catch was 852
(39.8%) males, 1,247 (58.3%) females, and only 38
(1.7%) unsexed birds. This suggests that two condi-
tions were probably operating: (a) from mid
December onwards, and after spending quite a num-
ber of days in Bharatpur, the males start migrating
and spread out, even moving northwards5 into Rus-
sian territory and (b) probably a large number of
visiting females remain in the Park area for a longer
period than the males.
This condition was seen clearly in January and
February. January — 415 males (32.4%) to 861
females (67.3%) and only 2 unsexed birds (0.1%).
February — 666 males (31.4%) against 1,447
females (68.2%) and 8 unsexed birds (0.3%).
From March onwards the return or outward
migration started on a large scale and males left the
5C-19008, M, 12-12-1971 Bharatpur
14-1-1972 Turkmen SSR near Serakhs
36°28’N, 61°12’E
+ Shot NW to Bharatpur
area before the females, as in the inward migration.
Our catch in March was 369 males (17.0%) to 1,788
females (82.4%) respectively. By April most of the
males had left the area and in all only 8 males were
ringed (4.5%) as against 169 females (95.4%).
From May to August we did not observe or ring any
teal in Bharatpur, as there were no ringing opera-
tions during this period.
Number of Teals Recovered
Table 2 shows the number of teals ringed in
each year, together with the number of recoveries
and the percentage rate of recovery. From among the
10,958 teals we ringed we received recovery infor-
mation on 570 birds, both from the Indian subcon-
tinent and the U.S.S.R. The average recovery rate
was 5.2%, with a maximum and minimum of 9.9%
and 3.3% for the years 1966 and 1972 respective-
iy-
The recovery rate of males was higher (6.1%)
than of females (4.5%). Unsexed birds were
recovered at the rate of 6.9% which is slightly higher
than the recovery rate of males. There was no cor-
relation between the number of birds ringed and the
increase of ring recoveries in later years.
In 1966 we ringed 564 teals, with a recovery
rate of 9.9% . In 1972, when 953 teals were ringed,
the recovery rate was 3.3%.
The gradual fall of recovery rate from 9.9% in
1966 to 3.3% in 1972, in 7 years period is interest-
ing. But again in 1973 the rate of recovery started to
increase. It was 3.9%, and in 1974 it rose to 4.6%,
when we stopped ringing. The trend of recoveries is
incomprehensible at this stage and further research
and continuous ringing is necessary to determine if
there is any significance in these fluctuations.
Manner of Recoveries
The majority of letters received from people in
India, Pakistan and Bangladesh, indicated that the
ducks were shot. In some instances the recoveries
were also made from birds found dead on the shore
or caught in fishing nets. However, we did not
receive information on the manner of recovery in all
instances (Table 3).
The Bird Banding Bureau at Moscow clearly
reported the manner of recovery using specific sym-
bols for each category. Each recovery was reported
on a separate printed sheet giving all the necessary
MIGRATION OF COMMON TEAL
411
Table 4
MONTHLY DISTRIBUTION OF RECOVERIES OF COMMON TEAL Anas crecca IN U.S.S.R. 1965-1974
♦These recoveries were reported with seasons, but without date and month. They are not included in further Tables 5 and 6.
♦♦Reported as 0-0-1972
M = male, F = female, U = unsexed.
details of the recovery and this facilitated analysis.
The analysis of the 570 recoveries suggests
that nearly 89% recoveries were made by duck
hunters in both countries. ‘Manner of recovery
unknown’ constituted the next largest group; nearly
8.5% belonged to this class. This means that the
duck hunter had failed to inform the ringing centre
of the manner in which he procured the ring. The
statement ‘Found dead’ also belongs to this group,
as suggested by Boyd (1957).
Analysis of Recoveries in U.S.S.R.
Monthly distribution of recoveries: During the
period between 1965 and 1974, 485 ring recoveries
were reported from the Russian territories (Table 4).
All these were made east of 60° E longitude, sug-
gesting that the teals had crossed the Himalayas
during their migratory journey (Table 5, Fig. 2).
Table 4 shows the monthly distribution of the
recoveries in the Russian territory. We received
precise information on the date, month and year of
473 recoveries. 11 recoveries were reported without
date and month, though the seasons, e.g. spring.
autumn etc., were mentioned. Only one recovery
was reported as 0.0.1972.
The most interesting aspect of the monthly dis-
tribution is that the Russian duck hunters collected
teals, with BNHS ring, each and every month of the
year, suggesting that all the teals did not leave the
Russian territory even in the harsh winter.
The maximum number of recoveries, 182 or
38.2% of the total, were reported in the month of
September, and the minimum of 3 (0.6%) in Decem-
ber, January and July.
The sex-wise analysis of the recoveries sug-
gests that the maximum number of males, 58 or
30.0% of the total number of male recoveries, was
made in the month of May and the maximum num-
ber of females (125 or 48.4%) was reported in the
month of September.
These two peaks, in May and September, sug-
gest that the teals were on migration and were there-
fore available over a large area of the territory.
Curiously the males seem to be more susceptible to
being shot during the spring migration to the breed-
ing area and the females during the autumn migra-
412
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Fig. 3. Monthly recoveries of male and female common teal from the U.S.S.R., March -October.
MIGRATION OF COMMON TEAL
413
tion to India. The reasons for this are not evident to
us.
Migratory Movement in First Year of Ringing
All the recoveries except two, were reported
between 36° 28’ to 69° 20’ N and 61° 22’ to 148°
08 ’E (Fig. 2). This suggests that east of 60° E lon-
gitude or east of the Aral Sea, a salt lake, was the
major area of ring recoveries of the common teal in
the U.S.S.R.
Two unusual recoveries were reported from
Kyzyl-Orda region near Ianykurgan (43° 55 ’N, 47°
05’E) and Uralsk region, near Uralsk (51° 17’N, 51°
23 ’E), west of the Aral Sea (Fig. 2).
Out of 473 recoveries (Table 6)reported by the
Moscow Bird Banding Bureau we received 265
(56.0%) recoveries within the first year of ringing.
These included 116 males, 137 females and 12 un-
sexed birds. Table 5 shows variation of monthly
recoveries with latitude to determine the high
latitude to which the teals travelled in a year, after
ringing.
The data revealed interesting aspects of the
migration and movement of the teals in U.S.S.R.
One male (C-19008, see p. 410) was ringed on 12
December 1971 and shot on 14 January 1972 in
Turkman SSR near Sarakha, 36°38’N. It appears
that the bird travelled approximately 1700 km
northwest of Bharatpur in 33 days, at an average
speed of 55 km/day. The noteworthy feature of this
recovery was that the bird, after crossing the NW
Himalayan snow-covered ranges, migrated 12° N
higher than the Bharatpur latitude. This was unex-
pected and contrary to the normal trend in the winter
migration of species. Another example of the same
kind is6
This male was also shot at a slightly higher
latitude than C-19008 and was recovered after 66
days in the month of January in the Tashkent region.
These two examples indicate that the males
were moving in the Russian territory in the month
of January, in winter where the atmospheric
temperature was below 0°C. As Cramp et al. (1977)
do not include these two areas in the breeding range
of the species, we believe that these two were ex-
6C-3643, M. 5-11-1967, Bharatpur
10-1-1968 Taskhent region, Chirchik River
40° 42’N, 69 °19’E + shot NNW to Bharatpur.
amples of anomalous migration.
No female was recovered in January in Russia.
Likewise, no ring recovery was reported in February
in the first year of ringing. Apparently the females
had not yet started their northward migration.
Except July, from March to November (Fig. 3)
more recoveries were made at mid and high
latitudes. In March (21 recoveries) recoveries of
males outnumbered those of females, 16 to 5
(76.1:23.8). Only one male was reported between
45-50° latitude, while the females were lagging be-
hind, as far as latitudinal migration was concerned.
In April, the same situation prevailed. One male was
shot further north between 55-60°, but no female
had been shot yet. Only in June, for the first time,
one female was shot between 65-70° latitudes. In
this group also more males were shot than females
namely 3 males against 1 female. One male was shot
at the highest latitude and had travelled c. 4000 km
from Bharatpur. This is the northernmost record in
our data. The details of this recovery are as below:
C-3672, M, 5-11-1967 Bharatpur
14-6-1968 Krasnoyarsk region near Norilsk
69°20’N, 88°14’E.
(Time lapse 222 days, distance: (+ shot, c. 4000
km north of Bharatpur)
It is interesting that the females were shot at
high latitude, beyond the Arctic Circle, in August
and September, but no male was collected at these
latitudes during these months. Presumably, the
males had left this area before the females.
Table 5 suggests some interesting aspects of
the progressive latitudinal migration amongst the
sexes. The available data suggests that, as the season
advanced and as the day length increased, the males
were probably taking advantage of the longer day
length during the northward migration. Being the
vanguard, the males were recovered at higher
latitude earlier than the females, as the summer
solstice advanced in the northern hemisphere, i.e.
March to June/July. Between 65-70° latitudes, 5
males against 3 females (62.5:37.5) were recovered,
while at mid latitude the sex ratio varied in favour
of females, in all 22 males against 46 females were
recovered (32.3:67.6). The females were more com-
mon at mid latitude; they probably left the Indian
subcontinent much later than the males to breed.
Apart from different sex ratios at various
latitudes there might be another possible factor ia-
6
414
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Fig. 2. General distributional areas of ringed common teal
with their possible flyways.
Dots show locations of single recoveries
volved - that the Russian duck hunters’ activities
were enhanced due to warm and congenial weather
for shooting. This may be a crucial factor in the
recovery of rings.
This also suggests that the magnitude of the
teals’ migration and duck hunters’ activities went on
concurrently in nature, at various latitudes and at
various times of the year.
Latitudinal distribution of the teals in India will
be discussed later.
Flock Migration as Revealed by Recoveries
Do the members of a flock ringed at Bharatpur
migrate together over the Russian territory? This
was a question before us while analysing the ring-
ing and recovery data, and the following three
recoveries were interesting and suggestive from this
point of view.
On 19 October 1966 we ringed 92 teals, in-
cluding 58 males and 34 females and received the
following three recoveries in March, the fourth
month after the ringing.
1. C-2621, M. Ringed on 19-10-1966 Bharat-
pur; Recovered on 8-3-1967, Uzbek SSR near
Samarkand 39°47’N, 66° 56’E. Time lapse 4 months
20 days + shot, NW of Bharatpur.
2. C-2661, M. 19-10-1966 Bharatpur; 9-3-
1967, Tadjik SSR, Leninobad dist. near Proletarrsk
40°11’N, 69° 29 ’E; Time lapse 4 months 21 days +
shot NW of Bharatpur
3. C-2652, M. 19-10-1966 Bharatpur; 10-3-
1967, Fergana region near Kirovo; 40° 27 ’N, 70°
36’E; Time lapse 4 months 22 days + shot NW of
Bharatpur
All 3 males were shot at an interval of one
day only, and these recoveries allow us to make the
following comments.
It appears that the males, in winter, gathered
together in unisexual flocks spending all the time in
feeding, resting and moving together. As summer
commenced and the migration urge developed, the
vanguard of males started to move together and
crossed the Himalayas through NW Frontier area of
the subcontinent (Figs. 4, 5). The present study did
not show any female group or family group forma-
tions, as far as our ring recoveries are concerned.
Time Lapse Between Ringing and Recovery
The data on recoveries makes it possible to
study the distribution of recoveries, particularly of
those rings recovered between 0- 1 year. It is possible
to identify the flyways of migration between the In-
dian subcontinent and U.S.S.R. The minimum time
taken to fly to the nearest location from Bharatpur,
general distribution in Central Asia and the Siberian
plain, and the longevity record.
We reckon the days and year from the date of
ringing to the date of recovery of the ring at a par-
ticular spot. By tabulating many facts emerge. All
the recoveries are set out in Table 6.
Of the 473 recoveries, 265 (56%) were
reported within the first year of ringing, and there
were drastic falls in numbers in the successive years.
Flyways of the migration: As mentioned earlier the
Ring C- 19008 was recovered in Turkmen SSR and
the Ring C-3643 was reported from Tashkent region,
in January. These two recoveries suggest the pos-
sible early entry route of the first migrants into
U.S.S.R. These two places are situated NW and
NNW of Bharatpur. However, the nearest recovery
point was noted in March.
C-1580, M, 12-10-1966 Bharatpur
19-3-1967, Tadjik SSR, near Dushanbe
38° 35’N, 68° 47’E
(Time lapse 5 months 8 days, + shot)
Dushanbe is approximately 1200 km NNW of
Bharatpur
MIGRATION OF COMMON TEAL
415
Table 7
MONTHLY DISTRIBUTION OF RECOVERIES IN INDIA 1965-1974
The northern most recovery was of C-3672
(p.413). The bird was shot in June near Norilsk 69°
20’ N, 88°14’E, approximately 4000 km north of
Bharatpur. However, most of the other recoveries
were reported from Central Asia and the Siberian
plains (Fig. 2).
The easternmost recovery was reported from
Yakut SSR from the basin of Indagirka River, ap-
proximately 6000 km NNE of Bharatpur.
C- 16263, M, 2-2-1971 Bharatpur
23-5-1974, Yakutian SSR
Momskii dist., near Khonyy
66° 28’ N, 148° 08’E
(Time lapse 3 years 3 months 21 days, + shot)
NNE of Bharatpur
Longevity record: Maximum longevity record
(Table 6) of the teal from U.S.S.R. was as follows:
C-8297, M, 31-10-1969 Bharatpur
21-2-1978 Tijumen, mouth of Nadym River,
66°10’N, 72° 00’E.
NW of Bharatpur
(Time lapse 8 years 9 months 26 days, +shot)
Recoveries in the Indian Subcontinent
All the recoveries, in the Indian subcontinent
are tabulated in Tables 5,6,7. As the available data
is comparatively limited we give an overview.
85 recoveries were reported, 40 males, 43
females and 2 unsexed birds. One recovery of a male
was reported without date and month in 1974.
Movement in the First Year of Ringing
Table 5 shows the distribution of 48 recoveries
of both sexes within the first year of ringing. These
recoveries are arranged by 5° squares of latitude
against each month to determine the latitudinal
movements of the teals within the Indian subcon-
tinent.
We received an interesting recovery of a ring
in December, which showed northward movement
of a male in winter, as similarly recorded previously
(p. 410, 413). Details are as follows:
C-1558, M, 11-10-1966 Bharatpur
2-12-1966 Sialkot, Pakistan
32° 31’ N, 74° 36’E
(Time lapse 52 days, distance 630 km NW of
Bharatpur, + shot)
The male ringed in October moving north in
December, i.e. north by west is an unusual move-
ment. This confirms the earlier two records (p. 410,
413). But the movement shown by a female was
quite different even though both were ringed in the
same month and the year. For example
C-2685, F, 20-10-1966 Bharatpur
5-12-1966, Kushtia, Bangladesh
23°55’N, 89°10’E
416
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
(Time lapse 46 days, distance 1250 km ESE of
Bharatpur, + shot)
The female travelled approximately 27
km/day, probably along the river Ganges, up to
Bangladesh (Fig. 5). Interestingly, the female was
moving east, the latitude being 23°55’N.
These two examples suggest that both sexes
had different types of migratory movements in the
subcontinent in winter.
Monthly distribution: It was significant that, as in
the U.S.S.R., the teals were collected in every month
of the year, except June (Table 7). It was possible
that duck hunters did not observe the teals which
were fewer in numbers, and hence were not col-
lected in June. It appears that the teals were avail-
able throughout the year in the subcontinent even in
the breeding season. This is an excellent opportunity
for the field biologist to look out for the nests in the
northern part of the country, like Kashmir and
Ladakh as suggested by Hume and Marshall (1881).
The maximum number of recoveries were
reported during winter, December to March, when
the teals were moving in India. February was the
most productive month, where the yield was as high
as 2 1 . 1 % of the total recoveries. The majority of the
reports received by us were from NW areas of Pakis-
tan, namely Peshawar, Chitral, Kurram Valley and
Swat Valley7. As compared with the Moscow data,
our yield was extremely low, and this was probably
due to lack of knowledge of the importance of ring
recoveries, and possibly reflects the communication
failure of the ringing programme.
Longevity record: Ambedkar (1980) reported
(Table 6) the longest survival record of the female
teal as 12 years, one month and 13 days. This female
was shot near Lahore, Pakistan.
Nepal and Sikkim
Though Nepal (Inskipp 1985) and Sikkim (Ali
1962) have been thoroughly worked out from the or-
nithological point of view, yet we have not received
a single ring recovery of A. crecca or any other
migratory species from these parts of the subcon-
7 C-4975, F, 1-1-1968, Bharatpur
14-3-1968, Swat State, Pakistan
35° N, 72°06’ E
(Time lapse 2 months, 13 days, + shot.
The name Hunza is derived from the Snskrit ‘Hansa marg’,
meaning ‘path of the geese’ ( JBNHS 50:435
tinent. This is a clear lacuna in our knowledge which
must be rectified by field ornithologists (Figs. 4,5).
Discussion
The discussion is based on ringing recovery
data and as such there are limitations in the inter-
pretation. Moreover, the results of our study raise
more problems which are, at this stage of our
knowledge, unanswerable.
Trans-Himalayan Migration: Whether the lofty
Himalayas hinder the migratory to and fro move-
ments of birds between Central Asia and the Indian
subcontinent and whether they fly over the
Himalayan ranges are questions that have been dis-
cussed by various ornithologists (Ali 1981, Donald
1917, 1923, 1952, Swan 1961, Inskipp 1985).
Hunza8 and Gilgit (Karakoram range, Pakistan)
have the highest concentration of mountains in the
world with 82 peaks over 7000 m. While migrating
through such high altitude areas, birds have to face
many formidable difficulties such as poor visibility,
low temperature, decreased oxygen pressure, bliz-
zards, sudden weather changes and change in direc-
tion of airflow at various heights. In India at Dehra
Dun, the birds were observed at an altitude of 8830
m through a telescope while observing the solar
eclipse (Harrisson 1931), and from west Africa,
Layboume (1974) reported an incident where a vul-
ture ( Gyps rueppellii) collided with an aircraft at
11,277 m.
However, the migratory journey between
Central Asia and India is quite hazardous to birds,
as evidenced by the finding of dead common teal at
an altitude of 3352 m in Solang Valley, Manali, in
Himachal Pradesh in the middle of May (Khacher,
1978). Ring recoveries in the NWFP of Pakistan
and particularly in Hunza and Gilgit area and Hindu
Kush range (Afghanistan) during the outward
migration of the common teal suggest that most teals
pass through valleys like Kaghan, Kurram etc.
before entering the USSR. We received supporting
evidence, while analysing the data, where early
recoveries were reported from Dushanbe (38°50’N,
69°20’E) and Serakhs (36°28’N, 61°12’E) in USSR
(Figs 2,3). These mountainous areas possibly are
bottlenecks where the migrant flyways are narrow,
resulting in dense flock formation. This is probably
one reason why we were getting more ring
recoveries from this area. Since there is no ring
MIGRATION OF COMMON TEAL
417
Fig. 4. First winter movement of male common teal in the Indian
subcontinent
recovery from Nepal and Sikkim, it appears that the
NWFP of Pakistan is probably the nearest fly way
for the entry to the Russian territory before spread-
ing out in the Ob, Yenisey and Lena River basins in
the Siberian part of USSR.
Moult Migration
Keoladeo Ghana National Park was estab-
lished by the Maharajas of Bharatpur in 1890. Ever
since it has had a reputation of being among the best
duck wintering grounds in the Indian subcontinent,
though many other wetlands are available, in the
Indo-Gangetic plain. Why migratory birds, includ-
ing the common teal concentrate at Bharatpur in
such large numbers in winter will possibly be known
when the report of the present ecological research is
completed. It is possible that the National Park is a
winter moulting ground for the common teal, as sug-
gested by our ringing programme.
Our catch of unsexed and moulting teals in the
month of October was 23.1% of the total (Table 1).
This suggests that nearly one-forth of the October
catch moulted as soon as they arrived from the
Central Asian and Siberian parts of the USSR. The
advantage of protection, sufficient food and water
was perhaps the reason for completing the process
within the shortest possible time.
It appears that the strategy for selection of the
moulting ground is probably of recent origin. We
Fig. 5. First winter movement of female common teal in the In-
dian subcontinent
have to look for similar places in the Indo- Gangetic
plain as well as at higher Himalayan lakes as sug-
gested by Salomonsen (1968). It is noteworthy that
no moulting ground is reported or located in the
southern part of India (Abdulali 1943).
Sex Ratio
The data gathered between 1965 and 1974
have given us an opportunity to study the problem
of sex ratios in the common teal. There are two prin-
cipal sources of information in the present study.
Ringing records: The very comprehensive ringing
records kept by the BNHS between 1965 and 1974
are summarized in Table 1 . During this period we
caught and ringed 3873 males and 6682 females
(1:1 .7), an unbalanced sex ratio. The question arises
as to whether the method of trapping employed by
the local bird trappers was selective for a particular
sex or not. Since the trapping operation was per-
formed randomly at night there was no possibility
of catching more females than males.
Diversity in Sex Migration: Table 1 summarizes
the results of monthly catch of the common teal
which shows the differential sex migration. The
early influx of males into the subcontinent is clear-
ly reflected in the monthly catch: 54.7% and 48.6%
males in October and November respectively. The
females visited the National Park much later in large
numbers. However, we need to know whether or not
418
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
there is any geographic variation in the sex ratio.
Considering that all the teals do not leave the Rus-
sian territory even in winter (Table 4) we lack exact
knowledge of migration and movements of sexes.
Hunters’ reports: Table 3 summarizes the results
of the manner of recoveries and suggests that shoot-
ing was the main sources of recoveries of the rings
in both countries. Nearly 89% of the rings were
recovered by shooting.
A comparison between the two methods,
catching and shooting, shows that both methods
gave similar sex ratios, 1:1.7 and 1:1.2 respectively
in favour of females (Tables 1,3)
Acknowledgements
Our thanks are due to the Forest Department,
Rajasthan, for permitting the Society to trap and ring
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We wish to express our sincere appreciation to
Dr R Sadanand, Tata Institute of Fundamental
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Anil Gore, Department of Statistics, University of
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tion of wild animals in the U.S.S.R. The Wildfowl Trust.
Fourteenth Annual Report 1961-1962, pp. 47-49.
Priklonsky, S.G. & Sapetina, I.M. (1981): Geography of Water-
fowl harvesting in the U.S.S.R. Proceedings of the Sym-
posium on the Mapping of Waterfowl distributions, Migra-
tion and Habitats, Moscow.
Salomonsen, F. (1968): The moult migration. Wildfowl 19: 5-
24.
Sauey, R T. (1985): The Range, Status, and winter Ecology of
the Siberian Crane ( Grus leucogeranus ). Ph.D. Thesis,
Cornell University. University Microfilms International,
Ann. Arbor, Michigan, U.S.A.
Scott, P. (1966): Visit by IUCN Delegation to the Keoladeo
Ghana Sanctuary, Bharatpur, Rajasthan, India. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 63(1): 206-209.
Secretary to Heir apparent of Bikaner (1940): Moulting of
common teal subsequent to Migration to India, ibid. 42:
443-445.
Swan, L.W. (1961): The Ecology of the High Himalyas. Sci. Am.
205: 67-78.
Wait, W.E. (1921): The Migration of Birds and Ceylon Migrants.
Spolia Zeylanica 11: 273-298.
Ward, A.E. (1906): Birds of the provinces of Kashmir and
Jammu and Adjacent districts J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
17: 948.
Wright, R.G. & Dewar, D. (1925): The Ducks of India. H.F. &
G. Witherby, London.
Appendix 1
EARLY ARRIVAL DATES OF COMMON TEAL IN THE SUBCONTINENT PUBLISHED IN JBNHS, VOLS. 1-82(1886-1985)
420
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Appendix 2
* Unpublished data extracted from BNHS recovery files.
ECOLOGICAL AND MORPHOLOGICAL NOTES ON PIPER SPP.
FROM THE SILENT VALLEY FORESTS, KERALA1
P.N. Ravindran, R. Asokan Nair, K. Nirmal Babu, K. Chandran and M.K. Nair2
(With a text-figure )
The Piper spp. occurring in the tropical evergreen forests of the Silent Valley have been studied. Seven species
of Piper were found distributed in this forest. Two new taxa of Piper (P. silentvalleyensis Ravindran, Nair, and Asokan
Nair, and P. nigrum var. hirtellosum Asokan and Ravindran) were also recorded during the study. Ecological and mor-
phological notes on the species are given.
The Silent Valley forests located in the Palghat
district of Kerala comprise an area of 8900 ha of
mostly undisturbed ever-green tropical rainforests
which contain unique flora and fauna. This paper
represents the results of the survey and study on the
Piper spp. of the Silent Valley.
The genus Piper is the largest in the family
Piperaceae consisting of over 3000 reported bino-
mials (INDEX KEWENSIS (1895-1970), the members
of which are largely tropical and pantropical in dis-
tribution. The most important species is P. nigrum
L., the black pepper of commerce. Other important
species areP. be tie, the betel leaf,P. longum , the long
pepper, P. cubeba , the tailed pepper and P. methys-
ticum, which is used in indigenous medicine. Two
independent centres of distribution are recognised
for the genus Piper in the Indian subcontinent - the
trans-Gangetic region and the South Deccan region
(Hooker 1886). Of more than 100 species reported
from the Indian subcontinent, nearly 26 are from the
Western Ghats of south India which is also believed
to be the centre of origin of Piper nigrum.
Distribution
Piper spp. are found distributed extensively in
the evergreen, semi-evergreen and moist-deciduous
forests of Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka, and in
the northeastern regions of India. Piper grows from
almost sea level to an altitude of about 2000 m.
Some species like P. schemidtii, P. mullesua etc.
occur only at high elevations, while others like P.
longum prefer valleys and plains. Piper spp. thrive
best in sholas where the soil is loose, moist and rich
in humus. They grow as undergrowth and spread on
the ground or climb up on shrubs and trees, some
Accepted May 1989.
National Research Centre for Spices, Calicut 673 012, Kerala.
species reaching to a height of 20-25 m. In the Silent
Valley forests the distribution of Piper spp. is denser
along the footpaths, animal tracks, rivulets etc.,
where there is better light penetration. In the dis-
turbed forest areas they are found to grow even in
the interior of the forests in relatively high numbers
because of the increased light penetration. Though
Piper vines were not observed on trees which shed
bark, no particular tree preferences were noted.
They were also often found growing over rocks, tree
stumps and also as runners on the ground.
The elevation of the Silent Valley forests range
from 1000-2400 m. Within the forest, the distribu-
tion of Piper spp. varied in terms of their frequency
of occurrence. Piper nigrum is the most widely dis-
tributed, occurring throughout the forest. This is fol-
lowed by P. attenuatum , P. hymenophyllum , P. ar-
gyrophyllum and P. trichostachyon. P. mullesua oc-
curs in certain isolated pockets. P. silentvalleyensis
(Ravindran et al. 1987) is the rarest, and was col-
lected only from a single spot in the forest. P. lon-
gum, which is very common in the plains and at
lower elevations, and the related species P. hapnium
do not occur in Silent Valley. So also P. schemidtii
andP. wightii, common in the sholas of higher eleva-
tions (over 2000 m), are absent in the Silent Valley.
Population Structure
The population structure of any species is
determined mainly by the breeding system of the
species, the mechanism of pollen, fruit and seed dis-
persal and presence or absence of isolation
mechanisms. In the genus Piper male, female and
hermaphrodite vines exist. The cultivated types of
P. nigrum are hermaphrodite (monoecious); while
the wild species including wild P. nigrum are dioe-
cious. Human selection might have played a major
role in the directional evolution of hermaphroditism
422
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HINT. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Fig. 1. Schematic representation of Piper population along a footpath in the forest.
A, One bisexual vine giving rise to clonal progenies (open circles), seedling progenies (closed circles), back cross and sib-cross
progenies (crossed circles). B. Two parent vines of same or related taxa growing side by side (or climbing up the same tree). The
population developing around consists of clonal progenies of both parents; their seedling progenies; hybrid (Fi) from chance cross-
ings between the two parents, their clonal progenies, seedling progenies and chance back cross and sib-cross progenies. C. A clonal
population developing from a male vine. D. A population developing from a female vine consisting of clonally developed vines and
seedling progenies consisting of male and female vines. This population can in due course gives rise to sib- cross progenies.
in the present day cultivated types. They are natural-
ly self pollinated which is aided by rain or dew drops
and also by the gravitational descending of pollen
grains (geitenogamy). The flowers are protogynous,
but in the absence of any active pollen transfer
mechanism protogyny becomes ineffective in en-
hancing crossing.
Active and efficient pollen and seed dispersal
mechanisms ensure gene flow within and between
populational segments leading to the establishment
of intergrading populations. The absence of any
such mechanism in Piper thereby establishes effec-
tive isolation barriers between individuals and be-
tween population units. Within such units variations
then could depend upon segregation in the seedling
progenies, accumulation of mutations and chance
crossing followed by segregation. Any such varia-
tion arising in the population would get immediate-
ly fixed as a result of the prevailing vegetative mode
of propagation, and such a unit may get gradually
diverged from other similar units. In P. nigrum it
was noted that dioecy occasionally breaks down
leading to the production of hermaphrodite flowers.
Such a hermaphrodite vine climbing on a tree
gradually spreads out by means of runners which
climb on nearby trees which become separated from
PIPER SPP. FROM SILENT VALLEY, KERALA
423
the mother vines in due course (apparently because
the runners get covered up by humus and soil,
gradually leading to their degeneration). Simul-
taneously the seeds germinate around the mother
vine which also grow and climb up the surrounding
trees. Thus gradually from a single vine a small
population develops, consisting of the mother vine,
its clonally developed vines, sexual progenies, the
second generation progenies of the above vines, and
their clonally developed vines etc. (Fig. 1).
When more than one vine (of different types,
species etc.) climbs up a single tree chances of out
crossing increase, resulting in hybrid seedlings.
They grow, later climbing up the same or nearby
trees and chance out crossing with the parental vine
or its clonal or other seedling progenies resulting in
further back cross and hybrid progenies, thus lead-
ing to considerable variability within the population.
These forces acting together might have contributed
to the evolution of many cultivars in due course.
When only male or female vines alone are
present initially, the population developing out of it
can be either a population of the vines of the same
sex (clonal population of male vines) or a popula-
tion of both sexes if the vine is female. This popula-
tion consists of the mother vine, its clonally
propagated female vines, its seedling progenies con-
sisting of both male and female vines, and their in-
tercrossed progenies etc. (Fig.l).
Thus in the absence of free gene flow such
populational segments will remain discrete and iso-
lated from similar populational segments in the
neighbourhood. Variations in such populational seg-
ments occur mainly by: (i) recombination and
segregation, (ii) chance crossing followed by
segregation, (iii) variations due to chance mutations
which will remain fixed as a result of the vegetative
reproduction and (iv) isolation of discrete popula-
tional segments and the subsequent divergence of
such units.
Quite often good seed setting was noted in
many isolated vines of P. attenuatum , P. ar-
gyrophyllwn , P. hymenophyllum etc. The absence
of any pollen parent in the vicinity of such vines
makes one to think of apomixis as the cause of such
high seed setting. This needs further investigation.
Morphological Notes
The species of Piper are profusely branching
shrubs, which in most cases climb up with the roots
produced at the nodes. A few like Piper longum L.
are scandent with diffused branches, while certain
other species are erect shrubs.
The shoot system in Piper consists of the or-
thotropic vegetative climbing shoot and the
plagiotropic fruiting branches which are developed
from the axillary buds. Both the shoots bear alter-
nate leaves but orthotropic shoots alone produce
roots at nodes normally. After the growth of a single
node length, the terminal bud of the fruiting branch
develops into a spike. Then the axillary bud takes
over further growth and occupy terminal position,
pushing aside the spike so as to become leaf op-
posed. This pattern of growth continues. The mode
of branching does not generally vary among the
species. Pepper plants have an adventitious root sys-
tem with extensive mass of surface feeding roots.
During our surveys of the Silent Valley Forests
we came across six already reported species of
Piper namely Piper argyrophyllum Miq., P. at-
tenuatum Buch.-Ham. ex Miq., P. hymenophyllum
Miq., P. mullesua Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don (P.
brachystachyum Wall, ex Hook, f.), P. nigrum L.
and P. trichostachyon DC., P. silentvalleyensis
(Ravindran, Nair and Asokan Nair) and P. nigrum
var. hirtellosum Asokan and Ravindran are the new
taxa identified during the present study. All the
species except P. silentvalleyensis were dioecious.
Apart from the overall similarity in the mode
of branching. Piper species show extensive varia-
tion in their leaves, flowering habit and fruiting
spikes (Tables 1-3).
Leaves vary much from species to species in
length, breadth, nature and texture. They are ovate-
elliptic in P. argyrophyllum , P. attenuatum , P.
hymenophyllum andP. nigrum and are more or less
elliptic-lanceolate in P. mullesua , P. trichostachyon
and P. silentvalleyensis. Leaf base* and leaf tip are
also quite variable. Of all the species collected, P.
nigrum has the largest leaves and P. silentvalleyen-
sis and P. mullesua have the smallest. P.
hymenophyllum has hairy leaves, petioles and
branchlets. Except for P. argyrophyllum having
sparse hairiness beneath the leaves, all others have
glabrous leaves and petioles. In P. mullesua the or-
424
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P. trichostachyon 4.6-8.2 -do- -do- hirtellous transformed to obovate 1.0 -do- green to deep
a fleshy cup yellow
decurrent
P. silentvalleyensis 2.5-5.5 erect short glabrous peltate, stalked obovate with 0.1 -do- great to blade
(bisexual) filiform. and orbicular striations
PIPER SPP. FROM SILENT VALLEY, KERALA
425
Table 3
SPEKE (MALE) CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SPECIES OF Piper
thotropic shoot, especially the juvenile ones are hir-
sute. The leaves are membranous in P. attenuatum
or slightly chartaceous in P. argyrophyllum and P.
hymenophyllum somewhat coriaceous in P. mul-
lesua and P. silentvalleyensis and coriaceous and
thick in P. nigrum and P. trichostachyon.
The inflorescence is characteristically a spike
with unisexual flowers except in P. silentvalleyensis
which has bisexual flowers. The flowers are very
small achlamydeous, represented by either stamens
or carpels only, and are subtended by bracts of vary-
ing nature. The shape, nature, texture and orienta-
tion of spikes, number of stamens and nature of
bracts etc. are important in taxonomic discretion.
Among our collections P. mullesua has the shortest
spike (female spike measures about 1.0- 1.5 cm in
length) whereas P. attenuatum has the longest spike
(male spike measures up to 17.5 cm). Bracts are ses-
sile and adnate to the rachis with free membranous
margins in P. argyrophyllum , P. attenuatum and P.
hymenophyllum , the upper portion cupular with
decurrent tail in P. nigrum , much swollen forming a
cup-like receptacle in P. mullesua. The outer surface
of the bracts is glabrous in all except in P. trichos-
tachyon where it is hirtellous. Spikes are pendent in
all the species except in P. mullesua and P. silentval-
leyensis.
The number and size of stamens in each flower
also vary among the species. In P. argyrophyllum ,
P. attenuatum and P. hymenophyllum there are
three stamens, sometimes four, whereas in others
there are only two. The stamen has dithecous anthers
in all the species.
The female flower is represented by a single
unilocular ovary. Stigma 3-5 lobed and minutely
papillate. Style absent. The developing ovary is
ovate-oblong in P. argyrophyllum , P. attenuatum
and P. hymenophyllum ; spherical in P. nigrum ,
obovate in P. trichostachyon and ellipsoidal in P.
mullesua and P. silentvalleyensis.
The fruit is a drupe, but often referred to as
berry in literature. Mature drupe is ovate-elliptic in
P. argyrophyllum,P. attenuatum, P. hymenophyllum ,
P. silentvalleyensis and P. mullesua and globoid in
P. nigrum and P. trichostachyon. Ripe fruit is as
small as 0.2 cm in diameter in P. mullesua and as
large as 1.0 cm in P. trichostachyon. The colour
change in ripe fruit follows two courses. In one, the
green mature fruit turn directly black as in P. ar-
gyrophyllum, P. attenuatum , P. hymenophyllum , P.
silentvalleyensis and P. mullesua. In the other it turns
to yellow as in P. trichostachyon and then turns to
red as in P. nigrum.
Of all the species P. nigrum was found to be
most variable and widely distributed and P.
silentvalleyensis was the rarest. Tables 1-3 sum-
marise the various morphological characters of the
various species.
The genus Piper was established by Linnaeus
in 1753 describing 17 species, of which five were
assigned to peninsular India. Miquel in his systema
piperacearum (1843) described more than 600
species including seven from India. Of the 640
species described by C. de Candolle (1869), 52
were from the Indian peninsula. Hooker (1886) in
the flora of British India described 45 species of
which 29 were from peninsular India. Gamble
(1925) reported 14 species of Piper from the old
426
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Presidency of Madras including part of Kerala and
Karnataka.
The taxonomy of the genus is difficult owing
to the greater ranges of variability and minute nature
of the flowers, which may lose their morphological
characteristics while under herbarium preparation.
Realizing these difficulties Hooker (1886) advised
the local botanists in the various centres of distribu-
tion of these species to examine the plants in their
natural habitat "with a view to matching the sexes,
Refer
Gamble, J.S. (1925): Flora of Presidency of Madras. Part VII
(Vol. II), Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta (Rep. 1967).
Hooker, J.D. (1886): The Flora of British India. Vol. V. (Rep.
1973).
and flowering with fruiting specimens and to ob-
serving the transition from young to old foliage and
the effects of locality and climate on the characters
of each species". In this regard Howard (1973) com-
ments: "the difficulty of establishing a valid species
concept within the family, and the existing over
description of taxa is recognized". No monographer
is available, and one might ask if a single life time
would be enough to straighten out one of the worst
messes in plant taxonomy.
ENCES
Howard, R.A. (1973): Notes on the Piperaceae of the lesser An-
tilles. J. Am. Arb. 54: 377-411.
Ravindran, P.N., Nair, M.K. & Asokan Nair, R. (1987): New
Taxa of Piper (Piperaceae) from Silent Valley Forest,
Kerala. J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 10 (1): 167-169.
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
ON THE GENUS CHRYSOSARUS MITCHELL (HYMENOPTERA: APOIDEA:
MEGACHILIDAE), WITH DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES FROM SOUTH INDIA1
Rajiv k. Gupta2
(With six text-figures)
Chrysosarus (Zonomegachile) tamiliensis. a new species collected from Madras, India has been described. It
possesses a distinction male genitalia with the apices of its gonocoxites prominently trilobed. The new species is close-
ly related to Meghachile ceylonica Bingham which has now been assigned to Chrysosarus ( Chrysosarus ) ceylonica
(Bingham) comb. nov.
Chrysosarus Mitchell (1943) was a small
subgenus of the genus Megactule Latreille, with
Megachile guaranitica Schrottky as type species.
Mitchell (1980) upgraded it to generic status with
the subgenera Dactylomegachile Mitchell, 1943
(type-species: Megachile parsonsiae Schrottky);
Steloides Moure, 1953 (type-species: Megachile
euzona Perez); Zonomegachile "Mitchell, 1980
(type-species: Megachile mariannae Dalla Torre)
and Chrysosarus s. str. The following combination
of characters can distinguish the genus Chrysosarus
from neighbouring megachiline genera: ‘form broad
and rather short; metasoma more cordate or ovoid in
females; sternum 6 in females either well clothed
with scopal hairs or without a bare apical lip; in
females mandible 4 or 5 dentate, usually without
cutting edges; in males: inferior margin of mandible
usually lacking any process; front coxae with well
developed spines; terga more flattened transversely
and sternum 4 always exposed*.
Mitchell described the genus as a native of the
neotropic. However, many species from India have
also been grouped under this new genus, which were
formerly under Megachile Latr. The new species
described below falls under the subgenus
Zonomegachile Mitchell, on the basis of the margin
of the hypostome being angulately or carinately
produced beneath the base of the mandible; the
metasoma with discal pubescence other than black
and legs in both sexes never bright ochraceous.
Accepted May 1989.
2Lecturer, Post-Graduate department of Zoology, Raj-Rishi
Government College, Alwar 301 001, Rajasthan.
3After Tamil Nadu, from where the species was collected.
Chrysosarus (Zonomegachile) tamiliensis3 sp. nov.
MALE: Integument in general black, tegulae brown,
legs with redness and front femora and tarsi pale-
yellow; punctures fine and closely placed; pubes-
cence shining pale-yellow including fasceae but on
legs mixed with black, tarsal fringe pale.
Head wider than median length; inner eye mar-
gin almost straight, convergent below; clypeal sur-
face almost flat, apical margin laterally angulate and
finely serrated medially; maximum width of
paraocular area about half of the clypeal basal
width, eye carina strongly protuberant and separated
from eye by a wide groove; subocellar area flat but
in between eye and midocellus deeply concave,
midfacial groove absent; occipital margin incarinate
and nearby vertex broadly incurved; genal maxi-
mum width exceeding that of eye in lateral view,
narrower below and hypostome with remarkably
broad truncated projection beneath the mandible,
fulvously pubescent; mandible tridentate, interspace
in between 2nd & 3rd tooth wide, broadly attached
to base; labial palpi very short hidden beneath the
labrum.
Scutum broadly convex; produced anterior
ridge of pronotum incarinate; scutellar surface
doubly punctured; metanotal extensions at the base
of hind wings are strongly depressed but not covered
by scutellar crest; first recurrent vein little far from
base than the second one which is quite close to apex
of second cuboital cell in fore wing, wing colour
pale-hyaline and veins brown piceous; tegulae fine-
ly punctured & fulvously pubescent
Fore leg: Coxal spine base with a patch of silky
hairs, surface finely striated; basitarsi - apex much
produced (projection from ventral surface also in-
428
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Figs. 1-6. Chrysosarus (Zonomegachile) tamiliensis sp. nov. male
1. Sternum V; 2. Sternum VI; 3. Sternum VIE; 4. Tergum VI carina; 5. Sternum VII; 6. Genitalia.
corporate) as a thick rounded lobe anteriorly, surface
yellow with white pubescence, ventrally fringe
mixed with black bristles, in 2nd, 3rd & 4th tarsi
ventral surface does not contribute in apical excava-
tions and black bristles lacking; tarsus 5: normal un-
modified but broadly robust; mid and hind legs nor-
mal.
Basal tergal concavity margin incarinate; in
terga 2-5 gradular line with a parallel groove, apical
rims distinct, discal pubescence much denser
laterally, all completely fasciate; tergum 6th carina
medially invaginated, laterally very finely serrated,
apical margin below with a rudimentary tooth at
lateral extremities, so as in tergum 7th on either sides
of median invagination at apical margin; four ster-
nites exposed, all densely pubescent; apical mar-
gins: outcurved in first, becoming broadly in-
vaginated up to 4th; 5th stemite uniformly bristled
on post-gradular area as well on lateral lobes of pre-
gradular area; 6th sternum apically evaginated,
bristled along gradulus; 7th broad and deeply in-
curved basally; apical lobe of 8th stemite notched at
angles, finely setose.
Gonobase of genitalia very narrow;
gonocoxites narrowly constricted at middle and
apices distinctly cleft to form three lobes, lateral one
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
429
with exterior fringe; penial valve quite low.
Measurements (in mm.): Total length 14.5; eyes:
length 3.02, lateral width 1.4, distances of upper,
median and lower interspaces 3.02, 2.7 and 2.5:
clypeus: median length 1.3, basal and apical widths
1.25 and 2.4; antennal sockets: distance to eye 0.51,
to clypeus 0.8, to median ocellus and to each other
0.9 and 0.9; antennae: length of scape 1.0, pedicel
0.25, flagellar segments 1st 0.3, Ilnd 0.35, Vlth 0.4,
Xlth 0.6 and breadth of Vlth 0.3 and Xlth 0.4; lateral
ocelli: distance to eye 0.55, to occipital margin 1.0
and to each other 0.7; labrum: median length 1.5,
basal and apical width 1.7 and 1.1; scutum: median
length and maximum width 3.15 and 4.5; scutel-
lum: median length of dorsal surface 1.1; fore wing:
total length 9.0 and length of radial cell 2.25; rela-
tive median widths of terga 1st to Vlth: 2.7, 4.5,
4.55, 4.5, 3.7 and 3.0.
FEMALE: Not known.
Material examined: Holotype: male, Gandhi
Memorial Park, Madras (Tamil Nadu), 8 July 1981,
Coll. Rajiv K. Gupta (N.P.C., Division of Entomol-
ogy, I.A.R.I., New Delhi); no paratype.
Flower record: Callistomum sp.
The new species described above is closely re-
lated to Megachile ceylonica Bingham, 1897
(reported from Ceylon and Tenasserim, I have also
trapped it at Madurai, Tamil Nadu). M. ceylonica
also falls under subgenus Chrysosarus s. str. of
genus Chrysosarus (diagnosis: wings pale-yellow
with testaceous veins, tegulae testaceous, margin of
hypostome not at all produced below the man-
dibles). Hence a new combination is suggested. Be-
sides the subgeneric characters, ceylonica further
differs from tamiliensis in its tetradentate mandible,
Vlth tergal carina margin without serration on either
sides of median incurve; apices of gono-coxites not
trilobed and overall body pubescence goJ den-yel-
low.
Acknowledgements
I thank Drs. S.I. Farooqi and S.L. Gupta, both
senior scientists at the Entomology Division,
I.A.R.I., New Delhi, for facilities and guidance in
the preparation of this manuscript.
References
Bingham, C.T. (1 897): Hymenoptera, Vol. I, Wasps and Bees. In: Megachile. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Amer. 36: 656-671 .
W.T. Blandford’s the Fauna of British India. Taylor & Mitchell, T.B. (1980): A generic revision of the megacchiline
Francis, London CCIC: p. 482. bees of the Western Hemisphere. Contr. Deptt. Entomol.,
Mitchell, T.B. (1943): On the classfification of Neotropical North Carolina state University, Raleigh, N.C., p. 72.
A NEW SPECIES OF DASINEURA (DIPTERA: CECIDOMYIIDAE) INJURIOUS TO
BUDS OF BRASSICA SPP. (CRUCIFERAE) IN HARYANA1
R.M. Sharma2 and Harvir Singh3
(With thirteen text-figures )
A new species of cecidomyiid fly, Dasineura hisarensis which breeds in the buds of Brassica campestris L. var.
toria , B. rapa L. var. glauca and B.juncea (Linn.) Czem and Coss sub. sp .juncea Linn, at Hisar, Haryana state, has
been described and illustrated. The available biological information on this species is also included.
Introduction
In the year 1988, a large number of
cecidomyiid flies were bred by one of us (HS) from
Accepted March 1990.
Zoological Survey of India, Western Regional Station,
Pune 411 005.
department of Plant Breeding, Haryana Agricultural
University, Hisar 125 004.
the buds of Brtm/oz campestris L. var. toria, B. rapa
L. var. glauca and B. juncea (L.) sub. sp. juncea
Linn, at Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar. On
closer examination all these flies were determined
as assignable to a new species under the genus
Dasineura Rondani. Until 1981, Dasineura Ron-
dani, a genus of Phytophagous cecidomyiids was
represented in India by six species (Grover 1981).
Sharma (1987) added one more to the list and the
present species is the eighth.
7
430
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
0 05mm
Fig. 2-13
Figs. 1-13. Dasineura hisarensis sp. nov.
1. Wing (male); 2. Genitalia (dorsal view); 2a. Dorsal and subdorsal plates. 3. Claw (male); 4. Claw (female); 5. Palpus (male); 6.
Scape, pedicel, third and fourth antennal segments (male); 7. Terminal two antennal segments (male); 8. Fifth antennal segment (male);
9. Palpus (female); 10. Scape, pedicel, third, fourth and fifth antennal segment (female); 1 1 . Terminal two antennal segments (female);
12. Sternal spatula; 13. Ovipositor.
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
431
Dasineura hisarensis sp. nov. (Figs. 1-13 )
MALE: Body 2.20 mm. long, light yellowish-brown.
Eyes confluent above. Trophi normal. Palpus 4- seg-
mented, pale brown, sparsely setose, moderately
long, first segment (10 : 7)4 cylindrical, length 1.42
x its maximum thickness; second sgment (20 : 10)
cylindrical, length 2.00 x its maximum thickness;
third segment (32 : 8) cylindrical, longer and thin-
ner than second, length 4.00 x its maximum thick-
ness; fourth segment (32 : 8) cylindrical as long as
third and 4.00 x its maximum thickness.
Antenna: Shorter than body with 2 + 13 to 2 +
14 segments (2 + 14 in holotype), segments with
cylindrical enlargements and long apical stems: en-
largements with two whorls of setae, basal ones
much shorter than apical; circumfila ring-like;
scape (16 : 24) cup-shaped wider than long;
pedicel (15 :16) subglobose: third segment (33)
confluent with and shorter than fourth, enlargement
(20 : 15) 0.60 the length of the segment and 1.33 its
maximum thickness, stem (10 :6) 0.50 the length of
the enlargement and 1.66 x its maximum thickness;
fourth segment (47) with enlargement (24 : 1 1) a lit-
tle more than half the length of the segment and 2. 18
x its maximum thickness, stem (23 : 6) a little less
than the length of the enlargement and slgihtly less
than 4.00 x its maximum thickness; fifth segment
(47) as long as fourth, enlargement (23 : 14) 0.48
the length of the segment and 1.64 x its maximum
thickness, stem (24 : 6) a little more than the length
of the enlargement and 4.00 x its maximum thick-
ness, distal flagellar segments gradually becoming
shorter and thinner; penultimate segment (26) with
an enlargement (15 : 10) 0.57 the length of the seg-
ment and 1.50 x its maximum thickness, stem (11 :
3) 0.73 the length of the enlargement and 3.66 x its
maximum thickness; terminal segment (18:9) con-
ical, shortest of all, length twice its maximum thick-
ness.
Wing: (5 1 : 22) hyaline, 2.36 x as long as broad,
costa sparsely hairy, vein Rj joining costa beyond
0.25 the length of the wing, vein R5 reaching costa
well before the wing apex, uninterrupted at its union
with the latter, vein Cu forked.
Legs: Long, moderately hairy, metatarsus (6)
4Numbers in parentheses indicate length: breadth ratios,
measured with an oculometer.
shorter than terminal tarsal segment, second seg-
ment (63) longest of all, longer than the following
segments combined together (53); claw (7) dentate
on all legs, evenly curved; empodium broad or elon-
gated, longer than claw (11).
Genitalia: Light brown, sparsely setose, basal
clasp segment (41 : 27) enlarged apically, narrowed
basally with a heavily setose elongated basal lobe,
length 1 .5 1 x its maximum apical width, shorter than
terminal clasp segment; later (48 : 6) slender, even-
ly narrowed, ending in a dark pointed tooth, length
8.00 x its maximum thickness; dorsal plate (25 : 25)
as long as broad, deeply and broadly bifid, lobes
broad, rounded apically, sparsely setose; subdorsal
plate (20 : 11) shorter and narrower than dorsal
plate, slightly less than twice its maximum width,
broadly and deeply incised, lobes elongated, tips
rounded, setose apically; parameres cylindrical,
beset with fine setae laterally, bilobed apically,
slightly shorter than aedeagus; later (25 : 2) rounded
apically, as long as dorsal plate, length a little more
than 12.00 x its maximum thickness.
FEMALE: Body 2.28 mm long (including ovipositor).
Eyes and trophi as in male. Palpus : 4 segmented,
first segment (9 : 7) squarish, 1.28 x as long as thick;
second segment (18:9) cylindrical, twice as long as
thick; third segment (25 : 7) cylindrical, wide api-
cally, 1.38 x longer than second and 3.57 x as long
as its maximum apical width; fourth segment (34 :
6) cylindrical, longest and thinnest of all, 1.36 x
longer than third and 5.66 x as long as thick.
Antenna: 0.33 the length of the body, with 2 +
13 to 2 + 14, cylindrical, sessile segments (2 + 13 in
allotype), segments with two whorls of long setae,
circumfila low; scape (11 : 15) cup-shaped, pedicel
(14 : 13) subglobose; third segment (25) confluent
with and slightly longer than fourth, enlargement
(22 : 1 1) 2.00 x its maximum thickness; fourth seg-
ment (22 :10) slightly shorter than third, enlarge-
ment 2.20 x its maximum thickness; distal flagellar
segments gradually becoming shorter, penultimate
segment ( 1 1 : 9) 1 .22 x as long as thick; terminal seg-
ment (11 : 9) conical, as long as penultimate, length
1.22 x its maximum basal width. Wing, legs and
claw as in male.
Ovipositor: exerted, protractile, typical
dasineurine, 0.33 the length of the body and shorter
than abdomen, terminal lobe (25 : 6) elongate,
length 4.16 x its maximum thickness, with a few
432
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
lateral long setae; ventral lobe very small, setulose.
Larva: whitish when young, turns pink as grow
old. Sternal spatula present, distally incised by a V-
shaped emargination forming two lobes: shaft weak-
ly sclerotized.
Host Plants : Brassica campestris L. var.
toria,B. rapa L. var. glauca and B.juncea (L.) Czem
and Coss, subsp. juncea L. (Cruciferae).
Holotype male, allotype female and paratypes
5 males, 8 females dissected and mounted on slides,
4 larvae on slides. Ex. buds of Brassica campestris
L. var. toria HAU, Hisar (Haryana), India 1 5 Nov.
1988. Harvir Singh Coll. All types are deposited in
Z.S.I. Pune for the time being and will be deposited
in National Zoological Collections, Z.S.I. Calcutta
(Regd. Nos. WRS/ZSI/Ent 10/79 to Ent 10/97).
Distribution: India: Haryana state (Hisar and
other districts).
Etymology: The specific epithet hisarensis
refers to the type locality, Hisar in Haryana state,
India.
Dasineura brassicae (Winnertz) commonly
called the Brassica Pod Midge is known as one of
the most serious pests of rape, Brassica napus L.,
B. rapa L. and B. campestris L. in Europe (Ahman
1985). But the incidence of Dasineura on Brassica
spp. from India constitutes the first report for major
rapeseed growing Asian countries (Nepal, Pakis-
tan, Bangladesh and China).
The females of D. hisarensis sp. nov.
resemble the Palaearctic species D. brassicae
(Winn.) but males differ in the genitalia (as com-
municated in the identification report of C.I.E. Lon-
don). This new species comes close to D.
amaramanjarae Grover (1965) and D. psoraleae
Sharma (1987) among Indian species affecting in-
florescence of Mangifera indica Linn, and Psoralea
corylifolia Linn, respectively; but differs con-
siderably from both the species in having different
number, length and breadth proportions of antennal
segments; proportions of empodium and claw;
shape of basal lobe of basal clasp segment; structure
of dorsal and subdorsal plates and proportions of
dorsal lamella of ovipositor.
The scant biological information available on
the species is summarised. The female lay eggs in
flower buds by inserting its ovipositor. At the site of
oviposition, an eye-shaped spot is developed which
gradually widens. This gall-midge does not form
any complex gall. The infested buds inflate in size.
Each bud may harbour 2-15 larvae inside. Such in-
flated buds fail to form pods, retain their normal
colour till the larvae drop out for pupation in the soil.
Later the infested buds die, turn black but remain at-
tached to the plant till harvest. This species is mul-
tivoltine. Females outnumber the males (male 42 :
58 female). Drastic decline in field population oc-
curs after the first week of March.
At present, we are uncertain of its economic
status, largely because infestation of this species on
Brassica plants was encountered only recently.
However, based on the preliminary field observa-
tions by one of us (HS), pest incidence varied from
2-5% depending on the different agroclimatic zones
of Haryana. The larvae of this species are parasitized
by an unidentified chalcid. The extent of parasitiza-
tion varies from 8.70 to 18.75% during December to
March.
Acknowledgements
We thank Prof. M.S. Jairajpuri, Director,
Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta; Dr R.S. Pil-
lai, Jt. Director, SRS, Madras and Dr G.M. Yazdani,
Scientist-SE and Officer-in-Charge, WRS, Pune, for
facilities and encouragement. One of us (HS) is
grateful to Dr. Hari Singh, Senior Scientist (Oil-
seeds), HAU, Hisar, for providing facilities to carry
out the survey for this insect pest in Haryana State.
We also thank the Director, C.I.E. London for kind-
ly confirming the identity of the species.
References
Ahman, I. (1985): Larval feeding period and growth of Dasineura
brassicae (Diptera) on Brassica host plants, OIKOS 44:
191-194.
Grover, P. (1965): Studies on Indian gall-midges (Diptera :
Cecidomyiidae) XII. The Mango Blossom Midge.
Dasyneura amaramanjarae n.sp. Ann. ent. soc. America,
55(2); 202- 206.
Grover, P. (1981): A catalogue of Indian gall-midges.
Cecidologia Internationale 2 (2-3): 63-108.
Sharma, R.M. (1987): Dasineura psoraleae (Diptera :
Cecidomyiidae) new Gall -midge infesting inflorescence
of Psoralea corylifolia Linn. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
84 (1): 186-189.
OPHIORRHIZA TALEVALUENSIS (RUBIACEAE)
A NEW SPECIES FROM ARUNACHAL PRADESH1
G.D. Pal and G.S Giri2
(With a text -figure)
Ophiorrhiza talevalliensis sp. nov. (Fig 1, A-D.)
Ophiorrhiza bracteatae Korth. affinis, sed dif-
fert herbis glabris, floribus albis, corollae tubis 1 .75-
2.0 cm longis, fauce intus dense piloso; stylis
minoribus, 1.0-1.25 cm longis.
Holotypus lectus a G.D. Pal and locum
Arunachal, Inferior Subansiri District, Pange-Tale
valley Road, Tale Valley, die 16.4. 1980, 2900 m, sub
numere 77660 et positus in CAL. Isotypus GD. Pal
77660 A positus in ARUN.
Erect or suberect herbs, 20-45 cm high, rarely
decumbent, rooting from the lower nodes, un-
branched or branching at ground level. Stems terete,
fleshy or the lower part woody or subwoody, some-
what compressed, glabrous or dirty brownish ver-
rucose; intemodes 3-6 cm long, nodes slightly swol-
len. Leaves opposite decussate, ovate-elliptic, ellip-
tic or elliptic-lanceolate, (1.5—) 5.0-8.0 (-11.0) x
(1.0-) 2.0-2.5 (-3.5) cm, base usually acute to
cuneate, rarely subrounded; apex acute to
acuminate; margin entire; membranous; 6-9 (-12)
nerves arise from either side of the midrib, oblique,
reticulations not prominent; both surfaces glabrous
or slightly verrucose on the nerves beneath; upper
surfaces dark brown and lower surfaces remain
brownish-green or turn light brown on drying;
petioles slender, (0.5-) 0.8- 1.8 (-3.0) cm long,
glabrous or brownish verrucose.
Inflorescence terminal cymose panicle, usual-
ly unbranched or rarely dichotomously branched,
upto 3 cm across, 4-8 flowered. Flowers usually in
pairs and rarely unpaired, milky white; peduncles
1. 5-5.0 cm long, verrucose; lower bracts leafy, lan-
ceolate, 18-23 x 2.5-4.0 mm, base cuneate, apex
acute, uninerved, glabrous; upper bracts smaller,
linear, up to 10 mm long; outer flowers bracteolate,
inner flowers bracteolate or ebracteolate, bracteoles
linear, 5-8 mm long, uninerved; pedicels up to 2 mm
long for paired flowers and 3-5 mm long for un-
accepted March 1990.
2Botanical Survey of India, Arunachal Field Station,
Itanagar 791 111
paired flowers, glabrous or verrucose. Calyx-tube
globose or trapezoid, c. 2 mm across, prominently
costate, costa often decurrent to the pedicels,
glabrous or verrucose; lobes 5, usually equal, rarely
unequal, narrowly oblong with acute or acuminate
apex, 1.0-1.75 mm long, uninerved, glabrous.
Corolla narrowly campanulate, up to 2.5 cm
long; tubes 1.75-2.0 cm long, 6-8 mm across
towards the throat, glabrous without, plumose hairy
in the form of a ring from the throat downward about
a length of 4-5 mm, hairs bright yellow; lobes 5,
ovate, acute, 4-5 x 3.5-4.5 mm, slightly dilated or
reflexed, prominently keeled, glabrous.
Stamens 5, inserted near the throat of the
corolla-tube; filaments c. 1 mm long, glabrous; an-
thers embedded within the plumose ring of hairs,
oblong, c. 2.5 mm long, dorsifixed, distinctly
bilobed, lobes narrow at base, longitudinally dehis-
cent. Disc c. 0.5 mm high. Ovary inferior, globose,
glabrous; styles 1.0-1.25 cm long, glabrous, in-
cluded within the corolla-tube and remain below the
level of plumose hairs; stigma flat, bilobed. Fruits
not seen.
Flowers : April- May.
Type: INDIA: Arunachal Pradesh, Lower Sub-
ansiri District: Pange-Tale valley road, Tale valley,
2900 m, 16.4.1980, GD. Pal 77660 (Holotype -
CAL, Isotype - ARUN); Pange, c. 2240 m,
19.4.1980, GD. Pal 77735 (Paratype- ARUN).
Ophiorrhiza talevalliensis is an elegant
species that grows along the road side under shade
or on the moist forest floor over thick humus. This
new taxon is closely allied to O. bracteata Korth.,
but can be differentiated by its glabrous habit, ovate-
elliptic to elliptic-lanceolate leaves with acute to
cuneate base, larger flowers (up to 2.5. cm long)
with corolla-tube 1. 8-2.0 cm long, tubes densely
pilose near the throat within and styles remain below
the level of plumose hairs; whereas in the latter
species, the stem is pilose and leaves oblanceolate
with gradually tapering base; pedicels rufo-
puberulous, flowers smaller (up to 1.8 m long) with
corolla-tube 1.0-1.25 cm long, tubes two-third hairy
434
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Fig.l. Ophiorrhiza talevailiensis sp. nov.
A. Habit; B. Flower, C. Flower split open; D. Stamen.
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
435
from the base upward and styles exceeding the level
of plumose hairs.
The new taxon also comes closer to O. wattii
Fischer, but O. wattii is characterised by more or
less puberulous habit, larger leaves with caudate
apex, smaller flowers (up to 1.3 cm long) with tube
pubescent at the middle third within, stamens in-
serted at the middle of corolla-tube with longer fila-
ments (3.5-5.0 mm long).
Acknowledgements
We thank the Director, Botanical Survey of
India, Calcutta and the Scientist ‘B’ -in-charge,
Arunachal Field station. Botanical Survey of India,
Itanagar, for all facilities. Thanks are also due to Dr.
N. C. Majumdar, Scientist ‘SD’ for the Latin diag-
nosis of the new taxon.
A NEW SPECIES OF MAES A FORSK. (MYRSINACEAE)
FROM ARUNACHAL PRADESH1
G.S. Gmi and G.D. Pal2
(With a text -figure )
Maesa zirocnsis sp. nov. (Fig.l,A-G).
Maesa perlario (Lour.) Men*. Proxime affinis,
sed facile distinguenda ramis dense ferrugineo-
pilosis, foliis ellipticis ad elliptico-lanceolatis, char-
taceis, supra pubescentis, in sicco denigricantibus,
inflorescentiis paniculatis axillaribus perramosis,
sepalis dorsaliter glabris, petalis infra medium con-
natis, lobis manifeste glandulari-lineatis.
Holotypus lectus a G.D . Pal ad locum
Arunachal, Inferior Subansiri District Ziro-begi
road, 6 km E Ziro, 1700 m, die 9 April 1980 sub-
numere 77433A positus in CAL. Isotypii: GD. Pal
77433 B positus in CAL; GD. Pal 11433 C positus
inARUN.
Shrubs, 2.0-2.5 m tall, erect, branches woody,
terete, striate, lenticellate, densely rusty pilose.
Leaves: alternate, elliptic to elliptic-lanceo-
late, (7.0-) 8.0-11.5 (-13.0) x (2.2-) 2.5-3.0 (-3.5)
cm, base acute to subrounded, apex acuminate, mar-
gin denticulate, 8- 10 nerves on either side of midrib,
lateral nerves bifurcate near the margin, one end
from marginal loop and the other terminate to a
gland at each dentation; upper surfaces sparsely
rusty pubescent, lower surfaces densely pubescent,
hairs more dense on the nerves and nervules;
petioles strong, 0.6- 1.0 cm long, densely rusty
pubescent.
Accepted March 1990
2Botanical Survey of India, Arunachal Field Station,
Itanagar 791 111
Inflorescence: axillary panicles, usually
double the length of petioles, densely rusty pubes-
cent; bracts narrowly triangular or subulate, 0.5-1. 0
mm long, sparsely hairy without, margin ciliate.
Flowers : 5-merous, 2.5 mm across, pedicel-
late, pedicels 1 .0-1.5 mm long, densely rusty pubes-
cent; 2-bracteolate, bracteoles like those of bracts.
Sepals broadly ovate, 0.5-0.75 x 0.5 mm, imbricate,
dorsally glabrous, ciliolate at margin. Petals joined
below the middle, lobes nearly triangular or ovate,
1.0 x 0.5- 1.0 mm, apex obtuse, prominently glan-
dular lined, the glandular lines arise from the attach-
ment of filaments to the petals, yellow.
Stamens : opposite and attached at the base of
petal, included within the tube, filaments small,
0.25-0.5 mm long, glabrous; anthers triangular,
0.25-0.5 mm, distinctly notched at apex, divergent
at base, dorsifixed, longitudinally splitted. Ovary
semi inferior, subglobose, glabrous, c. 1 mm diam.
Style short, c. 1mm long, slightly flattened towards
apex, glabrous. Stigma capitate or indistinctly
lobed.
Local name : ‘Abanchini’ (Apatani).
Type: INDIA : Arunachal Pradesh, Lower Sub-
ansiri District, Old Ziro-Begi road, 6 km from Old
Ziro, 1700 m, 9.4.1980, G.D. Pal 77433A
(Holotype-CAL), Isotype; ibid.: G.D. Pal 77433B
(CAL); ibid.: GD. Pal 77433C (ARUN).
FIs. & Fruits. : September- December.
Ecology: Grows in moist primary forests along
the hilly foot track.
The new species is closely allied to Maesa per-
436
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Fig. 1 . Maesa ziroensis sp. nov.
A. Habit; B. Inflorescence; C. Rower with bract and bracteoles; D. Petals with stamens; E. Stamen (dorsal view);
F. Stamen (ventral view); G. Gynoecium.
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
437
larius (Lour.) Merr., but can be easily distinguished
by its densely rusty pilose branches; leaves elliptic
to elliptic-lanceolate, chartaceous, upper surfaces
pubescent, turn black on drying; inflorescence
branched axillary panicles; sepals dorsally glabrous;
petals joined below the middle and lobes prominent-
ly glandular lined.
Acknowledgements
We thank the Director, Botanical Survey of
India, Calcutta and Scientist B in-charge, Arunachal
Field Station, Itanagar, for all facilities, and Dr. N.C.
Majumder, Scientist SD for the Latin diagnosis of
the new taxon.
DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES OF GENUS COEUOXYS LATREILLE
(HYMENOPTERA: APOIDEA: MEGACHILIDAE)1
Rajiv K. Gupta2
(With four text -figures )
A new species of genus Coelioxys Latreille has been described from Pathankot (Himachal Pradesh). Coelioxys
(Coelioxys) indicus sp.nov. described in this paper has close affinities with Coelioxys (C.)farincsa Smith.
‘Bees of the genus Coelioxys are so distinct
that ever since Latreille (1809) erected the genus,
not a single bee now considered to be in Coelioxys
has been described in another genus...’ (Baker
1975). The distinctive characters which clearly
separate Coelioxys from the rest of the Megachiline
bees are: arolium absent between the claws; axillae
produced behind to points; abdomen conical, in
females acute or spatulate and in males with a few
to numerous spines, at apex; pollen collecting scopa
absent; cleptoparasites, mostly in the nests of
Megachile Latr., Chalicodoma Lepeletier and some
Xylocopa Latr.
Approximately 20 species of Coelioxys have
been so far described from the Indian region. The
new species described here, falls under subgenus
Coelioxys s. str., on the basis of the following
characters (Mitchell 1973 and Baker 1975); ‘Ocel-
lar area moderately to closely punctured, pre-occipi-
tal carina incomplete medially; inner surface of
mandible simple; prothoracic tubercles with carina
distinct but not expanded into thin plate-like struc-
ture; scutellum usually rounded posteriorly;
gradular grooves complete on metasomal terga two
and three; in females VI th sternum with margin en-
tire or constricted subapically, never notched; in
males hypostomal area of gena with distinct excava-
tion, foveal area of second tergum closely punc-
1 Accepted May 1990
^.G. Department of Zoology, Raj Rishi College,
Alwar 301 001 , Rajasthan.
3After the native country, India.
tured, Vth tergum with inconspicuous lateral spines,
Vlth tergum with dorsal spines long or short and
Vllth sternum represented by two small sclerites.’
The known Indian species of genus Coelioxys
which have been grouped under Coelioxys s.str. are:
farinosa Smith and decipiens a Spinola ( =apicata
Smith). Among them apicata was designated the
type of subgenus Liothyrapis Cockerell (genus
Liothyrapis nov. stat, Pasteels 1977), later became a
synonym of the subgenus Coelioxys s. str. (Krom-
bein et al . 1979).
Coelioxys (Coelioxys) indicus sp. nov.3
MALE: Integument black, eyes, mandibles, an-
tennae, tegulae, legs, tergal margins and stemites
with redness; in general coarsely and closely punc-
tured, dorsally on metasomal tergites sparse; pubes-
cence snowy-white all over the body; face, hypos-
tome, thorax below and propodeum with erect and
incomplete tergal fasceae, complete sternal fasceae
and on tergal discs ferruginous; tarsal fringe white.
Head much wider than median length; eyes
bare, inner margin broadly incurved above and
semicarinate; clypeus flat, totally covered with
pubescence, apical margin slightly outcurved with
4 fine dents at middle; supraclypeal surface
resemble clypeus, midfacial line fine; paraocular
areas sloping towards antennal sockets, densely
hairy; subocellar area coarsely punctured; vertex
slightly convex, sparsely hairy, occipital margin
broadly incurved; genae narrowed down, maximum
width lesser than eye width in lateral view, hypos-
438
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. S0CIE1Y, Vol. 87
Figs. 1-4. Coelioxys (Coelioxys) indicus sp. nov. (male)
1. Head, front view; 2. Axillae and scutellum, dorsal view; 3. Tergum Vlth, dorsal view 4. Wings
Dots on Figs. 1,2,4
tome much excavated and fulvously pubescent.
Scutum anteriorly convex, punctures close,
anteriorly with ferruginous and rest with fine setae,
all sparse; axillar spine short; scutellum resemblig
scutum and axillae in surface, broadly emarginate
posteriorly; mese- and metepistemites with long
indicate pubescence.
bristles equal to the length of coxal spine; legs nor-
mal, unmodified; wings pale-hyaline, veins brown-
piceous, first recurrent vein at the base and second
slightly far from the apex of second cuboital cell of
forewing.
Apical fasceae on terga 1-5 as well as discal
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
439
pubescence confined to lateral sides, apical rims
smooth with red lustre; Vlth tergum with 4
prominently produced spines at apex and two at ex-
treme lateral sides; at centre of apical spines a fine
projection follows the subapical concavity on the
dorsal surface; only 4 stemites exposed; apical mar-
gin of first sternum broadly outcurved; post-
gradular area of sternum 2 medio-laterally with a
short transverse smooth tubercle on either side; ster-
num 4th bidentate at apex; all sterna completely fas-
ciate, fasceae becomes much prominent posteriorly
up to 4th and discal pubescence, and also increases
in density upto fourth sternum.
Measurements: (in mm): Total length 7.0; maxi-
mum width and median length of face 2.25 and 1 .5;
eyes: length and median width 1.5 and 0.8, distance
between upper, median and lower interspace 1.52,
1.5 and 1.3; clypeus: median length 0.51, basal and
apical widths 0.5 and 1.2; antennal sockets: dis-
tance to eye 0.35, to mid-ocellus 0.51, to clypeus
0.35 and to each Other 0.4: antennae: length of scape
0.5, pedicel 0.15, flagellar segments Ist-0.12, Ilnd-
0-15, XIth-0.25, widths of 1st 0.15 and Xlth 0.152;
lateral ocelli: distance to eye 0.4, to occipital mar-
gin 0.52 and to each other 0.4; mandible: length of
outer margin 0.85; length of segment 1st and Ilnd of
labial palpi 0.5 and 0.4; scutum: median length and
maximum width 1.0 and 1.52; length of scutellar
surface in dorsal view 0.5; total wing length 5.5 and
Refe
Baker, J.R. (1975): Taxonomy of five nearctic subgenera of
Coelioxys. Univ. Karts. SciBull., 50: 649-730.
Krombein, K.V. et al. (1979): Catalog of Hymenoptera in
America north of Mexico. Vol.2, 2076-2077. Smithsonian
Institution Press, Washington D.C.; P.D.Hurd, D.R. Smith
& B.D. Burks.
median widths of terga 1st to Vlth 1.5, 2.0, 1.54,
1.52, 1.35 & 1.0.
FEMALE: not known.
Material examined: Holotype: male, Simla Hill,
Pathankot (H.P.), 3.V.1982 (on wing), Coll. Rajiv K.
Gupta (NPC, Division of Entomology, I.A.R.I., N.
Delhi); Paratype male (same data as for holotype
(with author himself).
The new species is close to C. (C.) farinosa
Smith in its subgeneric characters. However,
farinosa distinctly differs from indicus sp. nov.in:
clypeal margin without median dents, simply out-
curved; scutum with 2 patches of ferruginous hairs
at anterio-lateral angles; axillar spine more
prominently produced; coxal spine merely markable
and with dense pubescence near its base; first recur-
rent vein slightly far from the apex of second cuboi-
tal cell in forewing; legs dorsally with dense white
ferruginous hairs; medio-lateral tubercles on ster-
num 2nd absent; lateral spines and dorsal spines at
apex of 6th tergum comparatively short and obtuse;
body size large (12 mm.)
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to Dr. S.K. Bhatia, Head, for
providing the necessary facilities and to Dr. S.I.
Farooqi, Senior Scientist, for his cooperation and
guidance during this study while both were stationed
at Division of Entomology, I.A.R.I., New Delhi.
2NCES
Mitchell, T.B. (1973): A subgeneric revision of the tees of the
genus Coelioxys of the Western Hemisphere. Contr. Deptt.
Entomol. N. Carolina State Univ. 129 pp.
Pasteels, JJ. (1977): Les megachilini parasites (Coelioxys s.l.J
d’Afrique noire. Rev. Zool. Afr.91: 161-197.
NOMENCLATURE OF INDIAN SPECIES OF OXYTENANTHERA MUNRO1
H.B. Naithani2
The genus Oxytenanthera was described by
Munro in 1868. Holttum (1956) pointed out that this
genus is in fact monotypic with Oxytenanthera
abyssinica (A. Rich.) Munro, a native African type
Accepted September 1990.
department of Systematic Botany, Forest Research Institute,
Dehra Dun 248 006.
species while the rest of the Asiatic species placed
under this genus belong either to Gigantochloa or
Dendrocalamus. This view has been supported by
Clayton and Renvoize (1986) and Widjaja (1987)
also. However while working on the bamboos of Sri
Lanka, Soderstrom and Ellis (1988) discovered that
Sri Lankan species of Oxytenanthera actually
440
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
belonged to a new taxon which they described as a
new genus Pseudoxytenanthera and transfered
Oxytenanthera monodelpha Thw. under a new
generic name. According to them the capitate
clusters of spikelets, pubescent style, 6 stamens and
lack of lodicules in Pseudoxytenanthera allies it to
Dendrocalamus, but it differs in the branching pat-
tern and vine-like nature of the culms; the large
central bud remains dormant with simultaneous
production of numerous basal branches, the whole
breaking through the Jfclrd sheath or pushing it off
during its development. When developed the large
central bud becomes an elongated and whip-like
branch, producing clusters of branches at each of its
nodes. Due to its hairy anther tips it is allied to
Gigantochloa, but differs by the characters of the
fruit with a thin pericarp below, which is separable
from the seed. From Bambusa it differs by its
capitate inflorescence and non-disarticulating
spikelets with short rhachilla segments. It also
resembles Oxytenanthera to some degree, but
Holttum (1956) and Clayton and Renvoize (1986)
restrict that genus to the single African species, O.
abyssinica, which has large spikelets arranged in
tufts and with a hollow style.
Majumdar (1989) also independently came to
the conclusion that Indian species of Oxytenanthera
also differ from the actual original generic concept
and in brief he described a genus Pseudotenant hera
by giving the characters "subscandent to scandent;
branches in tufts; no resting central bud; style thin,
solid, pericarp thin, separable from seed". Inciden-
tally the characters on which the genus Pseudo-
tenanthera Majumdar is based are similar to Pseu-
doxytenanthera Soderstrom and Ellis.
Therefore the Pseudotenanthera Majumdar is
a superfluous name and may be treated as a synonym
of Pseudoxytenanthera Soderstrom and Ellis. Ac-
Refe
Clayton, W.D. & Renvoize, S.A. (1986): Genera Gramineum,
Kew Bull. (Add. Ser.) 73:1-69, H.M.S.O., London.
Gamble, J.S. (1896): The Bambuseae of British India. Ann. Roy.
Bot. Gard. Cal. 7: 1-133.
Holttum, R.E. (1956): The classification of bamboos. Phytomor-
phology 6: 73-90.
Majumdar, R. (1989).7n: S. Karthikeyan, S.K. Jain, M.R Nayar
& M. Sanjappa. FI, Ind. Enum. Monocot. 274-283., B.S.I.
cordingly the following new combinations have be-
come necessary.
Pseudoxytenanthera bourdillonii
(Gamble) Naithani comb. nov.
Oxytenanthera bourdillonii Gamble in Ann.
Roy. Bot. Gard. Cal. 7:76, pi. 67. 1896.
Pseudotenanthera bourdillonii (Gamble) R.
Majumdar in Karthikeyan et al., FI. Ind. Enum.
Monocot. 281. 1989.
Distribution : Kerala.
Pseudoxytenanthera ritcheyi
(Munro) Naithani comb. nov.
Bambusa ritcheyi Munro in Trans. Linn. Soc.
Lond. 26:113. 1868.
Oxytenanthera ritcheyi (Munro) Blatt. and
McCann in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 33:773 (Oct.)
1929; Blatt. in Ind. For. 55:592. (Nov.) 1929.
Pseudotenanthera ritcheyi (Munro) R.
Majumdar in Karthikeyan et al ., FI. Ind. Enum,.
Monocot. 281. 1989.
Oxytenanthera monostigma Bedd., FI. Sylv.
333. 1873 et Ic. PI. Or. 1:56. t. 234. 1873; Gamble
in Ann. Roy. Bot Gard. Cal. 7:74, pi. 65. 1896.
Distribution: Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala
and Tamil Nadu.
Pseudoxytenanthera stocksii
(Munro) Naithani comb. nov.
Oxytenanthera stocksii Munro in Trans. Linn.
Soc. Lond. 26: 130. 1868; Gamble in Ann. Roy. Bot.
Gard. Cal. 7:75, pi. 66. 1896.
Pseudotenanthera stocksii (Munro) R.
Majumdar in Karthikeyan et al ., FI. Ind. Enum.
Monocot. 281. 1989.
Distribution: Maharashtra, Kerala and Goa.
N CE S
Howrah.
Munro, W. (1868): A monograph of the Bambusaceae. Trans.
Linn.Soc.Lond. 26:1-157.
Soderstrom, T.R. & Ellis, R.R (1988): The woody bamboos
(Poaceae: Bambuseae) of Sri Lanka; A morphological
Anatomical studies. Smithson. Contrib. Bot.No.72: 1-75.
Widjaja, E.A. (1987) : A revision of Malesian Gigantochloa
(Poaceae-Bambusoideae). Reinwardtia 10 (3): 291-380.
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
441
A NEW UTRICULARIA L. ( LENTIBULARIACEAE) FROM PENINSULAR INDIA1
M.K. Janarthanam and A.N. Henry2
(With a text-figure )
Utricularia subramanii sp. nov.
U. bifida L. Affinis sed pedicellis in fruc-
tiferum erectis; calicibus lobis ad apicem acutis,
acuminatis vel dentatis; labio infero corollam ligulis
fimbriatis et testa cellulis intra non striatis differt.
Herbs; rhizoids up to 8 mm long, thick at base,
tapering towards apex, glandular; stolons filiform.
Racemes up to 15 cm long, erect, glabrous, 2-5
flowered; scales c. 1.2. x 0.8 mm, basifixed, ovate,
3-nerved, acute to acuminate at apex; bracts c. 1.5 x
1.2 mm, basifixed, ovate, 3-nerved, acue to
acuminate at apex; bracteoles c. 1 mm long, subu-
late to linear; flowers up to 7 mm long; pedicels up
to 2.5 mm long, shorter than calyx-lobes, erect,
winged. Calyx-lobes subequal, ovate, denticulate;
upper lobe c. 3 x 2.8 mm (c. 4 x 4 mm in fruit), acute
to acuminate at apex; lower lobe c. 2.4 x 2 mm (c.
4x3 mm in fruit), 2 A dentate at apex. Corolla yel-
low; upper lip 3 mm long, cucullate, crested at mid-
dle on ventral side, hairy along lower margin, obtuse
at apex; lower lip c. 3 x 2 mm, more or less obovate,
hairy along the margin of throat, gibbous at base,
rounded at apex, ligulate: ligule fimbriate along
margin; spur conical, acute. Stamens c. 1 mm long;
filaments linear; anther thecae distinct. Pistil c. 1
mm long; ovary ovoid; style thick; stigma 2-lipped.
Capsules c. 2.5 x 1.8 mm, ovoid, uniformly
membranous; placenta c. 1.5 x 1.4 mm, ovoid, com-
pressed. Seeds c. 0.3 mm long, oblongoid; hilum ter-
minal; testa reticulate, scrobiculate.
Holotype : C.N. Mohanan 58342 (CAL) and
Isotype C.N. Mohanan 58342 (MH Aco. no.
134033) were collected on 30 July 1978 from
Pathanamthitta,Quilon District (now Pathanamthit-
ta district), Kerala at a altitude of c. 325 m.
This terrestrial plant growing in marshy areas
was incorrecdy identified as U. graminifolia Vahl
in MH. The presence of ligule on lower lip of corol-
la is unique and is useful in segregating this species
from all other Utricularia in India. Utricularia sub-
ramanii can be easily differentiated from the allied
U. bifida L. as given in Table 1.
We dedicate this species to the memory of the
late Dr K. Subramanyam, ex-Director, Botanical
Survey of India for his valuable contributions to the
study of Indian Utricularias.
Acknowledgements
We thank Dr. N.P. Balakrishnan, Deputy
Director, Botonical Survey of India for facilities and
encouragement and Dr. V.J. Nair, Scientist SD for
Latin translation of the diagnosis.
Table 1
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN U. bifida AND U. subramanii SP. NOV.
Accepted April 1990
2Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore 641 003
442
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Figs-1-15. Utricular ia subramanii sp. nov.
1. Habit; 2. Bract; 3. Bract and bracteoles; 4. Rower, 5. Rowering calyx; 6. Fruiting calyx; 7. Corolla - upper lip (lateral view); 8.
Corolla - upper lip (front view); 9. Corolla - lower lip (lateral view); 1 0. Corolla- lower lip (front view); 1 1 . Stamens; 1 2. Pistil;
13. Capsule; 14. Placentum; 15. Seeds.
OBITUARIES
PROF. M.L. ROONWAL
Prof. Dr Major M.L. Roonwal, M Sc., Ph.D., D.Sc.,
F.N.A., F.E.S.I., F.Z.S.I., passed away on 22 July 1990. He
was 82. A renowned zoologist, entomologist and
educationist, he occupied many distinguished offices
during his career, including Forest Entomologist of the
Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun; Director of the
Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta; and Professor of
Zoology and later Vice-Chancellor of the University of
Jodhpur.
Mithan Lai Roonwal was bom at Jodhpur (Rajas-
than) on 18 September 1908. His early education was at
Jodhpur and Lucknow, after which he took his M.Sc.
(Hons.) degree from the University of Lucknow, and a
Ph.D., on the embryology of the African migratory locust,
under the guidance of the famous Dr A.D. Imms, from
Cambridge University in 1935. In 1962 he was awarded
the D.Sc. degree by Cambridge, for his published works
on the systematics of termites.
His service record started with a stint at the Locust
Research Laboratory, Lyallpur (now in Pakistan) in
January 1931. Soon after his return from Cambridge, he
took up the post of Entomologist-In-Charge of the Locust
Field Research Station at Pasni on the Baluchistan coast,
unraveling the migration routes of locusts while riding on
camel-back day after day (the jeep had not yet been in-
vented). For ten years from 1939, Dr Roonwal served as
the Officer-In- Charge of the Bird and Mammal Section
of the Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. In between,
during the Second World War, he served as a mam-
malogist in the Field Typhus Research Team in the 5th
Punjab Regiment of the Indian army, on the Assam-
Burma border. For his meritorious services he was
awarded the Burma Star and the War Medal.
It was in 1946 that he started publishing a series of
papers on the studies on intraspecific variations in the
desert locust, which appeared for a long time in different
journals and finally led to the ‘Roonwal’s Hypothesis on
prediction of swarming’. As the Chief Research Officer
and Forest Entomologist at the Forest Research Institute,
Dehra Dun, during 1949-1956, he initiated and guided the
preparation of an exhaustive systematic catalogue of the
main identified entomological collection, and of the insect
pests of forest plants in India and adjacent countries. His
interest in the taxonomy of Indian termites was initiated
during a visit to the U.S.A. in 1951-52 , when he brought
back a large number of specimens of identified termites.
He was awarded the Sir Dorabji Tata Gold Medal of the
Zoological Society of India in 1956.
Dr Roonwal joined as the Director of Zoological
Survey of India in July 1956. He held this chair with great
distinction - as an able administrator and a first rate
zoologist. He was responsible for the reorganization and
expansion of the Survey, establishing Regional Stations in
different parts of the country. Due to his efforts, the
Government of India declared its collections as the Na-
tional Zoological Collections of India in 1964. He also
served as Chairman of the UNESCO Committee on Key
Zoological Collections for South and South-East Asia.
It was sad that he had to prematurely relinquish charge as
Director, Z.S.I., said to be due to his straightforward and
unbending nature. His successor. Dr M.S. Mani, then
remembered him as ‘ not Roonwal, but a stone wall’ !
He soon joined Jodhpur University as the Professor
and Head of the Department of Zoology, and one year
later, the University appointed him Vice-Chancellor for a
three year term. On retirement from active service, he was
made an Emeritus Scientist of the Council for Scientific
and Industrial Research for four years.
His last years passed working at the Desert
Regional Station of the Z.S.I., Jodhpur, in an honorary
capacity, where the undersigned had the privilege of work-
ing with him. In this period he was actively engaged on
two pet projects: tail form and carriage in the Hanuman
langur and other primates, and micro-sculpturing on the
wings of insects, particularly termites.
Dr Roonwal was a member of the Advisory Coun-
cil of theBNHS (1954-1965), Secretary-General of the In-
dian Board for Wildlife (1956-1962), President of the
Zoology and Entomology Section of the Indian Science
Congress (1945), a Fellow of the National Institute (now
Indian National Science Academy) since 1945, and the
President of the First All-India Congress of Zoology
(1959). Anumber of other societies nominated him as their
Honorary Fellow. He published more than 400 research
papers, several books, and more than a hundred reviews,
forewords, articles etc.
Tall, soft spoken, straightforward and unemotional
in deliberation, highly knowledgeable and well read,
meticulous and precise in language, a prolific writer (still
using the ink-pot), orthodox (somewhat British) in nature
but a non-believer in rituals, a philosopher by disposition
and above all a genius, that was Dr Roonwal. He was suf-
fering from prostrate and cataract ailments in old age,
when his students and well wishers celebrated his 80th
birthday at Jodhpur, in December 1988, holding a Nation-
al Seminar on the Advances in Economic Zoology. When
the undersigned met him last, he showed the autobiog-
raphy he was penning at leisure. Wish he had completed
it.
R.K. VARSHNEY
444
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
PROFESSOR T.A. DAVIS
Professor T.A. Davis, who passed away on 10
November 1989 following a heart attack, was an extraor-
dinary scientist who combined unusual interests and
abilities with novel approaches to produce work of great
originality and simplicity. In his passing away the Indian
National Science Academy has lost a distinguished Fel-
low, and his friends an amiable and respected colleague.
Davis was bom on 9 February 1923 in Tamil Nadu.
He took his B.A. degree in botany from the St. Josephs
College, Tiruchi, and a post-graduate diploma from the
Agricultural Research Institute, Coimbatore, in 1947. He
had a diploma in radio-tracer techniques from the Indian
Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi and a Ph.D. in
biostatistics from the Indian Statistical Institute, Calcutta.
He was a Fullbright Fellow (1973). Starting his career on
sugarcane research at the Sugarcane Breeding Institute,
Coimbatore, around 1947, he was appointed Plant
Physiologist at the Central Coconut Research Station,
Kayamkulam in 1952, and in 1960 he moved to the Indian
Statistical Institute, Calcutta, as Professor and Head of the
Crop Science Unit. In 1972 he was asked to take charge
of the Biology Division of the Institute, a position he held
until he retired. He was also commissioned by the United
Nations as a Specialist on palms (1975).
J.B.S. Haldane, who happened to see his work, then
wrote that he (Davis) had made the staggering discovery
that palms whose leaves were arranged in a left-handed
spiral gave a higher yield without the use of extra fertilizer
or any special breeding programme. Indeed, Haldane
thought that in Davis he had discovered a potentially il-
lustrious scientist, asserting that his opinion could not but
be relied on as at least twenty of his pupils had become
Fellows of the Royal Society. By then Davis had accumu-
lated data which would permit, so Haldane believed, of a
start being made on the genetics of the coconut palm along
the lines which have proved successful in other plants. In-
deed, it was Haldane who ‘discovered’ him and en-
couraged him in his work.
His most outstanding contributions, of course, relate
to symmetry and asymmetry and right-and left-handed-
ness in plants and animals, but specially in the coconut
palm. His discovery that levo and dextro-rotatory asym-
metry in plants is non-genetic is particularly significant.
These and other discoveries which he made came from the
application of statistics and mathematics to aspects of
plant and animal life. His construction of the sunflower
(capitulum) and the demonstration of the existence of
Divine Proportion (Golden Ratio) in man both were a
result of the application of the Fibonacci concept to plants
and animals. The Fibonacci theme wasiiis favourite and
he gave a remarkable exposition of this at the Internation-
al Botanical Congress at Leningrad in 1975. He was never
ashamed or tired of speaking on this, whether it related to
the beauty of the flower or the beauty of the human form!
On one occasion, I recall his saying asymmetry in plants
and animals occupied fifty percent of his time ever since
he became interested in the subject.
His flair for recording and analysing quantitative
data on biological specimens or material contributed to
precision in understanding form and function in plant and
animal systems. A great deal of what we know as science
today is ‘molecular’ science: I mean something that is nar-
row and ruthlessly specialised. But there is the wholeness
of science, call it holistic, integrated, inter-disciplinary,
what you will - the work of Davis belongs in this category.
Examples of the extraordinary range of his interests
may be seen in his publications: these dealt with problems
such as the role of pressure in xylem transport in palms,
biology and mathematics of the chambered nautilus, gold-
en mean of the human body, selection of nesting trees and
the frequency of nest visits by the Bay a weaver bird. His
invention of an electronic detector to detect insects within
plant organs, wooden structures or storage casks, and of a
vertical bicycle to climb palms and forest trees reflect his
peculiar interest in doing such things. Davis was also an
enthusiastic explorer of plants and animals and their be-
haviour. He was considered by experts to be very
knowledgeable about these. Besides these, he had a pas-
sion for photography: he had built a superb collection of
photographs of palms, plants, birds and other animals
from many parts of the world.
Davis was a member or fellow of national and inter-
national societies and associations too many to mention
here. He had travelled widely and had many friends all
over the world. Following his retirement from Calcutta,
he set up the J.B.S. Haldane Centre in Nagercoil for the
kind of research he had been doing. There was also a great
deal that was humane in him: intensely human qualities
such as geniality and generosity, dignity and modesty, a
flair for languages and culture, which made him the centre
of attraction in any group where he was present.
His work was known and respected by many scien-
tists in many countries. He did not get similar recognition
in our own country. It is perhaps one of the disadvantages
of doing the kind of work that he did (in which the main
emphasis was on the application of statistics and mathe-
matics to biology) that neither biologists nor statisticians
or mathematicians feel happy with the situation. Work of
this kind may get relegated to ‘no man’s land’ - it is neither
biology, nor statistics, nor mathematics. But it is science.
C.V. SUBRAM ANIAN
j. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 87 Plate
Pathak: Felis rubiginosa
Above: Rusty spotted cat Felis rubiginosa observed at Gir Wildlife Sanctuary
Below: Kitten of Felis rubiginosa from Gir Wildlife Sanctuary
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
1. RUSTY SPOTTED CAT FEUS RUBIGINOSA GEOFFROY : A NEW RECORD
FOR GIR WILDLIFE SANCTUARY AND NATIONAL PARK
(With a plate )
Gir Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park is located
between 20°40’ and 20°50’ N, and 70°70’ and 70°71’ E.
With its total spread of 1412.13 sq. km, it is the single
largest contiguous forest ecosystem of the Saurashtra
peninsula in western India. The climate is arid to semi arid
with an average rainfall of about 800 mm. The typical
monsoon climate has three distinct seasons — summer,
monsoon and winter.
The vegetation is fairly homogenous and nearly 70%
of the area is dominated by teak Tectona grandis and its
several associates. Following the classifications by Cham-
pion and Seth (1968) two forest types are observed in Gir:
dry deciduous forests and tropical thorn forests.
The vegetation shows a transition from compara-
tively more moist teak bearing forest in the west to dry
Anogeissus bearing forest in the east.
The Gir ecosystem harbours about 32 species of
mammals, 300 of birds, more than 25 reptiles, and several
thousand insects, with the Asiatic lion Panthera leo per-
sica as the apex predator and panther Panthera pardus as
an important co- predator.
Apart from Asiatic lions and panthers, two more
members of the family Felidae, the jungle cat Felis chaus
and the desert cat Felis lybica, have been reported in Gir.
Felis chaus is widely distributed and abundant. So far the
occurrence of the rusty spotted cat Felis rubiginosa has
not been reported in Gir. Recently this species was ob-
served thrice in Gir at three different sites and was
photographed for the first time in the wild.
2. OBSERVATIONS AT A HYEN
Among the four species of hyenas in the world
(Walker 1975) only the striped hyena Hyaena hyaena is
found in India (Prater 1980). Although it is found in
several protected areas in the country (Rodgers and Pan-
war 1988) it is a little known animal. Not even basic
natural history information is available. Johnsingh (1986),
however, has discussed the conservation problems of this
species. This paper presents the observations made in the
wild on a family of hyena at their den from May to June
1984.
The observations were made in the Sigur forest
range adjacent to Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary on the
lower Nilgiri plateau (11°30’ N, 75°44’ E) in south India.
The rusty spotted cat was first seen near Sasan be-
tween Bavalwala chowk and Khokhara check post, in a
vegetation dominated by teak. At 0030 hrs on 13 May
1990 we saw it crossing the forest road and effortlessly
climbing a straight boled teak tree. It remained perched on
a small branch for more than 15 minutes, during which
time we were able to take photographs.
On 19 June 1990, Navinchandralswarlalof Haripur
observed one newly bom kitten in the sanctuary area near
Sandhbeda. It had not yet opened its eyes, and was in a
very weak condition. He handed over the kitten, sub-
sequently identified as the rusty spotted cat, to the
sanctuary authorities on 21 June. The kitten later died.
Shyamal Tikadar (IFS), Assistant Conservator of
Forests, Jamwala (Gir West Forest Division) observed an
adult rusty spotted cat near Munda chowk, south of Sasan.
Rohit Vyas, accompanying Tikadar, photographed the cat.
These observations confirm that the rusty spotted cat
Felis rubiginosa is found in Gir. All three observations are
from western Gir. Meanwhile Dr. A.J.T. Johnsingh of
Wildlife Institute of India has reported (in litt.) his obser-
vation of a rusty spotted cat between Kankai and
Chhodavadi in November 1989. So far there is no record
of the cat from eastern Gir. However, the Gir being one
compact forest ecosystem, its possible existence in east-
ern Gir cannot be ruled out.
September 7, 1990 BHARAT J. PATHAK
HYAENA HYAENA (LINN.) DEN
The terrain is undulating to hilly and the vegetation is thorn
scrub jungle to dry deciduous. Numerous villages and cat-
tle camps dot the Sigur forest range. Elephants Elephas
maximus were conspicuous in the area, and hampered the
work, which involved walking through the forest during
the crepuscular hours.
The den was under observation during the whole of
May and June 1984. It was visited every day mostly in the
evenings from about 1*700 to 1830 hrs and also in the
mornings on every third day. When there was hyena ac-
tivity I stayed there till late in the evening. Observations
were made from artificial or natural hides whose distance
from the den varied from 15 to 50 m.
8
446
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Observations
The den was located in May 1984. It lay at the head
of a deep ravine on a hill slope. It was an old earth den,
sloping away at angle of 45° and had a narrow entrance
(70 cm wide and 30 cm high at the highest point). It looked
spacious and deep. For a radius of 1.5 m around the den
mouth, earth had been flattened out through constant
usage. The den showed other signs of occupation as well,
such as hyena tracks, fresh bones, faeces and unmistak-
able hyena odour.
Behaviour at the den site: The first sighting was on 6
May 1984. Three large cubs emerged at 1815 hrs. They
appeared to be 10 to 12 weeks old and were probably bom
in February. One was a male, larger than the other two,
the females. One of the females was much smaller than
its siblings. The cubs seemed unaware of my presence al-
though they distinctly heard the camera shutter and could
have also made out my outline through the leaf screen. I
was downwind from the den but when the wind shifted oc-
casionally it gave them the opportunity to smell me.
However, they seemed unaware of my presence.
During the entire observation period, the mother
hyena was not at the den with her young. The mother was
very circumspect about visiting the den. Visiting hours
commenced late in the evening and ended at dawn. I made
an estimate of the number of visits from the fresh tracks
left on the trails leading to the den (Table 1).
Until the approximate age of 12 to 14 weeks (mid
May), the cubs were mostly on mother ’s milk. The mother
would appear in front of the den and make a low, grunting
noise to attract the cubs. When they came out, it would
lead them to flat ground to the north of the ravine. There
it would lie down stretched out and let them suckle. From
10 May onwards, the cubs began playing with sticks and
pieces of wood, but there were no signs of either bones or
meat outside the den. For the first time on May 27, (14 to
16 weeks old), the mother hyena provided evidence of the
cubs taking solid food. It brought a stomach lining, hold-
ing it high. It was late (0600 hrs) and I was rather careless.
The top of my head was visible above the hide, and our
eyes met. The hyena turned about and went off in the
direction of its lair, carrying the food away. Until May 20,
the excreta of the young was soft and they had no difficul-
Table 1
VISITS TO TIIE DEN BY THE MOTHER HYENA
ty defecating. After this it was firmer and harder, the cubs
having to strain to defecate. Also, small bones and pieces
of meat began to appear in front of the den.
It was only on one occasion that I saw a spatter of
meat and bone fragments in front of the den (which could
have been regurgitated by the hyena mother). The two
larger cubs were observed suckling even as late as 19 June,
when they were almost full-grown. All food was dragged
inside and consumed, except a rib cage and an assortment
of bones. The carrion brought by the mother was com-
paratively fresh, but on some occasions, they were
decayed. The skull of a cow that was brought was bone
dry. The mother hyena was able to keep its young well
supplied with food, as I saw evidence of a young tiger Pan-
thera tigris , two leopards Panthera pardus and a pack of
wild dogs Cuon alpinus operating in the area. Addition-
ally, carcasses of domestic cattle which may have died of
natural causes, contributed to the hyena’s larder.
Occasionally the cubs were observed quarrelling
over food outside the den. The cubs defecated outside as
soon as they came out of the den in the evening. As they
grew older, they went further away from the den, down the
slope of the ravine to defecate.
They scratched themselves with their hind feet after
defecating. After a good scratch, the siblings groomed one
another; these grooming sessions sometimes ended in
scuffles. Fights were mostly jaw-wrestling matches; one
of the contestants would hold is head low, twisting its neck
upwards at an awkward angle and the other would grip its
jaw with its own from an upright position and wrestle.
They would growl while thus engaged. The smallest cub
seldom took part in the fight.
An open flat area, 15 m from the den mouth, was the
cubs ‘play area’. They appeared to spend the night there
as was evident from their spoor. At first the play area was
restricted to a 5 m diameter circle. As the cubs grew, the
play area also grew in size, until it occupied the entire open
ground which was 40 m2. But play was not as vigorous as
in wild dog young, for instance. From the tracks left be-
hind and also from sightings, it appeared that the mother
also interacted with the young. During the whole of May,
they did not venture far, except for short forays of 50 m or
so (as their tracks revealed). Even during early June they
did not accompany their mother on her nightly rounds. It
was only towards the end of June that their tracks could be
seen a kilometre beyond the den. The cubs were bolder at
twilight than at dawn and as a rule, they never came out
during the day.
The male cub was bolder than his sisters. He took
on the role of investigator. He was the first to emerge in
the evenings and the last to retire. This gave him more time
with his mother and the opportunity to feed better, ac-
counting for his larger size. I lost sight of the smaller
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
447
female cub for 10 days and was beginning to wonder
whether she was alive, when she surfaced again. She had
to be coaxed to remain above ground even with her mother
around. The other female cub, on the other hand, was quick
to follow the male cub’s lead and was almost his equal in
every activity.
I had to wait for several days to find out the role of
the father hyena. Late one evening, a large male hyena,
possibly the father, approached the den entrance cautious-
ly. It stood immobile for a few seconds, its long dorsal crest
of fair hair (a hyena characteristic) swaying; then it
yawned, burped and went back. The male and the large
female cub, thinking it was their mother, rushed out. The
Johnsingh, A.J.T. (1986): Diversity and conservation of car-
nivorous mammals in India. Pro. Indian. Acad. Sci.
{Animal Sci.) Suppl.: 73-89.
Prater, S.H. (1980): The book of Indian animals. Bombay
Natural History Society, Bombay.
moment they realised their mistake, they shot back into the
den, terrified. For some days afterwards they would not
come out until quite late. Thereafter they had to be quite
certain it was their mother before they came out. I had no
subsequent evidence of the male visiting the den.
The following tentative conclusions are possible :
1. Hyena appear to litter in winter in the lower Nilgiri
plateau.
2. Males do not appear to take part in raising the litter.
3. The young appear to be dependent on the mother for
procuring food till they are about four months old.
July 12, 1990 E.R.C. DAVIDAR
NCES
Rodgers, W.A. & Panwar, S. (1988): Planning a wildlife
protected area network in India. Vol. I. p 341. Wildlife In-
stitute of India, Dehradun.
Walker, E.P. (1975): Mammals of the world. Vol.n. The Johns
Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.
3. RESPONSE TO BIRD CALL MIMICRY BY HIMALAYAN WEASEL
MUSTELA SIBIRICA PALLAS
While birding in Naini Tal area in the 1990-91
winter we frequently mimicked the chittering alarm calls
of birds to flush them, and were often surprisingly success-
ful. In the afternoon of 5 December 1990, near the base
of China Peak, a Himalayan weasel responded to our
mimicry. The animal followed the chittering for several
times in trying to locate the source of the alarm calls. Prater
(The Book of Indian Animals, 1980) stated that it usually
comes out after nightfall and trails its prey by scent.
However, the present observation indicates that the animal
also depends on its hearing for locating prey and responds
to the prey call/song.
July 19, 1990 H.S.A. YAHYA
4. IS RHINOPOMA A RHINOLOPHOID BAT? AN ADDENDUM
After the publication of the paper entitled "Is
Rhinopoma Rhinolophoid bat? (Gopalakrishna and Bad-
waik 1987) additional evidence has become available to
support the contention that Rhinopoma may be a
Rhinolophoid bat. This refers to the nature of the corpus
luteum, which has been shown to be extrovert in Nyc-
teridae (Bernard 1980) as in all the other families included
in the superfamily Rhinolophoidea. This is an additional
character remote from environmental influence and is
shared between Rhinopoma and Rhinolophoidea.
A. GOPALAKRISHNA
May 12, 1990 N. BADWAIK
R EFERENCES
Bernard, R. (1980): Female reproduction in four species of Gopalakrishna, A. & Badwaik, N. (1987) : Is Rhinopoma a
cave-dwelling Microchiroptera. Unpublished Ph.D. rhinolophoid bat ? J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84(3): 664-
thesis; University of Natal, South Africa. 670.
5. INSECTIVORY BY THREESTRIPED PALM SQUIRREL FUNAMBULUS PALMARUM
Though Prater (The book of Indian animals, 1980) species. On 21 December 1987 1 had an opportunity to ob-
recorded the threestriped palm squirrel Funambulus pal- serve insectivory by the threestriped palm squirrel. I was
marum as feeding on insects, there is no record of the prey mist netting forest birds at Mandapam in Tamil Nadu, and
448
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
was moving around the netting sites to collect the trapped
birds, when I saw a three striped palm squirrel on one of
the loops of the net pocket. From a distance I thought it
was a bird, but at close quarters saw it was a squirrel gnaw-
ing at something by pulling the net and holding it with its
feet. As I moved slowly towards the net the squirrel be-
came alarmed, climbed down and disappeared into the
scrub. On checking the net, I found the remnants of a
beetle, where the squirrel had been. The soft abdomen had
been eaten completely leaving the hard elytra and the head.
Later the beetle was identified as Anomala varians Oliv.
It is noteworthy to record this incidence of insectivory in
the squirrel.
March 29, 1990 S. BALACHANDRAN
6. FOOD OF THE INDIAN GERBIL TATERA INDICA INDICA ( HARDWICKE)
IN AN ARID ENVIRONMENT
The study of feeding habits of rodents provide use-
ful clues to their role in an ecosystem. Keeping this aspect
in view, a year long analysis of stomach contents of Tat era
indica was undertaken to understand its food preference
in the natural vegetation of its habitat. The prefcred
vegetation, if any, can possibly be used as a baiting
medium. Some studies on feeding habits of Indian rodents
Table 1
PERCENT FREQUENCY (F) OF VARIOUS PLANT PARTS
(MEAN ± S.E.) IN THE STOMACH OF Tat era indica
have been undertaken by Prasad (1954), Prakash (1962,
1969), Sood and Dilber (1977) and Rana and Advani
(1981).
The study was undertaken during 1988 at Central
Research Farm at Jodhpur (23°18’ N, 73°08’ E) in the
western Rajasthan desert. The stomach contents of fresh-
ly-captured T. indica (20 samples in each season) were
macerated and microscopic studies prepared following the
method described by Cavender and Hansen (1970). For
identification of plant material, the epidermal structure
was studied and compared with reference slides of the
plant species occurring in the home range of the rodents.
Cavender, B.R. & Hansen, R.M. (1970): The microscope
method used for herbivore diet estimates and botanical
analysis of Utter and mulch at the Pawne State. Technical
Report No. 18. Grassland Biome pp. 1-9.
Prakash, I. (1962): Ecology of the geibils of the Rajasthan desert,
The percentage frequency (F) of occurrence of a
plant species was calculated according the formula given
by Cavender and Hansen (1970): F = (No. of locations in
which species occurs/Total no. of locations examined) x
100.
Table 1 shows the percentage frequency of various
fallen tree leaves, grass leaves, rhizomes, stems and seeds
found in the stomach of T. indica during summer, mon-
soon and winter. Grasses were preferred more during
monsoon than in summer and winter seasons, apparently
because of their abundant occurrence in the monsoon
season. Leaves of trees were preferred significantly more
during winter than in summer and monsoon seasons. In-
terestingly, rhizomes and stems of grasses were preferred
during summer, followed by monsoon and winter seasons.
Likewise, seeds were consumed significantly more during
winter than in summer and monsoon months. Dry matter
contents of the stomach (g/100 g body weight) were
recorded to be higher in winter than during the rest of the
year.
It may be concluded that preference of vegetation by
the Indian gerbil is influenced by the frequency of occur-
rence of various plant parts available in nature in various
seasons.
We are grateful to Dr. J. Venkateswarlu, Director,
and Dr. B.D. Rana, Head of the Division of Animal Scien-
ces and Rodent Control, Central Arid Zone Research In-
stitute, Jodhpur, for providing necessary facilities and en-
couragement during the course of this study.
FARZANAPRAVEEN
August 31, 1990 NISHA KASHYAP
NCES
India. Mammalia 26: 312-331.
Prakash, I. (1969): Ecotoxicology and control of Indian desert
gerbil Meriones hurrianae Jerdon. Pt.5, food preference in
the field during monsoon. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.65:
581-589.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
449
Prasad, M.R.N. (1954): Food of Indian gerbil Tatera indica
cuvieri. J. Bombay nai. Hist. Soc. 52: 321-325.
Rana, B.D. & Advani, R. (1981): Food composition of the metad
Rattus . meltada pallidior in western Rajasthan. Acta
Theriologica 26(7): 129-132.
Sood, M.L. & Dilber, D.S. (1977): Food and feeding habits of
northern palm squirrel Funambulus pennant i Wroughton.
J. Research, PA.U., Ludhiana 16(3): 329-331.
Fig. 1 . Phaethon aethereus specimen at Neendakarai.
An unidentified stuffed specimen of tropic bird is
kept in the museum of the Department of Zoology, Sree
Narayana College, Quilon, Kerala. The bird was obtained
in June 1982 from the sea off Neendakarai fishing harbour
by local fishermen. According to them, the bird, which
was afloat in the water at night, got entangled in their fish-
ing nets and was thus captured. Because the bird looked
unfamiliar with its large size and heavy body, they carried
it home. Shanmughan, an attendant at the Zoology
Department, bought it from the fishermen and kept it in
the departmental museum after skinning and stuffing it.
He said the bird was very aggressive when handled. A
fisherman was wounded by its bill.
«
A study of the specimen with reference to the HAN-
BOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN (Ali and Ripley
1983) shows that it is an immature red-billed tropic bird
Phaethon aethereus. The tail-streamers are absent. The
bill is yellow and the oilmen slightly arched. A black
patch in front of each eye continues back as a band across
the eye to the nape. On the nape, the two bands join
together to form a crescent, continuous with the barred
back. The primaries are tipped with black. The legs and
feet are yellowish. The anterior toes and webs between
them are black, as are the claws.
The measurements of the specimen are: wing 275
mm, bill 58 mm, tarsus 27 mm, and tail 58 mm.
BIRDS OF KERALA (Salim Ali 1968) and
KERALATHILE PAKSHIKAL do not mention any previous
record of this bird anywhere from the coastal areas of
Kerala.
I wish to thank Dr. S. Ramachandran, Sri J.S. Serrao
and Prof. K.K. Neelakantan for their help and encourage-
ment, Prof. S.Krishnakumar, Head, Department of Zool-
ogy, S.N. College, Quilon, for permitting to photograph
the specimen and Sri S. Shanmughan for assistance in
preparing this note.
February 22, 1989 OMKAR G. KRISHNAN
8. MASKED BOOBY SUL A DACTYLATRA MELANOPS HEUGLIN FROM KERALA
A live specimen of masked booby Sula dactylatra
melanops Heuglin was collected by some fishermen near
Chaliyam, approximately 10 km south of the coastal city
of Calicut on 14 August 1988. The bird was found stand-
ing on a rocky promontory jutting into the sea. Apparent-
ly in a flightless condition, it hopped onto a boat belong-
ing to some oyster collectors. Right from the first day of
its captivity, the bird feds voraciously on fish and was not
unduly wary of human presence.
The specimen measured 82 cm from the tip of the
bill to the tip of tail and had a wingspan of 152 cm. The
bill was 11 cm long, the tail 17 cm and tarsus 5 cm. The
iris was bright yellow, the bill greenish yellow and the feet
slaty blue.
Another such specimen was caught in 1988 ago near
Kadalundi river mouth, one km south of the present cap-
ture site. A similar bird was reportedly caught, three years
earlier, from about the same area.
Perhaps the masked booby is a regular visitor to the
Malabar seaboard despite its rather scanty occurrence
mentioned in the HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND
PAKISTAN (Ali and Ripley 1983).
August 30, 1989
D. K. NARAYANA KURUP
450
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
9. AN UNRECORDED FEEDING HABIT OF THE PARIAH KITE
MILVUS MIGRANS GOVINDA SYKES
Ali and Ripley (HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA
AND PAKISTAN, 1983) and some of the earlier ornithologists
like Hume (1869), Jerdon (1877), Murray (1888), Finn
(1917), Baker (1928) and Whistler (1941) recorded that
the pariah kite Milvus migrans govinda picks up food or
prey and transfers it from the feet to the bill, tearing the
morsel apart, all in flight. The kite, unlike vultures, was
not observed to sit on the ground and appropriate its food.
Pariah kites were observed to sit and feed on flesh
attached to bones and insect larvae flourishing in decay-
ing meat and marrow of bones heaped near slaughter
houses, bone mills and carcass utilization centres at Agra
(in 1980, 1981, 1983 and 1987), Bombay (in 1982, 1983
and 1984) and Vanasthalipuram (in 1986), about 18 km
from Hyderabad on Vijayawada road. They were also
feeding on flesh attached to the hides of cattle carcasses
and tannery wastes, sitting on the ground along with crows
and vultures at Bangalore (in 1984) and Vaniyambadi, be-
tween Madras and Bangalore. They were sitting and feed-
ing at garbage dumps and poultry dressing waste dumps
along with crows in Madras (in 1986).
The evidence already collected from different places
indicates that kites do sit and feed at times. They probab-
ly do so when their safety during feeding is assured and
when the food is difficult to separate from the source.
March 10, 1989 S.M. SATHEESAN
10. SIGHTING OF THE LESSER FLORICAN SYPHEOTIDES INDICA (J.F. MILLER)
IN KARUNAGAPPALLY, KERALA
A lesser florican Sypheotides indica was caught at
Mararithottam, near Karunagappally of Quilon district,
Kerala, on 14 January 1989. The previous record of lesser
florican from Kerala is of a specimen shot in 1 876 by H.S.
Ferguson, the then curator of the Trivandrum Natural His-
tory Museum. He obtained it "in some rushes near
Trivandrum" (Ali 1984).
The present find was made by a person in his shop
around 0600 hrs. Some harvesters and children claim to
have seen the bird in the adjacent paddy fields, earlier the
same day. The children pelted stones at it and chased it
away. Evidently, the bird became disturbed and took shel-
ter in a dark comer of the shop.
Finding it to be a strange bird, the shopkeeper put it
in a cage. It became a source of attraction to the people
around. Very soon, it acquired considerable religious and
sentimental value when somebody pointed out that it was
a Thanka mayil - Golden peacock, the vehicle of Lord
Muruga. Finding it difficult to cope with the flow of
visitors, it was transferred to a nearby Muruga Temple,
where it drew much attention from the public, before it es-
caped on 6 March.
The bird, which was about the size of a village hen,
appeared to be a female as the white colour present in the
wings of the male lesser florican was absent. The two
parallel black stripes down the throat and foreneck were
present. The pale median ‘centre parting’ through the
crown and forehead was also present as were the charac-
teristic blackish arrowhead marks on wings and back
(Sankaran 1987). A curious feature of the florican obtained
here was that the upper mandible was slightly shorter than
the lower.
According to Ali and Ripley (1983), the range of the
lesser florican is in western India, especially in Gujarat and
parts of Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan. They state that
the floricans are "rare in the coastal strip between the
Western Ghats and the sea". Karunagappally is a coastal
taluk separated from the Western Ghats by more than 50
km. The bird obtained here must be an "exceptional strag-
gler".
I wish to thank Dr. S . Ramachandran for his help and
encouragement in preparing this note.
July 13, 1989 OMKAR G. KRISHNAN
References
Ali, S. (1984): Birds of Kerala. Reprint II Edition. Oxford Univer- Press, Bombay.
sity Press, Bombay. SaNkaran, R. (1987): The lesser florican. Sanctuary Asia 7 (1):
Ali, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1983): Handbook of the Birds of India 26-37.
and Pakistan. Compact edition 2; 196. Oxford University
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
451
11. WOODCOCK SCOLOPAX RUSTICOLA LINN. IN THE JATINGA BIRD PHENOMENON
(With a text -figure )
nAwvfufl
Fig. 1 . Proposed migratory rout of some woodcocks
from Jatinga to Nilgiris.
On 29 September 1986, while I was investigating
the bird phenomenon in Jatinga, Assam, a male woodcock
Scolopax rusticola dropped onto a petromax lantern
placed near the observatory tower. As in other cases the
bird lost its flight responses, becoming almost immobile,
and refused any food or liquid. It could be easily handled
for taking measurements etc.
This the first record of a woodcock or any other
migratory bird around lighted areas during the occurrence
of the bird phenomenon in Jatinga. Consequently, this is
the first record of the capture of this long distance
migratory flier in Barail hill (south Assam). It appears that
the woodcock descended to that low hilly region prior to
its migratory sojourn to Nilgiri hill and other south Indian
hills. If it is so, then the migratory route of some wood-
cocks would be through Bangladesh, West Bengal (several
specimens were netted in Salt Lake, Calcutta, between
1963 and 1969 by B. Biswas), Eastern Ghats, etc. with or
without a stop-over en route (Fig. 1). The woodcock is
regarded as the only long distance flier in India and is
believed to fly non-stop from the Himalaya to Nilgiri hills,
a distance of 2400 km.
An attempt should therefore be made to find out the
actual migratory pathways of this crepuscular/noctumal
bird, which are still shrouded in mystery.
February 28, 1989
SUDHIN SENGUPTA
12. GREAT BLACKHEADED GULL LARUS ICHTHYAETUS PALLAS
IN EARLY SUMMER PLUMAGE
On 8 January 1989, while counting birds at Kookas
Lake near Jaipur (Rajasthan), I observed a gull as large as
a duck with a black head and neck. The gull had crescen-
tic white marks one above and one below the eyes. Its back
and wings were pearl grey and the rest of the plumage was
snow-white, except the primaries which were sub terminal -
ly black. There were no ‘mirrors’ in the wings. The gull,
identified as a great blackheaded gull Lams ichthyaetus,
was swimming with a group of 34 large cormorants.
The unusual feature was the black head and neck -
the summer plumage which, according to the HANDBOOK
OF BIRDS OF INDIA and PAKISTAN (Ali and Ripley 1983), is
assumed about February. I have observed such a plumage
deviation from that reported in the HANDBOOK in the case
of the Desert wheatear Oenanthe deserti (Temminck) also,
at the Sambhur lake (27 December 1988) and Bharatpur
(19 January 1989).
April 11, 1989 . DHIRENDRA DEVARSHI
13. ADDITIONAL NOTES ON THE OCCURRENCE OF BLACK TERN CIILIDONIAS NIGER
(LINN.) IN INDIA
At 2200 hrs on 22 December 1988, while ringing
waterbirds at Point Calimere, Tamil Nadu, we ringed two
black terns Chlidonias niger along with 12 whiskered
terns. One more black tern was ringed on 24 December.
The ringing details of the three birds are as in Table 1 . We
could differentiate this tern from whiskered tem by the sil-
very grey mantle and slate-grey rump. The black tem dif-
fers from the closely related whitewinged black tem by the
black of the hh id head continuing as a dark patch on either
side of the neck in front of the base of the wings, and the
absence of a white rump (Ali and Ripley 1983).
It was sight recorded near Delhi on 11 October 1949
452
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Table 1
RINGING DETAILS OF 3 BLACK TERNS RINGED AT POINT CALI MERE
(Alexander 1950). Abdulali and Ambedkar (1983) con-
firmed their occurrence in India from a ring recovery (bird
ringed at Moscow) at Point Calimere, Thanjavur district,
Tamil Nadu, during 1970. There is no previous ringing
record of this bird in India. Hence this ringing record fur-
ther confirms its definite occurrence in India, and is an ad-
dition to the bird list of Point Calimere.
V. NATARAJAN
January 19, 1989 P. BALASUBRAMANIAN
References
Abdulali, H. & Ambedkar, V.C. (1983): Occurrence of the
Black Tern Chlidonias niger (Linn.) in India. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 80(3): 640.
Alexander, H.G. (1950): Possible occurrence of black tem
Chlidonias niger (L.) near Delhi. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
49: 120-121.
Ali. S, & Ripley, S.D. (1983): Handbook of the Birds of India
and Pakistan. Compact Edition. Oxford University Press,
Delhi.
14. BIOMETRICS AND FOOD OF SOME DOVES OF THE GENUS STREPTOPEUA
Between 1982 and 1987, we obtained carcasses of
spotted dove Streptopelia chine nsis, ring dove S. decaoc-
toy and little brown dove S. senegalensis from Bombay,
Tezpur, Gwalior and Sirsa. They were killed by impact or
shock at aerodromes.
Biometrics of nine doves of Streptopelia genus
showed the following. On an average a spotted dove
weighed 126.5 g, a male ring dove weighed 167.67 g and
the little brown, 82.5 g. Female spotted doves were not
available, whereas one female each of ring dove and little
Table 1
BIOMETRICS AND STOMACH CONTENTS OF SOME DOVES OF Streptopelia GENUS
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
453
brown dove were examined (Table 1).
According to Ali and Ripley (1983), the doves of
Streptopelia genus are principally grain and seed eaters,
though at times they may also feed on young shoots of cer-
tain plants like mustard and wheat in cultivated land or
grassland. Baker (1913) pointed out that in captivity they
feed not only on cereals and pulses but also on bread,
potatoes, cabbage and almost anything except meat and
fish.
During the analysis, the stomach contents of spotted
dove showed rice and other grains, while those of three
ring doves showed wheat and unidentifiable seeds. Four
little brown doves had grains of Cyperus sp., Celosia ar-
gentea and Dactyloctenium sp., and seeds of Momordica
sp.
This data was collected as part of the BNHS project
‘Ecological Study of Bird Hazards at Indian Aerodromes’
sponsored and funded by Aeronautics Research and
Development Board, Ministry of Defence, Government of
India.
S.M. SATHEESAN
PRAKASH RAO
December 12, 1989 HEMANT DATYE
References
Ali. S.& Ripley, S.D. (1983): The Handbook ofthe Birds of India Baker, S. (1913): Indian Pigeons and Doves. Witherby and Co.
and Pakistan. Compact Edition. Oxford University Press, London.
New Delhi.
15. LARGE INDIAN PARAKEETS PSITTACULA EUPATRIA (LINN.) HARASSING A PARIAH
KITE MILVUS MIGRANS GOVINDA
There are many community roosting sites of
parakeets in Udaipur city, Rajasthan. In the morning
parakeets fly away from the roosts towards the fields and
orchards around Udaipur, returning to the city in small and
big groups in the evening.
At 1750 hrs on 25 September 1988, on the outskirts
of Udaipur, we spotted a pariah kite Milvus mi grans govin-
da slowly gliding towards the city. A group of 21 large In-
dian parakeets Psittacula eupatria were flying a little
higher than the kite. They slowed, dropped and encircled
the kite and started harassing it. The kite twisted, turned
and tried every possible means to evade this harassment,
but failed. We followed them slowly on our scooter. The
kite slowly lost altitude and after going for about 500 m in
this fashion perched on a eucalyptus tree. The parakeets
followed suit. After ten minutes the kite flew off the tree
and remained just at tree top level, with the parakeets fol-
lowing. After flying about 100 m in this fashion, they went
out of sight.
RAZATEHSIN
December 15, 1988 AREFATEHSIN
16. NEW CALL RECORD OF GREENBREASTED PITTA PITTA SORDID A (P.L.S. MULLER)
IN DEHRA DUN, UTTAR PRADESH
On the morning of 16 July 1988, we sighted a
hooded or greenbreasted pitta Pitta sordida in the New
Forest campus at Dehra Dun, the northern slopes of which
are covered with thick natural jungle. The black throat and
sides of neck, brown crown and nape and the green breast
were diagnostic. We sighted the pitta again on 23 July
1988. It was calling from a low tree fork.
Ali and Ripley (1983), quoting Baker, mentioned
only the possibility of a loud musical whistle call. There
is no mention about the calls of the greenbreasted pitta in
other available literature. However, on this occasion a dis-
tinctive call was noted - a quick double fluty whistle quek-
quek for duration of a second. The pitta monotonously
repeated the calls at 3-5 intervals, lifting the head partial-
ly while calling. The next morning two greenbreasted pit-
tas were heard simultaneously making the double whistle
call. The pitta was last heard on 30 July 1988 and since
then all attempts to locate it failed.
These observations therefore constitute probably the
first record of a double whistle call of the greenbreasted
pitta. Also, these records are probably the first sightings of
the greenbreasted pitta in Dehra Dun, as the two main
checklists of the area by Joseph George (1957) and B.B.
Osmaston (1935) do not mention this bird. The
greenbreasted pitta occurs from central Nepal eastwards
and there is one specimen in the BNHS collection from
Simla (Ripley 1982).
DHANANJAI MOHAN
July 13, 1989 RAVI CHELLAM
454
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
R EFERENCES
Ali, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1983): Handbook of the Birds of India
and Pakistan. Compact edition. Oxford University Press,
New Delhi.
George, J. (1957) : Birds of New Forest. Indian Forester
83(11): 674-687 and 83(12): 724-737.
Osmaston, B.B. (1935): Birds of Dehra Dun and adjacent hills.
Issued as a supplement to the June 1935 number of the JAM
Journal.
Ripley, S.D. (1982) : A synopsis of the birds of India and Pakis-
tan. Second edition. Bombay Natural History Sdety, Bom-
bay.
17. LARGE SCALE MIGRATION OF SWALLOWS TO KERALA
For the last 10 years, thousands of swallows have
been ariving at the end of September at Muvattupuzha,
Kerala. The birds perch on the telephone wires criss-cross-
ing the town and extending across the nearby river. They
fly over the town at sunset, roost at night on the telephone
wires and fly away in search of food by early morning.
Crows prey on the swallows at their roosts. The birds
were identified as Hirundo rustica gutturalis by Dr. V.S.
Vijayanof B.N.H.S. In 1985 Dr. R. Sugathan ringed a few
birds, and in March 1986 some were collected from Tamil
Nadu (pers. comm.). Usually, the birds roosting at Muvat-
tupuzha exploit the area for about four months, leaving by
January-February. From Sugathan’s observations, it is
clear that Muvattupuzha is only a midway station during
the birds’ migration southwards.
The site preference of these birds for Muvattupuzha
may be due to the availability of food, especially insects,
as by September the paddy fields, after the harvest have
plenty of insects.
January 13, 1989 SHAJU THOMAS
18. ORIENTATION OF NEST COLONIES BY B AYA WEAVER BIRDS
It is a general observation that nesting baya weaver
birds Ploceus philippinus invariably select the eastern side
of trees to build upon, since this side is protected from the
south-west monsoon. However, colonies which are built
late in the season, when the severest part of the monsoon
is over, may face in the opposite direction (Nesting habits
of the Baya Ploceus philippinus . Salim Ali, J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 34 (4 ): 947-964).
During the breeding season of 1987, orientations of
141 nest colonies of Ploceus philippinus were studied in
four districts of Rajasthan, viz. Alwar, Jaipur, Chittoragarh
and Udaipur. Various types of habitats like plain agricul-
tural fields, forest areas, dams, hill slopes, old wells etc.
were examined to study the orientation of nest colonies in
respect of the SW monsoon in Rajasthan. The surveys
were made from July to end of October. My findings are
given in Table 1
It was seen that yearling and sexually mature males
show three types of colony orientation in Rajasthan:
peripheral orientation, central orientation and lateral orien-
tation.
Peripheral colonies were the fewest, constituting
only 2.1% of the colonies studied. In such colonies, nests
are hung in all directions at the peripheral zone of the tree
canopy.
Centrally oriented colonies were about 17%. In such
colonies, nest are placed in deeper points of canopy of host
trees, so that they get protection from all directions.
Lateral colonies were maximum in number, about
80.9% of total colonies studied. Such colonies can face
one, two or even three directions. Colonies which were
facing the eastern side were maximum in number about
40.4% of total colonies and 50% of lateral ones. There
may be many combinations of directions among lateral
colonies as shown in Table 1.
Large nest colonies may extend in more than one
direction, but many ‘one nest’ colonies have been ob-
served facing off-directions, i.e. other than eastern side in
plain terrain even at the beginning of the monsoon. In cer-
tain types of habitat such as sloping areas, vertical banks
of rivers and nallahs, and old wells, the tendency of ‘east-
ern side colonization’ is less marked.
In sloping areas like hill slopes, generally nesting is
done towards the downhill side of the tree canopy irrespec-
tive of the S W monsoon. The aim of selection of downhill
side for nesting is to get extra elevation as a protection
against predators. Similarly, on or near the vertical banks
of rivers and nallahs, that side of host trees is preferred
which faces the stream bed. Again, the reason probably is
the extra elevation. In wells and vertical banks of river and
nallahs even small hanging trails of vegetation can be used
for hanging the nest, irrespective of SW monsoon. It is
very difficult for predators to climb the vertical surfaces,
hence the nest colonies in such areas can be said to be well
protected (Figs. 1-5).
August 30, 1988. SATISH KUMAR SHARMA
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
455
456
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
19. SOME ALITUDINAL RECORDS OF BIRDS FROM THE HIGH RANGE, KERALA
The period 25-30 April 1988 was spent birdwatch-
ing in and around the Eravikulam National Park, Kerala.
Almost no information has been published on the avifauna
of the park, which includes the highest Indian summit
south of the Himalayas (Anaimudi 8840 ft.). A number of
bird species were observed at altitudes higher than the
upper limits given in BIRDS OF KERALA (Salim Ali, 1969).
Little grebe Podiceps ruficollis: a male in breeding
plumage on the river at the High Range Club, Munnar, c.
1600 m.
Blackshouldered kite Elanus caerulens : a pair hunt-
ing over the Eravikulam plateau at 2400 m on consecutive
days.
Brahminy kite Haliastur Indus', at c. 1500 m at Mun-
nar.
Crested serpent eagle Spilornis cheela : one perched
in a dead shola tree at 2300 m on the plateau.
Banded crake Rallina eurizonoides : in reeds at the
High Range Club at c. 1 600 m (identification not positive).
Whitebreasted waterhen Amaurornis phoenicurcus :
on the river at the High Range Club, c. 1600 m.
Maroonbacked imperial pigeon Ducula badia : scat-
tered individuals at c. 2300 m along the track and in small
patches of shola on the plateau.
Spotted do veStreptopelia chinensis : as high as 1900
m in Vaguvurrai Tea Estate.
Small green barbet Megalaima viridis : seen at 2400
m on the very highest tree of a large patch of shola stretch-
ing up steep cliffs above Erumapatti, from where it made
brief forays out over the grassy plateau.
Little scalybellied green woodpecker Pic us myr-
mecophoneus : seen at c. 2200 m at the upper edge of the
Vaguvurrai Tea Estate.
Southern greybacked shrike Lanius schach: up to at
least 1900 m at Vaguvurrai.
Redwhiskered bulbul Pycnonotus jocosus: seen oc-
casionally as high as 2300 m on the plateau.
Magpie-robin Copsychus saularis: seen at up to
1700 m at Vaguvurrai.
April 12, 1990 ANDREW ROBERTSON
20. BIRD RECORDS FROM MANDAPAM AND NEIGHBOURING ISLANDS, TAMIL NADU
The Mandapam peninsula (9°17’ N, 79°8’ E) lies on
a narrow strip of land projecting from the south-east coast
of India in Ramanathapuram district, Tamil Nadu, with the
Gulf of Mannar to the south and the Palk Bay to the north.
Rameswaram island lies at the end of the peninsula and is
connected to the mainland by a railway bridge. At distan-
ces ranging from 5-8 km from the mainland the Gulf of
Mannar has a chain of islands running roughly parallel to
the coast.
Some of these islands, the lagoon of Rameswaram
island and the Pillaimadam lagoon in the mainland adjoin-
ing Palk Bay are the major habitats available for water-
birds. The birds mainly use these islands and lagoons as
resting places before migrating to Sri Lanka. However,
thousands of birds may remain at these lagoons and islands
for the whole winter. The BNHS bird ringing station es-
tablished at Mandapam since September 1985 has proved
extremely valuable in obtaining data on the movements of
such migrants. Information on some of the species con-
sidered to be rare is recorded below :
Antarctic skua Cat bar acta skua : On 8 January 1988 our
trappers saw a dark bird with black legs and beak,
equivalent in size to the herring gull, which they identified
as an Antarctic skua when shown a picture of the latter.
On 10 January one of our trappers and members of the
Ramnad Wildlife Association, when taking a waterfowl
census in the island, observed the same bird. Perumal Raja
identified it as an Antarctic skua. I went to the island on
12 January to confirm their identification. The bird was
located at the intertidal area at low tide. The slight projec-
tion of central feathers identified the bird as of genus
Catharacta.
Ringed plover Charadrius hiaticula: On 25 February
1988 we trapped a bird at Dhanuskodi, Rameswaram is-
land, which appeared similar to the little ringed plover
Charadrius dubius but differed in size, being equivalent
to the lesser sandplover Charadrius mongolus. It had a
clear wing bar, lacking in C. dubius. The bird was iden-
tified as the eastern ringed plover Charadrius hiaticula
tundrae (Prater et al. 1977). The bird was an adult with
fresh primaries, and had the following measurements:
wing 138 mm, bill 15 mm, tarsus 26 mm, tail 68 mm,
weight 57 g. The wing and tail were 6 and 7 mm longer
than the measurements given by Ali and Ripley (1983).
The bird is recorded as a straggler or very rare winter
visitor by Ali and Ripley (1983). After two birds were
trapped at the same site on 22 February 1990 by the
Society’s bird ringing camp at Muthupet (c. 10°35’ N,
79°36’ E), Thanjavur district in Tamil Nadu, Abdulali and
Hussain opined that this species was not so rare or as much
of a straggler as was suggested by Ali and Ripley (1983).
Though the bird was listed in the checklist of birds of Point
Calimere none of them were ringed during the last eight
years of bird ringing by the Society’s Avifauna Project. At
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
457
Mandapam under the same project this is the only bird
caught for the last three years (1985-88), during which
time around 3000 plovers were ringed. It is suggested that
the bird is a rare winter visitor as noted by Ali and Ripley
(1983).
Noddy tern Anous stolidous: On 26 November 1987 a
noddy tern was seen in the Pillaimadam lagoon, situated
3 km from Mandapam adjoining Palk Bay. At Point
Calimere, the noddy tem was recorded with other pelagic
Refe
Abdul ali, H. & Hussain, S.A. (1971): Occurrence of Eastern
ringed plover Charadrius hiaticula twidrae (Lowe) in
Tamil Nadu. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 68: 450-451.
Ali, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1983): Handbook of the birds of India and
Pakistan, together with those of Bangladesh, Nepal,
Bhutan and Sri Lanka. Compact Edition. Oxford Univer-
sity Press, Delhi.
species like the lesser frigate bird and sooty tern, im-
mediately after the cyclonic storm on 22 December 1983
(Balachandran et al. 1984). The bird was always seen
floating on the water. When approached, it flew away
some distance, and again settled on the water. The next day
also the bird was seen at the same site, but it disappeared
thereafter.
February 8, 1989 S. BALACHANDRAN
NCES
Balachandran, S., Raj an, Alagar S., Balasubramanian, P.,
NATARAJAN, V. & Ali. Shahid (1984): Some storm -blown
pelagic birds in Point Calimere. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
53:436:438.
Prater, A.J., Merchant, J.H., Vuorinen, J. (1977): Guide to the
identification and ageing of Holarctic waders. BTQ Guide
No. 17.
21. FURTHER ADDITIONS TO THE AVIFAUNA OF POINT CALIMERE
Eastern steppe eagle Aquila rapax nipalensis : On 26
November 1988 one bird was noticed sitting on the ground
opposite the old forest rest house. It is a winter visitor,
common in west Pakistan, Nepal and North India, wander-
ing south at least to the Bombay Deccan, and east to
southern Orissa (Ali and Ripley 1983). The bird’s sudden
appearance at Point Calimere might be due to the forma-
tion of a cyclonic depression in the Bay of Bengal during
the same period.
Red spurfowl Galloperdix spadicea : On 4 September
1984 a male was seen on the grass patches on the verge of
the road near Ramarpatham area. On 29 April 1988 two
hens were sighted in the same locality.
Eastern whimbrel Numenius phaeopus variegatus: An
adult was obtained on 18 November 1988 while trapping
ducks in the monsoon puddles near the casuarina belt in
the forest. The bird was ringed and released. Ali and
Ripley (1983) mention that this bird has been obtained as
a vagrant and/or on migration in Assam in autumn or
winter, and Manipur. It occurs in the Sunderbans (West
Bengal and Bangladesh).
Refe
Abdulali, H. (1971): Narcondam Island and notes on some birds
from the Andamanlslands. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 68:
400
Ali, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1983): Handbook of the Birds of Indian
and Pakistan. Compact Edition. Oxford University Press,
Brownwinged tern Sterna anaethetus: One bird was ac-
cidentally caught in fishing nets at sea on 19 December
1988. The bird was totally wet and died after a few hours.
Its skin was collected. Ali and Ripley state that the post
breeding dispersal of this bird occurs chiefly over the
Arabian sea to the coasts of Pakistan, western India and
Sri Lanka. Two records exist from the Andaman islands
(Abdulali 1971).
Sandwich tern Sterna sandvicensis : Two birds were
ringed on 22 and 29 October 1983, but were not included
in the previously published bird list of Point Calimere.
One more bird was ringed on 28 September 1 988. Though
this bird is a common winter visitor to coastal Pakistan (Ah
and Ripley 1983), it was previously recorded in the east
coast only at Mandapam and Rameswaram island (Lai
Mohan 1986, S. Balachandran, pers. comm).
V. NATARAJAN
P. BALASUBRAMANIAN
S. ALAGAR RAJAN
January 3, 1989 RANJIT MANAKADAN
NCES
Delhi.
Lal Mohan, R.S. (1986): Recovery of a ringed Sandwich tem
Sterna sandvicensis sandvicensis from Rameswaram is-
land, Tamil Nadu. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83(3): 664.
458
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
22. SITE FIDELITY AND POWER OF RECOGNITION IN PARIAH KITE
MILVUS MIGRANS GOVINDA
Observations were made on site fidelity on pariah
kite Milvus migrans govinda , bayback shrike Lanius vit-
tatus , redwattled lapwing Vanellus indicus , common myna
Acridotheres tristis , pied myna Sturnus contre , little egret
Egretta garzetta, cattle egret Bub ulcus ibis , night heron
Nycticorax nycticorax, pond heron Ardeola grayii and
painted stork Mycteria leucocephala at the National
Zoological Park, New Delhi.
The pariah kites congregate at selected sites in
hundreds with the approach of winter every year. The
birds had use the same site and had even used the same
tree in some cases to build nests during my study in 1976-
1979, and this process is continuing even to-day.
According to Ah ( 1977), die birds return not only to
the same general locality for breeding year after year, but
often to the identical nesting sites. This pattern of arrival
has also been observed in egrets, herons and painted storks
at the Zoological Park.
During the study of the breeding biology of pariah
kite, Bacha Manjhi, Assistant Keeper, was associated with
the project. Manjhi and I used to regularly climb the trees
to take measurements of nests, eggs, etc. It was observed
that the kites (male and female) recognized us very well.
They used to spot us from a distance of 200-300 m from
the nesting site, and attack us. We were forced to use hel-
mets to protect our heads. Further, we noted that when I
approached the nesting site accompanied by other persons,
I was the only target of attack.
During 1977, Manjhi was replaced by Ram Sakai.
He was picked as a target of attack after a few visits to the
nests. Thousands of people visit the Park, but are not at-
tacked, suggesting that pariah kites have strong recogni-
tion power for particular objects with which they frequent-
ly come into contact.
In order to judge their ability to recognise persons or
objects, Manjhi was sent with a group of 6 zoo employees
near the nesting site. He was the sole target of attack. On
an another occasion, he was made to approach the nesting
site (accompanied by other persons) wearing different
coloured clothes, but again he was the target of attack, not-
withstanding the change in colour of his dress.
10 chicks were hand reared to compare their growth
with natural grown chicks. They were fed 3 times a day
with pieces of beef and fish. As a result of association,
these chicks had developed attachment and were respon-
sive to calls. Moreover, the chicks recognised the sound
of the horn of the van which supplied the food material.
On hearing the van, chicks would become alerc and start
calling. Although a number of vehicles passed through
that area, they responded solely to the sound of the par-
ticular vehicle, sho wing that pariah kite chicks had the in-
nate ability to recognise objects and sound/voice.
During 1977, 22 chicks of pariah kite were ringed
when they were 40 days old. Two chicks died one week
after their release. A few were seen returning to the zoo
area in 1978 along with adult kites
The bay-back shrike which breeds during summer
also attacked us when we approached their nests, showing
their ability of recognition. Similar abilities have been ob-
served in the lapwing, common and pied myna (Desai and
Malhotra 1988).
February 22, 1989 A.K. MALHOTRA
References
Ali, S. (1977): The book of Indian birds. Bombay Natural His- Desai, J.H. & Malhotra, A.K. (1988): Behaviour and breeding
toiy Sodey, Bombay. biology of pied myna and common myna. Cheetal 29 (I).
Wildlife Preservation Society of India, Dehra Dun.
23. AGE AT SEXUAL MATURITY OF GHARIAL GAVIAUS GANGETICUS
(REPTILIA: CROCODILIA)
McCann (1940) advocated that with reptiles, "It is
perhaps better to arrive at the size at which they breed
rather than place any reliance on age". Bustard and Singh
(1981) mentioned, "It is not known if there is an age or
size ‘over- ride’ in crocodilians" as far as the attainment of
first breeding is concerned. Data on sizes of some of the
small breeding gharial Gavialis gangeticus females are
available in Homaday (1885), Parshad (1914), Srivastava
(1981) and Bustard and Maharana (1982). The sizes are
2.70 m, 2.97 m, 3.12 m, and 3.0-3.17 m respectively.
The gharial referred by Bustard and Maharana
(1982) were obtained by the Nandankanan Biological Park
from river Mahanadi at sizes of 1.35 m (on 22 March 1963)
and 0.90 m (on 10 November 1964). Singh (1978) es-
timated these juveniles to be respectively 17 months and
33 months old at the time of capture. Therefore, at the time
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
459
Table 1
EGG LAYING BY 3 CAPTIVE GHA RIALS AT NANDANKANAN
of first breeding in 1980 (Bustard and Maharana 1982) the
females were 16.5 to 19.9 years old. These figures are un-
doubtedly high because of the protracted captivity without
a suitable breeding pen and breeding male.
We present here more direct data on the age at first
breeding for three female gharials, all hatched in captivity
from wild-collected eggs. The ages were 8.5 years for two
females and 9.5 years for another.
During April- June 1977 a total of 26 captive-reared
gharials, hatched in June 1975, were released from the
Gharial Research and Conservation Unit, Tikarpada, into
river Mahanadi. Nine of these were subsequently recap-
tured by accident (Bustard et al. 1982). Out of these
recaught gharials three were received at the Nandankanan
Biological Park. The tail scute clippings confirmed the
origin and date of release of these juveniles. These three
juveniles were housed in the main gharial breeding pen,
where they grew up to lay their first clutches of eggs as
shown in Table 1.
The size of the females was not measured at Nan-
dankanan. The sizes of other female gharials of the same
year of hatching, retained at Tikarpada, were a maximum
of 3.24 m (mean 3.10 m, n= 10) at 9 years old and a max-
imum of 3.30 m at 1 0 years and 3 months old (S ingh 1 990).
Two of the 1975-hatched female gharials laid eggs
at Nandankanan in 1984 when they were 8 years and 9
months old. Since breeding activity commences from
December the receptive age for breeding reduces further
to 8.5 years. The sizes of these females are expected to be
close to 3.0 m at first egg laying, because relatively larger
(in 1977) females of the same brood retained for rearing
at Tikarpada were 3.10 m at 9 years old.
The third female of the same brood laid eggs a year
later in March 1985 suggesting variation in growth and
age at first breeding with juveniles of the same brood.
The maiden clutch sizes of the three female gharials
are 29-33. These appear large considering reports of a
clutch of 10 eggs from a female in Mahanadi during 1976
(Singh 1978), 15 eggs from a 2.7 m female (Homaday
1885) and 17 from a female in Chambal during 1985 (Rao
and Singh 1990). The clutch sizes may have direct rela-
tion with food and hormonal levels, which needs further
investigation.
We acknowledge with thanks the facilities provided
by the Principal Chief Conservator of Forests, and Chief
Conservator of Forests (Wildlife), Orrisa. Office facilities
were availed by L.A.K.S. at the Similipal Tiger Reserve.
L.N. ACHARJYO
L.A.K. SINGH
July 17, 1990 S.K. PATTANAIK
References
Bustard, H.R. & Maharana, S. (1982): Size at first breeding in
the gharial Gavialis gangeticus (Gmelin) (Reptilia,
Crocodilia) in captivity. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.,
79(7):206-207.
Bustard, H.R. & Singh, L.A.K. (1981): Age at onset of sexual
maturity in male Indian mugger Crocodylus palustris Les-
son reared under ideal husbandry conditions in captivity.
ibid, 78(3): 607-610.
Bustard, H.R., Singh, L.A.K. & Acharjyo, L.N. (1982):
Rehabilitation of the Gharial in Orissa. /n:Indian
crocodiles Conservation and Research, p. 20. (Singh,
L.A.K. and Choudhury, B.C. Eds.). Forum of Crocodile
Researchers, India, Hyderabad.
Horn ad ay, W.T. (1 885): Two years in the jungle: The experien-
ces of a hunter and naturalist in India, Ceylon, the Malayan
Peninsula and Borneo. New York.
Mccann, C. (1940): A reptile and amphibian miscellany. J. Bom-
bay. nat. Hist. Soc. 41(4): 742-747.
Parshad, B. (1914): The gharial Gavialis gangeticus. ibid, 23: 36-
370.
Rao, R.J. & Singh, L.A.K. (1990): Communal nesting of the
gharial Gavialis gangeticus (Gmelin) Reptilia, Crocodilia)
in the National Chambal Sanctuary. MSS. Singh L.A.K.
(1978): Ecological studies on Indian gharial Gavialis gan-
geticus (Gmelin) (Reptilia, Crocodilia). Ph.D. thesis, Utkal
University, Bhubaneshwar, Orissa.
Singh, L.A.K. (1990): Growth: Characteristics and ecological
significance in gharial. In: A technical expedition with In-
dian crocodiles pp.479-511. MSS.
Srivastava, A.K. (1981): Some ecological studies on the gharial
Gavialis gangeticus with particular reference to the natural
population. Ph.D.thesis. University of Lucknow, Lucknow.
460
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 87
24. INDIAN FLAPSHELL TURTLE LISSEMYS PUNCTATA IN THE FOOD OF THE
ADJUTANT STORK LEPTOPTILOS DUBIUS
The adjutant stork Leptoptilos dubius , which has
been listed as an endangered species (Luthin 1987), is a
summer visitor to Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur.
The arrival of these birds coincides with the drying up of
marshes and the availability of dead or dying fish (they
feed mainly on fishes in this area). In recent years the
number of adjutant storks arriving in the park has shown a
declining trend. 25 of them arrived in 1986 and fewer than
five in the subsequent year.
During the regular aquatic bird counts in May 1988
a solitary stork was seen resting near a drying waterbody
in the centre of the wetland. To our surprise the normally
lethargic adjutant made a swift move and pecked at some
object which was about 5 m away. It was an Indian flap-
shell turtle Lissemys punctata. Soon the turtle retracted
into its shell, but this did not discourage the stork from
swallowing it. It was a small turtle (carapace length about
10 cm) and the whole sequence of feeding took place
within 3 minutes. Similar incidents were observed twice
in the same season and once in the monsoon of 1989. The
latter occurred outside the park.
Fishes, amphibians, snakes, lizards, ducks and bone
have been recorded as food of the adjutant stork by Ali and
Ripley (1983) and Rao and Muralidharan (1989).
However, live turtles have not been reported in their diet
so far. The Indian flapshell turtle is known for its move-
ment on land to find suitable hiding places when the mar-
shes dry up in summer. In the present case the stork fed
on the turtle as it was moving out of a drying waterbody.
We thank Dr. V.S. Vijayan, Project Scientist, BNHS,
for his comments and encouragement.
C. SIVASUBRAMANIAN
March 29, 1990 S. BHUPATHY
References
Ali, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1983): Handbook of the birds of India and
Pakistan. Compact Edition. Oxford University Press,
Delhi.
Luthin, C.S. (1987): Status of conservation priorities for the
world’s stork species. Colonial Waterbirds 10 (2): 181-
202.
Rao, P. & Muralidharan, S. (1989): Unusual feeding behaviour
in the adjutant stork Leptoptilos dubius (Gmelin). J. Bom-
bay nat. Hist. Soc.86 (1): 97.
25. OBSERVATIONS ON THE FOOD OF THE GANGES SOFT-SHELL TURTLE
TRIONYX GANGETICUS IN KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK, BHARATPUR
Although Trionyx spp., commonly known as soft-shell
turtles, are reported to be omnivorous (Das 1985), precise in-
formation on their diet in wild condition is lacking. Obser-
vations on the food of the Ganges soft-shell Trionyx gan-
geticus were made in and around Keoladeo National Park,
Bharatpur, Rajasthan, from 1985.
The Ganges soft-shell turde took a wide range of food
from vegetable to animal matter during this period. They fed
on the fruits of the ‘gular’ tree (Ficus racemosa) in groups
and exhibited an association with rhesus monkeys Macaca
mulatto, similar to that between langurs Presbytis entellus and
chital Cervus axis. Aggregations of more than 20 turtles were
seen in a pond with overhanging boughs of ‘gular’ when the
rhesus raided it for fruits. Turtles swallowed the dropped fruits
as such. In temple ponds outside the park, these turtles accept
cooked food such as ‘chappatis’ and peanuts.
Young (smaller sized) turtles fed on the*s warms of mil-
lipedes repeatedly, but were seldom seen taking slow moving
garden slugs near the water during the monsoon. In all cases
the turtle extended its head and pulled the food into the water
with the utmost speed. Fish were also recorded on a few oc-
casions. Live flapshell turtles Lissemys punctata were fed on
during summer when the water level was low. The Trionyx
made surprise attacks on the flapshell and grabbed the head
or leg, which was then pulled out with great force by kicking
the prey in the opposite direction. Finally, visceral contents
were eaten. Records of soft-shell turtles feeding on live flap-
shells in the natural condition are not available. However,
Ganges soft-shell feeding on the eggs and meat of its own
species is recorded in captivity (Rao 1986). The soft-shell
was also seen drowning waterfowl on several occasions
during winter; this has also been reported elsewhere (Das
1985). These observations confirm that Trionyx spp. are ac-
tively carnivorous throughout the year (Smith 1933).
Besides live food, dead fish and mammals were
scavenged by soft-shells. Details of the feeding of this species
on aquatic vegetation, insects, molluscs and fishes remains
little known because of the practical difficulties of observa-
tion in an aquatic medium.
I thank Dr. S.V. Vijayan, Project Scientist, BNHS,
for encouragement.
July 23, 1990
S. BHUPATHY
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
461
References
Das, I. (1985): Indian Turtles, a field guide. WWF, Calcutta. Smith, M. A. (1933): Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and
RAO, R.J. (1986): A note on the cannibalism in fresh water Burma. Vol.I, Loricata, Testudines. Taylor and Francis,
turtle Trionyx gangeticus (Cuvier). J. Bombay not. Hist. London.
Soc.83(l): 224.
26. INCUBATION AND HATCHING OF THE INDIAN STAR TORTOISE
GEOCHELONE ELEGANS IN CAPTIVITY
The star tortoise Geochelone elegans is fairly com-
mon in India, Sri Lanka and Pakistan (Deraniyagala 1939,
Smith 1931). It is crepuscular, being most active in the
early hours of the morning and in the late afternoons.
During the day, it hides between plants and stones.
Table 1
NEST AND CLUTCH SIZES IN CAPTIVE Geochelone elegans
1: length, b: breadth, w: depth of nest.
Adult tortoises are kept in captivity in the Indira
Gandhi Zoological Park (17°42’ N, 83°20’ E) and their
breeding habits have been studied in 1981. Courtship and
mating are observed between the first week of August and
the first week of October, with a peak period in mid Sep-
tember. The onset of breeding coincides with the premon-
soon showers of the south-west monsoon and ends with
the first north-east monsoon showers in October. The max-
imum rainfall at Visakhapatnam is during October.
Copulation is usually preceded by prolonged
strenuous activity by the male. During courtship, the male
butts and bites the female on her forelimbs. If the female
is not interested, the male tries to lift the posterior part of
the female by placing its head under the plastron. This is
perhaps meant to force the female to draw in her head and
forelegs. Once successful, the male mounts the female in
a semi-upright position, curving round the cloacal region.
After achieving a firm grip the process of copulation
begins, during which the penis, an enlarged brownish
black structure, enters the cloacal opening. During copula-
tion the male gives out sometimes prolonged, low grunt-
ing sounds. The female in most cases quietly chews during
copulation or moves away, dragging the male along with
her. Copulation lasts only two minutes. The excitation of
males during their attempts to copulate can lead them to
tackle almost all the available females in the group. The
male was seen dipping his penis in water after retraction
to remove the sticky seminal fluid.
After copulation, the female star tortoise digs a hole
in loose ground, using her hind legs, softening the earth
by ejecting urine from its cloaca. The sizes of the pits dug
by the three different females observed Indira Gandhi
Zoological Park are shown in Table 1. On an average it
takes 5 hours to complete a first nest of 120x100x115 mm
to complete. The other two females were less experienced;
while excavating the nest, most of the time they were lift-
ing soil fallen from earlier deposits (Table 1).
It took 3 minutes to lay the second egg and 5 minutes
for the third. After laying the eggs, female pressed down
the eggs, pushed the excavated earth back into the nest and
smoothened the surface with her plastron.
The eggs are white and oval, with a more or less
heavily calcified shell. The mean incubation period of 2
female star tortoises was 113.5 days (i.e. 112-115 days)
(Table 2).
To ascertain the hatching period, six eggs constitut-
ing two clutches of three each, laid by two different
females were obtained. They were incubated in a wooden
tray, 45x30 cm in size, containing dry river sand at room
temperature (28 ±1°C). The eggs measured 411-460x340-
360 mm. Two clutches of eggs (4/3) were left in situ for
hatching, for purposes of comparison. Unforunately,
however, unprecedented rains flooded the area where the
eggs were laid, resulting the death of the embryos.
All the eggs incubated in the laboratory were
hatched and the incubation period was found to be 166-
171 days (Table 3). The newly hatched tortoises weighed
from 19.2-21.2 g. Hatchling carapace was 39.9 mm long
Table 2
COPULATION, EGGS AND INCUBATION PERIOD OF Geochelone elegans IN CAPTIVITY
19
462
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Table 3
CLUTCH SIZE, EGG SIZE, HATCHING AND INCUBATION PERIOD OF Geochelone elegans IN CAPTIVITY
and 30.0-39.16 mm wide. The size of the plastron was
37.4-38.8 mm and the shell height was 23.7 mm.
The yolk sac persisted for 48 hours after hatching,
during which no feeding took place. The feeding began
after complete absorption of the yolk. Young tortoises fed
on chopped vegetables, bananas, carrot and cactii free of
spines and were observed to prefer bananas.
We wish to thank Mr. Pushp Kumar, Principal Con-
servator of Forests; Mr. T. Ramakrishna, Director of Zoos, .
Govt, of Andhra Pradesh and Mr. B. Trinadha Rao,
Curator, Indira Gandhi Zoological Park, for their en-
couragement. M.V.S.R. thanks the Department of En-
vironment, Government of India, for financial support.
K. THULASI RAO
April 4, 1990 M.V. SUBBA RAO
References
Deraniyagala, P.E.P. (1939): Tetrapod Reptiles of Ceylon. Smith, M. A. (1931): The Fauna of British India. Vol. 1. Taylor and
Dulan & Co. Ltd., London, i-xxxii + 412 Francis, London, pp. 1-155.
27. DOUBLE HEADED COMMON SAND BOA ERYX CONICUS (SCHNEIDER)
On 2 August 1988, a common or Russell’s sand boa
Eryx conicus with two heads was captured at Shikaripura,
Shimoga district in Karnataka state. The snake is now in
the possession of a snake keeper, Ravindranath Aithal.
The snake measures 1 8 cm from the snout to the tip
of the tail. The point of axial bifurcation is 3 cm from the
tip of the mouth and 15 cm from the tip of the tail. A hump
on the body, about 1 .5 cm behind the point where the two
heads diverge, was noticeable. Both the heads were iden-
tical. The snake can take food through both the mouths.
Two headed Eryx conicus has also been reported
from Karnataka by Desai (1984) and from Madhya
Pradesh by Jahan and Ovais (1979).
June 9, 1990 A. SURYA NARAYANA RAO
References
Desai, R.N. (1984): A report on the rare occurrence of two headed Jahan, Q. & Ovais, M. (1979): On the presence of twin heads in
Russell’s earth-snake or red(sic) sand boa Eryx conicus a snake Eryx conicus. Jour. Sci. Res. 1:6 5-66.
(Ophidia: Boidae). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81(2):483.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
463
28. FIRST RECORD OF THE PIED-BELLY UROPELT MELANOPHIDIUM PUNCTATUM
BEDDOME (SERPENTES: UROPELTIDAE) FROM MAHARASHTRA
(With a text-figure)
The genus Melanophidium of the family Uropeltidae
is endemic to India and is represented by 3 species, name-
ly M.punctatum, M. bilineal um and M. wynaudense (Mur-
thy 1982, 1985). Of these, M. punctatum, the pied-belly
uropelt, is known from Travancore hills, Talewadi and Goa
frontier (Smith 1943). Other reports are from Attapadi in
Tamil Nadu and Silent Valley in Kerala (Murthy 1981a, b;
1982). In his later paper Murthy (1985) states that the dis-
tribution of this species seems to be "... from Goa to hills
of south Kerala.."
The genus Melanophidium can be distinguished
from other uropelts by the presence of a mental groove
(Smith 1943, Murthy 1981b). The species M. punctatum
can be diagnosed by iridescent black coloration of the dor-
sum and the presence of a typical character ventrals
and outer 2-3 scale rows white with a black centre.."
(Smith 1943) (Fig. 1).
The specimen in the collection of WRS, ZSI was
picked up from a locality about 30 km west from Amboli
Ghat, dist. Sindhudurg (specimen number V/785, date of
collection 19 July 1987, name of the collector: Dr. D.B.
Bastawade).The lepidosis and measurements of the
specimen are as follows: length 480 mm; diameter about
9 mm; scales at midbody in 15 rows; ventrals 193, caudals
12.
The present record now extends the range of the
species northward up to Maharashtra (district
Sindhudurg). The record is also of interest because of the
few available specimens of the species.
We are grateful to Dr. R.S. Pillai, Joint Director of
Zoological Survey of India and Officer-in-charge of the
Southern Regional Station, ZSI, Madras, for encourage-
ment; the Director, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta,
for providing facilities; and Dr. T.S.N. Murthy, SRS, ZSI,
Madras, for providing useful literature and also for going
through the manuscript critically and making useful sug-
gestions.
H.V. GHATE
March 21, 1990 G.M. YAZDANI
Fig. 1. Melanophidium punctatum.
Above- dorsal view showing typical colour pattern. Below-
ventral view. Note the broad ventrals and the adjacent 3 scale rows
of white scales with a black centre.
References
Murthy, T.S.N. (1981a): Reptiles of the Silent Valley and New
* Amarambalam area, Kerala. The Snake 13: 42-52.
Murthy, T.S.N. (1981b): Checklist and key to the uropeltid
snakes of India, ibid, 73: 142-150.
Murthy, T.S.N. (1982): An illustrated field guide to the rough
tailed snakes of India, ibid 74:119-135.
Murthy, T.S.N. (1985): Classification and distribution of reptiles
of India, ibid 17: 48-71.
Smith, M. A. (1943): The Fauna of British India: Reptilia and Am-
phibia. Vol.m - Serpentes. Taylor and Francis, London.
Reprinted by Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and
Publishers, New Delhi, 1981.
464
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
29. TAXONOMIC STATUS OF THE GOBIOID FISH OXYURICHTHYS DASI
TALWAR, CHATTERJEE AND ROY
In their revisionaiy studies, Pezold and Larson
(1986) stated that the genus Oxyurichthys Bleeker has
been historically recognized on the basis of a single row
of teeth in the upper jaw, though this character is not
limited to Oxyurichthys alone. Oxyurichthys can,
however, be readily distinguished from its presumed rela-
tives belonging to the subfamily Gobionellinae sensu
Miller by several uniquely derived characters. All mem-
bers of the group possess a membranous crest on the nape
and a distinctly rounded tongue. The upper rear portion
of the eye is modified in the form of a spot, a callus or a
tentacle except in one species, viz. O. stigmalophius. The
genus contains perhaps 15 species primarily distributed in
the Indo-Pacific, with one species in the western Atlantic.
Oxyurichthys dasi was described from the An-
daman islands by Talwar, Chatterjee and Roy (1982).
From the description of teeth rows in this species as being
more than one in the upper jaw, the absence of a
membranous crest and a reduction in the sensory canal sys-
tem on the cheek, it is evident that this species does not
belong to the genus Oxyurichthys. On the other hand a
greater affinity is noted to the genus Oligolepis 'RXockc.x in
the reduction in the transverse papillae and suborbital
pores on the cheek and in the shape and position of the
mouth.
Some other species of Oligolepis have been inadver-
tently overlooked by earlier workers and placed under the
genus Oxyurichthys. Pezold and Larson (pers. comm.)
have defined the genus Oligolepis as having a disjunct
lateral canal, a preopercular canal with two pores, a reduc-
tion of transverse papillae on the cheek and a loss of sub-
orbital rows, in addition to certain osteological characters.
Oxyurichthys jaarmani Weber, reported from Indian
waters (Talwar 1969), is now know to be Oligolepis jaar-
mani and Oxyurichthys nijsseni Menon and Govindan
(1976) is a synonym of Oligolepis acutipinnis. Both
species possess more than one row of teeth in the upper
jaw and have the sensory canal system characteristic of the
genus Oligolepis. With the addition of Oxyurichthys tal-
wari Ranjana Mehta, Kamala Devi and Mehta (1989), the
number of species so far known from the Indo-Pacific is
seven.
We thank the Director, Zoological Survey of India
and the Officer-in-charge, Southern Regional Station,
Madras, for facilities.
A.G.K. MENON
May 12, 1990 K. REMA DEVI
References
Mehta, R., Devi, K. & Mehta, H.S. (1989): Oxyurichthys tal-
wari, a new species of gobioid fish from Andaman islands.
Andaman Sci. Assoc. 5(1): 23-26.
Menon, A.G.K. & Govindan, N. (1976): Oxyurichthys nijsseni ,
a new gobioid fish from Ennore estuary, east coast oflndja,
with a key to the identification of the Indo-West Pacific
species of the genus Oxyurichthys. Matsya 2:13-15.
Pezold, F. & Larson, H.K. (1986): Systematics of the gobioid
genus Oxyurichthys. Indo Pacific FishBiology.Proc. of the
second International Conference of Indo-Pacific Fishes,
Tokyo : 954 (Abst).
Talwar, P.K. (1969): Oxyurichthys jaarmani Weber (Gobiidae:
Pisces) a rare gobioid fish from Indian waters. J. Bombay
not. Hist. Soc. 65(3): 794-795.
Talwar, P.K., Chatterjee, T.K. & Roy, M.K.D. (1982):
Oxyurichthys dasi, a new gobioid (Pisces: Gobiidae) from
the Andaman Islands. Rec. Zool. Surv. India. 79:483-487.
30. NEMATOLOSA NASUS (BLOCH, 1795) (PISCES: CLUPEIDAE): A NEW RECORD FROM THE
FRESHWATERS OF TRIPURA
(With a text-figure )
Whitehead (1973), while revising the fishes of the
family Clupeidae, mentioned the genus Nematolosa
Regan, represented by a single species from the Indian
seas. Misra(1976) and Jayaram (1981) also mentioned the
fishes of the genus Nematolosa as represented by a single
species, viz. N. nasus (Bloch). Talwar and Kacker (1984)
recovered two species of the genus in Indian marine
waters, viz. N. galathea Nelson and Rothman and N.
nasus (Bloch). N. galatheae is a rare species, known only
from Karnataka coast of India and is now considered iden-
tical with N. chanpole (Hamilton-Buchanan) by
Wongratana (1980). The fishes of the genus Nematolosa
are basically marine. Jayaram (op. cit.) stated N. nasus
enters fresh waters. This species is known to inhabit "Pulta,
Calcutta, West Bengal, Puri, Chilka Lake, Orissa coast,
Coromandel coast, Madras, Travancore-Cochin coast,
Calicut, Malabar coast and Bombay" (Misra 1962). Day
(1889) gave the distribution of the species as "Seas of India
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
465
Fig.l. Nematolosa nasus (Bloch).
to Malaya Archipelago and Philippine islands".
During the systematic study of the freshwater fishes
of Tripura, one specimen of N. nasus was collected from
the river Gumti. The occurrence of this species in Tripura,
extends their distributional range to the north-eastern
states of India.
Geographic distribution : India, Pakistan,
Bangladesh, Burma, Sri Lanka, Gulf of Aden, the Persian
Gulf, Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia, Japan and Philip-
pines.
Size: It attains 203 mm in total length.
Zoogeography: N. nasus is generally found in the com-
mercial catches of Bombay, Karnataka and Kerala coasts.
The presence of this species in the river Gumti in Udaipur,
south Tripura, is a first record for the state. It is significant
in respect of its zoogeographic al interest, because its oc-
currence there extends its distribution to the north-eastern
states of India. *
The occurrence of N. nasus in the freshwaters of
Tripura may be due to its migration from the Bay of Ben-
gal in Bangladesh through the river Gumti, which joins the
river Meghna in Comilla district, Bangladesh. The Megh-
na ultimately flows into theBay of Bengal off Bangladesh.
The Gumti is the largest river in Tripura. It originates from
the hill range of Longtarai and passes westwards through
four subdivisions of the state, viz. Tirthmukh, Amarpur,
Udaipur and Sonamura. The river enters Bangladesh from
Sonamura subdivision of Tripura.
I thank Drs. Shamim Md. Jairajpuri, Director, and
A.K. Ghosh, Joint Director in charge of Fish Division, for
facilities and encouragement. I also thank Shri N.C.
Ghose, Deputy Director of Fisheries of Tripura, for collec-
tion of the specimen and for necessary facilities during the
study.
June 6, 1990 R.P. BARMAN
References
Day, F. (1889): The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and
Burma. Fishes, 1 : i-xx, 1-548. Taylor and Francis, London.
Jayaram, K.C. (1981): The Freshwater Fishes of India, Pakistan,
Bangladesh, Burma and Sri Lanka - A handbook. Govt, of
India, i- xxii, 1-475, pis. XIII.
Misra, K.S. (1962): An aid to the identification of the commer-
cial fishes of India and Pakistan. Rec. Indian Mus. 57 (1-
4): 1-320.
Misra, K.S. (1976): The Fauna of India and adjacent countries,
2 (2nd ed.). Manager of Publications, New Dejhi, 438 pp.
Talwar, P.K. & Kacker, R.K. (1984): Commercial Sea Fishes
of India. Govt, of India. i-Lii+997.
Whitehead, P.J.P. (1973): A synopsis of the Clupeoid fishes of
India. J. mar. biol. Ass. India 14(1): 160-256.
Wongratana, T. (1980): Systematics of Clupeoid fishes of Indo-
Pacific region. Ph.D. thesis. London University, 1980.
31. OCCURRENCE OF ODYNERUS OVALIS SAUSS. ON FENNEL
FOENICULUM VULGARE MILLER
Fennel Foeniculum vulgare Miller is an important
spice crop usually grown as a mixed crop and sometimes as
a single crop. It is usually free from insect attack. During
December 1988 at Main Research Station, Dharwad, a large
number of fennel plants showed wilting symptoms with
broken branches. A close observation of the affected plants
revealed many large (about 5 mm) circular holes. When the
stem was split open, the hollow space was found to be filled
with dead flies and jassids which could not be identified fur-
ther, since they were damaged beyond recognition. White
apodus grubs about 10 mm long were found feeding on them.
Several black wasps with yellow bands, measuring
about 8 mm, were visiting these plants. These wasps bored
the stem of fennel and stored paralyzed prey, which served
as food for their young. The holes were large enough to
cause the breaking of the branches because of the weight
of flower heads, especially after seed set. The hollow stem
of fennel served as an ideal breeding place for these wasps.
On each plant 7-12 holes were seen and the damage caused
was quite serious. The wasp was later identified as
Odynerus ovalis Sauss. (Eumenidae: Hymenoptera). This
wasp has been reported to be commonly occurring in the
southern plains (Bingham 1897) and is considered to be
pollinator of lucerne Medicago sativa L. (Gachchinamath
1983).
A.S. VASTRAD
S.N. HOLIHGSUR
K. BASAVANAGOUD
December 15, 1989
466
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
References
Bingham, C.T. (1897): The Fauna of British India including
Ceylon and Burma. Hymenoptera, Vol. I: 369-370. Taylor
and Francis, London.
Gachchinamath, J.K. (1983): Studies on the bee-flora of the In-
dian bee, Apis cerana Fabricius (Hymenoptera:Apidacea)
and it’s role in pollination of lucerne, Medicago sativaL. :
127 pp. M.Sc. (Agri.). Thesis submitted to University of
Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore.
32. FIRST REPORT OF CHRYSIS FUSCIPENNIS BRULLE IN SOUTH INDIA
The cuckoo wasp Chrysis fuscipennis Brulle has not
been reported from south India so far (Bingham 1 897). The
wasps and their nests were collected in and around Coim-
batore (11° N, 76°85’ E) during August, September and
October 1988.
The wasps lead an ectoparasitic life on the stored
food of the hosts and also utilise the completely built nests
of the hosts for egg-laying and for the development of the
young. The hosts normally are members of the family
Sphecidae (Krombein 1956). They also parasitize the
spider-hunting wasps such as Sceliphron madraspatnum
and Sceliphron deforme (Krombein 1956).
The cells of the nests of the host sphecid wasps are
made of clay and mud. Several individual barrel-like cells
are always grouped to form one nest. The nests are found
in places closely associated with human habitations. The
entrance openings of the cells of the nests are oval or round
in shape.
The wasp Chrysis fuscipennis visits the nest of the
host from time to time until the nest building, food-stor-
ing and egg-laying are completed by the host wasp. Soon
after the closing of the cells by the host, the female Chrysis
fuscipennis makes a small hole by means of the mandible
and inserts the ovipositor for the laying of eggs. The
young, on emerging, feed on the host larvae or
chrysomelid larvae stored by the host, grow and metamor-
phose. They emerge from the cells of the nests as fully
grown wasps. The adult wasp may emerge from the
regular closed entrances or through the side walls.
I thank Dr. K.M. Harris, Director, CAB Internation-
al Institute of Entomology, London, for identification of
the wasps.
February 1, 1990 P. KADIRVELU
References
Bingham, C.T. (1897): The Fauna of British India: Hymenop- Krombein, K.V. (1956): Miscellaneous prey records of solitary
tera. Vol. I. Wasps and Bees. Taylor and Francis, London. wasps I. (Hymenoptera: Aculeata). Bull. Brookl. Ent. Soc.
51: 42-44.
33. AN INTERESTING SPECIMEN OF NEPTIS RADHA (MOORE)
Neptis radha is an uncommon Neptis found in the
Himalaya from Kumaon to Burma and western China. It
flies in spring and autumn at elevations of 1400-2400 m.
Neptis radha has the usual Neptis markings, which are
orange in this species. The exact description can be found
in the Fauna of British India (Talbot).
The specimen in question was caught on 19 July
1987 (during the monsoon) at an elevation of 1800 m, at
Anini in the Dibang valley in the Lohit district of
Arunachal Pradesh. The Dibang valley is heavily forested,
unexplored and very rich in wildlife. Though only one
specimen was caught, several others were seen.
The important and indeed the only difference be-
tween this specimen and other members of its species is
that its markings are white and not orange. In all other
respects it is identical to N. radha radha. There are two
other subspecies, sinensis from western China and
asteratilis from Burma. These two are paler than N. radha
radha but they are still orange, not white. It is odd that N.
radha radha occurs both to the east and to the west of this
locality. However, it must be said that the Himalaya to the
east of Sikkim has been very poorly studied. The hills of
Assam, namely the Khasia-Jaintia and Naga hills, have
been well studied but the actual Himalaya in Bhutan and
Arunachal Pradesh has been little studied. The Dibang val-
ley in the eastern Himalaya is hemmed in by high moun-
tains on either side, perhaps allowing a subspecies to
evolve.
I feel that this specimen does represent a new sub-
species. However, I am not describing it, for two reasons.
Firstly, there is only one specimen, and secondly a lack of
expertise on my part The specimen is now located in the
entomology department of the British Museum (Natural
History) in South Kensington, London, where it and others
of its species can be examined and compared.
I would like to thank Mr. C. Smith of the BM.(N.H.)
for allowing me to look at the specimens in the museum and
Colonel Eliot for his comments on the specimen.
February 1, 1990 PURNENDU ROY
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
467
34. INSECTS INFESTING MESQUITE PROSOPIS CHILENSIS (MOLINA) S. AT
POINT CALIMERE WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, TAMIL NADU
Prosopis chilensis (Molina) S. (syn. P. juliflora DC.)
or a number of varieties of the same species appear to have
been introduced into India as far back as 1877 (Raizada
and Chatterji 1954). This species has established itself
very well in semi-arid areas and in some cases in the moist
parts of the Indian peninsula. In Point Calimere Wildlife
Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu, it has spread especially in the open
areas and where the forest is degraded. The main agents
for the dispersal of Prosopis seeds at Point Calimere are
cattle (Natarajan et al. 1984), spotted deer Cervus axis,
wild boar Sus scrofa and feral ponies. I recorded a few in-
sects infesting Prosopis, which are listed below.
1 . Two sap sucking bugs Oxyrhachis tarandus Fabr.,
and Otinotus oneratus Walker (Homoptera:
Membracidae) infest tender shoots and cause chlorosis of
leaves.
2. The blister beetle Mylabris pustulala Thunb.
(Coleoptera: Cantharidae) has been noticed to feed on
flowers of P. chilensis. They were also noticed feeding on
the flowers of Rivea hypocrateriformis and Gmelina
asiatica.
3. The weevil Amblyrrhinus poricollis Bo hem an
(Coleoptera: Curculionidae) has been noticed feeding on
the leaf buds during July to September.
I thank Dr. G. Thirumalai, Scientist SD, Zoological
Survey of India, Southern Regional Station, Madras, for
the identification of the bug specimens and Dr. V.V.
Ramamurthy, Curator, Division of Entomology, Indian
Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, for the iden-
tification of the weevil.
August 1, 1990 V. NATARAJAN
References
Raizada, M.B. & Chatterji, R.N. (1954): A diagnostic key to the
various forms of introduced mesquite Prosopis juliflora
DC. Ind. Forester 50:675-680.
Natarajan, V., Sugathan, R. & Hussain, S.A. (1984): Prosopis
juliflora : Profile of an exotic in the Tropical Dry Evergreen
Forest of Point Calimere. Avifauna Technical Report No. 5.
Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.
35. STANDARDIZATION OF SPORE GERMINATION TECHNIQUE IN ASPLENIUM NIDUS L.
Asplenium nidus L. is an epiphytic fern commonly
known as the bird’s nest fem. In India it is distributed par-
ticularly in the eastern Himalayan ranges where the mean
temperature ranges between 8°C min. and 24°C max. with
a mean annual rainfall of 2400 mm and relative humidity
70-80 %. Holttum (1960) reported its distribution in the
tropics of the old world including Malaya. Latter Beddome
(1969) and Deb (1981) reported its occurrence in Sri
Lanka, Tripura (India) and Malaysia.
The fem is nest-shaped, with a rosette of glossy
fronds. Each frond is 1-1 .5 m long and 10-20 cm wide with
brown spores. Recently, Lai and Pandey (1982) reported
the interesting phenomenon of forking of frond in this fem.
It is used as an indoor decorative plant for its beautiful
fronds (Firminger 1869).
Ecology: The arrangement of fronds in A. nidus L. helps
to catch the dead leaves firmly between new fronds, which
ultimately decompose there, and form a suitable spongy
mass along with the roots of the fem. This spongy mass
holds water during rains. Holttum (1960) reported that the
growth of A. nidus L. is poor in exposed places, but
luxuriant near the periphery of the forests where ground
moisture is very high.
Being epiphytic in nature, it gets less natural sun-
light. Considering the above factors and for its cultivation
in Calcutta conditions, it was felt necessary to provide
similar conditions by providing diffuse sunlight and cool,
humid atmosphere in a greenhouse.
Material and Methods
Propagation of this fem is generally carried out by
germination of spores. It has been observed that dusting
Table 1
COMPARISON OF 4 MEDIA FOR SPORE GERMINATION OF A. nidus
468
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
the spores of locally available terrestrial ferns on porous
brickbats and keeping them in humid conditions yields
good results. However, with A. nidus L. the results were
not encouraging. A trial was therefore conducted at Indian
Botanic Garden, Howrah, using 4 different experimental
media to find out one suitable for the germination of A.
nidus L. spores in Calcutta conditions.
Medium no. 1 is a partial modification of the medium
suggested by Bailey (1958). Medium no.4 is a modifica-
tion of the media used by Rao et al. (1979) for cultivation
of a member of the genus Dendrobium Sw., an epiphytic
orchid. Medium nos. 2 and 3 are being tried for the first
time by us.
Medium 1: A mixture of leaf mould, garden soil and
sand in the proportion 2:2: 1 . Medium 2: Brownea hybrida
Hort. ex Back galls of size 10 cm x 8 cm. Medium 3: Bark
of Mangifera indie a L., Swietenia mahagoni Jacq.,
chopped tree fern and sand in the proportion 2:2: 1:1.
Medium 4: Chopped coconut fibre, leaf mould, sand,
moss, broken charcoal and broken crocks in the propor-
tion 1:1:1:1:0.5:0.5.
Spores were collected on a clean butterpaper from
matured fronds and stored in a dessicator. Three flat ear-
then pans of 25 cm diameter were filled with medium nos.
1,3 and 4. For medium no.2, a gall of Brownea hybrida
was selected from a plant growing in the garden. All the
pots and the Brownea gall were sterilized to avoid soil-
borne nematodes and other spores if any. The media were
cooled and drenched with clean tap water. The spores
were weighed and kept in 4 separate butterpaper packets,
each containing 100 mg of spores. The spores in each
packet were scattered uniformly over the surface of each
medium. All the 4 media containing the spores were kept
over a water-filled cement tank in a greenhouse to provide
humid conditions. All the mediums were watered by a mist
spray at regular intervals.
Spores showed signs of germination within a week
in a few media and the results are shown in Table 1.
Experimental Cultivation
The experimental observations show that fern see-
Refere
Bailey, L.H. (1958): The Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture,
Vol. I. The Macmillan Co., New York.
Beddome, R.H. (1969): Handbook of the Ferns of British India.
Reprinted Ed. Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and
Publishers, New Delhi.
Deb, D.B. (1981): The Flora of Tripura State. Today and
Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New Delhi.
Firminger, T. (1869): Manual of Gardening for Bengal and
Upper India. Barham Hill & Co., Calcutta.
dlings at the age of 12-15 weeks are the most suitable ones
for transplantation. Shallow earthen pots (25 cm diameter)
were filled with of bark dust, charcoal bits and leaf mould
in equal proportions. The pots were dipped into water up
to their rims, allowing water to enter from the bottom-hole
till the contents were soaked properly. The sporophytes
were taken out carefully from the Brownea gall with a
sharp knife and separated from each other. The
sporophytes were dipped for a minute into a dilute (0. \%)
solution of ‘Blitox’, an antifungal preparation available in
the market. This method was adopted for the first time by
us to prevent fungal attack on the plants. The ferns were
transplanted in the medium, spaced 8 cm apart, and kept
in the green house for 3 months. During this period each
fern grew to a stage of 6-7 fronds, suitable for further
transplantation and pot culture.
For pot culture shallow earthen pots of 25 cm
diameter and 15 cm in height are suitable. One third of
the pot was filled with over-burnt pieces of brick and the
rest of the pot with leaf mould and small pieces of char-
coal. The pots were moistened with water as per the
method adopted earlier. The fern with 6-7 fronds was
transplanted in centre of the pot, and a few medium sized
pieces of brick were laid on the surface of the potting
materials to keep the plant fixed properly. The plant was
allowed to grow in the greenhouse, and watered regularly
with a syringe during non-rainy days. The plants mature
within 3-4 years and the fronds produce innumerable light
brown spores every year. It was observed that the noctur-
nal flying insects generally damage the tiny fronds. This
damage could be prevented by spraying a systemic insec-
ticide such as ‘Rogor’.
Asplenium nidys L. can thus be grown easily from
spores under the climatic conditions of Calcutta. From our
findings Brownea galls are a very suitable medium for the
germination of Asplenium nidus.
A.K. BANERJEE
H.S. PANDEY
March 17, 1990 A.P. BHATTACHARYA
NCES
Holttum, R.E. (1960): A Revised Flora of Malaya, Vol. II.
Reprinted Ed. Govt. Printing Office, Singapore.
Lal, J. & Pandey, H.S. (1982): On abnormal fronds of Asplenium
nidus L. (Aspleniaceae) from Manipur, Eastern India. Bull,
bot. Surv. India 24(1-4): 195-196.
Rao, A.V.N., Hegde, S.N, & Banerjee, A.K. (1979): Cultivation
and Flowering Behaviour of Orchids. The Orchid Review
1979: 195-201.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
469
36. RANGE EXTENSION OF THREE EXOTIC AQUATIC MACROPHYTES IN NORTH INDIA
Aquatic plants have not been surveyed in detail in
and around Delhi. No additions have been made to the
flora of Delhi since Maheshwari (1963). This note reports
the occurrence of three exotic aquatic macrophytes which
appear to have become naturalized in Delhi and its sur-
roundings during recent years.
Salvinia molesta , a noxious aquatic weed of
neotropical origin, has long been cultivated in botanical
gardens. It has spread to cause serious problems in Kerala,
especially in the Kakki reservoir, in the early sixties (Cook
and Gut 1971). Since then it has spread further in most of
the south Indian states but does not occur naturalized or in
weedy proportions anywhere in the Indo-Gangetic plains.
Here it was first observed during the winter of 1986 in a
side channel of river Yamuna near Wazirabad in north
Delhi. During the past two years it has spread downstream
up to Okhla, apparently with the river flow. It has been
growing throughout the year, forming a dense mat near the
pumphouse at Wazirabad. It has also become overgrown
by a number of other aquatic plants.
Alternanthera philoxeroides , commonly known as
the alligatorweed is a noxious aquatic weed in Australia
(Mitchell 1978) and U.S.A. (Weldon 1960). It was first
reported in India from Bihar and West Bengal (Mahesh-
wari 1964), and later from parts of Assam and Bangalore
(Sankaran and Narayanan 1971). It was noticed growing
by the sides of Agra canal near Okhlabarrage during 1986.
At that time its identity could not be confirmed. During a
recent survey, extensive flowering stands of A.
philoxeroides were found along the river Hindon and also
along the river Yamuna from Wazirabad downstream to
Okhla. There is as yet no report of its occurrence under
field or cultivated conditions from anywhere in northern
Refe
or western India.
Another interesting find is Lemna trisulca , which is
morphologically distinct from all other species of Lemna
(Landolt 1986). It was found in the shallow riverside
ponds on the floodplain of river Hindon near the bridge on
the Delhi-Meerut road. L. trisulca is distributed mainly in
cooler climates. It is known to occur in India in Srinagar
(Zutshi and Kaul 1963), Calcutta and Manipur (Landolt
1986). The plants are reported to grow at temperatures
below 30°C (Landolt 1986). However, we found it grow-
ing at a much higher temperature (35°C) during the sum-
mer of 1989.
A common feature of the three species is their
predominantly vegetative propagation. A. philoxeroides
flowers profusely but viable seeds have not been reported
from anywhere in its distribution range. Apparently,
vegetative propagation causes the maintenance and spread
of this weed (Mitchell 1978). Salvinia molesta is a hybrid
producing sterile spores (Mitchell 1972). L. trisulca
flowers occasionally (Landolt 1986), but it has not been
reported from India.
This raises the interesting question about the
mechanism of dispersal in these species. While it is prob-
able that Salvinia molesta escaped from botanical gardens
in Delhi to the river through various wastewater drains, the
long range dispersal of the other two species cannot be
readily explained. This calls for detailed surveys of aquatic
plants in the region.
We are grateful to Dr. Brij Gopal for guidance, and
to the University for necessary facilities and fellowship.
CHAMAN LAL
October 27, 1989 MALAVIKA SAH
Cook, C.D.K. & Gut, B.F. (1971): Salvinia in the state of Kerala,
India. Pestic Art. News Summ. 17: 433- 447.
Landolt, E. (1986): Biosystemic investigations in the family of
duckweeds (Lemnaceae). Vol.2. The family of Lemnaceae-
a monographic study. Vol. 1. Veroff. Geobot. Instt. ETH.
Stiff. Rubel, Zurich 71: 1-566.
Maheshwari, J.K. (1963): Flora of Delhi. CSIR, New Delhi, 447
pp.
Maheshwari, J.K. (1964): A. philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb. A
new record for India. Bull. bot. Surv. India 6:313-314.
Mitchell, D.S. (1972): The Kariba weed: Salvinia molesta. Brit.
fern Gaz. 10.: 251-252.
Mitchell, D.S. (1978): Aquatic weeds in Australian inland
waters. Australian Government Publishing Service. Can-
berra.
Sankaran, T.F. & Narayanan, E. (1971): Occurrence of the al-
ligator weed in south India. Curr. Sci. 40:641.
Weldon, L.W. (1960): A summary review of investigation on al-
ligatorweed and its control. US Dept. Agric., Crop Res.
Div., series CR: 33-60.
Zutshi, D.P. & Kaul, V. (1963): Lemna trisulca L., a new record
for Kashmir. Trop. Ecol. 4: 95-96.
470
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
37. EUPATORIUM TRIPLENERVE : A GOOD FORAGE FOR FLOWER VISITING INSECTS
Eupatorium triplenerve (Compositae) is a native of
tropical America, with slaty-blue flowers, commonly
grown in gardens. The plants bloom at Visakhapatnam
(17°42’ N, 82°18’ E) all through the year with a peak
period during September-January. During the study
period, 28 insect visitors were found foraging at the
flowers.
The flowers are tubular, pinkish violet, arranged in
heads. Heads are (X) 1.3 cm in length and 0.7 cm across.
Table 1
PARTICULARS OF FLOWER VISITORS ON
Eupatorium triplenerve
The length of each flower is (X) 0.8 cm with 0.5 cm tube.
.Stamens 5, synandrous, stigma excerted, length (X) 1.3
cm. The essential organs are exerted just above the corol-
la tube. On an average, 22 flowers were recorded in every
inflorescence.
The flowers anthese during 0530-0730 hrs. Im-
mediately after anthesis, anthers dehise presenting the pol-
len. The pollen grains are small, ranging from 17-25 mm
in diameter. Their number per flower averages 3438. The
total output of pollen grains per head is 75,636.
Nectar secretion begins with anthesis. In volume the
nectar measures (X) 1.66 fil per head and nectar con-
centration ranges from 23-28%. Paper chromatography
revealed the constituent sugars: glucose, sucrose and fruc-
tose, the former predominating. Proteins and amino acids
too were present as indicated by ninhydrine and
bromophenol tests. Histedine scale was recorded to 6.0
During the period of study, 28 insect species were
found foraging at the flowers (Table 1). Of these, 6 are
Hymenoptera (Apidae 4, Anthophoridae 1 and Sphecidae
1), and the remaining are Lepidoptera (Danaidae 3, Nym-
phalidae 7, Acraeidae 1, Lycaenidae 3, Papilionidae 2,
Pieridae 4 and Hesperidae 2).
Five of these 28 species foraged on both pollen and
nectar, while the others foraged on nectar only. All the
visitors were not encountered in both the years. All the
flower visitors are diurnal in activity. They foraged at the
flowers between 0700-1800 hrs. S.ome of them were more
active during certain hours only. Thus Apis dorsata was
more frequent during 0700-1200 , Apis cerana indica
from 0700-1400, Precis lemonias during 0700-1600,
Danaus chrysippus between 0700-1500, Graphium
agamemnon from 0800-1300, Precis almana during
0900-1400 hrs.
On the umbellate type of inflorescences of E.
triplenerve the insects walked over them to cover all
opened flowers, while the bees collected pollen as well as
nectar. Trigona sp. collected only pollen because the
length of proboscis was smaller than the tube of the flower.
The wasp Bembix and butterflies foraged on nectar only.
When collecting the pollen or nectar the ventral side of the
body, legs and head touched the essential organs. In the
case of butterflies the legs and proboscis touched the es-
sential organs.
Data regarding the number of flowers visited in a
minute and the time spent on a flower by 8 of the common
visitors indicated that Graphium agamemnon is more
mobile, covering on an average 22 flowers in a minute and
spending on an average 4 seconds per flower. The cor-
responding figure for other species are A trophaneura aris-
tolochiae 19, 5; Bembix sp. 15.3, 6; Apis cerana indica 10,
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
471
9; Hypolimnas misippus \2>,l\Euploea core 21, 5; Danaus
chrysippus 24, 43.
Die forage offered by E. triplenerve constitutes both
pollen and nectar to the flower visitors, the latter being the
more predominant and preferred. A close examination of
intrafloral behaviour of the visitors revealed that the bees
made substantial number of visits to the flowers and col-
lected pollen. On an average 3438 and 75,636 pollen
grains were produced per flower and head respectively.
Out of this an average 90% of the pollen grains were
depleted during 0700-1300 hrs, during which the foragers
activity was also found to be high. Pollen depletion was
mostly due to the foragers activity because they remove
the pollen from the anthers and pack then into their cor-
biculae.
T. BYRAGI REDDY
July 23, 1990 C.ARUNA
38. ADDITIONS TO THE VERBENACEAE OF ANDHRA PRADESH
During the study of the Verbenaceae of Andhra
Pradesh we came across two interesting plants, namely
Lantana wightiana Wall, and Sphenodesme involucrata
var. paniculata (Clarke) Munir which have been collected
from the forests of Guntur district. From available litera-
ture and examination of specimens at different herbaria in
India, it has been concluded that these two taxa are new
records for Andhra Pradesh. The up-to-date nomenclatural
citation and characters of three taxa are given below for
easy identification. The specimens have been deposited
in the Herbarium of the Department of Botany, S.K.
University, Anantapur.
Lantana wightiana Wall, ex Gamble, FI. Pres. Madras
1087. 1924. 2:761.1957 (repr. ed.). L. indica Roxb. var.
albiflora Wight ex Clarke in Hook. f. FI. Brit. India
4:562.1885.
A woody unarmed shrub up to 3 m tall; tender parts
scabrous. Leaves 2-4 x 1 5-3 cm, elliptic-ovate, softly ap-
pressed-pubescent above and below, base rounded to
acute, margin crenulate, apex subacute. Flowers white in
elongated spikes. Berries brown-black when ripe.
Exsicc: Andhra Pradesh, Guntur District, N. Varam,
dated 27 Aug. 1986, V. Ramakrishnaiah 3966 (SKU).
Gamble (l.c.) recorded from Carnatic and Eastern
slopes of Western Ghats, in or near the hills. An examina-
tion of material in different herbaria viz., MH, CAL,
BLAT, DD, HH, revealed that there are no specimens of
this species from Andhra Pradesh. Hence it forms a new
record for Andhra Pradesh.
Sphenodesme involucrata (Presl.) Rob. var. paniculata
(Clarke) Munir in Gard. Bull. Singapore 21:338.1966.
S. paniculata Clarke in Hook f. FI. Brit. India
4:600.1885; Gamble, FI. Pres. Madras 1104.2:773.1957
(repr. ed.).
A climbing shrub. Leaves 4-6 x 2-3 cm, shortly
petioled, ovate to elliptic, glabrescent, margin broadly ser-
rate, apex acute. Flowers green in 7-flowered cymes;
bracts 6, foliaceous, tomentose; calyx cuplike or companu-
late, teeth 5; corolla tube cylindric, short. Drupe 1- or 2-
seeded, globose, included in the calyx.
Exsicc.: Andhra Pradesh, Guntur district, Vinukon-
da RF, dated 9 April 1989, V. Ramakrishnaiah 6897
(SKU).
There are no specimens of this plant from Andhra
Pradesh in different herbaria namely MH, CAL, DD,
BLAT, HH, etc. Even Gamble reported its occurrence only
from Western Ghats, evergreen forests of Cochin and
Travancore; Coorg (Rottler); Shevaroy Hill (Perrottet). It
is, therefore, a first record for Andhra Pradesh.
We thank the authorities of MH, CAL, DD, BLAT,
for permission to consult the herbaria and for confirming
the identity of the specimens.
V. RAMAKRISHNAIAH
D. AU MOULALI
December 21, 1989 T. PULLAIAH
39. AN INFRA-SPECIFIC NOMENCLATURAL COMBINATION IN THE GENUS
LEUCAS L. ( LAMIACEAE)
While revising the Lamiaceae of Andhra Pradesh
we came across some names in taxonomic literature which
needed correction. Article 25 of the International code of
Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN) states "For
nomenclatural purposes, a species or any taxon below the
rank of species is regarded as the sum of its subordinate
taxa, if any". In this paper we give the latest valid name
for an infra-specific taxon of Leucas L. as per the ICBN.
According to Keng in Steenis Flora of Malesiana
1.8:340.1978, and Bakshi (1984) in Flora of Murshidabad
district the valid name for Leucas mollissima Wall, is
Leucas flaccida R. Br. S.R. Srinivasan in Henry’s Flora of
Tamil Nadu Analysis vol. 2.176.1987 transferred the
variety scabrula Hook. f. to Leucas flaccida R. Br. as per
the ICBN. Therefore the typical variety should be named
Leucas flaccida R. Br. var. flaccida.
Accordingly, the variety sebastiana that is endemic
to the Eastern Ghats should be named as follows:
472
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Leucas flaccida R. Br. var. sebastiana (Subba Rao et
Kumari) Moulali et Pullaiah comb. nov..
Basionym: Leucas mollissima Wall. var. sebastiana
Subba Rao et Kumari in Bull.Bot.Surv .India 11 '452. 1965,
plate 453 (Figs. 1-7) (see Articles 60, 61 of ICfeN)
"type: Holotype Subba Rao et Kumari 29743 A
(CAL) and isotypes Subba Rao et Kumari 29743 B to N
(MH) were collected on 4 January 1968 at Cherukonda in
Visakhapatnam district of Andhra Pradesh.
D. AU MOULALI
March 17, 1990 T. PULLAIAH
40. SEED DISPERSAL OF CASSYTHA FILIFORMIS AT POINT CALIMERE, TAMIL NADU
Cassytha filiformis L. (Lauraceae) is a parasitic,
leafless, yellow plant that grows on bushes. It is common-
ly noticed on the seashore all over the tropics, including
many islands (Ridley 1930). The fruits are white and
pulpy. Guppy (1906) stated that the fruits are buoyant and
can be dispersed by sea currents. Ridley (1930) mentions
that the seeds are mainly dispersed by sea and hence the
plant has a wide distribution. However, quoting Hemsley’s
observation (original paper not referred to) on the
presence of Cassytha filiformis seeds in the crop of
pigeons, Ridley (1930) mentions that the seeds can be dis-
persed to some extent by birds. Van der Bijl (1982) records
that this species is pantropical on beaches due to its float-
ing seeds, but may occur inland due to omithochorous
fruits.
In Point Calimere Cassytha filiformis is commonly
seen along the beach as well as inland. Here it is mostly
found growing on Dichrostachys bushes. The fruiting
season is from March to May. During three years of study
on frugivory by birds and mammals, I observed the
wbitebrowed bulbul Pycnonotus luteolus , a common resi-
dent bird, eating the fruits of this plant. The bird swallows
the whole fruit. Obviously, being a ‘legitimate’ frugivore,
the seeds would be ejected uninjured along with the drop-
pings and thus help in the dispersal of this plant. This ob-
servation records a definite avian seed disperser for this
plant, and also explains their distribution inland.
I am grateful to Prof. P. V. Bole for his guidance and
Mr. J.C. Daniel for encouragement and for going through
the manuscript.
December 5, 1989 P. BALASUBRAMANIAN
References
Guppy, H.B. (1906): Observations of a naturalist in the Pacific. Springer- Verlag, Berlin, pp. 214.
II. Plant-Dispersal. Macmillan, London. Ridley, H.N. (1930): The dispersal' of plants throughout the
Bijl, L Van der (1982): Principles of dispersal in higher plants. world. Reeve, Ashford, pp. 744.
41. RECORDS OF TWO NEW TAXAFROM ORISSA
(With a text-figure )
During the analyses of the flora of Keonjhar district
in Orissa, the following two tax a, observed and collected
in the wild, appeared to be new records for the state. They
are discussed below:
Cyathea balakrishnani Dixit et Tripathi
Bull. Bot. Surv. Ind. 26:170.1984.
Dixit and Tripathi (1984) correctly named the plant
from many old and new specimens which are intermixed
with C. giganteae (Wall, ex Hook.) Holtt., C. glabrae (Bl.)
Copel. and C. podophyllae (Hook.) Copel. etc. Dixit and
Tripathi (1984) also described the taxon in detail with il-
lustrations and ecological notes.
Time of Sort formation: December - January.
Locality: Khandadhar waterfall at Keonjhar district,
31 Jan. 1988, Mondial, 1208.
Earlier reports of the taxon have been from Madhya
Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. The present collection in
Orissa is a new record for the state and extends the dis-
tribution of the species further north.
Dracaena spicata Roxb. FI. ind. 2:157.1824; Hook. f. in
FI. Brit. India 6:328.1892.
Evergreen tree. Stems erect, marked with leaf scars.
Leaves caulescent, crowded at the end of the branches,
drooping, lanceolate to elongate-lanceolate, apex
acuminate, base attenuate, coriaceous, 120-200 mm long,
42-62 mm wide; petioles broad, half-stem clasping, wide
at base, 40-60 mm long, 4-5 mm wide. Inflorescence spike
terminal, slightly curved, bracts lanceolate, subulate-
acuminate, recurved; bracteoles ovate, acute. Flowers
numerous, sessile, fascicled, greenish yellow, slender, 20-
23 mm long; perianth 6 lobed; tubes strongly twisted;
lobes shorter than tubes, oblong, obtuse, spreading;
stamens 6; filament white, inserted; stigma 3 -lobed. Berry
1-3 lobed, reddish orange when ripe, 5-6 mm diam.; each
lobe containing one, white homy seed.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
473
Fig.l. Dracaena spicata Roxb.
1 . The plant body; 2. Inflorescence; 3. Rower; 4. Opened flower, 5. Stamen; 6. T.S. of ovary.
474
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87
Flowering and fruiting:: April- June.
Locality: Khandadhar waterfall at Keonjhar district,
31 Jan. 1988, Mondal, 1204.
The plants collected from Orissa are without flowers
or fruits but their identity is based on authentic specimens
at Herb. CAL.
According to Kurz (1877) this species is not infre-
quent in South Andaman. Wallich and Roxburgh had col-
lected the species from different parts of Bangladesh, viz.
Silhet and Chittagong (Hooker 1892). The present col-
lection forms a new record for Orissa and the Indian main-
land.
PAPIA MONDAL
December 30, 1989 P. K. MUKHERJEE
References
Dixit, R. D. & Tripathi, A.K. (1984): Cyathea balakrishnanii
Dixit et Tripathi - A new species of tree fem from India.
Bull. Bot. Surv. Ind. 26: 170-173.
Hooker, J.D. (1892): Flora of British India 6: 328.
Kurz, S. (1877): Forest Flora of British Burma. 2: 543, 546.
Roxburgh, W. (1824): Flora indica in Carey (Ed.) 2: 157.
INDEX OF AUTHORS, MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Page
Acharjyo, L.N. Nandankanan Biological Park, Baranga, Cuttack 754 005 458
Aruna, C. Dept, of Environmental Sciences, Andhra University, Waltair 470
Badwaik, N. Dept, of Zoology, Institute of Science, Nagpur 440 001 447
Balachandran, S. Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,
Bombay 400 023 447, 456
Balasubramanian, P. Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,
Bombay 400 023 451,457
Banerjee, A.K. Indian Botanic Garden, Botanical Survey of India, Howrah 711 103 467
Barman, R.P. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta 464
Basavanagoud, K. Dept, of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Dharwad 580 005, Karnataka 465
Bhattacharya, A.P. ' Indian Botanic Garden, Botanical Survey of India, Howrah 711 103 467
Bhupathy, S. Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,
Bombay 400 023 460, 460
Byragi Reddy, T. Dept, of Environmental Sciences, Andhra University, Waltair 470
Qiellam, Ravi Wildlife Institute of India, New Forest, Dehra Dun 248 006 453
Datye, Hemant Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,
Bombay 400 023 452
Davidar, E.R.C. David Nagar, Padappai, (Via) Madras 601 301, Tamil Nadu 445
Devarshi, Dhirendra Dept, of Zoology, M.S. J. College, Bharatpur 302 001 45 1
Ghate, H.V. Post-Graduate Research Centre, Dept, of Zoology, Modem College, Pune 411 005 463
Gopalakrishna, A. Dept, of Zoology, Institute of Science, Nagpur 440 001 447
Holihosur, S.N. Dept, of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Dharwad 580 005, Karnataka 465
Kadirvelu, P. Dept, of Zoology, Chikkanna Govt. Arts College, Tirupur 638 602, Tamil Nadu 466
Kashyap, Nisha Division of Animal Sciences and Rodent Control, Central Arid Zone Research Institute,
Jodhpur 342 003 . 448
Krishnan, Omkar G. Laxmi Vihar, Near Amruthkulam, Mundakkal East, Quilon 691 001, Kerala 449, 450
Lai, Chaman School of Environmental Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University,
New Delhi 110 067 469
Malhotra, A.K. Project Tiger, Bikaner House, Shahjahan Road, New Delhi 110 011 458
Manakadan, Ranjit Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,
Bombay 400 023 457
Menon, A.G.K. Zoological Survey of India, Southern Regional Station, 100, Santhome High Road,
Madras 600 028 464
Mohan, Dhananjai IFS (P), 28, Trevor Road, New Forest, Dehra Dun 248 006 453
Mondal, Papia Dept, of Botany, University of Calcutta, 35, Bally gunge Circular Road,
Calcutta 700 019 472
Moulali, D. Ali Dept, of Botany, Sri Krishnadevaraya University, Anantapur 515 003 471, 471
Mukherjee, P.K. Dept, of Botany, University of Calcutta, 35, Ballygunge Circular Road,
Calcutta 700 019 472
Narayana Kurup, D.K. Crocodile Farm, Peruvannammuzhy, Kozhikode, Kerala 449
Narayana Rao, A.S. N.S.C. Post Addoor, Gurpur 574 145, Mangalore 462
Natarajan, V. Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,
Bombay 400 023 451, 457, 467
Pandey, H.S. Indian Botanic Garden, Botanical Survey of India, Howrah 711 103 467
Pathak, B.J. Deputy Conservator of Forests (Wildlife), Sasan- Gir 445
Pattanaik, S.K. Nandankanan Biological Park, Baranga, Cuttack 754 005 458
Praveen, Farzana Division of Animal Sciences and Rodent Control, Central Arid Zone Research
Institute, Jodhpur 342 003 448
Pullaiah, T. Dept, of Botany, Sri Krishnadevaraya University, Anantapur 515 003 47 1 , 47 1
Rajan, A 1 agar S.
Ramakrishnaiah, V.
Rao, Prakash
Rao, Thulasi K.
Rema Devi, K.
Robertson, Andrew
Roy, Pumendu
Sah, Malavika
Satheesan, S.M.
Sengupta, Sudhin
Sharma, Satish Kumar
Singh, L.A.K.
Sivasubramanian, C.
Subba Rao, M.V.
Tehsin, Arefa
Tehsin, Raza
Thomas, Shaju
Vastrad, A.S.
Yahya, H.S.A.
Yazdani, G.M.
Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road
Bombay 400 023 457
Dept, of Botany, Sri Krishnadevaraya Universi ty, Anantapur 515 003 47 1
Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,
Bombay 400 023 452
Indira Gandhi Zoological Park, Visakhapatnam 530 040 461
Zoological Survey of India, Southern Regional Station, 100, Santhome High Road,
Madras 600 028 464
2, St. George’s Terrace, Blockley, Glos. GL56 9BN, United Kingdom 456
863, Finchley Road, London N.W. 11, 8LX, United Kingdom 466
School of Environmental Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University,
New Delhi 110 067 469
Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,
Bombay 400 023 450, 452
Zoological Survey of India, Nizam Palace, Acharya J.C. Bose Road,
Calcutta 451
World Forestry Arboretum, Jhalana Dungri, Agra By-pass, Jaipur 302 004 454
Similipal Tiger Reserve, Khairi Jashipur 757 091, Orissa 458
Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,
Bombay 400 023 460
Dept, of Environmental Sciences, Andhra Universi ty, Visakhapatnam 530 003 461
41, Panchwati, Udaipur 313 001 453
41, Panchwati, Udaipur 313 001 453
Dept, of Zoology, Nirmala College, Muvatupuzha 686 661 454
Dept, of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Dharwad 580 005, Karnataka 465
Centre for Wildlife and Ornithology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh 447
Western Regional Station, Zoological Survey of India, Fergusson College Road,
Shivajinagar, Pune 411 005 463
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
Minutes of the EGM held on 12-9-1989
An Extraordinary General Meeting of the Bombay held on Tuesday the 12th September 1989, at 6.00 p.m.
Natural History Society requisitioned by 3 1 members, was at Hombill House. The following were present :
Prof P V Bole (In the Chair)
Mr Unmesh Brahme
Mr Humayun Abdulali
Mr Debi Goenka
Mr J C Daniel
Mr Bharat Bhushan
Mr Kisan Mehta
Mr S A Hussain
Mrs D S Variava
Mr Ulhas Rane
Mr Cyrus Guzder
Ms Sashi Rekha Iyer
Ms Thrity Bad am
Mr Vilas Shigre
Mr M R Almeida
Dr A N D Nanavati
Mr S Asad Akhtar
Mr Jugal Kishor Tiwari
Mr S Chandrasekar
Mr N D Mull a
Ms Renee Borges
Mr S G Bhatkar
Mr Nitin Jamdar
Mr Amit Rathod
Ms Heta Pandit
Mr C handrail as A Kolhatkar
Mr Hirji C Mistry
Mr Owen Joseph Fonseca
Mr R Naoroji
Mr P Lalla
Mr A Varadachary
Prof Parvish Pandya
Mr R Ashok Kumar
The following resolution was unanimously passed:
"Resolved that the Bombay Natural History Society
publicly expresses serious concern about the grave en-
vironmental consequences of the Narmada Valley Project
in its entirety, and particularly the Sardar Sarovar and Nar-
mada Sagar Dams, and calls upon the Government of
India, the concerned State Governments and all other
agencies involved in the funding and implementation of
the project to suspend further work on execution of any
aspect of the project pending the completion of a com-
prehensive environmental, socio-economic appraisal of
the project in its entirety".
Prof P.V. Bole
President
Minutes of the AGM held on 15-12-1989
The Annual General Meeting of the Bombay
Society was held on Friday the 15th
December 1989, at 6.00 p.m. at Hombill House. The fol-
lowing were present:
Natural History
Prof P V Bole (In the Chair)
Mr J C Daniel
Mr M R Almeida
Ms Sangeeta Pradhan
Mr Sorab Pandey
Ms Sashirekha Iyer
Mr Ulhas Rane
Mr N P Behramfram
Ms Ashraf Macchiwala
Mr Tareen Calkaka
Dr (Ms) Meena Haribal
Mr T M Davar
Ms Sejal Worah
Dr Pratap Saraiya
Mr Sunjoy Monga
Mr Bharat Bhushan
Mr D I Solanki
Mr Nitin Jamdar
Mr K G Sathe
Mr A Varadachary
Mr Parvish Pandya
Mr Praveen Pardeshi
Mr K P Karamchandani
Mr Kisan Mehta
Mr M K Mistry
Mr Suresh Bhtakal
Mrs D S Variava
Mr Debi Goenka
Mr Mihir Devare
Ms Heta Pandit
Mr Humayun Abdulali
Mr A V Ghangurde
Mr Sangeet S harm a
Mr Kiran Srivastav
Mr D D Khanvilkar
Mr Shashikumar Menon
Mr Hirji C Mistry
Mr P D Khambata
1. Confirmation of Minutes
The minutes of the A G M held on 22nd November
1988 were confirmed. The minutes of the Extraordinary
General Meeting held on 12th September 1989 were con-
firmed subject to the note that the Resolution passed at that
Meeting had been proposed by Mr D Goenka and
seconded by Mr Kisan Mehta.
2. Report of the Committee for the 15 month period
ended 31st March 1989
The President expressed regrets that the name of Mr
K T Satarwalla had inadvertently been omitted in the list
of Vice- Presidents given in the Report. The Report of the
Committee, duly proposed by Mr Ulhas Rane and
seconded by Prof Parvish Pandya, was adopted by the
Meeting.
3. Statement of Accounts for the 15 month period
Dr Pratap Saraiya (Hon. Treasurer) explained the
main features of the financial results of 1988/89, and in-
vited questions from members.
Mr D Goenka sought clarifications regarding the
10
Research and Education Fund, Staff Gratuity Fund, in-
vestments and establishment expenses, and these were
given by the Hon. Treasurer.
Mr T M Davar felt that the Statement of Accounts
should be sent to all members with the Notice of the A G
M. The Hon. Treasurer explained that the practice, which
had been confirmed at the Extraordinary General Meeting
held on 26 March 1988, was that the Accounts were sent
by post only to upcountry members who asked for the
same. The reason was that substantial expenditure would
have to be incurred in printing and mailing copies to all
members, and that only a few members were interested in
receiving the Accounts. Various suggestions were
proposed by members in this connection, and it was agreed
that the Executive Committee would review the matter.
The Balance Sheet and Statement of Accounts were
approved on their being proposed by Mr Debi Goenka and
seconded by Dr (Ms) Meena Haribal, and members ex-
pressed appreciation of the financial results and also the
timely completion of the audit.
4. Appointment of Auditors
M/s Habib & Co. were appointed Auditors for the
year 1989-90 at a remuneration of Rs 2,000/- for the audit
work.
5. Amendment of Rules
The following Resolution was passed, proposed by
: Dr Pratap Saraiya and seconded by: Mr S Gandhi and
Mr T M Daver
RESOLVED that the Rules and Regulations of the
Society be amended as follows :
In Rule 52
i) Substitute the words "31st March" for the words
"31st December".
ii) At the end of Rule 52 add the sentence "For the
period commencing 1st January 1988, all accounts shall
be made for the fifteen month period ending 31st March
1989, and shall be audited as hereinabove provided.
6. Election of the Executive Committee
The President stated that 20 valid nominations had
been received and he read out the names of the nominees.
It was, therefore, necessary to have an election by ballot
and voting papers would be sent to all members eligible
to vote.
The Meeting ended with a vote of thanks to the
Chair.
107TH ANNUAL REPORT AND ACCOUNTS
FOR THE YEAR 1ST APRIL 1989 TO
31ST MARCH 1990
EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE
FOR 1988-89
Prof. P V Bole
Mr Humayun Abdulali
Ms D S Variava
Mr K T Satarawala
Dr A N D Nanavati
Dr Pratap R Saraiya
Mr J C Daniel
MEMBERS
Mr. M R Almeida; Dr Erach K Bharucha; Dr B F Chhapgar;
Mr Cyrus J Guzder; Dr (Ms) Meena Haribal; Mr K Karamchandani;
Mr Kisan Mehta; Prof. Parvish Pandya; Mr Ulhas Rane;
Mr D I Solanki, The Secretary, Dept, of Education & Social Welfare, Government
of Maharashtra
EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE
FOR 199®-91
Prof. P V Bole
Mr Humayun Abdulali
Ms D S Variava
Mr Kisan Mehta
Mr Ulhas Rane
Mr Bittu Sahgal
Mr J C Daniel
MEMBERS
Mr M R Almeida; Vice Admiral M P Awati (Retd.);
Dr Erach K Bharucha; Dr (Ms) Meena Haribal;
Dr Ashok Kothari; Dr Sashikumar N Menon; Mr Sun joy Monga;
Dr A N D Nanavati; Prof. Parvish K Pandya;
Maj. Gen. E D’Souza (Retd.); The Secretary, Dept, of Education & Social
Welfare, Government of Maharashtra.
Auditors
M/s Habib and Company, Chartered Accountants, Bombay
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
Registered Office : Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023.
President
Vice Presidents
Hon. Secretary
Hon. Treasurer
Curator
President
Vice Presidents
Hon. Secretary
Hon. Treasurer
Curator
107TH ANNUAL REPORT
REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE FOR THE YEAR ENDED 31 MARCH 1990
OBITUARIES
We are sad to inform you of the demise of two
of our former Vice Presidents: Mr Ralph E. Haw-
kins, who passed away on 13th October 1989 and
Mr. Dinshaw J. Panday, who passed away on 4th
February 1990. Both were deeply involved with the
Society’s functioning for many decades and were
devoted to the Society’s wellbeing.
Mr. Panday became a member on 27th Sep-
tember 1947 and served on the Executive Commit-
tee of the Society from July 1952 to May 1978, when
he became a Vice President of the Society. He retired
as Vice President in December 1986. Mr. Dinshaw
Panday was a keen amateur naturalist and often ac-
companied Dr. Salim Ali, members and staff on field
trips.
Mr Hawkins, who was a member of the Society
from 28th March 1938 until his death was, for many
years, the General Manager of the Oxford Univer-
sity Pfess (QUP). After he retired from the OUP, he
unstintingly contributed the considerable skills
which he had acquired as a publisher, to developing
the Society’s publications. He was Chairman of the
Society’s Publications Sub-Committee for many
years and personally made a landmark contribution
to the Society’s publication efforts by producing and
editing the monumental ‘Encyclopedia of Indian
Natural History’. The hallmark of his contribution
to the Society’s publications was his uncompromis-
ing commitment to quality and accuracy. He was
also Chairperson of the Salim Ali Loke Wan Tho Or-
nithological Research Sub-Committee for many
years.
The Society also suffered a serious loss in the
passing away of Shri Shivrajkumar Khachar, the
former Durbar Saheb of Jasdan, on 10th May 1989.
He was not only an outstanding amateur or-
nithologist, but a well-wisher and benefactor of the
Society, and a member of its Advisory Committee
for many years. Shri Shivrajkumar Khacher’s fort at
Hingolgadh and his warm hearted hospitality was al-
ways available to nature lovers and to numerous
children who will treasure unforgettable memories
of camps at Hingolgadh.
Mr Panday, Mr Hawkins and Mr Shivrajkumar
Khachar embodied the finest traditions of selfless
service to the Society. Their modesty, their integrity
of purpose and their devotion to the Society was
both an inspiration and a model for others.
MEMBERSHIP
There was a substantial fall in ordinary mem-
bership of the Bombay Natural History Society
during this year, but the number of life members has
shown a considerable increase. We have taken
several steps to enhance the membership of the
Society by increasing members’ activities.
However, it is not possible to achieve this goal
without your cooperation.
FIELD PROGRAMMES
Membership and Programmes Sub-Committee
Chairperson Dr (Ms) Meena Haribal
Convenor Mr Naresh Chaturvedi
Members Mr S.D. Bhaumik
Ms Shashi Rekha Iyer
Dr Ashok Kothaii
Mr C.B. Mehta
Prof. Parvish Pandya
Mr S. A. Hussain
Mr P.B. Shekar
Ex -officio Dr A.N.D. Nanavati, Hon. Secretary
Dr Pratap Saraiya, Hon. Treasurer
Mr J.C. Daniel, Curator
A video cassette player and monitor were pur-
chased and several video films were screened. Inter-
esting nature walks were organised on weekends for
local members around Chena Creek at Borivli Na-
tional Park, Tungareshwar, Palghar, Kakoba Hills,
around Tulsi and Vihar lake, Jambhulwadi, Barvi
Dam area and Tansa. Special outings were also or-
ganised for the study of monsoon flora of the Boriv-
li National Park
2
The Bird Count programme was substituted by
the study of plant-animal relationships at the Boriv-
li National Park. Regular outings were arranged at
Kamala Bird Sanctuary to monitor the natural his-
tory of the area. Several popular and scientific
slide/lecture shows were arranged on subjects rang-
ing from natural history topics, like butterflies of
Sikkim, common honey bees, identification of birds
of prey, nature around Lakshadweep and Andaman
Islands to personal experiences on nature around
Mount Everest and South Africa.
Conservation issues like water pollution at
Chitali in Ahmadnagar, tropical forest degradation
etc. were presented. The members were taken on a
tour of Canyon Country, U.S.A. and nature reserves
in U.S.A. and U.K. through slide presentations.
Week-end nature camps were organised at Borivli
National Park, Bhimashankar, Butcher Island, Vik-
ramgadh and Nandur Madhmeshwar. An evening
course on natural history was also conducted.
Annual nature camps remained the most
popular among members. This year camps were or-
ganised at Kanha National Park, Bustard Sanctuary
atNanaj in Maharashtra, Anamalai/Topslip in Tamil
Nadu and Similipal National Park and Bhitarkanika
Wildlife Sanctuary in Orissa.
All these activities were possible due to active
participation of members and BNHS staff as volun-
teers and camp leaders.
PUBLICATIONS
Publications Sub-Committee
Chairperson Mr C.J. Guzder
Convenor Mr Ajay Varadachary
Member Dr B.F. Chhapgar
Ex -officio Dr A.N.D. Nanavati, Hon. Secretary
Dr Pratap Saraiya, Hon. Treasurer
Mr J.C. Daniel, Curator
The Society’s publications continue to attract a
wide readership, and their popularity has neces-
sitated reprinting during the year of almost all the
titles published by the Society, in appreciably larger
quantities than in earlier years. However, the results
will be fully reflected in the accounts only in 90-91,
when sales of books reprinted in 89-90 will be com-
pleted.
Journal
384 notes and articles were received from
members and others for publication in the Journal
during the year. From among these and notes and ar-
ticles received earlier, 214 were accepted for publi-
cation.
During the year 4 issues of the Journal, i.e.
Vols. 85 (3) and 86 (1,2 &3) were published. The
720 pages of these Journals held 255 articles and
notes.
A board of editors was constituted in order to
streamline the process of review, modification and
acceptance of papers submitted. There have been
major changes in the method of production of the
Journal. Offset printing is now being done, as
against the earlier letterpress method. Page compos-
ing is now done in-house and the development of
this expertise within the Society will be of use in its
other publications as well.
As a result of these changes the Journal con-
tains appreciably more material in the same number
of pages, without a loss in readability or quality of
printing. Costs of production have also been sought
to be controlled, and in spite of steep increases in
paper prices, the cost to the Society has increased
only slightly over the earlier levels.
Hornbill
The Hornbill continues to be popular and at-
tracts members. However, more inputs from mem-
bers by way of articles are necessary. We are trying
our best to bring out these regular publications
(Journal and Hornbill) in time
NATURE EDUCATION SCHEME
Nature Education Sub-Committee
Chairperson Mr Ulhas Rane
Convenor Mrs Shailaja Grubh
Members Mr Bibhas Amonkar
Dr (Ms) Meena Haribal
Dr Arun Joshi
Dr Shshikumar Menon
Prof Parvish Pandya
MrS. A. Hussain
Ex-officio Dr A.N.D. Nanavati, Hon. Secretary
Dr Pratap Saraiya, Hon. Treasurer
Mr J.C. Daniel, Curator
The regular activities like field trips, slide
shows, camps, competitions etc. involving schools
and colleges in Bombay were continued during the
year. 19 programmes of slide/film shows and talks
were conducted for schools, colleges and nature
3
clubs in Bombay. These included municipal schools
and teachers’ colleges. 4 1 field trips were organised
for schools and colleges at Borivli National Park and
Tansa Sanctuary. Additionally, 17 study visits were
organised for schools to the Natural History Section
of the Prince of Wales Museum, Jijamata Udyan and
Taraporewala Aquarium. A quiz programme for
schools and junior colleges was organised on World
Forestry Day
60 teachers participated in a nature orientation
camp on marine life, organised for biology teachers.
An exhibition of shells and stamps was also or-
ganised on this occasion. Camp for Municipal
schools was conducted for 60 students of 12 schools,
at Borivli National Park during December ’89.
The Nature Education Sub-Committee mem-
bers carried out various educational programmes for
BNHS members,- college students and rural
children. These included slide shows, film shows,
exhibitions, nature trails, competitions, basic cour-
ses in natural history subjects, nature orientation
camps for members, awareness programmes and
publicity through newspapers, radio and television.
The special features of the programmes con-
ducted in the year 1989 were: Involvement of more
voluntary organisations in our rural programmes;
active involvement of the BNHS staff and members
in nature education activities; continuation of nature
education courses for amateurs; compilation of
educational literature on natural history in English
and Marathi; organisation of Nisarg yatra in the
flood affected areas of Raigad district in
Maharashtra, during Wildlife Week; nature camps
for rural children in Aurangabad, Vidarbha and
Ranebennur in Karnataka; continuation of experi-
ments at Murbad in Thane district, to orient tribal
children towards nature conservation , in co-ordina-
tion with Lok Vidnyan Chalwal and Shramik Mukti
Sanghatana. Visits to the BNHS, Nehru
Planetarium, Museum and Borivli National Park
were arranged for these tribal children.
COLLECTIONS
The BNHS presently holds a reference or study
collection of 18,260 mammals, 26,763 birds, 7,450
reptiles and amphibians, over 50,000 insects, a col-
lection of birds’ eggs, a small collection of shells and
a herbarium. The purpose of this collection is to as-
sist in taxonomic studies.
Collections Sub-Committee
Chairperson Mr M.R. Almeida
Convenor Mr N. Chaturvedi
Members Dr B.F. Chhapgar
Dr (Ms) Meena Haribal
Mr Nitin Jamdar
Staff in charge of different collections
Ex-officio Dr A.N.D. Nanavati, Hon. Secretary
Dr Pratap Saraiya, Hon. Treasurer
Mr J.C. Daniel, Curator
Computerisation of collection data
The work of computerisation of collection data
commenced last year and work of appending data of
mammals is progressing well (3300 records are
completed). The work of computerisation of collec-
tion data of reptiles and amphibians commenced this
year. The Research Assistants also participated in
the Computer Workshop conducted by the experts
from U.S. Fish &Wildlife Service held at BNHS.
Visitors
Collections were shown to the post graduate
students of the Jodhpur University and Janaki Col-
lege of Sivakasi. school teachers and Adivasis stu-
dents were also taken around the collections. Col-
lections were referred to by members, students and
participants of various evening courses in natural
history.
Mammals
Assistance was given to Dr Corbett and Dr
Bates of the British Museum in the study of mam-
mal collections, i.e. rodents and bats. Specimens
received from various projects, forest dept, and
members were identified. A short survey of Surat
Dangs was conducted to ascertain the status of giant
squirrel and rusty spotted cat. Trips were made to
BNHS land at Goregaon, for regular monitoring.
Birds
Two more parts of the catalogue were com-
pleted in 1989. Part 34 covered 500 specimens of 39
species and subspecies (nos. 1731- 1768 in the
Handbook and Synopsis and 5 extra limitals). Part
35 covered 865 specimens of 85 species and sub-
species (nos. 1769-1851 and 11 extra limitals).
During the year 32 specimens were added to
the bird collection, out of which 20 specimens were
from the Bhutan survey, returned by Dr. S.D. Ripley.
4
80 specimens were added to the exchange collec-
tion.
Reptiles/Amphibians
35 specimens of 8 species of amphibia col-
lected at Srivilliputtur reserve forest by Ms Anita
Malhotra and party of Oxford University, and 127
specimens of 13 amphibian species collected at Goa
by Mr A.G. Sekhar and Mr Vithoba were registered.
Amphibian specimens, sent by Dr Kanmadi, Dhar-
wad University, Karnataka were identified and a
report was sent.
Five specimens of snake species Lytorhynchus
ridgewayi and 20 specimens of Echis carinatus were
sent on study loan to Dr Walter Auffenburg, Florida
Museum. BNHS land was visited for phenology
studies. A trip to Panchgani, Belgaum, Goa, Kun-
dapur, Kasargod, Calicut and Ooty was made along
with Dr. Harry Nelson, an entomologist from Field
Museum, Chicago, for a collection of aquatic beet-
les. A field trip was made to Goa for the collection
of amphibia.
The morphology of tadpoles of Rana curtipes
collected in Karnataka during the west coast trip,
was studied. Tadpoles of Rhacophorus malabaricus ,
the Malabar gliding frog brought from Goa were
reared in captivity to study their developmental
stages.
Entomology
25 specimens of butterflies collected by Mr
Nitin Jamdar from Kashmir were identified and
added to the collection. A small collection (8
specimens) from Narcondam island in Andaman
was identified. 16 specimens of butterflies received
from AVC college, Tamil Nadu were identified. As-
sistance was given to Dr Nelson, entomologist. Field
Museum, Chicago who is working on Dryopids and
the group of beetles present in the collection.
Shells and other Invertebrates
Two type specimens of sea anemones and Ed-
wardsi athalyei, Acontiactus gokhalae were
received.
Several specimens of shells brought by Mr
Taej Mundkur, Dr Kulkarni from Institute of
Science, Somani High School, and by H.K. Gidwani
High School were identified.
Herbarium
Trips were made to the BNHS land at
Goregaon. During these trips specimens were col-
lected, identified & preserved. 20 quadrats were
studied. Seeds of herbaceous plants were collected.
Specimens received from members were identified.
1000 specimens from Blatter herbarium which were
donated to them by Alchemie Research Centre and
1 50 specimens (Bhimashankar & Magod collection)
from Dr. Renee Borges were added to the herbarium.
NATURAL HISTORY STUDIES
Natural History Studies Sub-Committee
Chairperson Dr E. Bharucha
Convenor Mr S.A. Hussain
Members Mr M.R. Almeida
Prof. P.V. Bole
Dr B.F. Chhapgar
Mr Rishad Naoroji
Mr Ulhas Rane
Mr Bharat Bhushan
Ex-officio Dr A.N.D. Nanavati, Hon. Secretary
Dr Pratap Saraiya, Hon. Treasurer
Mr. J.C. Daniel, Curator
During the course of the year the Sub-Commit-
tee received eight applications for funding. Of these
the following were considered and funded.
Salim Ali Loke Wan Tho Scholarship
1. Feeding and breeding biology of openbilled
stork in Andhra Pradesh — Ph.D. Programme —
Scholar : Ms Mehrab Johnson Guide: Dr J.V.
Ramana Rao, Dept, of Zoology, Osmania Univer-
sity, Hyderabad.
Vegetation and snail abundance at Koleru
was studied by quadrat method. At the nesting site,
six nests from the 3 species of trees used for nesting,
were randomly selected and marked for observa-
tions. Information was collected on the feeding
mechanism, the activity patterns, habits and habitats
of the bird and the general behaviour during the
feeding and breeding seasons.
2. Ecological and behavioural Study of the In-
dian black ibis at Rajkot. — Ph.D. Programme —
Scholar: Mr Sachin Vyas, Guide: Dr V.C. Soni,
Department of Biosciences, Saurashtra University,
Rajkot. Grant: Rs 17,000/-.
A regular census (morning & evening) was
done at the roosting sites of the ibises in the study
5
area around Rajkot. Adult-young ratios were calcu-
lated at various roost sites.
3. Assistance for thesis writing: Grant: Rs 3,000/-
. A three month fellowship was granted to Mr R. B.
Singh, Research Scholar, BNHS, to complete his
thesis.
Pirojsha Godrej Fund
1. The grant of Rs. 2,000/- each was sanctioned to
Mr Bholu Khan, Keoladeo National Park, Bharat-
pur, and Mr Harak Singh, Corbett National Park,
U.P. to meet their expenses for wildlife study train-
ing.
Education and Research Fund
1. Floristic studies in the Sanctuaries of Orissa —
Dr B P Chowdhury — Grant: Rs 18,500/- The grant
could not be utilised this year. However, a research
scholar has been appointed now to carry out the
study in the following year.
2. Study of Guindy National Park: its habitat
evaluation for conservation strategies. ‘Madras
Naturalists Society’, Madras. A grant of Rs. 5,000/-
was awarded as seed money to initiate the study.
3. Ecology and Behavior of Lampyridae around
Pune: A grant of Rs 5,000/- was awarded to Ms
Varsha Kerkar, University of Pune, as seed money
to start field work.
Plant Studies Fund
Expenses of the Research Assistant (Botany),
for collection field trips were met from the fund.
THE SALIM ALI NATURE
CONSERVATION FUND (SANCF)
SANCF Sub-Committee
Chairperson Mrs D.S. Variava
Convenor Mr Bharat Bhushan, Conservation Officer
Members Dr E. Bharucha
Mr. D. Solanki
Mr S. A. Hussain
Ex-officio Dr A.N.D. Nanavati, Hon. Secretary
Dr Pratap Saraiya, Hon. Treasurer
Mr J.C. Daniel, Curator
The sub-committee continued to initiate as
well as support activities of conservation interest
from SANCF. Major projects and initiatives under-
taken during the year were
Narmada
The proposed damming of the Narmada is a
matter of serious concern and SANCF provided con-
siderable support to the movement against the
project.
The 28 September Harsud Rally that brought
together over 50,000 people from all over the
country to protest against the Narmada dams was
supported with a grant of Rs 60,000 provided to the
rally organisers towards preparation of education
brochures, banners and pamphlets and supporting
volunteers.
Financial support was provided to Mr Arun
Vinayak, the coordinator for the Western Group of
the Narmada Bachao Andolan.
A short survey of the proposed Narmada Sagar
submergence areas was conducted. The report later
formed the basis of the BNHS resolution against the
Narmada Project. Significant support was provided
for awareness meetings and documentation.
Lesser Florican (Sypheotides indica) A grant of Rs
5,000/- was provided to support a survey by Mr Ravi
Sankaran towards identification of breeding areas of
the lesser florican in Gujarat and parts of Rajasthan.
Aerial Survey of Dangs Survey work was com-
pleted and a report submitted on a landmark aerial
survey of habitat in the Surat Dangs forest by Dr E.
Bharucha. Apaper has been published in th eJBNHS.
Dugong Dr Helene Marsh’s final report on conser-
vation of the Dugong was received. Follow-up ac-
tion was initiated with the Central and State govern-
ments.
Training programmes
The upgrading of knowledge and skills of
members and others was a major priority. Several
training programmes were organised as follows:
a] Vertebrate Ecology Workshop: A month-long
‘Vertebrate Ecology Workshop’ for 25 persons was
organised at the Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary,
Tamil Nadu with a grant from the Ministry of
Science and Technology, Government of India. The
Wildlife Institute of India, Kerala Forest Research
Institute, Indian Institute of Science, Tamil Nadu
Forest Department and other organisations provided
generous support.
6
b] Environmental journalism: A one-day
workshop on 6th May 1989 and a training course in
January -February 1990 was conducted in environ-
mental journalism at Hombill House. This was in
collaboration with the Forum of Environmental
Journalists of India.
c] Workshop on Conservation Biology: A three-
day workshop was conducted for more than 50 stu-
dents of the School of Environmental Sciences at the
Pune University. Support faculty included BNHS
members who had been earlier trained at the Ver-
tebrate Ecology Workshop.
d] Maharashtra Institute for Development Ad-
ministration (MI DA): On an initiative from IAS
officers, Mr D.T. Joseph, and Mr Pravin Pardeshi,
BNHS conducted a one-day conservation orienta-
tion programme for the MID A faculty.
NGOs meeting at Hemalkasa
Financial support was granted to Mr Sharat
Hegde as an assistant to Baba Amte for the NGOs
meeting against "destructive forms of development"
at Hemalkasa. The meeting later culminated in a
human wall of several thousand person across the
Indravati river in protest against the proposed
Bodhghat Dam Project.
BSAP decennial seminar
An amount of Rs 5,000/- was granted to the
Birdwatcher’s Society of Andhra Pradesh’s decen-
nial seminar titled ‘The Role of Birds in the Environ-
ment and their Conservation’.
Networking and documentation
a] Government of Maharashtra: Dr E. Bharucha
and Mr Bharat Bhushan conducted an orientation
programme at the Pune Commissioner’s premises
where the State Chief Secretary and several other
senior officials were present. Definite action on con-
servation issues in the state were consequently in-
itiated, including Bhigwan, Rehekuri and
Nawegaon.
b] Forum of Environmental Journalists of India:
With the help of FEJI, about 200 journalists from all
over India have been identified as being interested
on reporting on the environment.
c] Documentation: SANCF is receiving documen-
tation on conservation perspectives from the Centre
for Education and Documentation, from FEJI and
some BNHS members. The entire documentation
has been catalogued and compiled for easy access.
PROJECTS
Projects Sub-Committee
Chairperson Prof P.V. Bole
Convenor Dr R.B. Gmbh, Research Coordinator
Members Mr Humayun Abdulali
Mr M.R. Almeida
Dr Erach Bharucha
Mr K. Karamchandani
Mr S.A. Hussain
Dr A.R. Rahmani
Dr V.S. Vijayan
Ex-officio Dr A.N.D. Nanavati, Hon. Secretary
Dr Pratap Saraiya, Hon. Treasurer
Mr J.C. Daniel, Curator
During the year 1989 the BNHS handled six
major field ecological research projects:
Bharatpur (Keoladeo) Ecology Project (Funded by
USFWS), Bird Migration Project (Funded by
USFWS), Elephant Ecology Project (Funded by
USFWS), Endangered Birds (Florican) (Funded by
USFWS), Point Calimere Ecology Project (Funded
by USFWS), Ecological Study of Bird Hazard at In-
dian Aerodromes (Funded by Directorate of
Aeronautics, Ministry of Defence, Government of
India)
Bharatpur (Keoladeo) Ecology Project
Having completed major data collection work,
the scientific staff concentrated on analysis of data
gathered over nine years. In order to facilitate data
analysis the Bharatpur field station was provided
with three computers (Two XTs and one AT- 3 86
with Co-processor) and two printers.
In addition to routine work the project person-
nel were also engaged in organizing a wetland semi-
nar with special reference to Bharatpur. This semi-
nar was conducted in February 1990 at Bharatpur
and was attended by scientists from India and abroad
as well as by officers from the state Forest Depart-
ment and senior officials of the Centre and state
governments.
7
Bird Migration Project
Having worked at various sites over the years,
it was decided to look for new areas. Accordingly
two new sites were located, one at Sriharikota Island
in Andhra Pradesh, north of Madras, and the other
at Chari in Kutch, Gujarat.
Sriharikota island is bounded on its west by
Pulicat lake which has waterbirds during winter. The
tropical dry evergreen forest of the island offers a
wide variety of arboreal and ground birds of resident
and migratory species. It is hoped that Sriharikota
will become a major field station for the study of the
avifauna of the region. The officials of the Indian
Space Research Organisation, Shar Centre, have
provided all facilities and cooperation to BNHS in
establishing this important field station. Chari field
station at Kutch was set up with a view to work on
the migratory waterbirds visiting the lake Chari near
Nakatrana, and to use it as a base to work on ter-
restrial birds around the lake as well as on water-
birds in other areas in Kutch. This important site was
located with the help of a life member of the BNHS,
Shri Himmatsinhji.
In addition to the above two sites, ringing was
resumed at Point Calimere where extensive banding
was undertaken from 1969 to 1973 and again in the
early 1980s.
Other areas where limited banding operation
was carried out include Chilka lake in Orissa,
Khabertal in Bihar and Dachigam National Park,
Hokarsar and Haigaon lakes in Kashmir. Apart from
banding and collecting morphometric data from
captured birds, the project also looked at the ecologi-
cal requirement of the migrant as well as resident
birds at the major field stations.
Elephant Ecology Project
The study of the Indian elephant was con-
ducted from Mudumalai as the base and Den-
ganikota (Dharmapuri Dist., Tamil Nadu) and
Dalma (Bihar) as two subsidiary stations. Two US
computer experts, namely Dr Micheal Stuwe and Mr
John Cary conducted a computer training workshop
at Mudumalai specially for the elephant project re-
search team with a view to train them in analysis of
habitat mapping data and data to be obtained from
radio-telemetry on wild elephants.
While intensive field studies are on at Dalma
and Denganikota, special attention is being given to
analysis of data at Mudumalai. A computer (XT with
co-processor) and a printer have been provided at
the base station.
Ecology of Lesser and Bengal Florican
Intensive field study of the lesser florican was
conducted at Sailana in Madhya Pradesh. Extensive
survey of this species was conducted in different
states. The Bengal florican study was primarily con-
ducted at Manas and Dudhwa.
Field studies are now complete and analysis of
data has begun. The research team has returned to
Bombay for this purpose. The computer and other
facilities available at Bombay are being put to use.
The final report on the great Indian bustard,
which was one of the study species under the En-
dangered Species Project, was brought out in 1989.
The research team has also published 22 research
papers and many short notes since the commence-
ment of the project.
Point Calimere Ecology Project
The original research plan was revised to give
an ecosystem oriented thrust to the field studies. It
was also decided to analyse the data side by side and
a computer PC XT with co-processor and a printer
were provided to facilitate data analysis.
Ecological study of bird hazard at Indian
aerodromes
The final report of the field study conducted in
22 airports was brought out. A high level committee
constituted by the Government of India for bird
hazard prevention undertook to implement the
recommendations given in the report. The Bombay
Airport which started implementing BNHS recom-
mendations showed drastic reduction in bird strikes
within one year.
The Bird Hazard Research Cell being funded
by the Government of India (ARDB) continued to
identify bird strike remnants for IAF, Civil Aviation
and Indian Navy aircraft.
Evaluation of field research
The quality and quantity of research being under-
taken under the above projects are assessed annually by
a Research Advisory Panel which includes eminent
ecologists from different parts of India and abroad.
8
LIBRARY
The library continues to be one of the most
used member facilities. In 1989, 81 books were
added to the library. 8 books were received from
Library Sub-Committee
Chairperson Dr B.F. Chhapgar
Convenor Mr Isaac Kehimkar
Members Mr M.R. Almeida
Mr Kisan Mehta
Mr Kiran Srivastav
Ex-officio Dr A.N.D. Nanavati, Hon. Secretary
Dr Pratap Saraiya, Hon. Treasurer
Mr J.C. Daniel, Curator
publishers for favour of publishing reviews in the
Journal and 9 as complimentary copies from
authors and publishers. 12 books were received as
donations to the library.
The photocopier serves a useful purpose to
provide reprints of various articles to members and
scientists.
UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT
Mr U. Sridharan submitted his thesis for Ph.D
on ecology of the resident ducks of Keoladeo Na-
tional Park. Mr Natarajan and Mr Alagar Rajan sub-
mitted synopsis of their thesis on the Ecology of the
Crow Pheasant and Ecology of the Spotted Ring
Dove.
The Bombay University sent an expert com-
mittee for continuation of the Society’s recogni-
tion for M.Sc. by Research and Ph.D. in Botany. The
following students are registered for M.Sc. and Ph.D
degrees through the BNHS.
CONSERVATION -
The Society was consulted by the Govt, of
India and other organisations and by members of the
Society on various matters of conservation interest.
The Society’s representatives on various conserva-
tion committees and organisations offer the exper-
tise available at the Society.
The proposal to construct major dams on the
Narmada river and the clearance of the proposal by
the Government of India for funding was a cause for
acute concern. The Committee consulted other like
minded organisations and persons on a possible
positive approach to prevent environmental
damage.
SALIM ALI CENTRE FOR ORNITHOLOGY
AND NATURAL HISTORY
The work of drafting the Memorandum, for-
mation of Governing Council etc. continued. A grant
of Rs. 10 lakhs was received from the Dept, of En-
vironment & Forests, Govt, of India, for preliminary
expenses. After receipt of formal sanction from
Govt, of India, the formality for registration was in-
itiated.
PRODUCTS
Organiser Mrs D.S. Variava
The calendars and greeting cards produced by
the Society continued to sell well, with an increase
of nearly 50% over the previous year’s levels in in-
come generated. A six page wall calendar was intro-
duced for the first time.
ODA-BNHS ENVIRONMENTAL
EDUCATION PROJECT
The Overseas Development Administration of
the United Kingdom had agreed to fund two projects
- Environmental Education and Tropical Forest Bird
Studies — under the Indo-British Technical Col-
laboration agreement. The two project^ were ap-
proved by BNHS E.C. as well as Dept, of Environ-
ment, Govt, of India. The RSPB at the request of
ODA sent Mr David Elcome to BNHS to discuss the
Environmental Education Project and prepare a final
project document which was approved by ODA. The
ODA appointed British Council, Bombay, to
manage die project on their behalf in India. Mr
David Elcome from RSPB and Mr S.A. Hussain
from BNHS were nominated as Principal Coor-
dinators for the project. The Project seeks to:
1. Establish a team for environmental education
with emphasis on rural education at BNHS. This will
be a valuable cadre of staff for future EE projects in
India.
2. Strengthen the educational facilities of BNHS
through provision of equipment for a DTP system,
a Nature Discovery Room, etc.
3. Establish local environmental education centres
at 3 selected sites to assess the most effective tech-
niques and resources for environmental education
programme and to disseminate the scientific infor-
mation, in a popular form to grassroot level.
4. Have, by die end of the project, a tried and tested
range of educational resources for communicating
with rural communities.
DONATIONS
We are grateful to the many organisations and
persons for donations to the Society.
Rs
1 . General donations received from members 19,995
2. Maharashtra Foundation, New York, U.S.A.
for rural education activities 3,373
3. Charles McCann Vertebrate Zoology
Field Work Fund
Mr S. Chaudhury 600
4. Dr Salim Ali Memorial Fund
Mr John D Constable, Boston 4,080
5. Salim Ali Nature Conservation Fund:
As per the Will from the estate of late
Dr Salim Ali 50,000
6. Seth Purshotamdas Thakurdas Divaliba
Charitable Trust
For Library 25,000
For Hombill newsletter 25,000
7. Staff Welfare Fund:
As per the Will of late Dr Salim Ali 50,000
8. From Pirojsha Godrej Foundation
For nature conservation activity 50,000
9. Col. Burton Fund
Mr John Toovey 8,483
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Executive Committee acknowledges with
thanks the assistance given to BNHS by the Mini-
stry of Environment, Forests and Wildlife and the
Ministry of Defence of the Government of India, the
United States Fish & Wildlife Service, the Govern-
ment of Maharashtra, and the Charity Commis-
sioner, Bombay. It also thanks the several donors,
the members and staff of the BNHS for their unstint-
ing support in the various activities of the Society.
23 August 1990
Bombay
ULHAS RANE
Hon. Secretary
10
HONORARY TREASURER’S REPORT ON THE ACCOUNTS
FOR THE YEAR 1st APRIL 1989 TO 31st MARCH 1990
1. The ‘Annual’ Accounts for the year 1989-90 (12
months), compared to the previous 15 months period
from 1-1-88 to 31-3-89, show a satisfactory trend.
Income by way of dividends, sale of books, calen-
dars, greeting cards taken into account together are
encouraging.
2. During the period under review the total funds
owned by the Society went up by Rs. 16.56 lakhs as
follows:
The increase of Rs. 15 lakhs under item (iii)
may be considered as a fair measure of improvement
in the working of the Society. The corresponding
figure for the previous 15 month-period was Rs.
11.22 lakhs.
3. The expenses on establishment inclusive of Jour-
nal, Hombill Newsletter & Members’ Activities
have increased by 16.24%.
4. The Research Projects, funded by the U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service, and the Bird Hazard Research
Cell project funded by Ministry of Defence, Govt,
of India have played a vital role in building up the
Society’s resources by way of men, material and
money. Besides, out of funds made available by the
Govt, of India, Dept, of Environment, we purchased
scientific equipment, worth about Rs. 7,00,000/-
thus substantially adding to the value of our fixed
assets. It will be seen that the administrative fees for
handling the project funds make substantial con-
tribution to our annual revenues. The accounts do
not reveal the assets given on loan for these projects,
such as computer systems, laboratory equipment,
vehicles etc. The original cost of these assets, many
of which may be eventually donated to the Society
by the funding agency at the conclusion of the
projects add up to Rs. 35 lakhs.
5. While the results of 1989-90 show an improve-
ment over 1988- 89 there is no room for complacen-
cy in regard to the finances of the Society. Establish-
ment costs and other expenses in regard to our tradi-
tional activities, continue to rise due to inflation.
6. Further as two of our current projects, are coming
to an end shortly, it is necessary to undertake new
projects if receipts by way of administrative fees are
to be maintained at the current level.
7. In the final analysis the real challenge is to build
up our own financial resources in order to progres-
sively increase our regular income and also to meet
growing requirements of working capital.
23 August 1990 BITTU SAHGAL
Bombay Hon. Treasurer
11
AUDITOR’S REPORT
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
Registration No. F -244 (Bom)
We have audited the attached Balance Sheet of the Society as at 31st March, 1990 and also the an-
nexed Income & Expenditure Account for the financial year ended on that date and report that in
our opinion and to the best of information and according to the explanations given to us:
(a) the accounts are maintained regularly and in accordance with the provisions of the Bombay Public
Trust Act, 1950 subject to the observation that as per past practice separate Receipts & Payments
Account has been drawn for the Nature Education Scheme, and the same has not been incorporated
in the accounts of the Society,
(b) the receipts and disbursements have been properly and correctly shown in the accounts,
(c) the cash balance and the vouchers in the custody of the accountant on the date of audit were in agree-
ment with the books of accounts,
(d) the books, deeds, accounts, vouchers and/or other documents or records required by us were
produced to us,
(e) the register of movable and immovable properties is properly maintained and the changes therein
have been communicated to the Regional Office,
(0 the accountant appeared before us and furnished the necessary information required by us,
(g) we are not aware of any property or funds of the Society having been applied for any objects or pur-
pose other than the objects of the Society,
(h) the following items were outstanding for more than one year:
(i) Due towards supplies and services Rs. 10,246.15
(ii) Loan to staff (since recovered Rs. 5,000/- on 23.8.90) Rs. 5,600.00
(iii) Grant from ARDB for Bird Hazard Research Cell for 1988-89 Rs. 8,105.99
We may add that the outstanding against supplies and services interalia include certain items, which
are outstanding since 1987. We have been assured that the outstanding balances are considered good
and realisable. We may nonetheless suggest that effective measures be taken to realise the outstand-
ing. During the financial year under report a sum of Rs.530.50 representing dues considered ir-
recoverable has been written off,
(i) during the financial year there were no major repairs or construction carried out to the property in
the occupation of the Society involving expenditure exceeding Rs. 5,000/=,
(j) we are not aware of any money of the Society having been invested in contravention of Sec.35 of
the Bombay Public Trust Act, 1950,
(k) we are not aware of any immovable property of the Society, therefore, the question of alienation of
any property contrary to the provisions of Sec. 36 of the Bombay Public Trust Act, 1950 does not
arise,
(l) (i) in regard to the expenses charged to various grants and funds, we have relied on the informa-
tion given to us and the authentication of the Hon. Secretary and Hon.Treasurer that the ex-
penses so charged relate to these grants and have been spent on the specific objects for which
the grants were received. While checking the statement of accounts in regard to the expendi-
ture incurred at various camps, we have relied on the authorisation by the Hon. Secretary and
Hon. Treasurer, as to the reasonableness of the expenditure,
(ii) the income towards membership subscription is being accounted on realisation basis,
(iii) the subscriptions received in foreign currency, we observe, are deposited in an account main-
tained with Grindlays Bank Pic., London Branch. The said receipts and disbursements made
therefrom have been accounted at the exchange rate prevailing at the date of the Balance
Sheet.
12
The closing balance has been translated at the current exchange rate, at the date of the Balance Sheet
and the difference in exchange amounting to Rs.9,750.13 has been credited to Income & Expendi-
ture account,
(iv) we observed that the Society had made a payment of Rs.58,645/- against purchase of a computer.
The said payment continues to be held under the head Advances and has not been appropriately ad-
justed pending the clarification that has been sought from the Central Government for utilisation of
the grant for the purpose of the acquisation of the computer.
(v) we suggest the following items of disbursement effected, provisions made, administrative charges
levied and amount written off be confirmed and ratified at the next meeting of the Executive Com-
mittee :
A. Disbursement from:
Rs.
(i) Interest on Col. Burtons Nature Conservation Fund 22.50
(ii) Charles McCann Vertebrate Zoology Field Work Fund 642.5 1
(iii) Interest on Salim Ali/Loke Wan Tho Ornithology Research Fund Investment ..51 ,973. 17
(iv) Interest on Salim Ali Nature Conservation Fund Investment 1,82,764.11
(v) Interst on Pirojsha Godrej Foundation Field Work Fund Investment 489.30
(vi) Dorabjee Tata Trust Field Work Fund 2,915.90
(vii) Plant Study Fund 35,339.40
(viii) Field Study and Scholarship Fund from Watanmal Boolchand Charitable Trust . 1 ,74 1 .85
(xi) Grant from Government of Maharashtra for 1988-89 towards establishment. Building
Maintenance and Educational Activity, (i.e. Journal Printing exp.) 2,15,000.00
(x) Govt, of India A.R.D.B. Grant for Bird Hazard Research Cell 1 ,24,389.70
(xi) Education and Research Fund .40,710.00
(xii) Grant from U.S. Department of Interior, Fish & Wildlife Service for :
(a) Study of Lesser Bustard (Florican) ..2,01,920.75
(b) Ecology of Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur 11,88,970.79
(c) Ecology of Point Calimere Sanctuary 8,01,247.51
(d) Ecology of Indian Elephants 13,53,123.70
(e) Study of Migration Pattern of Indian Birds and Avifauna
Migration Data Bank 10,17,738.76
(f) For the project on the habitat and population dynamics of
Wolves and Blackbucks 1,70,139.00
(g) For Study on Conservation of Birds of Prey with particular emphasis
upon Restoration of the Endangered Species 2,19,492.62
(xiii) Grant Indian National Science Academy for the publication of Journal 5,000.00
(xiv) Grant Chief Wildlife Warden, Jammu &Kashmir for the project on
Survey of Blacknecked Crane 12,653.45
(xv) Grant Govt, of India (DST) towards Dr. Salim Ali Centre for
Ornithology and Natural History ~ 8,637.80
(xvi) Grant Govt, of India, Dept, of Culture for publishing the
Centenary Seminar papers 29,657.45
(xvii) Grant Govt, of India, D.O.E. for Airconditioning Hombill House,
Library and Collection Rooms .4,90,700.00
(xviii) Grant Govt, of India, D.S.T. for the publication of Tree Book 23,126.90
(xix) Grant Govt, of India, Ministry of Environment & Forests for Seminar on
Wetland Ecology and Management at Bharatpur J 1,590.00
13
(xx) Grant Govt, of India, Ministry of Science & Technology (D.S.T.) for
Seminar School in Vertebrate Ecology 2,98,970.00
(xxi) Grant Govt, of Rajasthan for Lignite* Project 8,385.00
(xxii) Grant Govt, of India, Ministry of Environment and Forests on a Project
"A Study of the habitat requirement of the Rusty Spotted Cat and other
endangered wildlife of the Dang Forests" 2,18,179.91
(xxiii) Grant Govt, of M.P., Office of the Chief Engineer, for Indira Sarovar
Hydro Electric Project .4,921.90
(xxiv) Grant Smithsonian Institution, Washington, for the revision of
Handbook of the Birds of India &Pakistan 91,037.93
B. APPROPRIATIONS:
(i) Govt. Publication Fund, sale proceeds of publication 19,559.46
(ii) Building Fund for repairs & maintenance 4,00,000.00
(iii) Staff Gratuity Fund 2,00,000.00
(iv) General Reserve Fund 1,50,000.00
(v) Fixed Assets Fund towards depreciation on Fixed Assets 1,38,906.29
(vi) Amount written off 530.50
(vii) Administrative fees charged to various Grants/Funds for handling
the projects etc 6,32,965.70
(viii) Addition to fixed assets (other than those charged to various projects) 8,30,602.89
(m) so far as is ascertainable from the books of accounts and according to the information and ex-
planation furnished to us by the accountant and the Hon. Secretary, there were no cases of ir-
regular, illegal or improper expenditure or failure to recover the monies or other properties
belonging to the Society or loss or waste of money or other property of the Society, subject
to the observation made in para (h) hereinabove,
(n) provision of Sec. 31-A of the Bombay Public Trust Act, 1950 and Rule 16-A of the Rules
framed under the said Act have been complied with.
II. (a) the maximum and minimum number of Executive Committee members is maintained having
regard to the provision contained in the rules and regulations of the Society,
(b) there is no specific provisions in the rules and regulations of the Society regarding the hold-
ing of the meetings of the Executive Committee,
(c) the minute book recording the proceedings of the meetings is maintained,
(d) no member of the Executive Committee has any interest in the investment of the Society,
(e) no member of the Executive Committee is a debtor or a creditor of the Society.
HABIB AND COMPANY
CHARTERED ACCOUNTANTS
Bombay
Dated: 3rd September, 1990
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HON. SECRETARY HON. TREASURER HABIB AND COMPANY
TRUSTEE CHARTERED ACCOUNTANTS
BOMBAY
THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS
The Book of Indian Animals, by S. H. Prater, 4th edition (reprint). 28 plates in
colour by Paul Barruel and many other monochrome illustrations.
{Price to members Rs. 90)
The Ecology of the Lesser Bandicoot Rat in Calcutta, by James Juan Spillett.
Rs. 10
The Book of Indian Birds, by S&lim Ali. 11th (revised) edition. 74 coloured and
many monochrome plates. {Price to members Rs. 90)
4 Pictorial Guide to the Birds of the Indian Subcontinent, by Sdlim Ali & S.
Dillon Ripley {Price to members Rs. 155)
<\ Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan, by S. Dillon Ripley II An up-to-
date checklist of all the birds resident and migrant, including those of Nepal,
Bhutan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka, 2nd edition. {Price to members Rs. 90)
Checklist of the Birds of Maharashtra, by Humayun Abdulali, 2nd edition. Rs. 5
Checklist of the Birds -of Delhi, Agra and Bharatpur, by Humayun Abdulali &
J. D. Panday. Rs. 5
The Book of Indian Reptiles, by J C. Daniel {Price to members Rs. 90)
Some Beautiful Indian; Climbers and Shrubs, by Bor and Raizada With many
coloured and monochrome plates. 2nd edition. {Price to members Rs. 120)
Grasses of Western India, by Toby & Patricia Hodd. With 64 monochrome plates.
{Price to members Rs. 45)
Encyclopedia of Indian Natural History, Edited by R. E. Hawkins
{Price to members Rs. 225)
A Century of Natural History, Edited by J. C. Daniel {Price to members Rs. 145)
Members residing outside India should pay their subscription by means of orders on
their Bankers to pay the amount of the subscription to the Society in Bombay on the 1st
January in each year. If this cannot be done, then the sum of £ 30 (£ 15 fees, £ 15 as sub-
scription for Journal) should be paid annually to the Society’s London Bankers — The
Grindlays Bank Ltd., 13, St. James’s Sq., London SWIY 4LF. Account No. 1101091.
The subscription of members elected in January, February and March covers the
period from the date of their election to the end of March of the following year.
ISSN 0006-6982
CONTENTS
Page
INSECT SPECIES DIVERSITY IN THE TROPICS : SAMPLING METHODS AND
A CASE STUDY ( With ten text- figures )
By Raghavendra Gadagkar, K. Chandrashekara and Padmini Nair 337
AN ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY OF SOME WETLANDS IN SOUTH-EAST
INDIA (With three text- figures)
By C. Perennou and V. Santharam 354
HABITAT. NESTING AND REPRODUCTIVE ADAPTATIONS IN NARROW-
HEADED SOFT-SHELL TURTLE Chitra indica (GRAY) (REPTILIA :
CHELONIA)
By Ravindra Singh Bhadauria, Ashok Pai and Dhruvajyoti Basu 364
DUGONG Dugong dugon MULLER IN THE GULF OF KUTCH, GUJARAT
(With two text-figures)
By J. G. Frazier and Taej Mundkur 368
RANGE EXTENSION AND NOTES ON Rana erythraea (SCHLEGEL, 1837)
(ANURA: RANIDAE) FROM DUDHWA NATIONAL PARK, UTTAR
PRADESH (With five text-figures)
By Raj Tilak and Pranjalendu Ray 380
VARIATION ANALYSIS OF COALESCENCE OF SPOTS IN THE MELANICS OF
Coccineila septem punctata L. (COCCINELLIDAE : COLEOPTERA) ( With twenty
text-figures)
By M. Rhamhalinghan 385
SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL FLUCTUATIONS IN THE POPULATION OF
COMMON MYNA Acridotheres tristis (LINN.) IN AND AROUND AN
INDIAN CITY (With three text-figures)
By Anil Mahabal, D. B. Bastawade and V. G. Vaidya 392
BLOTCH STRUCTURE IN INDIVIDUAL IDENTIFICATION OF THE INDIAN
PYTHON Python molurus molurus LINN. AND ITS POSSIBLE USAGE IN
POPULATION ESTIMATION (With two plates and three text- figures)
By S. Bhupathy 399
A STUDY OF THE MIGRATION OF THE COMMON TEAL Anas crecca LINN.,
BASED ON RING RECOVERIES IN INDIA AND THE U.S.S.R.
(With five text-figures)
By V. C. Ambedkar and J. C. Daniel 405
ECOLOGICAL AND MORPHOLOGICAL NOTES ON Piper SPP. FROM THE
SILENT VALLEY FORESTS, KERALA (With a text-figure)
By P. N. Ravindran, R. Asokan Nair, K. Nirmal Babu, K. Chandran and
M. K. Nair . 421
NEW DESCRIPTIONS 427
OBITUARIES 443
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 445
Printed by Bro. Paulinus at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Bombay 400 103
and published by J. C. Daniel for Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House.
Shaheed B ha gat Singh Road, Bombay 400023.
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