JOURNAL

OF THE

VOL. 94, No. 1 April 1997

BOARD OF EDITORS

Executive Editor

J.C. DANIEL

M.R. ALMEIDA

P.V. BOLE

M.K. CHANDRASHEKARAN

B.F. CHHAPGAR

B.V. DAVID

R. GADAGKAR

ANIL GORE

A.J.T. JOHNSINGH

AJITH KUMAR

A.R. RAHMANI

J.S. SAMANT

E.G. SILAS

J.S. SINGH

R. WHITAKER

Assistant Editor

GAYATRI WATTAL UGRA

INSTRUCTIONS TO CONTRIBUTORS

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5. References to literature should be placed at the end of the paper, alphabetically

arranged under author’s name, with the abridged titles of journals or periodicals in

italics and titles of books or papers in roman type, thus:

Aluri, Raju J.S. & C. Subha Reddi (1995): Ecology of the pollination in two cat-mint

species. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92(1): 63-66.

Prater, S.H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay Natural History Society,

Mumbai, pp. 35-48.

6. Each paper should be accompanied by an abstract, normally not exceeding 200

words, and 6-8 key words. Key Words should include the scientific names of important

species discussed.

7. 25 reprints will be supplied free of cost to authors of main articles. In the case of

new descriptions, reviews and miscellaneous notes, authors will be sent a free

copy of the Journal.

8. The editors reserve the right, other things being equal, to publish a member’s

contribution earlier than a non-member’s.

Hornbill House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road

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Editors,

Journal of the Bombay

Natural History Society

VOLUME 94 (1): APRIL 1997

Date of Publication: 01-4-1997

CONTENTS

food habits of sloth bear in MUDUMALAI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, TAMIL

NADU, SOUTHERN INDIA ( With two text-figures )

By N. Baskaran, N. Sivaganesan and J. Krishnamoorthy 1

PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS ON THE ROLE OF COFFEE PLANTATIONS AS

AVIFAUNAL REFUGES IN THE PALNI HILLS OF THE WESTERN GHATS

(With two text -figures)

By Ghazala Shahabuddin 10

NOTES ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND ENDEMISM OF INDIAN FIMBRISTYLIS

(With one text-figure)

By V.P. Prasad & N.P. Singh 22

CONSERVATION OF THE ENDANGERED RIVER TERRAPIN BATAGUR BASKA IN THE

SUNDERB AN OF WEST BENGAL, INDIA (With two text-figures)

By S. Bhupathy 27

CONSERVATION AND UTILISATION OF ECOGENETIC RESOURCES OF PANCHPATM ALI

HILL IN ORISSA

By B.C. Patra, S.D. Sharma, D.N. Roy and R.K. Misra 36

HABITAT USE BY THE LESSER FLORICAN IN A MOSAIC OF GRASSLAND AND

CROPLAND: THE INFLUENCE OF GRAZING AND RAINFALL (With three text-figures)

By R. Sankaran 40

NOMENCLATURAL AND SYSTEMATIC STATUS OF BARBUS MUSSULLAH SYKES, 1839

(With one plate and one text-figure)

By K.C. Jayaram 48

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE SOUTHERN CROW-PHEASANT CENTROPUS SINENSIS

PARROTI STRESEMANN (AVES: CUCULIDAE) AT POINT CALIMERE, TAMIL NADU

(With four text-figures)

By V. Natarajan 56

POPULATION DYNAMICS, GROUP STRUCTURE AND NATURAL DISPERSAL OF THE

ASIATIC LION PANTHERA LEO PERSICA (With one text-figure)

By H.S. Singh 65

QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF MAJOR VERTEBRATE FAUNA FROM WARDHA RIVER

BASIN (MAHARASHTRA STATE) (With four text-figures)

By M.S. Pradhan 71

DISTRIBUTION OF NEOSCORPIOPS SCORPIONS IN THE WESTERN GHATS OF

MAHARASHTRA AND GUJARAT AND POSSIBLE TRICHOBOTHRIDIAL

VARIATIONS AMONG ISOLATED POPULATIONS (With forty-seven text-figures)

B y D.B . B astawade 104

STUDIES ON THE STATUS AND CONSERVATION OF FREREA INDICA DALZ

(With four plates and two text-figures)

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

CYRTODACTYLUS ARAVALLENSIS, A NEW GEKKONIDAE FROM THE DELHI RIDGE

( With one plate )

By E.V.S. Gill 122

A NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS APANTELES FOERSTER (HYMENOPTERA:

BRACONIDAE) FROM INDIA (With three text-figures)

By S.M. Kurhade and RK. Nikam 124

NEW SPECIES OF GRASS FEEDING HEC ALINE LEAFHOPPER GENERA GLOSSOCRATUS

AND HECALUS (HEMIPTERA: CICADELLIDAE) FROM INDIA

(With forty-one text-figures )

By Pratap Chandra Dash and C.A, Viraktamath 127

REVIEWS

1 . APPLIED ETHNOBOTANY - A case study among the Kharias of Central India

Reviewed by M.R. Almeida 139

2. DIRECTORY OF NATIONAL PARKS AND SANCTUARIES IN INDIA,

MANAGEMENT STATUS AND PROFILES

Reviewed by S. Asad Akhtar 140

3. ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY OF THE COMMON HOUSE SHREW

Reviewed by A.B. Bhagwat 141

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

MAMMALS

1. Movement of Nilgiri langur between forest

fragments in the Annamalai Hills

By G Umapathy 142

2. An observation of a mother carrying dead infant

in the bonnet macaque, Macaco, radiata

By M. Balasubramanian and S.A. Sabu Jahas 143

3. Discovery of golden langur (Presbytis geei) at

Kakoijana reserve forest, (Assam)

By Arnab Bose 143

4. Induced emesis by jungle cat (Felis chaus)

By Raza H. Tehsin 144

5. White-tailed mole Talpa micrura leucura Blyth

in Assam - some new records

By Anwaruddin Choudhury 145

6. Red panda Ailurus fulgens F. Cuvier in the north-

east with an important record from Garo hills

By Anwaruddin Choudhury 145

7. Notes on foetuses of mouse deer Tragulus

meminna in Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary,

Tamil Nadu, South India

By V. Gokula 148

8. Interesting feeding habits of the flying fox

Pteropus giganteus on the phyllodes of Australian

acacia Acacia auriculaeformis

By E.P. Eric D'Cunha 148

9. Male, Female burrow occupancy pattern of the

South Indian Geibil Tatera indica cuvieri

By Biju B. Thomas and Mathew M. Oommen 149

10. New records of the Malabar spiny dormouse

(Platacanthomys lasiurus Blyth) in the Indira

Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu

By A. Prabhakar 151

11. Indian one-horned rhinoceros Rhinoceros

unicornis Linnaeus 1758, in Arunachal Pradesh

By Anwaruddin Choudhury 152

12. A bat eating community of Chhatarpur district

of Madhya Pradesh

By A. Kher 153

BIRDS

13. Sighting of the Spanish sparrow Passer

hispaniolensis (Temminck) at Kota in south-east

Rajasthan

By Rakesh Vyas 155

14. A sight record of the Besra sparrow-hawk

( Accipiter virgatus) in Rishi Valley, Andhra

Pradesh

By V. Santharam

15. Sighting of water rail Rallus aquaticus near

Mumbai

By Hira Punjabi

16. Orangebilled jungle mynah and Hodgson's bush

chat in Kaziranga National Park

By Pankaj Sarma, Maan Barua and Vivek Menon

1 7. Recent sightings of large hawk-cuckoo {Cue ulus

sparverioides) in the Nilgiri biosphere reserve,

Southern India

By T.R.K. Yoganand

18. Range extension of the Nepal babbler (Alcippe

nipalensis )

By S.F. Wesley Sunderraj and Justus Joshua

19. Was Richard Meinertzhagen's record of a “Great

black-backed gull Larus marinus” in Rajasthan

really Heuglin's gull Lheuglinil

By W.R.P. Bourne

REPTILES

20. Notes on growth and maturity in the Indian roofed

turtle {Kachuga tecta)

By Raju Vyas

21. Records of the Gharial Gavialis gangeticus

(Ginelin) from the Barak river system of north-

eastern India

By Anwaruddin Choudhury

22. An observation on Ecdysis in the common house

lizard Hemidactylus flaviviridis Rupell of India

By Daya Nand Hard

23. Occurrence of the fat tailed Gecko, Euhlepharis

hardwickii Grey (Sauna: Gekkonidae) with

remarks on the variation in certain taxonomic

characteristics

By G. Chandra, S.N. Chatteijee, C. Datta,

M. Majumdar and A. Nath

24. Callophis nigrescens (Gunther), (Seipentes:

Elapidae) a colour variation from Silent valley

National Park, Kerala

By Joseph Thomas and P.S. Easa

25. Notes on a new distributional record and the

ecology of Rhabdops olivaceus (Beddome)

(Reptilia: Serpentes: Colubridae)

By C. Radhakrishnan

AMPHIBIA

26. Range extension and some aspects of

morphology and habitat of an Anuran species

Limnonectes hrevipalmala (Peters, 1871)

(Ranidae)

By Aloysius G. Sekar 168

27. Rediscovery of the black microhylid frog,

Melanobatrachus indicus (Beddome 1878)

By Kaithikeyan Vasudevan 170

FISH

28. New record of Schismatorhynchus ( Nukta ) Nukta

(Sykes) (Pisces: Cyprinidae) from Moyar river,

Tamil Nadu

By A. Manimekalan and D.F. Singh. 170

INSECTS

29. Dung beetle (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae:

Scarabaeinae) Fauna of Bangalore, Karnataka

By K. Veenakumari and G.K. Veeresh 171

30. First record of Dirhinus allicomis (Masi) and

Anneckeida angustifrons Boucek (Hymenoptera:

Chalcidoidea) from India

By P. M. Sureshan 173

3 1 . Grooca, a new name for Neoepistenia Sureshan

& Narendran (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea:

Pteromalidae)

By P. M. Sureshan and T.C. Narendran ................. 175

BOTANY

32. Notes on some non-indigenous plants from

Andamans

By Marcel Tigga, B.K. Sinha, and

P.V. Sreekumar 176

33. Flowering behaviour of mango ( Mangifera

indica) in Andamans

By D.B. Singh and T.V.R.S. Sharma 176

34. Rediscovery at a new location of a rare grass

Cyrtococcum spars icomum (Nees ex Steud.) A.

Camus, in Tamil Nadu

By M.B. Viswanathan S77

35. Scumda parasitica Lmn. Parasitic on Calliandra

spp. and its management

By D. Nuthan and M. Vasundhara 179

36. Two new records of Asteraceae for Andhra

Pradesh

By R.R, Venkata Raju and C. Prabhakar Raju 180

37. Sun-tracking in Ranunculus hirtellus Royle ex

D.Don

By D.S. Rawat and R.D. Gaur 1 8 1

155

156

157

159

160

162

164

165

166

167

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

185

STATEMENT OF ACCOUNTS OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 209

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING 226

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY

April 1997 Vol. 94 No. 1

FOOD HABITS OF SLOTH BEAR IN MUDUMALAI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY,

TAMIL NADU, SOUTHERN INDIA1

B ASKAR AN, N2, N. SlVAGANESAN3, AND J. KRISHNAMOORTHY4

(With two text -figures )

Key words: India, sloth bear ( Melursus ursinus), diet, fruiting seasonality

The food habits of sloth bear (Melursus ursinus) were studied in Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary,

Tamil Nadu by analysing 567 fresh scats from five different habitat types between March, 1990

and February, 1991. Fruit was the major food, irrespective of vegetation types. Ants and termites

appeared consistently in the diet. The percent occurrence of various diet items varied seasonally.

Animal material dominated the second wet season. The fruits of Syzygium cumini, Cassia fistula

and Ziziphus mauritiana formed the dominant diet component in most of the habitats. Utilization

of plant and animal materials differed significantly between seasons. Though density of fruit trees

varied across vegetation types, use of fruits did not, except in the thorn forest. There was no variation

in the use of animal materials between vegetation types. Availability of ripe fruits varied significantly

between seasons and therefore utilization.

Introduction

Among the four species of bears in India the

sloth bear ( Melursus ursinus ) is the most widely

distributed, ranging from the foot hills of the

Himalayas to the southern end of the Western Ghats.

However, its range is shrinking and population

declining in many parts of its range due to the loss

and deterioration of habitat (Johnsingh 1986).

Poaching for its gall bladder, used in traditional

medicines in south Asian countries, is also a serious

‘Accepted October, 1995.

2Bombay Natural History Society, Asian Elephant Project, Kargudi,

Nilgiris, 643 211.

3Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History,

Coimbatore, 641 010.

4Division of Wildlife Biology, A.V.C. College, Mannampandal,

Mayiladuthurai, 609 002.

problem (WWF, Conservation Year Book 1985-86).

Sporadic attacks on humans by the bear has also

created fear and animosity among the public in many

areas of its range.

The Sloth bear is included in Schedule I of

the Indian Wildlife Act 1972 (Amended 1991) and

Appendix II of CITES (Servheen 1991 ). Very little

is known about the ecology of the species, the only

study being by Laurie and Seidensticker (1977) in

the Royal Chitwan National Park, Nepal. Other

information is anecdotal, or based on survevs and

natural history observations (Prater 1965, Schaller

1967, Spillet 1967, Krishnan 1972, Davidar 1983).

The study was carried out to determine food habits

of the sloth bear in the tourism zone of Mudumalai

Wildlife Sanctuary, South India from March, 1990

to February, 1991.

2

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

A) Mandradiyar road

B) Circular road

C) Game hut road

D) Cross cut road

E) Chinagolly road

F) Jayadev road

Map . 1 Study sites (game roads) for scat collection in various

habitat types.

Universal Transverse Mercator Projection Centered on 78°. E. Longitude

320

330

340

350

360

Fig. 1 . Map of Mudumalai wildlife Sanctuary' showing game roads used for scat collection.

Study Area

The Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary is situated

(11° 30' N to 11° 39' N and 76° 27' E and 76° 43 ' E)

in the Nilgiri District of Tamil Nadu and forms a

part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (Fig. 1).

Most of the area has a gentle undulating terrain

with elevation ranging from 920 to 1020 m. The

temperature varies from 14°-17°C in December and

January to 24°-33°C in March, April and May.

Average annual rainfall varies from 900 mm to 1800

mm with most of the rainfall from the south-

west monsoon (June to August) followed by the

northeast monsoon (October to November). Based

on the rainfall, three seasons can be identified:

first wet season (May to August), second wet

season (September to December) and dry season

(January to April). Moyar, a perennial river which

flows along the eastern boundary, drains the area.

The study area harbours a spectacular

mammalian community consisting of Elephants

(. Elephas maxi mu s), Gaur ( Bos gaurus ), Sambar

FOOD HABITS OF SLOTH BEAR

3

( Cervus unicolor ), Chital (Axis axis). Barking deer

(Muntiacus muntjak ), Mouse deer (Tragulus

meminna). Fourhorned Antelope (Tetracerus

quadricornis). Common Langur (Presbytis entellus).

Bonnet Macaque ( Macaca radiata), Tiger (Panther a

tigris). Leopard (Panthera pardus ), Striped Hyena

(Hyaena hyaena) and Dhole (Cuon alpinus).

We conducted field work from March, 1990

to February, 1991 in the tourism zone of the

sanctuary, which is approximately 100 sq. km in

extent. The study area comprises five broad

vegetation types; dry deciduous short grass

forest (DSG), dry deciduous forest (DDF), dry

deciduous tall grass forest (DTG), moist mixed

deciduous forest (MMF) and thorn forest (TFT). The

thorn forest is degraded due to cattle grazing. These

vegetation types are located close to each other,

except the thorn forest which is located on the eastern

boundary of the sanctuary. Therefore, scat collection

from each of the vegetation types does not

really reflect the diet of the bear with regard to

habitat, except for the thorn forest. Detailed

descriptions of these habitats have been given by

Sivaganesan (1991).

Methods

Food habits

The food habits of sloth bear were studied

by examining scats (Landers et al. 1979, Maehr &

Brady 1984). Scats were collected from the game

roads every fortnight. Game roads such as

Mandradiyar Avenue in DSG areas, Circular road

in DDF, Game hut and Cross cut roads in DTG,

Chinagolly road in MMD and Jayadev and Moyar

road in TFT were chosen for scat collection and

vegetation studies (Fig. 1). In addition five unused

watch towers frequented by bears for resting,

especially during the wet seasons, were also visited

periodically for scat collection.

Fresh scats were collected and preserved in

10% formalin for further examination. Each scat

mass was immersed in aplastic tray containing water

and food materials were segregated visually.

Remains of ants and beetles were also segregated.

Wax and bee remains in the scats were considered

as evidence of a honey diet by the bear. Seeds of

various fruit trees were also segregated from the

scats up to species level. All the segregated food

items were kept in a hot air oven at 60°C and later

weighed separately.

Diet composition was estimated in terms of

percent occurrence (number of times each food item

appeared in the diet/total number of scats) and

percent dry weight (dry weight of individual food

item/total dry weight of all food items). Variation

with regard to diet composition was estimated for

three seasons; first wet (May to August), second wet

(September to December) and dry seasons (January

to April).

To assess fruiting seasonality and availability

a total of 10 individuals of each species of important

fruit trees: Cassia fistula, Cordia domestica, Grewia

tiliaefolia, Syzygium cumini , and Ziziphus rnauritiana

were marked permanently and monitored fortnightly.

Phenological phases such as vegetative phase;

sprouting, young and mature leaves and reproductive

phase; flowers, unripe and ripe fruits were assessed

independently by giving percentage rating for each

of them (Guy et al 1979, Riper 1980).

Variation in the availability of fruits among

seasons and habitats was tested by Two way-

ANOVA. The relationship between fruit availability

and utilization by the bear was tested with Pearson

correlation co-efficient (r).

Density and diversity of trees

Density of trees of > 20 cm GBH (girth at

breast height) was estimated using varying lengths

of belt transects with 10 m width on either side of

the game roads. Species name and GBH for all

trees were recorded from the transects. We

quantified density of food trees to determine relative

proportion of fruit trees available to sloth bear in

each habitat.

Results

Overall dietary composition

Examination of all the 567 scats had revealed

that fruit remains of various plant taxa dominated

4

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94(1997)

the overall diet of the sloth bear (Table 1), forming

87.9% of the dry weight. Both plant and animal

remains were present in all scats.

At least 20 plant and grass species, nearly 3

groups of insects and bird remnants (single

occurrence) were recorded. Fruits of pulpy Cassia

fistula, Syzygium cumini, Ziziphus mauritiana and

Cordia do me Stic aw ere the most frequently used. The

Table 1

same four species also dominated the diet in terms

of percent dry weight, although there were

differences between percent occurrence and percent

dry weight. The animal food used by the bear were

black and red ants, termites and honey bees. Among

animal material, ants and termites occurred often,

indicating their importance to the bear as a source

of protein rich diet. Ants and termites also formed

a major part of percent dry weight.

Occurrence of plant and animal remains did

not vary much across vegetation types, indicating

similarity in use pattern of food items by sloth bear

between vegetation types. But contribution to dry

weight by animal matter varied from 9.5% to 21.2%

between vegetation types. Ants formed a major part

of the animal matter in all the vegetation types except

in the thorn forest. With regard to the plant matter used

by the sloth bear, 1 to 3 species alone have contributed

more than 75% of dry weight irrespective of vegetation

types. It is interesting to note that the same food species

were found across vegetation types and the major

difference was only in minor food species which

contributed < 5% of the dry weight.

Forage ratio

Fruit utilization was significantly different

across vegetation types in various months (Kruskal

one way analysis: H=25.85; df=ll; P < 0.05).

Likewise, consumption of animal matter varied

significantly in different vegetation types across

months (Kruskal one way analysis: H=31.35; dfell;

P < 0.05). Overall ratio indicated that fruits

appeared to be the principal diet of the bear in all

vegetation types. By contrast, animal matter formed

a small component of the total diet.

Seasonal diet

Relative contribution of animal material was

highest in the second wet season (76%.8%) and least

in dry season (20.6%) (Table 2).

The same trend was indicated by percent

occurrence of animal and plant materials across

seasons. Among animal materials ants dominated

from more than 65% of animal materials in all

seasons (Table 2). Among plants, the total number

of species used was highest in dry months.

FOOD HABITS OF SLOTH BEAR

5

Table 2

PERCENT FREQUENCY AND % DRY WEIGHT OF VARIOUS FOOD ITEMS OF SLOTH BEAR IN VARIOUS

SEASONS

(% F - percent frequency. % D.Wt. - Percent dry weight)

During the dry season, fruit remains of 17

plant species were recorded from 164 scats. For

instance. Cassia fistula was used by the bear in the

first wet and dry seasons. Remains of Syzygium

cumini were noticed in the scats only from wet

seasons while Ziziphus oenoplia was recorded only

in the dry season.

More or less similar plant taxa were used

by sloth bear between vegetation types. How-

ever, occurrence of these species in the scats

differed between the seasons. The use of animal

materials increased from the first wet season

onwards with ants and termites dominating the

diet.

6

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Density of fruit trees

A total of 8 tree species was recorded from

6.2 ha in DSG. The pulpy fruit Cordia spp. was the

most common food tree (3.6/ha) followed by Grewia

tiliaefolia (1.8/ha) (Table 3).

Table 3

DENSITIES OF FRUIT TREE SPECIES IN VARIOUS

HABITAT TYPES IN MUDUMALAI WILDLIFE

SANCTUARY, TAMIL NADU

The densities of the other food species did not

vary much, revealing that only a few species were

common in the DSG. In DDF only 5 fruit tree species

were recorded. Grewia tiliaefolia was most common

(6.6/ha.) followed by Cassia fistula. Of the 7 fruit

tree species in DTG, Cassia fistula, Syzygium cumini

and G. tiliaefolia were the most abundant,

indicating rich fruit resources for the sloth bear in

DTG. Of the 6 species of fruit trees in MMD, Cordia

domestica and Grewia tiliaefolia were the most

abundant. In TFT only 4 species were available and

the most abundant was Ziziphus mauritiana with a

density of 2.8/ha. It is important to note that

Syzygium cumini is more distributed along wet areas

and hence it was not recorded in vegetation study

but later found in the diet.

Fruit availability versus utilization

Fruiting seasonality of tree species varied

among the vegetation types and utilization of

fruits by the bear also varied accordingly

(Fig. 2).

Availability of fruits significantly varied

across the seasons (Two way-ANOVA; F=2.82

P < 0.05) but not between vegetation types. There

was positive correlation between fruit availa-

bility and utilization by the bear in DSF (r=0.58;

P < 0.05) and in TFT (r=0.59; P < 0.05). Use of

various fruits by the bear showed considerable

variation at least in some habitats in relation to then-

availability.

Discussion

Food habits

In the study area the sloth bear is an omnivore,

eating plant and animal (insects) food, but plant

materials constitute a major part of its diet

throughout the year. Prater (1965), Schaller (1969),

Prue and Napier (1977) and Davidar (1983) have

also reported a similar diet. Plants contribute a part

of the diet in several bear species (Himalayan black

bear: Schaller 1969, Manjrekar 1989; American

black bear: Landers et al. 1979, Maehr and Brady

1984; Grizzly bear: Mace and Jonkal 1986 and

Brown bear: Cicnjak et al., 1987 and Odhachi and

Aoi 1987).

Syzygium cumini, Ziziphus mauritiana and

Cassia fistula were major components of the diet,

although these species were unevenly distributed

across the study area. Schaller (1969) observed

preference for some palatable fruits by Himalayan

black bear. Landers et al. (1979) reported that the

black bear fed on plenty of sweet gallberry.

Seasonal diet

The significant relationship between fruit

availability and utilization shows that seasonal diet

was influenced by fruiting phenology. The positive

correlation between fruit availability and utilization

by bears has been reported in some other studies

also (Laurie and Seidensticker 1977, Amstrup and

Beech am 1976, Cicnjak et al, 1987). In this study,

the higher utilization of fruit in the first wet season

was related to peak fruiting season.

The higher occurrence of animal materials in

the second (II) wet season scats could also be due to

poor availability of fruits in that season.

FOOD HABITS OF SLOTH BEAR

7

Fig. 2. Ripe fruit availability (%) and utilization (%) of them by sloth bear in various habitat types

A. DSG - Dry Deciduous Short Grass Forest; B. DDF - Dry Deciduous Forest;

C. DTG - Dry Deciduous Tall Grass Forest; D. MMD - Moist Mixed Deciduous Forest; E. TFT - Thorn Forest.

Ripe Fruit Availability

Utilization

8

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Furthermore, fleshy fruits such as S. cumini were

uncommon in II wet season and thus its share in

the diet in terms of dry weight was reduced

considerably. On the other hand, in the overall ratio

fruit remains dominated due to the occurrence of

more S. cumini which has more seed weight. This

could be a reason for die variation of plant and insect

ratio between wet and dry seasons. Murali and

Sukumar (1993) found a correlation between insect

abundance and rainfall during wet seasons in the

same study area. Schaller (1967) and Davidar (1983)

have reported the utilization of insects by sloth bear

during the wet season. It has been reported that

the exploitation of animal material could be to get

more protein, since ants contain over 50%

protein (Southwood 1973). Wackernagel (1961)

stated that for the healthy growth of omnivorous

animals, including bears, the diet must contain about

15% crude protein. The consistent occurrence of ants

and termites in low quantity throughout the study

period support the view of Cicnjak et al. (1987).

Fruit dominated the food during the dry

season because of its availability. Landers et al.

(1979) reported that summer fruits eaten by black

bears contained more sugar, water and high nitrogen

free extracts. Robbins (1983) also stated that fruits

are rich in soluble carbohydrates and minerals.

However, the importance of fruits in the dry season

is not necessarily always the case in different

regions. For example, in Mundanthurai Plateau at

Kalakad - Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, Tamil Nadu

the scats of sloth bear contained more insect material

during the dry season (Gokula 1991). The

utilization of honey in DTG revealed their

accessibility to sloth bear. In many places local

people compete with the bear by removing honey

combs which could have been available to the

animal. The illegal collection of honey by local

people may have a significant impact on the use of

animal material by the bear.

Density of fruit trees

The study clearly indicates that DSG and TFT

appear to be crucial foraging grounds for the sloth

bear, because of greater availability of fruit species

namely Cordia spp., Grewia tiliaefolia, Ficus spp.,

Schleichera oleosa and Syzygium cumini. The study

also revealed the importance of S. cumini to the bear

throughout the year.

The immediate threat to the bear in thorn

forest is loss of ground cover through severe grazing

by cattle. In these areas vegetation types intensively

used by the bear are nullahs, dry stream beds, gallery

forests and valleys. These microhabitats should be

preserved and protected from biotic pressures. Forest

authorities should enforce strict management policy

for banning collection of honey at least from the

tourism zone of the sanctuary, where the local people

remove a considerable amount of honey from the

forests during the wet season.

Acknowledgements

We acknowledge financial assistance to the

first author (NB) from the S£lim Ali Nature

Conservation Fund of the Bombay Natural History

Society (BNHS), and especially Mr. J.C. Daniel for

his strong support for funding. Dr. V.

Krishnamoorthy is thanked for his encouragement

and field support. We thank Mr. Ajay A. Desai for

critical comments on the manuscript, the staff of

the Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary for all logistic

support and necessary permission to conduct the

field study, and Dr. Ajith Kumar for his comments.

Trackers Krishnan, Late Chennan and Bomma

helped us in the field.

References

Amstrup, S.C. & J. Beecham ( 1976): Activity pattern of radio

collared black bear in Idaho. J. Wild!. Manage. 40: 340-

348.

Cicnjak. L., D. Huber., H.U. Roth & Z. Vinorski (1987):

Food habits of brown bear in Plitivice Lake National Park,

Yugoslavia. Int. conf., Bear Res. and Manage. 7: 221-226.

Davidar, E.R.C. (1983): Sloth bear’s (Melursus ursinus)

method of hunting of termite nests. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 80: 637.

Gokula, V. (1991): Some aspects on the feeding habit of the

FOOD HABITS OF SLOTH BEAR

9

sloth bear ( Melursus ursinus Shaw) at Mundanthurai

Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu (South India). M.Sc.

Thesis, Unpubl. A.V.C. College, Mannampandal, Tamil

Nadu, S. India.

Guy, M.O.R., Z. Mahlangu & H. Charidza (1979): Phenology

of some trees and shrubs in the Sengwa Wildlife Research

Area, Zimbabwe-Rhodesia. S. Afr. J. Wildl. Res. 9: 47-54.

JoHNsysiGH, A.J.T. (1986): Diversity and conservation of

carnivorous mammals in India. Proceedings of the Indian

Academy of Science, Bangalore.

Krishnan, M. (1972): An ecological survey of largo- mammals

of Peninsular India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 69: 27-54.

Landers, J.L., R.J. Hamilton, A.S. Johnson & R.L.

M archinton (1979): Food habits of black bears in

southeastern North Carolina. J. Wildl. Manage 43: 143-

153.

Laurie, A. & J. Seiden sticker ( 1977): Behavioural ecology of

the Sloth bear ( Melursus ursinus). J. Zool. Lond. 102:

187-204.

Mace, R.D. & C. Jonkal (1986): Local food habits of grizzly

bears in Montana. Int. Conf, Bear Res. and Manage. 6:

105-110.

Maehr, D.S., & J.R. Brady (1984): Food habits of Florida

black bears. J. Wildl. Manage. 48: 230-235.

Manjrekar, M. (1989): Feeding ecology of black bear

( Selenarctos thibetanus Cuvier) in Dachigam National

Park. Kashmir. M.Sc. Thesis. Wildlife Institute of India,

Dehradun.

Murali, K.S. & R. Sukumar(1993): Leaf flushing phenology

and herbivore in a tropical dry deciduous forest, southern

India. Oecologia 199. 226-6.

Odhachi, S., & T. Aoi (1987): Food habits of brown bears in

Hokkaido, Japan. Int. Bear Conf. and Manage 7: 215-220.

Prater, S.H. (1965): The Book of Indian Animals. 3rd ed.,

Bombay Natural History .Society, Bombay, India.

Prue & Napier (1977): World guide to Mammals. Octopus

Book Ltd. London WI.

Robbins, C.T. (1983): Wildlife feeding and nutrition. Academic

Press, New York, London.

Riper, C. V. ( 1980): The phenology of dry land forest of Mauna

Kea, Hawaii, and impact of recent environmental

perturbations. Biotropica 12: 282-291.

Schaller, G.B. ( 1 967): The deer and tiger. A study of wildlife

in India. University of Chicago Press. London.

Schaller, G.B. (1969): Food habits of Himalayan black bear

(Selenarctos thibetanus ) in Dachigam sanctuary, Kashmir.

J. Bombay, nat. Hist. Soc. 65: 156-159.

Servheen, C. (1991): Bear Specialist Group: Trade control for

North American Black Bear. Newsletter of the Species

Survival Commission-IUCN: Nov-Dec 1991.

Sivaganesan, N. (1991): Ecology and Conservation of Asian

Elephants (Elephas maximus) with special reference to the

habitat utilization in Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil

Nadu, South India. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis,

Bharathidasan University, Trichy, Tamil Nadu.

Southwood, T.R.E. (1973): The insect/plant relationship —

an evolutionary perspective. Symp. R. Entomol. Soc.

London 6: 3-30.

Spellet. J. (1967): A report on the wildlife surveys in northern

India and southern Nepal. J. Bombay, nat. Hist. Soc. 63:

492-528.

Wackernagel, H. (1961): Complete nutrition of zoo animals,

pp 95-102. In: The International Zoo Year. ed. C.Jarvis.

Vol 1 1 . The Zoological Society of London.

PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS ON THE ROLE OF COFFEE PLANTATIONS AS

AVIFAUNAL REFUGES IN THE PALNI HILLS OF THE WESTERN GHATS1

Ghazala Shahabuddin2

( With two text figures)

Key words: coffee, plantation, avifauna, forest, conservation

A preliminary study was undertaken to explore the role of coffee plantations as a refuge for the

avifauna of fragmented forest patches in the middle Palnis of the Western Ghats. This was done by

systematic observations using the line transect method in 6 one-hectare plantation plots and 3

forest plots in 2 valleys. Species composition, species richness and feeding guild abundances were

compared between the two habitat types using non-parametric tests. Species composition of avifauna

was found to be significantly different between forest and plantation plots. Several native forest-

loving species were not observed foraging in plantations. The insectivorous guild was found to be

more often sighted in forest habitat, while the omnivorous guild was found to be more abundant in

tiie plantation habitat. However, the plantation habitat appeared to be a valuable secondary habitat

for the foraging of a large subset of forest-dwelling species and may possibly be an effective buffer

between fragmented forest habitat patches in this area. These are very preliminary trends for the

season of study and need to be followed up with long-term detailed studies, both to confirm the

trends observed in this study and to find out the modifications in agricultural practices, if any,

needed to maximise the avifaunal conservation potential of coffee plantations in the middle Palnis.

Introduction

The Palni Hills are the southeastern offshoot

of the Western Ghats in Tamil Nadu, ranging in

altitude from 300 m to nearly 2500 m above msl.

They cover an area of approximately 2400 sq. km

and encompass a wide diversity of natural habitats

ranging from evergreen montane forests (sholas) and

grasslands in the higher reaches to scrub forest in

the foothills (Sustainable Development Program,

1992).

The zone of the Palni Hills from 1000 to

1500 m is popularly known as the middle Palnis,

and has the natural vegetation cover of moist

deciduous and semi-evergreen forest which

supports a rich diversity of avifauna, among other

taxa. Expanding agricultural activity currently

threatens to take over the natural habitat in this

zone.

'Accepted June. 1995.

2School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham,

NC 27708 IJ.S.A.

Coffee-planting and its effect on bird communities

Coffee-planting ( Coffea robusta ; Coffea

arabica) was observed to be a dominant agricultural

activity in the area. Coffee plantations had already

taken over vast tracts of forest land, fragmenting it

into ‘islands’ of original habitat. These ‘islands’ lay

scattered in a mosaic of coffee plantations and other

agricultural land use, some cultivated areas extending

up to 400 acres.

The change from a multi-species, multilayered

forest ecosystem to a monoculture of coffee bushes

with a species-poor'canopy is likely to have several

negative effects on bird communities. This is due to

a combination of microhabitat changes which take

place during the process of conversion. Some of them

are as follows:

1. Removal of the forest understorey and its

replacement with a single shrub species, i.e.

coffee.

2. Replacement of the existing forest trees with a

few selected indigenous and exotic tree species,

ROLE OF COFFEE PLANTATIONS AS AVIFAUNAL REFUGES

11

10 N

Fig. 1 : The Palni Hills in relation to rest of the Western Ghats (Southern portion) and the location of study sites

within them.

which are widely spaced and regularly pruned.

3. Use of pesticides for control of insect, virus and

nematode pests.

4. Overall reduction in quantity of leaf litter.

Objectives

In this study I aimed to investigate the role of

coffee plantations in the conservation of avifauna!

species occurring in the natural forest habitat of the

Middle Palni Hills. The study specifically aimed at

exploring the impact of coffee-planting as an

agricultural activity, on species richness, species

composition and guild abundance of the avifaunal

community of this area. I also intended to document

the birdlife of this highly diverse, but neglected area

of the Palni Hills.

12

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

I expected that the findings would help to

indicate the avifaunal conservation potential of coffee

plantations in the middle Palnis. I also designed it as

a starting point for detailed studies aimed at

designing/modifying agricultural practices so as to

retain a high proportion of the original species pool

of the natural habitat of the area, even while it is

being used for economic activity. In the face of

continual fragmentation of natural ecosystems, the

challenge to conservation today is to reduce the

structural contrast between habitat fragments and the

matrix in which they exist, in order to preserve as

much of the native species pool as possible (Wilcove,

McLellan & Dobson, 1986; Meffe & Carroll, 1994).

Study sites and Methodology

The study was undertaken in two valleys of

the Palni Hills - Pethuparai and Thadiankudisai

during May and June, 1991.

Pethuparai valley is located in the northwestern

section of the Palnis (Fig. 1). This area has recently

come under coffee cultivation. The river Tayankariar

runs through the centre of the valley on both sides

of which lie a mosaic of coffee plantations, rice fields

and other cultivation. There is almost no original

forest habitat left in the area. The remnants consist

of one or two small, degraded stands of Syzygium

cumini , Grewia tilifolia, Mangifera indica , Gmelina

arborea and Terminalia bellerica, among other

species. A typical plantation in the area had shade

trees of silver oak ( Grevillea robusta ), coral tree

{Erythrina lithosperma) and jackfruit ( Artocarpus

heterophyllus)\ and an understorey of orange and

pomegranate trees interspersed among coffee

bushes.

Thadiankudisai valley, in the eastern section

of the Palnis (Fig. 1 ), is drained by the Kodavanar

river and is a prime coffee-growing area. Large

patches of moist deciduous and semi-evergreen

forest habitat still exist in this valley, having tree

species such as Trema orientalis, Messua ferrea,

AcrocCirpus fraxinifolius, Elaeocarpus serratus and

Melia dubia. Coffee plantations are very similar to

those at Pethuparai except that here pepper ( Piper

betel ) is grown commonly as a climber on the silver

oak frees.

Three plantations in Pethuparai valley (PI, P2

and P3), three in Thadiankudisai (P4, P5 and P6)

and three forest patches (FI, F2 and F3) in

Thadiankudisai were chosen for the study. In each

of these areas, a 1 -hectare plot was marked out which

was relatively homogenous in terms of vegetation.

For six hours, the plot was intensively explored by a

regular path that covered the whole plot. The hours

of observation for each plot ranged from 6 am to 9

am and from 2 pm to 5 pm.

Whenever a bird was sighted, it was identified

and notes were made on the approximate height

above the ground where it was seen, the vegetation

layer it was seen in and its foraging/breeding activity,

if any.

The number of tree species in each plot were

enumerated. The canopy cover and depth of leaf litter

were ranked as low (L) or high (H), based on visual

observations. In the case of plantation plots,

information was gathered on pesticide use, coffee

yield and major crop pests by talking to the owners/

managers of the respective plantations. The

surrounding land use for each plot was ascertained

by extensive trekking in the respective area. The

details that were obtained on these aspects for each

plot are given in Table 1 .

Results and Discussion

Species Richness

A total of 58 bird species was recorded from

the six plots in Thadiankudisai area during the period

of observation. In addition, 1 1 species were recorded

outside the count hours and/or study plots. In terms

of species richness, there was no difference between

the forest and plantation habitats according to a two-

tailed non-parametric Wilcoxon rank sum test

(U=0.3899; p>0.6966). Table 2 gives the list of bird

species found in Thadiankudisai and the habitats they

were seen in.

In Pethuparai valley 45 species were seen

during birdcounts while 19 were recorded outside

ROLE OF COFFEE PLANTATIONS AS AVIFAUNAL REFUGES

13

Table 1

DETAILS OF THE STUDY PLOTS IN PETHUPARAI AND THADIANKUDISAI VALLEYS

Key: Alt.: Altitude; sp: species; L: Low; H: High; Org: Organic; Non-Org: Non-Organic; Agri; Agricultural;

RF: Reserved Forest

the study plots/count hours. The bird species richness

was comparable to that in Thadiankudisai plantations

even though there was almost no colonising forest

habitat left here besides some degraded forest

patches.

Species Composition

In Thadiankudisai, 44 species were seen

foraging in the forest plots while 47 were recorded

in the coffee plantation plots. 33 species were

recorded in both types of habitat and therefore there

was nearly a 57% similarity of bird species

composition between the two habitat types

(according to Jaccard’s Index).

Jaccard’s

Index of =

Similarity

No. of species common

to both habitats

Cumulative no. of

species in the two habitats

56.9%

(Refer to Table 2 for a listing of habitat-wise

occurrence of all the bird species of the area).

Indices of similarity were also calculated

between each pair of plots, whether forest or

plantation. The results are shown in Table 4. Indices

of similarity of species composition between similar

habitat-plots, such as between FI and F2 or between

PI and P3, for example, indicated the level of

similarity between pairs of plots belonging to the

same habitat type. Similarly, indices of similarity

between pairs of plots belonging to contrasting

habitat types, such as between PI and FI or between

PI and F3, for example, indicated the level of

similarity between pairs of plots belonging to

contrasting habitat types.

I hypothesised that the degree of similarity

between pairs of plots belonging to similar habitat

types should be greater, on an average, than that

between pairs of plots belonging to contrasting

habitat types, if the two habitat types differed

significantly in terms of species composition. Using

a one-tailed Wilcoxon rank sum test, I found a

significant difference (U=2.0145, p< 0.02). Thus I

concluded that species composition of forest plots

differs significantly from that of plantation plots.

Out of the 44 species found in the forest plots,

33 were seen in one or more plantation plots also

(Table 2). This indicates that coffee plantations are

capable of supporting the foraging of a high

percentage of forest avifauna, i.e. 75%. This included

species such as the grey junglefowl, Indian lorikeet,

grackle myna, greater racquet-tailed drongo and the

little spiderhunter. However, these species could

have been seen foraging inside plantations only

because the latter were located close to thick forest

patches which are the primary habitat for these birds

14

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Table 2

CHECKLIST OF THE BIRD SPECIES OF THADI ANKUDISAI AREA, PALNI HILLS, WESTERN GHATS

Family &

Synopsis No.

Family Accipitridae

139

144

172

196

Family Phasianidae

301

Family Rallidae

343

Family Columbidae

537

542

Family Psittacidae

550

558

564

566

Family Cuculidae

573

595

600

Family Apodidae

709

Family Trogomdae

712

Family Alcedinidae

735

Family Meropidae

744

Family Upupidae

763

Family Bucerotidae

768

775

Family Capitonidae

785

792

Family Picidae

798

808

819

825

861

Family Hirundinidae

923

Name of species

Shikra

Crested Goshawk

Black Eagle

Crested Serpent-Eagle

Grey Junglefowl

Whitebreasted Waterhen

Spotted Dove

Emerald Dove

Roseringed Parakeet

Blossom headed Parakeet

Bluewinged Parakeet

Indian Lorikeet

Common Hawk-Cuckoo

Small Green-billed Malkoha

Crow-Pheasant

Crested Tree Swift

Malabar Trogon

Whitebreasted Kingfisher

Chestnutheaded Bee-Eater

Hoopoe

Malabar Grey Hombill

Malabar Pied Hombill

Small Green Barbet

Crimson-Breasted Barbet

Speckled piculet

Little Scaly-bellied Green Woodpecker

Lesser Goldenbacked Woodpecker

Indian Goldenbacked Threetoed Woodpecker

Larger Goldenbacked Woodpecker

Redrumped Swallow

Feeding Presence in:

Guild Forest Plantation

**

INS

ROLE OF COFFEE PLANTATIONS AS AVI FAUNAL REFUGES

15

Table 2 ( conid . )

CHECKLIST OF THE BIRD SPECIES OF THADI ANKUDISAI AREA, PALNI HILLS, WESTERN GHATS

Family Dicrundae

16

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 94 (1997)

Table 2 (contd. )

CHECKLIST OF THE BIRD SPECIES OF THADIANKUDISAI AREA, PALNI HILLS, WESTERN GHATS

(Ali & Ripley, 1983). This inference is supported

by the fact that several of these species were not

seen in Pethuparai valley which lacks a good forest

cover, i.e. 8 out of 33, including the little

spiderhunter, pied tly catcher-shrike and the greater

racquet-tailed drongo. Though the magpie-robin

was seen in the forest habitat also, it was notably

more abundant in plantation plots.

From the presence-absence data in Table 2,

one finds that 8 species were found foraging only

in forest plots. These included species habitually

confined to thick moist deciduous, semi -evergreen

or evergreen forest stands, such as the Malabar

trogon, the Malabar grey hornbill, the ashy drongo,

the yellow-cheeked tit, the large woodshrike and

the fairy bluebird. The blackheaded babbler was

conspicuous by its absence from plantations, maybe

due to lack of leaf litter and dense herbage, which it

needs for its foraging. Out of the 14 bird species

seen only inside the forest in Thadiankudisai, 11

were not seen in the Pethuparai valley. Further

observations are needed to find out if these species

have completely disappeared from that area due to

the almost complete loss of forest cover. These

observations highlight the importance of the

remaining patches of forest habitat as a refuge for

these forest avifauna as a colonising source and a

primary habitat.

Feeding Guilds

To investigate the impact of coffee-planting

on guild abundances, I classified the bird species

into feeding guilds based on their major food items

(Ali & Ripley, 1983) and my observations on their

feeding ‘space’. The number of sightings of each

species was assumed to be indicative of its relative

abundance in the habitat. The relative abundances

of each feeding guild are illustrated in Fig. 2. For

the feeding guild assigned to each species and

description of each guild, refer to Tables 2 and 3.

A series of two-tailed Wilcoxon rank sum tests

was done between relative abundances of each

feeding guild in the two habitats. It was found that

the omnivorous guild of birds was more abundant in

plantation habitat as compared to forest habitat (U=6,

p<0.0238). This guild included birds such as the

redvented bulbul, the Indian treepie, jungle crow

and the goldenfronted chloropsis. This result

indicates that the conversion of forest habitat into

plantation may cause an increase in the competitive

ability of these bird species which are opportunistic

Fig. 2: Relative abundances of feeding guilds in the study plots

ROLE OF COFFEE PLANTATIONS AS AVI FAUNAL REFUGES

17

<o

CM

<0

QL

U)

CL

CO

CL

CM

Q_

(%) SSOUBpunqB

Study plots

18

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Table 3

CHECKLIST OF THE BIRD SPECIES OF PETHUPARAI VALLEY, PALNI HILLS, WESTERN GHATS

ROLE OF COFFEE PLANTATIONS AS AVIFAUNAL REFUGES

19

Table 3 ( contd .)

CHECKLIST OF THE BIRD SPECIES OF PETHUPARAI

VALLEY, PALNI HILLS, WESTERN GHATS

Key to feeding guilds:

INS: Predominantly insectivorous

FRU: Predominantly frugivorous

NEC: Predominantly nectarivorous

GRA: Predominantly granivorous

FSE: Fruit and seed eating

OMN: Omnivorous

BOP: Bird of prey

AQU: Aquatic or amphibious feeder

FNE: Fruit and nectar eating

Note: List contains some bird species not seen during my study

which had been previously sighted in the area by Mr. Arthur

Steele of Bhagyadan Plantation.

and adaptable compared to the forest-loving

ones.

Another finding was that the insectivorous

guild of birds was more abundant in the forest plots

than the plantation plots (U=23, p<0.047). There

could be three possible reasons for this difference:

use of pesticides in coffee plantations, reduced depth

of leaf litter in plantations and vegetational diversity

of forest habitat. It would be interesting to find out

if this trend is borne out by more detailed studies,

including observations in other seasons.

None of the other feeding guilds showed

significant differences in abundance between

forest and plantation habitat. (Refer to Table 5

for the p-values of the Wilcoxon rank sum

statistic)

Table 4

Key:

INS: insectivoies

OMN: omnivores

GFI: groundfeeding insectivores

GRA: granivores

FSE: fruit and seed-eaters

FRU: frugivores

NEC: nectarivores

FNE: fruit and nectar-eaters

Plantations as Foraging Areas

The pods of the silk-cotton ( Bombax ceiba)

shade trees in coffee plantations were observed to

be an abundant source of food for the fruit and seed-

eating bird species, including the Indian lorikeet,

roseringed parakeet, bluewinged parakeet and

blossomheaded parakeet. In one plantation a lesser

goldenbacked woodpecker was seen feeding from a

jackfruit still on the tree. Flowers of silver oak and

orange trees were seen to provide food for several

species of parakeets and sunbirds. Thus coffee

20

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

plantations were found to be bountiful foraging

grounds for a large variety of non-insectivorous

birds.

However, the impact of the synchronous

flowering pattern found in the plantations (due to

monoculturing) as against the random and non-

synchronous flowering of the moist deciduous forest

ecosystem (which provides forage throughout the

year) cannot be commented on unless avian foraging

is studied intensively for a whole year.

Plantations as Breeding Areas

According to field observations, coffee

plantations may not be as good breeding grounds/

nurseries for forest species. Almost all the

observations of breeding behaviour were made in

forest plots. Fledglings of the bronzed drongo,

grey junglefowl, little spiderhunter and the

yellowcheeked tit were seen along with adult birds

in plots F5 and F6. Courting Malabar grey hornbills

were observed in plot F6, while an adult crested

serpent-eagle was seen making a nest in plot F5.

However, no definite conclusions can be drawn

regarding this aspect until a much more detailed

study is carried out.

Conclusions

This preliminary study indicates that in

Thadiankudisai, species richness was not affected

by conversion of forest habitat into coffee

plantations. However, species composition differed

significantly between forest and plantation habitats

as indicated by the indices of similarity. This

difference was due to the several bird species which

were observed only in the forest plots. These included

species which are reportedly confined to primary

forest habitat in the Western Ghats (Ali & Ripley,

1983). Comparison between species composition of

Pethuparai and Thadiankudisai indicate that some

species may have been lost from the former area due

to total loss of forest cover.

However, coffee plantations were found to be

important foraging grounds for avifauna in the

middle Palni, capable of supporting the foraging of

a large subset (75%) of forest-dwelling species. Field

observations indicated that the plantations had a

diverse range of bird species utilising available fruit,

seed and nectar resources. The relative abundance

of the omnivorous guild of birds was significantly

higher in plantation plots than in forest plots, while

that of the insectivorous guild was higher in forest

plots as compared to plantation plots, in the season

of study. However, all these results should be treated

with caution due to the very limited time-frame of

the study. In particular, the assumption that the

number of sightings of foraging birds of a species

reflect its relative abundance in that particular habitat,

may not be justified.

The study, however, does indicate that coffee

plantations can be an important buffer between

natural forest habitat patches in the mid-Palnis, with

high potential for serving as a marginal habitat for

some species, a dispersal corridor between patches

and even a breeding/permanent habitat for some

species. The more ‘natural’ these plantations can be

kept, the richer they would be in terms of structure

and the better these conservation functions could be

served. Very much more detailed studies need to be

carried out to determine exactly which agricultural

practices need to be modified to maximise the

conservation potential of coffee plantations in the

middle Palnis of the Western Ghats.

Acknowledgements

I thank Dr. Rauf Ali and Mr. K. Jagdish of

the Sustainable Development Programme (SDP,

1990-92), Palni Hills Conservation Council (PHCC)

and Development Alternatives, Delhi, for making

the study possible and providing ideas,

encouragement and logistical support. I thank the

PHCC for their sponsorship of this project and their

cooperation in several ways, especially Mr. R.

Kannan and Ms. Pippa Mukherjee.

I also thank Dr. Kulashekharan, Horticultural

Research Station (TNAU) Thadiankudisai; Mr. Brian

Jenkins, Mr. Arthur Steele and Mr. Izhancherian

(Avari Estate) of Pethuparai Valley and Mr. Vijay

ROLE OF COFFEE PLANTATIONS AS AVIFAUNAL REFUGES

21

Kumar, Attakadu Estate, for their hospitality during already crowded headquarters at Kodaikanal and I

my field work. The SDP team let me stay in their am extremely grateful for that.

References

Ali, S. and S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of

India and Pakistan. Oxford University Press. New

Delhi.

Meffe, G.K. and C.R. Carroll (1994): Principles of

Conservation Biology. Sinauer Associates Inc.

Sunderland, Massachusetts.

Sustainable Development Program (1992): Planning for

Interventions in the Palnis. Palni Hills Conservation

Council, Kodaikanal and Development Alternatives,

Delhi.

Wilcove, D.S., C.H. McLellan and A.P. Dobson (1986):

Habitat Fragmentation in the Temperate Zone. In

Conservation Biology: The Science of Scarcity and

Diversity. Ed Michael E. Soule.

NOTES ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND ENDEMISM OF INDIAN F1MBR1STYLIS 1

V.P. Prasad & N.P. Singh2

(With one text-figure )

Key words: Fimbristylis, distribution, endemism, India

The genus Fimbristylis is widely distributed in the tropics and subtropics. About 200 species

have been reported from all over the world. Of the 92 species found in India, 37 are endemic.

Peninsular India has the maximum number of endemics in the country with 30 species, followed

by the northeast with 5 species. In the case of other angiosperms also, the high degree of endemism

is distinct in peninsular India. Majority of the non-endemic Fimbristylis are also found in peninsular

India. Availability of suitable habitat may be the cause for this kind of distribution. In fact, many

non-endemic species are also restricted to India and the neighbouring countries of South Asia.

Introduction

The genus Fimbristylis of the family Cyperaceae

was founded by Vahl in 1806 by segregating the

species from the genus Scirpus which have spiral

glumes and flat, ciliate, distigmatic, deciduous style

with enlarged base. He created another genus

Abildgaardia for the species having the same kind of

floral structure, but having distichous glumes, while

the tristigmatic species were left in the genus Scirpus.

But there are species which have spikelets with partly

distichous and partly spiral glumes. Similarly often

distigmatic and tristigmatic flowers are found in one

and the same species, rarely even in the same spikelet.

Hence arrangement of the glumes and the number of

stigmas are not very good characters for delimiting

these genera. Moreover, Robert Brown (1810) found

the deciduous style articulated with the nut as most

characteristic of the genus Fimbristylis. Based on this

he included many tristigmatic species in the genus

Fimbristylis which were treated under Scirpus till

then.

Another genus Trichelostylis founded by

Lestiboudois (1819) is based on the tristigmatic

nature. But subsequent workers treated this as a

synonym of Fimbristylis, though Nees tried to revive

that genus. The genus Bulbostylis has been merged

‘Accepted January, 1996.

2Botanical Survey of India, Western Circle, Pune-411 001

with Fimbristylis by Asa Grey, Bentham and

Koyama, but there is a concrete morphological

difference between these two genera. Embryological

studies done by van der Vekan ( 1 965) on the species

of both these genera have also proved this point,

though cytologically both are the same, having the

same basic chromosome number and similar

chromosome size.

Iria (L.C. Rich.) Hedwig. f. (1806).

Echinolytrum Desv. (1808), Pogonostylis Bert.

(1833), Microspora Boeck. (1860) and

Actinoschoenus Benth. (1883) are the other names

assigned to this genus earlier.

Fimbristylis is characterised by the absence of

perianth bristles in the flower and also by the absence

of persistent style base on the nut. These characters

also differentiate it from the closely related genera

Eleocharis and Bulbostylis respectively.

Kern (1974) treated this genus under the tribe

Cypereae of subfamily Cyperoideae. But Koyama

(1985) placed it under the tribe Fimbristylideae.

A majority of the species like# dichotoma, F

bisumbellata, F. complanata, F. tenera , and F.

tetragona etc. prefer habitats like swampy areas,

margins of rice fields, over beds, banks of rivers and

streams, margins of lakes and open moist waste

places etc. Some of these are found along seashores

and along back waters. A few of them grow in forests

and savannahs also. The majority are low land

DISTRIBUTION AND ENDEMISM OF INDIAN FIMBRISTYUS

23

species, but a few are found at high altitudes also.

Species like F. aestivalis and F. miliacea are common

weeds in wet rice fields.

Distribution

The genus Fimbristylis is widespread,

especially in the tropics and subtropics. A few species

are found in the warmer parts of the temperate region

also. About 200 species have been reported from all

over the world, of which the majority are

concentrated in tropical Asia. So far, 92 species of

Fimbristylis have been reported from India. A good

number of varieties are also described due to the

highly variable characters of many species like F

dichotoma, F falcata and F aestivalis.

Endemism

Of the 92 species reported so far 37 are

endemic to India, while 5 varieties are* reported to

be endemic from the present political boundaries of

India only. Within India, endemism in the species of

Fimbristylis is more predominant in peninsular India.

In the case of other angiosperms also the high degree

of endemism is distinct in peninsular India and makes

the flora of this part of the country unique. Turrilfs

(1964) contention that next to islands, the peninsular

regions provide favourable conditions for endemism

is true in the case of peninsular India also.

Characteristic endemic species of the Western Ghats

were enumerated by Subramanyam and Nayar

(1974), who mentioned that Western Ghat summits

are comparable with islands regarding endemic

species. In general peninsular India has 32% of the

endemics, while the rest of the country has only 27%

(Nayar, 1980). According to Biasco (1971) there are

1,268 endemic dicotyledons in South India. Nayar

(1980) has estimated a total of about 2,100 endemic

species in peninsular India. Ahmedullah and Nayar

(1987) have reported 29 species and one variety of

Fimbristylis Hemadri is nomen nudum and hence

should be rejected. F. unispicularis is endemic to

peninsular India. Of thisE junnarensis Govind. and

Hemadri is the correct name of this species.

Similarly F ligulata Govind. and F, bisumbellata

var. hirtistyla Fisch. are synonyms of F merrillii

Kern and F squarrosa var. esquarrosa Makino

respectively, which are not endemic to India.

Excluding these three taxa the actual number of

endemics reported earlier from peninsulk India is

27 species.

In the present study, of the 64 species reported

so far, 30 species and 2 varieties were found to

be endemic to this part of the country (see

enumeration).

Next to peninsular India, the northeast has the

maximum number of endemics, though the number

is comparatively much less. There are only 5 species

and one variety of Fimbristylis endemic to the

northeast (see enumeration). Of this F hooker iana

Boeck. extends to Eastern India also. F multicephala

Govind. is the only species endemic to North India.

F polytrichoides var. halophiia Kurz ex Clarke

belong to southern as well as eastern India.

In the case of non-endemic species also, the

majority of them can be found in peninsular India,

followed by the northeast. As mentioned earlier, 64

species reported from peninsular India compromise

more than 69% of the total number reported from

the whole country. The high degree of species

diversity in peninsular India and the northeast must

be due to the availability of more wet and humid

conditions in these parts of the country. It is evident

that northeast and peninsular India, especially

towards the coastal areas and Western Ghats

experience more rain. Availability of wet habitats in

the form of rivers, streams, ponds, lakes, lagoons,

swamps, rice fields and other wetlands and also

comparatively high atmospheric humidity must be

the reason for the concentration of species in these

parts. Moist or wet conditions are the most preferred

by the majority of species. Even moist grasslands of

high ranges, rocky slopes, mountain peaks and forest

clearings in the Western Ghats are very good habitats

for certain species like F consanguinea, F falcata ,

F. narayanii , F kingii , and E semidisticha etc.

Species adapated to halophytic conditions like F.

polytrichoides and F. ferruginea are found along

the sea coast and near brackish waters.

24

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 94 (1997)

Fig. 1. Map showing the distribution of endemic Fimbristylis

DISTRIBUTION AND ENDEMISM OF INDIAN FIMBRISTYUS

25

Indian species extending to south and south-

east Asian countries

Many species found in India have world

wide distribution. F. dichotoma (L). Vahl,

F. complanata (Retz.) Link, F. ferruginea (L.) Vahl

and F. cymosa R. Br. are a few examples. But several

species and a few infra-specific taxa show an

interesting range of distribution, being restricted to

India and the neighbouring countries of South

Asia and also extending to the southeast Asian region.

F. monticola Hochst. ex Steud,, F. pentaptera

(Nees) Kunth, F. dichotoma sp. glauca (Vahl)

Koyama and F. falcata var. ahbreviata (Boeck.)

Karthik. are found in peninsular India and Sri Lanka

only. F. umbellaris var. vicaryi (Clarke) Karthik,

probably extends from North India to Pakistan, along

the river Chenab. Similarly F. intonsa Blake, F.

merguensis Clarke and F aestivalis var. trichopoda

Kern are found only in India and Malaysia. F.

multinervia Govind. extends from the northeast to

Myanmar. F. disticha Boeck. and F. fimbristyloides

(F. V. Muell.) Druce, found in Andaman and Nicobar

Islands and northeast India respectively, are also

found in Myanmar, Thailand and China. F. obtusata

(Clarke) Ridl., reported from eastern India, extends

to Myanmar, Thailand and Malaysia. Similarly F.

sleumeri Kern found in Thailand and Myanmar is

also found in northeast India. F. pierotii Miq.

occuring in east and northeast India is found in

Malaysia, Korea, and Japan also. In India, F.

rigidula Nees is distributed in the Himalayas, east

and northeast India and also found in Nepal,

southern China, Malaysia, Thailand and the

Philippines. F fus'ca (Nees) Clarke also extends

from India to Nepal, Malaysia, Indochina and

Thailand. In India F. stolonifera Clarke is restricted

to central, east and northeast India, it is also reported

from Nepal also. F umbellaris (Lam.) Vahl found

in north, east, northeast and Andaman and Nicobar

Islands is also found in Nepal, Sri Lanka, Indo-

China and Japan. F. griffithii Boeck. reported from

northeast India and Andaman and Nicobar Islands

is also found in Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia and

Indo-China. F. eragrostis (Nees & May. ex Nees)

Hance extends from India to Sri Lanka, southern

26

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

References

Ahmedullah, M. & M.P. Nayar (1987): Endemic Plants of

the Indian Region 1 : 213-215. Calcutta.

Blasco, F. (197 1): Orophytes of South India and Himalayas.

Journ. Ind. Bot. Soc. 50: 377-381.

Brown, R. (1810): Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae et

Insulae Van Diemen. 225. (repr, ed. 1960).

Clarke, C.B. (1893): Cyperaceae in: J.D. Hooker, Flora of

British India VoL VI.

Karthdceyan, S .et al. (1989 ):Florae Indicae Enumeratio:

Monocotyledonae. 52. B.S.I., Calcutta.

Kern, J.H. (1974): Cyperaceae in: van Steenis, Flora

Malesiana. 1,7:452.

Koyama, T, (1985): Cyperaceae in: Dassanayake and Fosbeig,

A. Revised Handbook of Flora of Ceylon 5: 127.

Lestiboudis, TG (1819): Essai sur lafamilie des Cyperaceae.

Paris. 40. 1819.

Mistry, M. & S.M. Almeida (1987): A critical note on the

identity and occurrence of Fimbristylis merrillii Kern in

India. Joum. Econ. Tax. Bot . 9: 403-404.

Nayar, M.P. (1980): Endemic Flora of peninsular India and

its significance. Bull. Bot. Surv. India 22: 12-13.

Subramanyam, K. & M.P. Nayar (1974): Vegetation and

Phytogeography of the Western Ghats, in: Mani M.S. (ed.)

(Ecology and Biogeography of India. Dr. W. Junk, The

Hague, Netherlands.

Turrill, W.B. (1964): Plant Taxonomy, Phytogeography and

Plant Ecology, in: Vistas in Botany Vol. IV, Pergamon Press,

London.

Vahl, Martin (1806): Enumeratio Plantarum 2:285 1805.

Van Der Veken (1965): Contribution a, Fembryographic

systematique des Cyperaceae - Cyperodieae. Bull. Jard.

Bot. Elat. Brux 35: 285-384.

CONSERVATION OF THE ENDANGERED RIVER TERRAPIN BATAGUR BASRA IN THE

SUNDERB AN OF WEST BENGAL, INDIA1

S. Bhupathy2

(With two text-figures)

Key words: River terrapin, Batagur basket , endangered species, Sunderban, mangrove.

A status survey of the endangered River Terrapin, Batagur baska was conducted in the Sunderban

of West Bengal, India from February to May 1994. Intensive searches were carried out to determine

the present status of Batagur in the wild. Surveys were also conducted in Captive Breeding Centres,

village ponds and markets to assess the captive stock and exploitation level. The only evidence

obtained for Batagur nesting was in Mechua island (Bagmara block) of the Sunderban Tiger Reserve

(STR). Batagur is rare in the wild and in captivity in India and currently not being exploited

commercially. A captive breeding programme is suggested for Batagur using existing captive turtles

involving villagers for restocking the species in the wild.

reported as common in the Hoogly river mouth of

West Bengal in the mid 19th century (Blyth in

Gunther 1864). Interest in the conservation of

Batagur started in India after its rediscovery in

village ponds in 1983 (Moll 1990 a) and observation

of three nests on Mechua Island (of STR) in 1988

(Ghosh and Mandal 1990). A small scale captive

rearing programme of Batagur has existed since

then in Sunderban aimed at reintroduction into the

wild (Ghosh and Mandal 1990). Four Batagur

surveys have been conducted between 1 983 and 1 993

by various agencies (Das 1987; Moll 1990 a, b;

Bhupathy et al. in press). The present paper deals

with the status of Batagur in India in the wild as

well as in captivity and gives suggestions for its

conservation.

Materials and Methods

Sunderbair

Sunderban (21° 32’ - 22°20* N, 88° 03' - 89°

05 ’E), 24 Par gaxi a district (South), West Bengal is

one of the World Heritage Sites. It is located in the

Ganges and Brahmaputra drainage and is bound by

rivers Hoogly in the west and Rai manga! and Kalindi

in the east. Bay of Bengal forms the southern

boundary, while the northern side has an indistinct

boundary comprising of agricultural fields and

Introduction

India has one of the richest assemblages of

chelonians in the world, with 31 species of turtles

including five species of sea turtles, 22 species of

freshwater turtles and four species of land tortoises

(Das 1991 ). Among them, the River terrapin, Batagur

baska and Asian giant soft-shell turtle, Pelochelys

bibroni are restricted to brackish water with a wide

distribution in southeast Asia. Uncontrolled

exploitation of these species and their eggs has

caused serious declines throughout their range (Moll

1990a). Batagur has been listed as endangered in

the Red Data Book (Groombridge 1982) and in

category IX of the IUCN Action Plan Rating (APR),

suggesting highest priority for its conservation

(Stubbs 1991). Further, this species is also on

Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act 1972

(Anon 1991).

In India, Batagur was reported to occur in the

Mahanadi and Brahmani-Baitarani Delta, Orissa and

in Sunderban, West Bengal (Smith 1931 ). However,

no authentic record of its presence on the Orissa coast

is available for the last 25 years. The species was

‘Accepted October, 1996

2Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History,

Kalampalayam P.O., Coimbatore-641 010, India

28

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

villages. Sunderban is one of the largest mangrove

swamps iir the world covering more than 12,000

sq.km. About one third of this mangrove area is

within Indian territorial limits and the rest is in

Bangladesh. Indian Sunderban has four protected

areas, namely Sunderban Tiger Reserve (STR, 1330

sq.km), Saznakhali (362 sq. kmK Saptamukhi (38

sq.km) and Halliday Island (4 sq.km) Wildlife

Sanctuaries (Rodgers and Panwar 1988; Fig. 1). The

remaining areas are made up of human habitations,

agricultural fields and Reserve Forests.

The Tidal Swamp Forest in Sunderban

(Champion and Seth 1968) is rich in flora with about

300 species (Hussain 1994). Dominant species

among them are Phoenix paludosa, Excoecaria

agallocha , Sonneratia apetala , Bruguiera

gymnorhiza , Xylocarpus granatum, Rhizophoraspp.,

Avicennia spp. and Heritierafomes. Her itiera fames

(known as Sundri in Bengali from which the name

Sunderban meaning ‘beautiful forest’ originated) and

Nypa fruticans are some of the rare species found in

the Indian Sunderban. In the sea facing islands, the

grass Saccharum cylindricumis common. Sunderban

is also rich in fauna with 42 species of mammals,

270 species of birds, 35 species of reptiles and 400

species of fishes reported (Hussain 1994). It is an

abode for many rare and endangered species; Tiger

Panthera tigris, Gangetic river dolphin Platanista

gangetica , Giant heron Ardea goliath , Lesser

adjutant stork Leptoptilos javanicus, King cobra

Ophiophagus hannah , Indian python Python

molurus , Water monitor lizard Varanus salvator,

Common monitor lizard V. benghalensis and

Saltwater crocodile Crocodylus porosus.

Survey and identification of nesting beaches

The study was conducted in the Indian

Sunderban between February and May, 1994

covering both egg laying and hatching periods of

Batagur. Moll (1990b) reported that Batagur nests

only on the sandy beaches of rivers and the sea.

Hence, surveys were conducted first to locate

the sandy areas in the Sunderban. Field surveys

were done in three phases using a mechanised

boat.

Phase I: A rapid survey was conducted from

24th February to 12th March, 1994 along the coast

from Mechua island in the east to the river Hoogly,

in the southwest covering all major rivers, and

primary, secondary and tertiary creeks. All sea-facing

islands (Fig. 1) were surveyed on foot during high

tide between High Tide Zone (HTZ) and mangrove

forest. The following information was. recorded to

evaluate the suitability for nesting: (1) availability

of dry sand (2) turde nesting signs (3) turtle egg

collection by inhabitants (4) fishing and (5) human

settlement. Sandy areas comparable with known

nesting area for eg. Mechua island, and with less

human pressure were shortlisted for further intensive

surveys. Field officers of the Sunderban Tiger

Reserve (STR), local people and fishermen in the

adjoining areas were also interviewed to obtain

known records of Batagur.

Phase II: Only the Mechua island in Bagmara

block of STR was found to be suitable for Batagur

nesting, and hence the second phase of the survey

was restricted to this island. Searches were carried

out for three to four days in a week during the

morning (0500-0800 hrs) and evening (1600-1900

hrs) between 15th March and 15th April, 1994. The

area between HTZ and mangrove forest was included

in the search. The habitat was open sandy area with

sparse clumps of tall grass Saccharum cylindricum

well above the HTZ. Tracks and signs were followed

to locate nests. The nesting crawl of the Batagur may

easily be identified from sympatric sea turtles by the

following features: (1) lack of deep cuttings in the

crawl of Batagur i.e. flipper marks and (2) presence

of only four claw marks. Signs of nesting of sea

turtles and egg predators, such as Wild Pig, were

also recorded.

Phase HI: Mechua Island was surveyed from

4th to 13th May, 1994 to record the hatching of

Batagur in the wild. Searches were conducted in the

early mornings (0500-0800 hrs) and evenings (1600-

1900 hrs) covering the area between HTZ and

mangrove forest. Signs of turtle hatchlings were

recorded. Open water and potential basking habitats,

such as fallen logs, mounds and banks, were also

closely observed using a pair of binoculars while

CONSERVATION OF THE RIVER TERRAPIN BATAGUR BASKA

29

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

to

ra

B

©

Bagmara

Mechua

Kedo

Chimari

Halliday

Kalas

Thakuran

Lothian

Bhakkali

Jambu

Dubtat

Gnngnsogr

Lahachara

Saznakhali

Reserve Forest

Protected area boundry

Sunderban Tiger Reserve

Wildlife Sanctuary

Market/Captive turtle

Survey Localities

Harinbanga R.

Got in R.

x Goshaba R.

BAY OF BENGAL

1 CM = 2.5 KM

Fig. 1. Indian Sunderban showing major river systems and sea-facing islands.

BANGLADESH

30

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

travelling by mechanised boat during all phases of

the survey.

Exploitation level and status in captivity

Fish markets adjacent to STR were surveyed

for Balagur from 25th February to 20th May 1994

(mainly from 15-20th April and 15-25thMay) to

assess the level of exploitation by local people. Rapid

searches were conducted in each fish market for

turtles. Villagers were questioned to determine the

number of Batagur in private collections. Forest

Department Captive Breeding Centres in STR and

Alipur Zoological Park, Calcutta were also visited.

On locating a shell or live turtle in the wild or in

captivity, morphometric measurements, colour

pattern and origin of the specimen were noted.

V

Results and Discussion

Identify

Altogether three adult male, two female and

1 9 immature (1-4 years old) Batagur were examined

during the survey. Morphometry of the largest

specimens of both sexes: a) female - Straightline

Carapace Length (SCL) 500 mm. Carapace Width

(CW) 400 mm, Plastron Length (PL) 450 mm and

Body Weight (WT) 17 kg and b) male - SCL 400

mm, CW 320 mm, PL 360 mm and WT 8 kg. Two

captive males examined in early March had black

heads, yellow-cream eyes and pale brown legs.

Females had cream head, black eyes and brown shell

and soft parts. Batagur of Indian and Burmese

(Myanmar) origin are reported to be different from

those of Malayan origin. Males of the Malayan

forms develop a black head, and their eyes are

yellow to cream in colour (Moll 1980) while in the

males of Indian and Burmese forms the back of the

head and forelimbs are bright red (Anderson cited

in Das 1991). The occurrence of Malayan colour

form of Batagur h\ the Sunderban is interesting and

requires further investigation.

Status of nesting beaches

All major river systems and the thirteen

islands facing the sea were surveyed between 24th

February and 12th March, 1994 to assess the

suitability of the habitat for nesting of Batagur. The

river systems surveyed included Raimangal,

Harinbanga, Gona, Goshaba and Matla in Sunderban

Tiger Reserve (STR) and Thakuran, Saptamukhi,

Muriganga and Hoogly outside STR (Fig. 1). None

of these rivers had dry sand on their banks. Only

some of the sea-facing islands had dry sandy areas.

Inside STR only the island of Mechua in Bagmara

block had sufficient dry sand during high tide and

tracks of Batagur were noticed. Islands Kedo and

Chaimari had less sandy area (Table 1).

Table 1

SUITABILITY OF SEA-FACING ISLANDS FOR

BATAGUR TO NEST IN THE INDIAN SUNDERBAN.

Note: TR - — Tiger Reserve, OT — Outside Tiger Reserve

CONSERVATION OF THE RIVER TERRAPIN BATAGUR BASKA

31

Outside STR nine islands were surveyed; none

of them had evidence of Batagur nesting such as

tracks and shells. Four islands, namely Bakkaii,

Jamhu, Dublat and Gangasagar had vast stretches of

sandy areas and other islands, such as Thakuran,

Saptamukhi and Lahachara had no dry sand during

high tide (Table 1). Among the islands located

outside STR, island Kalas (Chulkati block. Fig. 1)

appeared to be suitable for Batagur nesting with

sufficient dry sand and comparatively less

anthropogenic pressure. Twenty five records were

obtained for sea turtle nesting in this island (Table

2). Bakkaii, Jam bo, Dubalt and Gangasagar had

sufficient dry sand during high tide. Sea turtle nesting

was sporadic (Table 3) and the disturbance was high

due to human settlement (Table 2). Turtle egg

collectors traverse the beach every morning and if

at all Batagur were nesting there, it would have no

chance of survival.

Table 2

TURTLE RECORDS IN VARIOUS SEA FACING

ISLANDS OF THE INDIAN SUNDERB AN DURING

THE SURVEY. Number in parenthesis is hatchlings seen.

Note: Data on Medina island is sum of 5 surveys.

Th tKedo island in which Batagur was reported

to have been nesting (Das 1987) lacked dry sand and

hence nesting there appeared to be quite unlikely.

Das (1987) reported nesting of Batagur in islands,

such as Kanak and Nagbarchar; the former no longer

exists, having sunk during the 1988 cyclone, and the

latter was not traceable. None of the Forest

Department officials, local inhabitants and fishermen

were aware of the existence of such an island.

Status of Batagur nesting

First phase of the survey showed that only

Medina in the Bagmara block of STR provided

suitable nesting habitat for Batagur, and hence further

surveys were restricted to Mechua island only. The

area is about 15 sq. km with 3 km shoreline. It has an

area of about 2000 x 50 m (1 x w) dry sand during

high tide which is suitable for turtles to nest. Five

surveys were conducted in Mechua island, the last

one was during the hatching period for 10 days in

the first fortnight of May (Table 3). Three Batagur

tracks were recorded during the present survey which

would account for a maximum of three nesting

females. All of them were observed by 20th March.

This indicates that the nesting (i.e. egg laying) of

Batagur was probably over by the third week of

March.

Seventy records were obtained for sea turtles

in Mechua island: one carapace, two intact and 21

preyed upon nests and 46 tracks and young ones.

Among the 23 nest records 21 (91%) had been preyed

upon by predators, 20 of them by Wild Pig (Table 3 ).

No Batagur hatchlings were observed in Mechua

island during 4-13 May. However, the hatching of

two nests of Olive Ridley Sea Turtle was recorded.

Twenty hatchlings of the sea turtle were observed

during the survey.

One Batagur nest was located in Mechua island

during 1993 by Project Tiger officials. This was

protected from predators by erecting an enclosure.

Hatching success was about 90% and all hatchlings

were reported to have been released in the wild

(P. Sen Gupta, pers. comm.). Records of Batagur

nesting in STR since 1988 show a maximum of 10

32

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

nests in February-f !arch 1990 (Seth 1993). Three

nests were recordc t in Bagtnara block of STR in

1989 and 1991 (Ghosh and Mandal, 1990 and

Fig. 2). During the present five intensive surveys,

three tracks of Balagur have been recorded.

Data source: Ghosh and Mandal (1680),

Seth (1993), Bhupathy et. al. (in press)

and Present study

Fig. 2 Batagur nest records in Sunderban Tiger Reserve

between 1988 and 1994.

Status of Batagur population in the wild

No Batagur was sighted in the wild during the

480 daylight hours of survey in the open estuarine

system. Queries during the survey revealed that only

people living in the northeastern parts of Sunderban

were aware of Batagur. Based on the past seven years

nesting data (Fig. 2), it is assumed that the number

of nesting females in STR could be up to a maximum

of only ten. Between 1990 and 1994 the Forest

Department has released about 40 captive raised

young Batagur (2-4 years old) in the river

Harinbanga of STR (P. Sen Gupta, pers. comm.).

Gunther (1864) reported that Batagur was

abundant in the Hoogly river mouth. However,

during the present survey, no live turtle or nest was

recorded in islands located in the lioogly river

mouth: Bakkali, Jambu, Dublat and Gangasagar.

These islands have vast sandy areas, but all of them

have human settlements. The major occupation of

the people is fishing and many of them also poach

turtle eggs. Hence, it appears that the population of

Table 3

NESTING RECORDS OF &ATAGUR AND SEA

TURTLES IN MECHUA ISLAND, number in parenthesis

is hatchlings seen

Batagur described earlier by Gunther does not exist

any longer and the present status of this species is

‘extremely rare’ in the Indian Sunderban.

Batagur in captivity

The West Bengal Forest Department initiated a

captive breeding programme for Batagur in 1988 at

Saznakhali in STR (Ghosh and Mandal 1990). In

addition to this, rearing centres were established at

Pakiralaya, Bagna Range Office and Jinghahali Beat

Office in STR (Fig. 1 ). Twenty one nests were located

in the wild between 1 988 and 1991 and 645 eggs were

collected to be transported to Saznakhali for artificial

incubation and captive rearing. Less than 50% of

hatching success was recorded (Ghosh and Mandal

1 990, and Seth 1 993). Captive rearing facilities of STR

had only 11 Batagur during the present survey. In

addition to this, Alipur Zoo, Calcutta had 10

'individuals. At present about 25 Batagur are with the

Captive Breeding Centres (CBC).

Inhabitants of the northeastern parts of STR

believe that keeping Batagur in their ponds would

bring good luck to them. Twenty five villages

adjacent to STR were surveyed; only three of them,

CONSERVATION OF THE RIVER TERRAPIN BATAGUR BASKA

33

Govindakati, Mangalchandi, and Amtali had

Batagur. Six more villages reportedly had Batagur,

but the villagers did not co-operate in locating the

turtles as they were scared of legal action by the

Forest Department. AW Batagur in the villages appear

to be adult as they had cephalic coloration. According

to local inhabitants Batagur lives in low saline areas.

Incidentally, the waters of rivers Kalindi and

Raimangal are less saline compared to other rivers

in the Indian Sunderban. Queries revealed that till

10-15 years ago, Batagur used to be regularly

collected by villagers from rivers Kalindi and

Raimangal in the northeastern parts of STR bordering

Bangladesh (Fig. 1). Low saline areas are mostly

outside STR, where fishing activity is high. However,

villagers informed that this species was not seen in

recent years in the above mentioned rivers.

The survey revealed that approximately 20

adult Batagur are still in captivity with villagers.

Further, it was learnt that three village ponds had

Batagur with both sexes (2-4 individuals) together

for many years. However, no record exists on

successful breeding. The lack of breeding in captivity

may be due to various factors such as lack of feeding

and nesting habitats, quality food and an insufficient

number of adult males and females.

Exploitation level

Seventeen daily and weekly fish markets were

checked in Sunderban for Batagur Local people

were also interviewed regarding the availability of

this species in markets. None of the markets had

Batagur during the survey. However, one Olive

Ridley sea turtle kept alive for sale was seen in

Gangasagar market. Markets at Kumirmari and

Mollahali had shells of Indian flapshell turtle. The

absence of Batagur in the markets could be due to

its extreme rarity in the wild and special protection

offered by Project Tiger officials.

Conclusion

The present study shows that Batagur is

extremely rare in the Indian Sunderban. The rarity

cannot solely be related to its peripheral distribution

ie. westernmost limit (Daniel 1983), as this species

was reported to have been common in the 18th

century (Gunther 1864) in the Hoogly river mouth

of Sunderban. The present rarity of Batagur in the

Indian Sunderban may be due to over-exploitation

and reduction in the breeding and feeding habitat

size.

Suggestions for Batagur

Conservation in India

1. Monitoring of breeding population

Regular monitoring is suggested for Batagur

in Bagmara block of STR during its nesting period

(February-March) to determine the size of the

breeding population. Monitoring is essential as the

number of breeding females is estimated to be less

than ten in the whole of Indian Sunderban. Surveys

should be conducted in the early morning hours to

avoid possible obliteration of tracks by strong

wind.

2. Ecological study

Information on habitat use of an organism is

vital for its conservation. Nothing is known about

the habitat use of the breeding and non-breeding

populations of Batagur in Sunderban and elsewhere.

As weather conditions are very unstable and man-

eating tigers are common in Sunderban, it is

extremely difficult to study the habitat preference of

Batagur in conventional ways, such as direct

observation. Hence, satellite radio telemetry

techniques may be adopted to study the habitat

preference, home range and movement pattern of

Batagur. This will further help in identifying

corridors connecting feeding and breeding habitats

of the species.

3. In situ conservation

As Batagur is extremely rare in the wild and

its hatching success in artificial incubation is less

34

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

than 50%, in situ conservation technique could be

useful. The captive breeding programme was started

in 1988 by the West Bengal Forest Department using

eggs collected from the wild. On an average 50%

hatching success was recorded by Ghosh and

Mandal (1990). This low hatching success could

be due to damage during transportation. In 1993, in

situ conservation technique was adopted by the

Forest Department by protecting nests in the wild,

and about 90% hatching success was registered.

As anthropogenic pressure is low in the Project

Tiger area, in situ conservation methods will yield

better results. As the nests are extremely difficult

to locate in the wild an alternate method namely pig

proof fencing may be experimented with, by cover-

ing a part of the sandy area (about 2 km) of Mechua

island. Protection of larger areas is more

advantageous than protecting an individual nest

m many ways. (1) The latter case requires tremen-

dous effort ie. daily monitoring of probable nesting

areas to locate nests during egg laying, which is an

extremely difficult task, whereas fencing protec-

tion requires efforts to fence an area only once in

two years; (2) In the protection of larger area,

hatchlings would find their own way to the sea,

whereas in the latter case, a close watch on the nest

is required and hatchlings should be removed

from the enclosure soon after hatching and (3)

Even though it is known that the eggs of Batagur

hatch after about 60 days, monitoring would be a

difficult task in the unpredictable weather and

rough sea conditions that prevail in Sunderban. The

pig proof fence would enhance the survival of

Batagur nests and hatchlings and help build up the

population.

4. Ex situ conservation (Captive breeding)

Ten villages in the northeastern part of STR

have about 20 adult Batagur (of both sexes) in ponds

and similar number in CBCs. A common Batagur

captive breeding unit is suggested outside STR using

captive turtles. The captive breeding unit should be

designed considering ecological aspects involving

the villagers. Inbreeding among a small population

of turtles may be avoided by replacing males, if

available, from the wild. Captive bred Batagur may

be released in the wild after about 4 to 5 years. The

restocked turtles should be monitored by marking

them. Records relating to the released turtles should

be properly maintained for future reference and

monitoring.

5. Awareness programme

The inhabitants of Sunderban should be made

aware of the rarity of Batagur. This may be done by

publishing a poster with descriptions in the local

language giving species identification, past and

present status, and biology. The locals of Sunderban

may be requested to inform Project Tiger officials

on encountering a Batagur.

Acknowledgements

The study was funded by the IUCN/SSC Turtle

Recovery Program of the American Museum of

Natural History (AMNH), USA. I am grateful to

Dr. Michael Klemens, AMNH; Dr. V.S. Vijayan,

Director, S£lim Ali Centre for Ornithology & Natural

History (SACON), India; Dr. E.O. Moll, Eastern

Illinois University, Charlston and Dr. John Behler,

Chairman IUCN/SSC Tortoise and Freshwater

Turtle Specialist Group for their support. My sincere

thanks are due to the West Bengal Forest Depart-

ment officials especially Messrs. Subimal Roy,

Chief Conservator of Forests; M.K. Nandi,

Conservator of Forests (Wildlife); P. Sen Gupta,

Field Director, Sunderban Tiger Reserve (STR) and

P.K. Roy, Divisional Forest Officer, 24 Pargana

district for permission, advice and logistics. I am

indebted to several members of field staff of the

STR for helping me in the field. Mr. J.C. Daniel,

Director (Rtd), Bombay Natural History Society

and Drs. Lalitha Vijayan, Ajith Kumar and

S. Muralidharan of SACON have gone through

earlier drafts of this paper and offered comments.

Mr. V. Gokula of SACON helped in preparing the

map.

CONSERVATION OF THE RIVER TERRAPIN BATAGUR BASKA

35

References

Anon (1991): The Wildlife Protection Act 1972 (as amended

upto 1991). Natraj Publishers, Dehra Dun.

Bhupathy, S., B.C. Choudhury & E.O. Moll (In Press):

Conservation and Management of Freshwater Turtles and

Land Tortoises of India.

Turtle and Tortoise Conservation Project. Final Report.

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehra Dun.

Champion, H.G. & S.K. Seth (1968): A revised survey of the

forest types of India. Government of India Press, Nasik.

pp. 404.

Daniel, J.C. (1983): The Bobk of Indian Reptiles. Bombay

Natural History Society, Bombay.

Das, I. (1987): Status and distribution of estuarine turtles in

India. Mar. Fish Inf. Serv. 72: 21-22.

Das, I. ( 1 99 1 ): Colour guide to the turtles and tortoises of the

Indian subcontinent. R & A Publishing Limited, Avon,

UK.

Ghosh, A. & N. Mandal (1990): Studies on nesting and

artificial hatching of the endangered River Terrapin

Batagur baska (Grey) in the Sunderbans Tiger Reserve,

West Bengal. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 87 (1): 50-52.

Groom bridge, B. (1982): The IUCN Amphibia-Reptilia Red

Data Book. Part-I Testudines, Crocodilia,

Rhynchocephalia. IUCN, Gland.

Gunther, A.C.L.G. (1864): The Reptiles of British India.

London.

Hussain, Z. (1994): Management of mangrove forests - an

example from the Bangladesh S underbans . IUCN Wetland

Newsletter 9: 15-18.

Moll, E.O. (1980): Natural History of the river terrapin,

Batagur baska (Grey) in Malaysia. Malaysian J. Sci. 6:

23-62.

Moll, E.O. (1990a): India’s freshwater turtle resource with

recommendations for management. In Conservation in

developing countries: Problems and prospects. J.C. Daniel

and J.S. Serrao (Eds.). Bombay Natural History Society

and Oxford University Press, Bombay, pp: 501-515.

Moll E.O. (1990b): Status and Management of the River

Terrapin ( Batagur baska ) in tropical Asia. WWF-Asia.

Rodgers, W.A. & H.S. Panwar (1988): Planning a Wildlife

Protected Area network. Voi I. Wildlife Institute of India,

Dehra Dun.

Seth, S. (1993): Conservation and Management of

endangered River terrapin, Batagur baska (Grey 1831)

in West Bengal. Indian Forester 119 (10): 858-862.

Smith, M.A. (1931): The Fauna of British India, including

Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia and Amphibia. Vol. I. Loricata

and Testudines. Taylor and Francis, London.

Stubbs, D. (1991): Tortoises and Freshwater turtles: an action

plan for their conservation. IUCN, Gland.

CONSERVATION AND UTILISATION OF ECOGENETIC RESOURCES OF

PANCHPATMALI HILL IN ORISSA1

B.C. Patra2, S.D. Sharma3, D.N. Roy4 and R.K. Misra5

As many as 1 60 wild species belonging to 53 families occur in the Panchpatmali hill. The flora

has both South Indian and Himalayan representatives due to the geographical position of the

area. Efforts made by the National Aluminium Co. to conserve the regional flora and maintain

the environmental status have been examined.

Introduction

The Panchpatmali hill on Damanjodi is

located in the Koraput district of Orissa between

18° 45’ and 19° 55’ N latitude and 82° 58' and 83°

04' E longitude. The Panchpatmali hill has one of

the largest deposits of bauxite ore in India, which is

being mined for the extraction of alumina by the

National Aluminium Company (NALCO). This hill

range is considered as the northernmost part of the

Eastern Ghats.

The floristic and ecogenetic resources survey

of the hill was undertaken in the year 1992-93. The

objective of the survey was to study the biodiversity

of flora, and enumerate the endangered or vulnerable

taxa, besides cataloguing the potentially medicinal

and economically important plants.

Physiography: The Panchpatmali hill has a

17 km long and 20 m thick bauxite deposit. The

highest elevation of the hill is 1336 m above msl

and 450 m above the level of adjoining plains.

Escarpments up to 10 to 30 m occur on all sides

and thereafter gentle slopes extend towards the

valley.

Climate: During summer, maximum

temperature ranges from 28° to 31°C and the

minimum from 16° to 20° C. During winter months

the maximum temperature ranges between 7° to

‘Accepted September, 1995.

Scientist (Senior Scale), Genetic Resources Division, Central Rice

Research Institute, Cuttack.

3Retd. Principal Scientist & Head, Central Rice Research Institute,

Cuttack.

“Retd. Deputy Director, Department of Agriculture, Govt, of

Orissa.

5Reader and Head, Basic Science College, Orissa University of

Agriculture and Technology, Bhubaneswar.

14°C. April is the hottest and January the coldest

month of the year.

Rainfall: The region receives rain from the

southwest monsoon (June-September). In addition,

occasional heavy showers are also received due to

the northeast monsoon in the month of November

and December, leading to many cloudy days. The

annual average rainfall on the fall is 1520 mm with

20% variation.

Vegetationa! Analysis: The Panchpatmali

hill at the bauxite ore deposit site has a very scanty

vegetation except on the hill slopes or valleys where

there is flow of water from streams. Broadly, the

vegetation of the area can be designated as a mixed

deciduous scrub jungle.

(a) Flora on the hill top: Since the plateau

top is a table land with a calcareous hard surface

there is no significant vegetation except a vast

stretch of Phoenix acaulis. On rainy days, grasses

and a few herbaceous elements occur, which make

the vegetation appear as a grassland. The typical

high altitude herbaceous plants found on the plateau

region are Pogostemon quadrifolius, Pimpinella

heyneana, Exacum pedunculatum and Hypericum

japonicufn. The other conspicuous plants are

Stachytarpheta indica, Commelina benghalensis,

Crotalaria pallida , Kyllinga bulbosa, K. nemoralis,

Cyperus sp., and Eriocaulon sp. among others. At

places where there is water accumulation and the

soil is sandy/loamy. Polygonum plebeium , P.

barbatum, Borreria pusila , Mitracarpus

vertic Hiatus, Gnaphalium polycaulon etc occur. The

noteworthy insectivorous plants which often draw

the attention of conservationists ar cDrocera indica

and D. burmannii. The two alien species found in

association with the above described plants are

ECOGENETIC RESOURCES OF PANCHPATMAU HILL

37

Chromolaena odorata and Lantana camara var.

aculeata which appear to have been naturalised on

the hill top in the course of time with human

interference. Among the wild species of crop plants,

Oryza nivara, which is believed to be the progenitor

of cultivated rice Oryza sativa, was found growing

on seasonal swamps on the hill top.

With the onset of winter, some new species

sprout. Among them are Vicoa indica , Viola

betonicifolia, Oxalis corniculata, Sphaeranthus

indica, Solanum surattense, Setana pumila, Aerva

sanguinolenta etc. Very few twiners/climbers are

observed at the plateau, obviously because they do

not get any supporting shrub or tree species on which

they can grow. However, Chromolaena odorata and

Phoenix acaulis sometimes provide support to a few

twining species like Cocculus hirsutus, Thunbergia

fragrans var. laevis. Asparagus racemosus ,

Hemidesmus indicus, Clematis roylei and species

of Ipomoea and Dioscorea. Surprisingly, not a single

tree species is found on the plateau top. Half-

metre deep trenches dug by bears and wild boar in

search of succulent tubers are often seen on the

plateau.

(b) Flora of the valleys and slopes:

The vegetation at the slopes and the valleys

is represented by mixed deciduous forest. The tree

species of economic importance are Terminalia

bellerica, Phyllanthus emblica, Mangifera indica,

Artocarpus heterophyllus, Murray a koenigii etc.

The other dominant wild tree species found in

association are Trema orientalis , Caryota urens,

Semecarpus anacardium, Alstonia venenata,

Memecylon umbellatum and species of Ficus,

Gardenia, and Bauhinia . The shrubs commonly

found are Cipadessa baccifera, Wendlandia

tinctoria, Clerodendrum sp., Woodfordia fruticosa

and Indigofera cassioides. The dominant robust

climbers or lianas are represented by Bauhinia vahlii

and Schefflera venulosa. Among the scandent

shrubs Ziziphus rugosa (a wild relative of Z.

mauritiana , an arid zone fruit plant) and Jasminum

arborescens (wild jasmine) are found. Most

interestingly, Atylosia cajanifolia, a wild relative

of Cajanus cajan (arhar) first described by Haines

(1921) as an endemic species from Kuhuri forest of

Puri district occurs on the slopes of Panchpatmali

hill.

In the rocky crevices along the stream,

Thysanolaena maxima and Hypericum gaitii are

found in association with some fern species of Pteris,

Athyrium, Microlepis, Tectaria etc. Solanum torvum,

a potential indigenous medicinal plant is found

occasionally on the hill slopes.

Along the roadside leading to the mining

site, plants of the plains are noticed. They are

Celosia argentea, Pennisetum pedicellatum,

Hydrophilla auriculata, Aerva lanata, Croton

bonplandianum , Verbascum chinense, Parthenium

hysterophorus etc.

Statistical analysis of the Flora:

The flora of the region is represented by 160

wild and naturalised angiospermic species

belonging to 53 families. The number and

percentage of monocot and dicot families, genera

and species are shown in Table 1 .

Table 1

The approximate ratio of monocot families to

dicot families is 1:4.6, monocot genera to dicot

genera is 1:3.6 and monocot species to dicot species

is.l :3.7. Further, the approximate genus species ratio

is 1:1.18, as against 1:2.4 for Bihar and Orissa

(Haines, 1921-25 and Mooney, 1950) and 1:7 for

British India (Hooker, 1907).

In order to get an insight into the relation-

ship of the flora of Panchpatmali hill with that of

Bihar and Orissa (Haines, 1921-25) and of India

(Hooker, 1907) a comparative list of the dominant

families of the region is provided in

Table 2.

38

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Table 2

FLORA OF PANCHPATMALI HELL, BIHAR AND

ORISSA, AND INDIA, A COMPARISON

Conclusion

The Panchpatmali hill possesses many

elements of both Peninsular and Himalayan flora.

Among them Hypericum gaitii, H. japonicum,

Clematis roylei, Pogostemon benghalensis, P.

quadrifolius , Drosera indica , Exacum tetragonum,

and Pimpinella heyneana are noteworthy on the

slopes. This confirms that higher elevations of

Orissa have served as an intermediate step in the

migration and stabilization of some species from

the lower Himalayas to the hills of South India and

viceversa (Patra and Choudhury, 1989). Phoenix

acaulis which is present in such a vast range at the

hill top, can be referred to as an indicator plant for

bauxite ore.

NALCO has completed the plantation of about

100 hectares of land around Panchapatmali hill with

more than 18 lakh saplings of 39 different species.

A few exotic species have also been introduced in

the area. Planting programmes are usually attempted

to raise fast-growing tree species with almost

complete exclusion of shrubs, climbers, rambling

bushes and epiphytes that form the middle and lower

canopy in a natural forest. Natural calamities like

cyclones, frost or epidemic diseases and pests may

damage man-made plantations to a greater extent.

So, use of local broad-leaved deciduous species with

exotic evergreens would give the necessary diversity

to the vegetation cover, besides controlling

atmospheric pollution and above all beautification

of the area.

To obviate the lacuna due to the absence of

the middle and lower canopy in man-made forests

and also to ensure that all available plant species of

the region are conserved, a Forest Park may be

established which will serve as a “Gene Sanctuary”

for the local flora. There is a vast diversity in the

banana germplasm which should be collected,

characterised and evaluated for its “built-

inresistance” genes and utilised in the banana

improvement programme. NALCO has already

collected about 50 species of medicinal and

economically important plants and has been

maintaining them in its nurseries.

ECOGENETIC RESOURCES OF PANCHPATMAU HILL

39

Acknowledgements

We gratefully acknowledge the help and

co-operation received from Dr I.C. Mohapatra,

the then Vice Chancellor of OUAT, Bhubaneswar.

Refer

Haines, H.H. (1921-1925): The Botany of Bihar and Orissa

(6 parts), London (Rep. Edn. 1961).

Hooker, J.D. (1907): The Indian Empire. The Imperial

Gazetteer of India. Oxford. London. 1: 157-212.

Mooney, H.F. (1950): Supplement to the Botany of Bihar and

We also express our gratitude to NALCO for

financial assistance. Special thanks are also due

to Dr P.C. Nayak, General Manager (Horti-

culture) of NALCO, for local hospitality at

Damonjodi.

NCES

Orissa Catholic Press, Ranchi.

Patra, B.C. 8l B.P Choudhury (1989-91): Studies on the

flora of Dhenkanal district and distributional notes on

certain rare and interesting plant species. Bull Pure &

Applied Sciences. 8-10 B (1-2): 11-19.

HABITAT USE BY THE LESSER FLORICAN IN A MOSAIC OF GRASSLAND AND

CROPLAND: THE INFLUENCE OF GRAZING AND RAINFALL1

R. Sank aran2

(With three text-figures )

I studied effects of grazing and rainfall on habitat use by the Lesser Florican in a mosaic of grassland

and cropland. I found that the most preferred habitat of the Lesser Florican is area under

grass cover. However, as a result of disturbance due to grazing, the florican may temporarily prefer

crop areas. In years of drought the Lesser Florican prefers irrigated cropland as these areas have

sufficient vegetation cover. When grasses grow too tall, as in years of very well distributed rains,

male floricans shift their territories to areas of shorter vegetation, like soyabean fields, and mud

roads.

Introduction

To reproduce successfully, birds should do so

when environmental conditions are most favourable

(Earle 1981). Breeding seasons are, however, fixed

for most species and the degree of variability in

favourable environmental factors will play a major

role in breeding success. The link between rainfall

and the breeding environment of birds has been

documented, and nomadism, cessation or delays in

breeding are characteristic adaptations of species

exploiting environments with variable rainfall; the

more unpredictable the rainfall, the more extreme

the response (Moreau 1 950, Keat and Marshall 1954,

Sinclair 1978, Davies 1979, Berry and Crowe 1985,

Manry 1985, DeSante and Geupel 1987). In this

paper, I examine the effects of a varying monsoon

and livestock grazing on the habitat use of the Lesser

Florican in a mosaic of grassland and cropland.

The Lesser Florican is an endangered endemic

bustard of the Indian subcontinent. It breeds during

the southwest monsoon, which normally begins by

end June (Jerdon 1864, Baker 1921,

Dharmakumarsinhji 1950, Ali and Ripley 1969).

During this period, a distinct movement into Gujarat,

eastern Rajasthan and western Madhya Pradesh,

‘Accepted May, 1995

2Bombay Natural History Society, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Mumbai 400 023.

Present Address: Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology & Natural

History, Kalampalayam P.O., Coimbatore 641 010

where it congregates in areas of good rainfall, has

been documented (Jerdon 1864, Sankaran et al.

1992). The primary breeding habitat are grasslands

where sufficient grass cover is available during the

breeding season. In western India, these grasslands

are fragmented and patchily distributed and the

majority of habitat available to the Lesser Florican

is a mosaic of grassland ana cropland.

Study area

I studied habitat use by the Lesser Florican in

the Sailana Kharmor Sanctuary (354 hectares (ha);

23° 3T N and 75° 01' E; Fig. 1) near Sailana town,

Ratlam district, western Madhya Pradesh. The

Sanctuary is a mosaic of grassland, cultivated fields

and grazing lands and is bounded by three villages,

Sailana, Adwanya and Gordhanpura. The grassland

area within the Sanctuary is about 200 ha, and is

owned by agriculturists, and known as the Naulakha

bheed. The grassland is maintained and protected

for its hay produce. Livestock grazing is usually

permitted upto five weeks after the onset of the

monsoon, the cattle thus exploit the first flush of

vegetation. After this the grassland is strictly

protected from grazing until the hay harvest is

completed in November. Once the hay harvest is

done, grazing is again permitted, and the livestock

thus exploit the remaining grass stubble.

The Naulakha grassland has six main ridges

and their spurs, all sloping towards the eastern corner

HABITAT USE BY THE LESSER FLO RICAN

41

Crop Fields

oooooo

Grazed area

Plantation

Grassland

Fig. 1 . Map of the Sailana Kh armor Sanctuary (Not to scale)

42

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol 94 (1997)

of the Sanctuary, where lies a perennial reservoir,

Gordhansagar. The shallow valleys between the

ridges channelise rainwater rivulets towards this

waterbody and two other smaller reservoirs.

At the Sailana Kharmor Sanctuary, the habitat

available to the Lesser Florican was of three types:

a) Grassland: This was the Naulakha grassland

which covered about 200 ha of pure contiguous

grassland, almost devoid of trees. The grassland area

conformed to the Sehima nervosum - Chrysopogon

fulvus type, that is the dominant grassland type in

the Lesser Florican ’s breeding range. Other grasses

include Heteropogon contortus , Apluda mutica ,

Cymbopogon martini , Aristida funiculata and species

cf Bracharia, Eragrostris , Dichanthium ,

Pseudo anthesterea, Digitaria, Setaria and

Bothriocloa. Wild rice Oryza rufipogon grows where

water accumulates during the monsoon. Butea

monos per tna is a common bush, rarely growing into

a tree.

b) Crop fields: On the periphery of the

grassland are the agricultural fields, both irrigated

and rain fed, of the nearby villages. The predominant

monsoon crops were Cotton Gossypium sp..

Sorghum Hordeum vulgare, Maize Zea mays , and

Soyabean Glycine max. In winter Wheat Triticum

aestivum, Bengal Gram Cicer arietinum Garlic

Allium sativum , Ajma (or Ajwain) Trachyspermum

ammi and Poppy Papaver somniferum were

cultivated.

c) Grass patches in crop areas: These were

small isolated patches of grass amidst the cultivated

fields which had not yet been brought under the

plough. These patches were small, ranging from 0.1

to 1.5 ha and totally occupied only about 10 to 12

ha. While grass patches should be classified under

grassland, this distinction is made purely on the basis

of location and size. Moreover, such a distinction is

meant to contrast the use between cpop fields and

areas under grass cover within crop areas.

Methods

The study extended over about 400 days

between July 16 and October 6, 1985; June 22 and

October 10, 1986; June 16 and October 1, 1987; June

24 and October 6, 1988.

All habitat types in the study site were scanned

to locate Lesser Florican either by sighting or

flushing them. Before territories were established,

such scanning of the study area was done every day,

and less frequently once territories were established

and males became localised. Data on Lesser F! Orleans

thus flushed, or located, was recorded primarily as

to location in the study area and habitat i.e. whether

in crop field, grass patches or in the main grassland.

Habitat use data was based purely on the habitat a

florican was using when it was first located.

Subsequent movement was not taken into account.

As habitat classes occurred in different

proportions over the study areas, the data for all

habitats used have been normalised by dividing the

data values with weights proportionate to the area

under different habitats. Thus grasslands were

quantitatively weighted as 15, crop as 5 and grass

patches as 1. This was then standardised by

converting values into percentage of total sightings

for each habitat in a fortnight. Standardisation was

necessary to make the data set comparable between

years because the number of birds which were

sighted varied between years and there was need to

eliminate bias that arose out of this.

Results

Profiles of three monsoons 1986 - 1988.

1986: The monsoon began on time and the

quantum was excessive (+49.03% of the normal).

1987: The monsoon was late and patchily

distributed but quantum of rainfall was slightly above

normal (+8.1%). Number of rainy days were 29,

about -40%.

1988: The monsoon was on time and was

uniformly distributed. The quantum of rainfall was

above normal (+16.1%).

Maximum grass growth rates and height were

seen in those years when the monsoon was on time

or early (third week of June), and when rainfall was

distributed throughout the season (up to October).

Though 1 986 had the maximum quantum of rainfall,

HABITAT USE BY THE LESSER FLO RICAN

43

cm

Fig. 2. Rainfall, grass growth and grazing - Naulakha grassland

— ■ Cumulative rainfall

the distribution was restricted more or less to the

First half of the season, with the latter part being dry.

This resulted in lower grass growth rates and height

when compared with 1988 (Fig. 2). 1987 was a

drought year with late commencement of rains and

patchy distribution of rainfall. The late flush of

growth in 1987 resulted from a few belated heavy

showers (Fig. 2).

Livestock grazing was permitted at the

Naulakha grassland for the first five weeks after the

onset of the monsoon and was stopped subsequent

to a week of heavy rainfall. The year 1987 was an

exception, and grazing continued for 11 weeics after

the commencement of the monsoon, due to poor

rainfall. The influence of livestock grazing during the

early monsoon was similar for all years except 1987,

- Grass height * Grazing

when grass growth rates were the lowest (Fig 2).

I found that there are significant differences

in habitat use patterns in the Lesser Florican both

between years, due to differences in rainfall and its

effect on grass growth, and within a season, as a result

of cattle grazing.

Within season changes in habitat use

In 1986, the Lesser Florican used grasslands,

grass patches and crop fields in a descending order

of preference (Table 1). In 1986, fornightiy shifts in

habitat preference showed maximum use of

grasslands in the first fortnight. In the second

fortnight, floricans used all three habitats equally.

In the following five fortnights both grass patches

44

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Fig. 3. Fortnightly pattern of habitat use by the Lesser florican under different monsoon conditions.

Fortnights Fortnights

HABITAT USE BY THE LESSER FLORICAN

45

Table I

VARIATION IN INTRA YEAR HABITAT USE: 1986 TO

1988 KOLMOGRO V- SMIRN O V TWO SAMPLE TEST

RESULTS

and the main grassland were used the most and crop

fields the least (Table 2 a; Fig. 3).

In 1987, all three habitats were used equally

(Table 1 ). In the first fortnight the grassland was used

more than grass patches while crop fields were not

used at all. In the second fortnight all three habitats

were used equally. In the third and fourth fortnights,

crop fields were used almost exclusively. In the fifth

fortnight all three habitats were used and in the sixth

fortnight the grassland was used almost exclusively

(Table 2b, Fig. 3).

In 1988, the grassland was used the most while

grass patches and cropfields were used equally (Table

1). In die first two fortnights all the three habitats

were used equally. In the third, fourth and fifth

fortnights grasslands were used the most. In the sixth

fortnight a shift was seen towards crop fields, and

in the seventh fortnight crop fields were used the

most (Table 2c; Fig. 3).

Between season differences in habitat use

Overall habitat use was similar in 1986 and

1988. The pattern in 1987 was different, with crop

areas being used most frequently and grassland less

frequently than in 1986 and 1988 (Table 3). In all

three years grass patches did not show significant

variation in intensity of use.

Table 2

COMPARISON IN HABITAT USE PATTERNS

BETWEEN FORTNIGHTS OF THE BREEDING

SEASON (KOLMOGRO V-SMIRNOV TWO SAMPLE

TEST RESULTS)

Table 2a. 1986

Fortnight 1

Fortnight 2

Fortnight 3

Fortnight 4

Fortnight 5

Fortnight 6

Fortnight 7

Table 2b. 1987

46

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Table 2c. 1988

Table 3

VARIATION IN INTER- YEAR HABITAT USE IN THE

LESSER FLORICAN: 1986 TO 1988. (KQLMOGROV-

S MIR NOV TWO SAMPLE TEST

RESULTS)

Key For Tables 1 to 3

Crop = Cultivated fields

Grass = Grassland (Naulakha)

GPC = Grass patches amidst Cropfields

Discussion

A lack of disturbance and vegetation cover

appear to be of greatest importance in habitat

selection during the breeding season of the Lesser

Fiorican.

During the monsoon the centre of disturbance

shifts in the Sail ana Kharmor Sanctuary. During the

early monsoon, the main grassland was the most

disturbed of the three types of habitat due to the

presence of livestock and graziers. In this period,

crop areas are relatively undisturbed because rains,

wet slushy soil and freshly sprouting crops prevent

farmers from working their fields. Once grazing is

stopped the grassland is undisturbed. The fields soon

become disturbed as farmers begin weeding,

spreading fertilizers and spraying pesticides during

dry spells. Grass patches are the least disturbed of

all three types as these are neither grazed nor worked

upon by farmers.

Subsequent to arrival, the fiorican s are mainly

seen in the grassland. However, as the grassland is

disturbed due to grazing during the early monsoon,

the floricans begin using crop areas. A reversal is

seen with the cessation of grazing, and due to the

absence of disturbance, the grassland becomes the

most used habitat type. That the Lesser Fiorican

use crop areas primarily due to the disturbance by

livestock in the grassland, was also seen by their

movement away from the grassland into crop fields

at about 0800 to 0900 hours, when the cattle start

arriving in the grassland, and their movement back

to grassland at about 1700 to 1800 hours when the

cattle start leaving the grassland.

In 1986 and 1988, both high rainfall years,

there was no significant variation in habitat use

patterns. On the other hand, 1987 differed

significantly because of the lack of adequate cover

and greater disturbance (due to an extended grazing

period) in the main grassland as a result of drought.

The cropfields had more vegetation cover (due to

crop growth as a result of irrigation) than the

grassland, and was relatively less disturbed. The few

birds that were present in 1987 were seen almost

exclusively in the crop fields. However, once grazing

HABITAT USE BY THE LESSER FLO RICAN

47

was stopped, and late rains caused sufficient grass

cover in the grassland, the ftoricans showed a shift

towards increased use of the main grassland.

The optimal grass height range of the Lesser

Fiorican is difficult to determine because the period

of lowest grass heights coincides with grazing.

However, very tall grass is not preferred by ftoricans,

and males which had territories in the grassland

shifted to crop fields or paths and mud roads within

tiie grassland when grasses grew too tall, as was

the case in 1988 when a distinct shift to crop areas

was seen at the end of the breeding season.

Conclusion

The preferred breeding habitat of the Lesser

Fiorican is grassland protected from livestock

grazing during the monsoon. Choice of habitat,

however, is determined by disturbance and, to a lesser

extent, rainfall regimes. In normal years, depending

on the location of greatest disturbance, birds used

cultivated areas or grassland. When grazing took

place in the grassland, the fl Orleans used the crop

areas more. But in cultivated areas the grass patches

amidst crop fields were the preferred habitat. During

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley ( 1969): Handbook of the Birds of India

and Pakistan. Oxford University Press, New Delhi.

Baker, E.C.S, ( 3 92 1 ): The Game birds of India, Burmah and

Ceylon. Vol. 2. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

Berry, M.P.S. & T.M. Crowe (1985): Effects of monthly and

annual rainfall on game bird population in the northern

Cape Province, South Africa. S. Afr. J. Wild!. Res. SuppL

1: 116-117.

Daves, S.J.J.F. (1979): The breeding season of birds in south-

western Australia. J. Royal Soc. Western Aust. 62: 53-64.

DeSante, D.F. & G.R. GeupeI (1987): Landbird productivity

in central coastal California: the relation to annual rainfall

and a reproductive failure in 1986. Condor 89: 636-653.

Dharmakumarsinhji, K.S. (1950): The Lesser Fiorican

Sypheotides indica (Miller): Its courtship display,

behaviour and habits. J. Bombay, nat. Hist. Soc. 49: 201-

216,

drought conditions they were, however, more

frequently seen in crop fields because of more

vegetation cover as a result of irrigation. When

grasses grow too tall, as in years of very well

distributed rains or when the grassland is very well

protected, male fiorican shift to areas of shorter

vegetation, eg. soyabean fields.

In summation, under situations where adequate

vegetation cover is available, the Lesser Fiorican

utilises habitats or areas that are least disturbed.

Under drought conditions, the Lesser Fiorican uses

habitats that has greater vegetation cover. Very

tall vegetation is not preferred by the Lesser

Fiorican.

Acknowledgments

This study was funded by the US Fish &

Wildlife Service and was sponsored by the Ministry

of Environment, Govt, of India. I wish to thank

P.A. Azeez, the Gujarat Forest Department, J.C.

Daniel, Goutam Narayan, Kheema, Madhya Pradesh

Forest Department, Mehboob Aiam, A.R. Rahmani

and N.K. Ramchandran for their support and

guidance.

NCES

Earle, R.A. (1981): Factors governing avian breeding in

Acacia Savanna, Pietermaritzburg. Part 1. Extrinsic factors.

Ostrich 52: 65-73.

Jerdon, T.C. (1864): Birds of India. Vol. 2. Pub!, by authors,

Calcutta.

Keat, J.A. & AJ. Marshall (1954): Reproduction in

Australian desert birds. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lend. 124: 493-

499.

Manry, D.E. (1985): Reproductive performance of the Bald

Ibis Geronticus calvus in relation to rainfall and grass-

burning. Ibis 127: 159-173.

Moreau, R.E. (1950): The breeding seasons of African birds.

1. Land birds. Ibis 9: 223-267.

Sinclair, A.R.E. (1978): Factors affecting the food supply

and breeding season of resident birds and movements of

Palearctic migrants into a tropical African savannah. Ibis

120: 480-497.

NOMENCLATURE AND SYSTEMATIC STATUS OF BARBUS MUSSULLAH

SYKES, 18391

K.C. Jayaram2

(With one plate and one text-figure)

Introduction

Sykes (1839) described Barbus mussullah

collected from Ghod river near Sirur (18' 50° N 74’

23° E) Maharashtra. He illustrated his species

in colour (Fig. IB) and gave a description as

below:

“Pectoral fins of 16 rays; ventral of 9 rays;

dorsal fin of 12 rays, including the first double ray:

tail forked, of 24 rays, including the short rays at

each exterior side of the insertion of the tail: a

remarkable projecting prominence between the

upper lip and nostrils, giving the fish an appearance

of being Roman-nosed: the eyes are situated far back,

and between the eyes and the corners of the mouth

there are a number of circular, rough, prominent

papillae , but these are not constant: corners of the

mouth furnished with a short feeler, and the base of

the nasal prominence, near the tip, also with one on

each side: dorsal fin in the centre of the back, on a

prominence which slopes suddenly behind; ventral

fins on the centre of the belly, on a perpendicular

from the first dorsal ray; tail suddenly narrows below,

after the anal fin; anal fin with the posterior angle

bluntly rounded off. The lateral line is slightly arched

at the shoulder, then falls, and runs straight to the

anal fin; over this it rises a little, and then runs straight

to the centre of the fork of the tail. The whole of the

upper parts of the fish are covered with large, coarse

silvery scales, having blue and red reflections, and

on the under parts a yellow tinge prevails; it is very

bony, and its length, to the end of the fork of the tail,

is 30 cm, and height, 7.5 cm; but its greatest growth

! Accepted August, 1996

2Pitambar Pant National Environment Fellow,

do. Madras Science Foundation,

22, III Main Street, Officers Colony, Adambakkam,

Chennai-600 088.

is 150 cm. When small this species resembles the

Kolus, but in the latter the colour is more reddish-

silvery: the fins are reddish, and the Mussullah is a

much coarser, and larger fish. A male brought to me

at Seroor, from the Goreh river, measured in length

102.5 cm, and in height 30 cm, and weighed nearly

15 kg. The flesh wanted flavour. The mussullah

differs from the mosal of Dr. Hamilton, in having 1

ray less in the dorsal and pectoral fins, and in the

first rays of these fins being double instead of

quadruple; in the latter respect, and indeed in many

others, resembling the C. putitora : it also differs in

iiaving the nose and upper lip tubercuiated, and in

colour. The prominence on the nose is also marked.

Russell describes three Barbels, calling them

Cyprini, but none of them are identical with the

present fish.”

It is clear at the outset that the description

and figure do not tally in many respects. The fin

ray and scale counts do not agree. Sykes cites that

the upper part of the fish is covered with large, coarse

silvery scales whereas the figure shows a larger

number of medium sized scales. The shape of the

anal fin is highly unnatural and is more of an artist’s

contrivation. The nomenclature and taxonomy of

the species is in confusion and they are clarified in

this paper.

Nomenclature

There is confusion in the generic position of

Barbus mussullah Sykes. For many years the

species has been included under Tor Gray follow-

ing Hora (1943a). However, recently this species has

been referred to under Hypselobarbus Bleeker by

Menon (1992). The name Hypselobarbus was cited

by Bleeker (1859) in a key without included species.

SYSTEMATIC STATUS OF BARBUS MUSSULLAH

49

Fig. 1. A. Barbus (Tor) mussullah Sykes x Ca. lA drawing was made from colour sketch sent by

Dr. M. Suter. B. Original sketch of Barbus mussullah as given by Sykes (1839).

C. Barbus (Tor) khudree Sykes x Ca. Vi drawing was made from colour sketch sent by Dr. M. Suter.

50

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 ( 1997)

In 1860 two species mussullah and nancar were

apparently added. Barbus mussullah was desig-

nated as type subsequently in 1863a or 1863b.

It looks like Bleeker had no specimen of B. mussullah

which is known only from India. Day (1878)

placed it in the synonymy of Labeo and Barbus

and no species of Hypselobarbus has been

placed in the synonymy of any Indian Labeo

species.

Rainboth (1986) correctly observed that

“Bleeker probably based his image of Barbus

mussullah on the illustration by Sykes (1841 )” which

is now known to be not truly representative. Earlier

Annandale (1919) rescued the species from the

synonymy of Barbus and later Hora ( 1 943a) ratified

it. Thus, the only generic name applicable to B.

mussullah is Tor Gray, 1834 which i s also earlier to

Bleeker (1859).

Taxonomy

For a number of years Barbus mussullah was

not reported or recorded mainly because of the

zoologically poor description o f the species by Sykes,

confusing illustration and also because of its isolated

distribution and rarity.

Jerdon (1849) in his account on the freshwater

fishes of southern India records Barbus megalepis

from the Cauvery at Srirangapatnam. This species

is a synonym of Barbus mussullah. He also lists

Barbus mussullah though he did not collect any

specimens.

Gunther (1868) regarded it as species

inquirendum and Day (1878, 1889) synonymised it

under his composite Barbus tor. After a gap of 30

years Annandale (1919) recorded the species,

perhaps for the first dme after Sykes, from “streams

of Bombay presidency” and based his identity on

the presence of tube rcles on the cheek. He identified

certain other characters such as the structure of the

lip differentiating it from B. tor Annandale found

the species common in the upper Krishna where it

is reported to occur along with B. ton He also

recorded a specin ten appr. 9.5 kg in weight caught

by Mr. Mclver. Annandale clearly indicated that

mussullah and putitora should not be referred to

under Barbus and stated that they belonged to the

Mahseer group (= Tor).

Hora and Law (1941), reporting on a

collection of fishes made by Mr. S. Jones and Dr.

C.C. John from the then Travancore state, recorded

Barbus (Tor) mussullah on the basis of 13 young

and half-grown specimens. They were collected

from Pampadampara and Kallar stream. These

specimens are now not traceablq. It was stated that

“this is the commonest species of these parts.” Hora

(1942) examined Annandale’s specimens of B.

mussullah (local name: Masundi) collected from

Krishna river by Mclver and concluded that they

are Barbus khudree and not mussullah. He based

his conclusion on the basis of presence or absence

of tubercles which is now known as a variable,

undependable character. I have now examined the

same material seen by Hora and I am convinced

that they are mussullah for reasons discussed later.

Hora (1942) also discussed elaborately the status of

mussullah and after comparing it with Cyprinus

curmuca concluded hastily that mussullah is a

synonym of C. curmuca. His contention was that

curmuca also has four barbels and that Hamilton’s

figure of curmuca erroneously depicted only two

barbels.

It is intriguing that Hora did not compare his

specimens with the collection from Travancore

(Hora & Law, 1941) which were identified by

himself as Barbus (Tor) mussullah. However, in

1943 he changed his opinion, after Dr. M. Suter

provided first-hand details of the provenance of B.

mussullah , the local knowledge about the fish thus

confirming the existence of the species. In the same

paper, Hora synonymised Thomas’ (1897) Barbus

tor from Bhavani river under mussullah based on

the figure only. Hora gave for the first time a good

description of mussullah with data of five specimens.

He also gave figures of Tor mussullah and Tor

khudree (Fig. l.A & C) drawn from specimens which

were sent to him by Suter. This figure represents the

true T. mussullah. In a later article (Hora 1943b) he

synonymised Barbus megalepis Jerdon with B.

mussullah.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 94 Plate 1

K. C. Jayaram: Tor mussullah

Fig. 1 & 2 Tor mussullah , four specimens from Meenmutty, Malappuram dist., Kerala.

Coll. P.M. Suresh, 26.ii. 1992. ZSI WGRS 5946; Fig. 3. Tor mussullah specimen from “Deccan”,

Coll. F. Day, ZSI Calcutta, 1339; Fig. 4. Tor khudree specimen from Sheshela on river Kapila,

Daskshina Kannada, Coll. KCJ, 10. iv. 1996.

SYSTEMATIC STATUS OF BARBUS MUSSULLAH

51

Subsequent to Hora, Silas (1953) recorded five

examples of Tor mussullah from Mahabaleshwar lake

and Krishna river at Wai. These specimens are also

not traceable either in the Bombay Natural History

Society or in the Zoological Survey of India, Western

Regional Station, Pune. Chacko (1952) recorded the

species from Hogenakal and stated it as of rare

occurrence. No material seems to have been

preserved. David (1963) listed the species as

occurring in Krishna and God a vary rivers. Though

he stated that the species was recorded by him in

his collections, the whereabouts of the material is

unknown.

Menon (1992) on the basis of comparison of

standard deviations and standard errors erroneously

concluded that Tor mussullah is the same as Tor

khudree. Hie differences between the two species

are obvious and have been elaborated elsewhere.

From the above it appears that the number of

ichthyologists who have seen and examined the true

mussullah are very few and the species is also very

rare, it is poorly represented in the National

Zoological collection in ZSI Calcutta. The records

of specimens are as below:

Tor mussuUah (Sykes)

1839 .Barbus mussullah Sykes, Trans. Zool Soc.

London. 2, pp. 356-358 (type-locality, Ghod

river, Sirur, Maharashtra).

\849. Barbus megalepis Jerdon, Madras J. Lit . Sci.,

15; 311 (Cauvery river, Srirangapatnam).

1 849 . Barbus mussullah Jerdon, Madras J. Lit. Sci.,

15; 313 (name only).

1 864. Barbus mussullah, Gunther, Cat. Fish. Brit.

Mus., 7; 83 (as species inquirande).

1878. Barbus mussullah. Day, Fish India, p. 573 (as

a synonym of B. tor Hamilton).

1919. Barbus mussullah, Annandale, Rec. Indian

Mus., 16, p. 135 (Krishna river, Satara

disk).

1932 Barbus mussullah, Spence & Prater,

J. Bombay nat. Hist . Soc., 36: 46 (brief

account).

1941 .Barbus (Tor) mussullah , Hora & Law, Rec.

Indian Mus., 43 (far 2):' 237, 241 (13 exs.

recorded from Kallar and Pampadampara,

Kerala).

1942. Barbus mussullah, Hora, / Bombay nat . Hist.

Soc., 43 (2): 164 (considered as a synonym of

Barbus curmuca Sykes).

1 943. Barbus mussullah, Hora, J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc., 44 (1): 5, pi. (considered as a valid species

of Tor).

1 943. Barbus mussullah, Hora, J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc., 44 (2): 166 ( B . megalepis Jerdon nec

McClelland synonymised),

1951 .Barbus (Tor) mussullah , Hora, J . Asiat. Soc.,

Letters, 27 (2): 157, 164 (reference in

Manasallosa 1127 A.D.).

1951. Tor mussullah, Silas, / Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.,

51 (3): 581 (Mahabaleshwar lake, Krishna

.river at Wai).

1953.7 or mussullah, Chacko, Contrib. Madras

Freshw. Fish. Biol. Sta., 4: 1-18 (Hogenekal).

1963. Tor mussullah, David, Proc. Nat . Acad. Sci.

India . 33 (2): 280 (Krishna & Godavary

rivers).

1 992. Hypselobarbus mussullah, Menon, J. Bombay

nat . Hist. Soc., 89 (2): 210 (considered as

synonym of / khudree).

52

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 ( 1997)

Specimens Studied:

ZSI 1339/2.12.519, 1 ex.*, 157.5 mm SL,

Deccan, EDay.

ZSI 9578/1, 2 exs.*, 134 & 153 mm SL,

Krishna river, Satara district, Bombay Pres., C.D.

Mclver.

ZSI WRS P. 1334, 1 ex., 197 mm SL,

Panchganga river system, Maharashtra, 4.8.1987.

(Labelled as Tor khudree mussullah)

ZSI WGRS 5946, 4 ex., 153 to 215 mm SL,

Meenmutti, Malappuram district, Kerala, P.M.

Suresh, 26.2.1992. (Labelled as Tor khudree

malabaricus )

occasionally with an axillary scale, concave in shape,

innermost ray nearly half the length of outermost

ray. Pelvic fins not reaching anal fin. Anal fin cut

straight, last simple ray may be produced as a conical

tip, fin just reaching caudal fin base. Least depth of

caudal peduncle 1.4(1. 2-1,7) in its length. Lateral

line complete, with 21 to 25 scales (24 or 25

common), not running in to the tail. Caudal fin

deeply forked, its ray not produced.

Distribution.- South India: Cauvery,

Godavary, Krishna river systems in the states of

Karnataka, Kerala and Maharashtra along the

Western Ghats. Distribution sporadic in isolated

pockets.

Description

Scales:

D. II, 8-9; Pi, 11-14; V.i-ii, 7-8; A.i-ii, 5-6;

C.6-9 + 7-9

Dorsal profile steep with a hump at the occiput

and running up to dorsal fin base, thereafter sloping

gently. The hump is prominent and noticeable. Head

small, length 3.6(3.4 - 3.9), body depth 3.7(33-4.2)

in standard length. Width of head 2.0(1.6-23),

height at occiput 13(1.2-1.4), snout 2.7(2. 1-3.0),

width of gape of mouth 4.4(3.9-53), eye diameter

4.8(4.4-5.5) in head length. Eye 4.8(4.4-5.5) in

standard length, 1.7(1. 5-1. 9) in interorbital width,

1.7(1. 6- 1.9) in snout length. Snout obtuse, may be

slightly conical in some. Mouth narrow, lips thick,

with a continuous labial fold, lower lip forming a

median lobe (men turn). Two pairs of short barbels,

maxillary and rostral.

Dorsal fin inserted nearer tip of snout than

caudal base or may be equidistant, concave in shape,

anteriormost first branched ray and spine may be

produced as a filament. Dorsal fin shorter than body

depth. Dorsal spine strong, smooth, non-flexible.

Pectoral fin concave in shape, its rays progressively

shorter towards inner side. Outermost simple ray

three or four times in the length of innermost first

ray. Pectoral fins not reaching pelvic fin. Pelvic fin

* one ex under 1 338 (ZSI) and two under 9578/1 (ZSI) have not

been examined so far

Lateral line

Predosal

Preanal

Dorsal fin /Lateral line

Pelvic fin /Lateral line

Anal fin /Lateral line

Circumpeduncul ar

21 -25

4 -6

12-15

3 1/2-4 1/2

2 1/2-3 1/2

2 1/2

9 - 11

Gill Rakers: 4-7+16-21.

Colour: Brown to dark brown in preserved

specimens, abdomen pale, fin tips may be dark.

Relationship: It can be seen from the review

that earlier workers considered Tor mussullah as

allied to Barbus curmuca (Hora, 1942) and Tor

khudree (Menon, 1992). In the course of my studies,

I visited several localities in Karnataka and Kerala

in search of Tor mussullah. This facilitated first

hand observation of the populations of Tor khudree

at many congregations in the different river

sanctuaries in Karnataka. Eleven specimens of

different sizes were selectively collected and their

morphometric and meristic data have been recorded.

In respect of Tor mussullah the holdings in the ZSI

were borrowed and data obtained, I have seen

specimens of Barbus curmuca also and the reference

of this species under Gonoproktopterus Bleeker is

justified. The species lacks a mentum or a

continuous labial fold.

SYSTEMATIC STATUS OF BARBUS MUSSULIAH

53

Table 1

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF SOME MERISTIC

CHARACTERS IN T. khudree AND

T. mussullah

1.3 Preanal scales

1.4 Prepelvic scales

1 .6 Gillrakers (upper limb)

Tor mussullah is easily distinguished from T.

khudree by the characteristic hump at the occiput,

though it may be very pronounced (Fig. 2, PI. I). or

slight as in Day’s specimen (Fig. 3, PI. I).

The scale counts also differ. It is seen that T.

mussullah generally has 24 or 25 lateral line scales

unlike T.Jchudree which has 22 or 23 (Table 1.1).

The circumpeduncular scales also tend to be 9 or

10 in T. mussullah unlike 11 or 12 in T. khudree

(Table 1.5).

The length/width ratio of the mentum in T.

mussullah is generally more than 2.0 and in T.

khudree it is less than 2.0 (Table 1.8).

The dorsal fin is inserted nearer the tip

of the snout than caudal fin base in I mussullah

unlike in 7. khudree . The two species differ markedly

in body contour, shape of scales etc. as can be

seen from photographs in Plate I, Figs. 1 to 3

and 4.

The frequency distribution of some of the

meristic characters is presented in Table 1. The

morphometric data in ratios and as percentages are

given in Table 2.

It is thus clear that I mussullah is a distinct

species, different from T. khudree ,

Ecostatus: From my field studies, it appears

that I mussullah is not as widely prevalent as T

khudree in the Western Ghats.

T. khudree is established mainly because of

its introduction by the state fishery departments by

releasing fingerlings obtained from the Tata Electric

Company’s Fish Farm at Lonavla. Even then, this

species is also seen in disjointed locations and in

protected habitats only. Whether it has spread further

into the riverine habitats is still to be ascertained.

In the Gangawali river at Oonchahalli, Uttara

Kannada I collected a juvenile (55 mm SL, 3 1st May,

1996) which may be one such example of a natural

stock.

In respect of T. mussullah , it is obvious that

the species lives in very isolated pockets,

uninhabitated jungle areas and is very rare, but

vulnerable. Fishermen are aware of the species

and at the same time are categorical about its

rarity.

54

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, VoL 94 ( 1997)

Table 2

MORPHOMETRIC DATA OF T. mussullah. N=8 SL 134-215 mm

Acknowledgements

This study is being aided by the award of the

Fitambar Pant National Environment Fellowship to

the author by the Ministry of Environment and

Forests, Govt, of India, to whom thanks are due.

The Director, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta,

the Officers-in -charge of Western Regional Station

ZSI, Pune, Western Ghats Regional Station, ZSI,

Calicut lent me specimens of Tor species from then-

holdings. I am grateful to them for their cooperation.

The Madras Science Foundation provided facilities

for which I am indebted. The photographs were

taken by Sri Seshan, Photographer ZSI, Marine

Biological Station, Madras. I am thankful to him.

The Director of Fisheries, Karnataka State and his

officers at Hassan, Mangalore, Mysore, Shimoga,

Sringeri and Thirthahalli gave invaluable assistance

in my survey for the elusive mussullah in the

different river systems in that State. In a like manner,

I was able to survey some river systems in Uttar a

Kannada due to the help of Prof. Madhav Gadgil of

the Centre for Ecological Sciences, Bangalore and

his team of Western Ghat Biodiversity Programme

investigators. My grateful thanks are due to all of

them.

Author’s Note:

After this paper was sent for publication I was

able to survey parts of Karimpuzha, Maancherry river

in Nilambur district, Kerala. Specimens collected by

Kerala Forest Research Institute from Chaiiyar

drainage, Chinnar and Periyar Lake were also

examined. Tor khudree is found naturally in these

drainages. Tor mussullah remains elusive. However,

a single specimens (25? mm si) of this species

collected from Then gurnard a near Bhavanisagar,

Moyar river, at present preserved in the S&lim Ali

Centre for Ornithology & Natural History (S ACON),

Coimbatore, indicates its presence in the Moyar

drainage.

SYSTEMATIC STATUS OF BARBUS MUSSULLAH

55

References

Annandale, N. (1919): The Fauna of certain streams in

Bombay Presidency. V. Notes on Freshwater fish mostly

from Satara of Poona district. Rec. Indian Mus. 16: 134-

•137.

Bleeker, P. (1859): Conspectus systematis cyprinorum.

Natuurkd Tijdschr. Neder -Indie 20: 421-441 (Date may

be 1860).

Bleeker, P. (1860): De visschen van den Indischen Archipel.

Beschreven en Toegelicht. Diel II. (Also: Ichthyologiae

Archipelagi India prodromus, Auct; Volumen II. Cyprini.

Karpers) Acta Soc. Sci. Indo- Need 1 (n.s.2): 1-492 + 1-

xiii.

Bleeker, P. (1863a): Systema cyprinoideorum re visum.

Neder. Tijdschr. Dierk., 1: 187-218.

Bleeker, P. (1863b): Atlas ichthyologiquedes Indes orientales

Neeriandaises, publics sous les auspices du Government

Colonial neerlandais. 3. Cyprini s. Nos. 1 1-14: 1-150, Pis.

102-144 (in parts 9-12).

Chacko. P.I. (1952): Report on a survey of the dams and

migratory fishes of Madras. Contrib. Madras Freshw. Biol.

Stn., 4: 1-18.

David, A. (1963): Studies on fish and fisheries of theGodavary

and the Krishna river systems - Part I. Proc. Nat. Acad.

Sci. India. 33(2): 263-286.

Day, F. ( 1 878): The Fishes of India: being a natural history of

the fishes known to inhabit the seas and freshwaters of

India, Burma and Ceylon Part 4: 1-xx + 553-779. Pis.

139-195.

Day, F. (1889): The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon

and Burma. Fishes, 1: i + xx + 1-548.

Gunther, A. (1868): Catalogue of the Fishes in the British

Museum, 7: 1 + xx + 1-512.

Hora, S.L. & Law, N.C. (1941): The freshwater fish of

Travancore. Rec. Indian Mus., 43(2): 233-256.

Hora, S.L. (1942): The Game Fishes of India. XV. The

Mahseers or the large scaled Barbels of India. 8. On the

specific identity of Sykes’ species of Barbus from the

Deccan. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 43(2): 163-169.

Hora, S.L. (1943a): The Game Fishes of India. XVI. The

Mahseers or the large-scaled Barbels of India. 9. Further

observations on Mahseers from the Deccan. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc., 44(1): 1-8, 1 Col. PI.

Hora, S.L (1943b): The Game Fishes of India. XVII. T.he

Mahseers or the large-scaled Barbels of India. 10. On the

specific identity of Jerdon’s species of Mahseer from

Southern India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 44(2): 164168.

Jerdon, T.C. (1849): On the Freshwater fishes of Southern

India. Madras J. Lit. Sci. 15(2): 210-231.

Menon, A.G.K. (1992): Taxonomy of Mahseer fishes of the

genus Tor Gray with description of a new species from

the Deccan J. Bombay not. Hist. Soc. 89(2): 210-231.

Rainboth, WJ. (1986): Fishes of the Asian Cyprinid genus

Chagunius. Occas. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Mich. No. 712:

1-17.

Silas, E.G. (1953): Notes on Fishes from Mahabaleshwar

and Wai (Satara district, Bombay state). J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc., 51(3): 579-589.

Sykes, W.H. (1839): “An account of the Fishes of Dukhun”,

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist, (n.s.) 4 (no. 21): 54-62. (Also in

Trans. Zool. Soc. London. 2: 349-378. 8 pis and as a

separate, London, 1841).

Also printed as Sykes (1841), London.

Thomas, H.S. (1897): The Rod in India. London: 1-xxvii +

1-435.

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE SOUTHERN CROW-PHEASANT CENTROPUS SINENSIS

PARROTI STRESEMANN (AYES : CUCULIDAE) AT POINT CALIMERE, TAMIL NADU5

V. Natarajan* 2

(With four text-figures)

The breeding season extends from November to May. The size of the territory varied from 0.9 to

7.2 ha with a mean of 3.8 ha. Egg laying intensified after heavy rains. The nest is globular in shape

with a lateral entrance and is made up of twigs, aerial roots and leaves. Altogether 56 nest materials

were identified. Both sexes take part in the nesting activity. The preferred nesting height in the

village habitat was 4-5 m, but in the forest, it is between 3-4 m. The eggs are chalky white in colour.

Average size of 30 eggs measured were: length 34.8 ± 1.76 mm, breadth 28.2 ± 1.23 mm and

weight 1 4.9 ± 1 .87 g. The clutch size varied from 1 to 4 eggs with a mean clutch size of 2.6 ± 0.75 .

Incubation period is 15 to 16 days. It takes 18-22 days for the chicks to fledge. Both sexes take

care of the young. The hatching, fledging and brood success were observed to be 77.1%, 97.3%

and 66.7% respectively for the two seasons between 1987-1989.

Introduction

The southern crow-pheasant Centropus

sinensis parroti is a resident bird at Point Calimere

in Tamil Nadu. Its breeding biology has not been

studied in detail. However, a note on the common

crow-pheasant Centropus sinensis sinensis from a

single nest is available (Dhindsa and Toor 1981).

Some information on breeding records of the

Southern crow-pheasant in different localities in

India were given by Hume (1890), Gill (1924),

Baker (1927, 1934), Whistler and Kinnear (1934),

D’Abreu (1935), Ali and Whistler (1936), Ali and

Abdulali (1938) and Ali (1954). The present study

describes the breeding biology of the southern crow-

pheasant in detail. This study formed part of an

investigation into the ecology of this species carried

out at Point Calimere (Natarajan 1990).

Study area and Methods

The studies were carried out at Point Calimere

Wildlife Sanctuary (10° 18’N, 79°5UE)

Nagapattinam Quaid-e-Milleth District, Tamil Nadu

'Accepted September, 1996

2Present Address: P.G. Asst (Zoo), Govt. Hr. Sec. School,

Vilundamavadi (P.O.), Nagai-Q.M. Dt 61 1 112, Tamil Nadu.

and the adjoining villages of Kodikkarai and

Kodikkadu. The sanctuary has an area of 2401 ha.

Intensive studies were carried out (in an area of 337

ha) in the two villages from 1986 to 1989.

Observations were difficult in the very dense

vegetation of the forest.

During 1988, six different breeding territories

in Kodikkarai village were studied. Sightings of

breeding pairs were marked on a map and their

territorial areas were calculated following Odum and

Kuenzler (1955).

From 1986 to 1989, nest survey was carried

out in the village areas and in the forest during three

breeding seasons. A total of 34 new nests were

recorded. Among these, 21 nests in the village area

were continuously watched to determine clutch-size,

incubation, hatching success, fledging success and

breeding success between the years 1987-1989. The

incubation rhythm was observed daily in one of the

nests continously from 0600 to 1800 hrs. The time

of each bird arriving at the nest and leaving were

noted, and percentage was calculated. Two nests

were monitored during the nestling period.

Observations were made from dawn to dusk, from

egg laying up to the time the nestlings fledged. Four

nests were regularly inspected to record growth rate

of nestlings. The chicks were colour marked before

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE SOUTHERN CROW-PHEASANT

57

No. of new clutches Rainfall (mm)

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

0

Month

~‘4~~ Rainfall Clutches

Fig. 1. Number of new clutches in relation to rainfall (1987-1989)

fledging. After breeding was completed, the nests

were collected to identify their components.

Results and discussion

Breeding season

At Point Cali mere the crow -pheasant raises

only a single brood during the season extending

from November to May. Egg laying was recorded

from December to March and it intensified after

heavy rains (Fig. 1 ).

Territory

The breeding pair occupy a well defined area

defended by both the parents. The size of the

territory varied from 0.9 to 7.2 ha (n=6) with a mean

of 3.8 ha. In the crow-pheasant, nests were

sometimes found in the subsequent season on the

same nesting tree, or on a nearby tree. Other pairs

entering this territory were threatened using the

harsh k’wisss call. Birds such as house crow

Corvus splendens , jungle crowf Corvus

macrorhynchos, shikra Accipiter badius, and

brahmin y kite Haliastur Indus were tolerated in the

territory, but not on the nesting tree. Th& coop-coop-

coop call by which the ownership of the territory

was advertised was also used to threaten intruders

and keep them away. This type of call was heard

frequently throughout the breeding season.

Courtship and pair formation

Display leading to mating was observed twice.

In the first instance the male arrived with a frog in

its bill and hopped along with the female on the

branches of a neem tree Azadirachta indie a. The

female then glided from the tree to the ground and

ran for a short distance with wings partly open and

58

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Voi 94 (1997)

vibrating, uttering a harsh cry: ske-e-e-a-aw similar

to the call of the common crow-pheasant (Briggs

1931). The male and female then flew up to the

neem tree and continued to hop from branch to

branch, and then mounted and copulated three

times. After copulation the male ate the frog without

sharing it with the female. In another instance a

male was seen feeding the female during copulation.

During courtship display, the crow pheasant

females sometime produced tch-truu, tch-iruu call

(a call usually produced by the juveniles while

foraging with their parents) on seeing the male

carrying food. Henry, as cited by Ali and Ripley

(1983), noted during courtship a curious sound

djoonk - like a stone dropped into deep water, or a

tight cork drawn from an empty bottle. Such a call

was not recorded during this study.

The nest

While searching for a new nest-site, the crow-

pheasant hops from branch to branch, sits on a perch

and calls, which is responded to by its partner.

Sometimes, both sexes examine the site inside the

thicket. In the beginning, the construction is slow

but it accelerates before completion of the nest. Both

sexes take part in nest building. Dhindsa and Tocr

(1981 ) recorded on the basis of observation at a single

nest that the common crow-pheasant completed its

nest within three days. During the present study,

observations on two nests showed that one nest

was constructed in seven days and eggs laid before

completing the nest. In the second nest, a pair

constructed a nest for about eight days, but

abandoned it before completion due to human

disturbance. At this nest, the male was observed,

during a peak construction day, to visit the nest 35

times and to spend a total (of all trips) of 75 minutes

in nest construction. The female came to the nest

six times and spent only 10 minutes on the

construction of the nest. Mostly the partners bring

the nesting material from nearby trees or picked off

from the ground or pulled from vegetation. The

twigs or other material which could not be taken

to the nest were left on the nesting tree. The crow-

pheasant prefers thorny plants in which to build.

Out of 45 nests studied, 28 (62,2%) were found on

thorny plants, the rest on thornless plants, where

the canopy was covered with climbers such as

Tinospora cordifolia , Rivea hypocrateriformis, and

Mucuna pruriens . These climbers protect the nest

from direct sunlight and exposure to predators.

Out of 38 nests studied in the villages, nests

were most frequently located in Prosopis chilensis

(23.7%), followed by Bamboo sp. (18.4%). Seven

nests were located in the forest, three of which were

on Zizyphus oenoplia.

Among the 45 nests studied, 75,6% (34) were

placed in the periphery of the nesting tree and 24.4%

were located in the centre of the canopy. In the

villages the maximum number of nests were located

between 4-5 m (34.2%) height, but in the forest

71.4% of the nests were located at heights between

3-4 m. In the village two nests were noticed on

Borassus flabellifer (covered with Rivea

hypocrateriformis) at a height of 9.6 m and one nest

on Tamar Indus indica at 10.7 m.

In the forest the height of location of the nest

was less than that of the nests found in the village

area. In the village, the birds preferred to place the

nests higher, which may have been due to the sparse

vegetation.

The crow-pheasant uses twigs, stems, leaves,

roots of various plants for nest construction. 56 nest

materials were identified. Of the 36 nests analysed,

the maximum used nest material was strips of

fronds of Cocos nucifera (1319) with a mean of

36.6 number per nest followed by stem and aerial

root of Tinospora cordifolia (839) with a mean of

23.3, and stem of Tylophora indica (706) with a mean

of 19.6 number per nest. Among the nesting

materials the longest was the aerial root of Tinospora

cordifolia (mean length 110.4 cm) followed by the

aerial root of Cissus quadrangularis (88.5 cm), stem

of Boerhaavia diffusa (68.3 cm), strips of fronds of

Cocos nucifera (61.2 cm) and Borassus flabellifer

(43.3 cm).

The crow-pheasant builds a globular domed

nest with a lateral entrance. However, some nests

were deep and cup-like in shape. The nest dimension

BREEDING B10WGY OF THE SOUTHERN CROW-PHEASANT

59

Percentage of attentiveness in 12 hours

100

80

60

j

40

20

0

123466789 10 11 12 13 14 15 18

Day of incubation

Fig. 2 Incubation rhythm

is given in Table 1 .

Egg laying, dutch size and incubation

Two nests were observed during egg laying,

and in both the cases eggs were laid before

completion of the nest. Afterwards the partners

mostly engaged in building the dome-like structure

of the chamber. Similarly Frith (1975) observed egg

laying before completion of the nest in the Malagasy

coucals Centropus toulou insular is in Aldabra Atoll.

Once a nest with two eggs on ih&Pandanus tectorius

bush was deserted due to clearing of the branches

of the nesting tree by villagers for fencing. The same

pair constructed another nest quite unlike the normal

nest, having only a small deep cup-like structure in

a nearby Prosopis chilensis tree and laid a single

egg which successfully reached fledging.

Table 1

NEST DIMENSIONS (CM) OF THE CROW-PHEASANT

Length Breadth Lengthwise Breadthwise Depth Entrance opening

circumference circumference Lengthwise Breadthwise

diameter diameter

60

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Table 2

RATE OF NEST FEEDING DURING DIFFERENT HOURS AND DAYS OF NESTLING PERIOD OF THE

CROW-PHEASANT

The eggs are oval in shape and chalky white

in colour, becoming yellow stained as incubation

proceeds. The length of 30 eggs was 34.8 ±1.8

and the breadth was 28.2 ±1.2 mm. The mean

weight of the fresh eggs was 14.8 ± 1.9 g.

Acccording to Baker (1934), the average length of

30 eggs of Centropus sinensis parroti was 36.2 and

breadth 26.3 mm. The clutch varies from one to

four eggs, with a mean clutch size of 2.6 ± 0.75

eggs. The commonest clutch is of three eggs. The

daily weight loss in eggs when incubation proceeds

was recorded from two nests. The mean weight loss

per day during incubation was 0.1036 ± 0.026 g.

The incubation period was calculated from the laying

of the last egg of a clutch to the hatching of the last

nestling (Skutch 1945, Nice 1954) and was 15 to

16 days.

The percentage of nest attentiveness showed

variation, except at the end of the incubation period

and a drop was noticed before the day of hatch-

ing (Fig. 2). The overall average attentiveness

calculated was 68.7%. In this species both sexes

take part in incubation during day time but at

night only one of the partners was observed to

incubate/brood. The sex of the partner which

attends the nest during night could not be

determined.

Regular feeding of the chicks starts after

the last egg of the clutch is hatched. During first

four days, the parents feed the nestlings by

regurgitating the food, especially snails. Both

parents feed the nestlings. The number of feeding

visits per hour increased till the 16th day and then

decreased. The parents visited the nest on an

average 4.53 times per hour when there were four

nestlings and 2.14 times when there was two

nestlings (Table 2).

The removal of egg shell pieces was noticed

after hatching, but in some cases unhatched eggs

remained in the nest. Both the parents were seen

carrying faecal sacs from die nest and dropping them

away from the nest site.

Growth of the nestling

The newly hatched (0 day old) nestling was

black in colour with eyes closed. Dorsally covered

with long white hair-like down feathers named as

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE SOUTHERN CROW-PHEASANT

61

Table 3

PLUMAGE CHANGES IN CROW PHEASANT NESTLINGS

‘trichoptiles’ by Friedmann (1930). These

trichoptiles hang forward like a fringe over the eyes

and bill, giving the chicks a comical appearance

similar to that of black coucal chicks as described

by Vernon (1971). The upper mandible was black

with pink edges with a small egg-tooth. The centre

of the belly was pinkish. The legs and claws were

greyish in colour and the plumage changes at

different ages (in days) are given in Table 3.

The growth of wing, bill, tarsus, tail and the

weight change in relation to age is given in Figs. 3

and 4.

Anti-predatory strategies of nestlings

The nestlings were noticed to exhibit a few

antipredator mechanisms, namely (a) escaping

through the rear end of the nest chamber (b) excretion

of foul smelling, obnoxious sticky fluid and (c) a

hissing sound. The hissing of the nestling has been

likened to the hiss of a snake. Van Someren (1956)

and Vernon (1971), believed it to be an imitation to

frighten off predators. These three strategies have

also been reported for other coucals (Vincent 1946,

Van Someren 1956, Frauca 1967, Steyn 1972 and

Frith 1975).

Fledging period

The mean fledging period was 19.7 ± 1 .3 days.

Fledging normally occurred in the morning. Even

after fledging, the young were seen in the same

nesting tree for a few more days and later they slowly

moved to adjacent trees by hopping along the

branches. The parents continued to feed them even

62

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Age in days

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

(2nd Primary).

Fig. 3. Mean growth of nestlings

180

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0

Mean weight (g)

At

(n-10)

2 3 4 5

6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Age in days

Weight

Fig. 4. Weight increase in nestlings

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE SOUTHERN CROW-PHEASANT

63

after fledging. Fledged young ones were seen with

the parents and were noticed begging for food even

two months after fledging.

Dispersal of young

During the study period 30 birds were ringed

in the nestling and fledgling stages. Many birds

were noticed feeding along with their parents about

two months after fledging. After four months a

search was made but only two colour banded young

birds were noticed, one of which had moved 3 km

from its parental territory. The other young one

established its territory close to its parental territory.

The other tagged birds were not seen in the parental

territory. As the rate of predation on young ones

was very low at Point Calimere (see below), most of

them might have dispersed to other areas far away

from their parental territories.

Hatching, fledging and brood success

Out of 21 nests examined from the village

site, a total of 54 eggs was recorded out of which 48

eggs were left to hatch (two nests were deserted with

a total of five eggs due to habitat destruction and

human disturbance). The hatching success, fledging

success and the brood success recorded was 77.1%,

97.3%, and 66.7% respectively.

Predation of eggs and nestlings of crow-

pheasant was very low at Point Calimere. The crow-

pheasant was observed to chase the jungle crow,

house crow and brahminy kite and the common

mongoos eHerpestes edwardsi when they came near

the nesting sites. However, in one instance an egg

of the crow-pheasant was destroyed by a jungle crow

as the nest was placed low in a Prosopis chilensis

tree and the nest was visible from above. In the

second instance, one nestling was attacked and killed

by a jungle crow. In this case the nest was placed in

a Cocos nucifera tree in between the fronds where

crows could easily sit and prey upon the young.

In the third case a jungle crow was seen to chase

an adult crow-pheasant, and attack it while it was

entangled in a thorn fence. Later the crow-pheasant

managed to escape and flew to a nearby bush.

Acknowledgements

This paper is part of my Ph.D. thesis submitted

to the University of Bombay in 1990. 1 am grateful

to Mr. J.C. Daniel, former Director, BMHS, for his

guidance and encouragement during the study. I

express my sincere thanks to Dr. Pi. Jones, Editor,

Ibis , Dr. A.R. Rahmani, BNHS for their valuable

comments on the manuscript and Dr. Priya Davidar,

Salim Ali School of Ecology, Pondicherry for her

suggestions. Dr. Robert B . Grubh, Mr. S. A. Hussain,

Dr V.S. Vijayan and Dr. Lalitha Vijayan, Mr. N.

Chaturvedi and Isaac D. Kehimkar of BNHS were

extremely helpful during the study. I am grateful to

Dr. Vijay Dhanda, Dep. Director, National Institute

of Virology, Pune for the identification of

ectoparasites, and Mr. D. S. Melville, World Wide

Fund for Nature, Hong Kong for his help in providing

colour rings. My thanks are due to U.S. Fish and

Wildlife Service for funding the project through the

Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government

of India. I thank all the field assistants of BNHS

Research Station, Point Calimere for their help during

the study, I appreciate the co-operation of the Tamil

Nadu Forest Department officials of Point Calimere

Wildlife Sanctuary and the villagers of Kodikkarai

and Kodikkadu.

References

D’Abreu, E.A. (1935): A list of the birds of the Central

Provinces. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 38: 95-116.

Ali, S. (1954): The Birds of Gujarat. Part I. 7. Bombay nat .

Hist. Soc. 52: 374-458.

Ali, S. & Whistler, H. (1936): The Ornithology of

Travancore and Cochin. 7. Bombay, nat. Hist. Soc. 39 :

3-35.

Ali, S. & Abdul ali, H. (1938): The birds of Bombay and

Salsette. Part IV. 7. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 40: 148-173.

All S. & Ripley, S.D. (1983): Handbook of the Birds of India

and Pakistan. Compact edition, Oxford Univ. Press. New

Delhi.

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Baker, E.C.S. (1927): The Fauna of British India, Vol. 4 (2nd

ed.) Taylor & Francis, London.

Baker, E.C.S. (1934): The nidification of birds of the Indian

Empire, Vol. 3. Taylor & Francis, London.

Briggs, F.S. (1931): A note on the birds in the neighbourhood

of Mhow. J. Bombay nat, Hist. Soc. 35: 382-404.

Dhindsa, M.S. & Toor, H.S. (1981): Some observations on a

nest of the Common Crow-pheasant Centropus sinensis,

(Stephens). J. Bombay, nat. Hist. Soc. 78: 600-602.

*Frauca, H. (1967): Birds of the seas, swamps and scrubs of

Australia. Heinemann.

Frith, C.B. (1975): Field observations on Centropus toulou

insularis on Aldabra Atoll. Ostrich 46: 251-257.

♦Friedmann, H. (1930): Birds collected by the Childs Frik

Expedition to Ethiopia and Kenya Colony. Bull. U.S. Nat.

Mus. 153.

Gill, E.H.N. (1924): A description of the nests and eggs of

the common birds occurring in the plains of the United

Provinces, Part VI. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 30: 273-

284.

Hume, A.O. (1890): The nest and eggs of Indian birds. Vol. II,

2nd ed. R.H. Porter, London.

Natarajan, V. (1990): The Ecology of the Southern Crow-

pheasant Centropus sinensis parrot i Stresemann (Aves:

Cuculidae) at Point CaJimere, Tamil Nadu. Ph.D. Thesis,

Univ. Bombay, Bombay.

Nice, M. M. (1954): The problems of incubation periods in

North American birds. Condor 56: 173-197.

Odum, E.P & E.J. Kuenzler ( 1955): Measurement of territory

and home range in birds. Auk 72: 128-137.

Skutch, A.F. (1945): Incubation and nestling period of Central

American birds. Auk 62: 8-37.

Steyn,P. (1972): The development of Senegal Coucal nestlings.

Ostrich 43: 56-59.

♦Van Someren, V.G.L. (1956): Days with Birds. Fieldiana:

Zoology 38.

Vernon, C. J. ( 1 97 1 ) : Notes on the biology of the Black Coucal.

Ostrich 42: 242-258.

Vincent, A.W. (1946): On the breeding habits of some African

birds. Ibis 88: 48-67.

Whistler, H. & N.B. Kinnear (1934): The Vemay scientific

survey of the Eastern Ghats. Part IX. ./. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 37: 281-297.

(* not referred in original)

POPULATION DYNAMICS, GROUP STRUCTURE AND NATURAL DISPERSAL OF THE

ASIATIC LION PANTHERA LEO PERSIC A1

H.S. Singh2

{With one text -figure)

Key words: Asiatic Lion, Gir, population, dispersal

The Gir forest in the Saurashtra region of Gujarat is synonymous with the Asiatic lion. Recognising

the serious danger to the lion and the pitiable condition of the tribal Gir Maldharis in 1972, the Gir

Lion Sanctuary Project was implemented for five years which resulted in the improvement of

habitat and wildlife. Lion numbers increased from 177 in 1968 to 304 in 1995. Availability of

major ungulates increased from 53.5 ungulates per lion to 1 25.9 ungulates per lion. Studies indicate

that the food preference has changed to wild animal from 25% in 1972 to 65% in 1990. Improvement

of the Gir forests and increase in wildlife population have brought major changes in social behaviour

and reduction in size of groups of lions. The Asiatic lion started migrating from Gir to the

neighbouring forests in search of food and space. Dispersal paths of the Asiatic lion at present are

almost similar to the extinction path adopted during the beginning of this century. There are four

satellite populations of lions in Girnar, Mitiyala and coastal forests outside the Gir. It has become

necessary to expand the present Gir forests to new areas by covering Girnar, Mitiyala, Barda,

coastal forests and grasslands to manage the increasing lion population as well as to maintain the

ecological security of the region.

Asiatic Lion and the Gir

Gir is the single largest tract of forest in the

Saurashtra region of Gujarat State and is

synonymous with the Asiatic lion, Panthera leo

persica. The lion entered India from the west and

was found in large numbers in the states of Punjab,

Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya

Pradesh, Gujarat and western Bihar, the last lion

surviving in the wild outside Saurashtra was killed

in 1884.

The Gir forest in Saurashtra has shrunk from

3070 sq. km in the 1880s to 1884 sq. km at present

due to expansion of agriculture, and destruction of

the habitat. In the early part of this century, the Gir

was connected with Girnar, Mitiyala, Barda, Alech

hills, Dhank and Chorwad by corridors of rough

semi-wooded forests, grasslands and sparsely

populated villages. This enabled the lions to move

freely in the region.

'Accepted February, 1997

2Office of the Conservator of Forest & Wildlife, Junagadh,

Gujarat.

Lions deserted the Barda and Alech hills towards

the latter half of the 19th century, and disappeared from

Girnar and Mitiyala by 1963 and 1955 respectively.

At the time of notification of Gir forests as a Lion

Sanctuary in 1965, lions were found only in the

compact forest of the Gir. Gradually, the size of wildlife

protected area increased to 1412 sq. km with the

national park surrounded by the sanctuary. The rest of

the 403 sq. km peripheral forests constitute the buffer

zone of the wildlife reserve.

The most important aspect of the Gir is that it

has become a very stable ecosystem with tremendous

regenerating, self supporting, and sustaining

capacity due to its rich and diverse flora and fauna.

The Gir is an unique ecosystem which harbours over

400 plant, 32 mammal, 24 reptile, over 310 bird,

and more than 2000 insect species, along with a

number of micro-flora and fauna.

Conservation Measures to Save Lion

A study by Dr. Paul Joslin (1972) revealed that

the Gir displayed an overwhelming evidence of

66

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

accelerated degradation of the ecosystem, and

warned that if nothing was done to arrest the rate of

decline in the number of surviving Asiatic lions, the

species would be extinct within tw'O decades.

Recognising the serious danger to the lion and

the pitiable condition of the Maldharis, the Gir Lion

Sanctuary Project, a five year scheme was prepared

in 1 972, and the same was implemented at a total

cost of Rs 58 lakhs. The work carried out under the

project was: (i) fencing of the sanctuary by

constructing a rubble wall 400 km along its

periphery, (ii) constructing barricades along the water

course traversing the periphery of the sanctuary, (iii)

establishing check posts with barriers across all

public roads passing through the sanctuary, and (iv)

shifting of all Maldhari families from the national

park, and majority of the families from the sanctuary,

and resettling them outside the sanctuary by allotting

cultivable lands, grazing land and house sites. Out

of 845 Maldhari families, about two-thirds have been

resettled at different sites.

Serious problems like grazing, poaching,

looping, illicit cutting etc. were tackled by the Forest

Department and development programmes like soil

and moisture conservation, habitat improvement,

plantation etc. were implemented during the period.

The degradation of the Gir ecosystem was reversed

and habitats improved in the park and sanctuary.

Many parts of the Gir have become dense since the

launching of the project. Construction of water

harvesting structures and artificial water holes has

increased the availability of water to the wildlife.

Increase in Wildlife Population and Change in

Food Pattern

The Gir habitat has improved since the

declaration of the sanctuary. Implementation of the

Gir Lion Sanctuary Project has resulted in increased

availability of food and water. Six consecutive

censuses have been conducted at an interval of five

years since the declaration of the sanctuary. The lion

population, along with other wild animals, has

increased consistently. Figures of the last six censuses

are given in Table 1.

Table 1

GROWTH OF WILDLIFE POPULATION IN THE GIR

*NA: Not available

Herbivores in Table 1 include only six major

species i.e. Chital, Sambar, Bluebull, Chinkara, Four

homed Antelope and Wild boar. There has been a

consistent increase in the carnivores and herbivores.

Availability of ungulates number per lion has

increased from 53.5 in 1974 to 125.7 in 1995 which

makes wild kills easily available for carnivores.

Ungulate habitat relationship in the Gir has

been studied by Berwick (1974). Joslin (1972) has

investigated the Gir ecology and behaviour of the

lions. Joslin (1972) reported that atleast 75% of the

lion food came from livestock, mainly buffaloes and

25% from the wild herbivores. Gradual positive

development took place during the last two decades

and the ungulate population increased more than five

fold. The study of Ravi Chellam (1993)has indicated

that the food pattern of the lion has changed in favour

of wild prey, as 65% of the lion diet was recorded as

wild animals whereas 35% was made up of livestock

kilis.

Group Structure & Size

Lions are social animals with strong familial

ties, they usually live and hunt in family groups. The

size of groups recorded in the Gir was large in the

past because live bait was provided for the lion show.

This practice was stopped in 1987 and group size

above a dozen is rarely seen at present.

304 lions were located at 94 sites on live bait

during the last day of the lion census in May 1995,

against 284 lions at 59 location in 1990. All

POPULATION AND NATURAL DISPERSAL OF ASIATIC LION

67

Visited by a Male Lion in March 1990

GIRNAR

Lion home range at present (1995)

Lion home range in 1965 — / vl*

l / Tt

I**/ MITIYALA

» * A4!*''' — . . ^ • '-'-i

/

>1/. ^

• A?,. /• ' *. • • Sy '

>,*>//

• LION'S LOCATION

Fig. 1 . Distribution of Asiatic lion in the Gir (India) in the 19th century and at present

groupings were natural except a group in Babara zone

in which two or three groups of the same pride

merged to form a big group of 15 at the bait site.

Different types of composition of groups recorded

during the census are given in Table 2.

The following findings have emerged after

analysis of census data:

1. Single males were observed at 15 sites which

was maximum among the five types of group

structure. Pure male groups were found singly

or in pairs except in one location where three

males came to the bait site.

2. Location sites for a single male, two males,

single female, and pairs were largest among

different types of group structure

3. Single females were located at seven sites and

some of them were very old.

4. Most of the male-female pairs were mating pairs

or subadults

5. Large groups of animals were found in mixed

groups with one male, and a few females and

cubs.

6. Pure groups of males were not seen with any

cubs.

7. Average group size in May, 1995 census was

smaller than the size recorded during census in

May, 1990.

8. Number of lion locations increased from 59 in

1990 to 94 in 1995.

Live bait may have caused artificial grouping

at a lew sites but sucn grouping was mostly limited

to animals which normally share food at kills.

Natural Dispersal/Migration of Lions

Lions disappeared from the neighbouring

forests outside the Gir, during the middle of this

century. Habitat of the Gir improved, and the lion

population gradually grew with increased level of

protection and conservation. Before the census in

68

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Table 2

GROUP STRUCTURE OF ASIATIC LION OBSERVED DURING LAST TWO CENSUSES

1990, lions were occasional visitors to Girnar,

Mitiyaia and coastal forests but they started visiting

neighbouring forests again. The situation has

changed since then and this carnivore has started

moving into former territories. Prides of lions have

occupied Girnar, Mitiyaia and the coastal forests

permanently. At present, there are four satellite

populations of lions. The second generation of

migrated lion has made Girnar and the coastal forests

its home range. Dispersal paths of the Asiatic lion at

present are almost similar to the extinction path

adopted during the beginning of this century and may

follow similar trends till they reach other new areas.

It has been observed that the majority of the

migrated lions were sub-adults, probably they were

compelled by dominant males to leave the pride and

territory. Wild lions in Girnar were often attracted

by the roaring of captive lions kept in the Sakkarbaug

zoo maintained by the Forest Department on the

outskirts of Junagadh town in 1950. This was

repeated after 40 years when two male lions

regularly visited spacious lion enclosures

constructed recently in the adjacent forest for

breeding programmes, 4 lions were recorded in 1990

wnich have increased to 13 as per the census

conducted in May, 1995.

A long strip of coastal plantation supports a

small population of Bluebull and Wild boar. One

pride of 16 lions in Kodinar Dhamrej Sutrapada and

another of 10 lions in Rajula and Jafarabad depends

on cattle and Bluebull. Lions were brought back to

the Gir in the past but they repeatedly migrated to

coastal forests in search of food and territory and

settled permanently in these areas after 1990. The

fourth satellite population of lion is in the Mitiyaia

forests of Bhavnagar Forest Division, and is in the

process of settling there permanently. The

distribution of the lion population in the Gir and

extended Gir is given in Table 3.

Table 3

DISTRIBUTION OF LIONS IN DIFFERENT AREAS

LION CENSUS - MAY , 1995

Lion Population

Sr. No. Site Male Female Cubs Total

The number of lions outside the Gir is known

as the floating population because some of them visit

the above zones for short periods and come back to

their original areas. Table 3 indicates that 42 lions

POPULATION AND NATURAL DISPERSAL OF ASIATIC LION

69

including 10 cubs stay outside the Gir. It also

indicates that the population of lions staying outside

the protected area (PA) may keep on increasing under,

the existing protection level.

All four sites have a low herbivore count,

therefore the migrant lions primarily depend on

domestic livestock kills. The trend of dispersal still

continues, as a lion made a kill in a grass vidi near

Barda forests in 1990 and stayed there for 36 days.

If this trend continues, the growing population from

Girnar and the coastal forests may reach new areas

in Saurashtra. In Barda forests, only improved prey-

base and habitat might attract the lions to make this

area another home for themselves.

Carrying Capacity of the Gir

'file carrying capacity of an area depends on

the availability of food, water, conduciveness to

reproduction and space. Food is not a major limiting

factor in the Gir as the population of important

ungulates increased at the rate of 14.2% per year

during the last three decades, but shortage of space

may result in territorial fighting and migration. The

population has remained almost vat the same level

(267 in 1990 and 262 in 1995) in the national park

and sanctuary during last two censuses. Positive

changes in the habitat may improve this figure

marginally, but the growing population of the big

cat can be managed through improving habitats in

new areas naturally preferred by the lions.

The natural dispersal of the lion started after

the last drought in 1987. 17 lions were recorded

outside the Gir in 1 990 which increased to 42 in 1 995

but the number of the animal remained constant in

the PA during the last two censuses. Thus, present

levels of the lion population within the PA may be

the carrying capacity of the park and sanctuary.

Need of Conservation Strategy

Panther a leo persica is a key indicator species

which should decide the ecological boundary of the

Gir. Against this background, the concept of

management of the Greater Gir Ecosystem or

extended Gir in new territories of lions has become

the need of the nour in the interest of nature

conservation and management of increasing lion

population. Proper strategies should be designed for

management of forests along with grasslands,

wastelands to expand Gir forests from 1814 sq.km

at present to 2370 sq.km in the near future by

covering Girnar (179.5 sq. km), Mitiyala (19.4 sq.

km), coastal forests (110.1 sq. km), Barda (187.4 sq.

km) and vidis (approx. 60 sq. km). In addition to the

forest lands, wastelands, and panchayat lands

connecting Gir, the above forests, should be

developed and managed as corridors for lions. Entire

forests of Junagadh and Amreii districts should be

managed as Greater Gir Forests under a unified

administrative set up.

The following measures are required to-be

adopted as a part of the management strategy.

1. Habitat of the Gir should be improved and

expanded by arresting the degradation of

peripheral forests and wastelands.

2. For a better life outside the sanctuary, facilities

should be created to attract the Maldharis who

are residing inside the sanctuary without basic

facilities.

3 Satellite population at four sites should be

managed by increasing the prey base.

4. Girnar and coastal forests should be conserved

and herbivore population should be increased

to meet the requirement of the growing

population of lions.

5. Barda forest, which was selected as an

alternative home for the lion in 1979 should be

rehabilitated and prey base should be increased

by taking up breeding programmes of

herbivores.

6. For herbivores, in situ breeding programme

should be developed to increase the ungulate

population in Girnar, Mitilaya and the coastal

forests.

7. Necessary management practices should be

followed to facilitate natural migration of lions

in new area. Problem animals should be

removed from the wild population and these

should be utilised for breeding purposes in zoos.

70

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

8. Management of Gimar, Barda, Mitiyala, coastal

forests and other neighbouring forests should

be integrated with the management of the

Gir. The concept of the Greater Gir Ecosystem

Management should be evolved, not only

for the conservation of the Asiatic lion but

also to provide ecological security to the region.

Management of wasteland, panchayat lands,

grasslands and forests connecting Gir to

new habitats should be covered under

a management plan for a Greater Gir Eco-

system.

POPULATION OF WILDLIFE IN THE GIR

WILDLIFE CENSUS, MAY 1995

Species Common name Population

References

Berwick. S.H. (1974): The Community of wild ruminants in

the Gir forest ecosystem. India. Ph.D. thesis, Yale

University USA.

Chellam. Ravi & A.J.T. Johnsingh (1993): Management of

the Asiatic Lions in the Gir forests, Wildlife Institute of

India, Dehradun, 1993.

Dharamkumarsinhji, K.S. (1968): The Gir Lion. Cheetal 10-

(2): 8-12.

Gir Lion Sanctuary Project, (1992): Gujarat Forest

Department, Gujarat.

Hodd, K.T.B. (1969): The ecological impact of domestic stock

on the Gir. Proceedings of the 11th Technical meeting

Vol. I RJCN publications.

Joslin Paul, (1972): The environmental limitation and future

of the Asiatic lion. Chicago Zoological Society. Brookfield

Illinois, 60513, USA.

Joshi, R. R. (1976): Working plan, Gir Forest Division,

Gujarat.

Negi, S. S. (1969): Transplanting of Asiatic lion in Uttar

Pradesh State. CFF, U.P. Forest Department.

Records of the Forest Department, Gujarat State.

Records of wildlife census in the Gir forests, May, 1995.

Records of wildlife census in the Gir forests, May, 1990.

Wynterblyth, M.A. (1949): The Gir Forests and its lions

1949.

QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF MAJOR VERTEBRATE FAUNA FROM WARDHA RIVER

BASIN (MAHARASHTRA STATE)1

M.S. PRADHAN2

(With four text-figures )

In view of the proposed coal mining expansion programme in Wardfaa river basin in Maharashtra

State, faunal studies of the river basin were undertaken. An inventory of 392 vertebrate species

has been reported along with the status of their current occurrence in the basin. 14 species appear

to have become locally extinct/rare/endangered, while 48 are facing the danger of extinction due

to progressive degradation of natural habitat in the name of development.

Introduction

In response to the request received from the

Chairman, Advanced Environmental Management

Group set up by the Ministry of Coal, Govt, of India,

studies on the occurrence of major vertebrate species

from Wardha river basin in Maharashtra State was

undertaken in 1988. Wardha river basin is vitally

important due to its location in the mineral belt of the

Deccan Plateau, especially in the coal belt. The basin

accounts for almost the entire amount of coal produced

in the state. The status of the important vertebrate

species reported in the past from this region was the

initial aim. However, considering the importance of

the mineral and faunal wealth of the river valley, the

scope of the studies was broadened. Tie present article

is based on the report submitted to the Chairman of

the AEM group.

Objective

The main objective was to prepare a document

on the current status of the major vertebrate species

reported in the past from Wardha river basin in the

Vidarbha region (Maharashtra State). To achieve

this aim, it was first essential to prepare a

consolidated faunal inventory from the available

past records. For this purpose, group-wise literature

was consulted, the details of which have been given

1 Accepted February, 1994

2ZooIogical Survey of India, W.R.S., Shivajinagar, Pune-41 1 005

under “Vertebrate Fauna — Past and Present.”

Finally, it was also felt necessary to refer to the latest

bibliography, undertake survey for sighting records

and consult various experts and local authorities

before reporting on the current status of the species

mentioned in the faunal inventory.

Location and area

The Wardha river basin in the Vidarbha

region of Maharashtra State lies between 78° & 79°

E longitudes and 20° & 22° N latitudes at an average

altitude of about 200 m. above msl. It cuts the state

in north-south direction (Fig. 1) passing through

atleast five districts, namely, Amravati, Nagpur,

Wardha, Yavatmal and Chandrapur. Wardha river,

a sub-tributary of Godavari river, covers a distance

of about 300 km southwards after its origin on Betul

plateau in Madhya Pradesh and meets Wainganga

river to form Pranhita which, in turn, ultimately

meets the Godavari river near Sironcha in

Chandrapur district.

Surveys

Rapid surveys were undertaken at selected

places of faunal importance along the entire course

of the Wardha river. The major centres of the surveys

are shown in Fig 2. Such surveys were conducted

in a span of two years (1988, 1989) with the help of

the authorities from Western Coalfield Ltd., Nagpur

and officials from Forest Offices at Amravati,

72

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Yavatmal, Chandrapur and Gadchiroli. Scientists

from Punjabrao Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola and

District Fisheries Office at Chandrapur were also

consulted for information on fishes.

Wardha River Basin

General: The most important tributary-basin

that forms a part of the larger Godavari river system

is of Wardha and Wainganga rivers in eastern

Maharashtra. Wardha river emerges from the

southern slopes of Satpura ranges, more specifically

from Betul plateau, east of Multai (78° E longitude)

in Madhya Pradesh. The river takes a long and

tortuous course along the Satpura Hills. The Wardha

river basin runs in south-easterly direction (Fig. 1)

and has undulating plains of fertile soil in its

Nagpur

Wardh

Above 50/

Above

50/

ANDHRA PRADESH

AREAS OF MAJAR COAL

MINING ACTIVITIES

SO/ 8. above

/ Less then 10^

Amaravatt

L \ 25-50/ |

8

i \v^ Warora j

! x , i

8 u i®. \ Chandrapur !

I Wans II a i

Yeotmal

-25/

MAHARASHTA

0 30 SOKms

. __j

Fig. 1. Course of Wardha river and existing forest cover (in percentage) in Eastern part of Maharashtra state

MADHYA PRADESH

VERTEBRATE FAUNA FROM WARDHA RIVER BASIN

73

neighbourhood. The course is quite zigzag after the

origin and forms the border for atieast five districts

of Maharashtra State. While the upper Wardha plain

is an agricultural country, the lower part of the basin

has the distinction of having the only coal-belt of

the State and a considerable forest area with fairly

rich wildlife.

The river, after descending from the Satpura

ranges, passes along Ashti Forest Range in Wardha

Dist. and flows on plains along Ajanta range in

Yavatmal Dist. Later, the river course traverses rich

coalfield areas near Rajur, Wani and Ghugus in

Yavatmal Dist. and Warora, Rallarpur and Rajura

in Chandrapur Dist. (Fig. 2). The confluence of the

Wardha and Wainganga rivers in Gadchiroli Dist.

is known as Pranhita river which ultimately meets

the Godavari near Sironcha on the Maharashtra-

Andhra Pradesh border.

Climate: The overall climate of the region is

dry and extreme. It belongs to the tropical savannah

type. The average minimum temperature is around

15°C in winter, while the highest temperature goes

upto 45°C in summer in the areas around the

thermal power station at Durgapur. However,

summer evenings are cooler.

The eastern part of Maharashtra receives rains

from the southwest as well as northeast monsoons.

Obviously, the annual rainfall in Chandrapur Dist.

(1000-2000 mm), is more than in Yavatmal Dist.

(400-1000 mm). On an average, the two districts

have 50-75 rainy days in a year.

Soil: The river valley has black and red soil.

Upper Wardha valley has the agriculturally rich and

fertile black cotton soil, whereas the lower basin is

very rich in coal deposits, and also in minerals like

manganese, iron, copper, etc. The coal deposits are

mostly concentrated in Chandrapur and Yavatmal

districts (Dikshil, 1985).

Mining activities: Large scale coal mining

is already in progress in areas like Ghugus, Manjari,

Durgapur and Ballarpur (Ballarshah). Fig. 2 shows

encircled areas which include various existing and

proposed coalfield projects (open cast mines) in

Wardha river valley. The figure also shows that the

mining activities extend over the dense forest cover

in the two districts which form excellent habitat for

rich and varied wildlife. The major drawback of the

open cast coal mining system is that it destroys not

only the habitat from where the coal is mined out

but it also affects the adjacent habitats where the

waste is dumped.

Sanctuary, National Park and Game

Reserve: The lower Wardha river basin and its

adjacent environs form such a wonderful habitat for

wildlife that most of it has been reserved for the

protection of vulnerable species like tiger, four-

horned antelope, flying squirrel, ratel, gaur, sloth

bear, lesser florican, python, etc. Tadoba National

Park with an area of 117 sq. km is within 15 km of

Chandrapur city and only a few km away from the

Durgapur Thermal Power Station. All along the

eastern side of the Chandrapur-Ballarpur belt, the

newly formed Andhari Sanctuary with an area of

about 520 sq. km is spread in the northsouth

direction (Fig 2). The Tippeshwar Game Reserve

with an area of about 225 sq. km is situated about

50-60 km away on the western side of Wani town.

Forest cover: Parts of eastern Maharashtra

with existing forest cover (in percentage range) have

been depicted in Fig 1. The forest in the Wardha

river basin in Chandrapur and Yavatmal districts

alone accounts for 30-35% of the entire state forest.

The forest, mixed and dense, mostly belongs to

Southern Tropical Dry Deciduous type (Champion

and Seth, 1968) in the region where rainfall is less

than 1000 mm, whereas it is Moist Deciduous type

(Champion and Seth, 1968) in the rainfall zone of

1 500-2000 mm. There is an abundant growth of wild

bamboo species (Dendro calamus strictus ) at a

number of places. Dominant plant species are teak

( Tectona grandis ), ain ( Terminalia Iomentosa ), arjun

(' Terminalia arjuna ), dhavada ( Anogeissus latifolia),

sal (Shorea robusta ), shisham f Dalbergia latifolia),

tendu (Diospyros melanoxylon), haldu (Adina

cordifolia) etc. Cotton, rice and jowar are the

predominant crops grown in this region.

Vertebrate Fauna — past and present

As stated earlier, the region exhibits a very

74

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Key

Rivers

Forested areas (including

reserved & protected)

W

Wardha valley study

area including coalfield

projects

Areas surveyed for fauna

State boundaries

District boundaries

SCALE:- 1:100,000

1 . Rajur (Yavatmai Dist.)

2. Wani Town

3. New Majri open cast mines

4. Bhandak (Bhadravati)

5. Durgapur Coal mines & thermal power station

6. Chandrapur City

7. Ballarpur Coal mines

8. Wirur Town

9. Ghugus Coal mines

10. Chanda Rayatwari mines

Fig. 2 Parts of Yavatmai and Chandrapur district showing Wardha river valley coalfield and forest areas.

VERTEBRATE FAUNA FROM WARDHA RIVER BASIN

75

rich faunal diversity in vertebrate species (Fig 3).

With only a few exceptions like wild buffalo and

swamp deer, most of them are still found to be freely

moving in the forested areas due to the continuity

in forest cover from north to south in Chandrapur

and Gadchiroli districts. About 55 out of 355 species

reported in the past from Wardha river basin appear

to have been threatened with local extinction.

Appendix II gives a complete account of the

current status of major vertebrate species reported

from Wardha river basin in the past. The

comparative account of the specific status was

prepared by referring to the available bibliography.

Some of them are: Fauna Gazetteer for Maharashtra

State Anon. (1974); Pocock (1939, 1941); Eller man

and Morrison-Scott (1951); Brander (1982); Prater

(1980); Ali (1961); Khajuria and Ghosal (1981);

Daniel (1983); Anon. (1986); Brosset (1962);

Murthy (1985); Chitampalli (1980); Divekar et al

(1983); Ripley (1961); Inger and Dutta (1987);

Kulkarni (1975); Pradhan (1978); Talwar and

Jhingran (1991); Talwar (1991). Field trips for actual

sightings and detailed discussions with experts in

relevant subjects and also with the local authorities

proved to be extremely useful at the time of

compiling the data on faunal status. Faunal

inventory prepared during the current studies was

shown to the experts on various groups for updating

the information. The following is the group-wise

list of experts consulted:

1. Mammalia : M.S. Pradhan

2. Aves

3 . Reptilia

4. Pisces

: M. Chitampalli, Ex-Dy. Director.

Melghat Tiger Project,

Paratwada and Shri Ramanand,

A.C.E, Chandrapur.

: M.S. Pradhan, with the help of forest

Amphibia authorities and after

consulting available bibliography.

: M.S. Pradhan, K.B. Dabhade,

Asso. Prof., P.K.V. Akola and

Experts from Dist. Fish Office,

Chandrapur.

Species under Wildlife Act (Amend. 1991)

Schedule: As per the Wildlife Act, 51 vertebrate

species mentioned in the Appendix-II belong to

Schedule I and Part II of Schedule II (Fig. 4). These

species are endangered and locally threatened with

extinction. Out of the 235 scheduled vertebrate

species, 57 are mammalian, 160 are avian and 18

are reptilian and amphibian species. Besides these,

11 fish species have also been treated as threatened

Talwar (1991).

Observations based on current studies

Appendix I gives group-wise record of

vertebrate species from Wardha river basin, while

Appendix II gives a detailed inventory of 392 species

belonging to five vertebrate classes. Out of these,

14 species are locally extinct/rare/endangered

(Appendix III) and 58 are facing the danger of local

extinction from degradation of the natural habitat.

The target groups are mammals and birds (Fig. 4).

Wild buffalo and swamp deer have already

disappeared from Chandrapur district due to

increased industrial activities ajrad disturbances on

a large scale. Sensitive species like tiger, giant

squirrel, flying squirrel, sloth bear, ratel, four homed

antelope, python etc. are also known to inhabit the

dense forested areas of the district and adjoining

areas. Destruction of natural habitats on a large scale

threatens the lesser known species also, like the

Narmada rat, lesser florican, falcon, owlet, monitor

lizard, rufescent burrowing frog, humped feather-

back fish, chameleon fish and a few more which

form part of the food chain. Any damage to such a

fragile ecosystem will result in irreparable loss and

affect the survival of sensitive species in the region.

Fig. 2 shows the areas where mining activities

are already in progress. If these developments are

extended further deep inside Moharli, Junana and

Rajura reserved forests, they may damage the habitat

and restrict the movement of wildlife in Chandrapur

district. Rajura reserved forest forms a bottleneck

between Junana and Manikgadh forests. If this

region is protected it will help in establishing a

corridor for free movement of the wildlife.

76

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NAfURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Fig. 3. Graph showing total na.of major vertebrate species.

Conclusion

1. Appendix I clearly shows that 14 out of

392 vertebrate species reported from Wardha river

basin have either become locally extinct or rare due

to degradation of natural habitats at a number of

places. These are listed in Appendix III.

2. Wildlife in the region is represented by some

of the most sensitive species like tiger, giant squirrel,

flying squirrel, slodi bear, rate!, gaur, four homed

antelope, lesser florican, sarus crane and flamingo.

Four homed antelope was sighted in the forest, 2 km

away from Durgapur Thermal Power Station.

3. About 32 vertebrate species belonging to

Schedule I of the amended Wildlife Act (1986 &

1991 ) are still known to occur in Wardha river basin.

4. In all, 58 species (those species which are

listed under Schedule I & II (II) of Wildlife Act and

threatened and endangered categories of IUCN in

Appendix II) a^e facing the danger of local

extinction and need protection for their immediate

conservation.

5. Wardha river, being a part of the Godavari

river basm, possesses very good ichthyofauna.

However, seven species of fish have also been

considered as threatened species.

6. Survival of the nearly extinct, rare or

endangered species is seriously threatened due to

over-exploitation of the natural habitats from all

sides of the entire river basin. If the present

downward trend in the abundance of vertebrate

species continues it will affect the local food chain

and ultimately impair biodiversity and in turn the

gene pool of the region.

VERTEBRATE FAUNA FROM WARDHA RIVER BASIN

77

Fig. 4. Graph showing wildlife schedule-wise distribution of major vertebrate species.

7. The practice of open cast mining should not

be encouraged further, as it will definitely cause long

lasting damage to the natural habitats and will also

be detrimental to the arboreal, terrestrial and

subterrestrial fauna. Besides, regeneration is a very

slow process and does not guarantee restoration of

the original biodiversity. Hence, it is time to work

out an alternative to open cast mining if one really

wants to stop the onslaught on the environment.

8. Considering the richness of the natural

resources in physical, mineral and biological

components of Wardha river basin, one expects that

it is possible to plan its sustainable development for

the human race without impairing the total gene pool.

9. Further studies can be concentrated on the

relative abundance and population status of selected

species, particularly threatened ones reported in the

present inventory. This may help in the restoration

of some of the species in the undisturbed habitats of

this region.

10. One national park (Tadoba National Park),

one wildlife sanctuary (Andhari Sanctuary) and one

game reserve (Tippeshwar) are situated in the close

vicinity of the coal belt (Fig. 2). Converting

Tippeshwar Game Reserve into a sanctuary under

the amended Wildlife Act (1991), so that more

undisturbed area is available to the wildlife for its

propagation, is strongly suggested.

11. If Rajura reserved forest and its adjoining

areas are afforded proper protection, a corridor

between Junana and Manikgadh forests will be

established for the free movement of wildlife.

12. Finally, it is imperative on our part to adopt

stringent conservation measures in the Wardha-

78

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Wainganga tributary basin to check over-exploitation

of the available natural resources in the name of

development.

Acknowledgements

My sincere thanks are due to the Director,

Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, for permission

to undertake the studies and also to the Officer-in-

Charge, Zoological Survey of India, Western

Regional Station, Pune, for providing necessary

facilities. I gratefully acknowledge the help and

cooperation extended by Shri Dange, Joint Director,

and other officials from Wardha Valley Coalfield

Ltd., Nagpur and Chandrapur, Shri M.B.

Chitampalli, Ex-Deputy Director, Melghat Tiger

Project, Paratwada, Shri P.D. Ambaskar,

Conservator of Forests, South Chandrapur Circle,

Shri A.K. Nigam, Deputy Conservator of Forests,

Tadoba National Park, Shri M.N. Athawale, Dy.

Conservator of Forests, Shri Banot, A.C.F., Tadoba

National Park, Chandrapur, Shri Ramanand, A.C.F.,

Chandrapur, Shri Manohar Sapre, Environ-

mentalist, Chandrapur, Dr. K.B. Dabhade, Associate

Prof., P.K.V., Akola, Experts from Dist. Fisheries

Office, Chandrapur and a number of local people

and tribals towards completion of the studies.

Finally, I also wish to thank Dr. G.M. Yazdani,

Scientist-SE & Officer-in-Charge, Zoological

Survey of India, Western Regional Station, Pune

and Dr. V.C. Agrawal, Scientist-SF, Zoological

Survey of India, Calcutta, for going through the

manuscript and offering valuable suggestions.

Appendix I

STATUS OF MAJOR VERTEBRATE SPECIES FROM

WARDHA RIVER BASIN

SI. No. Common Name Scientific Name Past Present Wildlife Current Remarks

Record Record Act (*91) Status

VERTEBRATE FAUNA FROM WARDHA RIVER BASIN

79

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(Schreben) (In Chandrapur

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VERTEBRATE FAUNA FROM WARD HA RIVER BASIN

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(Pocock) (In Chandrapur

SI. No. Common Name Scientific Name Past Present Wildlife Current Remarks

Record Record Act (’91) Status

Schedule (IUCN)

(part)

82

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Record Record Act (’91) Status

Schedule (IUCN)

(part)

86

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Family: Caprimulgedae

97. Indian jungle nightjar (GB, R) Caprimulgus indicus (Latham)

98, Common Indian nightjar Caprimulgus asiaticus (Latham)

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114. Wryneck (AB, M) lynx torquilla

115. Rufous woodpecker (AB , R) Micropternus brachyurus (Vieilot)

SI. No. Common Name Scientific Name Past Present Wildlife Current Remarks

Record Record Act (’91) Status

Schedule (IUCN)

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128. Brown shrike (AB, M) Lanius cristatus (Linn.)

129. Baybacked shrike (AB, R) Lanius vittatus (Valenciennes)

1 30. Rufousbacked shrike ( AB, R) Lanius schach (Linn.)

131. Grey shrike (AB, R) Lanius excubitor (Lnin.)

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147. Jerdon’scMoropis(AB.R) Chloropsis cochinchinensis

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148. Green bulbul or Golden- fronted Chloropsis aurifrons

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1 88. Baya weaver bird (AB, R) Ploceus phillippinus (Linn.)

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Schedule (IUCN)

(part)

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References

Ali, S. (1961): The Book of Indian Birds. Bombay Natural

History Society, Bombay.

Anonymous (1974): Maharashtra State Gazeteer: Fauna.

Director Govt Print, Stationery and Publ., Bombay.

Anonymous (1986): Check-list of Birds from Tadoba National

Park. DFO, Tadoba National Park, Chandrapur.

Brander, A. A. Dunbar ( 1982): Wild Animals in Central India

(Xerox Print, First Ed. 1923). Natraj Publishers, Dehra

Dun.

Brosset, A. (1962): The Bats of Central and Western India. J.

Bombay not. Hist. Soc. 59(1): 1-57; 59(2) 583-624. 59

(3): 707-746.

Champion, H.G. and S.K. Seth (1968): A revised survey of

the forest types of India (New Delhi: Manager of Publ.).

In: Localities of great significance of conservation of

India’s biological diversity, by Gadgil, M. & Meher-

Homji, V.M. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. ( Anim . Sci./Plant Sci.)

suppl. Nov. 1986: 165-180.

Chitampalli, M.B. ( 1980): On the occurrence of the common

otter in Maharashtra (Itiadoh Lake Bandara Dist.) with

some notes on its habits. J. Bombay not. Hist. Soc. 76

(1): 151-152.

Daniel, J.C. (1983): The Book of Indian Reptiles. Bombay

Natural History Society, Bombay.

Dikshit, K.R. (1985): Maharashtra in Maps. Secretary

Maharashtra State Board for Lit. & Cult. Mantralaya,

Bombay.

Divekar, H.K., R.B. Grubh and P.B. Shekhar (1983): Status

and ecology of wild buffalo ( Bubalus bubalis Linn.) in

Chandrapur District of Maharashtra. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 80(2): 405-409.

Ellerman, J.R. andT.C.S. Morrison-Scott(1951): Checklist

of Palaearctic and Indian Mammals, 1758-1946. Brit.

Mus. (N.H.), London.

Haribal, M. (1986): Occurrence of the Great Crested Grebe,

Podiceps cristatus (Linn.) at Tadoba, Maharashtra. J .

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83 (1): 661.

Inger, R.F. and S.K. Dutta (1987): An overview of the

Amphibian fauna of India. 7. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 83

(Suppl.): 135-146.

Khajuria, H. and D.K. Ghosal (198 1): Studies on wildlife of

Narbada Valley, Part IV. Mammals. Rec. Zool. Surv.

India. 79: 235-257.

Kulkarni, C.V. (1975): Fisheries of the Deccan. Bull. Ind.

natn. Sci. Acad. 45: 95-101.

Murthy, T.S.N. (1985): Classification and distribution of the

reptiles of India. The Snake, 17: 48-71.

Pocock, R.I. (1939, 1941): The Fauna of British India

including Ceylon and Burma, Mammalia (2 vols.

Primates and Carnivora only). Taylor & Francis, London.

Pradhan, M.S. ( 1978): Preliminary observations on the serum

proteins of some fishes of Nagpur Dist. Jour. Inland Fish.

Soc. Ind., 9: 212-213.

Prater, S.H. (1980): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay

Natural History Society, Bombay.

Ripley, S.D. (1961): A Synopsis of the birds of India

and Pakistan. Bombay Natural History Society,

Bombay.

Talwar, P.K. and A.G. JuiNGRAn (1991): Inland Fishes of

India & Adjacent Countries (Vol. 1 & 2). Oxford & IBH

Publ. Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.

Talwar, P.K. (1991): Pisces In: III Animal Resources of India.

Ed, Director (ZSI, Calcutta), Zoological Survey of India,

Calcutta.

DISTRIBUTION OF NEOSCORPIOPS SCORPIONS IN THE WESTERN GHATS OF

MAHARASHTRA AND GUJARAT AND POSSIBLE TRICHOB OTHRIDI AL VARIATIONS

AMONG ISOLATED POPULATIONS1

D.B, Bastawade2

(With forty seven text-figures)

Introduction

Though the placement of the subfamily

Scorpiopsinae under family Vaejovidae is doubtful

(Stahanke 1974, Francke 1976) so far all Southeast

Asian Scorpiops are placed under the same family

Vaejovidae. The subfamily Scorpiopsinae comprises

three genera, namely 1 . Scorpiops Peters (1861), 2.

Parascorpiops Banks (1928) and 3. Dasy scorpiops

Vachon (1973). Francke (1976) doubted the

taxonomic validity of the latter two and suggested

that they be lowered to subgeneric rank under

Scorpiops. He also suggested the revision of the

taxonomic status of the sub-family Scorpiopsinae

itself. Recently Kovarik (1995) raised the sub-family

Scorpiopsinae to the rank of family Scorpiosinidae

and included all the species known from SE Asia

under this family. The genus Scorpiops represents a

vast distribution right from Afghanistan to Burma

through the Great Himalaya and at some places in

Satpura and western ghats in south India (Bastawade

1992). This genus comprises 15 species and 7

subspecies nominated so far from India. Whereas the

remaining two genera are monotypic and so far known

to occur only at one place each as Parascorpiops from

Borneo, Indonesia andDasy scorpiops from Malacca,

Malaysia (Francke 1976).

The major genus Scorpiops Peters has been

revised and divided into four sub-genera, namely i.

Scorpiops Vachon (Nominal), ii. Neoscorpiops

Vachon, iii. Euscorpiops Vachon and iv. Alios

corpiops Vachon (Vachon 1980). Among these,

except Neoscorpiops, the remaining three have been

‘Accepted June, 1995.

2Zoological Survey of India, Western Regional Station,

1182/2, Fergusson College Road, Pune 411 005.

commonly reported from the Indian Himalayan

ranges, right from Kashmir to Arunachal Pradesh.

However, the sub-genus Euscorpiops is observed to

restrict itself to the North Eastern portion of India,

Bangladesh, Bhutan and Burma (Bastawade 1992)

and the sub-genus Alio scorpiops to Burma only

(Francke 1976). The sub-genus Scorpiops (Nominal)

is widely distributed throughout the Himalayas and

also at certain places in Satpura such as Pachmarhi,

Madhya Pradesh (Bastawade 1992), (See Fig. 1 &

2). The subgenus Neoscorpiops shows restricted

distribution through the Western Ghats in

Maharashtra and Gujarat (some data unpublished).

This subgenus is so far known to comprise only three

nominate species viz. 1 . Scorpiops ( Neoscorpiops )

satarensis Pocock (1900) (Mahabaleshwar, Satara),

2. S. (N) deccanensisTikadtx and Bastawade (1976)

(Sinhagad, Pune) and 3 .S. (N.)tenuiacauda Pocock

(1900) (Matheran, Raigad). These species occur in

three adjacent districts in the state of Maharashtra

(Fig. 2).

After Fauna of India: Scorpions (Tikader and

Bastawade 1983), I undertook an extensive survey

of the Western Ghats for the collection of

Scorpions during 1984-87. The intense effort of

these surveys made it possible to collect Scorpiosinid

Scorpions from as many as 20 new localities in

Western Ghats in different districts (Bastawade

1986, 1987). The collection areas spread over 6

districts between Tapi and Koyana valleys of

Maharashtra. The only district in Gujarat state

from which these Scorpions are reported is Dangs,

which also falls to the south of Tapi Valley. The

records of this family from Dhulia, Nasik, Thane

districts in Maharashtra and Dangs in Gujarat are

new.

DISTRIBUTION OF NEOSCORPIOPS SCORPIONS IN THE WESTERN GHATS

105

PART OF MAHARASHTRA

V MAP SHOWiNG DISTRIBUTION OF

FAMILY VAEJOVIDAE AND ITS GENUS

ANDSSUB GENERA

MAP SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF THREE GROUPS OF

SUBGENUS NEOSCORPIOPS IN MAHARASHTRA d

GUJRAT

DISTRIBUTION OF FAMILY VAEJOVI0AE ft

GENUS SCORPIOPS PETERS

DISTRIBUTION OF SUB GENUS SCORPIOPS

PETERS

DISTRIBUTION OF SUB GENUS NEOSCORPIOPS

VACHON

DISTRIBUTION OF SUB GENUS EUSCORPIQPS

VACHON

TYPE LOCALITY 6 DISTRIBUTION OF SCORPIOPS

la£gHPIQPS> PACHMARHICUS SP NOV

Fig. 1. Showing distribution of family Scorpiopsinidae and its genera and subgenera;

2. Showing distribution of three groups of subgenus Neoscorpiops in Maharashtra and Gujarat

106

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

DISTRIBUTION OF NEOSCORPIOPS SCORPIONS IN THE WESTERN GHATS

107

108

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DISTRIBUTION OF NEOSCORPIOPS SCORPIONS IN THE WESTERN GHATS

109

***** *

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DISTRIBUTION Of NEOSCORPIOPS SCORPIONS IN THE WESTERN GHATS

111

Materials and Methods

The hilly terrain of Western Ghats was visited

and particular spots were selected to prise out the

Scorpions of the sub-genus Neoscorpiops. As these

Scorpions are known to be lithophilous and

rupicolous in nature, they occur more often in the

cracks and crevices of the outcrops of natural hard

rocks as well as in artificially cut road sides. Such

rocks were located and broken carefully with the help

of a flat trowel, hard and sharp crowbars. This

method proved useful in getting a good yield of these

Scorpions from the road side rocks, more than from

natural rocks.

The specimens thus collected were directly

preserved in 70% rectified spirit, precisely labelled

indicating all the essential collection data, registered

with Zoological Survey of India, Western Regional

Station, Pune for unidentified Zoological Specimens

in invertebrate section. Such specimens were studied

wet under a CZ binocular for morphological as well

as trichobothridial details. The studies of

trichobothridial patterns on the pedipalps were

compared between different forms. The

diagrammatic representations were made with help

of tubular camera lucida on the same binocular. The

trichobothridial patterns on the external and ventral

surface of the tibial segment of pedipalp and also on

the manus and immovable finger of pedipalp for each

specimen were studied for more details and analysed

to segregate the different groups. Emphasis was

given to the sets on external surface of tibia, manus

and immovable finger, ventral surface of tibia and

dorsal surface of manus of pedipalp.

The present communication deals with the

distribution, status and variation in trichobothridial

patterns among the different units of Neoscorpiops

population in Western Ghats of Maharashtra and

Gujarat and also investigates the possibility of

isolation within this population due to the

degradation of floral components once keeping it

together.

During recent surveys ( 1 948-87 ) Neoscorpiops

have been collected from Mulsi (donated) and

Bhimashankar, district Pune; Pandav leni, Waghera,

Dagadpada, Birdipada, Saptashringi, Hathgad,

Dholapgad, Kathiwadapada and Hadakaichond,

district Nasik; Jowar Mokhada, district Thane;

Kondaibari Ghat, district Dhulia in Maharashtra and

Ahwa in Dang district, Gujarat State.

Results and Discussion

The hilly terrain of Western Ghats in

Maharashtra and Gujarat shows a peculiar example

of limited distribution for Scorpions of the subfamily

Scorpiopsinae Scorpiopsindae. The distribution of

this sub-family is almost restricted to some pockets

in Western Ghats between Tapi Valley in the North

and Koyana Valley in South (Figs. 1 & 2). It is also

observed that these scorpions are distributed through

hilly, comparatively humid areas and due to the

heavy destruction of forests they are now inclined

to be restricted to certain pockets in Western Ghats.

The detailed studies of trichobothridial patterns

in the different sets on external surface of tibial digit

of pedipalp viz. eh (1-5), esh (1-2), em (1-2), est (1-

9) and et (1-7) and the ventrals (16) (Vachon 1980)

show the nature of constant similarities in the

composition of sets of trichobothries. Similarly, the

trichobothries show some differences in the relative

positions within the sets as in Figs. 3-47. The

trichobothries present in the sets eh, esh and em (i.e.

eb 1-5, est 1-2 and em 1-2) in the specimens studied

also show the same constant numbers as those present

in the species of the two other known subgenera from

north and north-east India (Vachon 1980). The

trichobothries present in the sets est and et show

differences in respective numbers and in their

placements. The ventrals (V) show differences in

numbers only. The Eb and Dt on the manus also

exhibit differences in their inter-relationary

placements as in text Figs. 5, 8, 11. ..47.

The trichobothridial patterns on tibia, manus

and immovable fingers of pedipalps are considered

as one of the strong and stable morphological

characters to distinguish the families, genera and

subgenera in Scorpions (Vachon 1973, 1975, 1980).

The sub-family Scorpiopsinae possesses the

triehobothridal pattern of ‘TYPE C (Vachon 1973,

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Table 1

SHOWING AFFINITIES AND DIFFERENCES IN THREE SUBGENERA OF THE GENUS SCORPIOPS PETERS

(F: SCORPIOPSINIDAE)

Tikader and Bastawade 1983). The type genus

Scorpiops Peters has been divided into four sub-

genera as mentioned earlier, mainly on the basis of

total number of trichobothries in the sets est, et, and

v on tibia and some other important morphological

characters such as telson (Vachon 1980). Present

observations further reveal that the subgenus

Neo scorpiops (Tikader & Bastawade 1983, Figs.

1069-1128) shows more affinities to the sub-genus

Euscorpiops (Tikader & Bastawade 1983, Figs.

1247-1305) than to the stalk sub-genus Scorpiops

(nominal) (Tikader & Bastawade 1983, Figs. 1129-

1246) See Table I.

The present observations (Figs. 3-47) allow

us to suggest appropriate modifications for the

trichobothriotaxy proposed by Vachon (1980) as

eb 1-5, esb 1-2, em 1-2, est 1-7 to 1-10 and et 1-5 to

1-7 on external surface of tibia (patella) of pedipalp.

His observations were based on the types of

Scorpiops {Neo scorpiops) satarensis Pocock and S.

( N .) tenuiacauda Pocock, probably on a few

specimens. These observations are now re-examined

for a larger number of Neoscorpiops specimens,

recently collected from many new localities from

Western Ghats in Maharashtra and Gujarat as

mentioned earlier.

It was necessary to modify the pattern of the

trichobothriotaxy presented by Vachon (1980) to eb

1-5, est 1-2, em 1-2, est 1-6 to 1-11 and et 1-6 (Figs.

3, 6, 9.. .45) (See Table II). Vachon (1980) has not

mentioned V. (ventrals) on tibia (patella) which vary

from 12 to 16 in present observations (Figs. 4-7-

10...46). Trichobothria eb 3 placed always distal to

esb on external surface of manus (Figs. 5-8-11 ... 47).

There seems be no relevant significance in its

placement of eb 3 placed too close or too far away

from either on external surface or to Dr on dorsal

surface on manus (Figs. 5-8-11. ..47). There are

always 4 V (ventral) trichobothries on manus (not

illustrated), db on immovable finger always placed

at the base (not shown in all the present illustrations).

Vachon (1980) discussed the nature of

asymmetry and variation in trichobothridial patterns

in the genus Scorpiops Peters. He also emphasised

and synthesised the definite nature of these patterns

and utilised them as one of the stronger characters

in Scorpion taxonomy along with the other

morphological characters as the basis. The modified

trichobothridial pattern for the subgenus

Neoscorpiops Vachon minimises the variations in the

set et and gives scope to consider set est as one of

the characters to be utilised for taxonomic importance

DISTRIBUTION OF NEOSCORPIOPS SCORPIONS IN THE WESTERN GHATS

113

Table 2

SHOWING AFFINITIES AND DIFFERENCES IN THREE POPULATION UNITS OF THE SUB-GENUS

NEOSCORPIOPS VACHON ( SCORPIOPS : SCORPIO SINIDAE) FROM WESTERN GHATS

Characters Trichobothriotaxies on tibial digit of Pedipalp

Occurrence Preferential

Population eb esb em est mediuan est along et V in Western humidity

Units exterior carina Ghats

I 5 2 2 1 to 6-7 always 2 6 12-13 Lower altitude Less humid and hot

II 5 2 2 1 to 8-9 always 3 6 12-15 Medium altitude Medium humid and warm

III 5 2 2 1 to 10-11 always 4 6 15-16 Higher altitude Much humid and cool

along with total number of ventral (V) trichobothries

on ventral surface of tibia (patella).

Comments

The Western Ghats was once a continuous strip

of semi-evergreen to deciduous forests (Mani 1968).

Due to the enormous human activity and

interference, under the name of development, much

of the forest cover has now been depleted. Most of

the places once under forest cover and connected

through floral agencies, have now been cut off from

each other, though not yet completely.

Such destructive activities have affected faunal

life and created obstructions which limit the

movements of fauna, specially the ground dwelling

invertebrates such as Scorpions, which mostly have

nocturnal life conditions and are true ground

dwelling creatures. Their spatial movements within

population units are basically very limited. Due to

these conditions the high altitude places (peaks) of

Western Ghats exhibit a typical case of formation of

smaller units of suitable habitat for Neoscorpiops

population now partly and partially isolated from

each other, particularly at places such as

Mahabaleshwar, Sinhagad, Matheran,

Bhimashankar, Brahmagiri and Saptashringi, etc.

Subba Rao & Mitra (1979) state that “type

localities for 16 species (Mollusca) recorded fall

within the Pune district and the majority of them are

recorded from hill streams near Khandala. All these

species have a restricted range of distribution in the

Western Ghats, and are not known beyond it.”

Interestingly, the Scorpion subgenus Neoscorpiops

is limited to the south of Tapi Valley in the north and

North of Koyana Valley in the south in Western

Ghats (Map 2). As the species of to Mollusca, this

Scorpion subgenus is so far unknown beyond these

limits.

The genus Scorpiops Peters in course of

evolution has diverged into three separate subgenera

among Indian species. The subgenus Scorpiops

Vachon retains the basic trichobothridial pattern and

the numbers as in the stalk genus Scorpiops Peters.

The two other sub-genera namely Euscorpiops

Vachon and Neoscorpiops Vachon show change in

this character. The pattern, number and placements

of the trichobothries, at least in two sets namely et

and est have changed. The original number of

trichobothries 4 et , 4 est sets in Scorpiops Vachon

have changed to 5 et , 4-5 est sets in Euscorpiops

and 6 et , 6-11 est sets in Neoscorpiops respectively

(See Table I). Such change is more prominent in the

est set for subgenus Neoscorpiops Vachon, which

further shows some isolation trend in each unit

among the existing population in Western Ghats of

Maharashtra and Gujarat. The trichobothries present

on the external surface of tibia (patella) in est set

along the median external carina observed to be

considerably stable in topographically isolated forms

of the subgenus Neoscorpiops. These exhibit three

units having only 2 est trichobothries on external

median carina (Fig. 3, 6 & 9), 3 £5/ (Figs. 12, 15, 18,

21, 24, 27, 30, 33 & 36) and 4 est (Figs. 39, 42 &

45). The unit 3 est trichobothries seems to be more

common and widely distributed than the remaining

114

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

two. These three units show morphometric

differences and the distributional stratigraphy of

these units might also be requiring the preferential

differences, for which further studies are needed.

These are in progress.

Acknowledgements

I am indebted to Dr. A.K. Ghosh, DSZI,

Calcutta, Dr. J.R.B. Alfred, AD, ZSI, Calcutta and

Dr. K.V. Ramarao, JD, ZSI, FBS. Hyderabad for their

constant encouragement and facilities to complete

the work. I am grateful to Dr. Hemant Ghate, Head

Zoology Dept. Modem College, Pune for valuable

discussions and suggestions during the studies I

thank Officer-in-charge and Artists, Gr. I & II of

ZSI, WRS Pune for laboratory facilities and

preparation of illustrations. I also thank Bharati, my

wife for her constant encouragement to complete this

work.

References

Banks, N. (1928): Scorpiones and Pedipalpi collected by Dr.

Mjoberg in Borneo. 7. Sarawak Mus., 3(11): 505-506.

Bastawade, D.B. (1986): The first record of the family

Ischnuridae (Scorpionida: Arachnida) from Nasik

District, Maharashtra, with the description of a new

species of the genus lomachus Pocock Entomon 12(2):

101-5.

Bastawade, D.B. (1987): New species of Scorpion of the

genus Lychas (Buthidae: Scorpionida) from Nasik

district, Maharashtra, India. 7. Bombat nat. Hist. Soc.,

83(3): 634-37.

Bastawade, Deshabhushan (1992): First report of the family

Vaejovidae (Scorpionida: Arachnida) in Madhya

Pradesh with the description of a new' species Scorpiops

(Scorpiops) pachmarhicus, 7. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.,

89(1): 99-103.

Francke, O.F. (1976): Redescription of Parascorpiops

montana Banks (Scorpionida: Vaejovidae) Ent. News,

87(3 & 4): 75-85.

Kovarik, F. (1995): Review of Scorpionida from Thailand

with descriptions of Thaicharmus mahunkai gen. et sp.n.

and Lychas krali sp. n. Buthidae Acta Soc. Zool. Bohem

59: 187-207.

Mani, M.S. (1968): General Entomology. Oxford & IBH

Publishing House, New Delhi, pp 597.

Stahnke, H.L. (1974): Revision and keys to the higher

catagories of Vaejovidae (Scorpionida) 7. Arachnol, 1:

107-141.

Tikader, B.K. & D.B. Bastawade (1977): A new species of

the Scorpion of the genus ScorpiopsPeters (Vaejovidae)

from India, 7. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 74(1): 140-144.

Tikader, B.K. & D.B. Bastawade (1983): Fauna of India:

Scorpions: (Arachnida) Vol. Ill: 1-672.

Vachon, M. (1973): Study of characteristics used to classify

families, and genera of Scorpionida (Arachnida):

I Trichobothriotaxy in Arachnology: Trichobothrial

sigla and types of trichobothriotaxy in Scorpionida, Bull.

Mus. natn. Hist. Nat. Paris, ze ser., Zool. 104( 140): 857-

958.

Vachon, M. (1980): Essai dune classification Sous-generique

des Scorpions du genre Scorpiops peters, 1861

(Arachnida, Scorpionida, Vaejovidae), Bull. Mus. natn.

Hist. nat. Paris, 4 ser., 2, 1980 Section A, No. 1: 143-

160.

STUDIES ON THE STATUS AND CONSERVATION OF FREREA INDICA DALZ1

P. Tetali2, Sujata Tetali3, D.K. Kulkarni4, M.S. Kumbhojjcar5

(With four plates and two text-figures)

Key words: Frerea indica , conservation, endangered, propagation, pollinators, pests, ecology

Frerea indica Dalz. has been identified as one of the twelve most endangered plant species by

International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN). A low herbaceous

perennial, F indica is reported from only six localities in Maharashtra state. All these known

habitats hold a few individuals. This paper gives details of research studies carried out in order to

understand and save the plant in the wild and under nursery conditions.

The species has been propagated through vegetative cuttings and seeds. About 500 individuals

have been reared under nursery conditions in order to save the plant from extinction. Variation in

the striation patterns of the corolla indicate cross pollination. During the study pollinators were

identified. Various forms of threats including pests have also been discussed.

Introduction

A new monotypic genus Frerea indica Dalz.

(Family: Asclepiadaceae) was reported from the hills

near Heware in Junnar taluka by Dalzell (1865). The

generic name Frerea was derived by Dalzell in

memory of Sir Henry Bar tie Frere, the then Ex-

Governor of Bombay Presidency, as a mark of

respect and for promoting scientific research in India.

The genus is closely related to Caralluma fiimbriata

Wall, and often wrongly identified as the latter (Bent,

1975). Extended distribution was reported later by

Woodrow (1898) from the nearby hill fort Shivneri.

Eightysix years later the same species was reported

by Santapau (1951a, 1951b) from the neighbouring

district of Satara. The locality was again a steep hill

slope of Vazirgarh, a small supporting fort adjoining

Purandhar hill fort (Santapau and Irani, 1960). An

intensive search in the neighbouring areas further

revealed only two localities, again on the cliffs of

Sajjangad in the same district (Kumbhojkar et al,

‘Accepted February, 1997.

2,3Naoroji Godrej Centre for Plant Research, (NGCPR)

Gate No. 431 Shmdewadi, Post Slhirwal, Taluka Khandala,

Dist. Satara. Maharashtra - 412 801, India.

4,5Division of Plant Sciences, Agharkar Research Institute,

Pune-5, Maharashtra, India.

1993) and Shivtharghal in the Raigad district

(Kothari & Murthy, 1994). The natural distribution

of F. indica is known to lie between these six

localities in three districts of Maharashtra State

(Table 1). Each of these habitats shelter fewer

individuals.

Material and methods

Habit, habitat, association and geographical

studies were carried out in the natural habitat. Seeds

collected from the Sajjangad hill slopes of

Maharashtra were sown in Naoroji Godrej Centre

for Plant Research (NGCPR) nursery at

Shindewadi.Well grown and mature plants were

studied for morphological characters with a view to

formulate a precise conservation strategy. Extensive

studies were carried out on the following aspects:

i) Ecological and pollination studies, ii) propagation

methods - sexual and vegetative, iii) pests and

diseases and their management.

Habit

In the wild, F. indica grows on rock crevices

of hill cliffs (Plate la). The species grows between

750 to 1347 m altitude and the hill slopes facing

116

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Table 1

DISTRIBUTION AND REPORT REFERENCE OF

F. INDICA

* The species is not recollected from the locality

south-east of north-west directions (Table 2). Rainfall

greatly varies in all the six localities.

Population

In the wild, the species is represented by few

individuals, either concentrated in one spot as in the

case of Purandhar and Sajjangad or a few spots in

the case of Shivneri. The number of spots, number

of individuals/population, size of the habitat and area

occupied by F. indica is presented in Table 3.

About rarity

McCann (1939) considered F. indica as an

elusive rare plant which in appearance resembled a

miniature Euphorbia neriifolia. Opinions differ about

the rarity of the species. Santapau (1951a) who

reported this plant from Vazirgarh, believed that it

is “not so rare as it appears”. Due to small population

size, the nature of habitat and palaeo-endemism, the

species has been listed as endangered (Nayar and

Sastry, 1987) and threatened (Jain and Sastry, 1980).

Ahmedullah and Nayar (1986) believed that poor

follicle formation in the wild is due to the extinction

of pollinators. Moreover, IUCN declared F. indica

as one of the twelve most endangered plants on earth.

Such a situation prompted us to take up these studies,

to understand its requirements and find out various

strategies for saving the species. This paper gives

details of the work done at NGCPR farm,

Shindewadi.

Observation and Discussion

F. indica is a fleshy, glabrous perennial.

Branches spread on barren rocks and form patches

of more than one metre across, or they may droop

Table 2

PHYTOGEOGRAPHY OF F. INDICA

* Direction of hill slopes on which F. indica grew.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 94

P. Tetali et al. Frerea indica

Plate 1

(a) F. indica in natural habitat; (b) Plant with solitary flower; (c) Follicle formation.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 94

P. Tetali et al Frerea indica

Plate 2

F. indica (a) Follicles; (b) Seeds.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 94

P. Tetali et al. Frerea indica

Plate 3

F. indica variation in corolla striation.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 94

P. Tetali et al. Frerea indica

Plate 4

F. indica (a) One month old seedling; (b) Single seedling; (c) Predator - Plain tiger caterpillar.

STATUS AND CONSERVATION OF FREREA INDICA

117

Fig. 1: F. indica : (1) Plant. (2) Flower. (3) Pollinia. (4) Follicle variation. (5) Stomata

while clinging to rocks. (Fig. 1(1)). Fleshy branches

under ideal conditions are more than 50 cm in length.

Branches are leafless during winter and

summer. During the same period a thin silvery white

non-living layer is formed around the stem and

branches. Notches slowly appear all over the plant

particularly on the connecting places of stems and

branches and between new and old branches. With

increasing summer intensity, the young branches

slowly shrink, fold and turn dirty green in colour.

Details of the plant description can be obtained from

Hooker (1897) and Cooke (1905). However, the

details of morphological characters need further

description as additional information was collected

during our studies.

McCann (1939) in a special note described the

flower colour. The description is quoted below.

“Dalzell describes the flowers as purple, etc.

It has been my experience that newly opened flowers

are reticulated with bands of greenish-yellow and

dull red-purple; with age both tints intensify, the

former becomes yellow and the latter a richer red

purple. The yellow then fades out and the entire

flower assumes a deep red (almost black) purple.

However, no two flowers are alike in colour.”

As per our studies, unlike McCann’s

observations, the flowers do not change striation

formation or turn to deep purple before fading.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Fig. 2: F. indica Number of seeds germinated and number of days taken after sowing

Flowers of the same plant exhibit the same

pattern of designs. The pattern does not change with

the maturity of the flower. The additions to the earlier

morphological descriptions are presented in Table 4.

Leaves and flowers appear with the onset of

the monsoon. Leaves opposite (Fig.l (1)), oblong

7.2 cm long, glabrous, stomata with anomocytic

guard cells (Fig. 1 (5)).

Rowers solitary, occasionally in pairs (Plate

lb. Fig. 1 (2)). Flowers arise from pedicels (0.5 -

0.7 cm.), pedicels arise from dorsal side of leaf,

between petiole and stem. It takes 25 - 50 days for a

young bud to mature and flower. Corolla 2-3 cm

across, star shaped, lobes vaivate and sparsely fringed

with purplish hairs (0.3 cm). Corolla crimson red to

cherry red and decorated. Apparently there exist two

types of designs - white or crimson coloured

striations, designed like a spider web or irregularly

designed spots. The former type flowers are generally

big. During the study a variety of designs have been

recorded (Fig. 6). Such designs tentatively indicate

that cross pollination takes place in these plants.

(Plate 3).

The flower remains open for two to three days.

Pollinators start visiting it since, the time of opening.

Under nursery conditions the flowers open during

day time, before 12 noon. On the fourth day the petals

deflex and then die. In many cases follicle formation

takes place after a long time, say one month or even

more. Follicle formation is rare (McCann, 1939). The

poor follicle formation is believed to be due to the

complicated pollinia translator mechanism. And

absence of pollinators is attributed to the palaeotropic

endemic nature.

Experiments were carried out to attract

pollinators. During the study, two closely related

species Ceropegia fimbriata and C. bulbosa Roxb.

were grown separately with F. indica. These two

plants morphologically look like F. indica and grow

in the same localities. The trays in which F. indica

STATUS AND CONSERVATION OF FREREA INDICA

119

Table 3

F. INDICA - NUMBER OF POPULATIONS, SIZE OF

HABITAT AND ASSOCIATED SPECIES IN NATURAL

HABITAT.

and C. bulhosa grew together set follicle formation

(Plate 1c). Later the trays with F indica and

C.fimbriata also set follicle formation.

Pods appear from December onwards and

reach maturity from March onwards. The follicles

grow 5-9 cm in length. Follicles straight, cylindrical,

tapering to a small rounded apex or finely pointed

(Plate 2b) and glabrous (Fig. 1 (4)). From dark green

colour they turn to brown before maturity.

Suppression of one of the follicles is also noticed in

adverse conditions.

Seeds are brownish black, comose, compressed

on one side, ovate-oblong, about 1 cm in length (Plate

2c). Number of seeds per follicle varies, ranging

between 6-52. Number of seeds per follicle depends

upon the length of the pod. The longer the pods, the

larger are the number of seeds. Follicles also bear

some non-viable seeds occasionally. Fresh seeds

readily germinate. Germination begins from the third

day onwards. Seed germination and the number of

days required for germination is shown in Fig.2.

Sundara Raghavan (1976) reported the chromosome

number as (2n=44).

Insect Visitors and Pollinators

The number of insect pollinators visiting the

flowers was monitored. Most of the insect visitors

Table 4

ADDITIONS TO THE DESCRIPTIONS OF F. INDICA

are flies. Seven types of insects belonging to Order

Diptera were observed visiting the flowers regularly.

Only four species of insects are so far identified.

They are Danaus chrysippus (plain tiger), Danaus

genuita (striped tiger), Musca domestica (house fly)

and Monomorium spp. (black ant).

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Propagation

F. indica can be propagated through seeds and

stem cuttings. Seeds readily germinate without any

treatment. Germination percentage of seeds under

nursery conditions is excellent. Fresh seed

germination lies between 90 - 100%, (Plate 4 (a, b)).

Seeds are not viable for longer periods. About six

month old seeds, when tested for germination, are

found to be non-viable.

Vegetative propagation

The drooping branches, when they touch a

suitable surface, form roots. The rooted branches can

be grown into separate plants. During the dry season,

old branches shrink and form notches. These

branches can be separated at notches which can root

in ideal conditions.

Cultural practices

In natural conditions F. indica grows on steep

hill slopes covered with a thin layer of soil. The plant

prefers slightly acidic soil (pH 5.5 - 7.0). F. indica

grows well in red lateritic soil. Poor growth was

observed in pots with black-cotton soil. For better

growth, the following substratum is found to be ideal.

In outdoor landscaping gravel and brick pieces need

to be added to the soil mixture.

Red lateritic soil 2 parts

Soilrite or cocopeat 1 part

Vermiculite 1 part

Spacing: 45 x 45 cm

Water: The plant cannot withstand

waterlogging or over watered conditions. Depending

upon the location, the following tentative schedule

can be followed for watering:

Rainy season - no watering is required

Winter season - once in two to three days

Summer season - once in a day

Light: F. indica grows well under partially

shaded conditions. Good growth is obtained under

60% shaded nets when comparecTwith open places.

Light requirement study is underway in order to find

out its suitability as an indoor plant.

Threats

F. indica is most commonly infested by two

types of insects. They are caterpillars of the plain

and striped tiger (Plate 4 c) and Aphis sp. (Aphids).

The former is a serious pest. Ignorance of it is almost

catastrophic (Tetali, 1994). Aphids feed on slender

shoots since they have sucking feeding habit,

caterpillars feed on leaves, pods and defoliate the

leaves. The following treatments are suggested for

controlling the pest populations.

Aphids

Carbaryl 0.1%; Malathion 0.1%

Acorus calamus rhizome infusion is prepared

by soaking the rhizome powder (7.5 - 15 gms) in 5 1

water with equal quantity of soap. This is sprayed

on the plants.

Caterpillars

Dusting 10% BHC; Methyl parathion

0.05%. The caterpillars can be hand-picked and

killed.

Other types of threats

Biotic factors like fire, grazing and natural

calamities like landslides are the main threats.

Natural habitats are prone to bush or ground fires

during summer. A devastating fire was recorded in

Sajjangad habitat in May 1995. The impact of fire

needs further study. Although the Vazirgarh habitat

is protected by the Indian Army, part of the habitat

is disturbed by cattle grazing. All the known habitats

need protection from landslides. A single extensive

landslide can make the species extinct from its

habitat.

STATUS AND CONSERVATION OF FREREA INDICA

121

Conservation strategy

In its natural habitat F. indica resembles

miniature E. neriifolia plant and often confuses its

predators, especially caterpillars of Danaus spp. In

all the known habitats the plant is commonly

associated with Euphorbia neriifolia . Hence this

unusual mimicry can be advantageously utilized to

introduce F. indica where E. neriifolia is growing

abundantly.

Keeping the serious threat to this species in

mind, we have multiplied about 500 plants to

maintain the minimum viable population through

seeds and vegetative parts.

This pretty succulent, with star shaped flowers,

when domesticated, can make a good indoor plant.

When leafless, the plant is eaten. The species

therefore warrants immediate attention for

conservation. The pharmaceutical value of the plant

is under careful investigation.

Acknowledgements

We thank Mr. V.M. Crisna and Mr. D.G. Oak

for facilities and Vivek and other team members

for active co-operation. Thanks are also due

to the Director, Agharkar Research Institute,

Pune.

References

Ahmedullah M. & M.P. Nayar (1986): Endemic plants of the

Indian region. Vol. 1 Peninsular India. In: Flora of India

Series IV B.S.I. PP. 20-23.

Bent, P. (1975): Frerea indicaDalz. or Carallumafrerei. Bull.

Afr. Succ. PL Soc., 10 (4): 111-113.

Bombay, R.D. (1940) : On Frerea indica. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 41: 679.

Cooke, T. (1905): The Flora of Presidency of Bombay. Vol.

II: 243 (Reprinted ed. 1967) BSI, Calcutta. Hooker, J.D.

(1872-1897). The Flora of British India. Vol-III: p. 76.

Dalzell, N.A. (1865>: A new genus of Asclepiadaceae. Jour.

Linn Soc. 8: 10 1. 3.

Hooker J.D. (1897): The flora of British India, London.

Jain, S.K. & A.R.K. Sasttry (1980): Threatened plants of

India. A state of the Art report B.S.I. & M.A.B., New

Delhi 41.

Kothari, M.J. & S. Moorthy (1994): Flora of Raigad district,

Maharashtra State. B.S.I. Calcutta.

McCann, C. (1939): Additions to the description of Frerea

indica Dalz. (Asclepiadaceae) and some observa-

tions on the species. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 41: 143-

145.

Kumbhqjkar, M.S., D.K. Kulkarni & D.S. Nipun age (1993):

Report on a new locality of endemic Frerea indicaDalz.

in Satara district. Indian Joum. For. 16(1): 85-86.

Nayar, M.P. & A.R.K. Sastry (1987): Red data Book of

Indian Plants Vol. I: 72-73.

Santapau, H. (1951a): New record for Frerea indica Dalz.

Bombay Presidency. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 49: 801-

802.

Santapau, H. (195 lb): Frerea indica Dalz. - A new record in

Bombay. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 50. 427.

Santapau, H. & N.A. Irani (1960): The Asclepiadaceae and

Periplocaceae of Bombay. Botanical memoirs No. 4,

University of Bombay, Fort, Bombay, 44-45.

SundaraRaghavan, R. (1976): A short note on Frerea indica

Dalz. Curr. Sci., 45: 36.

Tetali, P. (1994): Management of Frerea indica Dalz., an

endangered wild edible plant. - A case study.

International seminar on management of MFP. 13-15

November. Centre of Minor Forest Products, Dehradun.

Vajravelu, E. (1983): In Jain, S.K. & Sastry, A.R.K. (ed.)

Materials for a catalogue of threatened plants of India.

Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, pp. 28.

Woodrow, H. (1898): The flora of Western India. Part V. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 12 : 168.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

CYRTODACTYLUS ARAVALLENSIS, A NEW GEKKONIDAE FROM THE DELHI RIDGE1

E.V.S. Gill2

{With one plate )

A new species of gecko Cyrtodactylus aravallensis is described from the Northern Aravalli Hills.

The highlight of this discovery is that its closest relatives are found east of the Indus Basin.

While studying the lizards of the campus of

Jawaharlal Nehru University, I caught a gecko of a

species which could not be identified after Smith

(1935). This new species belongs to a group of small,

palaeartic Cyrtodactylus species referred to by some

authors as Cyrtopodion (Leviton et al. 1992).

The description of the type, an adult male, is

given below.

Cyrtodactylus aravallensis sp. nov.

Description: Snout slightly longer than the

distance between the eye and the ear opening, the

greatest diameter of which is half, or less than a

half that of the eye; pupil vertical; 9 or 10 upper

and 6 to 8 lower labials. Head covered above with

irregular rounded scales, mixed with larger ones

posteriorly.

Back covered with large subtrihedal tubercles

forming 9 or 10 straight series, and separated from

one another by one or two small scales. An indistinct

lateral fold when dead. 26 or 27 rounded scales

across the middle of the belly.

Limbs with keeled, imbricate scales above, the

hind limbs being covered posteriorly with large

spiny-looking subtrihedal tubercles; toes elongate;

subdigital lamellae well developed, those on the

basal phalanges as broad as the digits.

Tail longer than the head and body, slightly

depressed, with small scales and rows of large,

spiny-looking subtrihedal tubercles above; with a

median series of enlarged plates below.

The specimen described has the lower half of

the tail regenerated, this part being covered with

uniform smooth small scales.

‘Accepted January 1996

21313 Poorvanchal, Jawaharlal Nehru University,

New Delhi-110 067.

Male with a continuous series of 38 preano-

femoral pores.

Colour (in vivo): Sandy coloured above with

darker spots, forming 7 irregular cross-bands on the

back, and more on the tail; white spots along the

sides of the head, the body and the tail; skin above

the eyes slightly transparent; bronze eyes; whitish

below.

This gecko has a limited capacity to change

colour according to the light and the background,

although it is not as developed as in Hemidactylus

flavindis.

Length: From snout to vent 51 mm; tail 68

mm.

Etymology: The name Cyrtodactylus

aravallensis is given to this species after its place

of discovery, which is a part of the northern

extension of the Aravalli Hills.

Holotype and paratype: The type specimen

was caught on the campus of Jawaharlal Nehru

University, on 1st September, 1995. It has been

deposited with the BNHS (Regn. No. 1433, Lizard

Collection).

Another adult male from the same location

was similar, except for having only 21 ventral scales,

35 preano- femoral pores and two more series of large

subtrihedal tubercles on the back.

Relationship and diagnosis: Referring to

Smith (1935), we can say that this species, belonging

to the Cyrtodactylus scaber group which is

superficially distinguished from other Cyrtodactylus

species by the straight series of large subtrihedal

tubercles on the back, is closely allied to

Cyrtodactylus fedtschenkoi and Cyrtodactylus

montium-salsorum with which it shares the presence

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 94

E.V.S. Gill: Cyrtodactylus aravallensis sp. nov.

1. Lateral view of the type specimen (dead).

2. Free wild specimen in natural habitat, showing cryptic coloration.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

123

of a continuous series of preano- femoral pores in

the males.

It can, however, be distinguished from them

by the presence of only 6 to 8 lower and 9 or 10

upper labials, versus 11 or 12 lower and 12 or 13

upper labials in these two species. Combined with

the number of ventral scales: 21 to 27, versus 28 to

36 in Cyrtodactylus fedtschenkoi and 18 to 20 in

Cyrtodactylus montium-salsorum, this character is

diagnostic of the species.

While Cyrtodactylus montium-salsorum and

Cyrtodactylus fedtschenkoi are known from the

Punjab Salt Range, Baluchistan and further West

respectively, the discovery of this species in the far

away Aravalii Hills, east of the Indus basin is

interesting.

Refere

Leviton, A.E., S.C. Anderson, K. Adler & S.A. Minton

(1992): Handbook to the Middle East Amphibians

and Reptiles. Society for the Study of Amphibians and

Reptiles.

Ecology: Cyrtodactylus aravallensis was

discovered on a 265 m high, 600 m long rocky ridge

surrounded by open, partly degraded tropical thorn

forest. There, it shares the rocks with Hemidactylus

flaviridis , Hemidactylus brooki , Mabuya carinata

and Calotes versicolor.

It is a rather common lizard, coming out

between sunset and dusk and moving with great

speed. It behaves aggressively when caught, biting

at any object within reach and depositing a

white secretion, but temperament may vary with

the individual. Both specimens had regenerated

tails.

Further investigation and collection is needed

to prove the validity of the species and to delimit its

range.

NCES

Smith, M.A. (1935): The Fauna of British India, including

Ceylon and Burma. Reptila and Amphibia. Vol. 2 Sauria,

Taylor and Francis, London.

Survey of India (1982): Delhi Guide Map. Scale 1:25000.

A NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS APANTELES FOERSTER

(HYMENOPTERA: BRACONIDAE) FROM INDIA1

S.M. Kurhade2 and P.K. Nikam3

{With three text-figures)

Introduction

The taxonomy of the genus Apante/ej Foerster

is difficult and quite confusing.

The genus (of Indo-Australian region) was

revised by Wilkinson (1928). Nixon (1965) revised

the entire subfamily Microgasterinae and also

attempted taxonomy of the genus Apanteles.

Recently Mason (1981) contributed on the

reclassification of Apanteles Foerster but the same

was not accepted by Berg et al. (1988).

The earlier works on Apanteles in India are

by Lai (1942), Bhatnagar (1948), Rao (1961), Rao

and Chalikwar (1970a, b) and Sumodan and

Narendran (1990).

In the present work, key to the Oriental species

of Apanteles Foerster by Rao (1961) and work by

Rao and Chalikwar (1970a, b) have been followed

for the determination of the new taxa in the material

collected in India, Maharashtra, Ahmednagar.

Types are deposited in the Entomological

collection, Department of Zoology, Dr. Babasaheb

Ambedkar Marathwada University, Aurangabad.

Apanteles ahmednagarensis, sp. nov.

(Figs. 1-3)

Female: Length 2.3 mm (Fig. 1). Black.

Trochanter, femur, tibia, tarsus, ovipositor reddish-

brown; stigma, veins brownish-black; wings with

fine black setae. Head (Fig. 2) 0.5 times as long as

wide; vertex coarsely punctate, with pubescence;

OOL as POL; frons moderately concave, shallowly

‘Accepted October, 1996

2“Riddhi Siddhi” Vidya Colony, Opposite HUDCO, Pipeline Road,

Ahmednagar-414 001. (Maharashtra)

department of Zoology, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada

University, Aurangabad-43 1 004 (Maharashtra), India.

punctate, with fine pubescence; face finely, shallowly

punctate, with pubescence; clypeus transverse,

smooth, shiny; malar space equals 2 x basal width

of mandible, weakly punctate; eye height 3.3 x

width, pubescent; mandible bidentate; temple closely

punctate, pubescent; occiput smooth, shiny; occipital

carina absent; antenna 2+16 segmented, filiform;

scape length 1.75 x width; pedicel as long as wide,

longer than penultimate; penultimate segment as

long as wide; first 11 flagellar segments with dark

transverse band dividing the segments into two

halves.

Thorax: Pronotum smooth, shiny, weakly

punctate, finely pubescent; mesonotum shiny,

weakly, shallowly punctate; mesoscutum closely

punctate, pubescent; mesoscutellar depression

transversely carinated; scutellum convex, shiny,

smooth, very weakly punctate, pubescent;

mesopleurum anterior corner moderately punctate;

rest smooth, shiny; subpleural area closely punctate,

pubescent; mesopleural suture distinct; prepectal

carina absent; anterior 0.5 of metapleurum smooth,

shiny and posterior 0.5 rugulose, moderately

punctate, pubescent; propodeum (Fig. 3) rugose,

without areola, closely punctate, without

longitudinal carina, pubescent, spiracle small. Fore

wing length 3 x width; stigma length 3.5 x width;

metacarpus 1 .2 x length of stigma; costa 2.4 x length

of stigma; 1st abscissa of radius as long as width of

stigma; basal 0.45 x length of medius; nervulus

inclivous 0.6 times as long as width of submedius,

length 1 .2 times as long as medius; hind wing length

3.4 x breadth. Hind coxa length 1 .7 x width, smooth,

weakly punctate, with fine pubescence; trochanter

length 3 x width, smooth, weakly punctate,

pubescent; femur length 3.3 x maximum width,

closely punctate, pubescent; tibia length 5.8 x width

apically; tibial spur 0.4 times the length of basitarsus;

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

125

Figs. 1-3. Apanteles ahmednagarensis sp. nov.

(Female) 1 . Adult lateral view; 2. Head, frontal view;

3. Propodeum with first abdominal tergite.

basitarsus length 0.2 times the width; claw simple,

bifid.

Abdomen: 1 .6 times as long as wide, spindle

shaped; T 1 (Fig. 3) 0.7 times as long as wide

apically, strigose mid-dorsally, with a shallow

median suture, laterally subpolished, weakly

punctate, pubescent; T 2 length 0.3 x width apically,

smooth, subpolished, weakly, shallowly punctate,

pubescent; T 3 length 0.3 x apical width, smooth,

shiny, very weakly, shallowly punctate, pubescent;

ovipositor pointed, as long as ovipositor sheath;

ovipositor sheath with fine bristles throughout the

length.

Male: Unknown.

Holotype: female, india: Maharashtra,

Ahmed n agar. 12. ix. 1989, on wing, Coll. S.M.

Kurhade; Antenna, wings and legs mounted on

slides and labelled as above.

Paratypes: 2 Females, data same as holotype

except one female, 15. x. 1989, on wing.

Discussion

The new species, Apanteles ahmednagarensis

could not be placed near any species in the key to

the Oriental species of Apanteles Foerster by Rao

(1961) but it closely resembles Apanteles mehdiaiii

Rao and Chalikwar (1970) in having the characters:

(i) OOL as POL, (ii) face shallowly punctate, (iii)

antenna 2 + 16 segmented, (iv) terminal flagellar

segment longer than penultimate and (v) mesonotum

shiny, shallowly punctate. However, the new taxon

differs from mehdiaiii in the characters: (i) vertex

coarsely punctate, with pubescence, (ii) frons

moderately concave, shallowly punctate, with fine

pubescence, (iii) first 1 1 flagellar segments with dark

transverse band, (iv) scape length 1.75 x width, (v)

penultimate segment as long as wide, (vi) disc of

scutellum shiny, smooth, very weakly punctate and

(vii) propodeum rugose, without median longitudinal

carina.

The new taxon also resembles Apanteles

aurangabadensis Rao and Chalikwar (1970) but

it differs in having (i) vertex coarsely punctate, (ii)

mesonotum shiny, weakly, shallowly punctate, (iii)

scutellum shiny, smooth, very weakly punctate, (iv)

propodeum rugose, without areola and (v)

mesopleurum shiny, smooth.

Acknowledgements

We thank the Head, Department of Zoology,

Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University,

Aurangabad for providing laboratory facilities.

The senior author wishes to thank the Principal,

New Arts, Commerce and Science College,

Ahmednagar for permission to work at

Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University,

Aurangabad.

126

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

References

Berg, H., J.K. Waage and M.J.W. Cock (1988): Natural

enemies of Helicoverpa armigera in Africa: A review.

C.A.B. Int. Inst, of Biological Control publ.

Bhatnagar, S. (1948): Studies on Apanteles Foerster

(Vipionidae: parasitic Hymenoptera) from India. Indian

J. Enl . 10: 133-203.

Lal, K.B. (1942): Description of two new and redescription

of a third species of Apanteles (Braconidae) from India.

Indian J. Ent. 8: 85-88.

Mason, W.R.M. (198 1): The polyphyletic nature of Apanteles

Foerster (Hymenoptera: Braconidae): A phylogeny and

reclassification of Microgasterinae. Mem. Ent. Soc.

Canada, 115: 1-147.

Nixon, G.E.J. (1965): A reclassification of the tribe

Microgastrini (Hymenoptera: Braconidae). Bull. Brit.

Mus. Nat. Hist. ( Ent.) suppl . 2: 1-284.

Rao, S.N. (1961): Key to the Oriental species of Apanteles

Foerster (Hymenoptera). Proc. Nat. Acad. India. B. 31:

32-46.

Rao, S.N. & M.R. Chalikwar (1970a): A new species of

the genus Apanteles Foerster (Hymenoptera:

Braconidae) from Marathwada. Bull. Ent. 11 (2):

102-115.

Rao, S.N. & M.R. Chalikwar (1970b): Studies on Indian

parasitic Hymenoptera (Braconidae) from Marathwada

- I. Marathwada Univ. J. Sci. IX: 107-112.

Sumodan, RK. & T.C. Narendran (1990): Five new species

of Apanteles Foerster (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) from

Kerala, India. J. Ecobiol. 2 (3): 239-248.

Wilkinson, D.S. (1928): A revision of the Indo-Australian

species of the genus Apanteles Part I & II. Bull. Ent.

Res . 18: 171-178; 19: 79-105.

NEW SPECIES OF GRASS FEEDING H EC ALINE LEAFHOPPER GENERA

GLOSSOCRATUS AND HECALUS (HEMIPTERA: CICADELLIDAE) FROM INDIA1

Pratap Chandra Dash2 and C.A. Viraktamath3

(With forty-one text-figures )

Two new species of Glossocratus Fieber namely, G. indicus sp. nov. (from Karnataka: Bangalore,

Meghalaya: Shillong) and G. ramakrishnai (from Karnataka: Bangalore) and five new species of Becalm

Stal namely, H. bifidus sp. nov. (from Karnataka: Dharwar, Gadag),//. caudatus sp. nov. (from Karnataka:

Bangalore), H. compressus sp. nov. (from Karnataka: Bangalore, Halebid-Belur), H. dentatus sp. nov.

(from Karnataka: Jog falls, Kogar, Koppa) and H. tuberculatus sp, nov, (from Karnataka: Bangalore)

are described and illustrated. Their relationship with other species of the genera are discussed. He calm

gressitti Morrison is recorded from India. New locality records for other species of Hecalus are given.

A revised key to Indian species of Glossocratus and Hecalus is also included.

Introduction

The tribe Hecalini, a small tribe of the

subfamily Deltocephalinae, includes depressed grass

feeding leafhoppers distributed in ail the

zoogeographical areas of the world. The Oriental

Hecalini were revised by Morrison (1973) in which

he dealt with five species of Glossocratus Fieber

and ten species of Hecalus Stal from India.

Linnavuori (1975) revised the Hecalini of the

Afrotropical region. Rao and Ramakrishnan (1990)

reviewed the Indian species of Hecalus and

described three new species in addition to recording

H. prasinus (Matsumura) from Delhi, bringing the

total number of Indian species of Hecalus to 14.

During our studies on the Indian

Deltocephalinae, we discovered Hecalus gressitti

Morrison and new species of Glossocratus and

Hecalus which are described here.

The following abbreviations are used for the

repositories of the types of new taxa and other

material dealt with in this study:

NHM - The Natural History Museum,

London, U.K.

NPC - The National Pusa Collection, Indian

Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India.

‘Accepted November, 1996

2Present address: Department of Entomology, Orissa University of

Agriculture and Technology, Bhubaneshwar 75 1 003, Orissa, India,

department of Entomology, University of Agricultural Sciences,

GKVK, Bangalore 560 065, India.

UAS - The University of Agricultural

Sciences, Bangalore, India.

ZSI - The Zoological Survey of India,

Calcutta, India.

Key to distinguish the genera Glossocratus

and Hecalus.

1 . Gena very broad, lateral margin with a deep

rectangular notch below eye (Fig. 1); pronotum

densely granulose; hind femoral spinulation

2+2+ 1+1+1 ; female ovipositor not exceeding pygofer;

male pygofer with 2-3 rows of short, stout setae on

posterior margin (Fig. 2). . . . . Glossocratus Fieber

- Gena narrower, lateral margin moderately

notched below eye; pronotum transversely rugose

atleast in posterior half; hind femoral spinulation

2+2+1; female ovipositor exceeding pygofer (Fig.

18); male pygofer without short, stout setae on

posterior margin (Fig. 20) Hecalus SdU

Genus Glossocratus Fieber

Key to Indian species of Glossocratus

(for males only)

1. Aedeagus with one pair of terminal processes

(Fig. 7) G. indicus sp. nov.

— Aedeagus with two pairs of terminal processes ... 2

2. Dorsal pair of aedeagal processes twice as long as

ventral pair; shaft in ventral view uniform in

thickness throughout G.breviceps Morrison

— Both pairs of aedeagal terminal processes of equal

length (Figs. 1 2, 1 3); shaft in ventral view broadened

subapically (Fig. 12) G. ramakrishnai sp. nov.

128

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.94 (1997)

1. Glossocratus indicus sp. nov. (Fig. 1-7)

Glossocratus sp. Rao, 1990: 53-55

Ochraceous vertex, pronotum and scutellum

with scattered dark brown spots. Vertex with

callosities on either side of median line near

posterior margin dark brown; a median triangular

spot on posterior margin black. Scutellum with

callosities anterior to transverse sulcus, a spot at

mid point on lateral margin black. Forewing with a

black spot at base and another at base of appendix,

veins with a series of dark brown spots on either

side. Frontoclypeus with brown spots arranged in

oblique rows; transclypeal sulcus laterally brownish,

anterior margin of clypellus black but interrupted

in middle. Black fascia on pro and mesopleura and

a black spot on metapleura. A subapical and apical

spot on fore tibia, apical spot on mid tibia, large

apical spot on hind tibia blackish brown; hind tibiae

streaked with dark brown on dorsal surface, bases

of setae dark brown.

Head anteriorly foliaceous. Vertex rather

triangular, proportions of interocular distance to

length 61:39. Ocelli close to eyes. Face (Fig. 1,

anatomically includes part of frons, clypeus,

clypellus, lora and genae which together form

ventral part of head in leafhoppers) wider than long.

Pronotum as long as vertex, 2.45 times as wide as

long, hind margin slightly emarginate in middle.

Scutellum longer than pronotum.

Male genitalia: Pygofer heavily setose in

apical half. Valve broadly triangular. Subgenital

plate broad at base, triangular, few marginal setae.

Style with finger-like apophysis, preapical lobe

well developed. Connective Y-shaped, arms slightly

longer than stem. Aedeagus with a short dorsal

apodeme, base bulbous, shaft with two dorsal

rather triangular lamellate subapical processes;

a pair of apical processes, laterally curved, each with

a prominence at basal 0.33, gonopore apical.

Measurements: Male 7.5 and 8.0 mm long,

2.22 and 2.25 mm wide across eyes.

Material examined: Holotype male, India:

Karnataka: Bangalore, 916 m, at light, 23.iv.1981,

Coll. C.A. Viraktamath, (UAS). Paratype: 1 male,

india: Karnataka: Bangalore, 916 m, ex. cowpea,

27.iii.1977, Coll. Ramakrishna, (NHM). Other

material: 1 male, india: Meghalaya: Shillong, 3. xi.

1976, Coll. K.R. Rao, (ZSI).

Remarks: G . indicus can be identified easily

by the single pair of terminal aedeagal processes. It

is related to G. orientalis (Ishihara) and G. platalea

(Noualhier) in that all the three share the triangular

subapical lamellate process to aedeagal shaft. There

is considerable variation in the shape of the vertex

in the three specimens.

2. Glossocratus ramakrishnai sp. nov.

(Figs. 8-13)

Ochraceous head, pronotum, scutellum with

fme dark brown spots, those on vertex and pronotum

running into longitudinal stripes. Vertex in one of

the specimens with prominent blackish apical spots,

one on either side of median line which is faint but

discernible in the other, callosities brownish in the

paler specimen, black in the darker specimen, basal

lateral spots on scutellum and apex of scutellum black

or fuscous, a submarginal stripe below lateral carina

of pronotum piceous, pro and mesothoracic pleura

with black stripe. Femora spotted with dark brown,

bases of setae on legs dark brown

Head anteriorly foliaceous. Vertex triangular,

proportion of interocular distance to length 55:41.

Ocelli placed a distance equal to their own diameter

from adjacent eye. Face longer than wide. Pronotum

2.34 times as wide as long, about as long as or

slightly shorter than vertex, hind margin slightly

emarginate. Scutellum as long as or slightly longer

than pronotum.

Male genitalia: Similar to G. indicus.

Aedeagus with well developed dorsal apodeme, shaft

tubular, broadest subapically, with two pairs of short

processes of equal length, apex of shaft with a

V-shaped notch, gonopore apical.

Measurements: Male 6.7 and 7.5 mm long,

2.10 and 2.18 mm wide across eyes.

Material examined: Holotype male, india:

Karnataka: Bangalore, 916 m, GKVK, 3.vi.l982,

Coll. H.V.A. Murthy, (UAS). Paratypes: 1 male, data

as for holotype 23. ix. 1992, Coll. PC. Dash, (NHM).

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

129

Remarks: G. ramakrishnai can be separated

from other species of the genus by the position of ocelli

in male which are placed slightly away from the

adjacent eyes as in females. The aedeagal processes

are unusually short and the apex of shaft is notched.

These characters show its distant phylogenetic

relationship to other species of the genus.

Genus Hecalus Stal

The new species described here have male

pygofer heavily setose in apical half, valve triangular

and subgenital plates flat, caudally tapering, with a

few (3-5) submarginal setae. The style has well

developed anteapical lobe, apophysis is laterally

curved, its surface finely sculptured. Connective is

somewhat Y-shaped, with a broad stem. Aedeagus

invariably has dorsal marginal foliaceous lateral

extension varying in width.

Key to Indian species of Hecalus

(only males)

1 . Thorax and face brown to piceous 2

— Thorax and face green to yellowish green. 3

2. Male 4.5 mm long, aedeagal shaft without prominent

mid-dorsal lateral flares (Fig. 41)

H.dentatus sp. nov.

— - Male 5.8 mm long, aedeagal shaft with prominent

mid-dorsal lateral ft ares H.lutescens (Distant)

3. Concentric parabolic orange fasciae on head and

pronotum H.arcuatus (Motschulsky)

— Colouration not as above 4

4. One pair of aedeagal processes, not branched or

forked... 5

— Two pairs of aedeagal processes or one pair of

branched or forked processes 14

5. Longitudinal orange lines on head, pronotum and

scutellum, forewings brown in apical 0.33 with white

spots in apical and anteapical cells

H. porrectm (Walker)

— Without longitudinal orange lines (may have brown

lines as in H. umballaens is); head, pronotum,

scutellum and forewings entirely green to yellowish

green 6

6. Apical process of aedeagus rather leaf-like, with

serrated dorsal margin 7

— - Apical process of aedeagus narrower, not leaf-like,

with smooth dorsal margin 10

7. Vertex, pronotum and scutellum with longitudinal

brown lines; aedeagal shaft of uniform width

throughout length in lateral view

H. umballaensis (Distant)

— Vertex, pronotum and scutellum uniformly green or

yellowish green, without longitudinal brown lines;

aedeagal shaft varying in width in lateral aspect .. 8

8. Apical aedeagal processes directed caudally (Figs.

23, 24) H.caudatus sp. nov.

— Apical aedeagal processes directed antero -laterally

(Figs. 34-36) 9

9. Aedeagal shaft constricted medially

H. morrisoni Rao and Ramakrishnan

— Aedeagal shaft broadened in apical 0.2 then slightly

narrowed and rounded (Figs. 34, 35)

H.compressus sp. nov.

10. Aedeagal shaft expanding distally into a diamond-

shaped flare below apical processes 11

— Aedeagus without such a flare 12

11. Aedeagal shaft ventrally keeled, laterally

compressed, constricted medially without lateral

lamellate processes H.wallengreni (Stal)

— Aedeagal shaft dorsally grooved, with lateral

lamellate processes, uniformly distally narrowed

H.pusae Rao and Ramakrishnan

12. Aedeagal shaft strongly narrowed caudally

H.ghaurii Rao and Ramakrishnan

— Aedeagal shaft not narrowed caudally 13

13. Aedeagal shaft dorsally grooved with a subapical

tooth on each edge subapically (Figs. 29, 30)

H.tuberculatus sp. nov.

— Aedeagal shaft without subapical tooth on lateral

margin dorsally, without dorsal groove

H.prasinus (Matsumura)

14. Aedeagal shaft Strongly grooved laterally in distal

0.33, with one pair of forked processes (Figs. 15-

17); without orange lines on head

H.bifidus sp. nov.

— Aedeagal shaft without grooves; with two pairs of

processes; head with orange lines 15

15. Apical pair of aedeagal processes 0.2 as long as other

pair.... H.gressitti (Linnavuori)

— Apical pair of aedeagal processes as long as the other

pair H. apical is (Matsumura)

3. Hecalus arcuatus (Motschulsky)

Platymetopius arcualus (Motschulsky, 1859: 115

Tetigonia ( Diedrocephala ) kalidasa Kirkaldy,

1900: 294

130

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.94 (1997)

Parabolocratus concentralis Matsumura, 1912:

288

Parabolocratus citrinus Evans, 1941: 36

Varta moshiensis Rao, 1973: 96, synonymized by

Rao, 1989: 66. Hecalus arcuatus: Morrison, 1973:

426; Rao, 1989: 66

Material examined: Several specimens from

Karnataka: Bangalore, Bidar, Chincholi, Dharwar,

Gadag, Gulbarga, Hagari, Halebid-Belur,

Kemmannagundi (1100 m), Nandi Hills (1467 m),

Raichur, Yalburga; Maharashtra: Dhond; Mizoram:

Aizawl, Limglei; Tamil Nadu: Bar liar (860 m).

Remarks: A widely distributed species with

very characteristic colouration.

4. Hecalus bifidus sp. nov.

(Figs. 14-17)

Yellowish green. Forewing yellowish green

with a black spot at apex of clavus. Anterior rim

of head margined both above and below with

brown.

Vertex subtriangularly produced, proportion of

interocular width to length 36:24. Pronotum longer

than vertex, 2.07 times as wide as long.

Male genitalia: Aedeagus with well

developed dorsal apodeme, shaft laterally grooved

in apical 0.33 with a terminal pair of forked

processes.

Measurements: Male 4.8 and 5.2 mm long,

1.43 mm wide across eyes.

Material examined: Holotype male, India:

Karnataka: Dharwar, xi. 1969, Light trap, Viraktamath,

(UAS). Paratype: 1 male, India: Karnataka: Gadag,

21 .ii. 1978, C.A. Viraktamath, (NHM).

Remarks: This species is closely related to

H.furcatus Morrison from China in having grooved

aedeagal shaft and forked apical process of the

aedeagus. It can, however, be distinguished from

H. furcatus in the aedeagal shaft being of uniform

width and aedeagal process larger and unequal in

length.

5. Hecalus apicalis (Matsumura)

Parabolocratus apicalis Matsumura, 1912: 287

Hecalus apicalis : Morrison, 1973: 424

Material examined: Several specimens from

Karnataka: Bangalore, Chincholi, Dharwar, Gadag,

Jog Falls, Kemmannagundi (1100 m), Mudigere,

Raichur; Tamil Nadu: Nilgiri Hills; Mizoram:

Aizawl, Lunglei.

Remarks: It is a widely distributed species

in the Oriental region to be recognised by the

longitudinal orange lines on head and pronotum,

and in males apical 0.33 of forewings dark brown to

black with white spots. H. gressitti and H. porrectus

also have similar colouration but can be distin-

guished by the aedeagal characters given in the

key.

6. Hecalus gressitti (Linnavuori)

Parabolocratus gressitti Linnavuori, 1960: 272

Hecalus gressitti: Morrison, 1973: 423

Material examined: India: 2 males, 4 females,

West Bengal: Calcutta, 17.iv.1975, Coll. C.A.

Viraktamath, 3 males, 1 female, Mizoram: Aizawl,

18.x. 1981, Coll. C.S. Wesley, (UAS).

Remarks: Coloration similar to that of

H. apicalis but differs in possessing shorter apical

processes of aedeagal shaft which are 0.2 times as

long as the subapical pair. This is the first record of

the species from India. It was earlier known from

W. Caroline Islands, the Philippines, Amboina,

Singapore, Penang and Laos (Morrison, 1973).

7. Hecalus porrectus (Walker)

Acocephalus porrectus Walker, 1858: 232

Platymetopius lineolatus Motschulsky, 1859: 114

Hecalus kirschbaumi Stal, 1870: 737

Thoms oni el la viridis Distant, 1908: 280

Parabolocratus rusticus Distant, 1918: 31, nom

nov. pro Thomsoniella viridis not Uhler, 1 877

Thomsoniella albomaculata Distant, 1908: 280

Parabolocratus merinoi Capco, 1959: 333

Hecalus porrectus: Morrison, 1973: 421

Material examined: Several specimens from

Karnataka: Bangalore, Chincholi, Dharwar, Ilkalgad,

Jog Falls, Mudigere; Meghalaya: Shillong; Mizoram:

Aizawl; West Bengal: Calcutta.

Remarks: It is similar to H. apicalis and

H. gressitti in coloration but can be differentiated by

the single pair of apical processes of aedeagus.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

131

Figs. 1-7. Glossocratus indicus sp. nov. 1. Face; 2. Male pygofer; 3. Valve and subgenital plate; 4. Style;

5. Connective; 6. Aedeagus, lateral view; 7. Aedeagus, antero-dorsal view. Scale line = 0.1 mm.

132

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.94 (1997)

Figs. 8-13. GlossocrcUus ramakrishnai sp. nov. 8. Valve and subgenital plate; 9. Style; 10. Connective;

11. Aedeagus, lateral view; 12. Aedeagus, antero-dorsal view; 13. Apex of aedeagal shaft.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

133

Figs. 14-24. Species of Hecalus. 1447. Hecalus bifidrn sp. nov. 14. Connective; 15. Aedeagus, lateral viev

16. Aedeagus, antero-dorsal view; 17. Apex of aedeagal shaft. 1849. Hecalus lutescens (Distant) female.

18. Ovipositor; 19. Seventh sternum. 20-24. Hecalus caudatus sp. nov. 20. Male py gofer;

21. Valve and subgenital plate; 22. Style; 23. Connective and aedeagus, antero-dorsal view;

24. Aedeagus, lateral view. Scale line = 0. 1 mm

134

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Figs. 25-31. Hecalus tuberculatus sp. nov. 25. Male pygofer; 26. Valve and subgenital plate; 27. Style;

28. Connective; 29-30. variation in aedeagus, lateral views; 31. Aedeagus, antero-dorsal view. Scale line = 0.1 mm.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

135

Figs. 32-41. Species of Hecalus . 32-36. Hecalus compress us sp. nov. 32. Style; 33. Connective;

34 35. Variations in aedeagus, lateral aspect; 36. Apex of aedeagal shaft. 37-41. Hecalus dental us sp. nov,

37, Male pygofer; 38. Valve and subgenital plate; 39. Style; 40. Aedeagus, lateral view;

41. Connective and aedeagus, antero-dorsal view. Scale line = 0.1 mm.

136

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol . 94 (1997)

8. Hecalus lutescens (Distant)

(Figs. 18-19)

Paraholocratus lutescens Distant, 1918: 31

Heccdus lutescens: Morrison, 1973: 419

Female genitalia: Ovipositor extending

beyond pygofer by three times its width. Hind margin

of seventh sternum with a short median projection.

Measurements: Male 5.5 mm long, 1.45 mm

wide across eyes. Female 5.8 mm long, 1.55 mm

wide across eyes.

Material examined: India: Tamil Nadu: 1

male, 2 females, Oothu, 28.x. 1975, Coll. C.A.

Viraktamath, 2 males, 2 females, Valparai,

13.iv.1981, Coll. A.R.V. Kumar, (UAS).

Remarks: So far this species is known only

from the hills of Tamil Nadu. The female is

described for the first time here.

9. Hecalus caudatus sp. nov.

(Figs. 20-23)

Yellowish green. A black spot at apex of clavus.

Vertex broadly subtri angular, anterior margin

slightly upturned, proportion of interocular width

to length 48:43 in male, 59:56 in female. Face

strongly tumid. Pronotum shorter than vertex, 2.1

and 2.23 times as wide as long in male and female,

respectively.

Male genitalia: Aedeagus with well

developed dorsal apodeme, shaft with lateral

membranous narrow keel visible in antero-

dorsal aspect, with a pair of caudodorsally

directed processes, each process minutely serrate

dorsally.

Female genitalia: Ovipositor extends by a

distance equal to 2.5 times its width beyond pygofer.

Hind margin of seventh sternum with a median

triangular projection.

Measurements: Male 6.5 mm long, 1.7 mm

wide across eyes. Female 7.3 mm long, 2.0 mm wide

across eyes.

Material examined: Holotype male, India:

Karnataka: Bangalore, 916 m, 9.ix.l980, Coll.

Maragal, (UAS). Paratypes: 2 females, data as for

holotype (NHM, UAS).

Remarks: H. caudatus is closely related to H.

umballaensis from which it differs in having strongly

caudodorsally directed aedeagal processes.

10. Hecalus morrisoni Rao and Ramakrishnan

Hecalus morrisoni Rao and Ramakrishnan, 1990:

389

Material examined: india: holotype male,

Pusa, Bengal, H.L.D. 26.vii.09, At Light (NPC) Coll,

not named; Karnataka: several specimens from

Bangalore and Bellary.

Remarks: H. morrisoni is closely related to

and resembling//, umballaensis Distant. Specimens

collected at Bangalore have aedeagal shaft of

uniform width and serrations of the apical process

not so prominent as in those from Delhi.

11. Hecalus tubercufiatus sp. nov.

(Figs. 24-30)

Yellowish green. Lower edge of anterior

margin of head brown.

Vertex subtriangular, proportions of interocular

width to length 38:23. Pronotum longer than vertex,

2.1 times as wide as long.

Male genitalia: Aedeagus short, widened

apically, with a subapical denticle on dorsal margin,

apical process short, caudo-laterally directed.

Measurements: Male 5.3 mm long, 1.5 mm

wide across eyes.

Material examined: Holotype male, india:

Karnataka: Bangalore, 916 m, 22.x. 1991, Coll. P.C.

Dash, (UAS).

Remarks: H . tuberculatus is related to

H. wallengreni Stal, but differs in the presence of a

prominent tubercle on the dorsal margin of shaft near

apex and in the shape of the subgenital plates which

strongly taper caudally.

12. Hecalus wallengreni Stal

Hecalus wallengreni Stal, 1870: 736; Morrison,

1973: 413

Paraholocratus minutus Bierman, 1910: 63

Paraholocratus taiwanus Matsumura, 1912:

286

Paraholocratus mandlensis Pruthi, 1 930: 20

Hecalus gramineus Merino, 1936: 353

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

137

Material examined: india: West Bengal:

1 male, Calcutta, 17.iv.1975, Coll. C.A. Viraktamath,

(UAS).

13. Hecalus prasinus (Matsumura)

Parabolocratus prasinus Matsumura, 1 905: 48

Parabolocratus dubiatus Bierman, 1910: 64

Hecalus prasinus : Morrison, 1973: 417

Material examined: Several specimens from

Karnataka: Bangalore, Bellary, Dharwar, Jog Falls,

Raichur, Nandi Hills; West Bengal: Teesta.

Remarks: Very widely distributed in the

Oriental region.

14. Hecalus compressus sp. nov.

(Figs. 31-35)

Yellowish green. Both upper and lower edges

of anterior rim of vertex brown.

Vertex sub triangular, proportion of interocular

width to length 41:31 in male, 52:46 in female.

Pronotum shorter than vertex in male but longer in

female, 2.16 as wide as long.

Male genitalia: Aedeagai shaft strongly

compressed, widest at midlength in lateral aspect,

with a pair of leaf-like apical processes with serrated

dorsal margin.

Female genitalia: Ovipositor extending by a

distance equal to twice its width. Hind margin of

seventh sternum with a median triangular

projection.

Measurements: Male 5.5 mm long, 1.5 mm

wide across eyes. Female 6.5 mm long and 1.9 mm

wide across eyes.

Material examined: Holotype male, India:

Karnataka: Bangalore, 916 m, 10.ii.1992, ColL P.C.

Dash, ex. grasses (UAS). Paratypes: 1 male, 3

females, data as for holotype; 3 males, data as for

holotype but collected at GKVK 2.xi.l992, 1 male,

india: Karnataka: Nandi Hills (1467 m), 22.xi.1978,

Coll. S. Viraktamath, 1 male, india: Karnataka:

Sulikere (near Bangalore), 20.xii.1976, Coll. C.A.

Viraktamath.

Other material examined: india: Karnataka:

5 males, 15 km NW likalgad, 19.xii.1974, Coll.

Ghorpade, 2 males, 2 females, Halebid-Relur,

ll.xi.1978, ColL C.A. Viraktamath, Delhi: New

Delhi, 1968, ColL H.M. Harris, (UAS).

Remarks: This species is related to H. ghaurii

Rao and Ramakrishnan but differs in the apex of the

aedeagai shaft being much broader than in

ghaurii

15. Hecalus dentatus sp. nov.

(Figs, 36-41)

Dark fuscous green. Lower edge of anterior

rim of head dark brown, lateral areas of face darker.

Scutellum with four longitudinal dark brown stripes

in a few males.

Vertex subtri angular, anterior margin slightly

upturned, proportion of interocular width to length

36:24 in male, 48:35 in female. Pronotum longer

than vertex in male but shorter in female, 2.24 and

2.16 times as wide as long in male and female,

respectively.

Male genitalia: Aedeagus as in H. lutescens

but considerably shorter, shaft widened apically in

lateral aspect with denticles on ventral margin,

apical process directed caudo-Iaterally.

Female genitalia: Ovipositor exceeding

pygofer by a distance equal to its width. Hind margin

of seventh sternum with a median triangular

projection.

Measurements: Male 4,5 mm long, 1.38 mm

wide across eyes. Female 5.5 mm long, and 1.63

mm wide across eyes.

Material examinee!: Holotype male, india:

Karnataka: Koppa, 27.xi.1982, ColL H.V.A. Mur thy,

(UAS). Paratypes: 9 males, data as for holotype; 1

female india: Karnataka: Jog Falls, 534 m,

18.xi.1976, ColL B. Mallik, 1 female, Kogar (36 km

W of Jog Falls), 23.ix.1991, ColL P.C. Dash, ex.

grasses (NHM, NPC, UAS).

Remarks: H . dentatus is similar to H.

lutescens and H. fuscovittatus Morrison in being

dark fuscous green. It shares the minute spines on

the aedeagus with H. lutescens but has more

uniformly curved aedeagai shaft, less prominent

lateral laminate process, shorter and differently

curved aedeagai processes. It is also smaller than

H lutescens.

138

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol.94 (1997)

16. Hecalus ghaurii Rao and Ramakrishnan

Hecalus ghaurii Rao and Ramakrishnan, 1990: 388.

Material examined: india: Delhi: holotype

male, “Swept on grass, Delhi, IARI, Oct. 65, R.

Menon” “Host: Grasses, Loc. New Delhi, Date. Oct.

1965, Coll. M.G.R. Menon” (NPC). Karnataka:

several specimens from Bangalore, Nandi Hills,

Raichur (UAS). [collection data quoted from

specimen labels]

Remarks: This species, as in the case of H.

compressus , has a highly compressed aedeagal shaft.

with dorsolateral margin laterally produced into a

very narrow laminate process. This species can be

recognised by its aedeagal shaft which strongly

tapers caudally as seen in in lateral aspect.

Acknowledgement

We are grateful to the Head, Division of

Entomology, Indian Agricultural Research Institute,

New Delhi for permitting us to study the types of

Hecalinae under his care.

References

Hermann, C.J.H. (1910): Homopteren aus Niederlandish Osi-

Indien. II. Herausgegeben von. D. MacGillavry and K.W.

Dam merman. Leyden Mus. Notes 33: 1-68.

Capco, S.R. (1959): The Philippine species of Parabolocratus

(Cicadellidae, Homoptera ). Philippine J. Sci. 88: 325-334.

Distant, W.L. (1908): Rhynchota. Homoptera and Appendix

(Pt.). In Bingham, C.T. (ed.) The Fauna of British India

including Ceylon and Burma. Vol. 4, xv+501 pp. Taylor

and Francis, London.

Distant, W.L. (1918): Rhynchota. Homoptera: Appendix,

Heteroptera: Addenda. In Shipley, A.F. and Marshall,

GAK. (eds) The Fauna of British India including Ceylon

and Burma, (volume 6, Taylor and Francis, London

viii+210..

Evans, J.W. (1941): New Australian leafhoppers. Trans. R.

Soc. Australia 65: 36-41.

Kirkaldy, G.W. ( 1900): Notes on some Sinhalese Rhynchota.

Entomologist 33: 293-295.

Linnavuori, R. (1960): Homoptera: Cicadellidae. Insects

Micronesia 6: 231-344.

Linnavuori, R. (1975): Revision of the Cicadellidae

(Homoptera) of the Ethiopian region III. Deltocephalinae,

Hecalini .Actazool. Fenn. 143: 1-37.

Matsu mur a, S. (1905): 1000 insects of Japan (In Japanese)

2: 42-70.

Matsumura, S. ( 19 1 2): Die Acocephalinen und Bythoscopinen

Japans. J. Sapporo Coll. Agri. 4: 279-325.

Merino, G. (1936): Philippine Cicadellidae (Homoptera).

Philippine J. Sci. 61: 307-400.

Morrison, W.P. (1973): A revision of the Hecalinae

(Homoptera: Cicadellidae) of the Oriental region. Pacific

Ins. 15: 379-438.

Motschulsky, V.I. de (1859): Homopteres. In Insectes des

Indes Orientales de Contrees Analogues. Zs tud. Entomol.

8: 25-118.

Pruthi, H.S. (1930): Studies on Indian Jassidae (Homoptera).

Part I. Introduction and description of some new genera

and species. Mem. Indian Mus. 11: 1-68.

Rao, V.R.S. and Ramakrishnan, U. (1990): The Indian species

of Hecalus with descriptions of three new species

(Homoptera: Cicadellidae) Oriental Ins. 24: 385-397.

Rao, K.R. (1973): Studies on a small collection of Jassids

from Poona (Homoptera: Cicadellidae) Zool. Anz. Leipzig,

797:93-98.

Rao, K.R. (1989): Description of some new leafhoppers

(Homoptera: Cicadellidae) with notes on some synonymies

and imperfectly known species from India. Hexapoda 1:

57-84.

Rao, K.R. (1990): Studies on a small collection of leafhoppers

(Homoptera: Cicadellidae) from Khasi Hills, Meghalaya.

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V jraktamath, C.A. (1976): New species of Doratulina and

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Viraktamath, C.A. and V iraktamath , S. (1989): New species

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REVIEWS

1 . APPLIED ETHNOBOTANY - A case study among the Kharias of Central India, by

E. Varghese, S.V. D. Deep Publication. New Delhi-110063, pp i-xix + 1-307 (21 x 13.5

cm). Price Rs. 400.00 or $ 70.00

Ethnobotany is the study of human interaction

with plants in a given environment. Ethnology is

defined as the comprehensive study and analysis of

non-literate people or aboriginal tribes of a

particular region. Ethnobotanic studies concentrate

on the areas inhabited by aboriginals or tribals of

rural areas and their dependence on the plant wealth

of their surroundings.

Effort is being made here to evaluate the work

carried out by Rev. Fr. E. Varghese on the

ethnobotany among the Kharias of Central India.

Ethnobotany is closely related to Economic Botany,

but the difference is that Ethnobotany is the applied

botany known to restricted tribes and has limited

utility among them.

Although Ethnobotany is as old as human

history, growing ecological and environmental

awareness has given a boost to this neglected branch

of Science. According to Rev. Fr. Varghese, it is in

the past one century or so that Ethnobotany has

begun to emerge as an independent discipline. In

India it is more than 4000 years old. It is believed

that ‘Atharvaveda’ which also deals with

‘Ayurveda’ or the science of vegetable products

useful in health care was well known from 2000

B.C. Information about these plant remedies was

known to people and practitioners of Ayurveda and

passed on from ‘gurus’ to ‘sishyas’ by word of

mouth. It is only in the recent past that the

knowledge of our ancient Vedas has been written

down in the form of manuscripts and books. The

major difference in vedic information and

ethnobotanic information is that the former has

remained alive and stood the test of time.

Data gathered by Fr. Varghese will be tested

by the scientific community in future and the utility

or otherwise of the information gathered will be

ascertained. At present, the attempts of the author

have been restricted to collecting reliable

information and confirming it from as many people

as possible in the same tribal community.

Fr. Varghese has rightly pointed out that

ethnobotanical endeavours are known in India right

from the time of the Vedas and S ambit as. Rigveda,

the oldest available record dating back to 4000-5000

B.C. recounts some medicinal plants. Atharvaveda

which contains ‘Ayurveda’, gives us information

about 2000 plants and their medicinal properties.

The Ayurvedic medicinal plants are described in

the three following ancient texts:

1. Char aka samhita.

2. Sushruta samhita.

3. Ashtanga hridaya.

These three texts contain information on 700

species of plants, their properties, and methods of

formulating drugs from them for treatment. Presently

about 35,000 species of crude medicinal plants are

used in practice.

According to Rev. Fr. Varghese, the term

Ethnobotany, which was introduced by J.W.

Harshberger in 1895, has been in use for 100 years.

Traditional medicine is known in Indian

literature from the middle of the 16th century.

Garcia D’orta - a Portuguese physician in Goa wrote

the first book on medicinal plants in IndiacoLoquiAS

das simples e drogas da india, or the Dialogue on

Indian Medicinal Plants. It describes well known

medicinal plants in India, especially in Goa and

other areas.

Another reputed early work in India is

Drakestein van Rheede’s hortus malabariojs (1678-

1703). This 12 volume work was prepared by a

Dutch Administrator of Malabar region. It describes

about 800 species of flowering plants. Over 600

species in this work have been provided binomials

by Carl Linnaeus, in his famous work species

PL ANT ARUM (1753).

The names of plants used in these 12 volumes

are generally coined from their utilities and habitats

etc. A few names are given to illustrate the origin

of their local names, which is one of the points made

by Fr. Varghese in his book:

140

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi 94 (1997)

1. Adalodekam - Adal = Internal.

- Odecam = curing medicine.

= Adhatoda zeylanica Medicus

Justicia adhatoda Linn.

2. Karakanjivam - Kara - Terrestrial (-herbaceous).

Kanjivam = Bitter leaved.

= Androgr aphis paniculata (Burm.f.)

Wall ex Nees

= Justicia paniculata Burm.f.

3. Vayalschulli - Vayal = Paddy fields,

Schulli = spiny herb.

-- Hygrophila schulli (Ham.) Almeida &

Almeida.

- H. auriculata (K. S churn.) Heine

If we take for granted that Ethnobotany is the

knowledge of a particular tribal group which is

carried out for centuries within the tribe, then it is

strange to find the inclusion of species like

Chromolaena odorata (L.) King. & Robin (Syn.

Eupatorium odoratum L.) (West Indian species,

introduced in India - (Clarke, Comp. Ir.d. 30, 1878)

and Evolvulus nummularius (L.) L. - a recently

introduced weed found in Indian gardens.

However, this type of information is not found

only in the present book. We encounter names like

Sitaphal ( Annona squamosa L.) and Ramphal

(Annona reticulata L.) of plants which have come

to India only after the discovery of the new world

(America), which are believed to have been

introduced by the Portuguese.

The history of Ethnobotanical works in India

will not be complete if we do not give appropriate

credit to the following works:

1. John Fleming (1810) - a catalogue of Indian

MEDICINAL PLANTS AND DRUGS.

2. Ainshie (1812) - materia medica of Hindustan.

3. Chopra, R.N. (1933). - indigenous drugs of India.

4. George Watt (1896) - Dictionary of Economic

Products of India.

This volume on Applied Ethnobotany of

Kharias of Central India speaks for Rev. Fr.

Varghese’s capability and we, his friends and

colleagues are proud of his achievements.

Indeed, Fr. Varghese has done pioneering work

among the Kharias of Central India.

M.R. ALMEIDA

2. DIRECTORY OF NATIONAL PARKS AND SANCTUARIES IN INDIA

MANAGEMENT STATUS AND PROFILES. Edited by Ranjit Lai, Ashish Kothari,

Pratibha Pande, Shekhar Shah pp. 231 (19 x 24.5 cm) with maps and many illustrations

in black and white. New Delhi 1994. Sponsored by Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun

and Centre for Public Policy, Planning and Environmental Studies, Indian Institute of

Public Administration, New Delhi. Hardback Rs. 350, $ 30; paperback Rs. 200, $ 20.

The Directory, third in a series of volumes

covering national parks and sanctuaries in India,

elaborates on the management status and profiles

of five national parks and nineteen sanctuaries in

Karnataka. These directories are the result of the

ongoing study on the management of national parks

and protected areas in India. It is a good and timely

attempt at building up a reliable and exhaustive

database with maps on the National Parks and

Sanctuaries of Karnataka. The attempt will

definitely help in understanding and cataloguing

the state’s diverse ecosystems within the boundaries

of its protected areas and the developmental

pressures facing them.

The directory is a well coordinated exercise

at collecting, collating and disseminating information

on all the Protected Areas of the State of Karnataka

under one cover. The information on various aspects

of the management of National parks and Sanctuaries

of Karnataka will prove beneficial to researchers,

wildlife managers, policy makers and laymen

alike.

REVIEWS

141

The directory also contains an inventory of the

floral and faunal components of the protected areas,

though it is not as exhaustive as expected, especially

the list of birds recorded in the areas covered. The

list of endangered floral and faunal species is

informative.

The format containing the information on the

land use pattern in and around the protected areas, is

well laid out and covers all aspects which might

interest policy makers and laymen alike. Though

many gaps remain in the current information, it is

hoped that its widespread use will encourage both

managers of the protected areas and the researchers

to pool their knowledge to enhance the effectiveness

of the directory.

Though the directory contains proposals for

improving the wildlife protected area network in

Karnataka, it does not mention the urgent need for

3. ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY OF THE

University of Poona, Price Rs. 100/-

The book is a monograph based on the thesis,

“Anatomical and histological studies on the house

shrew, Suncus murinus blanfordi (Anderson)'’ that

was submitted by the author to the University of

Poona for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.

The monograph has a good representation of

anatomical and histological plates with relevant

descriptions. The line drawings are neat and

proportionate. Histological preparations are printed

in black and white. As a result the clarity of the

increasing the manpower and material resources

of the enforcement agencies, viz. the Forest

department and its Wildlife wing. The understaffed

and underequipped department appears to be

fighting a losing battle in most areas.

The book is a must for all conservation

oriented institutions and individuals. It must also

form a part of the District administration’s libraries

across the state.

As rightly hoped by the authors, the directory

will prove to be a catalyst in our efforts towards

saving the state’s and the country’s wilderness

areas from destruction. The only hope lies in

planning sustainable use of the fast depleting natural

resources on hand, of which the directory is a good

benchmark.

S. ASAD AKHTAR

)MMON HOUSE SHREW By R. V. Ranade,

staining effects has been lost in certain cases.

A bibliographical list of references would be

useful for researchers taking up further study on

Suncus.

As such the book will have limited circulation

and will be more useful to the departments and

libraries where work on smaller mammals is

undertaken.

A.M. BHAGWAT

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1 . MOVEMENT OF NILGIRI LANGUR BETWEEN FOREST FRAGMENTS IN THE

ANN AM ALAI HILLS

On 22nd December, 1994, as part of an

ongoing research programme, GU was observing

the activities of the Lion-tailed macaque at

Puthuthottem Cardamom Estate, at Valparai,

Coimbatore district. At around 1600 hours while

searching for an adult male Lion-tailed macaque

(which always spent most of the time away from

the group), GU heard the threatening call of an

adult male Lion-tailed macaque. GU moved in the

direction of the call and saw the Lion-tailed

macaque threatening and chasing away a Nilgiri

langur on a Cullinea exelsa tree. We were surprised

to spot a Nilgiri langur in that area because the estate

workers had informed us that the last time they had

sighted a group of Nilgiri langurs was ten years ago.

It had then comprised of 6 to 10 individuals and

subsequently been reduced to two in 1989; later they

also had disappeared.

In the early 1920’s the Puthuthottem forest

was a part of a continuous rain forest in the

Annamalai Hills. This forest was under private

ownership and the surrounding areas were clear-

felled for tea cultivation. During clear-felling this

patch of forest (60ha in area) was left with a good

forest cover, which was under planted with

cardamom. Later this forest fragment had been

selectively felled many times, last in 1992. In 1980s

intensive logging caused heavy damage to the forest

and affected the habitat of the Nilgiri langur and

Lion-tailed macaque there. Even though the trees

logged had a high timber value they were of low

fruit value and had affected the Nilgiri langur more

than the Lion-tailed macaque. Moreover, the Nilgiri

langurs were more intensively hunted than Lion-

tailed macaque, during 1970’s and early 1980’s

bringing down its population, and eventually

leading to its extinction. Lion-tailed macaques, on

the other hand, managed to survive since many fruit

trees were left behind. Being more adapted to human

presence it also utilized the surrounding coffee

plantations, feeding on coffee beans and Mesopsis

spp., Cardamom cultivation was abandoned after

logging in 1982, after which wood cutting by local

villagers have further degraded the forest. The Lion-

tailed macaques have also been on the decline from

54 in 1991 to 34 at present, due to low birth rate

from low food availability, high mortality during

logging and predation by feral dogs.

After 22nd December, we started monitoring

the presence of the Nilgiri langur every day and

made some observation on its activities. It was very

shy, restless and made loud alarm calls on seeing

us. Since 26th December evening, we have not been

able to locate the Nilgiri langur in the forest

fragment.

The sighting of a male Nilgiri langur in the

forest fragment is interesting for three reasons: Firstly

it shows the ability of Nilgiri langur to move between

forest fragments across a human dominated

landscape; Puthuthottem Estate is a totally isolated

forest fragment the nearest forest with Nilgiri langur

being about 3 km away; the intervening area is covered

with tea plantation and has human settlements.

Secondly, this movement by males could to a very

large extent curtail the effects of inbreeding in small

fragmented forests. Thirdly, female Nilgiri langur,

also perhaps emigrate like the male, the ability to

move across man made landscapes enables the species

to recolonise forest fragments from which the species

had disappeared.

January 19, 1996 G. UM APATHY

A. PRABHAKAR

Conservation Biology Divn.,

Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology &

Natural History ;

Kalampalayam PO.

Coimbatore -641 010.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

143

2. AN OBSERVATION ON A MOTHER CARRYING DEAD INFANT IN THE

BONNET MACAQUE, MACACA RADIATA

We saw a group of bonnet macaques {Macaca

radiata ) on 5th July, 1996 at Muthanga area in

Wynaad Wildlife Sanctuary, in Northern Kerala. An

adult female was on the ground carrying an infant,

repeatedly trying to make it cling to her body by

placing it to her chest. Whenever the mother

attempted to get up, the infant kept falling down.

We soon found that the infant was dead. The mother

repeated her attempts, by jolting the body of the

infant gently. On seeing us, the mother scooped up

the infant with her left arm, raced into the nearest

bamboo clump and sat inside safely. The mother

started inspecting the body by smelling the anal

region and the face. A juvenile female which had

been watching the whole sequence for a long time

tried to touch the baby, and was allowed by the

mother only after several attempts. The juvenile also

inspected the dead infant by smelling the anal region

and face.

We saw the mother with the dead infant for

four days. By the third day, the body had started

smelling and was maggot ridden. The mother

inspected the anal region less frequently. The female

macaque had restricted its feeding and movement to

the bamboo clumps. Other members of the group

were in the nearby area on all these days. On the

Ref

Eimerl. S & I. DeVore (1976): The Primates. TIME-LIFE

Int. (Nederland) B.V. 199 pp.

Yerkrs. R.M. (1915): Maternal Instinct in a Monkey. J. Anon.

morning of the fourth day, the mother placed the

dead infant on the ground and fed within a visible

distance. The juvenile was with her, throughout

watching the dead infant. On the fifth day, the dead

infant was missing and we assumed that the

mother had joined the group abandoning the dead

infant.

Mothers carrying dead infants for several days

have been recorded in Crab eating monkey {Macaca

irus) and Hybrid Rhesus (Yerkes, 1915), in Gorillas

and Langurs (Eimerl and DeVore, 1976) and in

Baboons (Zuckerman, 1981). According to

Zuckerman ( 1 98 1 ) the behaviour of the mother with

the dead infant could be a manifestation of maternal

sentiment or maternal instinct.

Acknowledgement

We thank Dr. P.S. Easa, Scientist, KFRI for

comments on this note.

October 23, 1996 M. B AL AS UB RAM ANI AN

S.A. SABU JAHAS

Division of Wildlife Biology \

Kerala Forest Research Institute,

Peechi , Thrissur, Kerala.

RENCES

Behav. 5: 403-405.

Zuckerman, S. ( 198 1): The social life of Monkeys and Apes.

Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., London.

3. DISCOVERY OF GOLDEN LANGUR (PRESBYTIS GEEI) AT

KAKOIJANA RESERVE FOREST, ASSAM.

On 5th November, 1995 we, a group of nine

members of nature's foster, an environmental

activist group, conducting a field trip at Kakoijana

Reserve Forest along with two Forest Officials,

came across some langurs. After careful observations

we confirmed that they were the golden langur

{Presbytis geei ). This was a great surprise because

the occurrence of golden langur in Kakoijana

144

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.94 (1997)

Reserve Forest was quite unexpected. At our first

sighting, we were on the slope of a hill and the

langurs were on the slope of the opposite hill,

roosting on a tree. We were observing them from a

stone hide at a distance of about 15 m. We spotted

one new born infant and six adult langurs in that

group. After that we made several trips to Kakoijana

Reserve Forest covering about 10% area and saw

20 - 25 golden langurs, including some new born

infants, in five different groups.

Kakoijana is a deciduous secondary forest 17.2

sq.km in area, on the hilly banks of the River Aie,

and is about 12 km from Bongaigaon town. This

forest is about 30 km south of Manas, and is isolated

from other forests. The golden langur population is

therefore an isolated one. Earlier records on the

distribution of this highly endangered species are

from Manas and Chakrashila.

Scientists of the Indo-U.S. Primate Project

(Prof. Irwin S. Bernstein, Dr. Arun Srivastava and

Mr. Prabal Sarkar) visited Kakoijana Reserve

Forest with us in February, 1996 and confirmed our

sighting.

I express my sincere thanks to Dr. PC.

Bhattacharjee (Head, Dept, of Zoology, Gauhati

University), Dr. Arun Srivastava (Indo-U.S.

Primate Project), Mr. G.C. Basumatary (D.F.O.

Aie Valley Div. Bongaigaon), Mr. Mahendra

Barman and Mr. Paresh Khatuniar for their co-

operation.

October 3 1 , 1 996 ARNAB BOSE

Nature's Foster,

C/o Mitali Cycle Store,

(Near Prakash Cinema),

P.O. & Dist. Bongaigaon-783380.

4. INDUCED EMESIS BY JUNGLE CAT (FELIS CHAUS)

On 13th August, 1995 I was watching some

larks near a nullah about 30 km from Udaipur,

Rajasthan. The place is called Dholi Ghati and it is

about 3 km from a township called Gogunda.

I was sitting behind a bush on the raised

bank of a nullah and scanning the barren fields

beyond the opposite bank, with field glasses.

Both the banks of the nullah were overgrown with

dense bushes and beyond that there was scanty

vegetation. There was a small trickle of water in the

nullah.

I suddenly caught sight of a Jungle Cat about

50 m from me on the opposite bank. It emerged from

the dense undergrowth, scanned the surroundings and

slowly walked towards the bank where I was sitting.

From its appearance it looked quite sick, its limbs

were not steady and were trembling. Slowly it

crossed the nullah and stopped near a shrub. It sniffed

at the shrub, and plucked a leaf and gulped it down.

One by one it plucked and gulped five leaves. Then

it remained motionless for a minute or so and then

ate two more leaves. Then it took three steps away

from the plant,arched its body and vomited. In this

fashion thrice it ejected some food and secretion from

its stomach. Then it raised its head, took a careful

look all around and trotted off into the undergrowth

as if it had no ailment and disappeared from my

sight.

I took a specimen of the shrub and it was

identified as Eclipta alba (Family Compositae). The

Hindi name of the shrub is Bhringraj. From experts

of Ayurved I came to know that the shrub is used in

Ayurvedic medicines for liver ailments, to regulate

bile secretions, for Jaundice and for improving the

digestion.

Acknowledgement

I am thankful to Dr. Satish Sharma for his help

in identifying the shrub.

April 1 0, 1 996 RAZA H. TEHSIN

38/106, Panchwati,

Udaipur- 3 13001.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

145

5. WHITE-TAILED MOLE TALPA MICRURA LEUCURA BLYTH IN ASSAM -

SOME NEW RECORDS

The White-tailed Mole Talpa micrura leucura

Blyth, 1850, was recorded as a hill-dwelling species

from Khasi Hills of Meghalaya and Naga Hills (now

Nagaland) (Ellerman & Morrison-Scott, 1951;

Prater, 1980).

On 2nd January, 1993, while on a field trip to

Phillobari RF (27° 31’ N, 95° AT E) in Tmsukia

district, I came across a live mole on the middle of

the forest road, at c 1400 hrs. It was trying to hide

itself under a large leaf.

On closer examination, I saw a small white-

tail which enabled me to identify it specifically as

well as sub-specifically. It measured c. 10 cm of head

and body length. After photographing it I set

it free.

The sighting was significant as it is the first

record of the species from Assam (earlier reference

of Assam implied Meghalaya and Nagaland), a new

locality record, and also the first one from the flat

plains. Phillobari is in the upper Brahmaputra Plains

having an elevation of only 139 m above msl. The

known altitude where the species as a whole is found

is from 1525 m to 2440 m.

The local people often kill the species for

medicinal purpose. Locally it is called Uk-muk.

April 10, 1996 ANWARUDDIN

CHOUDHURY

The Rhino Foundation for Nature

in North East India,

C/o. The Assam Company Limited ,

Girish Chandra Bordoloi Path Bamunirnaidam,

Guwahati, Assam - 781 021.

6. RED PANDA AILURUS FULGENS F. CUVIER IN THE NORTH-EAST WITH AN

IMPORTANT RECORD FROM GARO HILLS

(With one map)

The Red or Lesser Panda Ailurus fulgens F.

Cuvier is distributed from Nepal to northern

Myanmar and southern China (Ellerman &

Morrison-Scott 1951, Prater 1980). However, there

is no specific mention of Bhutan, North Bengal and

Arunachal Pradesh in these important works. Gee

(1964), however, stated that it occurs in Bhutan and

north-western corner of Arunachal Pradesh.

The red panda is an animal of higher elevation,

usually above 1500 m (Prater 1980), in temperate

forests with bamboo. Roberts and Gittleman (1984)

mentioned that it occurs above 2200 m.

Between 1990 and 1995, 1 was able to carry

out field surveys in some potential habitats of the

red panda in north-eastern India as part of a broader

survey of wildlife in general. As well as travelling

widely in Assam, I visited Arunachal Pradesh, North

Bengal and Meghalaya.

In India, the red panda is confined to the north-

east, i.e., along the middle and lesser Himalaya and

Mishmi Hills covering parts of Sikkim, Darjeeling

district of West Bengal, Tawang, West Kameng, East

Kameng, Upper Subansiri, Upper Siang, West Siang,

East Siang, Dibang Valley, Lohit and Changland

districts, all in Arunachal Pradesh, The protected

areas having the panda are listed in table 1 and the

distribution in Figure 1.

However, the most startling find was its record

from Garo Hills area of Meghalaya. Occurrence of

red panda in the area was considered a rumour

although the Forest department brochure on

Balpakram contains its name. The main reason for

disbelief was that Garo Hills are located far away

from the red panda’s known range, and a significant

barrier in the form of the Brahmaputra valley exists

146

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol , 94 (1997)

Fig. 1 . Distribution of the Red panda in Northeastern India

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

147

Table 1

PROTECTED AREAS IN INDIA WITH KNOWN AND

POSSIBLE RED PANDA POPULATIONS. THOSE

MARKED WITH * ARE POSSIBLE AREAS

between Garo Hills and the Himalaya. Moreover,

no high elevation area with sub-tropical vegetation

occurs in the area (which is basically a low rugged

plateau with hot tropical climate).

On 10th October, 1995, on getting a report

from an experienced Forest official (J. Datta, DFO,

pers. comm.), I visited a locality in Tura town, and

to my surprise found a skin in excellent condition. I

examined and photographed it. It was reportedly

shot by one Dr Lau sometime in the early sixties

from Nokrek area of Garo Hills. It was high up in a

tree when the hunter shot it mistaking it for a Giant

squirrel Ratufa bicolon ; One more skin, now

damaged, was also reported, which was from

Chutmang area of Balpakram, and was collected in

1982. Two more skins were reported from different

Refe

Ellerman, J.R. & T.C.S. Morrison- Scott, (1951): Checklist

of Palaearctic and Indian Mammals, 1758 to 1946, British

Museum, London.

Gee, E.P. (1964): The Wildlife of India. Collins, London.

Macdonald, D. (ed,). (1984): The Encyclopaedia of

Mammals. 2 vols. George Allen & Unwin, London &

parts of Garo Hills during the past few years (P.

Marak, DFO, pers. comm).

From the skins and discussion with officials,

it appears that the red panda is confined to the higher

areas of Balpakram and Nokrek National Parks. The

highest point of Balpakram is Chutmang, only 1023

m above msl while Nokrek, the highest peak of Garo

Hills is 1412 m high. District wise, Balpakram is in

South Garo Hills, while Nokrek is in East and West

Garo Hills.

The occurrence of the red panda in Garo Hills

has established many new records: (i) this is the

lowest elevation in the entire range of the species;

(ii) also the first record of the species from tropical

forest; and (iii) the specimen measured: Head and

body length- 73 cm. Tail length= 43 cm; this is the

largest known specimen (skin) in the world. The

previous maximum recorded length was 62.5 cm for

head and body and 50 cm for tail (Prater 1980,

MacDonald, ed, 1984).

Locally, the red panda is called Aaye-michinji

by the Idu Mishmis of Dibang Valley of Arunachal

Pradesh and Matchibel by the Garos of Meghalaya.

I offer my thanks for their help during field

trips to: Garo Hills, S.B. Singh (CCF-Wildlife), P.

Marak, J. Datta (both DFOs), Sangma (ACF), Dr Lau

and Dr (Mrs) Lau, Achinta Baruah and Hakim;

Arunachal Pradesh, Yogesh (Field Director), A. Sen

(DFO), Leto Mili, Kamal Kalita (JE), Maniraj Rai,

Nur Hussain, Dilip Handique and Babul Debnath;

North Bengal, Soumyadip Datta.

August?, 1996 ANWARUDDIN CHOUDHURY

Near Gate No. 1 of Nehru Stadium ,

I slam pur Road,

Guwahati 781 007,

Assam.

NCES

Sidney.

Prater, S.H. (1980): The Book of Indian Animals. Reprint

with corrections, Bombay Natural History Society,

Bombay.

Roberts, M.S. & J.L. Ghtleman (1984): Ailurus fidgens.

Mammalian species 222: 8 pp.

148

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol . 94 (1997)

7. NOTES ON FOETUSES OF MOUSE DEER TRAGULUS MEMINNA IN MUDUMALAI

WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, TAMIL NADU, SOUTH INDIA

A female adult Mouse deer Tragulus meminna

was found dead on a road in a dry deciduous forest

in Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary on 14th March,

1996. The head and forelimbs were severely

damaged probably by a vehicle. When I cut open

the body to examine the stomach contents, I found

two foetuses inside. The developmental stage of the

two were not the same, one being about triple the

size of the other. Almost in the same location but

inside die forest, another pregnant mouse deer (24.5

cm shoulder height) was found dead on 28th of the

same month. The vegetation around it and the entire

body were badly burnt, hence the cause of death was

probably forest fire. Only one well grown foetus was

found in the womb. The foetus measured 17 cm in

shoulder height and 26 cm body length. The weight

was about 520 gm. The colour pattern of the foetus

was similar to the adult.

The modern artiodactyls have a litter size of

one, but there are some exceptions like Nilgai

Boselaphus tragocamelus, Four-horned antelope

Tetracerus quadricornis and the Mouse deer

Tragulus mtminna which often have a litter size of

two. Prater says that the mouse deer usually has a

litter size of two and gives birth at the end of the

rains or the commencement of the cold season but

there is no information on mouse deer’s gestation

period. Since all the foetuses were collected from

dead females, litter size can not be determined

correctly, because some deer during gestation period

carry even more foetuses than their normal litter size.

Since no further information is available, both the

litter size (one with one foetus and another with two)

can he considered. In the Encyclopedia Britannica

Vol 23, the mouse deer’s gestation period is stated

generally as four months. Hence, the deer’s birth

season should probably be at the beginning of rains

not at the end as reported by Prater (the book of

Indian animals, BNHS, Bombay). Thus, it may be

concluded that the gestation of the mouse deer in

this sanctuary would probably be during the dry

season.

August 7, 1996 V. GOKULA

SdlimAli Centre for Ornithology and

Natural History,

Kalampalayam,

Coimbatore-641 016.

8, INTERESTING FEEDING HABITS OF THE FLYING FOX PTEROPUS GIGANTEUS

ON THE PHYLLODES OF AUSTRALIAN ACACIA ACACIA A URICULAEFORMIS

The giant truit bat or flying fox as it is

popularly known Pteropus giganteus is essentially

a fruit eating bat which feeds on the juice of fruits

by chewing them dry and spitting the pulp out. But,

I have been observing these bats for the last four

years in our resort situated in the buffer zone of

Kanha National Park, Madhya Pradesh, (22° 17’N,

80° 38' E) feeding extensively on the leaf like

phyllodes of Australian acacia. Acacia

auriculaeformis especially during the summer

months which I think has never been reported in the

diet of this bat earlier.

Acacia auriculaeformis is a medium sized tree,

native of North Australia and Queensland. The tree

was introduced for plantation in the semi -arid regions

of Bihar, Orissa and West Bengal and is now widely

used for social forestry plantations everywhere. It is

a quick growing tree and does quite well on degraded

land. The tree also shows xerophytic adaptation and

what actually look like thick shiny dark green leaves

are the rachises modified into phyllodes. I procured

a few saplings of this tree in 1987 and planted them

in our resort land in Mocha Village which is in the

buffer zone of Kanha National Park. The plant

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

149

responded quite well and by 1991 we had trees of

2.5-3 m in height. In May 1991, on a full moon

evening, I noticed a few flying foxes Pteropus

giganteus for the first time on the top most branch

of an Acacia auriculaeformis squabbling and

flapping. I wondered what these bats were up to.

Coming back next morning to inspect the tree, I

noticed some green chunks of residual matter that

had been spat out by the bats on the ground. The

supple fleshy phyllodes on the top most branch were

absent and it was obvious that the bats had fed on

them. I decided to observe them again that evening

and I noticed more bats had settled on more Acacia

trees. There was more squabbling and shrieking as

they fed on the phyllodes in a frenzy. Most of them

had settled on the upper branches and apparently they

liked the juice of the tender phyllodes. Since then

they have been coming every summer in hundreds

from March onwards and are surprisingly absent

during the winter months. Although now they have

almost become pests of these Acacias, destroying

most of the tender phyllodes, it is interesting to note

a change in the feeding preference of fruit eating bats

now relishing the phyllodes of an exotic tree.

September 18, 1996 E.P ERIC D’CUNHA

Wild Chalet Resort,

Kanha National Park,

P.O. Kisli, Dist. Mandla

Madhya Pradesh 481 768.

9. MALE, FEMALE BURROW OCCUPANCY PATTERN OF THE SOUTH INDIAN

GERBIL TATERAINDICA CUVIERI

( With one text figure )

Rodents have evolved several physiological

and behavioural mechanisms ensuring maximum

reproduction (Davies 1991). They may be colonial,

solitary, or sometimes both (Barnett and Prakash

1982); and their burrow habits are usually

complicated assuring them better protection (Hanney

1975, Prakash and Mathur 1987). Though tropical

rodent species are diverse, and economically

important, information regarding their field habits

are scarce. Hence the present study on the habitat

ethology of South Indian gerbil Tatera indica cuvieri

was undertaken with regard to their burrow

occupancy and social grouping.

Studies were conducted in selected coastal

areas of Trivandrum district, where the burrows of

Tatera indica cuvieri are common. Once a burrow

was located, the grass and surface soil around 3 m of

the burrow were cleared; and all exits used by the

animals to escape were closed. The tunnels were then

carefully excavated from the entry point into the

interior. A soil plug within the tunnel a few feet from

the entrance, and the presence of rat fleas in the fresh

soil collected from the floor of the tunnel indicate a

currently inhabited burrow. As all the emergency

exits were closed prior to breaking into the burrow,

the gerbils tend to move to the distal end of the tunnel,

where they group together, enabling a complete

capture of all animals of the burrow. Altogether 41

burrows, from which complete collections could be

made, were considered for detailed study. Animals

collected from each burrow were sexed and counted

separately, and were categorized into adults, sub

adults and juveniles based on the specific

morphological features.

Two types of burrow' patterns were observed

among Tatera indica cuvieri ; those inhabited by adult

females along with young ones (subadults /juveniles),

and those inhabited by adult males. The latter were

comparatively smaller, with lesser number of

branches and fewer emergency exits. From 41

burrows investigated, a clear diversity of male,

female burrow occupancy is discernible, the details

of which are shown in Fig. 1 .

The male living independently, and the females

living with young ones (subadults/juveniles) in

separate burrows can be a kind of evolutionary

150

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol . 94 (1997)

X?

(0

1 *

2 |

3 i

(%)A3uedn330 Mating

Fig. 1. Burrow occupancy pattern of Tatera indica cu'vieri

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

151

adaptation, providing better security and maternal

care to growing subadults and juveniles. Such a

dichotomy in male-female burrow dwelling pattern

is quite interesting. Inspite of several reports of

colonial existence of subterranean rodents, this type

of burrow dimorphism with regard to occupancy

has not been projected. Since Indian rodents like the

short tailed mole xdiNesokia indica and gerbil Totem

indica Hardwicke also exhibit a kind of colonial

existence (Barnett and Prakash 1 982), a dimorphism

in male and female burrow occupancy among South

Indian gerbils is characteristic. It was also noticed

that in the majority of the burrows containing young

ones, the only adult present was the female (may be

their mother). Probably, males avoided such

burrows, or were chased away by the females after

mating. In several microtine rodents, adult females

move away from the colony and seek separate

existence prior to parturition, providing ecological

space for their offspring (Lidicker 1975). In any case,

the male Tf indica cuvieri staying away from young

ones subscribes to their negligible role in parental

care. Such sex-wise separate existence can also

indicate the absence of a long term monogamous

relationship. In such a set up, the females of T. indica

cuvieri face the possibility of mating with different

males (multiple male matings), as in the case of

Mongolian gerbils, Meriones unguiculatus (Agren

et al 1989), probably to avoid inbreeding.

November 26, 1 996 BIJU B THOMAS

MATHEW M. OOMMEN

Dept . of Zoology,

University of Kerala,

Kariavattom, Trivandrum,

Kerala 695581.

References

Agren, G., Q. Zhou & W. Zhong (1989): Ecology and social

behaviour of Mongolian gerbils, Meriones unguiculatus ,

at Xilinhot, Inner Mongolia, China. Anim. Behav. 37: 11-

27.

Barnett, S.A. & I. Prakash (1982): Rodents of economic

importance in India. Amold-Heinemann, New Delhi.

Davies, N.B. (1991): Mating systems, pp. 263-294. In: J.R.

Krebs and N.B. Davies (eds.), Behavioural Ecology, an

evolutionary approach. Blackwell Scientific Publications,

London.

Hanney, P.W. (1975): Rodents, their lives and habits. Taplinger

Publishing Co., New York.

Lidicker (Jr.), W.Z. (1975): The role of dispersal in the

demography of small mammals, pp. 103-128. In: EP.

Golley, K. Petrusewicz & L. Ryszkowski (eds.), Small

mammals: their productivity and population dynamics.

Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Prakash, I & R.P. Maihur (1987): Management of rodent

pests. Publication and Information Division, I.C.A.R, New

Delhi.

10. NEW RECORDS OF THE MALABAR SPINY DORMOUSE {PLATACANTHOMYS

LASIURUS BLYTH) IN THE INDIRA GANDHI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, TAMIL NADU

In March 1994, we were conducting night

transects in the wet evergreen forests in the Indira

Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary for surveying nocturnal

arboreal mammals. On 4th March we were on a night

transect along a foot path in the Varagaliar shola, 25

km south of Top Slip at an altitude of 650 m. After

spotting and observing a couple of flying squirrels

we were on our way back to the camp, when we

spotted a Malabar Spiny Dormouse ( Platacanthomys

lasiurus) that had just fallen from a tree right in front

of us.

During the last one year of live trapping of

terrestrial rodents in rainforests in the Indira Gandhi

Wildlife Sanctuary and in some private forests in the

area, I trapped a few more individuals of the Malabar

Spiny Dormouse. Some were in the Akkamalai hills

at an elevation of 1280 m, far above the range of

600-900 m suggested by Ellerman (1961). Shankar

(1996) recorded the Spiny Dormouse at an even

higher altitude (2000 m) in the Upper Bhavani hills

of the Nilgiris. Some other recent reports of the

species have been within or close to the altitudinal

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.94 (1997)

range. Jayson and Christopher (1995) reported the

species from Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary at an

altitude of 600 m, Rajagopalan (1968) reported the

species at lower altitudes, and Divya Mudappa (pers.

comm.) from Kalakkad and Mundanthurai Tiger

Reserve at an altitude of 1100 m.

These reports show that the species occurs over

a wider altitudinal range than was previously thought.

Rajagopalan (1968) reported the species to be a pest

in arecanut plantations. However, we have been able

to trap the species only from relatively undisturbed

rainforests, suggesting that this endemic species

might be sensitive to habitat disturbance.

September 18, 1996 A. PRABHAKAR

Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology &

Natural History,

Kalampalayam P.O. Coimbatore 641 010.

References

Ellerman, J.R. (1961): The Fauna of India including Pakistan,

Burma and Ceylon, Mammalia. Vol. 3, Edited by M.L.

Roonwal. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. Volumes

1 and 2.

Jayson, E.A. and G. Christopher (1995): Sighting of Spiny

Dormouse Platacanthomys lasiurus Blyth, 1959 in

Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary, Trivandrum District, Kerala.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92(2): 258.

Rajagopalan, P.K. (1968): Notes on the Malabar Spiny

Dormouse, Platacanthomys lasiurus Blyth 1859 with new

distribution record. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 65(1 ): 214-

215.

Shankar, K. (1996): Islands in the Western Ghats. Science

Reporter. Vol. 33, No. 6, June- 1996. 9-13.

11, INDIAN ONE-HORNED RHINOCEROS RHINOCEROS UNICORNIS LINNAEUS 1758,

IN ARUNACHAL PRADESH

(With one map)

Arunachal Pradesh is by and large not an ideal

rhino habitat but stray animals have often been

sighted in different areas, especially at the edge of

the hills, near Assam border. Stray rhinos used to

occur in the upper Dihing Valley (part of present

Namdapha National Park) in Changlang district and

in southern Tirap (Gee, 1964: wildlife of india).

However, specific identification of those stray

animals could not be ascertained and there is a

possibility of those animals being Sumatran rhino

Dicerorhinus sumatrensis.

I report here the occurrence of the Indian one-

horned rhinoceros Rhinoceros unicornis Linn, in

Arunachal Pradesh in recent years, observed during

field surveys in different parts of the state, which

are listed below chronologically:

1978. A female rhino with a calf was sighted

in Sonai-Rupai Sanctuary of Assam (not a notified

protected area) by the Forest staff (T. Nath, pers.

comm.). The location was not far from the border of

West Kameng district of Arunachal Pradesh.

1986. A female with a grown-up calf sighted

in Dulung Reserve Forest (RF) of Lakhimpur district

of Assam. The location was near Assam- Arunachal

Pradesh interstate border.

1987. A rhino suddenly appeared in Panir RF

of Lower Subansiri district (now Papum Pare

district). It first came to Kakoi RF of Assam then

followed the Joihing river up to Arunachal Pradesh.

April -May, 1990. A lone rhino stayed for more

than a month in Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary of East

Kameng district. It came via Nameri Wildlife

Sanctuary of Assam.

September, 1990. Two rhinos strayed out of

Kaziranga National Park and travelled through

Sonitpur district to Papum RF of East Kameng

district. On their way they crossed the Brahmaputra

river, some tea estates, villages and forests. Later

on they were chased back to Khatonibari Soil

Conservation Area in Sonitpur district, on the

opposite bank of Kaziranga National Park by the

staff of the Assam Forest Department.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

153

Fig. 1. Map showing the recorded localities of Rhinoceros unicornis (#)

and the distribution of grassland ([j|).

January, 1995. A lone rhino travelled through

Narayanpur area of Lakhimpur district of Assam to

Drupong RF of Papum Pare district, Arunachal

Pradesh. In all probability it was from Kaziranga

National Park, as every year a few from this national

park wander up to Narayanpur area. It stayed in

Drupong RF and adjacent areas of Torajuli (near

Assam- Arunachal Pradesh border) for a week (mostly

in the valley of the Pichola river). However, it fell to

poachers near Narayanpur while coming back.

The above records suggest that the Rhinoceros

unicornis sporadically wanders into Arunachal

Pradesh although none of the recorded areas are

suitable habitat for the species. The only large patch

of grassland in Arunachal Pradesh is found near the

confluence of the Siang, Lohit and the Dihing rivers

covering parts of D’Ering Wildlife Sanctuary, Dibang

RF and adjacent riverine areas (about 220 sq km)

but there is no evidence of any recent occurrence of

the rhino from these areas.

October 22, 1 996 ANWARUDDEN

CHOUDHURY

Near Gate No. 1 of Nehru Stadium ,

Islampur Road,

Guwahati 781 007, Assam.

12. A BAT EATING COMMUNITY OF CHHATARPUR DISTRICT OF MADHYA PRADESH

(With one plate )

During the Parliamentary election 1993 I was Asst. Veterinary Field officer, told me about the

posted to village Patha of Damoh district as presiding killing (he termed it suicide) of “birds” in the forests,

officer. One of my polling officers K.C. Ahirwal, near Bakswaha in District Chhatarpur during winter

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol . 94 (1997)

on some particular days from Dussehra to full moon

of Kartick by the local people who eat them and

extract oil for use against rheumatic and other pains.

I decided to investigate this strange behaviour which

could be similar to the bird deaths at Jatinga of

Assam. I could not survey the area during the year

but I kept in touch with Ahirwal who promised to

join me the next year.

The next winter, a few days prior to Deepawali

in November I met Ahirwal in his village Imalai for

the exact location of the area. He introduced me to

Mr. Mohammad Salim, Deputy Ranger of Forest of

Kumharai (Hatta) who was also aware of the

phenomenon. He informed me that the people of

Durgwan village in district Chhatarpur trapped these

“birds” in the forest in thousands from caves by

covering the cave entrance at night with blankets.

They sometimes ate them raw and also extracted oil

which is useful against rheumatic and other joint

pains.

On 10th November, 1994 we both started at

0730 hrs from our place and reached Durgwan

(approx. 24° 20 N and 79° 40' E and 83 km away

from Damoh) at 1115 hrs. The forest Chowki was

on the road and we met and discussed our quest with

the forest officials. According to them this

phenomenon was an ancient practice and the local

people, mainly Saur tribe, trap the Chempla (a local

name for bat) like birds during the night on these

days by covering the openings of various caves with

blankets. Sometimes they trapped more than a

thousand “birds”. Some of them eat the “birds”

without cooking. However, others extract oil from

them in frying pans. I showed them the book of

Indian birds (Ali, 1979). Most of them pointed to

the Palm Swift and gave slight differences, but

nobody said that it was a bat.

Before leaving the place we were able to collect

some of the oil from a local I went through the few

available books and journals but could not trace the

presence of Swiftlets in this region.

Next year on 30th October, 1995 we again

reached Durgwan and the forest guard sent a local

man to one of the trappers’ houses. Soon that man

brought a pair of the so-called “birds”. We were

surprised to see a pair of bats with a mouse-like free

tail which we had never seen before. I took some

measurements and interviewed some local people

including the Saur tribals and took several photographs

of the bats and of the whole team including some Saurs.

Further enquiries revealed that:

1 . The trapping of bats is a continuing practice

from very early times during Dussehra to the

Kartick full mo on.

2. There are 30 to 40 and 8 to 10 houses of Saur

tribals in Durgwan and Surajpura Roads

resepctively. Prior to trapping, the oldest man

of the tribe used to worship their God (Badai-

Baba). Strangely, among the puja material

Ganja ( Cannabis saliva) is a must.

3. The tribe traps the bats in the night using

blankets- at the entrance of various caves,

probably they know about the vision system

of bats and kill them one by one in large

numbers during one operation.

4. The event of trapping/use of oil attracts, local

and nearby people everyday who also

participate in large numbers.

5. For the extraction of oil, they stretch out the

skin and wings of the bats and put them into

hot frying pans. After filtering the crude oil,

the remaining parts are eaten.

6. These bats are probably resident to this region

as they are also seen by local people in pre-

and post-trapping periods.

After getting back to Damoh, I identified

the bats with the help of the Journal of Bombay

Natural History Society (1993, 1994) and

Encyclopedia of the Animal World (1972). The

bats are commonly known as Lesser Mouse tailed

bats Rhinopoma which due to (i) Smaller free

rat-like tail (3. 7-4.2 cm) in comparison to head and

body length (9.4-10 cm) (ii) naked face, ear and

connective membrane (iii) Small, triangular dermal

ridge (iv) tragus in the ear, should be Rhinopoma

microphyllum

In my view this old traditional phenomenon is

not harmful for the bat species and the ecosystem if

it is continued, limited to Saur tribe only, but its

increasing popularity and the involvement of other

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 94

A. Kher: Lesser Mouse tailed bats

Plate 1

a. Ventral view of a pair of Lesser Mouse tailed bats,

b. Fully stretched ventral view of Lesser Mouse tailed bat.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

155

people in large numbers may endanger this species

in this area. More study is required to establish these

facts and other details.

Acknowledgement

I am thankful to Prof. A.K. Naik, Head Civil

Engg. Department, Polytechnic College, Damoh for

his valuable help.

October 11, 1996 A. KHER

Asstt. Prof, of Botany,

Govt . Girls College,

Damoh ( M.P. ). 470 661.

References

Bates, P.J J., D.L. Harrison & M. MuNi (1994): The bats of

Western India Revisited part. 1 . J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

91(1): 1-15.

Gopalakrishna, A. & N. Badwaik (1993): Breeding habits

and associated phenomena in some Indians bats - part

XIV (concluded). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 90(1): 1-10.

Encyclopedia of the Animal World ( 1 972): By Book Sydney,

Vol. (2): 157-164.

13. SIGHTINGS OF THE SPANISH SPARROW PASSER HISPANIOLENSIS

(TEMMINCK) AT KOTA IN SOUTH EAST RAJASTHAN

I have been observing mixed flocks of House

sparrow Passer domesticus and Spanish sparrow P.

hispaniolensis around Kota for the last 3 years (1992,

93, 94). These flocks are particularly abundant in

the fields and grasslands, feeding on grass seeds. 3-

4 flocks of about 500 birds each were seen moving

around Abheda on 7th November, 21st December,

1994 and 4th January, 1995. The males are

distinguishable by their chestnut head and grey

markings on the flanks. The males with black

markings on throat and flanks with white supercilium

have been observed in late January and early

February. The females are rather difficult to

distinguish, but some show up with faint markings

on the flanks.

Ali S., & S.D. Ripley (1987): Compact handbook of the

Birds of India and Pakistan, Oxford University Press.

Mohapatra K.K., & Rao, Prakash (1990): Range extension

of the Spanish sparrow Passer hispaniolensis (Temminck),

Ali and Ripley (1987) have described the range

of Spanish sparrow in India, whereby Bharatpur (27°

10’ N, 77° 32' E) and Sambhar lake near Jaipur form

the southernmost points of its distribution. Mohapatra

and Rao (1990) have sighted and ringed Spanish

sparrow at Karera (25° 30' N, 78° 12' E), Madhya

Pradesh. Rahmani (1991) has also included this bird

in the checklist of Karera. Kota (25° 10' N, 75° 52' E)

is situated roughly 270 mm. south west of Kar er a . Thus

these repeated sightings can be treated as a southward

range extension of the Spanish sparrow.

March 6, 1995 RAKESH VYAS

2-P-22, Vigyan Nagar,

Kota-324 005.

enCes

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 87-1 : 149.

Rahmani A.R. (1991): Birds of the Karera Bustard Sanctuary,

Madhya Pradesh, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 88-2: 172-

194. '

14. A SIGHT RECORD OF THE BESRA SPARROW-HAWK (ACCIPITER VIRGATUS)

IN RISHI VALLEY, ANDHRA PRADESH

On 28th July, 1 991 1 located a shikra-sized raptor

among the trees on the wooded hillside in the Asthachal

area of the Rishi Valley School, Chittoor District,

Andhra Pradesh. The bird was seen close to the grain

thrashing area, which usually attracts several small

passerine birds. It was quite aggressive and bold and

was seen chasing crows that tried to mob it.

The bird afforded fairly good views and I was

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.94 (1997)

able to see all the field marks — the greyish brown

upperparts, the whitish patch on the nape, atleast

three dark tail bands, the dark throat-stripe flanked

by two fainter moustachial streaks and the pale

underparts with bold vertical streaks. I could identify

the bird as an immature Besra sparrow-hawk.

This sighting may be of interest as, according

to the handbook (Vol. 1), this species has been

sparingly recorded in the Eastern Ghats and its status

there is uncertain. Further, the habitat in which the

bird was seen was dry deciduous (altered a little by

artificial tree planting) and not the “evergreen or

moist deciduous type”, the known habitat in which

the bird occurs.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to the Staff and management of

the Rishi Valley School for hosting me in their

campus and to Mr. S. Rangaswami, Hon. Wildlife

Warden of the Rishi Valley Bird Preserve for

encouragement.

June 12, 1995 V. SANTHARAM,

68, 1 Floor, Santhome High Road,

Madras-600028.

Present address: SAC ON,

Kalampalayam,

Coimbatore 641 010).

15. SIGHTING OF WATER RAIL RALLUS AQUATICUS NEAR MUMBAI

A Water Rail Rallus aquaticus was spotted

among the mangroves during low tide on 25th

December, 1 994 at Thane Creek. The bird was actively

feeding in the marsh. The Water Rail has not been

reported earlier from Mumbai and Maharashtra (Ali

and Ripley 1983). The bird is reported to be resident

and breeding in Kashmir and Ladakh: straggling south

in winter as far at least as Madhya Pradesh (Ali and

Ripley 1 983). I have not come across any reference to

the occurrence of this bird in Mumbai and

Maharashtra. Probably this is the southern most record

of this bird in the country.

The bird was photographed and the

identification was confirmed by comparing it with

the specimen at BNHS.

July 4, 1995 HIRA PUNJABI

6 Gautam Center, Thane East-400 603.

Reference

Ali & Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan, Compact Edition. Oxford University Press, Bombay.

16. ORANGEBILLED JUNGLE MYNAH AND HODGSON’S BUSH CHAT IN

KAZIRANGA NATIONAL PARK

The Orangebilled Jungle Mynah ( Acridotheres

grandis) was seen on two separate occasions in April

1995 in Ben gun Range of Kaziranga National Park

(26° 30’ and 26° 45’ N and 93° 5' and 93° 40’ E) in

Assam. In all 1 1 individuals of the species were seen

on the two occasions in groups of five and six

respectively. The species has been noted on other

occasions also by the first author. This is a new

species for the Kaziranga bird checklist and has gone

unnoticed probably because of its similarity with the

Jungle Mynah {Acridotheres fuscus). It is easily

distinguishable by its completely orange bill as

compared to the yellow-orange bill of the latter. In

case of the Jungle Mynah, the base of the lower

mandible tends to be bluish-black (Ali and Ripley,

1983). The Orangebilled Jungle Mynah also has a

distinctively larger bunch of unruly hairs on its

forehead than the Jungle Mynah. Earlier, this species

was recorded from Nagaland, Manipur, Tripura, Mizo

hills and the Chittagong Hill Tracts (Ali and Ripley,

1983). After this, birdwatchers have considerably

enlarged its range by observations in Panidihing

(Sibsagar district), (Barooah, 1994), Sibsagar town,

Dambruchara (North Cachar district), Laokhawa and

Burrha-Sapori (Naogaon district) and Guwahati town

(Choudhury 1991). The species has also been

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

157

reported from Karbi Anglong hill district

(Choudhury, 1993) and from Naharlagun in

Arunachal Pradesh (Singh, 1995). This gives the

species a wide-ranging distribution throughout the

North-East as compared to the earlier impressions

of it being confined to the lower states alone. Its

resident status in Kaziranga National Park must,

however, be confirmed by trying to locate nesting

sites which could be in tree-holes or earthern banks.

Its relationship with other resident Sturnidae species

such as the Jungle Mynah ( Acridotheres fuscus), the

Bank Mynah {Acridotheres ginginnianus ) and the

Pied Mynah {Sturnus contra) is also worth

observing. If the species is a local migrant, which is

a distinct possibility, more needs to be known of its

movements within its range.

The second new species for Kaziranga

observed was the Hodgson’s Bush Chat ( Saxicola

insignis). Although Ali and Ripley, (1983) identified

it from the Indian Bush Chat ( Saxicola torquata ) by

its larger size and bigger white wing patch, it was

observed in the field to be easily distinguished by

its white throat band versus a black one. The wing

patch is also noticeable although comparative sizes

seemed a difficult proposition in the field. On 13th

April, 1995, four to five bush chats which were

seemingly different to S. torquata were noticed in

All S & S.D. Ripley ( 1 983): Handbook of the birds of India

and Pakistan, Oxford University Press, New Delhi.

Barooah, D. (1994) Birds of Panidihing, Newsletter for

Birdwatchers 34 (4): 83-86.

Choudhury, A. (1991): Distribution of Orangebilled Jungle

Mynah ( Acridotheres javanicus ) in North-East India, J.

Baguri range of Kaziranga National Park by the

second author. Later, on 29th April, the third author

saw a single individual of the same species in Baguri

Range. The species is described by Ali and Ripley

(1983) as having a range as far east as Jalpaiguri

duars of North Bengal and Sikkim. Later it has been

reported in Manas National Park of Assam (Narayan

pers. comm.). Kaziranga is therefore a clear range

extension for the species. The bird is also supposed

to leave for its summer grounds in early April - the

last recorded date being 10th April, (Ali and Ripley,

1983). Our observation is, therefore, also an

extension of the recorded winter migration of the

species. The range extensions of the two species into

Kaziranga is an interesting species record as well as

a reminder to ornithologists that even one of India’s

best known National Parks is yet to be fully surveyed

for its avifauna.

August 28, 1 995 PANKAJ S ARM A

Range Officer, Baguri Range ,

Kaziranga National Park, 785109

MAAN B ARUA

Wild Grass, Kaziranga, 785109

VIVEKMENON

Programme Officer, TRAFFIC- India,

WWF -India, 172-B , Lodi Estate, New Delhi 3.

ENCES

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 88 (2): 286.

Chodhury, A. (1993): A Naturalist in Karbi Anglong, Gibbon

Books, Guwahati.

Narayan, G. (1995): personal communication.

Singh, P. (1995): Recent bird records from Arunachal Pradesh,

Forktail No. 10.

17. RECENT SIGHTINGS OF LARGE HAWK-CUCKOO ( CUCULUS SPARVERIOIDES) IN

THE NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE, SOUTHERN INDIA

During the course of a study on the distribution

of small carnivores in the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve

between October 1994 and July 1995, I had two

sightings of the large hawk-cuckoo. The first sighting

was on 24th December, 1994 around 1730 hrs in a

moist deciduous forest patch near TWAD Board

Quarters in the foothills (altitude 450 - 500 m) of

the Siruvani hills (Tamil Nadu side), which is the

southernmost part of the Reserve. A single bird flew

from one of the low lying branches, to another branch

some 50 m ahead. The flight was typical of an

Accipiter. Any one could have mistaken the bird for

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JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol . 94 (1997)

a Shikra ( Accipiter badius ) but for its larger size,

which puzzled me about its identity. I followed the

bird to get a better look. I went close to it and there

was ample time for me to confirm the identity of the

bird as large-hawk cuckoo. It was an overall ashy-

brown bird with more brown on the upper parts,

unlike the ashy-grey of the Common Hawk-cuckoo

( Cuculus varius). It had a proportionately long tail,

with blackish bands, tipped with white. A few days

after my sighting, a bird was sighted in the Siruvani

dam area (Kerala side) by Justus Joshua and V.

Santharam (pers. comm.). This species was again

sighted by Justus Joshua in March 1995 in the

foothills of Siruvani (Tamil Nadu), close to the area

where I had seen the bird.

The second sighting was in New

Amarambalam Reserve Forest (Kerala) on 25th

January, 1995. I was walking towards Panapuzha

from Maancheri, sampling the low-lying (altitude

350 - 400 m) moist deciduous forests of the western

slopes of the Western Ghats. It was about 1100 hrs

and I was nearing Panapuzha when I saw a large

Kawk-cuckoo. It was not difficult for me to recognise

this species as it was my second sighting of this

species in a short span. It flew across the path swiftly

at a low level and abruptly swept up near one of the

trees and landed on a lower branch. The place it was

sighted was a transition area between moist

deciduous and semi-evergreen vegetation types.

I have an unconfirmed third record of this bird

irom Wynaad Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala. It was in

the moist deciduous forests near Nellur Vayal watch

tower in the Muthanga forest range. I did not sight

the bird on this occasion but I heard its call, which

went like “Pi Peee.. Pi Peee..” The call was different

enough to be mistaken for the call of the Common

Hawk-cuckoo, which I am very familiar with. The

Refer

AH, S. (1969): Birds of Kerala. 2nd ea. Oxford University

Press, New Delhi, pp 444.

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley ( 1 987): Handbook of the Birds of India

and Pakistan. 2nd ed. Oxford University Press, New

Delhi.

Neelakantan, K.K., C. Sashikumar and R. Venugopalan

third syllable of this call was extended, in contrast

to the Common Hawk-cuckoo’s call which ends

abruptly. There was also a shrill note like “ Pee whi ,

Pi whi ” heard frequently, which was unlike that of

the Plaintive Cuckoo ( Cacomantis passerinus ) which

I have heard many times before. The bird was too

far from me to approach and look at, and I had to

move away from that place to continue with my

sampling. I hoped to hear the call some other time,

so that I could follow it. This was almost towards

the end of 25th April, 1995 when ihis species was

expected to have gone back to its breeding ground.

It left me to wonder about the bird calling in its

wintering quarters.

Ali and Ripley (1987) report that this species

migrates in winter from Hiamalayas, southwards into

the peninsula, and had been recorded from Tamil

Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala. But Ali (1969) and

Neelakantan et al. (1993) do not mention this bird

in their compiled information on the birds of Kerala.

Zacharias andGaston (1993) record this bird in the

moist deciduous habitat in Wynaad and they claim

this as the first record for Kerala. However, a bird

survey of the Wynaad Wildlife Sanctuary, held in

January 1992, came across three individuals of .this

species in the Tholpatty range, which is again a moist

deciduous forest area (Uthaman, 1993). It may be

noted that the habitat at all the three places from

where I recorded this bird was moist deciduous

forests. This species has probably been under-

recorded in its wintering range and this is likely to

be due to its elusiveness.

November 9, 1995 T.R.K. YOGANAND

Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and

Natural History \

Kalampalayam P.O. Coimbatore 641 010.

E N C E S

(1993): A Bock of Kerala birds. WWF-I, Kerala State

Committee, pp 146.

Zacharias, V.J. & A.J. Gaston (1993): The Birds of Wynaad,

Southern India. Forktail, 8: 11-24.

Uthaman, P.K. (1993): Birds of the Wynaad Wildlife

Sanctuary. Blackbuck, 9(1): 1-17.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

159

18. RANGE EXTENSION OF THE NEPAL BABBLER ( ALCIPPE NIPALENSIS)

On 25th March, 1991 we were coming down

the steep slopes of the Shivaliks which were covered

with bamboo ( Dendrocalamus strictus),Anogeissus

latifolia, Lannea coramandelica and Shared robustd

in the Guwalgad sot (sot = stream or river) area of

the Rajaji-Corbett corridor in the western part of

Uttar Pradesh. We were trying to locate a radio

collared cow elephant. A small brownish bird was

disturbed from a bamboo clump. We went near the

bamboo clump to which the bird had gone and

located it. It had a prominent white ring around the

eye with a black supercilium and buff with white in

the breast region. The head was greyish brown with

greyish cheeks. The upper parts of the body was light

brown with a long tail. It was solitary and moved

from one bamboo clump to another, probably

foraging for insects.

On going through the handbook of the birds

of india and Pakistan by Ali and Ripley (1983) OUP,

Delhi, we found that it was the Nepal Quaker or

Nepal Babbler, which has been reported to be found

only in the north eastern Himalayas The Nepal

babbler has not been reported from this part of Uttar

Pradesh and thus this is a positive “range extension”

for this species. This species was sighted and

photographed by one of us (SFWS) in 1989 near

River Rawason, the western boundary of the corridor.

August 17, 1995 S.F. WESLEY SUNDERRAJ

JUSTUS JOSHUA1

Wildlife Institute of India ,

Post Box 18,

Dehradun-248 001.

'Present address:

SdlimAli Centre for Ornithology and

Natural History,

Kalampalayam PO,

Coimbatore-640 010 .

19. WAS RICHARD MEINERTZHAGEN’ S RECORD OF A “GREAT BLACK-BACKED

GULL LARUS MARINUS" IN RAJASTHAN REALLY HEUGLIN’S GULL L HEUGLINI1

The Great Black-backed Gull Lotus marinus

of the northern shores of the Atlantic Ocean is

reported by Ali and Ripley (1981) and Roberts

(1991) to have occurred in the Indian subcontinent

on the strength of a single report of a bird killed on

Deoli jheel 88 km south of Nasirabad in Rajasthan

on 16th November, 1899 by Richard Meinertzhagen

(1900). On working through the records of large,

white-headed gulls occurring around southern Asia

I was unable to find any other satisfactory published

description of this species, so that in view of the

doubts about this observer’s credibility (Crocker

1989, Knox 1993) it seems time the record received

further scrutiny.

At the time Meinertzhagen was a subaltern in

the Royal Fusiliers, aged 21 with no scientific

training, and according to Crocker (1984) it was

another dozen years before he published any other

important ornithological contribution. He reported

that the gull came to a goose he had shot, whereupon

he killed it as well, recognised it immediately from

experience in Britain as a Great Black-backed Gull,

and threw it away without bothering to preserve it.

The only details that he provides are that it was “fully

adult and with a fine dark mantle’, and had a body-

length within one or two inches (2.5-5 cm) of that of

the goose, which should have been approximately

30-35 inches (55-89 cm). He thought that the most

remarkable feature of the record was not that the bird

had occurred in India, but that it was so far inland.

Since Colonel Meinertzhagen (1935) later

became an authority on this group of gulls nobody

appears to have questioned his identification. By

current standards it is quite inadequate for a member

of a rather difficult group of birds. There is,

moreover, a more likely alternative identification of

which it is unlikely that anyone would have been

aware at that time, Heuglin’s Gull Lams (fuscus)

160

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol . 94 (1997)

heuglini , which seemed to me as large and dark on

the back as a Great Blackback, and has a wing-length

of 405-469 mm compared to 447-523 mm (and an

overall length of 64-78 cm, just as large as a goose)

in the latter (Cramp and Simmons 1983). While

heuglini normally winters further west, there is a

subadult from the Whistler Collection in the British

Museum (Natural History) taken on the Ganges at

Patna, Bihar, on 11th March 1939, so that

Meinertzhagen’s bird could well have belonged to

this form instead.

Heuglin’s Gull is usually treated as a race of

either the Herring GullL. argentatus, or much more

appropriately the more marine Lesser Black-backed

Gull L. fuscus , but the breeding distribution of all

these birds may overlap around the White Sea, with

some intergradation along the River Volga, and L.

heuglini is now regarded by some Russian

ornithologists as a distinct species (Stepanyan 1990,

Filchagov 1994). Most nominate heuglini appear to

winter on the west side of the Indian Ocean, and the

Patna bird may be the most easterly record, whereas

most similar gulls wintering around the coasts of the

Indian subcontinent appear to belong to its paler-

backed eastern ally or race L. (h?) taimyrensis , which

winters eastwards to China (Bourne 1994).

The curious feature of this record is surely not

that Meinertzhagen misidentified a difficult gull in

his youth, but that he failed to correct the

identification when he became older and supposedly

wiser. Possibly he forgot about it, or thought that

other people had done so, but he had a curiously

dismissive attitude to mistakes. Thus, when I wrote

to him in the early 1950s asking what else he saw

when he made field notes on the feeding behaviour

of the rare Raza Lark Calendrella razae

(Meintertzhagen 1952), he replied “he had nothing

to add to what he had already written”, when it later

became notorious that he had never set foot on the

only island where this lark occurs (Crocker 1989).

But while in this case he may also have been

unwilling to admit an error, it seems unnecessary to

dismiss the record as a fraud while there is a natural

explanation for misidentification available.

August 26, 1995 W.R.P. BOURNE

Department of Zoology,

Aberdeen University,

Tdlydrone Avenue,

Aberdeen AB9 2TN, Scotland.

References

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1981): Handbook of the Birds of India

and Pakistan. 2nd edition, Vol. 3, Oxford University

Press, New Delhi.

Bourne, W.R.P. (1994): The need to distinguish between the

Lesser Black-backed and Heuglin’s Gulls in the

Pacific. Pacific Seabirds 21(2): 7.

Crocker, M. (1989): Richard Meinertzhagen soldier, scientist

and spy. London.

Cramp, S. & K.E.L. Simmons (eds.) (1983): The Birds of the

Western Palearctic Vol. 3 Waders to Gulls. Oxford.

Filchagov, A.V. (1994): Contact zones of Larus argentatus-

cachinnans-fuscus Gull Complex in Eastern Europe

and Northern Asia. J. Om. 135 (suppl): 44.

Knox, A. (1993): Richard Meinertzhagen a case of fraud

examined. Ibis 135: 320-325.

Meinertzhagen, R. (1900): Reputed occurrence of Great

Black-backed Gull ( Larus marinus) while shooting in

Rajputana. J. Bombay not. Hist. Soc. 13: 374.

Meinertzhagen, R. (1935): The races of Lams argentatus and

Larus fuscus: with special reference to Herr B.

Stegmann’s recent paper on the subject. Ibis. (5)2: 762-

773.

Meinertzhagen, R. (1952): Review of the Alaudidae. Proc.

Zool. Soc. Lond. 121: 81-132.

Roberts, T.J. (1991): The Birds of Pakistan, Oxford University

Press, Karachi.

Stepanyan, L.S. (1990): Conspectus of the ornithological

fanua of the USSR. Moscow. (In Russian).

20. NOTES ON GROWTH AND MATURITY IN THE INDIAN ROOFED TURTLE

(. KACHUGA TECTA)

Sayaji Baug Zoo, Vadodara, Gujarat, India has (. Kachuga tecta ) since 1991. The first batch of seven

been successfully breeding the Indian roofed turtle hatchlings were maintained in an enclosure

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

161

Table l The following measurements were taken once

a year: Straight carapace length (CL), carapace width

(CW), plastron length (PL), shell height (H), and

body weight (W) (Table 2). Four hatchlings died

during the first year, possibly due to some fungal

and parasite ( Ascaris . sp.) infections.

Sexual-dimorphic features became apparent in

the third year. Males had comparatively longer and

thicker tails than the females. Body shape of male

became oblong and female became oval during the

same period.

At the end of fifth year the terrapin CL reached

three times and the weight was twenty times more

than the size at birth.

About the aspect of reproductive maturity in

turtles, there are two divergent views among turtle

workers. One is that it is related to the age of the

turtle (Risley, 1938) and the other view regards the

attainment of maturity to be primarily size related

and not age related (Hidebrand, 1932; Cagle, 1948).

The present study shows that male turtles attain

maturity earlier than females, at the age of three,

when average of CL was 6.5 cm. According to Verma

Table 2

MEASUREMENTS OF CAPTIVE HATCHLINGS OF INDIAN ROOFED TURTLE AT SAYAJI BAUG ZOO,

VADODARA, GUJARAT. MEASUREMENT IN CM, WEIGHT IN GM

Numbers in parenthesis are range

LIST OF PLANT SPECIES CONSUMED BY KACHUGA

TECTA IN CAPTIVITY*

* Listed as per preference of terrapin.

measuring 2.0 x 2.5 m.

The enclosure has a half-metre high periphery

wall and the centre with 80 x 80 x 60 cu cm water

with necessary slopes. The top of the enclosure is

covered with wire-mesh for protection against

predators.

The turtle hatchlings were daily fed with

various species of plants (Table 1) in adlibitum

quantity. Cockroaches, crickets and earthworms were

also offered once a week, up to the age of one year.

Turtles were less interested in insects and worms.

162

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol . 94 (1997)

and Sahi (1996) the male attains maturity at the

size of CL > 6.0 cm, which supports the present

study.

The maturity in turtles is related either to age

or size, and requires more study.

I thank V.A. Jadeja, Curator of the Sayaji Baug

R EFE

Cagle, F.R. (1948): Sexual maturity in the male turtle

Pseudemys scripta troostii. Copeia : 108-111.

HidebIUnd, S.F. (1932): Growth of diamondback terrapins,

size attained, sex-ratio and longevity. Zool. 9: 557-563.

Risley, P.L. (1938): Seasonal changes in the tests of

Zoo, Vadodara for the support and facilities extended.

October 3, 1 996 RAJU VYAS

Sayaji Baug Zoo,

Vadodara-390 018,

Gujarat, India.

ENCES

musk turtle Stemotherus odoratus. J. Morphol. 63: 307-

317.

Verma, A.K. & D.N. Sahi (1996): On the size at maturity in

the male freshwater turtles, Kachuga tecta and K. smithi

in Jammu. Zoos Print. 11(7): 3 & 5.

21. RECORDS OF THE GHARIAL GAVIALIS GANGETICUS (GMELIN) FROM THE

BARAK RIVER SYSTEM OF NORTH-EASTERN INDIA

(With one text-figure)

The Barak river and its tributaries drain the

southern areas of north-eastern India, notably parts

of Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura and the

entire southern Assam (Fig. 1). The main tributaries

of the Barak are the Irang, Makru, Tipai (Tuivai),

Jiri, Chiri, Madhura, Jatinga, Sonai, Dhaleswari

(Tlawng) with its distributary, the Katakhal, Shingla

and the Longai. Near Badarpur, the river bifurcates

into two - the Surma and the Kushiyara and then

flows through Bangladesh.

Occurrence of the gharial in the Barak river

system was not reported in any of the recent

publications on the species (Whitaker and Basu 1 982;

Singh, Kar and Choudhury 1984; Singh 1991). Smith

(1931) also did not mention specifically. However,

Choudhury (1 989, 1 992) mentioned its recent reports

from a tributary of the Barak river.

An excellent account of the past abundance of

the gharial in the Barak river system is found in

Cooper (1951a, b). His Tepi’, Macrup and Irung are

now known as Tipai (Tuivai), Makru and Irang

respectively, all tributaries of the Barak river. He and

his companions shot a few of these reptiles in the

upper reaches of the Barak and in the Tipai rivers.

The first one was shot in 1906 up the Tipai river. In

the twenties, he found the gharial to be “fairly

plentiful’ in the upper reaches of the Barak,

especially near its confluence with the Tipai. The

site of confluence is know'n as Tipaimukh. The river

Tipai marks the boundary of the present day Manipur

and Mizoram states.

Although Singh (1991) mentioned the

reference of Cooper (1 95 1 a, b), he mistook the Barak

river system to be that of the Brahmaputra and also

did not mark it on the map.

During field survey in different parts of the

river basin over the past decade, I came across a few

authentic reports on the species, and also visited all

the recorded localities. These reports are presented

chronologically.

1934-35: One gharial seen in broad daylight

in Katakhal river, a tributary of the Barak river, near

Matijuri in Hailakandi district, Assam. It was a large

specimen, 4-5 m long (A. Mazid Choudhury, pers.

comm.).

1948: One recorded in the Kushiyara river,

Karimganj district, Assam. The Kushiyara river also

marks the Indo-Bangladesh international border.

1950: One killed in the Dhaleswari river near

Hartaki, about 32 km downstream of Sairang in

Mizoram. The river is locally called by the Mizos

as Tlawng.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

163

Fig. 1. Map showing the Barak River system and the rivers and places mentioned in the text.

164

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol . 94 (1997)

1954-55: One seen floating in the Katakhal

river near Hasiura, Hailakandi district. It was shot

with a gun but could not be killed. It was a large

specimen, 4-5 m long (A. Mazid Choudhury, pers.

comm.).

Early 1960s: One shot by a ‘white’ hunter in

the Dhaleswari river, south of Gharmura in

Hailakandi district. After that killing, the place is

called Goduldor (Godul= Gharial in local Bengali

dialect) and is inside the Innerline Reserve Forest.

1988: During a short field survey in Manipur,

I came across reports of stray, or rather, remnant

individuals of gharial from the upper reaches of the

Barak river and its tributary, the Makru river

(Choudhury 1989, 1992). I cross checked with the

Forest Department who were also aware of these

facts. Unfortunately, no survey could be carried out

due to insurgent activities in the area. Cooper (1951a,

b) did not cover these stretches of the rivers either.

1996: In January, I visited some sites in the

upper reaches of the Barak and its tributaries, the

Makru and the Irang in Tamenglong district of

Manipur. Although no gharial could be seen, the long

deep pools with sand banks showed potential habitat

Choudhury, A.U. (1989): Distribution of wildlife in Manipur.

North-Eastern Geographer 21(1 &2): 57-62.

— (1992): Wildlife in Manipur - A preliminary

survey. Tigerpaper XIX(l): 20-28.

Cooper, W.E.D. (195 la): Forty years of sports on little known

Assam rivers. Part 7.7. Bombay not. Hist. Soc. 50(1):

91-100.

(1951b): Forty years of sports on little known Assam

rivers. Part II. 7. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 50(2): 313-

322.

Singh, L.A.K. (1991): Distribution of Gavialis gangeticus.

for the reptile. This time again some of the stretches,

farther interior, could not be surveyed due to

insurgent activities.

Although the gharial was present in the Barak

river system, it was never common in the recent past.

The main reasons for its decline in the area are (1)

Heavy year-round use of the rivers for fishing and

as waterway to transport bamboo and other forest

produce; (2) Encroachment of basking and breeding

beaches (occupied by humans for setting up of

fishing camps, logging camp and bamboo-collection

camp); (3) Chasing and attempt to kill any gharial

sighted; (4) Siltation of river-beds due to heavy

deforestation in the hills; and (5) Use of poison and

dynamite for fishing by tribals in the upper reaches

of the rivers. While there are possibilities of a few

gharials still living in the upper reaches of the Barak

and the Dhaleswari rivers, they are unlikely to

survive for long.

June 4, 1996 ANWARUDDIN CHOUDHURY

Near Gate No. 1 of Nehru Stadium,

Islampur Road,

Guwahati 781 007, Assam.

E N C E S

Hamadryad 16(1,2): 39-46.

Singh, L.A.K. , S. Kar & B.C. Chodhury (1984): India: Status

of wild crocodilians. Paper presented at the 7th

Working Meeting of the Crocodile Specialists Group

(RJCN/SSC), Caracas, Venezuela.

Smith, M.A. (1931): Fauna of British India, including Ceylon

and Burma. Reptilia and Amphibia. Vol . Loricata,

Testudines. Taylor & Francis, London.

Whitaker, R. & D. Basu (1982): The Gharial ( Gavialis

gangeticus): A Review. 7. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

79(3): 531-548.

22. AN OBSERVATION ON ECDYSIS IN THE COMMON HOUSE LIZARD

HEMIDACTYLUS FLAVIVIRIDIS RUPELL OF INDIA

During the last part of March 1996, 1 collected

a copulating pair of the common house lizard, from

the outside wall of a verandah at Kolasib of

Mizoram, India at 0755 hrs. The outside

atmospheric temperature was measured and was

found to be 16°C, there was a heavy shower during

the preceding night. Kolasib is a hilly terrain at an

altitude 1067 m. The lizard pair was caught and

kept in a 250 ml borosil glass beaker with a paper

lid having some pores for ventilation. The pair was

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

165

kept under constant watch to observe the moulting.

On 4th April, 1 996 at 1000 hrs when I left for college

both the lizards were normal and one of them was

sitting on the bottom. Around 1230 hrs when I

returned from college I saw some loose skin on the

head of one lizard, which was sitting on the floor of

the jar. From this it is presumed that the loosening

of skin may have started an hour before i.e. around

1100 or 1130 hrs. The process of shedding of skin

was complete by 1800 hrs. i.e. complete shedding

took 6.5 to 7.00 hours. During this period slight

movement of the moulting lizard was observed but

the lizard did not seem to show any sign of

restlessness or uneasiness. After the shedding of its

skin, 2/3rd of its moult (except the lower portion of

the snout) was eaten by one of the two lizards.

This observation is in contradiction to the

earlier observation of Prasad (1916) taken at Panipat

which states that the process of moulting was

completed in 52 hours. He also mentioned that the

animal was very restless and rubbed against the sides

of the glass jar in which it was kept. Such peculiar

behaviour could be due to the ectoparasitic infection

of reddish ‘ticks’ or mites which, he mentioned, were

on the body of the lizard and did not come off with

the cast, but bored through it and remained attached

to the animal. Restlessness was not observed in the

present investigation as the animal was free from

ticks or mites. However it confirms Prasad's (1916),

observation that skin is shed in pieces.

June 4, 1 996 DAYA N AND HARIT

Head, Department of Zoology,

Government Kolasib College,

Kolasih-796 081,

Mizoram. India.

References

Prasad. B. (1916): Some observations on a Common House Lizard ( Hemidactylus flaviviridis Rupell) of India. J. Bombay

not. Hist. Soc. 24\ 834-838.

23. OCCURRENCE OF THE FAT TAILED GECKO, EUBLEPHAR1S HARDWICK1I GREY

(SAURIA: GEKKONIDAE) WITH REMARKS ON THE VARIATION IN CERTAIN

TAXONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS

(With one plate )

A fat tailed lizard was captured in Aushgram

village of Burdwan District, West Bengal on 6th

April, 1995, and kept in the Ecological Park for a

few days and then brought to the Zoology

Department of Burdwan University, West Bengal,

India.

The colour of the head and the body is deep

tobacco brown above with one 10 mm broad cream

coloured transverse band at the middle of the body

and another similar 7.5 mm broad band at the

junction of the body and tail. There is a cream

coloured “V” shaped narrow band round the neck

extending to some extent towards the body proper

on one side, and upto the tip of the snout through

upper labials on the otherside. The belly is creamy

white. One brown spot is noted on each hind limb.

The tail is bluish with deep brown spots; the tip is

brown. Thejiead and body measures 100 mm and

the tail 45 mm.

Behaviour

After capture, the animal starved for the first

two months. Then gradually it started feeding on soft-

bodied insects like dragonfly, moth, butterfly,

grasshopper, mosquitoes etc., but never took hard,

chitinised insects indicating a selective feeding habit.

It ate a few hatchlings of the common house lizard.

It is nocturnal but moves in artificial darkness during

day time. The lizard moves or walks solely on its

166

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.94 (1997)

feet and digits, keeping its whole body off the ground.

It cannot move or walk on a vertical wall but

sometimes raises the whole body vertically with the

support of the forelimbs on the wall and the tip of

the tail on the ground. Information regarding the

natural habitat of this lizard is not well known.

Identification and remarks:

Four species of the Fat-tailed Gecko belonging

to genus Eublepharis Grey are so far known from

the Indian region, of which E. hardwickii Grey is

known to occur in the Eastern Indian states with

particularly in Orissa, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and

West Bengal (Smith, 1935). The present specimen

has been identified as Eublepharis hardwickii Grey

(Family Gekkonidae) by the Herpetology

Department of Zoological Survey of India. The

Accession Registrar of the National Zoological

collection (Z.S.I. Calcutta) reveals that a single

specimen was collected and reported for the first

time from the southern part of West Bengal by a

British scientist in 1858. The collection of the

present specimen is therefore significant as thge

second report of the species after a lapse of 137

years. The present record of the specimen signifies

interesting zoogeographical implications in terms

of its occurrence and rarity. In addition, the present

specimen exhibits a noteworthy variation in its

measurement (145 mm. vs 195 mm as referred by

Smith, 1935) and colouration or banding pattern (a

single creamy band at the base of the tail vs 4-5

creamy bands as referred by Smith, 1935). The tail

of the present specimen is dotted with deep brown

spots instead of bands as described by Smith (1935).

In spite of these variations, it is not possible to

describe this specimen as a new variety, since the

present find is based on a single specimen.

Acknowledgement

We are indebted to Dr. S.K. Talukdar, Scientist,

Division of Herpetology, Zoological Survey of India

for identifying the specimen and valuable suggestions.

June 4, 1 996 G. CHANDRA

S.N. CHATTERJEE

C. DATTA

M. MAJUMDAR,

Zoology Department, Burdwan University

West Bengal India.

A. NATH

Ecological Park, Krishnasayar, Burdwan ,

University, West Bengal, India.

Reference1

Smith, M.A. (1935): The Fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burma, Reptilia and Amphibia Vol. 2. Sauria. Taylor and

Francis, London, xii, 440 pp.

24. GALLOP HIS NIGRESCENS (GUNTHER), (SERPENTES: ELAPIDAE) A COLOUR

VARIATION FROM SILENT VALLEY NATIONAL PARK, KERALA

Gunthei (1864) described the colour

characteristics of Callophis nigrescens as having dark

blackish ash or black upper side and uniformly red

ventral side. Upper part of the head is symmetrically

marbled with black, a black spot below the eye,

another descending from the occipital to the angle

of the mouth, a black horse-shoe like marking is

present on the collar with the convexity directed

forwards. A narrow black vertebral line slightly

edged with yellow runs from the collar to the tip of

the tail. A series of small ovate black spots,

indistinctly ridged with a whitish tint, is present along

each side of the trunk, which disappears posteriorly.

The tail is coloured like the body without black rings.

Later, Smith (1943) described three colour forms of

Callophis nigrescens. (1) Pale reddish or brownish

above with 5 black stripes on the body, a vertebral

and two lateral pairs, and three stripes on the tail,

the outermost stripes being on scale rows one and

two. The top of the head is black with light regular

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 94 Plate 1

G. Chandra et al. Eublepharis hardwickii

Fat tailed lizard in West Bengal

{

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

167

markings and abroad black bar on the nape, reddish

below. Upper lip has black vertical markings. (2)

Light or dark purplish brown above, with 5 black

stripes edged with white, the white lines being

continuous or regularly broken, the brown of the

dorsum extends on to the lateral edges of the ventrals.

(3) Blackish or greenish blue above, with 3 or 5 black

stripes, not edged with white. When only 3 striped,

the outer pair are absent. Head markings are usually

less distinct than the fist one.

Recently while conducting a herpetological

survey in the Silent Valley National Park in Kerala,

a Callophis nigrescens was collected with the

following colour pattern. The specimen has a

uniform glossy black dorsum without any stripes on

the body and tail. The head is blackish with white

symmetrical markings. The upper jaw is blackish

with two separate white markings. The lower jaw

is white in colour. The basal row of costals have

a narrow, indistinct white line, which ends near

the vent region. The ventral side is deeply

reddish, lighter in the anterior region, with white

cross markings, produced by the free end of the

ventrals.

Callophis nigrescenshas not yet been reported

from Silent Valley or adjacent areas (Murthy, 1986).

Hence, this is an addition to the herpetofauna of Silent

Valley.

June 4, 1 996 JOSEPH THOMAS

PS. EASA

Division of Wildlife Biology ;

Kerala Forest Research Institute ,

Peechi-680 653, Kerala.

References

Gunther, Albert C.L.G. (1864): The Reptiles of British India,

Oxford & IBH Publishing Co., New Delhi.

Murthy, T.S.K (1986): Reptiles of Silent Valley. Rec. Zool.

Surv. India, 84(1-4): 173-184.

Smith, M.A. (1943): The Fauna of British India including

Ceylon and Burma. Reptiles and Amphibians. Vol. 3,

Serpentes. Taylor and Francis, London, page 422.

25. NOTES ON A NEW DISTRIBUTIONAL RECORD AND THE ECOLOGY OF

RHABDOPS OLIVACEUS (BEDDOME) (REPTELIA: SERPENTES: COLUBRIDAE)

(With one text-figure)

The Olive forest snake, Rhabdops olivaceus

(Beddome), as the common name denotes, is

olivaceous or yellowish brown above and below in

colour, with 4 longitudinal series of small black spots

(2 dorso-lateral and 2 lateral) on the body. The snake

can be distinguished by its short maxilla bearing 10-

12 small, subequal teeth; head not distinct from neck;

nostril in the nasal, valvular, crescentic; body

cylindrical, elongate; scales in 17 rows throughout,

without apical pits; ventrals rounded, indistinctly

edged with dark brown; 2 internasals and 2

prefrontais.

The species originally discovered from

Mananthavadi, Wynaad district, Kerala is so far

recorded to be confined to Wynaad (Smith, 1943;

Murthy, 1986).

A recent faunistic survey conducted in Trichur

district, Kerala resulted in the collection of a

specimen of R. olivaceus (Figs. 1, 2) from an

evergreen forest patch at an altitude of approximately

610 m above msl on the Vellanimala Hill top. The

specimen was collected below* a boulder from a

spring fed shallow stream. Along with the snake,

caeciiians (Amphibia) and earthworms (Annelida)

were also collected.

The genus Rhabdops, besides olivaceus

(Beddome) includes the species bicolor (Blyth)

known from the Khasi and Mishmi Hills (north-

eastern India), Kachin Hills (Myanmar) and western

Yunnan (China). R. bicolor is found in hills along its

range and feeds on worms and slugs, R. olivaceus

also appears to be a hill species as it is known from

168

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol . 94 (1997)

I 1

5 mnn

with other vermiform animals mentioned above.

The collection data and morphometric

measurements of the specimen examined are as

follows:

Material examined: 1 ex. Locality:

Vellanimala, Pattikkad Forest Range, Trichur district,

Kerala, India. Date of Collection: 9-X-1995.

Collector’s name: K.C. Gopi et al. Z.S.I,

Calicut. Total length including tail: 542 mm. (Tail,

88 mm.) Ventral: 218. Anal: 2. Caudal: 64.

The specimen collected is deposited in the

faunal holdings of the Western Ghats Field Research

Station, Zoological Survey of India, Calicut.

Drawings of the head pattern of R. olivaceus are

provided for easy identification as the same is not

given by Smith (1943) in his Fauna volume.

The present record of collection of R. olivaceus

from Trichur district establishes its occurrence in the

hill areas of Western Ghats south of Wynaad.

Ecological observations suggest similarity in habits

and habitat with that of R. bicolor.

Acknowledgement

Figs. 1-2. Head of Rhabdops olivaceus (Beddome).

1 . Lateral view. 2. Dorsal view.

I am grateful to the Director, Zoological

Survey of India, Calcutta for facilities.

the hill district of Wynaad and currently from the

Vellanimala Hill of Trichur district. Besides, the food

habits of R. olivaceus are likely to be similar to that

of R. bicolor , as the snake was found to be associated

Refer

Murthy, T.S.N. (1986): The Snake Book of India. Dehradun:

The International Book Distributors.

Smith, M.A. (1943): The Fauna of British India, Ceylon and

September 17, 1996 C. RADHAKRISHNAN

Zoological Survey of India,

Western Ghats Field Research Station,

Calicut-673002.

NCES

Burma including the whole of the Indo-Chinese subregion.

Reptilia and Amphibia, Vol. 3 - Serpentes. London: Taylor

and Francis.

26. RANGE EXTENSION AND SOME ASPECTS OF MORPHOLOGY AND HABITAT OF

AN ANURAN SPECIES LIMNONECTES BREVIPALMATA (PETERS, 1871) (RANIDAE)

The frog species Limnonectes brevipalmata

(Peters, 1891) ( -Rana brevipalmata), though it

resembles Limnonectes limnocharis closely, is a

distinct species (Pillai, 1980). The distribution of

this uncommon frog was given as Kerala and Tamil

Nadu by Inger and Dutta (1986). Sekar (1991)

extended its range of occurrence upto Karnataka

based on a specimen in the BNHS collection

collected from Someshwar, south Kanara in

Karnataka.

During a study on the amphibian fauna of the

Sanjay Gandhi National Park (SGNP), Borivali,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

169

Bombay in 1993, I collected one calling male of

Limnonectes brevipalmata among the vegetation

during the monsoon at an altitude of 75 m. Thereafter,

seven more specimens were collected from a nursery

situated at the eastern side of the park. Another survey

at Mahabaleshwar (Satara district, Maharashtra state),

at a height of 1260 m, also provided eight specimens

of L. brevipalmata. All the specimens have been

deposited with the BNHS amphibian collection. The

morphological characters are as follows:

Materials from Borivali: 8 ex. (BNHS Reg.

No: 2940-2947). The snout-vent length of the

specimens ranged from 36.7-46.2 mm; Tibia length

20.0-26.6 mm; Head length 12.05-17.0 mm. All were

blackish brown above and dirty white below. Warts

and broken, elliptical glands were black in colour. A

pair of prominent glands in the form of inverted ‘V’

present on the back at the centre of the body just

behind the eyes. All except one lacked vertebral

streak. The inner metatarsal tubercle was very weak,

and not shovel shaped.

Material from Mahableshwar: 8 ex. (BNHS

Reg. No: 2955-2962). The snout-vent length of the

specimens ranged from 34.8-60.75 mm; Tibia 18.6-

30.0 mm; Head length 13.2-19.0 mm; the largest

specimen was a female. Specimens were greyish

brown and olive brown. As in the frogs from

Borivali, the back had small, elliptical glands. A pair

of prominent glands in the shape of inverted ‘ V’ were

also present on the back. The glands were bordered

with black. All the specimens except one had a

narrow to broad vertebral streak. The inner metatarsal

tubercle was elliptical, strong, and shovel shaped.

The other morphological characters of the

specimens of both the localities match the description

by Boulenger (1920), Daniel (1975) and PiHai (1980).

In Borivali the individuals of this species were

Refer

Boulenger, G.A. (1920): A monograph of the South Asia,

Papuan, Melanesian and Australian frogs of the genus

Rcuta. Rec. Ind. Mus. 20: 1-226.

Daniel, J.C. (1975): Field guide to the amphibians of Wes-

tern India. Part 3. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72: 506-

522.

Inger, R.F. and S.K. Dutta (1986): An overview of the

collected from microhabitats like wet ground among

monsoon plants on the damp floor of the nursery,

whereas in Mahabaleshwar the frogs were collected

from the edge of a pool, open areas of rocky ground

with short grass and on wet leaf litter at the edge of the

forest. All the individuals in both the places were

collected at night between 1900 to 2200 hrs in the

monsoon.

The ecology of this frog is poorly known. Pillai

(1980) has reported little about the microhabitat

preference of this frog. According to him this species

prefers to be on the sloping banks of streams with

some undergrowth. He opined that the brief webbing

indicated lesser dependence on water and the

compressed metatarsal tubercles were for excavation

of soil for making ‘nests’. Though the individuals

from Mahabaleshwar with strong, shovel shaped

inner metatarsal tubercles support his view, the

specimens from Borivali, with weak and thin inner

metatarsal tubercles, do not lend support to his view

of use for making nest in the soil. Moreover, the

present collections were made far from water.

As the occurrence of this species in

Maharashtra has not been reported so far, the record

of this species from Borivali (Bombay) and

Mahabaleshwar is the first record from Maharashtra

and this extends the range of occurrence of this

species northwards along the Western ghats upto 1 9°

21’ N.

I thank Mr. Vithoba Hegde, Field Assistant of

BNHS for his company in the field work. I also thank

BNHS for supporting the field trips.

February 5, 1996 ALOYSIUS G. SEKAR

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay-400 023.

NCES

amphibian fauna of India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

83 ( suppl.): 135-146.

Pillai, R.S. (1980): Distinction, status and notes on the habits

of Rana brevipalmata Peters. Bull. Zool. Surv. India 3

(1&2): 31-33.

Sekar, A.Ci. (1991): Distribution of the Amphibian fauna of

India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 88: 125-127.

170

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vcl . 94 (1997)

27. REDISCOVERY OF THE BLACK MICROHYLID FROG, MELANOBATRACHUS

INDICUS (BEDDOME 1878)

( With one plate )

The monotypic genus Melanobatrachus is

endemic to the Western Ghats of South India.

Melanobatrachus indicus , commonly called the rare

black microhylid, was first described by Beddome

in 1878. This description was based on a few

specimens collected from “the Annamalais and the

ghat range to the south of those mountains”

(Beddome 1878). Subsequent descriptions of the

species were based on the initial collection made by

Beddome.

I have been conducting systematic surveys of

amphibians in Kalakad-Mundunthurai Tiger Reserve

(KMTR) from May 1996. KMTR falls within the

South-Western Ghats in Tamil Nadu State. This

survey was part of the studies on the impact of

fragmentation of rain forests on herpetofauna and

small mammals in the Western Ghats. One individual

of M. indicus was seen in Kakachi in (KMTR) at

1200 m altitude, on 26th June, 1996. This individual

was sighted at 1920 hours on a rock at the edge of

Wet-evergreen forest. Previous collections were made

at altitudes ranging from 1000 to 1500 m (Parker

1934). They were reported from moist evergreen

forest in a torpid state, curled up in a ball (Beddome

1878). The localities of the specimens collected

earlier were Annamalai hills. North Travancore,

South West India and Cochin (Parker 1934). The

present sighting would fall within the old

Travancore province reported earlier. However,

distribution of the species in the Western Ghats

remains confounding, due to lack of information

on the exact locality of earlier collections.

The external morphology and colour of the

microhylid sighted corresponds well with the

description provided by Boulenger (1890). The

scarlet blotches on the underside of the forelimb and

thigh region were prominent. The skin was pustular,

with pustules arranged in five longitudinal rows on

the dorsum. It had small pale blue spots on the flanks

and on the sides of limbs. It is interesting to note

that this species has not been recorded in any of the

surveys or collection-based studies in the region since

its description in 1878. There is clear indication

that this species is rare and intensive surveys are

required to gather more information on this enigmatic

species.

October 10, 1996 KARTHIKEYAN VASUDEVAN

Wildlife Institute of India,

P.O. Box 18, Dehradun 248 001.

References

Beddome, Lt. Col. R.H. (1878): Description of a

new Batrachian from South India belonging to the

family Phryniscidae. Proc. Zool. Soc. bond. 722

723.

Boulenger, G. A. ( 1 890): Fauna of British India, Reptilia and

Batrachia. London, Taylor and Francis.

Parker, H. W. (1934): A monograph of the frogs of the family

Microhylidae. London.

28, NEW RECORD OF SCHISMATORHYNCHUS (NUKTA) NUKTA (SYKES) (PISCES:

CYPRINID AE) FROM MOYAR RIVER, TAMIL NADU

During the course of our studies on the status

and conservation perspectives of rare and endemic

fishes of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (NBR), a

specimen of Schismatorhynchus (Nukta) nukia

(Sykes), a cyprinid fish was collected from the river

Moyar. near Thengumarada in Tamil Nadu. This

species, commonly called “Nukta”, has not been

previously recorded from Tamil Nadu. The

southernmost limit of its distribution is, till now, up

to Karnataka (Taiwar and Jhingran, 1991) and this

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 94 Plate 1

Karthikeyan Vasudevan: Melanobatrachus indicus

WWfCIVNVAVWS a s

The black microhylid frog Melanobatrachus indicus : intensive studies are required to gather more information on this

enigmatic species.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

171

species is not commonly found in its range.

Moyar river originates in the Nilgiri hills at

an altitude of about 1800 m and drains into the Lower

Bhavani dam at 280 in. It cuts the Sigur plateau from

the Mysore plateau to the north and forms a natural

boundary between Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. It

flows through the well-forested areas of Mudumalai

Wildlife Sanctuary, Sigur reserve forest and Moyar

Reserve Forest, for almost its full length. Hitherto,

four individuals of Nukta species of fish have been

recorded from this river. Occurrence of Tor khudree,

a rare and threatened fish and Puntius

mudumalaiensis, an endemic species of Moyar river

of Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary here is remarkable.

Downstream, poaching pressure is high and this river

needs to be protected for its fish diversity.

Earlier records:

Sykes ( 1 84 1 ), Day ( 1 877, 1 889), Hora (1 942),

Suter (1944), Kalawar and Kelkar (1956), Yazdani

and Singh (1990), Singh (1990), Talwar and Jhingran

(1991) recorded this species from the rivers of

Deccan, viz. River Inderanee, River Indrayani (type

locality), River Krishna, IJjni wetland etc., but

mostly from Maharashtra, and it has not been

reported from Tamil Nadu earlier. Therefore, the

present record of this fish in the Moyar river extends

its range of distribution in southern India.

Acknowledgement

Our sincere thanks to the Forest Department

of Tamil Nadu for permission to work in the forests

along Moyar river. Our thanks are also due to

Mr. Kaliyappan,' our efficient field assistant.

February 23, 1 996 A. M ANIMEK AL AN

D.F. SINGH

Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology &

Natural History,

Kalampalayam P.O.,

Coimbatore-641 010.

References

Day. F (1877): Fishes of India. Today & Tomorrow’s Book

Agency, New Delhi. 543 pp.

(1889): The Fauna of British India, including

Ceylon and Burma. Fishes. Taylor and Francis, London.

Vol. I: 548 pp.

Hora, S.L. (1942): Notes on fishes in the Indian Museum.

XLIII. On the systematic position of Cyprinus nukta

Sykes. Rec. Indian Mus., 44(1): 10-14.

Kalawar, A.G. & C.L. Kelkar (1956): Fishes of Kolhapur.

7. Bombay not . Hist. Soc. 53(4): 669-679.

Singh, D.F. (1990): Ichthyofauna of Maharashtra- Dhulia

district. Rec. ZooL Surv. India 86(1): 83-91.

Suter, M. (1944): New record of fish from Poona. 7. Bombay

not. Hist. Soc. 44(3): 408-414.

Sykes, W.H. (1841): On the fishes of Dukhun. Trans. ZooL

Soc. Land, 2: 349, pi. LX -XL VIII.

Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland Fishes. Vol. I:

297-298. Vol. I & II. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt.

Ltd., New Delhi, India.

Yazdani, G.M. & D.F. Singh (1990): On the fish resources of

Ujni wetland, Pune, Maharashtra, 7. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 87: 157-160.

29. DUNG BEETLE (COLEOPTERA: SCARABAEIDAE: SCARABAEINAE) FAUNA

OF BANGALORE, KARNATAKA

India, like other tropical countries, has a rich

scarabaeid fauna, but in spite of overwhelming

numbers they rarely make their presence felt. Not

much work has been done on the fauna of this group

of beetles after Arrow (193 Din his comprehensive

account on Indian scarabs, reported four tribes, 26

genera and 354 species. A survey was conducted in

and around Bangalore to study the dung beetle fauna

during 1981-1985. This survey revealed the presence

of 61 species (Table 1 ) of Scarabaeinae belonging to

three tribes. Of these, 33 are being reported for the

first time from Bangalore. Members of the tribe

Panelini were not encountered. The great majority

of the species belong to the genus Onthophagus.

Seven species viz., Heliocopris gigas. Onthophagus

ratnosellus, O. negligens, O. vividus, O. faveri, O.

172

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.94 (1997)

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

173

brevicollis and O. brahma reported by Arrow (1931 )

from Bangalore were not found during this study.

Acknowledgement

We thank Dr. R. Madge of the Natural History

Museum (London) for helping us to identify the dung

beetles.

February 23, 1996 K. VEENAKUMARI

Central Agricultural Research Institute,

P.B. No, 181, Port Blair, Andamans.

G. K. VEERESH

Vice Chancellor,

University of Agricultural Sciences,

G.K.V.K., Bangalore, 560065.

References

Arrow, G.J., (1931): The Fauna of British India. Coleoptera, Lamellicomia, Part ID, (Coprinae). Today and Tomorrow’s

Printers and Publishers, New Delhi.

30. FIRST RECORD OF DIRHINUS ALTICORNIS (MASI) AND ANNECKEIDA

ANGUSTIFRONS BOUCEK (HYMENOPTERA: CHALCIDOIDEA) FROM INDIA

( With three text -figures)

During the faunal exploration of tropical

rainforests of Western Ghats by Zoological Survey

of India, Western Ghats Field Research Station,

Calicut, two interesting chalcids were collected from

semievergreen forest patches in Coorg district

(Karnataka) and Kannur district (Kerala).

Dirhinus Dal man, one of the most distinctive

genera of the family Chalcididae is distributed in all

warmer countries of the world, Africa, Europe, Asia,

Australia and Pacific islands. Members of this genus

are parasitic on puparia of various Diptera, especially

Calliphoridae, Sarcophagidae, Muscidae and also of

certain Tephmidae.

Dirhinus alticornis (Masi), a remarkable

species of the genus was originally described from

Philippines by Masi (1927) under the name

Pareniaca alticornis. Narendran (1989) examined a

male specimen of alticornis from Philippines. One

female specimen of the species was collected by me

from a semievergreen forest patch at Aniyad, falling

under the Kannavam RF of Kannur district, Kerala.

The present record of D. alticornis (Masi) from the

Western Ghats proves the further extension of its

distribution to peninsular India and the third record

from the Oriental Region.

D. alticornis is a characteristic species having

the anterior inner edge of its frontal horn crenulate

with an additional tooth on the outer edge. It has a

strong facial tooth, and the posterior median area of

pronotum depressed with an impunctate shagreened

area. In males the antenna is peculiar with a spatulate

club.

Specimen examined: 1 female, india: Kerala,

Aniyad (Kannavam RF), 1. ii. 1995, Coll, P.M.

Sureshan et al.

Anneckeida Boucek, an African genus of

Torymidae is represented by four Oriental species

from West Malaysia, Thailand, Laos, and East

Malaysia, apart from the type species from Rhodesia

(Africa). A. angustifrons was originally described

by Boucek (1978) based on a female specimen

collected from Thailand. One female specimen of

this species was collected by me from a forest patch

at Chitekanum, falling under the Sampage reserve

forests of Coorg district, Karnataka. This record

constitutes its rediscovery from the Oriental Region

subsequent to the original description and proves the

extension of its distribution to Peninsular India.

Like all other Oriental speciesA. angustifrons

also has hind femur with a ventral comb of teeth

which begins with a conspicuous larger tooth. The

species is also characterised by a face with inner

orbits, distinctly converging upwards frons only 0.25

x the breadth of head and the ocelli in acute angular

triangle, with lateral ones virtually touching the eyes.

Specimen examined: 1 female, india:

Karnataka, Chitekanum (Samapge R.F.), 4.iii. 1994,

Coll, P.M. Sureshan et al.

174

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol . 94 (1997)

I 1

0.5 mm

Fig. 1 . Dirhinus olticomus (Masi) - Female. Head with antenna in lateral view.

Fig. 2-3. Anneckeida angustifrons Boucek - Female. 2. Head in anterior view. 3. Hind leg.

a * /i

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

175

The specimens are presently kept in the

collections of Zoological Survey of India, Western

Ghats Field Research Station, Calicut, eventually to

be deposited in the National Zoological collections

of Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to the Director, Zoological

Survey of India, Calcutta and the Officer-in-charge,

Zoological Survey of India, Western Ghats Field

R EFI

Boucek, Z. ( 1978): Study of the non-podagrionine Torymidae

with enlarged hind femora, with a key to the African

genera (Hymenoptera). J. Ent. Soc. Sth. Afr. 41(1): 91-

134.

Masi, L. (1927): Contributo alia Conoscenza der Dirhinini

Research Station, Calicut for providing facilities and

encouragement. I am also grateful to Dr. T.C.

Narendran, Professor, Dept, of Zoology, University

of Calicut, Kerala for confirming the species

identification and for critically going through the

manuscript and offering valuable suggestions.

April 4, 1996 P.M. SURESHAN

Zoological Survey of India,

Western Ghats Field Research Station,

Calicut. Kerala 673 002.

E N C E S

Orientali (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea) Eos. 3(1): 29-

48.

Narendran, T.C. (1989): Oriental Chalcididae (Hymenoptera:

Chalcidoidea). Zool. monograph. Dept. Zool. Uni.

Calicut. Kerala, pp. 1-500.

31. GROOCA, A NEW NAME FOR NEOEPISTENIA SURESHAN & NARENDRAN

(HYMENOPTERA: CHALCIDOIDEA: PTEROMALIDAE)

The nam ^Neoepistenia was applied (Sureshan

and Narendran, 1995) to a genus erected for the new

species N. coorgensis collected from the forests of

Coorg (Karnataka). Unfortunately the authors

overlooked the valid and prior use of Neoepistenia

by Hedqvist (1958). Neoepistenia Hedqvist was

erected with N. flavoscapus Hedqvist as the type

species (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae). Hence

Neoepistenia Sureshan and Narendran is a junior

homonym which has to be replaced according to the

rules of the International Zoological Nomenclature.

The new name Grooca is an arbitary combination of

letters of feminine gender.

family: Pteromalidae

Genus Grooca, nom. nov.

Neoepistenia Sureshan and Narendran (1995)

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92(1): 96-99. Not Hedqvist,

1958.

Grooca coorgensis (Sureshan and

Narendran), comb. nov.

Neoepistenia coorgensis Sureshan and

Narendran, 1995, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92(1):

96-99.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Dr. John. S. Noyes (London)

and Dr. K .J. Hedqvist (Sweden) for help in this study.

April 4, 1996 P.M. SURESHAN

Zoological Survey of India,

Western Ghat Field Research Station,

Calicut,

Kerala 673 002.

T.C. NARENDRAN

Department of Zoology,

University of Calicut,

Kerala 673 635.

References

Hedqvist, KJ. (1958): Notes on Chalcidoidea V.A. revision Sureshan, P.M. & Narendran, T.C. (1995): A new genus of

of the genus Lycisca Spin, and descriptions of some new Pteromalidae (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea) from Coorg,

genera and species. Ent. Tidskr. 79: 176-200. Karnataka. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Society 92(1): 96-99.

176

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol . 94 (1997)

32. NOTES ON SOME NON-INDIGENOUS PLANTS FROM ANDAMANS

While working on the Flora of Andaman and

Nicobar Islands, we have come across three weed

species from South Andaman. A perusal of literature

and herbarium specimens at Port Blair revealed that

these taxa grow sporadically in South Andaman and

their occurrence on the Islands has not been reported.

The present note on the occurrence of these non-

indigenous plants would call the attention of

Botanists and Horticulturists, before they spread

rapidly and get naturalised in the Islands. Since these

weeds were not mentioned by the earlier workers

(Pram, 1891 ; Dagar et al 1991; Vasudeva Rao, M.K.,

1986) the same are described here. The specimens

have been deposited in the herbarium of the

Botanical Survey of India, Andaman and Nicobar

Circle, Port Blair.

Corchorus aestuans L. Syst. Nat. ed. 10.

1079. 1759. C. acutangulus Lam.. Encycl. 2:104.

1786; Wight, Ic. t. 739. 1844; Mast, in Hook, f., FI.

Brit. India 1: 398. 1874. ‘Hade-ka-khaf (Hindi)

(tiliaceae)

Glabrous annual herbs, 40-75 cm high. Leaves

2-6 x 1 .5-5.0 cm, ovate or ovate-lanceolate, serrate.

FI. & Fr.: August - October.

Specimens Examined: south Andaman: Long

Island, 22.x. 1994 PV. Sreekumar 16461.

Cuscuta chinensis Lam. Encycl. Meth. Bot.

2: 229. 1786; Wight, Ic. 4(2): 14. t. 1373. 1848;

Clarke in Hook. f. FI. Brit. India 4: 226. 1883

‘Amarbel, Akashbef (Hindi) - (cuscutaceae).

Leafless stem-parasites, with yellow, filiform,

twining, much-branched stems forming tangled

mass.

FI. & Fr.: August - November.

Specimen examined: south Andaman: Port

Blair, Horticulture road, near the Mushroom Centre.

5.V.1995 Marcel Tigga & P.V. Sreekumar 18144.

Hosts: We have noted this plant on the

i

33. FLOWERING BEHAVIOUR OF MAN

following host: Mikania cordata (Burm. f.)Robins;

Barter ia prionitis L., Paederia scandens (Lour.)

Merr., Chromolaena odorata (L.) King and Robins.,

lpomoea sepiaria Koen. ex Roxb.

Polygala arvensis Willd. Sp. PI. 3: 876. 1802;

Banerjee in FI. India 2: 460. t. 87. 1993; Burtt

in Notes Roy. Bot. Gard. Edinburgh 32: 404.

1973. P. chinensis auct. non L. 1753; Bennett in

Hook. f. FI. Brit. India 1: 204. 1872 p.p.

(polygalaceae).

Hindi: Maradu, Kon: Negli, Mar: Phutan,

San: Gaighura.

Herbs, 5-30 (-40) cm high, branches aris-

ing from base. Leaves subsessile, orbicular, obo-

vate, oblanceolate to oblong, narrowed towards

base, subacute, obtuse or emarginate and mucro-

nate at apex, 10-40 (-50) x 5-20 mm, glabrous to

densely pubescent or hirsute; petioles upto 3

mm long. Flowers c 4 mm long, purplish-white

and pink-streaked, solitary or in 3-15 flowered,

racemes.

Specimen examined: south Andaman: Port

Blair, Gandhi Park, 1 8.vi . 1 995 P.V. Sreekumar

18148.

Acknowledgement

We are grateful to Dr. P.S.N. Rao and Dr. P.K.

Hajra of the Botanical Survey of India for

encouragement.

June 1 5, 1 996 MARCEL TIGGA,

B.K. SINHA

P.V. SREEKUMAR

Botanical Survey of India,

Andaman and Nicobar Circle,

Port Blair.

) ( MANGIFERA INDICA) IN ANDAMANS

The typical humid tropical climate of species of mango: Mangifera andamanica and

Andaman and Nicobar Islands (native of two rare Mangifera nicobarica. Parkinson 1972: Kostermans

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

177

1993) is suitable for mango cultivation. In addition

to these two species Mangifera sylvatica is also

recorded in these islands. The mango has been

introduced in these islands when settlers were

brought from different corners of India and also

during the period when the Japanese ruled these

islands and making these islands a rich source of

mango genetic material.

In the tropics the flower induction takes place

during dry period. If this lasts long enough, about

four months then flowers will appear in the same

dry season. Otherwise bloom will be during the rains

which could prevent pollination and fruit setting.

Generally mango tree flowers in December- January

and fruiting takes place in April-July but there are

some varieties which produce flowers twice a year

e.g. Neelum and some are irregular bearers e.g.

Malgoa. But while surveying in 1992-93 to select

some promising clones which produces

physiologically mature fruits before the onset of the

monsoons, it was noticed and recorded that some

mango trees in South Andaman -flower and fruit

throughout year and there are some quite old trees

which have not flowered yet. This flowering and

fruiting throughout year varies from low to moderate.

The physiological and biochemical details are

required to be studied for this nature of flowering.

This typical flowering behaviour of mango in

Andamans can be due to uneven distribution of

floreigen and other assimillates. Due to typical

tropical climate of these islands the minimum and

maximum temperature range is very narrow which

can also be a cause of erratic flowering but whatever

the cause may be, this typical flowering in mango

can be utilized for an improvement programme.

January 19, 1996 D.B. SINGH

T.V.R.S. SHARMA

Central Agricultural Research Institute,

Port Blair, Andaman & Nicobar Islands.

References

Kostermans, A.J.G.R &J.M. Bompard( 1993): The mangoes Parkinson, C.E. (1972): A forest flora of the Andaman

their nomenclature, horticulture and utilization. London. Islands, pp 139.

34. REDISCOVERY AT A NEW LOCATION OF A RARE GRASS, CYRTOCOCCUM

SPARS IC OMUM (NEES EX STEUD.) A. CAMUS, IN TAMIL NADU

{With one text-figure )

The specimens of a grass species, collected

under shade in the dry mixed deciduous forest of the

Alagarkovil MCPA of Dindigul Anna District in

Tamil Nadu, were sent for identification to the

Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England, and

identified by the grass expert, T.A. Cope, as Panicum

sparsicomum Nees ex Steud. The present record is a

rediscovery at a different location after its discovery

from Kodaikanal Ghats in Tamil Nadu. There is no

specimen in MH.

Hook.f. (1896), Alston (1931), Bor (1960),

Nair (1989) and Davidse (1994) followed the

treatment of Panicum sparsicomum Nees ex Steud.

Bor {l.c.) opines that the species seems to occupy an

intermediary position between Panicum and

Cyrtococcum and they retained it in Panicum.

Davidse (/.c.) corroborates the same and further says

that the spikelets lack the typical crest characteristic

for Cyrtococcum. On the other hand, Fischer (1934,

1957) and Senaratna (1956) followed A. Camus

treatment, i.e. Cyrtococcum sparsicomum (Nees ex

Steud.) A. Camus, who effected combination based

on slightly compressed and somewhat gibbous nature

of the spikelets. T.A. Cope (in litt.) states that “J.F.

Veldkamp, author of grasses for flora malesiana

considers it as a true Cyrtococcum.” Even though

178

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol.94 (1997)

Figs. A-L. Cyrtococcum sparsicomum (Nees ex Steud.) A. Camus - A. Habit; B. Spikelet flowering;

C. Spikeiet fruiting; D. Lower glume; E. Upper glume; F. First lemma; G. Palea; H. Second lemma; I. Palea;

J. Anthers: dorsal and ventral views; K. Ovary; and L. Cary ops is

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

179

the species occupies an intermediary position

between these two genera, the author accepts J.F.

Veldkamp’s opinion because similarities are more

to Cyrtococcum rather than Panicum.

Cyrtococcum sparsicomum (Nees ex Steud.)

A Camus in Bull. Mus. Hist. Nat. (Paris)

27:118.1921; Fisher in Gamble, FI Pres. Madras

1786. 1934&3: 1237. 1957 (repr. ed.); Senaratna,

Grass. Ceylon 121:1956. Panicum sparsicomum

Nees ex Steud., Syn. PI. Glumac. 1 :83.1854; Hook.f.,

FI. Brit. India 7:58.1896; Alston in Trimen, Handb.

FI. Ceylon 6 (Suppl.): 321.1931; Bor, Grass. Burma

Ceylon India Pakistan 330. 1960; Nair in Henry,

Chithra and Balakrishnan, FI. Tamil Nadu Series 1:

Analysis 3:131.1989; Davidse in Dassanayake,/tev.

Handb. FI. Ceylon 7:344.1994.

Specimens examined: Tamil Nadu: Dindigul

Anna District, Alagarkovil MPCA, Alagarmalai

R.F.: ± 475 m, 7.iii.l994, M.B. Viswanathan 3075;

± 215, 3.ii.l995. M.B. Viswanathan 17016; ± 450

m, 4.ii.l995, M.B. Viswanathan 17027.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to the Director and Dr. T. A. Cope

of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England, for

identification. I am thankful to Mr. Vinay Tandon,

Foundation for Revitalization of Local Health

Traditions (FRLHT) Bangalore, for financial

assistance for the Project and to Dr. N. Sukumaran,

Professor and Head of our Centre, for continuous

help and encouragement.

June 1 7, 1 996 M.B . VISWANATHAN

Sri Paramakalyani Centre for

Environmental Sciences ,

Manonmaniam Sundaranar University ;

Alwarkurichi-627 412.

35. SCURRULA PARASITICA LINN. PARASITIC ON CALLIANDRA SPP. AND ITS

MANAGEMENT

Scurrula parasitica is an epiparasite on a

variety of economically important trees including

ornamental trees of high aesthetic value. It spreads

on branches affecting bio-mass production of its host

(William 1980).

The genus Calliandra (Leguminosae:

Mimosae) also called Trinidad Flame Tree is

represented by a group of ornamental flowering trees

with handsome, hipinnate feathery leaves and

powder-puff like flowers. Calliandra guildingi

(tweedii) is a free flowering hardy tree blooming

round the year. The flowers (anthers) are reddish-

purple. White flowered Calliandra speciosa is also

in cultivation.

In 1994, it was observed that C. guildingi

planted on either side of the front of the old

Agricultural College, Hebbal, Bangalore which had

grown beyond their usual size, the tertiary branches

stretching laterally, were invaded by the flowering

parasite S. parasitica. Another species C. speciosa

grown near the entrance of the floriculture section

at GKVK Campus of the University of Agricultural

Sciences, Bangalore, was also found parasitized by

the same species.

As characteristic of any true parasite. S.

parasitica also does not kill the host immediately.

Only the branches of C. guildingi heavily infested

by S. parasitica succumbed ultimately, which

effectively is in partial agreement with the

observation made by Bidie in Fischer 1926, who

wrote that the exotic plants invaded by the parasites

of Loranthii are killed. In the case only two of the

four branches infested by the parasite were killed,

which may be due to allelopathic effect, at a later

stage. The parasitized branches beyond the point of

cortical root development were thin with sparse

flowers and presented a very sickly and dried

appearance at the tip, thus affecting both growth as

well as its aesthetic value, while the parasite putting

forth a luxuriant growth looked like a leafy cascade.

The parasite spread on all the branches and

established itself very well, at the cost of the host.

180

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol . 94 (1997)

Interestingly, of the several (105) trees in the

first location belonging to 15 species of 11 genera,

only two plants of C. guildingi and C. speciosa plants

not pruned and maintained properly were infested

by the parasite, indicating the parasites’ preference

to these neglected plants, while the other plants of

Calliandra spp. which were pruned regularly were

free from S. parasitica. Periodical pruning a little

below the point of infestation would result in the

selective elimination of the parasite along with its

haustoria.

Acknowledgements

We thank Rev. Dr. C.J. Saldhana for

identification of the parasite.

January 19, 1996 D. NUTHAN

Associate Professor, Department of Forestry,

M. VASUNDHARA

Assistant Professor, Division of Horticulture,

University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK,

Bangalore-560 065.

References

William, D.A., (1980): Trees for Southern landscapes, Fisher, C.E.C., (1926): Rec. Bot. Surv. India. 11 (1): 171

pp, 1-86.

36. TWO NEW RECORDS OF ASTERACEAE FOR ANDHRA PRADESH

During the course of floristic studies on

Asteraceae in Andhra Pradesh, India, some interesting

specimens were collected from the Eastern Ghats. After

critical studies on the specimens, thorough perusal of

literature and authenticated specimens in various

herbaria, viz. MH and CAL, these were identified as

Adenostemma lavenia (L.) O Ktze, var. angustifolium

(Clarke) Koster and A. lavenia (L.) O. Ktze. var.

madurense (DC.) Panigrahi which are new

distributional records for Andhra Pradesh. An artificial

key, description along with nomenclatural citations,

distribution, ecological and phenological data are given

for both the tax a.

Adenostemma J.R. Forster et J.G.A. Forster

1. Leaves broadly ovate, chartaceous,

distinctly dentate to serrate-dentate, achenes

more than 4 mm long, minutely glandular to glabrous

var madurense

1. Leaves lanceolate, coriaceous, serrate

or crenate, achenes less than 3 mm long, muricate

var. angustifolium

1. Leaves maximum 10 cm broad, crenate

to serrate, achenes densely warty var. lavenia

Adenostemma lavenia (L.) O. Ktze,, Rev.

Gen. PI. 1:304.

1891. var, angustifolium (C.B. Clarke) Koster

in Blumea 1: 475. 1935; Panigrahi, Kew Bull. 30

(4): 652. 1975.

A. angustifolium Arnott in Nov. Act. Nat.

Cur. 18. 347. 1836; DC., Prodr. 7:266. 1838; Grier-

son in Dass. & Fosb. Rev. Handb. FI. Ceylon.

1:138. 1980. A. viscosum J.R. & G. Forst. var.

angustifoliumC.B , Clarke, FI. Brit Ind. 3:242. 1882.

Pro parte.

Erect herb, 30- 50 cm, stem glabrous. Leaves

opposite, 3.5 - 13 x 0.8 - 2 cm, base attenuate in

lower ones, obtuse in uppermost ones, entire in the

lower half, crenately serrate to serrate in upper half,

obtuse. Heads solitary or a few in terminal corymbs,

6 mm, white, homogamous, not rayed; peduncle 0.6

- 2 cm, puberulous and glandular. Involucral bracts

18, 2 -seriate, 4-4.5 mm, oblong or narrowly oblong-

elliptic, 3-veined, pubescent on dorsal side, obtuse

or obtusely apiculate. Receptacle alveolate, 2 mm

across. Florets 30 - 34, corolla 3 mm long, 5-lobed;

lobes ovate, obtuse, glabrous, sparsely hairy at base

on dorsal side. Stamens 5; anthers oblong, 1 mm long

obtuse at base, hood ovate, obtuse. Style 5.5 mm,

exerted; exertion 2 - 2.5 mm; branches 3-3.5 mm,

spathulate, obtuse. Pappus of 3-5 clavate scales, 0.4

mm long, basally united to form a ring. Achene

oblanceolate, 1.6-2 mm, muricate.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

18!

Ecology: Along the streams in forests, rare.

Flowering: October - January.

Distribution: India: Andhra Pradesh, Assam,

Konkan, U.P., Bengal.

World: Sri Lanka, (Myanmar) Burma,

Thailand.

Specimens examined: Talakona (Chittoor

district), C.P. Raju 13245.

Aderaostemma lavenia (L.) O. Ktze. var.

madurense (DC.) Panigrahi in Kew Bull 30 (4): 654.

1975; R.R. Rao^/ al.., FI. Ind. Enum. - Ast. 12. 1988

A . madurense DC. in Wt., Contrib. Bot. Ind. 9. 1834.

A. viscosum]. r. Forst. & J.G. Forst. var. reticulatum

Hk. f., FI. Brit. Ind., 3:242. 1881. pro parte.

Erect herb, 30-100 cm; stem glandular

pubescent. Leaves opposite, sparsely pubemlous, 2-

17x1-11 cm, obtuse-attenuate at base, serrate-dentate,

apex acute. Heads few, terminal on divaricating

branches, white, 7 mm long, homogamous, not rayed;

peduncle up to 2 cm, densely glandular and pubescent.

Involucral bracts 13, sub-biseriate, elliptic, obovate or

elliptic-oblanceolate, 4.5 - 5.5 mm, very sparsely

glandular and hairy on dorsal side towards base, margin

usually abate with glands, obtuse or minutely dentate.

Receptacle alveolate, 1-2 mm across. Florets 18-20,

corolla 3 mm long, 5-lobed; lobes ovate, 0.5 mm long,

densely hairy on dorsal side, acute. Stamens 5; anthers

linear-oblong, 1 mm, hood retuse at apex, base

truncated to obtuse. Style 5 mm, exerted to 2.5 mm,

branches 3.5 mm, broad, spathulate, obtuse.

Pappus of 3 clavate scales, on a short ring, 1 mm.

Achene compressed, oblanceolate, 5 mm, slightly

curved, young ones yellow, matured black, minutely

glandular.

Ecology: Along streams at higher elevations,

rare.

Flowering: August - January.

Distribution: India: South India, Assam.

World: Malaya, Myanmar (Burma), Sri Lanka.

Specimens examined: Anantagiri (Visakha-

patnam district), C.P. Raju 9959.

Acknowledgements

We thank the authorities of the CAL and

MH herbaria for permission to consult herbaria

and libraries and Council of Scientific and Industrial

Research, New Delhi for financial assistance.

October, 16, 1995 R.R. VENKATA RAJU

C. PRABHAKAR RAJU

Department of Botany,

Sri Krishnadevaraya University,

Anantapur - 515 003, India .

37. SUN-TRACKING IN RANUNCULUS HIRTELLUS ROYLE EX D.DON.

(With one text-figure )

The facility with which heliotropic leaves and

flowers turn to face the sun has for so long been part

of nature lore that it may well be surprising to the

casual observer that so little is known of the

mechanism of perception and response of foliar

orientation (Smith, 1984). Heliotropic movement by

flowers have been described for over a century

(Hooker, 1881). Kevan (1972) defined these

heliotropic movements or heliotropism as the “die!

bending response or turning of plants directly to and

with the sun”. It is now known that heliotropic

movements are mediated by changes in cell turgor

pressure (Vogelmann, 1984). Heliotropic movements

have been studied in detail in the arctic flowers like

Dry as integrifolia, Papaver radio alum Kevan, 1975),

tropical alpine flowers like Oritrophium limnophilum

(Smith, 1975), alpine flowers like Ranunculus

adoneus (Stanton and Galen, 1989), in leaves of

Lavatera cretica, Malva parviflora (Koller, 1980)

etc.

Heliotropism in the flowers of alpine plants

growing in the Himalayan arc have still not been

noticed. The Himalayan alpine zones, similar to other

alpine zones of the earth, are very cold and any biotic

mechanism such as heliotropism for maximizing use

of small heat budget in the form of solar radiation is

182

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol . 94 (1997)

C

dark

D

Fig. 1 General trend of heliotropism in Ranunculus hi rt ell us Royle ex D.Don

A - at 00 hrs the flowers are pendent; B - at 0008 hrs the flowers are oriented towards the suns heat;

C - at 1200 hrs the flowers face the sky; D - at 2000 hrs the flowers are pendent again.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

183

advantageous. During the third week of June, 1994

we noticed partial heliotropioin in Ranunculus

hirtellus Royle ex DJDon,. This is the first report of

heliotropism in any alpine plant of the Himalaya,

although the possibilities had already been indicated

(Ohba, 1988).

Observations on Ranunculus hirtellus Royle

ex D.Don revealed that this species shows sun-

tracking from early morning hours to mid- afternoon.

The observation site is located in the glacial valley

of Kedarnath (3560 m above msl), Garhwal

Himalaya, India. The valley lying in north south

direction has high ridges {c. 5000 m) on either side

with typical alpine vegetation on slopes and in the

centre.

Ranunculus hirtellus is an ascending perennial

herb growing early in the marshy areas near snow

edges. During the days of observations, the sun rose

at 0745 hrs and the sky remained clear till 1300-

1400 hrs in the evening it rained or remained

overcast. These environmental conditions are

common in the Himalayan alpine zones during June

and prevailed throughout the observation week. The

flowers were shining yellow, bowl-shaped with a

diameter of 1.0-1. 5 cm. In our simplified

observations 150 flowers of this species were

randomly selected and their positions - sunfacing

(S) or randomly oriented (R) were recorded at

0008 hrs 1200 hrs, 2000 hrs and 00 hrs continu-

ously for a week. The reading at 1600 hrs were

avoided as the sky remained overcast and the

sun-tracking movement get discounted in cloudy

sky. The results are provided in the table

below: -

All 150 flowers were closely observed and it

was found that the majority of the flowers moved with

the sun, i.e. c.. 15° per hour, starting their movement

just before sunrise and became vertically oriented

between 1200 hrs to 1300 hrs. It was also noticed that

majority of the flowers remained pendent in the night.

Young flowers with shining bowl-shaped petals and

long slender pedicels (2-3 cm or more) are more

efficient in sun-tracking than mature flowers with

sepals perpendicular to floral axis and short thick

pedicels. The most efficient sun-tracking flowers show

about 15° turn per hour for about 4-5 hours i.e. from

0008 hrs - 1300 hrs. Unfortunately after 1300 hrs the

sky usually becomes cloudy, hiding the sun and if

raining (in the rain flowers become pendent) the sun-

tracking is discontinued. In overcast sky orientation

of the flowers was random in most of the flowers.

In a separate experiment 25 unopened flowers

of Ranunculus hirtellus were emasculated and rest of

the flowers in the surrounding (about 10 m area on all

sides) were clipped to prevent anemophily. It was

observed that all the flowers developed normal achenes

indicating successful entomophily. Small flies are seen

as the most frequent flower visitors, resting on the

bowl-shaped flowers for long durations.

Similar observations have also been recorded

for Ranunculus adoneus in Colorado Rockies of US A

and the significance of sun-tracking for more efficient

pollination and seed setting has been proved (Stanton

and Galen, 1989). Hocking and Sharplin (1965)

discovered flower basking by insects in arctic Dryas

integrifolia an dPapaver radicatum and have suggested

that in an environment where the season is short and

every calorie counts, it must have survival value in

S = sun facing (when sun is available i.e. 0008 hrs to 1300hrs) or sky facing (when sun is not available).

R = randomly oriented (not facing sun when sun is available, i.e. 0008 hrs to 1300 hrs) or pendent (when sun is not available).

184

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.94 (1997)

accelerating the ripening of the insect germ cells. Kevan

has also indicated that the extra warmth obtained by

the basking insect due to heliotropic movement of

flowers must be valuable in increasing the insects’

metabolism, giving them greater mobility by

preheating them for flight, thus increasing their abilities

of pollination (Kevan, 1975). Similar significance

could not be ruled out in case of Ranunculus hirtellus.

Heliotropism has been considered as an adaptive

feature of arctic and alpine plants and its could also be

an adaptive feature in alpine plants of the Himalaya

having bowl shaped flowers.

Refer

Hocking, B. & C.D. Sharplin (1965): Rower basking by arctic

insects. Nature 206: 215.

Hooker, J.D. (1881): The compass plant. Gardeners

Chronicle 15: 74.

Kevan, P.G. ( 1972): Heliotropism in some arctic flowers. Can.

Field Nat. 86: 41-44.

Kevan, P.G. (1975): Sun-tracking solar furnaces in high arctic

flowers: significance for pollination and insects. Science

189: 723-726.

Koller, D. (1980): Solar tracking (phototropism) in leaves

of Lavatera cretica and Malva parviflora. Carnegie Inst.

Wash. Year Book. 80: 72-75.

Ohba, H. (1988): The alpine flora of Nepal Himalaya: an

Acknowledgement

The senior author (DSR) is grateful to

UGC for granting fellowship for the research

work.

January 19, 1996 D.S. RAWAT

R.D. GAUR

Herbarium and Plant Systematic Lab.

Department of Botany, P.B. 86

HNB Garhwal University

Srinagar (Garhwal), 246 174 , U.P.

NCES

introductory note. In Ohba, H. & Malla, S.B. (eds.).

The Himalayan Plants Vol. 2. pp. 19-46. Univ. of Tokyo,

Japan.

Smith, A.P. (1975): Insect pollination and Heliotropism in

Oritrophium limnophilum (Compositae) of the Andean

Paramo. Biotropica 7: 284-86.

Smith, H. (1984): Plants that track the sun. Nature 308: 774.

Stanton, M.L. & C. Galen (1989): Consequences of flower

heliotropism for reproduction in an alpine buttercup

(Ranunculus adoneus). Oecol. 78: 477-485.

Vogelmann, T.C. (1984): Site of light perception and motor

cells in a suntracking lupine (Lupittus succulentus).

Physiol. Plant 62: 335-340.

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PUBLICATIONS SUB-COMMITTEE

Chairman

Members

Convenor

The Publications Section has adhered to its

policy of self-sufficiency with the sale of its popular

titles such as the Book of Indian Birds, Book of

Indian Animals and the Book of Indian Reptiles.

Also popular were Pictorial Guide to the Birds of

the Indian Sub-Continent and Some Beautiful

Indian Trees. The books are marketed through the

Oxford University Press. The royalty from sale of

books for the year 1994-95 was Rs. 9,10,995. The

revised edition of the Pictorial Guide to the Birds

of the Indian Sub-Continent and the Book of

Indian Birds are nearing completion. Several new

titles are being worked on, including books on

Indian trees, wetland flora and a field guide to

Indian sea shells.

The Hornbill Series booklets published by

the NCSTC in collaboration with the Society are

intended to popularize various aspects of natural

history. Six titles are now ready for the press.

The Section has succeeded in tightening up

the schedule of publication of Hornbill and

Journal. In this financial year, Hornbill 1993 (3)

Dr. Jay Samant (Director)

Dr. Pratap Saraiya (Vice President)

Mr. B.F. Chhapgar

Mr. J.C. Daniel

Dr. Gayatri Ugra (Publication Officer)

and (4) and 1994 (1) and (2) were published. Of

the Journal, Vol. 90:3(1993), Vol. 91:1,2 and 3

(1994) have been published. Hornbill and Journal

continue to be a resource drain, though some

advertising support has been obtained for the

Hornbill, as well as grants from the Mehta

Scientific Education and Research Trust and Seth

Purushotamdas Thakurdas and Divaliba Charitable

Trust. The Department of Science and Technology,

Govt, of India released a grant of Rs. 50,000 for

this financial year. The shortfall for Hornbill and

Journal is met by the Society as these publications

are crucial in dissemination of scientific

information, which is one of the main activities of

the Society.

One Sr. Computer Operator and a Publication

Assistant were recruited in March 1995. A new

computer (486DX2 - assembled) installed with

Pagemaker 5.0 was purchased for the Publication

Section.

The Publication Officer conducted a one day

workshop on Print Media for the CEP staff.

PRODUCTS SUB-COMMITTEE

Chairperson Mrs. D.S. Variava (Vice President)

Members Mr. Atul Mathur

Mrs. Meenu Kamat

Mrs. Juliet Mendonca

Mr. Francis D’Costa

Convenor Mr. Joslin Rodrigues (Product Executive)

A.G.M. 1994-95 - PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

187

The Product Section continued to fulfill its

objective of producing cards and calendars that

reflected the Society’s commitment to excellence

in quality and reasonable prices.

Due to problems in production of the

catalogue, the season started late, but in all,

approximately 1,35,000 cards and 15,000 calendars

were sold along with other products, leading to a

net surplus of approximately Rs. 4.47 lakhs.

A new concept was introduced in the table

calendar by using lithographs of Himalayan flowers

for a new series entitled “Gems from Nature”. The

idea of this series is to make available to members

and o tliers, pictures which may not otherwise be

easily available because the pictures are from rare,

out of print books. Eventually, the Society may be

able to use these prints for publication in book form.

The Product Committee appreciates the co-

operation of all concerned members of the staff and

volunteers to produce high quality products.

NATURE EDUCATION, PROGRAMME & MEMBERSHIP SUB-COMMITTEE

Chairman Mr. Ulhas Rane

Members Dr. Ashok Kothari

Dr. Arun Joshi

Dr. Shashi Menon

Mr. T.V. Sowrirajan

Mr. V.K. Paralkar

Mr. Vilas Shingre

Mr. Naresh Chaturvedi (Curator)

Mr. Deepak Apte (Nature Education Officer)

Convenor Ms. Caroline Vincent (Membership Officer)

MEMBERSHIP

This year ordinary membership showed a

slight increase. Similarly, Life Members increased

to 1421 from 1345. It was observed that several

Ordinary members converted their membership to

Life membership. An attempt to increase

membership during the celebration of Dr. Salim

Ali’s Birth Centenary will be undertaken with the

help of members, along with other BNHS

departments like Nature Education, S ANCF, Public

Relations & Products.

The Environment Workshops organised for

the Armed Forces have yielded good results in the

form of new membership. More such workshops

should be organised. We also conducted special

membership drives for the Bombay Chartered

Accountants’ Society and IAS & IPS Wives'

Association, which was very successful in enrolling

new members and enabled the BNHS to publicise

its activities.

Membership for the year 1994 - 95

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94(1997 )

PROGRAMMES

Annual Nature Camps

Several annual nature camps were arranged,

out of which camps at Har-Ki Doon in Garhwal

Himalayas, Corbett National Park in Uttar Pradesh,

Kanha National Park near Jabalpur, Dajipur Wildlife

Sanctuary near Kolhapur, Nanaj Wildlife Sanctuary

near Solapur and a combined visit to National Parks

and Sanctuaries of Vidarbha were some of the more

successful camps.

Overnight Nature Camps

These camps were arranged with a duration

from 2 to 4 days at Mahabaleshwar, Ransai Lake,

Nandur-Madhmeshwar and Kelwe Dam.

Nature Walks

These walks were held during weekends. The

outings were arranged at Sanjay Gandhi National

Park. Yewoor Trail, Tungareshwar, BNHS land and

Jijamata Udyan (Bombay Zoo) for study of flora

and fauna. In all, 30 such nature walks were

organised.

NATURE 1

Summer Camp

The annual programme began with a summer

vacation camp for students at Tansa Wildlife

Sanctuary. The camp was held from 2 1 st to 23rd May.

Tansa, a dry deciduous forest is ideal for watching

birds in summer. A total of 60 species of birds were

seen during the three days stay. A leopard was sighted

by a few students. Tracks of various animals were

observed. Demonstration of how to take pug mark

casts was also given. Since it was summer, all

afternoon programmes were held indoors, which

included sketching, quiz competition and a session

on nature education and students’ participation. In

all, 17 students participated in the camp.

Monsoon Camp

Nature orientation camps conducted regularly

at the IFF had been discontinued for a couple of

years. This year the camp was held at the IIT from

26th to 30th June, in which 30 participants attended.

Film/Slide Shows

Video as well as 16 mm films on various

natural history subjects were screened during the

year. Talks illustrated with slide shows were given

by invited guest speakers, BNHS members and staff.

Altogether, 72 shows were held.

Wildlife Week

Wildlife Week was celebrated from 3rd to

8th October during which an exhibition of nature

on postal stamps was organised. Postal stamps on

birds, mammals, marine life, butterflies and other

insects from the collection of the Curator, Mr

Naresh Chaturvedi, were exhibited.

An exhibition of wildlife photographs was

organised by the BNHS members at Panvel.

World Forestry Day

World Forestry Day was celebrated on 21st

March. On this occasion the beautified footpath of

Hornbill House was inaugurated by the Municipal

Commissioner, Shri Sharad Kale. The inauguration

was followed by tree planting by the Commissioner.

New topics like rain forests, remote sensing

techniques and snake show were covered along with

other activities.

Post Monsoon Camp

To study the breeding habits of Great Indian

Bustard and the grassland habitat, a four day camp

was organised at Nanaj Sanctuary at Solapur from

20th to 24th August 1994. 22 participants attended

the camp.

Rural Camps

The Nature Education Scheme has always had

a special interest in rural camps. This year a rural

camp at Pirangut in Mulsi Taluka, District Pune,

was sponsored and held from 14th to 18th

November. 120 students and 15 teachers attended

the camp. A rural camp was also arranged for

Kamalabai Nimbkar Balbhavan at Phaltan, in

Satara district at Mahabaleshwar for two days. 22

students participated in this camp.

A.G.M. 1994-95 - PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

189

Nature Rambles

In all, 40 field trips to various places like

Sanjay Gandhi National Park, Tungareshwar,

Karnala and Prabalgad and Juhu beach were

conducted. Out of these 40 trips, 5 were arranged

for college students while the rest were for school

students of stds. 8-10. Altogether 1734 students

participated in nature rambles throughout the year.

Talks illustrated with slides/films

Various schools were visited for slide shows

on different aspects of natural history and nature

education. In all, 22 slide shows were held.

Five film shows were held at schools and one

at an organisation (SOCLEEN). Besides these

activities, seven snake shows, two visits to the

natural history section of the Prince of Wales

Museum and two visits to the BNHS collections

were also conducted. Of these, snake shows were

the most popular and were attended by maximum

number of students. 3714 students attended various

slide shows, film shows and snake shows, visits to

zoo and museum.

Programme for Forest Guards

An awareness programme was conducted for

the forest guards of Tansa Wildlife Sanctuary.

Importance of proper documentation of field data

and data entry methods were explained. 30 forest

guards participated in the programme.

Workshop

A Nature Orientation Workshop for teachers

was organised at the BNHS from 9th to 11th January

1995. A grant was received from Ministry of

Environment and Forests, through the B AIF for this

programme. Though 18 teachers had registered

for the workshop, only 10 of them were able to

attend. Lecture-cum-slide shows were presented by

various resources persons from the BNHS. A one

day nature walk was arranged at the BNHS land at

Goregaon.

Seminar

A seminar organised by Paryavaran Vahini,

Thane unit was attended by the Education Officer

at Thane as resource person. A one day trail was

conducted at Tansa, Suryamal and Shahapur.

Another Seminar conducted by the CEP was

attended by the Education Officer as participant.

Later, a half day nature trail was led during the

seminar at the BNHS land.

Special Programmes

A Shramadan was arranged for six

consecutive Sundays at the BNHS land to build an

earthern bund for soil and water conservation.

On an average 10 members participated every

Sunday.

A special programme was arranged at the IIT,

as a part of the Wildlife Week celebration. Four

film shows and one slide show were held for the

IIT students and general public. Around 100 visitors

attended the shows. The BNHS stalls were arranged

at the IIT campus. The BNHS stall was also

arranged at St. Xavier’s College during the Malhar

festival. Besides being educational, these activities

were conducted as membership drive also.

As resource person, the Education Officer

attended a camp at Junnar in Pune for the YMCA

secretaries from all over India. Three sessions on

nature education and people’s participation were

held and a morning nature trail was arranged.

Tree plantation was undertaken to celebrate

World Environment Day at the BNHS land.

Competitions

A painting competition for school students

was arranged on the eve of Late Dr. Salim Ali’s

birthday. 220 students participated in the

competition. Paintings were judged by a panel of

judges. The prizes were distributed on 23rd

November 1994 by the President, BNHS.

An all-India essay competition was held in

which 140 essays were received. The final selection

of the prize winning essays was done by a panel of

judges. The prizes will be distributed on a special

occasion.

In all, a total of 6224 students and others

participated in various activities like camps, nature

rambles, slide /film shows, snake shows, workshops,

painting competition, essay competition training

programmes and other activities.

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JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

CONSERVATION EDUCATION PROJECT SUB-COMMITTEE

Chairman Dr. Shashi Menon

Members Mr. Ramesh Dandekar

Mr. P.V. Bole (Sp. Invitee)

Activity Report

The three field teams conducted educational

programmes in selected villages on identified

issues, initially using available material from other

sources. Later, based on their experience in the field,

they initiated development of project’s own

educational material. This is being field tested.

Results obtained till now are very encouraging.

Joint activities alongwith NGOs and

individuals working in the project area were

initiated in all the three field areas. In Gudalur about

20 NGOs have been brought together for

formalising ‘Network’ specifically to handle

environmental issues.

Trainings and Workshops

Trainings were conducted in development

activities, communication techniques and production

of educational aids like puppets, flannel talk.

Six staffs from the project team visited United

Kingdom for two weeks in September 1994. The

visit was organised by the RSPB. The team could

study and analyse different interpretation

techniques at centres in the UK.

The Project Co-ordinator and Project Field

Manager spent about two weeks in the UK on

invitation of the Overseas Development

Administration (ODA) and Royal Society for the

Protection of Birds (RSPB), visiting various

interpretation centres and holding discussions with

other organisations for possible new activities by

the BNHS. They got good insight in centre

management and good response from important

Convenors Mr. Arvind Karandikar (Proj. Mgr.)

Mr. T.K. Bharatan (Proj. Adm. Mgr.)

organisations like Royal Botanic Gardens.

Technical coordinator and a resource person

from the RSPB came during the year. Draft of

promotional plan for Conservation Education

Centre has been prepared and circulated among

experts for comments.

The local population including women in all

the three project areas responded well to the

educational programmes, meetings and discussions.

Similarly, there has been good cooperation from

the local forest officials, who participated in the

project activities along with local NGOs.

From the experience of implementing the

project, BNHS identified many areas where the

RSPB experts can provide inputs through

workshops and seminars. The BNHS senior

scientists and members now take part in meetings

and discussions for designing the education centre

and other programme related aspects.

Conservation Education Centre

The frame structure was completed along

with slabs and plastering in parts. Civil work will

be completed by September 1995. Simultaneously,

work on interiors and products of the Centre will

be initiated in May 1995. It is hoped to have the

Centre to be operational by the end of 1995 after

which production, multiplication and dissemination

of materials useful for educational activities will

be taken up. These include brochures, educational

kits, games, slide sets and booklets. All such

materials have been designed to suit the specific

needs of the Indian audience.

UNIVERSITY STUDIES SUB-COMMITTEE

Chairman Dr. Jay Samant (Director) Convenor Mr. DeepakApte (Education Officer)

Members Mr. M.R. Almeida

Prof. P V. Bole

Dr. B.F. Chhapgar

Mr. J.C. Daniel

Mr. N. Chaturvedi (Curator)

A.G.M. 1994-95 - PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

191

At present following students have registered for M.Sc. (by research) and Ph.D, in Zoology and Botany:

Diploma Course in Conservation Biology

This vocational course was successfully

conducted at the BNHS. The course was

coordinated by Nature Education Officer and

Principal Scientist with help from faculty members

and visiting experts. This intensive course, with 72

lectures and a seven day field visit to Melghat Tiger

Reserve covered various aspects of ecology,

political issues involved in biological diversity

conservation, protected area network, wildlife trade

and sustainable development. The course was found

to be ideal foundation to wildlife enthusiasts and

students wishing to pursue post-graduate studies in

ecology and environmental sciences.

192

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

LIBRARY SUB-COMMITTEE

Chairman

Members

Convenor

This year altogether 2050 new titles were

added to the library, including 505 books from late

Dr. Salim Ali’s collection, and 70 books purchased,

15 received for review and 1460 received as

donation and complimentary. Eight new journals

were subscribed bringing the total to 170 national

and international journals that are received in the

library. A majority of the journals are received in

exchange for the Society’s Journal. A revolving

display rack was purchased to display the latest

periodicals received in the library.

The objective of the library is to provide

correct information from right the source to a

person at the right time. However, with ever

increasing collection of information, the retrieval

of information has become more and more complex.

Therefore, for efficient handling of information, a

library management software package, SLIM was

Dr. Ashok Kothari

Dr. B.F. Chhapgar

Ms. Mehru Dubash

Ms. Doreen D’sa

Mr. V.K. Paralkar

Mr. Vilas Shingre

Mr. N. Chaturvedi (Curator)

Mr. Isaac Kehimkar (PRO)

Ms. Shubhangi Puradkar (Asst. Librarian)

purchased. Till date about 1000 titles have been

computerized. To clear the backlog, a library

assistant was appointed.

Every month, members and staff are informed

of the new books received for approval and those

added to the library. The list is displayed on the

library notice board. Clippings of current news

appearing in leading newspapers on natural history

and conservation are displayed on the notice board.

As an insurance against loss and damage of

library books, a deposit of Rupees 250.00 was

introduced.

The Assistant Librarian attended a six-week

training course on Paper Conservation and

Preventive Maintenance in Libraries, organised

by INTACH and Indian Conservation Institute at

Lucknow.

RESEARCH AND COLLECTION SUB-COMMITTEE

Chairman Mr. M.R. Almeida

Members Dr. Pratap Saraiya

Mr. K.P. Karamchandani

Dr. B.F. Chhapgar

Mr. J.C. Daniel

Dr. Shashi Menon

Dr. Rajendra Shinde

Mr. H. Abdulali (Invitee)

Dr. Renee Borges (Pricipal Scientist) till 8.4.1995

Mr. N. Chaturvedi (Curator)

Convenor Mr. S.R. Nayak (Project Secretary)

A.G.M. 1994-95 - PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

193

COLLECTIONS

Post graduate students from various colleges

in and around Bombay, from the J.N. University,

Jodhpur, College of Agriculture, Dapoli and

participants of the Refresher Course for zoology

teachers visited the collections. They were told

about the collection and preservation methods and

use of collection for various purposes .

Minister of State for Environment and Forest,

Govt, of India, Directors from the MOEF, Delhi,

Director, Zoological Survey of India, visitors from

organisations like Bombay Chartered Accountants’

Society, ICICI, and IPS and IAS Wives’ Association

visited the collections. The collection was also

referred to by members and scientists. Some of the

prominent were Dr. Indra Neil Das, Mr. T.N. S.

Murthy, Dr. K. K. Tiwari, Dr. K. Padhyan,

University of Bradford, U.K., Dr. William Oliver,

Conservation Officer, Jersey Wildlife Trust,

Channel Islands and Dr. Dolttinger from Germany.

Ms. Pamela Rasmussen of Smithsonian Institution,

Washington visited the collections for reference.

Assistance was given to Ms. Malvika Choudhary

of Meerut University and Ms. Vidya Athreya in

referring to the collections. Information on

identification of dragonflies belonging to genus

Orthetrurn , and a key for identification of aquatic

beetles were sent to students from Iran.

Identification

Photographs, specimenss of plants and

animals (mammals, birds, reptiles , amphibians and

insects) brought by members and research students

were identified and information was given . 108

plant specimens received from the Grassland Project

were identified. Avicennia marina , new secondary

host plant was recorded for Teak Defoliator Moth,

Hyblaea puera.

Additions

A specimens of Rusty Spotted Cat, Felis

rubiginosa received from Shri Digveerendra Sinh

was added to the collection. 688 Bird specimens

donated by St. Xavier’s College, Bombay from Br.

Navarro’s the collection were brought to The BNHS

were treated, registered and are kept separately. A

specimen of Frigate Bird, Fregata ariel iredalei was

added to the collection. 60 specimens of butterflies

from the collection of Roger Ashton were also added

to collections.

Computerisation

Computerisation of the specimens listing of

mammals, plants, reptiles and amphibians was over.

Bird specimens are being catalogued and has been

completed up to pipits and wagtails.

Survey

Scientists of the section undertook a status

survey of flora and fauna of Rajbhavan. Phase one

of the survey commenced in January 1995 and was

completed in March 1995. During the Survey, 117

species of plants, 36 species of birds, 32 species of

butterflies and 12 species of molluscs were

recorded.

Maintenance

The collections were checked periodically

and specimens were treated where necessary. The

collection rooms were painted with antifungal paint.

Cupboards having mammal and bird collections

were painted and wooden cupboards were polished.

Three ultraviolet light baits were installed to prevent

insect pests in collections.

Seminars and Workshops

Scientist in-charge, mammal section

participated in the International Environmental

Education Course conducted in the U.S. during which

he also visited Florida Museum and Smithsonian

Institution .

Scientist in-charge, herpetology section

presented a paper in the National Seminar on

Endangered Species held at Kanyakumari.

The Curator at the instance of University of

Bombay gave a series of lectures on Taxonomy of

Insects for M.Sc. (Part II) for entomology

students.

The collection staff also assisted in conducting

a diploma course in Conservation Biology.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT CELL

The EIA Cell had been set up with the

intention of carrying out Environmental Impact

Assessment projects and to undertake laboratory

analysis of physico-chemical parameters of soil/

water regimes. In India, EIA studies are linked to

statutory clearances and the EIA Cell has, through

meetings, correspondence with Department of

Environment, Maharashtra Pollution Control Board,

Industrial Associations and other EIA Agencies has

succeeded in communicating the word to these and

other peripheral agencies that we have now entered

into this specialized field.

This being the inception year of the EIA Cell,

much of the activity was focused on setting up the

environmental analytical laboratory and developing

its facilities in addition to communicating to various

interest groups. We are hopeful of applied research

(EA) projects materialising in 1995-96, indications

of which have already been received by the BNHS

from early 1995.

An Action Plan along with laboratory layout

plan and other details for setting up of the EIA Cell

has been prepared and submitted. Interaction with

British Council Division and United States Asia

Environment Programme (US-AEP) have been

initiated and is ongoing for access to new EIA

Legislations/Guidelines in the UK and the USA.

Laboratory Instruments, chemicals, books and

consumables have been acquired and/or repaired

for the laboratory towards the establishment of a

soil and water analytical laboratory. Analytical

equipments have been put under service contracts.

Guidelines for acceptance of EIA projects by

industrial project proponents have been prepared.

General Terms of Reference for EIA projects have

been prepared and list of parameters and analysis

charges have been prepared for the laboratory. A.B.

Inamdar, CRSE-IIT, has agreed to work with The

BNHS in remote sensing applications for BNHS-

EIA studies on a project-to- project basis.

Application for registration of the laboratory

has been submitted to Bombay Municipal

Corporation and Central Pollution Control

Board. The EIA Cell has been registered by the

British Council Division as part of the Working

Group on EIA. There has been ongoing

correspondence with bodies like UNEP, Asian

Development Bank, World Bank, European

Economic Community and University of

Manchester, U.K. towards inclusion of the BNHS

in different working/expert groups for EIA

studies.Contacts have been established with other

EIA agencies (towards collaborative work in EIA

studies.

Following an invitation from the Maharashtra

Pollution Control Board (MPCB), Bombay, the EIA

Scientist attended a MPCB-NGO meeting at MPCB

HQ in May, to discuss the formation of a MPCB-

NGO Cell at Maharashtra Pollution Control Board

to disseminate EIA reports. A meeting to discuss

the Environmental Impact Assessment Study of

Bombay-Vadodara Expressway, at Collector’s

office, Thane was attended. Illrd Gurudas

Committee meeting at Mantralaya on the Century

Rayon accident was attended in July to analyse

technical causes of the accident and to suggest

mitigating measures to prevent recurrence of such

disasters.

RESEARCH

During the year 1994-95 the BNHS had eight

major and minor research programmes.

Bird Hazard Research Cell: Identification

of bird strike remnants and consultancy service to

aerodrome officials was continued.

A project proposal for developing electro-

phoretic techniques for bird and bat strike remnants

was approved for funding by the ARDB. The

concerned scientist was deputed by the Director to

visit New Delhi for discussion with funding

authorities for extension.

Members of the high level committee of

A.G.M. 1994-95 - PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

195

ARDB visited Bombay and held a meeting with

President, BNHS to discuss plans for continuation

of bird hazard research by the BNHS. A suggestion

was made for National Centre for Bird Hazard

Research and Prevention to be set up at the BNHS.

Grassland Ecology Project: Studies were

carried out at the following field stations: Nanaj,

Sholapur (Maharashtra), Rollapadu (A.P.), Fuley

Chhari (Kutch), Dahod (Gujarat), Velavadar

(Gujkrat) and Dudwa National Park (U.P.).

Studies were conducted on Indian Fox at

Rollapadu. Permission to collar 10 foxes was

granted by the forest department.

Avifauna studies were undertaken at Banni

grasslands to determine the effect of severe drought

condition during the year. Dry grasslands of

Jaisalmer were surveyed. A rapid survey of alpine

grassland in Sikkim was undertaken. US advisor

Prof. Mark Behan and USFWS Co-ordinator Mr

David Ferguson visited Aligarh for discussions.

Major Findings and Recommendations

At Nanaj (Solapur) bustard population has

increased. Owing to our representation, plan to build

a large spinning mill, very close to bustard breeding

ground, was cancelled. Studies on wolf indicated

their preference for livestock during breeding

season and during non breeding season they prey

on black buck. Blackbuck population has increased

in Nanaj.

In Rollapadu after ten years protection,

grassland biomass has increased, but species

richness has decreased. Blackbuck population has

increased from 17 in 1985 to 275 in 1995. Crop

damage has become a major problem.

It is desirable to reduce blackbuck population

to 100. Studies conducted on Fox indicated

population fluctuation. From half a dozen in 1984

to 40 in 1994 then a sharp decline due to an

epidemic in 1995.

Banni and Velavadar in Gujarat are invaded

by Prosopis juliflora . Livestock demography has

changed due to invasion of this plant. Habitat of

Chinkara and Wolf has been destroyed, and feeding

ground of wintering common cranes is under

increasing threat. We estimate that 40,000 common

cranes winter in Banni.

Velavadar grassland is one of the best

breeding ground of Lesser Florican. We estimate a

population of 50 to 60 floricans.

In Thar desert there is nearly 50% drop in

bustard population in last 10 years. This could be

due to extensive poaching. Desert National Park is

under increased threat due to a plan to build a canal.

The bird diversity has shown an increase due to the

Indira Gandhi Canal but local desert dwelling birds

have declined. Chinkara population has recovered

since mid 1980s. The Sultana grassland is badly

damaged by mismanagement.

In the terai grassland of Dudhwa National

park we found that invasion of weedy unpalatable

lemon grass in the sort grass patches at higher

elevation. This is due to the current management

practice of annual burning. This has destroyed the

grazing ground of Swamp deer. We suggest a

combination of rotational burning and harvesting

to control lemon grass.

Birds of Prey Project: Comments from

USFWS were received on the draft final technical

report.

The main objective of the Project was to

obtain information on the distribution and numbers

of resident raptors and assess conservation status

of their population in the country.

Major Findings and Recommendations

A new species of raptor, Greyfaced Buzzard

was added to the checklist of the raptors of the

Indian subcontinent. Two species, namely Lesser

Spotted and Lesser Fishing Eagles were found to

be very rare. The Nicobar Serpent Eagle and

Nicobar Sparrow Hawk which were never common

were also found to be very rare. The range

extensions of Crested Honey Buzzard and Amur

Falcon in Andamans, Changeable Hawk Eagle and

Besra Sparrowhawk in Nicobar, Rufousbellied

Eagle and Eastern Marsh Harrier in Upper Gangetic

Plains were recorded. The Amur Falcon was

observed nesting in India for the first time after the

year 1928 near Namdapha National Park, Arunachal

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Pradesh . The nesting failure was recorded in Lesser

Fishing eagle for three consecutive years in Corbett

National Park due to suspected pesticide

contamination.

General Recommendations were given for

group of raptors in a particular habitat types as well

as species specific recommendations were given for

the rare raptors.

Giant Squirrel Project: Malabar Giant

Squirrel is being studied in the Bhimashankar

Wildlife Sanctuary. To develop a management plan

for the conservation of the species, an attempt will

be made to address the specific objectives, viz. food

selection, ranging patterns and relationship between

food availability and reproductive success.

USFWS Coordinator Mr David Ferguson

visited the BNHS to discuss the progress of the

project with the Principal Investigator.

Ecology of Elephants : The term of the project

was over in March 1994. Salim Ali Nature

Conservation Fund sanctioned a grant to help the

scientist to collect data for a further period of 9

months. Radio collars on the elephants are still active.

Major Findings and Recommendations

The study established that Home ranges of

elephant clans had been grossly underestimated

previously when telemetry was not available and

emphasised that Sanctuary boundaries should

follow ecological rather than administrative

boundaries. The fact that elephants in sanctuaries

receive from various degrees of protection as their

ranges extend beyond protected areas has been

cle.arly defined. The importance of corridors linking

metapopulations has been clearly brought out.

Conflict between man and elephants caused by

encroachment into elephant territories and the fact

that elephants whose ranges have been encroached

raid crops as they continue to use their territory

and that management should consider these points

when considering removing such trouble some

elephants has been brought out. The food and

habitat usage and the effect of selective removal of

favoured food species on the forest structure was

one of the main findings of the study.

The study on peripheral populations

established that overuse by man and elephants

degraded habitats rapid by making it impossible

for such habitats to hold sustainable elephant

population.

The study of isolated population at Dalma

showed how a continuously degraded habitats is

unable to sustain its elephant population leading to

migration and enormous damage to both man and

elephants. The study is a classic example of what

could happen to small populations in habiting non-

viable habitats.

Birds of Sriharikota: Research programme

on this project concluded in June 1994. Field station

was closed. Draft final technical report is under

preparation.

Jerdon’s Courser Project: The project

started with the objective of surveying the avifauna

of eastern ghats to establish status of the Jerdon’s

Courser. The scientist working on the survey has

reported having seen five individuals of this rare

species. The survey will continue for a further

period of six months.

Study of Harriers: Velavadar National Park

has an unusual concentration of roosting harriers,

during the winter. Monitoring of this roost has been

going on for the past 3 years during the winter

season. The study is sponsored by Hawk & Owl

Trust (U.K.).

SALIM ALI NATURE CONSERVATION FUND SUB-COMMITTEE

Chairman Dr. Pratap R. Saraiya (Vice President)

Members Mrs. D.S. Variava (Vice President)

Mr. J.C. Daniel

Mr. S. Asad Akhtar (Conservation Officer)

Convenor

A.G.M. 1994-95 - PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

197

Conservation Issues were highlighted and

the problems being faced by certain sanctuaries

and protected areas which are threatened with

unplanned development activities were discussed

during a public meeting held in September 1994.

The areas covered wereNarayan Sarovar WildSife

Sanctuary, Bhitar Kanika Wildlife Sanctuary,

Balukhand-Konark Wildlife Sanctuary,

Mangroves and the protected areas in the

Andaman & Nicobar islands. As a result of public

discussions of critical environmental issues, certain

areas like the Gulf of Kutch, Bhitar Kanika Wildlife

Sanctuary, Narayan Sarovar, Chinkara Sanctuary

and the Melghat Tiger Reserve were specifically

surveyed. These surveys helped the BNHS to

acquaint itself with the current ground realities in

these localities.Certain issues like the controversy

about the allotment of land in the Gir National Park

which needed immediate attention were also

addressed and a clarification obtained from the

concerned authorities.

Environment and nature conservation

workshops were also organised for the Armed

Forces. This interaction with members of the armed

forces is helping to bring about an attitudinai

change vis-a-vis environmental awareness amongst

the defence services.

A public meeting to highlight the implications

Minister of State for Environment and Forests,

Govt, of India, Directors from the MOEF; Delhi,

Mr Sharad Kale, Commissioner, Bombay Municipal

Corporation, Director, Zoological Survey of India,

visitors from organisations

like Bombay Chartered Accountants’ Society,

ICICI, and IPS and IAS Wives’ Association

visited the collections and library. The collections

were also referred by some of the prominent

scientists like Dr. Indra Neil Das, Dr. T.N.S. Murthy,

Dr. K.K. Tiwari, Dr. K. Padhyan, University of

Bradford, U.K., Dr.William Oliver, Conservation

Officer, Jersey Wildlife Trust, Channel Islands,

of the draft Forest Bill was also organised at Hornbill

House. It generated a highly enlightened response

from the members of the public, the forest

department and experts in the field. A talk to

highlight the ecological implications of the

Sharavathy Valley Hydro Electric Project was also

organised. At the local level ecological

reconnaissance of the Powai lake area was initiated

with a view to highlight its deteriorating condition

in an appropriate forum. Networking with like-

minded conservation oriented organisations has

been initiated. It has generated a good response.

The Salim Ali Bird Count - 1994 was

organised on 14th November, It received a fair

response. Analysis of the count data is in progress,

the analysis of the inaugural Salim Ali Bird Count

- 1993 was completed and a final report submitted.

Requests for funding were received from

different parts of the country, out of which funding

was given to the following:

Elephant Radio Telemetry Studies

at Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary Rs. 20,000.00

Grant to BHNS Scientist to attend

Seminar on Endangered Fauna

at Kanyakumari Rs, 1,800.00

Grant to Narmada Bachao Andolan Rs 5,000.00

Dr. Dolttinger from Germany and Ms. Pamela

Rasmuesan of Smithsonian Institution, Washington.

Mr. Malcolm Whitehead, International Centre

for Conservation Education, UK, Ms. Chris

Skinner, Pulborugh Brooks, RSPB, UK, Mr David

Elcome, Head, Education Unit, RSPB, UK, Mr John

Edmundson, First Secretary, Cultural Affairs, BCD-

Bombay, Mr.A.K.Nigam,IFS, Conservator of

Forests (Wildlife), Western Region, Mr Johari, EPS,

Mr. A R Bharati, Deputy Conservator of Forests,

SGNP, 15 School Teachers from the German

Embassy School, Bombay visited the Conservation

Education Centre

198

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

STAFF ACHIEVEMENTS

Dr. Jay Samant, Director visited United States

to attend Initiative in Environmental Protection

in the US under the US Information Agency’s

Visitors’ Programme. This visit resulted in

interaction with various American NGOs, National

Park managers and heads of federal and state

environmental agencies. He was also invited by the

RSPB to visit their Conservation Interpretation

Centres and Nature Reserves in the UK and Ireland.

Additional visits were to the Royal Botanic

Gardens, Edinburgh, Bradford University, Hawk

and Owl Trust, Harrison Zoological Museum and

Birdlife International.

Mr Naresh Chaturvedi, Curator gave lectures

in entomology (insect taxonomy) to the M.Sc.

(Part II) students at the Bombay University.

Publications:

1. Chaturvedi, N. (1994): New adult male

attractants of Danaid butterflies.JBNHS

91:152-153.

2. Paralkar, V. K. & Chaturvedi, N.(1994): An

unusual roosting site of the marsh harrier

Circus aeruginosas. JBNHS 91:311 .

Mr. A. G. Sekar, Scientist, Herpetology

conducted a survey of Mahabaleshwar during the

monsoon to study amphibian fauna. Presented a

paper on the habitat of the amphibian fauna of the

Kanyakumari district at the Seminar on Endangered

Fauna of Kanyakumari District A talk on the

Endangered species of herpetofauna was given

at the Conservation Biology Course conducted at

Hornbill House.

Publications:

1. Sekar, A.G. and Almeida, M.R. (1994):Range

extension of the Bombay Shield tail snake,

Uropeltis macrolepis. JBNHS 90:520-21.

2. Sekar, A.G.(1994): Range extension of the

Spotted Forest Gecko Cyrtodactylus

collegalensis collegalensis. JBNHS 91:323-

24.

Dr. (Mrs.) S. Unnithan, Scientist in-charge

birds section gave talk to the members of

Indo-Japanese Association and the Bombay Chapter

of the Bonsai Study Group on attracting birds

to gardens and how to keep off sparrows and

pigeons.

Mr. Manoj Muni, Scientist, in -charge mammal

section attended a specialised training course

International Environmental Education at Front

Royal, US . Visited Conservation Research Centre,

Front Royal, Smithsonian Institute, Washington,

Florida Museum of Natural History. At the

University of Boston, a lecture on Conservation

of Bats in India was given to the post-graduate

students. Participated as speaker/instructor in the

diploma course in Conservation Biology, where a

seminar was given on Present Status of Indian

Mammals and Role of Museums in

Conservation. At the Teachers’ Training Course

lectures were delivered on the Role of Teachers in

Environmental Education and Use of

Communication Strategies in the Field of

Environmental Education.

Publications:

1 . Bates, P.J.J., Harrison, D.L. and Muni, Manoj

(1994): The Bats of Western India revisited.

Parts I,II and III. JBNHS 91:1-15; 224-40 and

360-80.

2. Bates,P.J.J., Harrison, D.L., Thomas, N.M.

and Muni, Manoj (1994): The Indian Fruit

Bat Latidens salimalii rediscovered in

Southern India. Bonn zool. Beitr. 45:89-98.

3. Muni, Manoj, Kothari, A. and Bhiwgade,

D.A.(1994): Occurrence of the Leaf-nosed

Bat Hipposideros lankadiva in Ratnagiri

District, Maharashtra. JBNHS 91:136.

4. Muni, Manoj (1994): Rarest of the rare -

Latidens salimalii. Hornbill 1994:28-32.

Dr. C.R. Ajithkumar, Scientist A, Ecology of

Grassland Project

A.G.M. 1994-95 - PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

199

Publication:

1. Ajithkumar, C.R. and Asthana, A. (1994):

Circadian variation in the movement of fry in a

feeder canal. JBNHS 91:194-202.

Mr. Satish Kumar, Sr. Research Fellow,

Ecology of Grassland Project, was invited to

participate in a conference Wolves and Humans -

2000: Global Conflicts of Wolf Management held

in the University of Minnesota, USA. He presented

a research paper Strategies for Wolf Conservation

in marginal areas of the Deccan, India .

Mr. J. K. Tiwari, Junior Scientist, Ecology of

Grassland Project.

Publications:

1. Tiwari, J.K.( 1 994): Unusual feeding behaviour

of the grey musk shrew Suncus murinus.

JBNHS 91:305

2. Tiwari, J.K. & Langha, A.O.(1994): A breeding

record of the crested honey buzzard Pernis

ptilorhyncus ruficollis. JBNHS 91: 310.

Mr Arvind Karandikar, Project Manager,

Conservation Education Project, visited the

United Kingdom along with the project team

comprising of Ms Lima Rosalind, Research Officer,

Dr Renu Kohli, Mr Manish Khodaskar, Mr Prashant

Mahajan, Mr Shekar Shiveshwarkar and Mr Parag

Mungle. During the training the team visited

Pulborough Brooks, RSPB Reserve and Vistor

Centre, Woodsmill, Sussex Wildlife Trust Centre

and Arndel Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust Centre.

Dr Renu Kohli, Education Project Officer and

Mr Manish Khodaskar, Education Project Officer

presented two papers on Communicating

Conservation around Keoladeo National Park at

the Seminar on Ecodevelopment, Habitat and

Wildlife Conservation in Rajasthan held at Kota,

Rajasthan.

Mr Prashant Mahajan, Education Project

Officer presented a paper on Masinagudi group of

villages - Biotic pressure, Conservation

Education and Possible Alternatives at the

seminar on Ecological Concerns and Policy Issues

as relevant to Nilgiris.

Publications:

1. Rosalind, Lima.(1994): BNHS Role in

Conservation of India’s Natural History.

AVEHI(Avehi Educational Media Magazine).

Mr. Alex Abraham, El A Scientist delivered a

lecture on the concept of EIA & the BNHS-EIA

Cell to CEP project team and as faculty member

for the Course on “Conservation Biology” at the

BNHS, delivered lectures on Environmental Impact

Assessment and Environmental Audit.

Submitted a paper on “Role of EIA in the

protection of Biodiversity for the National Seminar

on Wildlife Resources-Nelworking organised by

MoEF & BNHS.

Symposia and Seminars attended:

1. Workshop on EIA organised by British

Council Division, Bombay, July 1994.

2. Workshop on Economic Valuation of Air

Pollution in Chembur, MEIP project,

organised by IGIDR, Bombay, July 1994.

3. National Seminar on Environment and

Development, organised by WWF-India &

Chemtech Foundation, October 1994.

4. Training Programme on EIA Practice,

organised by British Council Division,

Lonavala, April 1995.

5. Brainstorming Workshop on Action Plans on

EIA, sponsored by UNEP, MoEF, organised

by Centre for Environmental Studies and

Education (CESE), IIT, Bombay, May 1995.

Ms Shubhangi Puradkar, Assistant Librarian

attended a six-week training course on “Paper

Conservation and Preventive maintenance in

Libraries” organised by the INTACH and Indian

Conservation Institute at Lucknow. She was

awarded the Best Participant’s Award.

200

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

DONATIONS AND GRANTS

We are grateful to the following donors and well-wishers for the grants and donations to the Society.

A.G.M. 1994-95 - PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

201

WELL-WISHERS

DR. ABDUL KARIM NAIK

MRS. ALOO J. DASTUR

MRS. AKILA VAIDYANATHAN

APEX ADVERTISING

DR. ASAD.R. RAHMANI

BOMBAY EDUCATION BOOK BINDING

MR. CHAITANYA M. DESAI (SANCF)

MRS. COOMI K. HAEVAE

MR. DE PREMOD, FRANCE

DEEPAK STORES

HIRDWANI TRUST

MRS. LEELA H. DAYAL

MR. M. KRISHNAN

METRO ENVELOPE MAKER

MR. ORHANT GEORGES, FRANCE

PARIMAL TRUST

DR. R.B. KENKRE, GOA

ROYAL COPY CENTRE

SAVRABH TANDON

SUBHLAXMI EXPORTS LTD.

DR. SUGATO CHAUDHARY

VESPAR ENTERPRISES

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are grateful to the following persons for their assistance in various activities of the Society:

Mr Sudheer Agashe

Mr Shahid Ali

Mr M R Almeida

Dr Mark Behan

Mr Navroz Behramfram

Dr Renee Borges

Mr J C Daniel

Dr B Dasgupta

Mrs V B Desmukh

Mr Mihir Deware

Mr Robert D’ Souza

Mr Arvind Karandikar

Mr. Manoj Karkhanis

Mr Isaac Kehimkar

Mr Kini K.V.

Dr Ashok Kothari

Dr Arun Joshi

Mr Rahul Marathe

Maj. M. Maskar

Mr Athul Mathur

Mr Parag Mungale

Mr N D Mull a

Mr A K Nigam

Dr Parvish Pandya

Mr V K Paralkar

Mr Shirish Pitale

Mr Ulhas Rane

Ms Lima Rosalind

Mr Gulab Sakpal

Dr. Jay Samant

Mr Vivek Samant

Mrs Ranjana Shah

Mr Vilas Shingre

Mr S Shiveshwarkar

Mr T V Sowrirajan

Ms Varsha Waghmare

The Executive Committee acknowledges with thanks the assistance given to the BNHS by the

Ministry of Environment, Forests and Wildlife and the Ministry of Defence of the Government of India,

the United States Fish & Wildlife Service, Overseas Development Administration, UK, British Council

Division, Bombay, the Government of Maharashtra, and the Charity Commissioner, Bombay. It also thanks

the members and staff of the BNHS for their unstinted support in the various activities of the Society.

Dr Ashok Bhagwat

Honorary Secretary

202

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

HONORARY TREASURER’S REPORT ON THE

ACCOUNTS FOR THE YEAR 1ST APRIL 1994 TO 31ST MARCH 1995

I have the pleasure to report on the 1 1 1th Annual General Meeting of the Society and the following points

may be highlighted while considering the Accounts and the Auditor’s Report for the year 1994-95.

1. During the year the Society has received the following major donations/grants :

(A) The Tata Iron and Steel Co. Ltd (TISCO) has made a generous grant of Rs 20,00,000.

The same has been utilised to create the TISCO Conservation Education, Awareness and

Research Fund.

(B) The Industrial Credit and Investment Corporation of India (ICICI) has donated a munificent

grant of Rs. 15,00,000. The same has been utilised to create the ICICI Environmental

Research, Education and Awareness Fund.

(C) Government of Maharashtra and the Royal Western India Turf Club have generously donated

Rs 17,78,263 and Rs 1,68,327 respectively, for repairs and maintenance of Hombill House and

Collections.

2. I am happy to state that in response to Prof. P V Bole’s, (Ex-President, BNHS), request at the AGM of 28th

January 1993, Mr. Vasant Panse has included the Society as one of the largest beneficiary in his Will. He

has already given a sum of Rs 1,00,002 out of his estate. I therefore request all of you to follow such noble

examples and include our esteemed Society as some part of the beneficiary in your Will. The Society has

undertaken to preserve all such copies of the Will.

3. The long promised and sanctioned grant from the Government of India for Air-conditioning grant is till date

not forthcoming. The expenditure till date is Rs 16,56,103 approximately. A serious view of the same has

to be taken and stem appropriate action needs to be taken. Similar is the case of recovery of Rs 1,00,000 for

the Army Cell. Both the amounts are due from Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India.

4. The Management Information System of the Society is now in force. Recently the Society undertook a

major exercise in comparing budgeted expenditure and income for the year 1995-96 with the actual of half

year. I am proud to state that no major deviations have been noted. Further as for last year, the strict

budgetary controls with internal control and internal checks, are still enforced and strengthened.

5. The surplus of the Society would have been higher by Rs 2,30,800 had the said amount due from Government

of Maharashtra and Rs 1,74,912 due for Nature Education Scheme from Government of Maharashtra not

been written off. The same had to be written off as per the advice of the auditors as the same is over 3 years

old. However, the Society is actively pursuing the grants from the Government of Maharashtra for the full

value of the Reference Collections and for the upkeep and repairs of Hombill House.

6. I regret to state that despite the best of efforts, the shortfall in terms of inadequate funding as reported last

year still continues.

However, I am happy to state that our capital has increased by 23.45% which in actual forms amounts to Rs

33,90,113.

7 . The Fund Raising Committee along with the Salim Ali Centenary Celebrations Committee have been merged

together and till the members of the Executive Committee are members of the Fund Raising Committee.

This is done specifically to effectively collect donations and to avoid overlaps of donors being approached

for separate causes, within the members of the Committee. The Committee has till date received the funds

or sanction orders of nearly 25 lakhs. The target amount during the Centenary Celebrations is, however, 50

lakhs which the Society is hopeful of receiving.

Sunil Zaveri

Honorary Treasurer

A.G.M. 1994-95 - PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

203

AUDITORS’ REPORT

R: BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

Registration No. F-244 (Bom)

We have audited the attached Balance Sheet

of the Society as at March 31st, 1995 and also the

annexed Income & Expenditure Account for the

financial year ended on that date and report that in

our opinion and to the best of our information and

according to the explanations given to us:

(a) the accounts are maintained regularly and

in accordance with the provisions of the Bombay

Public Trust Act, 1950, subject to the observation

that as per the past practice separate Receipts and

Payments Account has been drawn for the Nature

Education Scheme and the same has not been

incorporated in accounts of the Society. While

referring to the observations made in para (a) of

our last report dated 12th September, 1994, we

observe that the grant from the government not

forthcoming, a contribution of Rs. 1,74, 9 12. 12 has

been made by the Society to the said Scheme

interalia covering the accumulated deficit in the said

Scheme. The said contribution, we understand, has

been approved by the Executive Committee in its

meeting held on 28th September 1995,

(b) the receipts and disbursements have been

properly and correctly shown in the accounts,

subject to the observation that as per the accounting

practice adopted, grants from State Government and

other sponsoring organisations are being accounted

in anticipation of receipt of sanction letters based

on the claims preferred/to be preferred. While

referring to the observations made in para (b) of

our last report dated 12th Sept. 1994 accompanying

the statement of accounts for the year ended March

31, 1994, we observe that the following items so

accounted in the earlier years still remain

unrealised:

(i) Central Government (Ministry of

Environment & Forests) Grant for

Air-conditioning of Reference

Collections Room

and Library Rs. 8,63,707.46

(ii) Government of India (Ministry

of Environment & Forests)

Grant for Nature Conservation

Courses for Indian Army Rs. 1,00,000.00

We observe that in the case of Central

Government grant for Air-conditioning of reference

collections room and library, expenditure of

Rs. 3, 30,263. 91 out of the expenditure incurred

during the year towards electric charges and

maintenance of air conditioning system has been

treated as recoverable by way of grant. Thus the

aggregate amount of grant accounted as recoverable

amounts to Rs.11,93,971.37 as at the date of Balance

Sheet. In the case of the Nature Conservation

Course for Army, we observe that by the date of

Balance Sheet, the Society has already spent a sum

of Rs. 69,204/- in that behalf out of its own funds.

Incidentally, we may point out that a sum of

Rs.2, 30,804/- which had been accounted as income

in the year 1991-92, as grant recoverable from

Maharashtra State Government had to be written

back during the year, as the anticipated receipt did

not materialise. We are not in a position to offer

any comments about the realisability of the

aforesaid outstanding dues. We reiterate our views

that the income of such nature be recognised as

income, when there is no uncertainty about its

realisation,

(c) the cash balance and the vouchers in the

custody of the accountant on the date of audit

were in agreement with the books of accounts,

(d) the books, deed, accounts, vouchers and/or

other documents or records required by us were

produced to us,

te) the register of movable and immovable

properties has been maintained. However, the

changes therein have remained to be

communicated to the Regional Office. In rhe

context of equipments and other such items of

204

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

capital nature acquired out of various grants

and other project funds, we observe that

initially the cost of such equipments, etc. is

charged to the relevant project accounts and

on completion of the projects, the Society

generally seeks the permission of the concerned

sponsoring authorities to retain such assets, as

are found to be useful for other projects and/or

other purposes and on obtaining such approvals

the necessary entries are passed in the books

of accounts to record the residual value of such

items. In this context we also wish to refer to

the observations made in para (i) hereinbelow

in respect of the expenditure towards erection

of the Conservation Education Centre. While

referring to the observations made in our

aforesaid last report we observe that the value

of a Jeep, so retained, still remains to be brought

into account. In the absence of adequate

information, it has not been possible for

us to verify if the value of all the items

allowed to be retained has been brought into

accounts.

We further observe that a vehicle, which had

been retrieved from certain projects completed in

some earlier year has been disposed off during the

year and the proceeds of Rs.69,000/- (net)has been

credited to Fixed Assets Account. An expenditure

of Rs.48,939/- incurred during the year on major

overhauling of a vehicle (which had been so

retrieved from certain project), in order to put it in

proper working condition for the purpose of the

Society has been capitalised.

We also understand that the Society is holding

a number of “medals” of different precious and

semiprecious metallic contents, which were

awarded to late Dr. Salim Ali and which under his

Will have been obtained by the Society. The same,

we are informed, are being held as commemorative

souvenirs. The value thereof, has not been brought

into accounts as it is contended that the said

Souvenirs being of aesthetic and sentimental value

and commemorative nature,can not be reduced to

monetary value.

(f) the Hon. Treasurer and the Accountant

appeared before us and furnished the necessary

information required by us.

(g) We are not aware of any property or funds of

the Society having been applied for any objects

or purpose other than the objects of the Society,

(h) the following amounts were outstanding for

more than one year :

— Dues towards supplies

& services

55,162.95

— Loans to staff 14,125,00

— Advances for Expenses

(for projects & other expenses):

Employees (including ex.employees)

Others 31,259.45

12.397.00 43,656.45

— Other dues 10,143.50

— Grants receivable:

From Government of India

8,63,707.46

From Government of India 1,00,000.00

— Suspense Account 1,570.25

— Income tax

refundable 11,279.00

In the context of the aforesaid outstanding of

Rs. 31, 259. 45 representing advance to the

employees we understand that it includes

Rs.26, 264.45 due from three persons, who are no

longer in the employment of the Society. Of the

said amount Rs.24,453.45 has since been recovered,

leaving a balance of Rs. 1,811/- which is proposed

to be adjusted against other dues payable to the

concerned ex. employee. The advances to others

include Rs.7,397/- paid to certain persons for certain

projects, of which Rs.2,397/- has since been

adjusted. It will be appreciated, if proper account

is obtained for the balance advance and the account

is appropriately adjusted. The advances to others

also include Rs.5,000/- paid to a printing press,

which has remained to be adjusted pending

A.G.M. 1994-95 - PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

205

settlement of their bill. The other dues represent

the expenditure incurred in connection with certain

projects which is sought to be recovered from the

concerned organisations. We are not in a position

to express any opinion about the realisability of the

said dues. In regard to balance in Suspense Account

we suggest that effective steps be taken to recover

the amount and clear the balance in Suspense

account.

During the year the following amounts have

been written off:

— Dues from Bihar

State Government Rs. 6,534.00

— Dues towards supplies

& services Rs.23,627.75

It may however, be pointed out that the

amount of Rs.23,627.75 has been debited to Income

from other sources from Greeting Cards and

Calendars of the current year instead of being

charged to bad debts written off. The amounts so

written off 'may also be confirmed in the next

meeting of the Executive Committee. In this

context, we also wish to refer to the observations

made in para (b) hereinabove in regard to the write

back of the grant from State Government. We have

been informed that the other outstanding balances

are considered good and recoverable,

(i) during the year under report a sum of Rs.

9,02,427.55 was spent on repairs to the Hombill

Building. We have been informed that limited

enquiries were floated and based on the

estimates received work was awarded to one

of the contractors. Besides, we observe that

during the year under report a sum of

Rs.29,75,855/- has been spent on construction

of Conservation Education Centre at Goregaon

Centre at Goregaon (E), bringing the total cost

of construction to Rs.32,35,982/- till the date

of Balance Sheet. We understand that tenders

were invited for the said construction work and

the work was entrusted to one of the contractors

on the recommendations of the architect. The

said amount stands charged to the Conservation

Education Project as shown in Schedule “C”

attached to the Balance Sheet. We are informed

that the grant had been received for the purpose

of erection of the Conservation Education

Centre. In so far as the said outlay is on a

property which would form part of the

properties & assets of a permanent nature of

the Society,it would be more appropriate to

reflect the said outlay as construction work in

progress and the amount spent be transferred

from the relevant fund a/c. to ‘Fixed Asset Fund

Account’ or ‘Grant Utilisation Account5. The

procedure being followed merits

reconsideration.

(j) we are not aware of any money of the Society

having been invested in contravention of Sec.

35 of the Bombay Public Trust Act, 1950,

(k) we are not aware of any immovable property

of the Society, therefore, the question of

alienation of any property contrary to the

provisions of Sec. 36 of the Bombay Public

Trust Act, 1950 does not arise,

(l) i) in regard to the expenses charged to

various grants and funds we have relied on the

information given to us and the authentication

of the Hon. Secretary and Hon. Treasurer that

the expenses so charged relate to these grants

and have been spent on the specific objects for

which the grants were received. While

checking the statement of accounts in regard

to the expenditure incurred at various camps,

we have relied on the authorisation by the Hon.

Secretary and Hon. Treasurer, as to the

reasonableness of the expenditure. In this

context we observe that during the year a sum

of Rs.8,86,236/- had been received from the

Maharashtra State Government (as special

Charity Race meeting) grant. Hie said amount

together with the unutilised grant of

Rs.8,92,000/- brought forward from the earlier

year has been credited to Income &

Expenditure account of the year under report.

It has been explained to us that the said

amount has been utilised for the following

purposes:

206

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

— Repairs to Hornbill House Rs. 9,02,427.55 and ratified at the next meeting of the Executive

— Repairs to Electric fittings Rs. 2,30,000.00 Committee:

— Salaries of Reference

collection and maintenance Staff

(other than met out of

other grant) Rs. 3,82,521.25

— Reference collection Expenses

(including electricity charges

for air conditioning system of

reference room other than that

met out of other grants) Rs. 3,12,559.81

Rs.18, 27,508.61

On perusal of the sanction letters for the said

grant, we observe that the said grants were

sanctioned to the Society to enable it to maintain

and upkeep the collection of natural history

material. It is contended that the above expenses

were necessary for the said purpose.

ii) while on the above subject, we observe some

of the local field workers, whose services were

engaged for one of the projects at Bharatpur,

are claiming reinstatement and other service

benefits, which is being disputed by the Society.

The contingent liability in this regard remains

undeterminate. The matter, we are informed,

is pending before the Labour Court at Bharatpur

and Provident Fund authorities. A provision

of Rs. 1,94, 060.70 has been retained in the

accounts in this behalf. The liability has not

been determined on actuarial basis,

iii) the income towards membership subscription

is being accounted on realisation basis,

iv) we are given to understand that on physical

verification of the fixed assets certain items

were found to be lying with some members for

research/study purpose. We suggest that proper

records in this regard may be maintained and

year end confirmation be obtained from such

borrowing members,

v) we suggest the following items of

disbursements effected, appropriations made

and administrative charges levied be confirmed

A. DISBURSEMENT FROM:

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

(v)

(vi)

(vii)

(viii)

(ix)

(x)

(xi)

(xii)

(xiii)

(xiv)

(xv)

(xvi)

B.

1.

2.

3.

4.

Salim Ali Nature Conservation Fund

Investment Revenue Account

Salim Ali Memorial Fund

Staff Gratuity Fund

Ministry of Defence, ARDB

for Bird Hazard Research Cell

Department of Space, Ecological

Investigation of Avian

Community of Shriharikota

Elephant Telemetry Projects

Ministry of Environment

& Forests - Nature Conservation

Course for Indian Army

Rs.

2,12,283.64

12,839.50

1,12,669.00

74,663.75

23,541.90

34,194.30

12,761.60

Grants from United States, Rs.

Department of Interior, Fish

& Wild Life Service for:

(a) Ecology of Dry Grassland 12,72,740.25

(b) Study of Conservation

of Birds of Prey with particular

emphasis upon restoration of

Endangered Species 34,042.50

Hawk & Owl Trust - Grassland

& Roosting Harriers 50,343.85

Endangered Turtles of Pondicherry 110.60

Wetland, Mangrove & Coral Reefs

in India (UNDP) 13,299.75

Smithsonian Institution, Washington

for revision of Handbook of the

Birds of India & Pakistan 892.85

Grant for Chilka Lake Project 2,931.70

Conservation Education Project 54,67,677.87

Govt, of India for Seminar on N.G.O. 69,282.00

Department of Science & Technology

NCSTC - for Publication

of Hornbill Series 22,544.00

APPROPRIATIONS

Proposed Institution 1,00,000.00

Staff Welfare Fund 25,000.00

Charles McCann Vertebrate Zoology

Fieldwork Fund 600.00

Fixed Assets Fund towards depreciation

on Fixed Assets 4,49,664.11

A.G.M . 1994-95 - PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

201

C.

D.

E.

Administrative Fees charges to

various Grants/Funds for handling

the projects, etc.

Addition to Fixed Assets

Amount drawn out of funds:

- For Nature Conservation

- For Gratuity Payment

- For Depreciation

- For Beautification of

Dr. Salim Ali Chowk

5,69,988.56

3,93,619.01

2,12,283.64

1,12,669.00

4,49,664.11

12,839.50

Rs.

- Publication Fund

(John Gould Paintings) 1,00,000.00

- For Staff Medical Expenses

(Staff Welfare Fund) 17,155,95

- From General Reserve Fund

(for various expenses) 65,000.00

- ICICI Environment Research &

Education Fund 1,12,291.68

- TISCO Conservation Education,

Research & Awareness Fund 77,479.44

While on the subject, we observe that unlike the past

practice, administrative fees for handling the projects

have not been charged in respect of the projects

relating to certain specific funds. No explanation

has been furnished for the said change in practice.

We therefore, suggest that the said change in the

procedure may be confirmed in the next meeting of

the Executive Committee. We also observe, that by

the end of the year under report the following projects

were completed and the accounts thereof reflect the

over run position as under:

Ministry of Defence (ARDB) for

Bird Hazard Research Cell 37,278.54

Elephant Telemetry Project 21,074.15

Smithsonian Institution,

Washington for

revision of Handbook of the

Birds of India & Pakistan”. 284.08

The above balances may be appropriately

adjusted, if the same be not likely to be

recouped from grant/donation. We are in a

position to comment on its realisability.

vi) We observe that the contribution to

Employees' Provident Fund (both the

employees and management contribution)

continues to be deposited with the Trustees

of a recognised Provident Fund established

by the Society and governed by the rules

framed for the purpose. There seems to

have been certain amendments to the

Employees Provident Fund and Mis-

cellaneous Provisions Act, 1952, where

under the Society may be considered to be

liable not only to transfer the accumulated

balance in the Employees’ Provident Fund

Account, to the Provident Fund Commis-

sioner, Government Scheme, but also for

the difference in the amount of contribution.

The liability in this regard remains

undeterminate. We suggest that proper

legal opinion may be sought in this regard

and needful may be done in the matter.

vii) In the context of the foreign contributions

by way of grant/donations, etc. being

received by the Society, we wish to invite

attention to the requirements of the

Foreign Contribution (Regulation) Act,

1976, and the rules framed thereunder and

suggest that the compliance thereof may

be ensured, particularly in regard to the

submission of the prescribed returns to the

department concerned,

(m) so far as it is ascertainable from the books of

accounts and according to the information and

explanation furnished to us by the Hon.

Treasurer and the Hon. Secretary, there were

no cases of irregular, illegal or improper

expenditure or failure to recover the moneys

or other properties belonging to the Society

or loss or waste of money or other property

of the Society, subject to the observations

made in para (h) hereinabove,

(n) provisions of Section 31 -A of the Bombay

Public Trust Act, 1950 and Rule 16- A of the

Rules framed under the said Act have been

complied with.

208 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

(o) the maximum and minimum number of

Executive Committee Members is maintained

having regard to the provisions in the Rules

and Regulations of the Society,

(p) there is no specific provisions in the Rules

and Regulations of the Society regarding the

holding of the meetings of the Executive

Committee,

(q) the minute book recording the proceedings

of the meetings is maintained,

(r) no member of the Executive Committee has

any interest in the investment of the Society,

(s) no member of the Executive Committee is a

debtor or creditor of the Society, subject to

the observation that a sum of Rs.2,397/- given

as an advance for expenses to a member had

been outstanding as at the date of the Balance

Sheet, but has since then been adjusted,

(t) there were no irregularities pointed out in our

last report dated 12/09/94 accompanying the

statement of accounts for the year ended

March 31,1 994 except the observations made

in paras (e), (h) and (l)(v), the observations

whereof have been reiterated hereinabove to

the extent the issues remain still outstanding.

PLACE: BOMBAY

DATED: 30TH SEP, 1995

HABIB AND COMPANY

CHARTERED ACCOUNTANTS

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

BOMBAY PUBLIC TRUST ACT, 1950 : REGISTRATION NO. F-244 (BOM)

SCHEDULE VIII VIDE RULE 17(1)

BALANCE SHEET FOR THE YEAR ENDED 31ST MARCH 1995

A.G.M. 1994-95 - PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

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A.G.M. 1994-95 - PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

215

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

SCHEDULE FORMING PART OF THE BALANCE SHEET AS ON 31ST MARCH 1995

SCHEDULE A : CORPUS FUNDS

216

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

SCHEDULE FORMING PART OF THE BALANCE SHEET AS ON 31ST MARCH 1995

SCHEDULE B : OTHER FUNDS

A.G.M. 1994-95 - PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

217

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

SCHEDULE FORMING PART OF THE BALANCE SHEET AS ON 31ST MARCH 1995

SCHEDULE B : OTHER FUNDS

Summary of Expenditure From Funds/Donations

Expenditure Head Amount Amount

Rs.

Expenses on Objects:

Nature Conservation 2,12,283.64

Environmental Education and Research 1 , 1 2,29 1 .68

Conservation Education, Research and Awareness 77,479.44

Publication Fund BNHS 1,00,000.00

" “ 5,02,054.76

Others:

Miscellaneous

Beautification of Dr. Salim Ali chowk 12,839.50

Gratuity to staff 1 , 1 2,669.00

Depreciation 4 ,49,664. 1 1

For various expenses 65,000.00

for staff welfare 1 7, 1 55.95

6,57,328.56

218

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

SCHEDULE FORMING PART OF THE BALANCE SHEET AS ON 31ST MARCH, 1995

SCHEDULE C : GRANTS

A.G.M. 1994-95 - PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

219

Schedule C (Contd,)

v.

220

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

SCHEDULE FORMING PART OF THE BALANCE SHEET AS ON 31-3-1995

SCHEDULE D : CASH AND BANK BALANCES

Rs.

A. In Current Account With

ANZ Grindlays Bank p.l.c.

M.G.Road Branch 9,874.38

B. In Savings Account With

ANZ Grindlays Bank p.l.c.

M.G.Road Branch 3,891.10

Bank of India

Museum Savings Branch 62,580.13

State Bank of India

Gateway of India Branch 1,15,811.16

State Bank of India (CEP) 41,77,226.20

Canara Bank 2,790.95

Sir P.M. Road Branch

Corporation Bank 36,71 1 .00

Dalai Street Branch

S.B. A/c 20024 LIC GGS

Corporation Bank 34,261.21

Dalai Street Branch

(FCRA Account)

Deutsche B ank, B ombay Branch 7,21 ,362. 1 8

51,64,508.31

Total Rs.

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

BOMBAY PUBLIC TRUST ACT, 1950 : REGISTRATION NO. F-244 (BOM)

SCHEDULE IX VIDE RULE 17(1)

INCOME & EXPENDITURE ACCOUNT FOR THE YEAR ENDED 31ST MARCH 1995

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A.G.M. 1994-95 - PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

225

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

NATURE EDUCATION SCHEME

RECEIPT AND PAYMENT ACCOUNT FOR THE YEAR ENDED 31-3-1995

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

AS PER OUR REPORT OF EVEN DATE

Sd /- Sd /- Sd /-

HABIB AND COMPANY

HONORARY SECRETARY HONORARY TREASURER CHARTERED ACCOUNTANTS

BOMBAY

Bombay

Dated: 30th September 1995

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

Annual General Meeting held on 12th December 1995

The Annual General meeting (AGM) of the

Society for the year 1994-95 was held on 12.12.1995

at Hornbill House at 6.30 PM, when the following

members were present :

Mr. A D Samant, Maj. Madhav Mhaskar,

Dr Aru n Joshi, Mr. Mihir Devare, Mr. Shashank

Ranjit, Mr. Nitin Jamdar, Dr Anita Borges, Dr E.

Borges, Dr P G Natrajan, Dr H Buch, Mr. Pramod

Paranjpye, Dr Nagraj H, Ms. Asha D Sawant,

Mr. D. M. Sawant, Dr M. B. Goyal, Dr Sanjay

Sharma, Dr Santosh Rai, Ms. Sonali Saha,

Mr. Subodh Tari, Dr Anuradha Samant, Mr. Atul

Mathur, Ms. Juliet Mendonca, Mr. Dilip Patil, Mr. J.

N. Pande, Mr. V. K.Paralkar, Mr. S. M. Kalim,

Dr. S. Unnithan, Ms. Namita Sankhe, Dr. S. M.

Satheesan, Mr. Naveen Khanna, Mr. N. V. Adhikari,

Mr. S. G. Deshpande, Mr. Shakunt Tari, Mr. R. S.

Vartak, Mr. T. R. Munsiff, Mr. A. T. Palande,

Mr. Sameer Nangare, Dr. B. F. Chhpagar, Mr. Vijay

Pore, Dr. Sanjay Bhagwat, Mr. Vijay Thite, Dr. A.

S. Kothari, Mr. F. S. Kazi, Ms. Geeta Pardiwalla,

Ms. Visha Gangadharan, Ms. Lakshmi Sundaram,

Maj. Gen. E. D’ Souza, Ms. Vijaya Deshmukh,

Mr. K. P. Karamchandani, Dr. Pratap Saraiya, Prof.

P. V. Bole, Mr. M M Sant, Mr. Bansi Mehta,

Mrs. Norma Perry, Mr. P. H. Butani, Mr. D. P.

B aimer jee, Mr. Meghnad Kulkarni, Mr. Shekhar

Shiveshwarkar, Mr. Manish Khodaskar, Dr. L. N.

Deshpande, Mr. Suresh Sawant, Mr. Manoj

Karkhanis, Ms. Philipa Mukherjee, Mr. Avinash

Supe, Mr. Hira Punjabi, Dr. Vibhu Prakash, Mr. S.

Futehally, Ms. Lima Rosalind, Mr. Prashant Muley,

Mr. Shyam Ghate, Mr. Anil Kunte, Mr. Parvez Cama,

Mr. Vilas Shingre, Mr. K. R. Shah, Mr. Sunil

R. Zaveri, Dr. Renee M. Borges, Mr. Shahid Ali,

Mr. Krishna Kumar, Mr. A. K., Ms. Rita Ganguli,

Mr. Rokad Zubair, Mr. R. Singh, Ms. Mehera

Dubash, Mr. D. Yesodharan, Mr. K Rameshan, Mr.

Chitrasen Chaubey, Mr. S. S. Bandiwadekar, Mr.

Subhash Bijlani, Dr. S. M. Almeida, G. V. K.

Unnithan, Mr. Pradeep V Rane, Mr. Prasad P Rane,

Mr. K P Rane, Mr. V. 1. Naik, Mr. V. Arun, Mr. A. S.

Mahajan, Mr. H. B. Gupte, Dr S R Gawde,

Mr. Chandra Shekhar, Mr. Surendra J, Mr. Ulhas

Rane, Mr. K. N. Shroff, Mr. Naresh Chaturvedi,

Dr. Shashi Menon, Mr. M. R. Almeida, Mr. Asad

Akhtar, Mr. Reis Manfred, Dr. Sanjay Deshmukh,

Ms. D. S. Variava, Mr. J. C. Daniel, Mr. D. A. Patil,

Mr. N. N. Muley, Mr. Parag Mungale, Dr. R. D.

Bapat, Dr. Parvish Pandya, Mr. Ravi Mahimkar,

Dr. A. M. Bhagwat, Ms. M. Kirloskar, Mr. Sachin

Kulkarni, Mr. D. V. Gotalkar, Ms. J Sethna,

Mr. Manoj Kulkarni, Mr. V. Gopi Naidu, Ms. Bakul

Khatau, Mr. S S Sapre, Mr. S. R. Nayak Mr. R. H.

Kumavat, Mr. Rishad Naoroji, Ms. Doreen D’Sa

Mr. N. D. Mulla, Mr. V. Madhav, Mr. B. Samant

Mr. V. M. Meher Homji, Mr. Pradeep Limaye,

Ms. Soonoo Taraporewala, Ms. Neelima Gohii, Mr.

Parimal V Shah, Mr. Sanjeev Joshi, Mr. S. P. Godrej,

Mr. Piyush Shah, Mr. Shishir Parikh, Mr. Vijay

Sanghavi, Mr. Jatin Mehta, Mr. M B Parag, Mr. S.

S. Bhujbal, Mr. S. D. Bhaumik, Mr. Dhiren P,

Mr. Joslin Rodrigues, Mr. Mayank Mehta, Mr. A.

M. Shah, Mr. Ranjit Parikh, Mr. Pradip Doshi, Mr.

Sam Bhacka, Mr. Gautam Jain, Mr. M. H. Choksi,

Mr. Hemant C. Patel, Mr. L. S. Patel, Mr. Sudhir R.

Paradkar, Mr. M. Panicker, Mr. Hitesh R. Shah,

Mr. Ravidas Madavkar, Mr. Prakash S. Rane, Mr. S.

A. Futehally, Mr. Debi Goenka, Ms. B. Pimento,

Ms. Caroline Vincent, Mr. M Surveyor, Ms. Nita

Mehta, Mr. Rafiq Sayed, Mr. K K Vajifdar, Mrs. S K

Vajifdar, Mr. Paresh Vakil, Ms. Torcato Ronita,

Mr. Manual Fernandes, Mr. Deepak Apte, Mr. Ashok

Ghangurde, Mr. Jitendra Jhaveri, MR. S. S. Mehta,

Mr. Arun Samant, Mr. H. C. Mistry, Mr. Mohan

Amladi, Dr. Ashok Joshi, Mr.. Suresh Bhatkal and

Mr. Raj an John.

FELICITATION TO DONORS

Before the commencement of the AGM, all

those who had donated more than Rs. 1 lakh to the

Society during the year 1994-95 were felicitated by

the Vice President, Mrs. D. S. Variava. Mementos

were presented to representatives of: Royal Western

India Turf Club and Purshotamdas Thakurdas and

Divaliba Charitable Trust. The following donors

MINUTES OF THE A.G.M. OF THE BNHS

227

were not represented, their mementos were sent to

them : Shri Vasant Panse, Siporex, ICICI Ltd.,

TISCO Ltd.

Mrs Variava stated that it is necessary to

recognise both the donor and the person who

encourages the donation to be given, and she

extended thanks to Mr. B. G. Deshmukh, Dr. P. R.

Saraiya and Mr. Sunil Zaveri for the donations that

had been received. This programme was followed

by High Tea. The AGM then started at 6.30 PM.

NO CONFIDENCE MOTION

Mrs. D. S. Variava, Vice President, who was

in the Chair announced that the first business of the

meeting would be the consideration of a No

Confidence Motion and the Executive Committee

(EC)’s views on the same. The No Confidence

Motion received read as under :

“Resolved that the members express NO-

CONFIDENCE in the present Office Bearers (i.e.

President, Vice-Presidents, Honorary Secretary,

Honorary Treasurer and Director) of the BNHS”.

(Proposed by Ms Mehera Dubash and Mr. Anil Kunte

and seconded by Mr Dilip Patil and Mr. Shakunt

Tari).

Before addressing this issue Mrs. Variava

stated that she wished to explain why she was taking

the Chair and not the Society’s President, Mr. B. G.

Deshmukh. She then read out the letter of resignation

from Mr. Deshmukh. She informed the members

that the Executive Committee had considered the

letter of resignation and had passed the following

resolution :

“The EC received with deep regret and sadness

the letter of resignation dtd. 12 December 1 995 from

Mr. B. G. Deshmukh from the Presidentship of the

Society due to his name “being dragged by some

members unnecessarily into the electoral politics of

the Society”.

The EC hereby records its full confidence in

its President, Mr. B, G. Deshmukh and deep

appreciation of all that he has done to strengthen the

Society through selfless service and through sterling

qualities of leadership of the Society.

The EC urges Mr. B. G. Deshmukh to kindly

reconsider his resignation in the interest of the

Society”.

Mrs. Variava stated that this resolution was

passed by all members of the EC present at its

meeting today with one exception, Mr. Ulhas Rane,

who dissented.

Mrs. Variava further stated that the proposed

motion of No Confidence was against the President,

Vice Presidents, Honorary Secretary, Honorary

Treasurer and the Director. The President had

resigned and the Vice President felt that it was not

appropriate to take the Chair and therefore requested

the EC to elect a member to take the Chair. Mr.

Karamchandani was unanimously elected to take the

Chair for the EC meeting and also for the AGM.

Mrs, Variava pointed out that Mr.

Karamchandani was a nominated member, and was

not standing for election. She said the EC receives

the proposed resolutions and has to decide whether

to place the matter before the AGM or put it up for a

Referendum. Mr. Karamchandani would apprise

members of the EC’s decisions.

Mrs. Variava then requested Mr.

Karamchandani to take the Chair. At this point name

of Maj. Gen. (Retd) E. D’Souza was proposed to

Chair the AGM. However, it was pointed out that

under Rule 55 only if none of the members of the

EC is present at the AGM, members can nominate

and appoint a member from amongst themselves as

a Chairman. Mr Karamchandani, Chairman, read

out the EC’s resolution as given below :

“Resolved that the Resolution of No-

Confidence in the present office bearers of the

Society (i.e. President, Vice Presidents, Honorary

Secretary, Honorary Treasurer and Director) of the

BNHS be placed before all the members of the

Society by a Referendum as the No-Confidence

motion will affect the working of the Society

and therefore all the members of the Society. (Rule

70)”.

Mr. Rane insisted that the motion of No-

Confidence should be put before the AGM and not

sent for Referendum to all members.

Mr. Rane’s attention was drawn to the fact that

the No Confidence Motion concerns all members of

228

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

the Society and therefore it was necessary to obtain

their opinion thereon and this was the reason why

the EC decided to send it for Referendum. Mr. Rane

again suggested that under Rule 71 there was no

necessity for a Referendum. Mrs. Variava then read

out the Rule 71 which relates to only interpretation

of the rules and bye-laws and specifically refers to

any questions not provided in the rules.

The Chairman then asked the members to

discuss the No Confidence Motion. Several members

aired their grievances and there was a certain amount

of agitation and in some cases a loss of decorum.

After considerable discussions Mr. Nitin Jamdar

drew attention to the fact that the EC was due for re-

election and at this point of time a No Confidence

Motion would serve no purpose other than incurr-

ing of considerable expenditure by the Society. Other

members also requested the sponsors of the

Resolution to withdraw the same and Ms. Mehera

Dubash agreed to do so provided a meeting was

arranged within 10 days between members and

the ECto discuss problems faced by the members.

On a verbal assurance from the Chairman that such

a meeting would be convened soon Ms Mehera

Dubash and others withdrew the resolution and

members expressed their appreciation of their

action.

The Chairman then took up the regular agenda

items for consideration.

Item 1

Confirmation of the Minutes of the AGM held

on 15 September 1994.

Some members protested that minutes had not

been received by them. It was pointed out that as

per the notes sent with the agenda, the minutes and

the accounts were to be supplied to members on

written request. Mr. Rane stated that members who

had joined after 14th July had not received the

minutes. Mr. Debi Goenka pointed out that there

was an earlier decision that minutes will be circulated

only to members who had attended the AGM and

that others will be supplied the minutes on a written

request.

Mr. Daniel proposed and Mr. Sunil Zaveri

seconded that the minutes be adopted and they were

so adopted.

Item 2

Consideration and adoption of the Annual

Report of the Executive Committee for the year

ended 31st March 1995.

(A) CONSERVATION

Concern was expressed that the BNHS was

not pulling its weight on conservation issues. The

Chairman of the Salim Ali Nature Conservation Fund

Sub-Committee explained the various fields in which

the Society and its Conservation Officer has been

active. A detailed note on the action taken on

conservation problems was available for members.

Mrs. Philipa Mukherjee, Secretary of the Palni

Hills Conservation felt that the Society should be

much more active and publicly oriented if it was to

be effective. She felt that the membership was rather

low for a Society of its eminence and age and research

in conservation activities should be increased.

Mrs. Variava felt that the Society had an

important role to perform in providing a scientific

background for conservation issues.

An apprehension was expressed that

acceptance of funds may dilute the conservation

efforts of the Society. It was assured that the EC

had the Society’s commitment to conservation in

mind and would not permit any dilution of its

conservation role.

(B) CONSERVATION EDUCATION PROJECT

Dr. Shashi Menon, Chairman of the

Conservation Education Project (CEP) Sub-

Committee replied to the queries concerning the

progress of the CEP.

The main reason for the delay in

implementation was the fact that the land had not

been transferred to the Society by Government. But

through the good offices of the President, the

Municipal Commissioner was willing to overlook

the non-availability of transfer deed for the work to

continue. The initial calculation of the area of the

Centre as 500 Sq Mts was arbitrary, and so also the

MINUTES OF THE A.G.M. OF THE BNHS

229

estimated cost of Rs 23 lakhs. As the area had to oe

increased to 700 Sq Mts an amount of 43 lakhs was

provided by Overseas Development Administration

(ODA), UK. There were unfortunately several

lacunae in the information inputs from the Architect,

namely several peripheral works such as security

deposits with the municipality totaling 68 lakhs,

subsequently reduced to 10% of the amount, through

the good offices of the President, internal access road,

water tank, street lights, electric substation, water

supply, electrical fixtures. The cost of these worked

out to 28 lakhs which had to be paid from the

Society’s funds. The Centre which should have been

completed within 43 lakhs would end up costing over

60 lakhs.

A member, who is a Civil Engineer expressed

surprise that the Architect should have omitted to

advise his client of these crucial points and wanted

to know how the costs are to be met. The Honorary

Treasurer explained that through the good offices of

the President several organisations had extended

financial support for the purpose.

Mr. Rane, the Architect, admitted that the

layout proposal, etc. were not included in the estimate

which was limited to the building of the Centre.

Tender costs have not increased. He stated that he

was satisfied with the quality of work. Only 5% of

work remained to be done. The Architect emphasised

that he was working in an honorary capacity (out of

the 7% architect fee he would be returning to the

Society 2%, the rest being utilised for structural

consultants 2% and architect’s out of pocket expenses

3%) but he has had problems with the EC. The

location being beyond availability of infrastructure

facilities has put up the cost.

Dr P. R. Saraiya emphasised that it was

expected that the entire cost of commissioning the

Centre would be met by the ODA, else the Society

would not have taken up the project if its own funds

had to be utilised.

(C) SCIENTIFIC STAFF

In reply to a query on the scientists leaving

the Society, the Honorary Secretary gave a statement

on the present status of the scientists who had left

our service. He also advised that a corpus fund for

core scientists was being established and presently

the President had acquired funds for employing two

core scientists. The idea was to collect more funds

of this nature so that our scientific staff could be

sustained on a more permanent basis.

(D) NANDADEVI CAMP

A member queried the cancellation of the

Nandadevi Camp which had caused considerable

inconvenience. The Honorary Secretary explained

that the basic reason for the cancellation was that in

spite of personal meetings with the Forest

Department by the Programme Officer, we were not

able to obtain permission to visit the Nandadevi

sanctuary which had now been completely closed

for a period of 5 years. This ban is likely to be

extended. The Society was, therefore, reluctantly

compelled to cancel the programme. There was no

possibility of our members being allowed into the

sanctuary or its buffer zone.

(E) ADVERTISEMENT ON TRAINS

Mr Subhash Bijlani inquired whether any

action had been taken on his suggestion that

advertisements carrying conservation messages be

put on the railway rakes. Mrs. Variava stated that

she had also wished to advertise some of the BNHS

products similarly. However, financial constraints

prevented action and this matter is kept pending till

resources are available.

(F) BIGGER BUS FOR BNHS FIELD

ACTIVITIES

There was a suggestion to try and obtain a bus

with a larger seating capacity. The Honorary

Secretary stated the Committee would look into the

matter provided funds were available.

Mr. Sunil Zaveri proposed and Dr. Saraiya

seconded the adoption of the Annual Report. It was

so adopted.

Item 3

Consideration and adoption of the balance sheet

and statement of accounts for the year ended 31st

230

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94(1997)

March 1995

(A) The Honorary Treasurer advised that due

to the good offices of the President, Shri B. G.

Deshmukh the Society has received donations

totaling Rs 55 lakhs and has been able to wipe out

the deficit of the previous year and is in a comfortable

financial position. It was noted with regret that Mr.

Panse had withdrawn his offer of Rs 1 lakh donation

owing to internal dissensions within the Society. Mr.

PCama expressed his appreciation of the President's

efforts to put the Society in a financially stable

position and wondered why other members were not

able to assist the Society similarly.

(B) Mr. Rane said that he had given a proposal

for fund raising through various activities which was

never considered by the EC. Mrs. Variava said that

whenever an EC member put a proposal he should

be able to convince other EC members of its viability.

(C) Capt. Deshpande inquired about the

decreasing receipts from the membership as

compared to that of last year, while we have shown

an increasing membership number. He also inquired

about the receipt from Publications as compared to

last year. The Honorary Treasurer clarified that the

last year sbalance sheet was for 15 months because

of the change in the financial year and the figuresare

therefore on the higher side as compared to this year.

(D) Maj. Madhav Mhaskar inquired about

charging of administrative fees on various projects.

The Honorary Treasurer replied that such fees were

charged only on the projects funded by outside

agencies to meet the administrative costs. However,

there is no administrative fees charged on projects

internally sponsored and funded by SANCF, Natural

History Funds, etc.

Dr. Sanjay Bhagwat proposed and Mr. J. C.

Daniel seconded that the balance sheet and accounts

be adopted.

Item 4

Appointment of auditors for the year 1st April

1995 to 31st March 1996 and fixing of their

remuneration

It was resolved that M/s. Habib & Co.,

Chartered Accountants, Mumbai 400 023, be

reappointed as the Auditors for the Society for the

year 1.4.1995 to 31.3.1996 on a total remuneration

of Rs 5000/- (Rupees five thousand only).

Item 5

Election to the Executive Committee for the

Calendar Years 1996 and 1997

The Honorary Secretary announced that a total

of 39 names have been received. Of these 2 are

rejected due to lack of proposer and seconder's

names, two members have withdrawn their names

and one has sent the form in duplicate. There are

therefore 34 valid nominees for election to the EC

of 1996-97. To an inquiry raised by a member

regarding election procedures, it was stated that it is

conducted as per the rule nos. 34 and 35. There was

a suggestion that it should be supervised by an

independent Committee. However the rules do not

permit appointment of such an external authority for

the conduct of the election.

Item 6

Any other business with the permission of the

chair

Resolutions received :

(A) Members' address list. Rule No. 19

“The list of up to date members with addresses

and phone numbers shall be furnished to any member

at reasonable cost (xerox charges/printout cost/

floppy) to be fixed by the EC from time to time,

within seven days of his written request to the

Honorary Secretary”.

(Proposed by Dr. Renee Borges and seconded

by Mr. Shakunt Tari).

It was noted that many members objected to

their names and addresses being given to any party

whether a member of the Society or otherwise. It

was therefore agreed to accept the proposal with the

modifications that members who do not wish to have

their names and addresses included for circulation

should inform the Society. With this modification

the amendment was accepted.

(B) Denotification of Protected Areas :-

“It is resolved that BNHS condemn the

denotification of protected areas from wildlife

MINUTES OF THE A.G.M. OF THE BNHS

231

sanctuaries and tiger reserves by State Governments.

BNHS calls for renotification of areas which

have been denotified and for a halt on any further

denotification”.

(Proposed by Dr. A. M. Bhagwat and seconded

by Mr. J. C. Daniel).

The proposal was accepted unanimously.

(C) Corpus Funds “Resolved that the funds

of ICICI Environmental Research and Education

Fund of Rs 15 lakhs (Rupees fifteen lakhs only) and

TISCO Conservation Education, Research and

Awareness Fund of Rs 20 lakhs (Rupees twenty

lakhs), presently shown under Schedule - B, i.e. other

funds of the Bombay Natural History Society, shall

not be withdrawn without the prior approval of 90%

of the members of the Society by way of Referendum

as provided in the Rules and Regulations of the

Society.

These funds which are presently invested in

1,50,000 units monthly income plan of the Unit Trust

of India of Rs 15 lakhs for ICICI Environmental

Research and Education Funds, and in fixed deposits

with Indian Oil Corporation of Rs 20 lakhs for

TISCO Conservation Educaton Research and

Awareness Funds, shall not be encashed, before

maturity, without the prior approval of 90% of the

members of the Society by way of Referendum as

provided in the rules and regulations of the Society.

Further, when the above deposits mature, the same

shall be immediately reinvested in a similar manner.

The Society shall utilise only the interest from

the above earmarked funds in accordance with the

Terms of Reference as given by the Donors and

approved by the Executive Committee of the

Society”.

(Proposed by Mr. Sunil Zaveri and seconded

by Dr. A. M. Bhagwat)

The proposal was approved unanimously.

(D) President’s Resignation

Prof. P. V. Bole proposed and Mr. M. R.

Almeida seconded a resolution requesting the

President, Mr. B. G. Deshmukh to withdraw his

resignation from the Presidency of the Society. The

resolution was approved unanimously by the General

Body.

The meeting terminated with the vote of thanks

to the Chair, which was proposed by Mr. N. D. Mull a

and seconded by Mr. Nitin Jamdar.

/

THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS

The Book of Indian Animals, by S.H. Prater, 4th edition (Reprint). 28 plates in colour by Paul

Barruel and many other monochrome illustrations ( Price to members Rs. 170)

The Book of Indian Birds, by Salim Ali, 12th edition (revised enlarged) 64 coloured and many

monochrome plates. (Price to members Rs. 296)

A Pictorial Guide to the Birds of the Indian Subcontinent, by Salim Ali & S. Dillon Ripley.

(Reprint with corrections) (Price to members Rs. 278)

Checklist of the Birds of Maharashtra, by Humayun Abdulali, 2nd edition. Rs. 2

Checklist of the Birds of Delhi, Agra and Bharatpur, by Humayun Abdulali &

I.D. Panday Rs. 3

The Book of Indian Reptiles, by J.C. Daniel (Price to members Rs. 1 62)

Some Beautiful Indian Trees, by E. Blatter and W. Millard. With many coloured and monochrome

plates. 3rd edition (Reprint). (Price to members Rs. 160)

Conservation in Developing Countries: Problems and Prospects, Edited by J.C. Daniel and

J.S. Serrao (Price to members Rs. 300)

A Week with Elephants - Proceedings of the International Seminar on Asian Elephants, Edited

by J.C. Daniel & Hemant Datye. (Price to members Rs. 338)

A Guide to the Cranes of India, by Ppakash Gole (Price to members Rs. 67)

Salim Alps India, Edited by A. Kothari & B.F. Chhapgar (Price to members Rs. 900)

Illustrated Flora of Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan, by V.P. Prasad, Daniel Mason,

Joy E. Marburger & C.R. Ajith Kumar. (Price to members Rs. 525)

Types of membership, fees and subscription for publications (As on April 1996)

RN 5685/57 ISSN 0006-6982

CONTENTS

FOOD HABITS OF SLOTH BEAR IN MUDUMALAI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, TAMIL

NADU, SOUTHERN INDIA (With two text-figures)

By N. Baskaran, N. Sivaganesan and J. Krishnamoorthy 1

PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS ON THE ROLE OF COFFEE PLANTATIONS AS

AVIFAUNAL REFUGES IN THE PALNI HILLS OF THE WESTERN GHATS

( With two text figures )

By Ghazala Shahabuddin 10

NOTES ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND ENDEMISM OF INDIAN F1MBR1STYLIS

( With one text-figure )

By V.P. Prasad & N.P. Singh 22

CONSERVATION OF THE ENDANGERED RIVER TERRAPIN BATAGUR BASRA IN THE

SUNDERBAN OF WEST BENGAL, INDIA (With two text-figures )

By S. Bhupathy 27

CONSERVATION AND UTILISATION OF ECOGENETIC RESOURCES OF

PAN CHPATM ALI HILL IN ORISSA

By B.C. Patra, S.D. Sharma, D.N. Roy and R.K. Misra 36

HABITAT USE BY THE LESSER FLORICAN IN A MOSAIC OF GRASSLAND AND

CROPLAND: THE INFLUENCE OF GRAZING AND RAINFALL

( With three text figures)

By R. Sankaran 40

NOMENCLATURAL AND SYSTEMATIC STATUS OF BARBUS MUSSULLAH SYKES,

1839 ( With one plate and one text-figure)

By K.C. Jayaram 48

BREEDING BIOLOG Y OF THE SOUTHERN CROW-PHEASANT CENTROPUS SINENSIS

PARROT I STRESEMANN (AVES: CUCULIDAE) AT POINT CALIMERE, TAMIL

NADU (With four text figures)

By V. Natarajan 56

POPULATION DYNAMICS, GROUP STRUCTURE AND NATURAL DISPERSAL OF THE

ASIATIC LION PANTHERA LEO PERSICA (With one text-figure)

By H.S. Singh 65

QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF MAJOR VERTEBRATE FAUNA FROM WARDHA RIVER

BASIN (MAHARASHTRA STATE) (With four text figures)

By M.S. Pradhan 71

DISTRIBUTION OF NEOSCORPIOPS SCORPIONS IN THE WESTERN GHATS OF

MAHARASHTRA AND GUJARAT (With forty seven text-figures)

By DB. Bastawade 104

STUDIES ON THE STATUS AND CONSERVATION OF FREREA IN DIG A DALZ

(With four plates and two text -figures)

By P. Tetali, Sujata Tetali, D.K. Kulkarni and M.S. Kumbhojkar 115

NEW DESCRIPTIONS 122

REVIEWS 139

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 142

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 185

STATEMENT OF ACCOUNTS OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 209

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING 1994-95 226

Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Mumbai 400 103 and

published by J.C. Daniel for Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House,

Dr. Salim Ali Chowk, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023.

OH

S

nh

JOURNAL

OF THE

BO

BAY

NATURA

HISTORY

SOCIETY

Vol. 94, No. 2

August 1997

INSTRUCTIONS TO CONTRIBUTORS

1. Papers which have been published or have been offered for publication elsewhere

should not be submitted.

2. Papers should be submitted in duplicate, typed double space. Preferably an additional

copy should be submitted on a floppy diskette (3.5") using Word Star.

3. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where identification has

been authentically established by comparison of specimens actually collected.

4. Photographs for reproduction must be clear, with good contrast. Prints should be at

least 9 x 12 cm and on glossy glazed paper. Text-figures, line drawings and maps

should be in Indian ink, preferably on tracing paper. Maps and figures will not be

acceptable if labelled free hand.

5. References to literature should be placed at the end of the paper, alphabetically

arranged under author’s name, with the abridged titles of journals or periodicals in

italics and titles of books or papers in roman type, thus:

Aluri, Raju J.S. & C. Subha Reddi (1995): Ecology of the pollination in two cat-mint

species. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92(1): 63-66.

Prater, S.H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay Natural History Society,

Mumbai, pp. 35-48.

6. Each paper should be accompanied by an abstract, normally not exceeding 200

words, and 6-8 key words. Key Words should include the scientific names of important

species discussed.

7. 25 reprints will be supplied free of cost to authors of main articles. In the case of

new descriptions, reviews and miscellaneous notes, authors will be sent a free

copy of the Journal.

8. The editors reserve the right, other things being equal, to publish a member’s

contribution earlier than a non-member’s.

Hornbill House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Mumbai-400 023.

Editors,

Journal of the Bombay

Natural History Society

VOLUME 94 (2): AUGUST 1997

Date of Publication: 1-8-1997

THE EFFECT OF INDIRA GANDHI NAHAR PROJECT ON THE AVIFAUNA OF

THE THAR DESERT (With two text-figures )

By Asad R. Rahmani 233

FIRST BREEDING RECORD OF THE COLLARED FALCONET MICR OHIERAX

CAERULESCENSFOR THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT IN CORBETT NATIONAL

PARK, UTTAR PRADESH (With one text-figure)

By Rishad Naoroji 267

PHYTOPLANKTON AS INDICATION OF ECOSYSTEM STATUS: A CASE STUDY

OF AN URBAN WATERBODY

By Z.D. Kanhere and V.R. Gunale 273

MORPHOMETRIC RELATIONSHIPS IN TROPICAL ANURANS AND THEIR

RELATIONSHIP TO SOME LIFE HISTORY PARAMETERS ( With one text-figure )

By J.K. Mahanta, S.K. Swain and Madhab C. Dash 276

TINGEFAUNA OF SOUTHERN INDIA: DISTRIBUTION, HOST PLANTS, NATURAL

ENEMIES AND GENERIC KEY (With one plate and two text-figures)

By David Livingstone, M.H.S. Yacoob, S. Jeyanthibai and A.R. Livingstone 283

SPECIES COMPOSITION, SEASONAL VARIATION, SEX RATIO AND BODY

LENGTH OF SMALL CETACEANS CAUGHT OFF WEST, SOUTH-WEST AND

SOUTH COAST OF SRI LANKA (With three text-figures)

By Anouk Uangakoon 298

POPULATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF BRONZEWINGED (METOPIDIUS INDICUS)

AND PHEASANT-TAILED (HYDR OPHASIANUS CHIRURGUS) JACANAS IN

KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK, BHARATPUR, RAJASTHAN

(With four text-figures)

By N.K. Ramachandran and V.S. Vijayan 307

LABORATORY STUDIES ON THE LIFE CYCLE OF SIMOCEPHAIMS SERRULATUS

KOCH 1881 (CLADOCERA: CRUSTACEA) (With one plate)

By Subash Babu and C.K.G. Nayar 317

CROP DAMAGE CAUSED BY BLACKBUCKS (ANTILOPE CERVICAPRA) AT

KARERA GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD SANCTUARY, AND POSSIBLE

REMEDIAL SOLUTIONS (With three text-figures)

By Jagdish Chandra 322

SEXUAL SYSTEM AND POLLINATION ECOLOGY OF CARDIOSPERMUM

HALICACABUM L. (SAPINDACEAE)

By K. Rama Das, C. Subba Reddi, Raju J.S. Aluri and J.B. Atluri 333

COMMUNAL ROOSTING IN COMMON MYNAS AND ITS FUNCTIONAL

SIGNIFICANCE (With two text-figures)

By Anil Mahabal 342

OBSERVATIONS ON THE POST-NATAL DEVELOPMENT OF INDIAN FALSE

VAMPIRE BAT MEGADERMA LYRA (MICROCHIROPTERA)

(With two text -figures)

By R. Subbaraj, J. Balsingh and M. Singaravel 350

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

FIRST REPORT OF GENUS HEMITAXONUS ASHMEAD (HYMENOPTERA,

SYMPHYTA, TENTHREDINIDAE: SEL ANDRIINAE) FROM INDIA WITH TWO

NEW SPECIES (With eight text-figures)

By Malkiat S. Saini and Tajinder P. Saini 356

FIFTEEN NEW SPECIES OF FERN A MALAISE FROM INDIA WITH A REVISED KEY

TO THE ORIENTAL SPECIES (HYMENOPTERA, SYMPHYTA,

TENTHREDINIDAE: ALLANTINAE) (With fifty-nine text-figures )

By Malkiat S. Saini and V. Vasu 361

A NEW SPECIES OF MACROTYLOMA (WIGHT & ARN.) VERDC. (FAB ACEAE) FROM

GARHWAL HIMALAYA, U.P, INDIA (With one text-figure )

By R.D. Gaur and L.R. Dangwal 381

REVIEWS

1 . ILLUSTRATIONS ON THE FLORA OF THE PALNI HILLS

Reviewed by M.R. Almeida 384

2. MAMMALS OF NEPAL, WITH REFERENCE TO THOSE OF INDIA,

BANGLADESH, BHUTAN AND PAKISTAN

Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani 384

3. AN ANNOTATED CHECKLIST OF THE BIRDS OF THE ORIENTAL REGION

Reviewed by Ranjit Manakadan 386

4. THE LEOPARD IN INDIA - A NATURAL HISTORY

Reviewed by B. Vijayaraghavan 386

5 . INTERNATIONAL LEGAL PROTECTION OF WILD FAUNA AND FLORA

Reviewed by Nitin Jamdar ,.. 387

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

6. Range extension of the Kashmir flying squirrel

(Hylopetes fimbriatus Gray)

389 By Mohd. Khalid S. Pasha and Intesar Suhail 395

389 BIRDS

7. Cattle egret Bubulcus ibis feeding on baby rats

By K.L. Mathew, K.V. Pethani and D.N. Yadav ... 396

8. Nest building activities of the flamingo

( Phoenicopterus roseus) at Shah wadi

392 (Ahmedabad)

By Ketan S. Tatu 397

9. Contamination in egg shells of Himalayan

393 greyheaded fishing eagle Ichthyophaga nana

plumbea in Corbett National Park, India

394 By Rishad Naoroji 398

MAMMALS

1. Lions hunting a leopard

By Lavkumar Khacher

2. The clouded leopard in Manipur and Nagaland

By Anwaruddin Choudhury

3. Debarking behaviour of elephants, Elephas

maximus indicus in Vazhachal forest division,

Kerala, South India

By M.M. Animon, Y. Cheeran Jacob and

B.N. Nagaraj

4. Vaginal prolapse in a wild chital, Axis axis in

Rajaji National Park, India

By Shridhar D. Bhat

5. Comments on a newly born gaur (Bos gaums )

By V. Gokula

10. A record of Pallas’ fishing eagle Haliaeetus

leucoryphus from Spiti valley (H.P.)

By B.S. Rana 400

11. Redlegged falcon Falco vespertinus in Gujarat

By Lavkumar Khacher 401

12. Nesting of the lesser florican during the

southwest monsoon

By R. Sankaran 401

13. The relation between bustard body size and

display type

By R. Sankaran 403

14. Flocking and courtship display in red wattled

lapwing ( Vanellus indicus )

By Rakesh Vyas 406

1 5. Play feeding by the gullbilled tern Gelochelidon

nilotica (Gmelin)

By Mahesh Sabne, Nayan Khanolkar and

S.R. Nayak 407

16. Breeding record of greateared nightjar

( Eurostopodus macrotis) at Siruvani Hills, Tamil

Nadu

By C. Venkatraman and Lalitha Vijayan 407

17. Food of common grey hornbill Tockus birostris

(Scopoli)

By Neelam Patil, Naresh Chaturvedi and

Vithoba Hegde 408

18. Unusual feeding pattern and diet of

crimsonbreasted barbet ( Megalaima

haemacephala )

By A.M.K. Bharos 411

19. De-ticking by a house crow ( Corvus splendens )

By V.K. Paralkar 411

20. A peculiar food finding habit of house crow

Corvus splendens (Viellot)

By D.B. Bastawade 412

21. Smaller grey cuckoo-shrike ( Coracina

melaschistos) sighted at Pillur forests, Nilgiri

Hills, Tamil Nadu

By T.R.K. Yoganand 412

22. Goldmantled chloropsis ( Chloropsis

cochinchinensis) feeding on raw potato chips

By A.M.K. Bharos 412

23. Possible feeding on an unhatched egg by young

one of redvented bulbul ( Pycnonotus cafer )

By Hemant A. Dhamke 413

24. Possible communal nesting in the Wynaad

laughing thrush Garrulax delesserti delesserti

(Jerdon)

By V.J. Zacharias 414

25. Feeding by rosefinch Carpodacus erythrinus

(Pallas) on aphid secretion

By Nayan V. Khanolkar 414

AMPHIBIA

26. On the systematic position of the species

Polypedates pleurostictus (Amphibia:

Rhacophoridae)

By M.S. Ravichandran 415

FISH

27. Sex ratio of hillstream snow trout, Schizothorax

plagiostomus Heckel (Teleostei, Cyprinidae) in

the upland river Mandakini of Garhwal

Himalaya

By N. Singh 417

28. On the specific identity of Ompok bimaculatus

(Siluriformes: Siluridae)

By K. Rema Devi and K.G. Emiliyamma 421

INSECTS

29. Habitat and nectar resource utilisation by

butterflies found in Siruvattukadu Kombei, Palni

Hills, Western Ghats

By Ghazala Shahabuddin 423

30. First records of subfamily Tenthredininae

(Hymenoptera : Tenthredinidae) from India

By M.S. Saini and Himender Bharti 428

31. New synonymies of some Indian Tenthredo

Linn. (Tenthredinidae : Hymenoptera)

By Malkiat S. Saini and Himender Bharti 433

OTHER INVERTEBRATES

32. Fresh water snails of southern Rajasthan

By Satish Kumar Sharma 433

BOTANY

33. Corydalis pseudo-juncea Ludlow (Fumariaceae):

A new record for India

By R.S. Rawat 434

34. Conyza japonica (Thumb.) Less. (Asteraceae):

An addition to the flora of Andhra Pradesh

By C. Prabhakar Raju and R.R. Venkata Raju 436

35. Unusual number of sepals and petals in female

flowers of Bauhinia malabarica Roxb.

(Leguminosae : Caesalpinioideae)

By S. Bandyopadhyay 438

36. Natural branching in papaya ( Carica papaya L.)

D.B. Singh and M.A. Suryanarayana 439

37. A note on Utricularia australis R.Br.

Lentibulariaceae, in south India

By M. Chenna Kesavulu, M. Hemambara Reddy,

R.R. Venkata Raju 439

38. First record of Peristylus monticola (Ridl.)

Seidenf (Orchidaceae) for India from Andamans

By P.V. Sreekumar 441

39. On the Perianth bristles in Schoenoplectus

corymbosus (Roth ex Roem. & Schult.)

J. Raynal

By V.P. Prasad and N.P. Singh 441

40. Laboratory evaluation of natural resistance of

bamboos to termites

By S.C. Mishra and M.L. Thakur 443

41. New distributional records of plants from Orissa

By P.C. Panda, B.K. Mohapatra and P. Das 445

42. Additions to the flora of Himachal Pradesh from

Kulu district

By M. Sharma and D.S. Dhaliwal 447

ERRATA

Vol. 94, No. 1, p. 23^ for line 36 to 41 read:

Ahmedullah and Nayar (1987) have reported 29 species and one variety of Fimbristylis to be

endemic to peninsular India. Of this F. junnarensis Hemadri is nomen nudum and hence should

be rejected. F. unispicularis Govind. and Hemadri is the correct name of this species.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are grateful to the Department of Science and Technology,

Ministry of Environment & Forests, Govt, of India,

FOR FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE JOURNAL.

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY

August 1997 Vol. 94 No. 2

THE EFFECT OF INDIRA GANDHI NAHAR PROJECT ON THE

AVIFAUNA OF THE THAR DESERT1

Asad R. Rahmani2

( With two text-figures)

Key words: Thar desert, canal, avifauna, checklist, environmental impact

The 208,000 sq.km Thar desert is one of the smallest deserts in the world. Being at the

crossroads of the Palaearctic and Oriental biogeo graphical regions, the Thar has high avian diversity

of nearly 250 species. The Thar has a very high human density, which is exerting tremendous

pressure on the fragile ecosystem. The development of the Indira Gandhi Nahar Project (IGNP)

during the last two decades has resulted in large scale ecological changes. Traditional crops have

been replaced by cash crops, which need more water. Owing to the misuse of irrigation facilities,

water logging and salinity is increasing all along the IGNP. Canal-side plantations and seepage

wetlands, now attract many new forest and wetland birds. Shikra, honey buzzard, yellow-legged

green pigeon, roseringed parakeet, jungle babbler, striated babbler, crow pheasant, whitebrowed

fantail flycatcher and paradise flycatcher are spreading through linear plantations on both sides of

the canal, and ducks, waders, egrets, herons etc. are becoming common. The common crane is

also spreading along the IGNP. During four surveys in 1993 and 1994, 213 species of birds were

identified, nearly half being non-desert taxa. Purely desert and dry grassland birds such as the

great Indian bustard, houbara, cream-coloured courser, desert lark, hoopoe lark and whitebrowed

bushchat are decreasing, some at an alarming rate. Despite the IGNP being perhaps the longest

desert irrigation canal in the world, no environmental impact assessment has been done.

Introduction

The Thar desert occupies nearly 9% of

India’s geographical area and covers more than

208,000 sq.km. It extends into Pakistan but

nearly 62% is present in eleven districts of

western Rajasthan and parts of Kutch. A major

portion of the Thar desert is occupied either by

Accepted September, 1995.

2Centre of Wildlife & Ornithology, Aligarh Muslim

University, Aligarh 202 002, India

Present address: Bombay Natural History Society,

S.B. Singh Road, Hornbill House, Mumbai 400 023

dry open grassland or by grassland interspersed

with trees and thorny bushes (Gupta, 1975a). Sand

dunes are present in nearly 58% of the area

(Shankamarayan, 1988).

One of the smallest deserts in the world,

the Thar has a high avian diversity, from its

location on the crossroads of the Palaearctic and

Oriental biogeogrphic regions. It is connected

to the Sahara desert via Persian and Arabian

deserts, and shows avian affinity with these

deserts, and to some extent with the Etho

pian region (e.g. bustards, coursers, fran-

colins).

234

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

As the Thar desert is not isolated, avian

endemicity is very low. To the west it is connected

through the Sind plains with the Persian and then

Arabian deserts, on the north lie the fertile plains

of the Punjab, to the northeast the Gangetic plain,

and to the east, it joins the semi-arid plains of

the Deccan. In the south, it merges with the Rann

ofKutch. Most species of birds of the Thar have

a wide distribution. Stoliczka’s whinchat or

whitebrowed bushchat Saxicola macrorhyncha is

one of the endemic birds. The low degree of

endemicity is also due to the fact that most birds

are highly mobile, and to evolve into localized

endemic species, need very effective barriers,

either physical or ecological, which in the case

of the Thar are generally absent.

Although no detailed work on the avifauna

of the Indian Thar has been done, nearly 250

species of birds have been recorded by various

workers such as Adam (1873, 1874), Barnes

(1886), Ticehurst (1922), Whistler (1938), and

Rahmani (1994).

Brief history of ornithology in the Thar

The Thar, including the Sind region in

Pakistan, has a long history of human occupation.

Perhaps the first scientific bird study which

included the Thar was by R. M. Adam in 1873

and 1874, in the first ornithological journal of

India, Stray Feathers (vol. 1 and 2). Although

the major emphasis of these two papers was on

the birds of Sambhar Lake, nearby areas were

also covered. Later, E. A. Butler’s ‘Notes on the

avifauna of Mount Aboo and northern Gujarat’,

in Stray Feathers (vol. 3, 4, and Addendum in

vol. 5) in 1875 and 1876 also partly dealt with

the birds of the Thar desert.

The first exclusive study on the birds of

the Thar (Sind province) was by Scrope Doig,

who while constructing the east Nara canal in the

1870s kept extensive notes and later published

them in the form of two papers: ‘Birds Nesting

on the Eastern Nara Sind’, Stray Feathers , (8,

pp 369-379), and ‘Birds Nesting on the Eastern

Nara, (Sind) Additions and Alterations’, Stray

Feathers 9, pp 277-282. At about the same time

H. E. Barnes in 1886, published a paper ‘Birds

nesting in Rajpootana’, in the first issue of the

JBNHS. Later he published another article

‘Nesting in western India’, in seven parts in the

same journal (1888-1890). This paper also

covered birds of the Thar desert. Hume (1873,

1877a, b, 1878) also wrote extensively on the

birds of Sind, including the Thar desert .

In the first few decades of this century,

three eminent ornithologists studied the avifauna

of the Thar and Sind. Claude B. Ticehurst between

1922 and 1924, published ‘Birds of Sind’ in eight

parts, in the British journal Ibis. He also collec-

ted nearly 1500 specimens which are lodged in

the British Museum (Natural History). The doyen

of Indian ornithology, Hugh Whistler published

an exhaustive paper ‘The Ornithological Survey

of Jodhpur State’, in 1938 in JBNHS , based on

the birds collected and seen by La Personne in

1933-34. He also incorporated the works of

R. M. Adam, A. O. Hume (Birds of a Drought,

Stray Feathers, 6). and King, who collected

birds at Mount Abu (=Aboo) and Jodhpur

for nearly two years but never published his

findings.

K. R. Eates, a police officer posted in Sind

for almost 20 years, between 1926 and 1943

published many interesting notes in JBNHS, on

the breeding birds of Sind (Eates 1937, 1939).

Dr.S£lim Ali unfortunately never got the

opportunity to work in the Thar desert of

Rajasthan but his, and Dr. Dillon Ripley’s

monumental 10 volumes ‘The Handbook of the

Birds of India and Pakistan’ extensively cover

the birds of the Thar desert.

With the establishment of Central Arid

Zone Research Institute (CAZRI) at Jodhpur,

extensive work on desert ecology was started but

not much work was done on the avifauna, except

for brief notes on sighting and rarity of the great

Indian bustard by Ishwar Prakash and P. K. Ghosh

(1963, 1964). Ranaer al. (1994) of CAZRI have

made some unreliable checklists of the birds of

AVIFAUNA OF THE THAR DESERT

235

the Thar, which incidentally even include extinct

species such as the pink-headed duck Rhodonessa

caryophyllacea !

Recently, T. J. Roberts (1991, 1992) has

written a seminal book, ‘The Birds of Pakistan’

which will always be indispensible for oriental

ornithologists. This excellent book is in two parts

and describes almost all the birds found in the

Indian Thar desert.

Between 1990-94, raptors of the Thar

desert were studied by Vibhu Prakash of the

BNHS, under a large project on raptors of India,

funded by the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. The

results of this study were published recently in

the form of a report. In 1993-94, the Oriental

Bird Club, U.K., funded a small project by

Harkirat Sangha to study the birds of the Desert

National Park.

Methodology

This paper is based on three major surveys

between February 1993 and February 1994, and

one brief survey during May 1994.

First Survey

It was conducted from 2nd February to

13th March, 1993, and the following areas in the

Thar were visited (only important names are

given):

In the Desert National Park (DNP) the

following areas were visited: Sam, Sudasari,

Khuri, Phulia, Miyajlar, Bandra, Barsiala and

Sotto. Most of these areas have fenced core areas

of the Park. While some of these core areas were

visited only once or twice, Sam and Sudasari were

visited during all four trips.

Second survey

The second survey was conducted between

15th July and 23rd August, 1993 in Rajasthan

and Gujarat, and the following areas (in the Thar)

were visited:

Third survey

In one month between 12th January to 12th

February, 1994, the following areas were visited:

236

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

The Sonkhaliya bustard area in Ajmer

district, was also visited for two days.

Fourth survey

A brief survey of one week was conducted in

Jodhpur, Jaisalmer and Barmer districts from 17th

to 23rd May, 1994, and the following areas were

The Indian Thar desert has 1 1 districts and

is divided from the semi-arid scrubland of eastern

Rajasthan, through the Aravalli mountains

(Fig. 1). Except Jhunjhunu, all the 11 districts of

the Thar were visited during the surveys, though

more thorough surveys were conducted in

Bikaner, Jodhpur, Jaisalmer and Barmer districts.

Nearly 10,000 km were covered in four surveys,

and 125 censuses were conducted. Roadside

census of all wildlife was done in a slow moving

vehicle. Beside 125 roadside censuses, 38 line

transects of 1 .5 to 2 km were randomly conducted

on foot. These censuses were mainly conducted

during the third and fourth surveys. Moreover, a

general account of birds was kept even while we

were not doing the census or line transect. The

whole length of the IGNP from Chhattergarh to

Mohangarh was surveyed. Additionally, areas

near tributaries and channels were also visited to

study the changes in animal life. Frequent stops

were made near crop fields and seepage wetlands

to study bird life. All the three protected areas

(see below) and many Vishnoi areas were visited.

This paper deals with the avifauna of the

Thar desert of Rajasthan but wherever necessary,

comparison is made with the birds found in the

adjoining deserts of Pakistan (Fig. 1). Common

and scientific names of birds are based on Ali

and Ripley (1983, 1987). Wherever necessary, the

name of the site and date of sighting are given.

The whole IGNP is marked by numbered pillars

every 300 metres (RD means reduced distance,

and is 300 m in length). Wetlands and plantations

can be identified by these marked pillars.

Indira Gandhi Nahar Project (IGNP)

Since the early 1960s, the Thar desert has

seen tremendous human activity which has greatly

affected the wildlife. The greatest change, with

far-reaching consequences, was brought about by

the development of the Indira Gandhi Nahar

Project (IGNP), earlier known as the Rajasthan

Canal. Details of the IGNP are given elsewhere

(Rahmani, 1989, 1994). However, to understand

the conservation problems, I will briefly describe

the IGNP.

The Thar desert extended to different

princely states (Jaisalmer, Jodhpur, Bikaner) and

it was the desire of every ruler to bring water

to the thirsty landscape of his state. One of the

first attempts to ‘green the desert’ was made in

1927 by Ganga Singh, ruler of Bikaner, when

the 130 km Ganga Canal was constructed, which

brought water from River Sutlej and irrigated

about 1.4 lakh ha in Ganganagar district.

When India became independent in 1947,

plans were developed to bring marginal areas

under cultivation to feed the growing population.

The Thar with its vast, thinly populated areas was

considered a land bank, which could be brought

to some use. An ambitious plan was prepared to

bring water through canals. Work on the Indira

Gandhi Nahar (Canal) Project (IGNP), earlier

known as Rajasthan Canal, was started in 1958

but the actual excavation commenced only in

1960. The canal is still not complete. The total

length of the main canal is 649 km from Harikke

AVIFAUNA OF THE THAR DESERT

237

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indicated by open circles. District headquarters indicated by closed circles.

barrage in Punjab to Mohangarh in Jaisalmer

(Fig. 2). In addition to the main canal, feeder

channels total nearly 8,000 km in length.

The project was conducted in two stages:

Stage I was completed in 1973 and Stage II in

1985 (only the main work). In Stage II, out of the

total irrigation potential of 8.10 lakh ha, only

0.6 lakh ha have been created under the lined canal

system. The IGNP is one of the largest and the

most expensive irrigation systems in the world.

When completed the command area of the IGNP

will cover 5,25,000 ha in Stage I and 8,10,000 ha

in Stage II, or nearly 11% of western Rajasthan

(Chatterji and Saxena, 1988). Arrival of water in

the Thar will open up land for colonization, as in

Ganganagar district and certain other parts of

Rajasthan. The Thar is already the most densely

populated desert in the world with the last few

238

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Indira Gandhi Nahar Project

HARIKE

BARRAGE

KM 40

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Command areas

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Under flow

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shown by thin lines.

AVIFAUNA OF THE THAR DESERT

239

decades having seen an unprecedented rise in

human population, from 17.2 sq. km in 1921,

30 in 1961 to 68.4 in 1981 (Dhir, 1988). The

increase is both, by immigration (especially in

Ganganagar and Bikaner districts) to new canal

irrigated areas, and by natural population growth

of the local people.

Changes in cultivation pattern

The IGNP has also brought tremendous

change in the crop pattern from subsistence

farming to commercial farming (Gupta, 1975b).

Moong Vigna radiata, moth Vigna aconitifolia ,

guar Cyamopsis tetragonoloba , til Sesamum

indicum , bajra Pennisetum typhoides have been

replaced by, groundnut Arachis hypogea, cotton

Gossypium spp., paddy Oryza sativa, sugarcane

Saccharum officianarum , wheat Triticum

sativum and barley Hordeum vulgare (Chatterji

and Saxena, 1988).

Apart from land that was cultivated with the

development of IGNP, the human population in

the whole of Thar brought 44.6% of the marginal

land under cultivation in 1951 - 61 and an additional

9.47% during 1961-71 (Mann, 1988).

Changes in vegetation

In the canal irrigated areas, the ground-

water table is rising due to seepage from the

canals, field channels and irrigated fields

(Chatterji and Saxena, 1988). Moreover, owing

to leakage in the channels and bad maintenance

of the canals, in many places, interdunal reservoirs

have been formed where the vegetation cover has

changed from xerophytic and psammophytic to

hydrophytic and mesophytic plants. Many

wetlands are covered by aquatic vegetation such

as Typha angustata, Arundo donax, Eichhornia

crassipes, Imperata cylindrica, Phragmites and

Saccharum spontaneum.

Displacement of grazers

An indirect effect of the expansion of

agriculture in western Rajasthan is through the

displacement of grazers to non-command areas,

thus exerting even more pressure on the already

overgrazed countryside. Due to increase in the

population, and the consequent reclamation of

land for cultivation, the area available to

nomads for grazing their livestock has been

shrinking.

Waterbodies and Plantations beside IGNP

Bird life of the Thar desert is changing

rapidly due to the development of plantations on

both sides of IGNP, and development of large

waterbodies due to seepage, which now attract

many species which were not seen earlier in the

Thar desert (Rahmani, 1994). Many species of

waterfowl are seen in the canal and/or in the

waterbodies beside the canal (Table 1). Avian

diversity has increased, but at the cost of local

desert species (see below).

Birds of the protected areas of the Thar

desert

There are only three protected areas in the

Thar desert:

Table 1

FOREST AND WATERBIRDS SEEN IN IGNP

240

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

a) The Desert National Park (DNP) is spread

over 3,162 sq. km in Jaisalmer and Banner

districts. Presently, the area is technically

not a national park, because under the

Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972, a park

should not have any private human

habitation, but in the DNP there are 37

villages (Rahmani, 1989, 1994).

b) Gajner Sanctuary (30 sq.km) was estab-

lished in 1905, by the erstwhile Maharaja

of Bikaner, for wildlife viewing and hunting.

After India’s Independence and merger of

the princely States, the Gajner sanctuary

went under litigation, as a result of which

the wildlife came under the control of the

Forest Department, but the land remained

with the princely family. This dual control

has devastated the sanctuary. Gajner has a

large water tank which attracts a large

number of waterfowl and sandgrouse. It was

world famous for imperial sandgrouse

Pterocles orientalis shoots organized by the

Maharaja. Owing to the development of the

IGNP and resultant seepage wetlands, the

importance of Gajner tank as a water-fowl

refuge has diminished, but it still harbours

a few hundred ducks, coots, egrets, herons

and waders (Rahmani, 1994).

c) The 7.22 sq. km Taal Chhaper in Churn

district, notified as a sanctuary in 1962, is a

vast expanse of treeless depression which

used to get inundated during good rain-

fall years. However, as the district falls under

the arid zone, rainfall is generally

insufficient to inundate the sanctuary.

Therefore, for most of the year, the

depression or taal remains dry. This tiny

sanctuary is fanious for blackbuck Antilope

cervicapra , demoiselle crane Anthropoides

virgo and barheaded goose Anser indicus

(Rahmani, 1994).

The birds of these three protected areas have

been described in detail elsewhere (Rahmani,

1994).

Annotated checklist of birds seen in the

Thar desert

1 . Little Grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis

Common in village tanks and seepage

wetlands of IGNP. During 1993-94, a total of

180 seen in Taal Chhaper, Gajner, Kolayat,

Diyatra, Bap, Guda-Vishnoian, Keechan and

Khinya, in Sambhar Lake, and seepage wetlands

near Lunkaransar, RD 764 and Noda Minor.

Parents and chicks found in a seepage wetland at

RD 954 near Bajju, in Bikaner dist. on 17 July,

1993.

2. Great Cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo

Earlier uncommon but now spreading with

seepage wetlands of the IGNP. 26 individuals seen

during winter and monsoon surveys, none during

May 1994. Four birds in Gajner tank, all others

on seepage wetlands, e.g. 16 roosting near RD

954 on 8 February, 1993.

3. Indian Shag Phalacrocorax fuscicollis

Uncommon. Ten roosting on a dry tree in

RD 954 near Bajju on 17 July, 1993. On

23 January, 1994, possibly this species in flight

over IGNP near RD 860.

4. Little Cormorant Phalacrocorax niger

Common and spreading with seepage

wetlands of IGNP. Noticed in Gajner, Bajju,

Bangasar Lift Canal, Guda-Vishnoian, Nachna,

Kolayat, Noda Minor and Suratgarh. Nearly 200

found roosting near Badopal near Suratgarh in

Ganganagar dist..

5. Darter Anhinga melanogaster

Rare in the Thar. One seen on 21 January,

1994, in a large waterspread near RD 507, where

fishermen were active.

6. Chestnut Bittern Ixobrychus cinnamomeus

One seen flying over the reed covered canal

near Mohangarh in Jaisalmer dist., on 21 July,

1993. Roberts (1991), found it widespread in

AVIFAUNA OF THE THAR DESERT

241

suitable habitat, common in east Nara and Thatta

dist. (Thar, Pakistan).

7. Little Green Heron Butorides striatus

Uncommon. Only one seen on 17 July,

1993, near Bajju on a seepage wetland.

8. Pond Heron Ardeola grayii

Not uncommon in village tanks, and

seepage ponds perhaps spreading with IGNP.

Fourteen individuals seen on six sites during

winter and monsoon.

9. Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis

Uncommon, only three sightings. Two

sightings near IGNP (RD 954 and Mohangarh)

and once a flock with sheep between Nokh and

Bap on 18 July, 1993. A few days earlier, very

heavy rains had occurred in the area. Likely to

increase with the spread of agriculture along the

IGNP.

10. Little Egret Egretta garzetta

Not uncommon in suitable habitats. Twenty

in Kolayat tank (7 February, 1993) and 6 near

RD 954 near Bajju (8 February, 1993). One

individual was without yellow legs. It could have

been a Reef heron Egretta gularis. Little Egret

spreads out more widely during the monsoon. For

instance, 10 seen flying over the grasslands of

Sudasari on 24 July, 1993.

11. Intermediate Egret Egretta intermedia

Uncommon. Only three records, one each

from Gajner (16 January), Diyatra tank

(17 January) and seepage of Noda Minor

(21 January, 1994).

12. Large Egret Egretta alba

Rare, but could become more common with

the development of large seepage waterbodies.

One seen on Samra water tank near Nokh on

28 January, 1994 and two in a seepage near RD

507 on 20 January, 1994

13. Grey Heron Ardea cinerea

Uncommon, only 16 records from eight sites.

In future it will become more common in the

Thar desert with the development of seepage

wetlands.

14. Purple Heron Ardea purpurea

Uncommon, only Five records from four

seepage wetlands of the IGNP.

15. Painted Stork Mycteria leucocephala

Rare. Three seen inside Suratgarh town on

20 January, 1994. Likely to spread with the

IGNP.

16. Openbill Stork Anastomus oscitans

Rare, only two seen on 29 January, 1994 in

a seepage wetland at RD 507. Roberts (1991)

found it a rare winter visitor in Pakistan; he does

not have any recent record from the Thar or

Cholistan deserts.

17. Black Stork Ciconia nigra

Rare winter migrant to the Thar. Only

three, including an immature, seen on 28 January,

1 994, about 250 m from a waterbody near Samra

village, at the edge of Rann of Nokh, in Jaisalmer

dist.

18. Whitenecked Stork Ciconia episcopus

Whistler (1938), has not listed this species

in the birds of Jodhpur State. I saw one individual

on a wetland near Guda-Vishnoian Rest House

on 7 March, 1993. Perhaps the first record from

the Thar. Roberts (1991), say that it is not found

in the Pakistan desert regions.

19. Blacknecked Stork

Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus

Whistler (1938), records it as rare in

the erstwhile Jodhpur State. I found two on

20 January, 1994 in a large wetland near RD 507,

where fish and waterlily roots were being

harvested. Beside a large number of waterfowl,

it also had a greater spotted eagle.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

20. Black Ibis Pseudibis papillosa

Common. Generally found foraging on

sand-dunes, grasslands and drying wetlands.

Nearly 350 seen on 37 sites during winter and

monsoon surveys but none in summer . Atleast

200 seen with cormorants and egrets on

19 January, 1994, in a large roost on eucalyptus

trees near Manaktheda between Suratgarh and

Bad opal.

21. White Ibis Threskiornis melanocephalus

Not common. Only two seen on a large

roost near Manaktheda near Badopal on

19 January, 1994.

22. Spoonbill Platelea leucorodia

Many records. Generally seen on village

tanks, but could be spreading with seepage

wetlands of the IGNP. On 7 March 1993, 49 birds

seen foraging in a wetland near the rest house in

Guda-Vishnoian.

23. Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus roseus

Many records. 1500-2000 in Sambhar Lake

on 14 January, 1994. On the same day about 400,

including 30 lm matures, seen in Didwana. On

19 January, 1994, 380 foraging in Badopal near

Suratgarh and 14 (5 immature) on a waterspread

near RD 507 on 20 January, 1994.

24. Greylag Goose Anser anser

Rare. Two in Badopal near Suratgarh on

19 January, 1994. Rare in the Thar, Pakistan

(Roberts, 1992).

25. Barheaded Goose Anser indicus

Uncommon. Not recorded by Whistler

(1938). Roberts (1992), says it is now rare in

Pakistani Thar. However, on the Indian side it is

still common in some localities such as Taal

Chhaper. According to Forest Department figures,

52 were seen in 1990-91, and 125 in 1992-93.

Many seen by me on 4 February, 1993. It is

reported to occur in Sambhar Lake in large

numbers. I could not survey the whole lake. I

saw only two geese on 14 January, 1994, in a small

portion of this wetland. However, near Koliya

villlage in Didwana subdivision of Nagaur dist.,

on 14 January, 1994, 37 were grazing close to

human habitation.

26. Brahminy Duck Tadorna ferruginea

Rare in the Thar. Only two in Gajner on

6 February, 1993.

27. Common Shelduck Tadorna tadorna.

Perhaps the first record from the Thar.

I found 22 in Badopal near Suratgarh on

19 January, 1994.

28. Wigeon Anas penelope

Uncommon, but will spread with the

development of seepage wetlands beside the

IGNP. Already seen regularly near Bajju, on 19

February, 1993, 25 in a wetland at RD 540. Four

on Sambhar Lake on 14 January, 1994 and 18 in

a village tank near Kolayat on 17 January, 1994.

29. Gadwall Anas strepera

Common in suitable wetlands and village

tanks all over the Thar. 142 birds seen on 8

waterbodies, including 50 birds in Gajner tank.

There were many more, but all could not be

counted due to intervening vegetation.

30. Common Teal Anas crecca

Common in suitable wetlands. A total of

272 teals seen on 11 waterbodies. A total of 96

birds seen on a tank near the resthouse of Guda

Vishnoian, and 70 found on a seepage wetland

near RD 507 on 20 January, 1994.

3 1 . Mallard Anas platyrhynchos

Uncommon. Four found at RD 954 on

8 February, 1993, and 23 on the same seepage

on 21 January, 1994.

32. Spotbill Duck Anas poecilorhyncha

Two in Guda-Vishnoian wetland (7 March,

1993). They have started breeding in the dense

AVIFAUNA OF THE THAR DESERT

243

seepage wetlands, overgrown by Typha,

Saccharum, Phragmites and Arutuio. Two adults

with chicks in a wetland near RD 954, on 17

July. On 20 January, 1994, 17 were seen on a

seepage at RD 507 and two in Cut No. 5 on the

same day.

33. Pintail Anas acuta

Common in all types of wetlands, with

other ducks. Sometimes constituting the major

proportion of Anatidae. e.g. 156 seen in Gajner

on 6 February, 1993; 340 on a seepage wetland

at RD 507 on 20 January, 1994, and 97 in Noda

Minor on 21 January, 1994.

34. Garganey Anas querquedula

Uncommon. Fifteen seen in Guda-

Vishnoian on 7 March, 1993. Hume (1878), has

also reported it from Jodhpur State.

35. Shoveller Anas clypeata

Like the pintail, shoveller is very common,

and spreading due to IGNP. A total of 359 birds

seen on 10 wetlands, including 116 on a part of

Sambhar Lake, and 110 on Didwana lake.

36. Red-Crested Pochard Netta rufina

Uncommon but could be spreading with

IGNP, e.g. 25 seen on a seepage near RD 507 on

20 January, 1994 and 13 on the main IGNP on

25 January, 1994. There were many more birds

all over the main canal but we could not count

them.

37. Common Pochard Aythya ferina

Much more common than the previous

species. At least 483 seen on 14 sites. Abundant

on the main IGNP and Gajner tank.

38. White-eyed Pochard Aythya nyroca

Uncommon, but regularly seen every year.

Reported by Hume (1878), from Jodhpur, and

Roberts (1992), frequently found in Pakistan.

I saw only 8 birds in three wetlands i.e. Gajner,

Guda-Vishnoian and Kolayat.

39. Tufted Duck Aythya fuligula

Common in certain deep wetlands such as

the Gajner tank where 100 were seen on

6 February, 1993. A few seepage wetlands with

deep waters also attract these diving ducks. Nearly

150 were seen near RD 954 on 8 February, 1993,

and 70 on 21 January, 1994. A total of 371 seen

on 5 sites.

40. Demoiselle Crane Anthropoides virgo

Thousands on passage during autumn and

spring but many stay during winter in suitable

localities in the Thar. Two famous areas are Taal

Chhaper sanctuary in Churn dist., and Keechan

in Jodhpur dist. On 2 February, 1993, we counted

nearly 300 in Taal Chhaper. According to records

of the Forest Department, in December of 1991,

there were 500, in 1992, 1000 and in 1993, 2000.

The birds are attracted to feed on tubers of

Cyperus.

Upto 4,000 are found around Keechan

village, near Phalodi, where the villagers have a

programme to feed them cereals. Most of the time

the cranes wander around near three wetlands or

on the sand-dunes, but every morning and

evening, during feeding time, they converge on a

small area inside the village where cereals are

spread.

Seen in other parts of the Thar but not in

good numbers, e.g. 22 flew over the Rest House

at Shiv, on 5 March 1993, and the same day,

on Shiv-Besu road, we saw more than 85 feeding

on tubers of Cyperus in a fallow field which was

earlier inundated during the monsoon. Smaller

flocks of 10, 2, 3, 26 were found in nearby fields.

Unlike the common crane, not many

demoiselle cranes are found beside the IGNP. I

found only 14 in a seepage at RD 954, on

21 January, 1994. The canal and resultant

agriculture may have beneficial effect on these

cranes, and they are likely to increase in future.

41. Common Crane Grus grus

This species is spreading in the commmand

area of the IGNP. I saw hundreds near Bajju in

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Febraury, 1993. In January, 1994, they were

seen at the following sites: 21 between RD 507

and ETF (RD 710); 4 after RD 860; 31 bet-

ween RD 910 and Dantur; 8 between RD 930

and Bhikampur, and 29 between Bhikampur

and Nachna. Ten birds, including two juve-

niles were seen in Taal Chhaper (4 February,

1993) .

42. Black-shouldered Kite Elanus caeruleus

Common all over the Thar. Seen in all

seasons. Seventy-two individuals counted in 35

roadside census by vehicle. Many more noticed

on line transects.

43. Crested Honey Buzzard

Pernis ptilorhynchus

It was not reported from the Thar desert

earlier, but now it is colonizing the forest

plantations coming up beside the IGNR A dark

phase morph seen in Bajju Plantation on

8 February, 1993 and three seen separately near

Bhopalpura plantation on 20 January, 1994. In

Sind and Baluchistan (Pakistan), according to

Roberts (1991), it has increased with the

plantations.

44. Black Kite Milvus migrans govinda

Commonly seen in winter, but very few

records during summer, which indicates that the

birds move out of the Thar during adverse

conditions.

45. Blackeared Kite Milvus migrans lineatus

According to Vibhu Prakash (pers. comm.

1994) it occurs in the Thar, but I did not see any.

46. King Vulture or Red-headed Vulture

Sarcogyps calvus

Still frequent all over the Thar. Seen on

most carcases, with other vultures. 27 birds seen

in 18 transects during roadside counts, and many

more during line transects and bird walks. One

nest each found near Sudasari (2 February) and

Ujlan (7 February, 1994).

47. Cinereous Vultur

Aegypius monachus

Uncommon winter visitor. Twenty-six

individuals seen at 13 different sites, generally

solitary or in twos; only once four birds seen

sitting in shade after feeding on a goat carcase.

Most of the carcases found in winter had 1 - 2

cinereous vultures, along with 1-2 king and

numerous oriental whitebacked vultures.

48. Griffon Vulture or Eurasian Vulture

Gyps fulvus

Not uncommon during winter. A total of

52 individuals seen on 12 different sites. In

Lakhasar enclosure in Jaisalmer dist., on

7 February, 1994, in the early morning, 18 were

seen sitting on Prosopis cinerarea (khejri) trees.

One tree had 7 birds.

49. Indian Longbilled Vulture Gyps indicus

Much more common in winter than in

summer. Generally seen mixed with whitebacked

and Egyptian vultures on carcases. Probably

nesting near Dhorimanna on bare hills as white

faecal patches could be seen from the road.

Virtually absent, in the Pakistani part of the Thar,

except for a few pairs nesting on cliffs on the

rocky outcrops in Nagar Parker area (Roberts,

1991), not very far from Dhorimanna.

50. Indian Whitebacked Vulture

Gyps bengalensis

Appears to be much more common than the

previous species. Found on all carcases which we

located. Nests found on old Prosopis cinerarea

trees during the monsoon in Sikar, Churn and

parts of Bikaner dist. A total of 184 birds seen in

30 roadside censuses, and many more during line

transects.

5 1 . Egyptian or Scavenger Vulture

Neophron percnopterus

Very common all over the Thar. A total of

176 individuals seen during 51 roadside censuses.

Present on almost all carcases.

AVIFAUNA OF THE THAR DESERT

245

52. Hen Harrier Circus cyaneus

Rare. A male seen near Kalran Sharif on

Bap-Khara road on 11 February, 1993, and

another on 5 February, 1994, between Sudasari

and Jaisalmer.

53. Pale Harrier Circus macrourus

Fairly common winter visitor. A total of

12 seen during line transects and 22 during

roadside census. Roberts (1991), also found it to

be common in Thar and Cholistan deserts of

Pakistan, which borders India. According to him,

it is found in more arid areas than those favoured

by other harriers.

54. Montagu’s Harrier Circus pygargus

Uncommon winter migrant to the Thar.

Only seven sightings during winter surveys.

Roberts (1991), found it to be the least common

harrier in the Thar and Cholistan deserts.

55. Marsh Harrier Circus aeruginosus

Generally in the vicinity of water, so likely

to spread with the development of seepage

wetlands of the IGNP. All my 14 sightings were

close to the canal.

56. Short-toed Eagle Circaetus gallicus

Common. A total of 15 birds seen at 14 sites

in all seasons. Except one, all sightings of solitary

birds but Shantanu Kumar (in litt. 1994), reported

seeing 16 in Taal Chhaper on 8-9 September,

1988. On 20 May, 1994, between Dabla and Akal

in Jaisalmer dist., on a hot sunny day, two

immatures sitting with legs immersed in a small

leakage from a water pipe.

57. Longlegged Buzzard Buteo rufinus

One of the commonest buzzards of the Thar.

During roadside census by vehicle, two seen at two

sites during February-March, 1993, and 29 seen in

17 places during January-February 1994. None

noticed in the Thar between 1 8 and 20 May, 1994.

Roberts (1991), also found it to be the commonest

buzzard during winter in the arid plains of Pakistan.

58. Desert Buzzard Buteo buteo vulpinus

One drinking water from canal near

Mohangarh on 6 February, 1993, and two seen

near Radrao near Mohangarh in Jaisalmer dist.

exactly a year later.

59. Tawny Eagle Aquila rapax vindhiana

Very common Aquila of the Thar desert. Hume

(1878), also found it a very common breeding

bird. Atleast five nests, some with immatures,

seen by me. Roberts (1991), reported it breeding

all over the Thar and Cholistan deserts. A nest on

a Prosopis cinerarea, with three individuals,

16.8 km before Bap on Kanasar road. Except the

nesting branch, the whole tree was lopped.

Between Phalodi and Ramdeora on 1 8 May, 1 994,

from 1140 to 1300 hrs, four individuals seen.

One picking bones from a road kill, along with

two Egyptian vultures, two on a waterhole, and

one on a pole. On 19 May, 1994, atleast 25 tawny

eagles visited the waterhole in Sudasari.

Sometimes six eagles seen together. During four

surveys, 25 birds sighted in 16 areas during

roadside censuses.

60. Eastern Steppe Eagle

Aquila rapax nipalensis

A winter visitor in the Thar. One seen inside

Sudasari and another near Kolayat in February,

1993. Thirteen birds sighted in 8 areas during

roadside census.

61. Lesser Spotted Eagle Aquila pomarina

Probably this species was seen between

Ratangarh and Taal Chhaper on 4 February, 1 993.

It occurs regularly in Bharatpur (Vibhu Prakash,

pers. comm. 1994), and unconfirmed records are

from Pakistan (Roberts 1991), so it is likely to

occur in the Thar. A rare resident in Saurashtra

and western Peninsula (Ali and Ripley 1987).

Its occurrence in the Thar is not unlikely, though

it must be very rare.

62. Greater Spotted Eagle Aquila clanga

This large Aquila is invariably found near

waterbodies so it is generally absent in the Thar

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

desert. But with the development of seepage

wetlands and congregation of its prey (water

birds), it is likely to increase in the Thar. We saw

one adult flying on a large waterspread near RD

507 on 20 January, 1994. This waterbody had

plenty of fish and ducks. Even a pair of

blacknecked stork was present. Whistler (1938),

had collected a specimen from Pichiak Lake in

Bilara dist. of the erstwhile Jodhpur State. Hume

(1878), has also included it in his Jodhpur list.

Roberts (1991), has reported it in the Pakistani

Thar. He says that they breed occasionally in the

better forested areas of the Nara canal and the

Indus river.

63. Shikra Accipiier badius

Mainly a species of thin forest and groves,

so the Thar desert is not its favoured habitat.

However, with the spread of plantations, the

shikra will become more common in the desert. I

had 10 sightings, generally near the canal.

However, two were seen hunting within 5 km of

each other in sandy area, in the early morning

among tall, dense, widely scattered Prosopis

cinerarea trees, near Mankasar in Jaisalmer dist.

Roberts (1991), found it to be resident and largely

sedentary throughout the Indus plains, being

partial to irrigated forest plantations and better

wooded tracts.

64. White-eyed Buzzard-eagle Butastur teesa

Another common raptor, generally seen in

winter and monsoon in the Thar. Thirteen birds

were seen at 11 sites. None seen during four days

survey in May 1994, indicating emigration of

birds during the hot summer months. Roberts

(1991), also found it abundant during winter in

the Thar and Cholistan deserts, and commented

“resident with some local summer migration”.

65. Saker Falco cherrug

One falcon in flight, perhaps this species,

with something thin and long hanging from its

talons, probably a leather ‘jesses’ from an escaped

bird trained for falconry.

66. Laggar Falcon Falco biarmicus jugger

The most common resident falcon of the

Thar desert, seen in all seasons. Thirty-one

individuals, a few in pairs, spotted at 21 different

sites. One bird was seen inside Bikaner town on

24 January, 1994. According to T. J. Roberts (in

lift., 1 994), the Laggar is nearly extinct in Pakistan

because trappers use it as decoy to trap peregrine

and saker for illegal falcon markets.

67. Redheaded Merlin Falco chicquera

Uncommon, only four sightings during four

surveys. Three sightings were in July 1993, during

the locust plague: one seen in Taal Chhaper on

13 July, 1993; another near Undu on 25 July, in an

area where finchlarks had concentrated in large

numbers to feed on hoppers; and third between

Undu and Kanasar on 26 July, in locust infested

area. Only one bird was seen during the third survey

(in Taal Chhaper) on 4 February, 1994. None seen

during May 1 994, indicating that the birds probably

move away from the Thar during summer.

68. Kestrel Falco tinnunculus

Very common winter visitor. Forty-one

individuals seen during line transects and 143

birds seen during roadside censuses.

69. Grey Francolin Francolinus pondicerianus

Very common, and probably increasing due

to expansion of agriculture. If not molested, seen

just outside villages and towns. Present even

inside Dholomaru Rest House in Bikaner city !

70. Black Francolin Francolinus francolinus

Earlier not found in the Thar desert, but

likely to spread with development of irrigated

crop fields and dense hedges among fields. On

15 July, 1993, heard from a crop field between

Rosa and Kankarwala near Lunkaransar in

Bikaner dist.. Probably the first record of this

species from this area. According to Roberts

(1991), they are entirely absent from the main

desert tracts such as the Thar or Cholistan, but

occur in Saccharum thickets in the east Nara.

AVIFAUNA OF THE THAR DESERT

247

71. Grey Quail Coturnix coturnix

Common winter migrant. It may breed in

the Thar in crop fields during favourable

conditions. All my four sightings were of pairs

flushed from tall grasses in winter.

72. Blackbreasted or Rain Quail

Coturnix coromandelica

Abundant during monsoon, depending

upon the rainfall and growth of grass. In

Taal Chhaper, during the monsoon of 1993,

characteristic calls were heard everywhere.

Calls were heard in Sudasari enclosure also,

but they appeared slightly different in tone.

Not seen or heard during winter and summer

months.

73. Indian Peafowl Pavo cr is tat us

Abundant and spreading with IGNP. Near

Gunga village, 7 km before Shiv, 150 peafowls

were seen in about 1 sq. km area, during winter

of 1994, in totally bare area with no ground

cover, but strangely not even one peafowl

was seen in the same area on 20 May, at

1600 hrs.

74. Coot Fulica atra

Perhaps the most numerous water bird

of the Thar desert. More than 590 seen in

Gajner on 16 January, 1994, and 230 in Kolayat

temple tank on 17 January, 1994. Abundant on

the IGNP. Near Mohangarh, very common on the

main IGNP, wherever submerged vegetation is

present. Seen in open waters also. On 31 January,

1994, 325 counted in about 10 km of the

canal.

75. Purple Moorhen Porphyrio porphyrio

Earlier uncommon in the Thar desert but

now spreading with the canal and seepage

wetlands. Seen during monsoon and winter

(I did not visit the IGNP during summer), so there

are chances that it has started breeding in Typha-

infested parts of the canal. Always seen associated

with emergent vegetation.

76. Indian Moorhen Gallinula chloropus

Another beneficiary of canal irrigation and

development of waterbodies. Now common, and

spreading in the Thar. Present in village tanks

with aquatic and emergent vegetation. Avoids

open waters. Very common in Gajner and certain

parts of the main IGNP with emergent vegeta-

tion. Twenty-six individuals seen on the

IGNP near Mohangarh in a distance of 10 km

(3 1 January, 1994). Always found close to aquatic

vegetation, unlike coot which prefers open

water. In July 1993, all adult birds were in

breeding plumage, with brick red bill. Some-

times seen in extremely small water tanks, in

the middle of the barren desert. For instance, on

24 January, 1994, three birds were seen in a

circular cement water-collecting tank, overgrown

with Typha, in Mankasar village in Bikaner

dist.

77. Great Indian Bustard

Ardeotis nigriceps

Still found in many areas of the Thar, but

declining everywhere due to poaching, habitat

deterioration, and human disturbances (Rahmani,

1994).

78. Houbara Chlamydotis undulata

Winter migrant, widespread in very low

density in undisturbed areas of the Thar,

especially near the border. Still extensively hunted

by poachers, both local and outsiders. Only

21 birds seen during January -February 1994, after

much effort.

79. Red wattled Lapwing Vanellus indicus

Numerous records from the Thar.

Adaptable and quick to colonize newly created

suitable habitats. It will become more common

with expansion of agriculture and canals.

Common on sewage streams of towns and cities.

For instance, atleast 50 seen on sewage

in Barmer town on 20 May, 1994. Many in

brackish wetland near Lunkaransar on 15 July,

1993.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94(1997)

80. Yellow-wattled Lapwing

Vanellus malabaricus

Uncommon. Roberts (1991), found it only

in Lower Sind in Pakistani Thar. I saw one bird

on 16 January, 1994, near Gajner.

81. White-tailed Lapwing Vanellus leucurus

Another uncommon lapwing of the Thar

desert hut likely to spread with seepage wetlands.

I saw it on three sites in 1994: 2 in Gajner on 16

January; 3 in Badopal on 19 January; and 2 in a

seepage at RD 507 on 20 January. Roberts (1991),

also found it common on the seepage zones of all

the major irrigation head works in the Punjab,

and the east Nara (Thar), hut not from the

Cholistan desert.

82. Cream-coloured Courser

Cursorius cursor

Common all over the Thar. In 26 roadside

censuses, 180 individuals were seen during

winter. There seems to be an influx in winter, as

they are seen everywhere in flocks of 8-15 in all

sorts of habitats, specially in gravel flat areas with

30-40% ground cover. During monsoon, both

Indian and Cream-coloured coursers are seen

together. On 8 August, 1993, outside the pasture

plot in Bap area, many groups of these two species

were noticed. Also found on barren ground around

dhanis (hamlets), littered with goat/sheep pellets

on which many insects occur, on which these

coursers feed. It is so well recognised that it

has a local name Patpadri. None seen between

19-20 May, in DNP and other places. It breeds in

the Thar in small numbers (Rahmani and

Manakadan, 1989).

83. Indian Courser Cursorius corotnandelicus

It is found in more mesic habitat than the

cream-coloured courser but during monsoon it

spreads out in the Thar. Some individuals can be

seen during winter also, but none during summer.

Out of five records, four were during monsoon. I

have only one winter record, when a group of 10

birds was seen foraging in a flat, fallow field,

before Gajner in Bikaner dist. (16 January, 1994).

Roberts (1991), has reported it as resident in the

Thar desert of Pakistan., but not in Cholistan.

84. Collared Pratincole Glareola prat incola

On 22 July, 1993, I saw five birds in a

temporary pool, 7 km before Kanoi in Jaisalmer

dist., along with 7 little stints, 3 little ringed

plovers and 2 sand plovers.

85. Stone Curlew Burhinus oedicnemus

Call heard in Taal Chhaper on 4 February

and 13 July, 1993. As it is secretive and

crepuscular, it may be widespread in the Thar. It

prefers dry scrub and dunal areas, so it is likely

to decrease with the development of agriculture.

86. Little Stint Calidris minuta

Occasional in drying up pools and margins

of large village tanks. Seven seen on 22 July,

1993, on a temporary pool near Konoi.

Roberts (1991), has also noted the first

arrival in Lower Sind as early as 21 July.

87. Temminck’s Stint Calidris temminckii

Common winter migrant to tanks, drying

up pools and recently inundated shallow areas.

Commonly seen with Little Stint. Nearly 60-70

seen mixed with Little Stint in Sambhar Lake on

14 January, 1994.

88. Redshank Tringa totanus

Uncommon, but may become widespread

in winter with the development of waterbodies

along the IGNP. This winter migrant some-

times arrives as early as July. One seen on 20

July, 1993, in Kanasar, which was a very early

arrival.

89. Spotted or Dusky Redshank

Tringa ery thro pus

A winter migrant. Three found in the

Diyatra tank on 17 January, 1994. Likely to

become more common with the development of

seepage wetlands along the canal.

AVIFAUNA OF THE THAR DESERT

249

90. Greenshank Tringa nebularia

A winter migrant, but one was found on

20 May, 1994, in Barmer town on a sewage

stream, with atleast 50 redwattled lapwings.

91. Green Sandpiper Tringa ochropus

Occasional on village tanks and seepage

wetlands in winter. Sometimes the birds can be seen

as early as July. One bird was seen on a temporary

pool on 20 July, 1 993, and another the same day on

another temporary pool. Heavy rains had occurred

between 17 and 19 July, in the Thar desert.

92. Wood Sandpiper Tringa glareola

Only once in a tank near Taal Chhaper on

13 July 1993, which is a very early record of this

winter migrant. According to Ali and Ripley

(1987), wood sandpiper begins to arrive in

northern districts in early August. Apparently,

oversummering of this species in India is unusual

and unrecorded. Therefore, the record of 13 July,

is noteworthy.

93. Common Sandpiper Tringa hypoleucos

Fairly common winter migrant to all sorts

of wetlands from roadside ditches to margins of

large lakes. Likely to increase with the

development of suitable habitats along the canal.

94. Ruff & Reeve Philomachus pugnax

Fairly common winter migrant, sometime

arriving as early as end-July. Six seen on a

temporary pool between Bap and Phalodi on

20 July, 1993, after three days of rain. 20 seen in

a small part of Sambhar Lake (14 January, 1994),

and more than 100 in brackish waters of Badopal

(19 January, 1994), only one in a freshwater lake

near Keechan (26 January, 1994).

95. Blackwinged Stilt Himantopus himantopus

Common bird near waterbodies, ditches,

temporary pools, and sewage streams of towns

and cities. All my records are during monsoon,

none in winter. Many individuals were located

on a brackish wetland near Lunkaransar (15 July,

1993), and 7 individuals, including two

immatures, near RD 954 near Bajju (17 July,

1993), 6 between Bap and Phalodi, and one on a

roadside ditch between Bap and Kanasar.

96. Black-tailed God wit Limosa limosa

Nearly 250 seen on a waterspread near

Badopal on 19 January, 1994. Roberts (1991), has

recorded it from the Thar in Pakistan, but not in

Punjab or Cholistan. However, I have seen it in

Badopal, which is in Suratgarh, close to Punjab.

97. Little Ringed Plover Charadrius dubius

Many records both from fresh and brackish

waters. It is a resident bird so its presence on

15 July, 1993 on a saltpan near Lunkaransar was

not surprising. One seen on a seasonal pool

between Bap and Kanasar (20 July). Later three

were seen on a temporary pool near Kanoi in

Jaisalmer dist. on 22 July. Also recorded on

Diyatra, Keechan and Kowadisar tanks.

98. Kentish Plover Charadrius alexandrinus

Found both in fresh and brackish waters —

one seen on a salt pan near Lunkaransar

(19 January), two in Sambhar Lake which is

brackish and two in a freshwater tank near Gajner.

99. Lesser Sand Plover Charadrius mongolus

Only one record of two birds in a temporary

pool, on 22 July, 1993, 7 km before Kanoi in

Jaisalmer dist. It is mostly found on the sea-coast,

with very few records from inland waters (Ali

and Ripley, 1987, Roberts, 1991). It arrives on

the sea-coast by early August, so the birds which

I saw must be on the passage.

100. Snipe Gallinago gallinago

Only one record of two birds in Guda

Vishnoian on 7 February.

101. Avocet Recurvirostra avosetta

It is generally found in brackish water.

I saw it on three different sites in the Thar

desert.

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102. Indian River Tern Sterna aurantia

Two recorded in Guda Vishnoian wetland

on 7 March, 1 994. One was found dead in the

same wetland.

103. Blackheaded Gull Larus ridibundus

One near Sambhar Lake on 14 January,

1994, and three on a seepage at RD 507 on 20

January, 1994. Roberts (1991), has found it

wintering in the Thar desert in Pakistan but not

in Cholistan.

104. Great Blackheaded Gull

Larus ichthyaetus

One confirmed sighting on a seepage

wetlands near RD 507 on 20 January, 1994.

Probably first record from the Thar. It has not

been recorded from the desert regions of Pakistan

(Roberts 1991, pp 369, map 178). Ali and Ripley

(1987), however, reported it from Bharatpur,

Delhi, Nepal, Bihar, Corbett (Uttar Pradesh) so

its presence in the Thar, though unusual, is not

unexpected.

105. Common Indian Sandgrouse or

Chestnut-bellied Sandgrouse

Pterocles exustus

Abundant all over the Thar.

106. Spotted Sandgrouse Pterocles senegallus

Uncommon. Sixty seen inside Sam

enclosure on 1 February, 1994, and many

hundreds outside Sam along with Indian

Sandgrouse. Seven were seen on 1 February,

between Mohangarh and Jaisalmer. According to

Roberts (1991), it is an abundant, but erratically

occurring winter visitor to the main deserts of

Cholistan in Punjab and Thar in Sind. It appears

to be declining.

107. Imperial Sandgrouse Pterocles orientalis

Common winter migrant. A few thousands

still come to Gajner every morning to drink water,

e.g. on 16 January, 1994, 3-4 thousand were seen

in Gajner. Always found in large numbers from

2-3 hundreds to a few thousands. Extensively

hunted, hence declining all over its range.

108. Blue Rock Pigeon Columba livia

Abundant in villages and settlements.

Apparently absent in uninhabited parts of the

Thar, but now spreading due to development of

plantations. According to Major Harjit Singh,

Environment Task Force (ETF) (pers. comm.

1993), pigeons were not seen earlier in this area.

They came after ETF was established, and human

settlements came up in 1983. Roberts (1991), has

not shown its distribution in the Thar and

Cholistan deserts bordering the Indian Thar

desert. I found them roosting/nesting in

abandoned wells and water storage tanks. Huge

numbers live around temples where grains are

provided daily for birds.

109. Indian Ring Dove

Streptopelia decaocto

Abundant all over the Thar, especially

around Vishnoi settlements where grains are fed

daily to birds.

110. Red Turtle-dove

Streptopelia tranquebarica

Normally not present in very dry, treeless

regions but with the development of canals and

plantations, this dove is colonizing new areas.

During monsoon they appear to be more

widespread than during winter and summer. For

instance, about 30-40 were found roosting with

ring doves on Acacia tortilis trees near RD 954

near Bajju on 17 July, 1993. In Mohangarh on

21 July, pure flocks of 12-20 were seen roosting

on A. tortilis at the edge of a grove, all sitting on

2-3 branches only, not spread out. Red turtle-dove

was not seen during winter months in these areas,

except for a male which was unable to fly on

29 January, near Tepu village in Jaisalmer dist.

In Pakistan it is a summer migrant from India.

Roberts (1991), has not recorded it in the Thar or

Cholistan deserts, so its occurrence in Mohangarh

in Jaisalmer is of significance.

AVIFAUNA OF THE THAR DESERT

251

111. Little Brown Dove

Streptopelia senegalensis

Much more common than S', tranquebarica,

but not as abundant as the ring dove. Prefers

groves and thickets of Prosopis and Acacia, and

will become more common with plantations

coming up with the IGNP.

112. Yellowlegged Green Pigeon

Treron phoenicoptera

Hume (1878), reported it from Jodhpur

State. It is generally found in groves and forest,

so the Thar is not a suitable habitat. However,

with the development of plantations, it is being

seen in new areas. I saw 8 birds on a tall, dense

Zizyphus tree, 60 m from an Eucalyptus plantation

of IGNP near Bajju on 9 February, 1993. At

another site, more than 39 were eating the fruit

of pipal Ficus religiosa near Manakthedi village

between Suratgarh and Badopal on 19 January,

1994. On 30 January, 1994 one bird was seen on

Eucalyptus near Mohangarh. Roberts (1922),

also found that this species has extended its range

in Pakistan due to plantation.

113. Roseringed Parakeet Psittacula krameri

Earlier uncommon in the Thar desert but

now spreading very fast, thanks to cultivation and

dense plantations along the canal. On 21 January,

1994, more than 1000 were roosting noisily on

tall trees in Bajju. Also noticed in ETF,

Mohangarh, Nachna, Bhikampur, and other areas

beside the canal. Roberts (1992), found it

widespread in the Indus river basin, but not in

the Choi i stan desert.

114. Pied Crested Cuckoo Clamator jacobinus

A migrant arriving with the start of the

monsoon, so all my sightings were during July

and August. It prefers scrub, forest and

plantations. With the increase in numbers of

its chief host i.e. babbler (thanks to thick

plantations), it is likely to be found breeding more

often in the Thar. I saw 15 individuals on 8 sites

in July 1993.

115. Crow-pheasant or Coucal

Centropus sinensis

This is another bird of light forests,

scrubland and groves so naturally it is not found

in very arid areas where such habitats are absent,

but with canal side plantations, the crow-pheasant

is spreading in the Thar desert. I heard its call

near Bajju and saw one bird near RD 954 on

9 February, 1 993. During the roadside census, five

birds were seen in as many sites.

116. Short-eared Owl Asio flammeus

A winter migrant of the grasslands and thin

shrubland. I saw them in three different areas. On

16 January, 1994 in Diyatra region, ten owls were

flushed out from an area of about 5 ha and in the

same area, 9 individuals were flushed out from

about 100 sq. m on 18 January. On 19 January,

one was found crushed on the road between

Bamanwala and Lunkaransar. In a grove of

Zizyphus near Sangori village in Jaisalmer dist.,

on 29 January, 15 short-eared owls were seen, all

sitting in the shade of small bushes. Roberts

(1991), found it widespread in the desert of

Pakistan.

117. Spotted Owlet Athene brama

Common in villages, dhanis and old

disused wells.

118. Collared Scops Owl Otus bakkamoena

One individual seen at 1945 hrs in a thick

Dalbergia sissoo grove near Mohangarh 27 July,

1993. According to Roberts (1991 ), “it is a species

which requires good tree cover and is therefore

uneven in distribution in the Indus plains, being

found mainly in irrigated forest plantations or

patches of riverine forest or in the shady gardens

of old bungalows. It is entirely absent from desert

or open treeless country but odd pairs will turn

up in every district of Punjab and Sind”. Its

presence in a dense grove in the middle of almost

treeless desert, (before the construction of IGNP,

Mohangarh area was almost treeless) is

noteworthy. Like other forest-loving species, the

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collared sC'ops owl is certainly going to increase

all along the IGNP.

119. European Nightjar

Caprimulgus europaeus

A crushed nightjar was found on the road

near Mohangarh (22 July, 1993), from which

wing/tail feathers were collected which were later

identified in BNHS as those of the European

nightjar. Dense groves of A. tortilis were present

on both sides of the road from where the feathers

were collected. R. G. Soni (pers. comm. 1994),

has seen this species in the IGNP areas in Bikaner

dist. Whistler (1938), had collected specimens

from Hamvas in the erstwhile Jodhpur State.

120. House Swift Apus affinis

Mostly seen during the monsoon. May not

be uncommon, but easily overlooked. Nearly 115

individuals seen on nine sites in July 1993.

Roberts (1991), has not reported it from the desert

regions of Pakistan but Ali and Ripley (1987),

have shown its distribution covering the whole

of peninsular India, including Rajasthan.

121. Green Bee Eater Merops orientalis

Common and now spreading with

cultivation. Seen in all seasons. Nearly 460

individuals in 5 1 roadside censuses, out of which

290 were seen during the monsoon. In the Thar,

the paler subspecies beludschieus is generally

seen.

122. Blue-cheeked Bee-eater

Merops superciliosus

Breeds in the Thar during the monsoon so

by May and June, the birds start moving in.

During July, 210 individuals were seen on 16

roadside censuses. During May 1 994, many birds

were seen near Osiyan, Phalodi and Sudasari.

123. European Roller Coracias garrulus

An autumn passage migrant, seen during

July and August. Five individuals seen during July

1993.

124. Indian Roller Coracias benghalensis

Prefers more mesic habitats than available

in the Thar desert but now spreading due to

cultivation and plantation. Seen in all seasons.

64 individuals seen during 25 roadside censuses,

and many others during line transects. Roberts

(1991), says that the Indian Roller is absent from

extensive desert tracts, but we found it in many

areas in the Thar.

125. Whitebreasted Kingfisher

Halcyon smymensis

Although comparatively more independent

of water than other kingfisher species, it is still

not found very far from water, hence it is not a

true desert species. However, it can be seen near

permanent village tanks, and now it is spreading

all along the IGNP. We have seen it in the

following areas: near Bajju, Bangasar Lift Canal

at RD 860, Bhikampur, Nidai on Jaisalmer-

Mohangarh road, near Mohangarh, ETF, and near

Lunkaransar. Additionally, 21 individuals were

seen during roadside censuses.

126. Blackcapped Kingfisher

Halcyon pileata

This is not a desert species, but we saw one

bird at a village tank near Keechan on 26 January,

1994. This is probably the first record from the

Thar desert. Not reported by Hume (1878),

Whistler (1938), and Roberts (1991). According

to Ali and Ripley (1987), it is primarily a maritime

species, but sporadically reported from inlands

(e.g. Bharatpur, Gonda, Monghyr) so its presence

in a wetland in the Thar is not unexpected, though

unusual.

127. Common Kingfisher Alcedo atthis

One bird was seen at a village tank near

Kolayat on 17 January, 1994. Associated with

wetlands, so the dry Thar is not its main

habitat. Roberts (1991), has not reported it in

Cholistan desert but only in a small part of

the Thar Desert (see Roberts, 1991, pp 514, map

260).

AVIFAUNA OF THE THAR DESERT

253

128. Pied Kingfisher Ceryle rudis

One individual seen inside Suratgarh town

on 19 January, 1994. At present rare in the Thar

but likely to spread with the IGNP.

129. Hoopoe Upupa epops

Common in the Thar, but none seen during

four days survey during the summer. It generally

avoids extensive deserts (Roberts 1991), but

during favourable conditions in the rains, it

spreads out widely. I saw 26 birds during monsoon

and winter on 17 roadside censuses and 1 1 during

line transects.

130. Wryneck Jynx torquilla

Found in open scrubland and thin forests

during winter. I saw one individual feeding on the

ground in a plantation, about 2 km before Dedawa,

on Gandhav-Dedawa road in Nagaur dist.

131. Yellowfronted Pied Woodpecker

Picoides mahrattensis

This species is also found in scrub forests,

and it is likely to increase with the spread of

Acacia plantations. I saw two on Prosopis

cinerarea near Rolsabsar, Fatehpur tehsil in Sikar

dist., on 4 February, 1993, and later the same day

a female on Prosopis cinerarea in Taal Chhaper

in Churu dist. On 14 January, 1994, one

woodpecker was seen, 6 km before Nawan in

Nagaur dist. in a Prosopis cinerarea grove on a

hillock. In Phulia enclosure of DNP in Jaisalmer,

a circular hole was found on a Salvadora trunk,

about 3 m high, which appeared to be of a

woodpecker, but we did not see any woodpecker

in this area. Roberts (1991), found it resident in

the sparse Prosopis spicigera thorn scrub of the

Thar desert in Pakistan.

132. Lesser Golden-backed Woodpecker

Dinopium benghalense

This species of woodpecker is found from

scrub forest to thick deciduous forest of the

Himalayas. Whistler (1938), collected specimens

from Jawa and Jaswantpura in the erstwhile Jodhpur

State. We saw one individual foraging on Prosopis

cinerarea near Rolsabsar, Fatehpur Tehsil, Sikar on

4 February, 1993. R. G. Soni (per. comm. 1994),

has reported it from Bikaner dist.

133. Redwinged Bush Lark

Mirafra erythroptera

It is found in the broader valleys and eroded

hills of the Thar desert (Roberts 1992). Whistler

(1938), collected specimens near Hamavas lake.

Hume (1878), considered it common in Jodhpur.

Ali and Ripley (1987), recorded its presence in

western Rajasthan (Thar), and northern Gujarat,

including Kutch dist. I saw it only once near

Fakeran ki dhani in Jaisalmer dist. on 31 January,

1994.

134. Ashycrowned Finch Lark

Eremopterix grisea

It is generally not present in the drier

parts of the Thar, but during monsoon it tends

to spread out all over the Thar. According to

Roberts (1992), it is “locally nomadic, dispers-

ing into remoter desert areas in the monsoon

season”. Whistler (1938), collected it in Pali,

Bhinmal and Jalor but Hume (1878), did not

collect any in Jodhpur. We found it to be

common inside Sudasari enclosure during July

(monsoon) but absent during May (summer).

However, during winter some were seen in a dry

area near Khetoosar, near Kanasar in Jodhpur dist.

(28 January, 1994). Out of 191 seen during

roadside census, 170 were sighted during July,

and the rest during winter.

Near Undu, in Banner dist. on 25 July,

during a locust plague, more than 100 were seen

feeding on hoppers in about 200 m area on the

metalled road. They did not gulp the hoppers, but

battered them to small pieces and then ate the

pieces.

135. Blackcrowned Finch Lark

Eremopterix nigriceps

Very common in the Thar. Breeds during

the monsoon. Many males displaying during July

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and August. Regularly seen during May in all the

places studied.

136. Rufoustailed Finch Lark

Ammomanes phoenicurus

Very common in Taal Chhaper during

monsoon. According to Roberts (1992), it is

largely absent from the more arid northwest

(in Pakistan), but I found it fairly common in

the Thar during the monsoon. Out of the 168

birds seen during 17 roadside censuses, 159 were

seen during monsoon. On 25 July, 1993, some

birds were seen feeding on locusts. On a hot

noon on 26 July, between Kashmira and Makhab

in Barmer dist., the telegraph wires were

full of finch larks, including the rufous-

tailed.

137. Hoopoe or Bifasciated or

Large Desert Lark Alaemon alaudipes

A bird of extremely hot and barren areas.

The Thar is the easternmost limit of this widely

distributed species in the Middle East and

northern Africa. I have seen it on four sites, all

flat and very arid: between Jaisalmer and Sam;

near Digha; near Dholiya; and in Sanghana ki

Basti near Dhanana. It breeds during the monsoon

in July, as a male was found displaying between

Jaisalmer and Sam. Before aerial display it sings

softly and then jumps about 3 m, and falls with

closed wings. White flashes are seen on the wings

when ascending. Near Dholiya village, on

28 January, 1994, many were seen feeding on

roots of Dactyloctenium sindicum.

138. Greater Short-toed Lark

Calandrella brachydactyla (Leisler)

or Short-toed Lark

Calandrella cinerea longipennis (Ali & Ripley).

Abundant during winter, in flocks of upto

one thousand. Sometimes moves with the eastern

calandra lark. It appears to be partial to grasslands

and feeds on grass seeds, e.g., about 300 were

found feeding on seeds of Aristidafuniculata in

very short grass.

139. Eastern Calandra Lark

Melanocorypha bimaculata

An erratic winter visitor, enormous flocks

in some years, while largely absent in others.

During February 1993, huge flocks seen all over

the Thar, but especially in Diyatra, Phalodi, Bap,

Khara, and Sam areas. Sometimes moves with

equally huge flocks of short-toed larks.

140. Crested Lark Galerida cristata

In some areas very common, as between

Bikaner and Kolayat on 17 January, 1 994, 30 seen

in a distance of 20 km, foraging on the road on

fallen grains. Specially common in fine,

sometimes extremely dry, gravel areas. During

winter and monsoon surveys, 203 birds were

counted in 29 roadside censuses. Not seen during

May, so probably moves to more mesic areas

during summer.

141. Eastern Skylark Alauda gulgula

Hume (1878), found it in Jodhpur. I have a

few sightings of this species. On 19 February,

1993, I saw two birds near Bhikampur which

appeared to be this species. They had very faint

breast streaks, almost invisible, and two black

markings on either side of neck, conspicuous

crest, erect posture, and long flesh coloured tarsus.

They were foraging at 1230 hrs on the roadside,

on bare stony ground. In July a few individuals,

perhaps of this species, were seen in Taal Chhaper

and Sudasari.

Confirmed sighting of three birds near

Tanwarwala in Jaisalmer on 24 January, 1994.

They were in a sandy area, moving restlessly on

the ground, picking up seeds. Sometimes sitting

on top of Aerva and eating seeds from standing

shrubs.

142. Plain Sand Martin Riparia paludicola

A nesting colony was found on a sand

bank near Mohangarh on 4 March. 1993. Another

active colony was found 200 m from IGNP, in a

sand bank on 25 January, 1 994. White on the belly

extends upto breast unlike in pictorial guide

AVIFAUNA OF THE THAR DESEKT

255

(Ali and Ripley, 1983) where white is shown only

on the belly,

143. Swallow Hirundo rustica

Fairly common winter visitor to the suitable

biotopes in the Thar desert. It may spread widely

due to cultivation and canal irrigation. We saw one

near Bajju on 8 February, 1993, another near a

brackish wetland near Lunkaransar on 15 July,

1993, which is very early for this species. Roberts

(1992), say that they can be found in the plains from

August onwards, so my record is much earlier .

144. Wiretailed Swallow Hirundo smithii

Found in the vicinity of water. Earlier it may

not have been common in the Thar, but now it is

spreading along the canal. Roberts (1992), has

not recorded it in the Cholistan and Thar deserts

of Pakistan (map 309, pp 40, vol. 2) but I saw it

at four different sites near the IGNP: two birds

were seen near Bajju on 17 July; a loose group of

20 between RD 931 and RD 961; a solitary bird

between Bajju and Bhikampur (both on 18 July);

and the fourth sighting of three birds was near

Mohangarh on 21 July.

145. Indian Cliff Swallow Hirundo fluvicola

At Bhikhampur in Jaisalmer dist. we saw

many birds collecting nesting material and

probably nesting under a bridge over the main

canal (10 February, 1993). According to Roberts

(1992), the Indian cliff swallow is largely

confined to the Indus plains, but in recent years it

has colonized many new areas. Similar

colonization is being seen on the IGNP.

146. Common Wood Shrike

Tephrodornis pondicerianus

Unlike true shrikes, it is entirely arboreal

in foraging, thus found only in scrubland and open

forests with trees. According to Roberts (1992),

in Pakistan it frequents old plantations around

canals. Whistler (1938), found it common in the

tamarisk forest in Tilwara in Jodhpur estate. One

seen in a plantation near Bajju.

147. Small Minivet Pericrocotus cinnamomeus

This species was not recorded by Hume

(1878), or Whistler (1938), from the Thar, but I

sighted four birds on 4 February, 1993, on a

roadside plantation near Rolsabsar, Fatehpur

tehsil in Sikar dist. Second ^sighting was on

14 January 1994, near Nawan (Nagaur dist.) in a

scrubland. According to Roberts (1922), it is well

adapted to irrigated cultivation, plantations, (map

330, pp 77, vol. 2, shows this species on the

Pakistani Thar side of Gadra Road, (Gadra Road

is in Barmer).

148. Whitebellied Minivet

Pericrocotus erythropygius

Hume (1878), collected it near Jodhpur, and

Adam near Marot and Koochamun. I saw a pair

foraging on Acacia at a roadside plantation near

Robsar (Fatehpur Tehsil, Sikar) on 4 February,

1993.

149. Whitecheeked Bulbul

Pycnonotus leucogenys leucotis

Abundant, prefers drier habitat than cafer

(Roberts 1992). In addition to birds seen dur-

ing line transects and general studies, nearly

320 birds were sighted during 68 roadside

censuses.

150. Redvented Bulbul Pycnonotus cafer

One of the most common birds of the Thar.

Earlier it was absent from the more extensive

desert tract (Roberts 1992), where its place was

taken by whitecheeked bulbul but now it is

spreading with canal irrigation. It was noticed on

55 roadside census paths, and a total of 204

individuals were seen.

151. Black Drongo or King Crow

Dicrurus adsimilis

Widespread during winter and monsoon,

invariably found following sheep and goats. More

than 200 individuals seen during 43 roadside

censuses during winter and monsoon, but none

during summer months.

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152. Indian Tree Pi eDendrocitta vagabunda

One seen on a Prosopis cinerarea tree in a

crop field between Sambhar and Nawan in Nagaur

on 14 January, 1994. Likely to spread with thick

plantations which are coming up beside the IGNP.

153. House Crow Corvus splendens

Commensal with human beings, so present

around dhanis and villages. Generally uncommon

in remote uninhabited areas. Breeds during

monsoon months. Numerous pairs with young

ones seen in July and August.

154. Raven Corvus corax

In the plains of India, the raven is found

only in the Thar, where it replaces the jungle

crow. I saw 104 birds during 33 roadside

censuses. Many more were seen during line

transects and general studies. During summer

months, there appears to be emigration from the

more arid parts of the Thar to less arid, because

during May no raven was seen between Jodhpur,

Phalodi, Jaisalmer and Shiv. The first raven was

seen 5 km before Dhorimanna, which is not a true

desert country, being more hilly and vegetated.

After Dhorimanna, many ravens were noticed.

They were sometimes seen in flocks on garbage

near filthy roadside hotels or on animal carcases

with vultures.

155. Common Babbler Turdoides caudatus

Very common. Wherever a few Capparis

bushes are present, this species is seen. Scattered

bushes appear to be a critical habitat factor in the

Thar. More than 650 individuals were counted in

83 roadside censuses. It was present practically

all over the Thar.

156. Large Grey Babbler Turdoides malcolmi

Not found in very dry parts of the Thar.

Common in Jodhpur, theLuni basin and western

foothills of the Aravalli mountains. Its

distributional line runs from Gajner (Bikaner) to

Fetehpur-Ratangarh (Churu-Sikar) to Taal

Chhaper (Churn) up to Lohawat (Jodhpur) and

Jaitaran-Bilada (Jodhpur) to Dhorimanna

(Barmer). From Lohawat to Jodhpur this species

is seen in increasing numbers. The Gajner

population appears to be isolated. According to

Roberts (1992), it is not so well adapted to semi-

desert regions as T. caudatus , nor does it like such

well-wooded regions as T. striatus. The large grey

babbler is likely to increase its range with the

development of plantations along the canal.

157. Jungle Babbler Turdoides caudatus

This is also a forest-loving babbler, so

naturally it was absent from the Thar. Whistler

(1938), had collected it from Sunda Hills in

Aravallis in the erstwhile Jodhpur State but he

did not observed it elsewhere. However, with the

development of excellent plantations and

undershrubs along the canal, this species is

spreading. I have seen it feeding on roadside

plantations near Mokulsar between Arjunsar and

Rajaisar (19 January, 1994). On both sides were

good Eucalyptus and A. tortilis plantations, and

sugarcane crop. One flock was seen between

Gopalsar and Bakhtavarpura on 20 January, 1994,

near IGNP. One found crushed on the road, about

1 km from Bajju. Its companions sitting around

the dead body. Good Eucalyptus/tortilis plantation

present nearby. Later 6 seen in the same area

on 25 January, 1994. One more flock was seen

in a dense eucalypt of IGNP near Chhatergarh

(15 July, 1993). All these sites were near IGNP

in Bikaner dist.

158. Striated Babbler Turdoides earlei

This is a typical riverine species, present

along the larger rivers of north India and the Indus

river system. Therefore, its presence along the

IGNP is quite interesting. First evidence was a

flock among Arundo reeds in a jheel of RD 954

on 17 July, 1993. They showed typical skulking

behaviour. Presence of fledglings begging for

food proved that the birds had bred in the areas.

On 20 January, 1994, another flock was seen

among Arundo growing in a seepage wetland of

IGNP between Bakhtavarpura and Bhopalpura.

AVIFAUNA OF THE THAR DESERT

257

Arundo , which was flowering, extended many

metres on both sides of the canal. The rest of the

canal was covered with water hyacinth. The third

group of 8-10 was seen on 29 January, 1994, on a

seepage with Typha, Arundo and Saccharum ,

14 km before Chinnu and 16 km after Bhikampur.

They were 200 m from the main IGNP. Roberts

(1992), says that it is found all along the Indus

river and its tributaries, but has adapted and spread

along major irrigation canal systems in Pakistan.

159. Bluethroat Erithacus svecicus

A common winter migrant to the foothills

and plains of north India, extending in decreasing

numbers to south India. Prefers shaded, damp

areas, so the dry Thar is not the main habitat of

this bird. However, with the development of crop

fields and plantations in the Thar, the bluethroat

is now increasingly being seen. I saw a male in

Taal Chhaper in Churn dist., a male and female

in M oh an gar h in Jaisalmer dist. (6 February,

1 993), and again one on the lawns of Mohangarh

Rest House on 6 February, 1994.

160. Rufous Chat Erythropygia galactotes

A passage migrant through Pakistan and

northwest India to East Africa, passing through

the Thar during monsoon and autumn. Whistler

(1938), says they appear in September in Jodhpur

but I saw many individuals on 24 and 25 July,

1993 in Sudasari enclosure in Jaisalmer. They

were going from bush to bush, fighting among

themselves, regularly cocking and fanning the tail.

161 . Black Redstart Phoenicurus ochruros

Common in winter, generally found in

shaded areas. According to Roberts (1992), it

shuns open bare regions and likes tree plantation

avenues. I have seen it in extremely arid areas

also, e.g. near Nokh on 10 February, 1993, a

female redstart was seen in an arid area, under

two Capparis bushes, with a lesser whitethroat.

The area can be considered super arid, with very

scattered bushes and flat barren rann nearby. I

saw 76 individuals during 24 roadside censuses.

Both subspecies phoenicuroides (grey crown) and

rufiventris (black crown) were seen in Bajju in

February 1993.

162. Magpie Robin Copsychus saularis

Another new entrant to the arid regions of

the Thar along with canal irrigation, cultivation

and plantations. We saw a female inside ETF on

20 January, 1994, and another female between

Bajju and Bhikampur on 25 January, 1994. All

and Ripley (1987), and Roberts (1992), have not

reported it from the arid regions of the Thar.

163. Brown Rock Chat Cercomela fusca

An endemic Indian bird, irregularly

distributed in the Thar. Whistler (1938), reported

it to be common at Phalodi, Jalore and on the

Sunda Hill. Robert (1922), does not report it from

the Thar in Pakistan. I found it very common in

Keechan village near Phalodi in Jodhpur dist.

164. Indian Robin Saxicoloides fulicata

The Indian Robin is generally absent from

very dry areas of Jaisalmer, Jodhpur and Bikaner.

It is more common near the Aravalh moun-

tains. Its distribution in the Thar more or less

follows the distribution of the large grey babbler,

but sometimes isolated populations are found,

such as I saw in Sankara village, in Jaisalmer

(7 February, 1992). One bird in rocky, stony areas

between Phulia and Jaisalmer (26 February,

1993), and another between Bikaner and

Lunkaransar (19 January, 1994), were also seen.

Not seen between Phalodi and Osiyan, but

between Osiyan and Jodhpur, it was frequently

seen as I proceeded towards Jodhpur.

165. Stoliczka’s Bushchat Saxicola macrorhyncha

Rare, localized and endemic to the

northwestern arid and semi-arid parts of India.

Roberts (1992), considered it extinct in Pakistan.

However, no survey has been done there. I found

it fairly common in Diyatra, DNP, Nokh, and

Khara areas. Altogether 86 individuals were seen

at 18 sites (Rahmani, 1993).

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166. Collared Bushchat Saxicola torquata

Fairly common winter visitor to the Thar.

Roberts (1922), found it all over the Pakistani

Thar. I also saw it in many areas. Whistler (1938),

collected it at Hamavas, Jalore and Bhinmal.

167. Pied Bushchat Saxicola caprata

Common resident in suitable areas. Whistler

(1938), found it very common in Jodhpur State. I

found it frequently during monsoon and winter

but not during the four days of a summer survey.

In Sudasari on 24 July, a male in heavy moult;

head and neck whitish with some black feathers.

Middle tail feather missing, so tail appeared

forked. Faint wing patch, belly whitish, and rump

also white. Later, two immatures were seen in the

same area. I collected specimen of a dead

juvenile; only the skeleton was present, but both

wings and tail feathers were undamaged.

Immatures had conspicuous wing and black tail.

Upper parts and head blotched. The bill was black

and the rump chestnut.

168. Isabelline Chat Oenanthe xanthoprymna

Common winter visitor throughout the more

barren and uncultivated tracts of the Indus plains

(Roberts, 1992). Very generally distributed except

in the hill tracts (Whistler, 1938). I saw 35

individuals during 14 roadside censuses, and many

more during line transects. Most sightings generally

in open, barren sandy or gravel areas, but one bird

was found foraging near a hamlet (< dhani ), very

tame, sometime perching on house wails.

169. Desert Wheatear Oenanthe deserti

Perhaps the commonest wheatear of the Thar

desert, reported to be very common in Banner and

Phalodi (Whistler, 1938). I had hundreds of

sightings during winter. Aerial display was seen

on 27 February, 1 993 inside Sam enclosure.

170. Pied Chat Oenanthe picata

Another common winter migrant to the

Thar desert. It has three morphs: Blackbellied

opistholeuca , Whitebellied picata and White-

crowned capistrata. All three morphs seen,

sometimes within 100 m of each other, but the

picata morph most frequently. The earliest arrival,

a picata morph male, was sighted on 23 July, in

Sudasari enclosure in the DNP.

171. Red-tailed Wheatear

Oenanthe xanthoprymna

The rarest Oenanthe of the Thar desert.

Only ten individuals seen in two winter surveys

of one month each. Generally found in dry, sandy

or gravelly arid areas. Roberts (1992), found it to

be locally common in Pakistan, but rather

selective in the areas it chooses.

172. Indian Great Reed Warbler

Acrocephalus stentoreus

Very common in the IGNP. It breeds

mainly in central Asia, sporadically in Pakistan

(Roberts, 1992), but I found it breeding during

July all along the main IGNP canal. Very

common on Typha near RD 954, and all along

the IGNP wherever Typha clumps were present.

On 17 July 1993, seen or heard every 200 m.

Strangely seen only on the IGNP, not in the jheel

of RD 954. Near Nachna (20 July), every patch

of Arundo/Typha in the IGNP had a warbler.

Whistler (1938), said “abundant in the extensive

reed beds of Hamavas Lake... it is extremely

probable that the birds breed where they were

found”. During five roadside censuses along the

IGNP in July, 96 birds were noted.

173. Rufous-fronted Wren Warbler

Prinia buchanani

Addicted to semi-desert tracts thickly

studded with Zizyphus bushes. Specimens were

collected from Phalodi, Tilwara, Jalor and

Hamavas Lake (Whistler, 1938). Robert (1992),

found it common in the Thar. It is a resident

species and I found it in many places.

174. Streaked Wren Warbler Prinia gracilis

We saw one in Sudasari on 27 July, 1993,

and four between Mohangarh and Jaisalmer on

1 February, 1994.

AVIFAUNA OF THE THAR DESERT

259

175. Plain Wren Warbler Prinia subflava

A largely sedentary species found throughout

the Indus plains. It is adapted to cultivated tracts,

particularly irrigated tall crops such as wheat,

cotton, sorghum and millet (Roberts 1992). Not

reported by Whistler (1938), but I found some

in fallow fields, between Bap and Phalodi on

10 February, 1993. Another was seen calling

agitatedly from the top of a Capparis bush inside

Sudasari enclosure (1 March, 1993). Later, in

Mohangarh on 4 March, one was seen in breeding

plumage. During the monsoon, we noted it at Taal

Chhaper (13 July), in a plantation, and in a crop

field near Lunkaransar (15 July, 1993).

176. Orphean Warbler Sylvia hortensis jerdoni

A winter visitor, likely to occur in roadside

thorny plantations and scrubland. I saw one on

1 February, in Sam, and a female (head not black)

in a roadside plantation between Bikaner and

Gajner (17 January, 1994). One more Was seen

in Diyatra region on 18 January. Hume had

collected it at Jodhpur. Whistler (1938), called it

S. crassirostis jerdoni

177. Desert Lesser Whitethroat

Sylvia curruca rninula

Widespread in the Thar, in low scrub and

bushes. Whistler (1938), called it S. c. minuta. It

occurs in the same habitat as Sylvia nana. Another

subspecies blythi very common in Acacia

plantations in Punjab and Sind (Roberts, 1992).

This subspecies is likely to spread with canal

irrigation and development of canal plantations.

Whistler (1938), collected it from Hamavas Lake

in Pali, Sunda Hill, Jalor. I saw lesser whitethroat

in many roadside plantations and low scrub

growing among sand dunes.

178. Desert Warbler Sylvia nana

Common in winter all over low scrub and

uncultivated tracts in the desert. Invariably seen

following a wheatear, lesser whitethroat or

some other small bird. Display call heard/seen at

0820 hrs in Sudasari enclosure on 3 February,

1994.

179. Streaked Fan tail Warbler

Cisticola juncidis

Common in open bog or marshy grasslands.

Erratic distribution due to habitat restrictions. Not

found in the dry areas of the Thar. It will spread

with cultivation. I saw it displaying over a

salinized field overgrown with Cyprus near Bajju

(18 July, 1993). Also seen in another similar field.

Later, display seen in Sudasari enclosure on

24 July, 1993.

180. Booted Warbler Hippolais caligata

Roberts (1992), has reported two sub-

species from the Thar desert: caligata is largely a

passage migrant, while rama breeds in

Baluchistan and erratically in the riverine tracts

of Sind, and winters throughout the Indus plains.

Whistler (1938), collected rama (Syke’s tree

warbler), in Hamavas Lake, and said that they

are probably passage migrants. Both subspecies

are likely to occur in the Thar. R. G. Soni (pers.

comm. 1994), has reported it from Bikaner.

I saw four warblers, possibly this species,

foraging in Acacia tortilis grove near Mohangarh

on 27 July, 1993, constantly calling chirr chirr.

All in the same tree at the edge of a dense grove,

they were bigger than lesser whitethroat, closer

to house sparrow in size, with longish bill, white

supercilium joining forehead, underparts pale

whitish, while upper part earthy brown (as in

juvenile babbler). Legs whitish. Sometimes

hovering to catch insects.

181. Brown Leaf Warbler or Chiffchaff

Phylloscopus collybita tristis

Winter visitor in shrubs, bushes, light

forests, groves and hedges. According to Roberts

(1992), it prefers irrigated canal colonies and well

wooded areas in Punjab and Sind and it is

abundant in the Indus plains. Whistler (1938),

collected it from Hamavas Lake and Tilwara. I

saw it in Taal Chhaper (4 February, 1993).

Probably this species was seen on 25 February,

1993, inside Miyajlar enclosure where three

individuals were foraging separately among low

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Tamarix bushes. Later, this species was seen

inside Phulia enclosure (25 February), in

plantation near Mohangarh (4 March, 1993), and

in the ETF plantation (21 January, 1994). With

the establishment of plantations and crop fields,

it is likely to increase in IGNP areas.

182. Tailor Bird Orthotomus sutorius

It was largely absent in the Thar, but now

due to cultivation and plantation it is spreading. I

heard call in Bajju on 21 January, 1994.

According to Whistler (1938), it was not observed

west of Tilwara, and Roberts (1992), says that it

usually shuns extensive areas of desert, but is

frequently found on the edge of barren desert.

183. Grey Shrike Lanius excubitor

The most common shrike of the Thar desert,

it was seen in most of our roadside censuses. 515

individuals were seen in 82 censuses. In July

1993, one shrike was found pecking at a snake of

about 84 cm. Another was seen on a cow carcase

near Mohangarh on 31 January, 1994. Four

fledglings were found with parents in the DNP

office in Jaisalmer on 18 May, 1994. The nest

was located on the thatched roof of an abandoned

hut. A pair was seen probably nesting on a pole

between Jodhpur and Mathaniya (18 May, 1 994),

reluctant to fly from the nest site. There were lots

of bushes in the vicinity, so why should it nest on

the open pole?

184. Baybacked Shrike Lanius vittatus

This shrike avoids pure desert country,

preferring scrubland and plantation, so it is

not uniformly distributed in the Thar unlike

L. excubitor. However, it is likely to increase with

the ecological changes brought about by the

IGNP. Even Whistler (1938), had reported it

from Barmer and Pholodi, and in most rest house

gardens. Roberts (1992), found that it parti-

cularly prefers canal-bank tree plantations. I have

seen it in Ralsabsar (4 February 1993), Taal

Chhaper (4 February), 2 km before Dedwa in a

roadside plantation on Shiv-Dhorimanna road

(12 February), and on Sudasari-Khuri (2 March,

1993). During the monsoon survey, it was seen

in many plantations, e.g. between Khara and

Jamsar, (15 July), near Lunkaransar (15 July),

near Bajju (17 July), near RD 961 near Bajju

(18 July), (all in Bikaner dist.); Sudasari enclosure

(24 July), (Jaisalmer dist.); between Harsani-

Balewa (25 July), Undu (26 July), and Dhori-

manna (26 July), (all in Barmer dist.).

During the winter survey of 1994, I had

only one sighting i.e. in Acacia tortilis plantation

and crop fields near Lunkaransar (19 January). It

was seen during the summer survey, also

indicating that it may be resident. One bay-

backed shrike was found in a green crop area and

plantation between Mathaniya-Osiyan (18 May),

(Jodhpur), another between Barmer and

Dhorimanna (20 May).

A shrike of bay-backed size, with very dark

head like Burmese shrike, was seen on 17 July,

1993, near RD 954 near Bajju.

185. Rufousbacked Shrike Lanius schach

Like L. vittatus , the rufousbacked shrike

also avoids very arid tracts and dunal areas. It

prefers cultivation, gardens, scrubland and

plantations. Whistler (1938), found it at Phalodi,

Gadra Road and Barmer. It is another beneficiary

of the IGNP. I found it in many canal plantations

and scrubland. Evidence of its breeding, two

juveniles were located with an adult near RD 954

on 17 July, 1993, in Bikaner.

186. Pale Brown Shrike Lanius collurio or

Isabelline Shrike Lanius isabellinus

According to Whistler (1938), common in

all the drier parts; the classification of these two

species/subspecies is still arguable. I had many

sightings during winter and monsoon but not

during summer.

187. Whitebrowed Fantail Flycatcher

Rhipidura aureola

A bird of thin forests, scrubland, orchards

and gardens. According to Whistler (1938), it is

AVIFAUNA OF THE THAR DESERT

261

not found west of Balotra, but this statement is

no longer valid due to ecological changes brought

about by canal irrigation in the Thar. According

to Roberts (1992), it is common in the irrigated

canal colonies of the Punjab. In lower Sind, it is

mainly found in relict patches of riverine forest

or in orchards.

I have seen solitary birds in many areas in

Bikaner dist. e.g. in a plantation near Bajju

(9 February, 1993 and 23 January, 1994); near

RD 820 (21 January, 1994); Mohangarh (4 March,

1993); plantation/crop near Lunkaransar (15 July,

1993) ; and near Chhatergarh in IGNP plantation

(15 July). I did not go to the IGNP areas during

the summer survey of 1994, so I do not have any

record nor do I know whether it is found in this

area in summer.

188. Paradise Flycatcher

Terpsiphone paradisi

Not noted by Whistler (1938), but Roberts

(1992), found that it occurs over most of Sind

and Punjab as a double passage migrant. I saw a

female chasing a little green bee-eater in a

Tecomela undulata grove, about 1 km from the

Forest Department rest house near Mohangarh in

Jaisalmer dist. On the other side of the road was

a thick grove of Dalbergia sissoo.

189. Tawny Pipit Anthus campestris

Common winter migrant, but Whistler

(1938), did not procure it in Jodhpur State.

We have many sightings which could be due

to recent spreading of this species: Taal Chhaper

(4 February, 1993); Katar-Jasrasar in Churu

(5 February, 1993); Sudasari Rest House

(1 March, 1993);. outside Sudasari enclosure

(2 March, 1993); Undu (5 March, 1993);Diyatra

(18 January, 1994); sandy area near Damodra

pasture Plot (1 February, 1994); one very dark

bird near Sam (2 February, 1994); inside Sudasari

enclosure and 4 birds outside Sudasari

(3 February) and one Digha Minor (6 February,

1994) . We saw 24 more birds during 11 roadside

censuses during January-February 1994, most

solitary individuals.

190. Brown Rock Pipit Anthus similis

Not listed by Whistler (1938), but we

found it in four different sites in 1994. A bird

was seen on the way to Nokh from Bhikampur

(25 January). In Jaisalmer dist. we saw this species

at the following sites: two birds near Fakeran

ki dhani (3 1 January), one near Khuri (2 February)

and two birds inside Sudasari enclosure

(3 February). Roberts (1992), has not reported it

from the Pakistani Thar and Cholistan (Vol. II,

pp 53, map 316) but Ali and Ripley (1987), have

shown its occurence in the whole of Gujarat and

Rajasthan.

191. Yellow Wagtail Motacilla flava

Common passage migrant. I saw one

individual in a seepage of IGNP 10 km after

Lunkaransar in Bikaner on 19 Januarv, 1994.

192. Blackheaded Yellow Wagtail

Motacilla melanogrisea

Hume (1878), refers to it as M , feldegg

malanogriseus while Roberts (1992), calls it

M. flava melanogrisea. One individual, probably

of the species was sighted near IGNP.

193. Yellow-headed Wagtail or

Citrine Wagtail Motacilla citreola

One seen on the edge of Bangas Lift

canal near Bajju, 9 February, 1993. It is generally

found on larger marshes and wetlands, foraging

on the floating vegetation. Roberts (1992), has

recognised three subspecies. Hume (1878),

received skins of M. c. calcarata from Jodhpur.

194. Grey Wagtail Motacilla cinerea

Frequently found in relict patches of

riverine forest where there are drainage channels

or oxbow lakes. Reported by R. G. Soni (pers.

comm. 1994), from Bikaner. I saw one on a

saltpan near Lunkaransar in Bikaner dist. on

19 January, 1994.

195. White or Pied Wagtail Motacilla alba

Invariably found near water, so it is absent

from the greater part of the Thar. This winter

migrant is likely to be seen more frequently with

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

the spread of canal network. All the following

sightings were near IGNP or on village tanks:

Bajju (8 February, 1993); Bangasar Lift Canal

(9 February); Bhikampur (10 February); Guda-

Vishnoian (7 March, 1993); and in a village tank

near Samra, 3 km from Nokh (28 January, 1994).

Roberts ( 1 992), has not reported it from Cholistan

and Thar deserts.

196. Large Pied Wagtail

Motacilla maderaspatensis

This species is found on streams, rivers,

canals and at the margin of large lakes. Roberts

(1992), found it sparingly in Punjab and the lower

stream debouching into the Indus, but absent from

most of Sind. He has not reported it from the Thar

and Cholistan deserts. I have seen it on five sites:

IGNP near Bajju (9 February, 1993); Nachna

(20 July, 1993); seepage wetland near Bhadera

village, 10 km after Lunkaransar (19 January,

1994); one foraging on a bridge of IGNP near

ETF (20 January, 1994); and on an old camel

carcase with common babbler, feeding on insects

and maggots, near Noda Minor (21 January,

1994).

197. Brahminy Myna Sturnus pagodarum

Earlier reported only from the edge of the

Thar desert. Hume (1878), considered it fairly

common in Jodhpur and Whistler (1938),

collected it from Pali, Hamavas Lake and Jalor.

But now it appears that this species has spreaded

to some towns in the interior desert region. For

instance, I have seen many individuals foraging

inside Phalodi town (19 July, 1993), and have

many records from the edge of the Thar desert,

e.g. a pair seen between Fatehpur-Ratangarh

(4 February, 1993); one bird between Jasrasar-

Kakra in Churn dist. (5 February); a pair near

Dhawa-Doli (6 March); another pair between

Jodhpur and Bilada (7 March); and 6 between

Ringas and Sikar (12 July); a pair near

Dhorimanna (26 July, 1993); a pair between

Sambhar and Nawan in a crop field (14 January,

1994); 1 bird betwen Alai and Nokha (Nagaur)

on 15 January; a pair between Osiyan and Jodhpur

(10 February); a pair between Jodhpur and

Mathaniya (18 May, 1994); and, one bird, 2 km

before Dhorimanna (20 May, 1994). R.G. Soni

(pers. comm. 1994), has occasionally seen

Brahminy Myna in Bikaner dist.

198. Rosy Pastor Sturnus roseus

Common autumn and winter migrant, but

erratically distributed in the Thar desert, perhaps

due to lack of suitable foraging areas in winter.

Between Bikaner and Gajner on 6 February, 1 993,

I found hundreds of rosy pastors sitting inside

Zizyphus bushes feeding on fruit, while in January

1994, not many were seen at the same spot. On

8 February, 1994, hundreds of rosy pastors with

bank myna, ring dove and pigeon were seen

feeding on capsicum kept for drying near

Mathaniya village in Jodhpur dist. The bird

menace was so great that boys were employed to

chase them away.

Rosy pastors arrive as early as July in huge

numbers, but most of them move to other areas.

Out of 1089 birds seen during 21 roadside

censuses in winter and monsoon, 925 were

counted during the monsoon.

199. Starling Sturnus vulgaris

Another common winter migrant, but

erratically distributed in the Thar due to lack of

foraging areas. It is likely to spread with the

expansion of cultivation and irrigation facilities.

Most of our sightings were near the IGNP,

e.g. more than 2000 bank and common mynas

and starlings were found roosting on A. tortilis in

ETF on 20 January, 1994 in Bikaner dist.

200. Pied Myna Sturnus contra

According to Roberts (1992), it is largely

absent from the “dry northwestern parts” i.e. Thar

in Pakistan. Whistler (1938), had also not

recorded it in Jodhpur State. It is generally

found at the edge of the Thar. R. G. Soni (pers.

comm. 1994), has seen it occasionally in

Bikaner dist. I have a confirmed sighting of two

AVIFAUNA OF THE THAR DESERT

263

pied mynas in a fishing settlement near 5 No. Cut

near Suratgarh and again inside Suratgarh town

on 20 January, 1994. Both these sites in

Ganganagar dist. are at the edge of the main Thar

desert.

201 . Bank Myna Acridotheres ginginianus

Roberts (1992), thinks that the Bank Myna

avoids deserts or dry rocky country and it is

most common in rice cultivation. It has increased

with extension of rice cultivation and also water-

logging and seepage zones. In the Indian Thar

desert also, it has increased, and is some-

times found in very dry areas. On 11 February,

1993, 1 found a large flock foraging on flower-

ing and fruiting Capparis bushes, in the middle

of very dry area, 17 km from Phalsund in

Jaisalmer dist. However, most of my sight records

are close to IGNP and in crop fields. A very large

roost of bank and common mynas was present

on Arundo and Typha clumps at RD 954 near

Bajju (8 February, 1993). Another huge multi-

species communal roost consisting of more than

2000 mynas was found on A. tortilis planta-

tion near ETF on 20 January, 1994 in Bikaner

dist..

The bank mynas breed during the mon-

soon. We found numerous pairs with juveniles

in Bikaner dist. during our monsoon surveys.

Scattered pairs were occasionally seen follow-

ing livestock in Khara-Jaimsar in Bikaner

(15 July); 4 between Ratangarh and Chhaper

(4 February, 1993); a pair between Sendwa and

Bidasar in Bikaner (5 February, 1993); a pair

in Mankasar villager in Bikaner (24 January,

1994); cultivation/habitation before Dantur

(24 January, 1994); a pair with cattle near Sam

(6 February, 1994). I also found hundreds of

bank mynas with ring doves, pigeons and rosy

pastors, feeding on capsicum seeds kept for

drying near Mathaniyan in Jodhpur dist. (8

February, 1994).

152 bank mynas were seen during 17

roadside censuses, out of which 129 were seen

during monsoon on six transects.

202. Common Myna Acridotheres tristis

Abundant, commensal with man, so found

even in remote settlements, but largely absent in

uninhabited areas. Nearly 170 individuals, mostly

in pairs, were seen in 47 roadside censuses.

203. Purple Sunbird Nectar inia asiatica

It is found mainly in Calotropis dominated

areas. According to Roberts (1922), in the Pakistani

desert, it shows erratic movement in all seasons,

because of its partial dependence on flower nectar,

and in winter there is a general drift southward.

When the false caper Capparis aphylla is in bloom,

it can be encountered far out in the desert (Roberts

1992). During the roadside census, we saw 160

sunbirds, out of which 112 were seen during

monsoon over 14 censuses. Interestingly, no sunbird

was seen during the summer visit, thus indicating

emigration. The sunbirds probably move to the Thar

desert at the onset of the monsoon and remain

through winter, till spring. In summer they leave

the area due to lack of sufficient food. However,

territorial fights and calls were heard during late

February and March.

204. Whitethroated Munia

Lonchura malabarica

The most common munia of the Thar desert,

it is abundant near temples where cereals are spread

for birds. On 27 July, 1993, in Sudasari, nest

building was observed over an old cupshaped nest

of some other species. On 7 February, 1994, in

Ramdeora enclosure, four munias sitting just below

an active nest of steppe eagle on a Zizyphus tree

(4 m), must be roosting under the nest. A total of

236 birds were seen in 34 roadside censuses.

205. Green Munia Amandava formosa

Probably the first record of this species from

the Thar desert, when I saw one on Capparis in

Sudasari enclosure on 24 July, 1993. Despite its

rarity, the green munia is caught for pet bird trade.

It could have been an escaped bird. However,

Suresh C. Sharma (in litt. 1993), has seen it on

29 and 31 March, 1991, in Taal Chhaper sanctuary

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

in Churu dist., so there appears to be some

movement of this bird in the Thar desert.

206. House Sparrow Passer dome sticus

Abundant around settlements and remote

dhanis. Large flocks during winter, whence

population is augmented by winter migrants.

Sometimes associated with yellow-throated and

Spanish sparrows.

An albino house sparrow was seen in a

market in Nachna on 19 July, 1993.

207. Spanish Sparrow Passer hispaniolensis

The Spanish sparrow was not reported

from the Thar desert by Ali and Ripley

(1987), but Roberts (1992), has reported it in

winter in the Pakistani Thar and Cholistan deserts

just across the IndoPak border (closer to Bikaner

and Jaisalmer dists of India). R. G. Soni (pers.

comm. 1994), has seen it occasionally in Bikaner

dist.

I have seen this species, with migrant (?)

house sparrows, on three sites. Two males were

noticed on 10 February, 1993, with 200-300 house

sparrows at 0750 hrs feeding on seeds, 20 km

from Phalodi. The next day, two males were seen

with a flock of 100 house sparrows between

Phalodi and Khara. The third sighting was of two

males and two females, with a large group of

house sparrows and short-toed larks drinking on

leakage of water at 0945 hrs outside Sudasari

enclosure (2 March, 1993).

208. Yellowthroated Sparrow

Petronia xanthocollis

Resident, widespread and specially

abundant around villages in old community

forests ( Uran ) of Zizyphus and Acacia, where they

can get good nesting holes. Also common around

temples where cereals are spread for birds.

209. Baya Ploceus philippinus

This species is invariably found near

waterbodies, so it is not common in the Thar.

However, it is most likely to spread to more areas

with the IGNP. We saw a small nesting colony

near the forest rest house in Taal Chhaper on

13 July, 1993, in Churu district, and four birds

between RD 931 and RD 961 on 18 July, and

nearly 20 birds between RD 507 and ETF, in

Bikaner dist.

210. Streaked Weaver Bird Ploceus manyar

Like the baya, it is also found near water,

so it not widespread in the Thar at present. R. G.

Soni (pers. comm. 1994), has found it

occasionally, in Bikaner dist. It is likely to

increase with IGNP, for the reasons cited earlier.

Whistler (1938), reported it from Jodhpur State.

Roberts (1992), found it throughout the Indus

flood plains and its tributaries and the increase in

irrigated rice cultivation seems to have favoured

its spread. Far much more addicted to seasonal

inundation or permanent swamps because of its

nesting habit. I found it nesting on Typha reeds

growing in the main IGNP near Bajju (18 July,

1993).

211. Redheaded Bunting Ember iza brunniceps

Roberts (1992), found it mainly in northern

Sind and southern Punjab on passage. The passage

route taken by this species is different from the

blackheaded. Whistler (1938), collected it in Jalor,

and Hume (1878), at Pali and Soojat. I saw two

birds between Bap and Phalodi on 10 February,

1993, and three on Capparis between Sudasari

and Sam, on 1 March, 1993.

212. Greynecked Bunting

Emberiza buchanani

Whistler (1938), collected it near Phalodi

and Pali but Roberts (1992, pp 577, map 564)

does not show it in the Thar and Cholistan deserts.

On 24 January, 1 993, 1 saw 50-60 birds were seen

between Dandkalan and Jarakri in Jaisalmer dist.

in very sandy area.

213. Striolated Bunting Emberiza striolata

Hume (1878), found it in Jodhpur on the

flanks of a rocky hill, and Whistler (1938),

AVIFAUNA OF THE THAR DESERT

265

collected it from Jalor. According to Roberts

(1992), it avoids sand dune and open gravel, and

is found in rocky hills. On 8 February, 1994, I

saw 8 birds on a heap of stones near Lohawat

temple in Jodhpur dist.

Acknowledgements

The first survey of the Thar Desert in

February-March was funded by a donation of

£500 by Cygnus Wildlife Holidays through the

Oriental Bird Club. My sincere thanks to Cygnus,

OBC and special thanks to Carol Inskipp. The

second and third surveys of the Thar desert were

funded by the WWF-I, through their Community

Biodiversity Conservation Movement

Programme. I am grateful to them for the funds.

My sincere thanks to Dr. S. P. Sinha, formerly of

WWF, for giving impetus to this project. Some

surveys were also funded by the Grassland

Ecology Project, jointly conducted by the BNHS

and the Centre of Wildlife & Ornithology (CWO)

AMU, Aligarh. I am grateful to Prof. A. H.

Musavi, Chairman, CWO, and Dr. Jay Samant,

Directbr, jBNHS. The Grassland Ecology Project

was funded by the US Fish & Wildlife Service. I

want to thank Mr. David Ferguson, Office of

Refer

Adams, R. M. (1873): Notes on the birds of the Sambhar

Lake and its vicinity. Stray Feathers 1 : 361-404.

Adams, R. M. (1874): Additional notes on the birds of

the Sambhar Lake and its vicinity. Stray Feathers

2: 337-341.

Ali, S. & S. D. Ripley (1983): A Pictorial Guide to the

Birds of the Indian Subcontinent. BNHS & Oxford

University Press, Mumbai.

Ali, S & S. D. Ripley (1987): Compact Handbook of the

Birds of India and Pakistan. 2nd edn. Oxford

University Press, New Delhi.

Barnes, H. E. (1886): Birds nesting in Rajpootana. J.

Bombay, nat. Hist. Soc. 1 : 38-62.

Barnes, H. E. (1888-90): Nesting in Western India.

(7 parts). J. Bombay nat. His. Soc., vols. 3-5.

Butler, E. A. (1875): Notes on the avifauna of Mount

Aboo and northern Gujarat. Stray Feathers, 4:

1-41.

International Affairs, Washington, USFWS, and

Prof. Mark Behan of University of Montana. I

am also grateful to Mr. Vicky Nanda, Ms. Alice

Pandya, Mr. W. Clark Price and Ms. Kira M.

Glover of the Science Section, US Embassy, New

Delhi.

I am also grateful to the Rajasthan Forest

Department for cooperation during my surveys.

My special thanks to Mr. R. G. Soni with whom I

had stimulating discussions, and to Mr. Harsh

Vardhan of Tourism & Wildlife Society of India,

Mr Chandra Singhji Bhatti and Mr. Dalip Singh

of Bikaner, and Mr. Prakash Jain of Keechan

village. My sincere thanks to all the forest guards,

watchmen and villagers who helped me during

the surveys.

I am also grateful to Mr. J. C. Daniel,

Mr. M.K. Himmatsinhji and Dr. T. J. Roberts

for their stimulating letters and encouragement;

Mr. Jugal Kishor Tiwari for useful discus-

sion; Carl D’ Silva, Brij Bhushan Sharma, Yogesh

Dubey, Rajat Bhargava and Manoj Kulshreshtha

who accompanied me during the surveys and

Zafar-ul Islam for computer work. Lastly, I

want to thank my driver and field com-

panion Mehboob Alam for help during the

surveys.

EN CES

Butler, E. A. ( 1 876): The avifuana of Mt. Aboo and north

Guzerat. Addenda. Stray Feathers 5: 207-236.

Chatterji, P. S. & S. K. Saxena (1988): Canal irrigation

in arid zone of Rajasthan and its ecological

implications. In Desert Ecology. Ed. I. Prakash.

Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur.

Dhir, R. P. (1988): Flux in the Indian Arid Zone. In Desert

Ecology. Ed. I. Prakash, pp 15-36. Scientific

Publishers, Jodhpur.

Doig, S. (1879): Birds nesting on the Eastern Nara (Sind).

Stray Feathers 8: 369-379.

Doig, S. (1880): Birds Nesting on the Eastern Nara. Sind.

Additions and Alterations. Stray Feathers 9: 277-

282.

Eates, K. R. (1937): A Note on the Distribution and

Nidification of the Northern Yellow-fronted Pied

Woodpecker ( Leiopicus mahrattensis blanfordi) in

Sind. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 39: 628-630.

266

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Eates, K. R. (1939): A note on the resident owls of Sind.

]. Bombay not. Hist. Soc. 40: 750-755.

Gupta, R. K. (1975a): Plant Life in the Thar. In

Environmental Analysis of the Thar Desert. Eds.

R. K. Gupta & I. Prakash. English Book Depot,

Dehra Dun. pp 202-236.

Gupta, R. K. (1975b): Man in the Thar. In Environmental

Analysis of the Thar Desert. Eds. Gupta, R. K. &

I. Prakash, English Book Depot, Dehra Dun. pp

48-69.

Hume, A. O. (1873): Contribution to the ornithology of

India: Sind II. Stray Feathers 1: 44-290.

Hume, A. O. (1877a): (Notes about Pratincola species in

India). Stray Feathers 5: 130-132.

Hume, A. O. (1877b): Notes on some of our Indian

stonechats. Stray Feathers 5: 239-244.

Hume, A. O. (1878): The birds of a drought. Stray Feathers

7: 52-68.

Mann, H. S. ( 1 988): Future of the Indian Desert. In Desert

Ecology. Ed. I. Prakash. Scientific Publishers,

Jodhpur, pp 307-313.

Prakash, I. and P. K. Ghosh (1963): The Great Indian

Bustard in Rajasthan desert. Newsletter for

Birdwatchers, 3: 4.

Prakash, I. and P. K. Ghosh (1964): The Great Indian

Bustard breeding in Rajasthan. Newsletter for

Birdwatchers, 3: 2.

Rahmani, A. R. (1989): The Uncertain Future of the

Desert National Park in Rajasthan, India.

Environmental Conservation 16(3): 237-244.

Rahmani, A. R. (1994): Wildlife situation in the Thar

desert. Report submitted to World Wide Fund for

Nature, New Delhi.

Rahmani, A. R. & R. Manakadan (1989): Breeding

records of the Cream-coloured Courser from India.

J. Bombay not. Hist. Soc. 86: 447.

Rana, B. D. , A. P. Jain, andR. S. Tripathi (1994): Avian

Biodiverity in an arid environment. (Abstract).

Meeting on Gaps in researches on the Faunal

diversity in the Thar Desert. Jodhpur March 1 994.

Roberts, T. J. (1991): The Birds of Pakistan. Vol 1. Oxford

University Press, Karachi.

Roberts, T. J. ( 1 992): The Birds of Pakistan. Vol 2. Oxford

University Press, Karachi.

Shankarnarayan, K. A. (1988): Ecological degradation

of the Thar Desert and Ecoregeneration. In Desert

Ecology. Ed. I. Prakash. Scientific Publishers,

Jodhpur, pp 1-3.

Ticehurst, C. B. (1922-24): The Birds of Sind. Pt I- VIII

Ibis.

Whistler, H. (1938): The ornithological survey of Jodhpur

state. J. Bombay not. Hist. Soc. 40: 213-235.

FIRST BREEDING RECORD OF THE COLLARED FALCONET

MICROH1ERAX CAERULESCENS FOR THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT IN

CORBETT NATIONAL PARK, UTTAR PRADESH1

Rishad Naoroji2

(With one text -figure)

Key Words; collared falconet Microhierax caerulescens , breeding record, courtship,

incubation, Corbett, India.

Little is known about the collared falconet

Microhierax caerulescens which is distributed in

India throughout the lower Himalayan foothills

from Garhwal eastwards to Assam, Northeastern

hill states and Arunachal Pradesh usually upto

900 m, but has been recorded as high as 2000 m.

Previously recorded from the Terai, where most

of its former habitat has now shrunk or

disappeared, it is a deciduous to moist-deciduous

and evergreen forest dwelling species, most often

observed hunting in man-made clearings, natural

open spaces and forest margins. It commonly

forages in degraded secondary deciduous and

semi -evergreen biotope. Breeding within Indian

limits has not been previously recorded for this

comparatively common bird. The species appears

to have been overlooked due to its small size

(often mistaken for a passerine), its tendency for

perching within forest (when not foraging),

crepuscular habits and roosting and breeding

within relatively high nest-holes of barbets, which

to some degree may account for low detectability

during the breeding season. However, the species

is relatively conspicuous during courtship when

frequent calls and associated self-evident

demonstrative activity by a pair draws the

observer’s attention to the birds. Scant breeding

data, however, is available on the extralimital

Burmese race M.c . burmanicus (Baker, 1935; Ali

and Ripley, 1978). This paper presents

preliminary observations on courtship and

incubation of this little studied raptor.

Accepted May, 1 997

2Godrej & Boyce Mfg. Co. Ltd., Godrej Bhavan,

4A, Home Street, Mumbai 400 001, India.

Study Area

The study was carried out in Corbett

National Park which lies between the two sub-

Himalayan districts of Pauri and Nainital in Uttar

Pradesh (29° 31’- 29° 35’ N. lat., 70° 41' E. long.).

It is situated jn the lower central Himalayan

Sivalik foothills (Fig. 1) which form part of the

Bhabar tract. The central portion of the Park is

located partly along a valley, between the lesser

Himalaya to the north and the Sivalik ranges to

the south. The middle reaches of the Ramganga

river flow through most of the Park along the Path

Dun. About 10% of the grassland area has been

submerged by the damming of the Ramganga

river at Kalagarh, forming a large reservoir in the

western corner of the Park, covering an area of

about 80 sq. km, of which 42 sq. km is within the

Park. A number of sots (springs) emerge from

the numerous ridges which comprise the

secondary source of water in the Park, after the

Ramganga river. The altitude varies from 300 to

1040 m. The Park is contiguous with extensive

reserved forest to the west and the east which

probably facilitates lateral avifaunal movement.

Further, its location at the foot of the lower

Himalaya acts as a meeting ground for avian

species of high altitude and plains, which account

for its species richness and diversity.

Three main vegetation zones exist. The

forest, grassland (locally called chaur ) and the

Ramganga riverine valley. Though 110 species of

trees have been recorded, the dominant tree species

is sal Shorea robusta forming almost pure forest

stands. There are six major flat grasslands holding

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

78° 80° 82° 84°

Fig. 1. Map of Uttar Pradesh and location of Corbett National Park

thirty-seven species of grasses. The largest

grasslands are around Dhikala and Khinnanauli.

The main forest types are a mixture of deciduous,

tropical and subtropical. Sal dominates the moist

deciduous biotope in the northern region of the

Park. The biotope in the southern half of the Park,

especially along the Sivalik hills, is dry deciduous.

These three zones account for the genetic richness

(both floral and faunal) and biogeographic

diversity of the area. The river bed, the high banks

and islands are colonised by sheeshum Dalbergia

sissoo. Lantana camara is spreading unchecked,

and is likely to adversely affect the native vegetation

by suppressing the regeneration of sal and other

herbaceous species. Cannabis sativa (bhang)

grows profusely in parts of the grassland and in

open areas. Bamboo clumps occur frequently in

the Park on the higher hill slopes. Chir Pinus

roxburghii are confined in small numbers on some

of the highest ridges, eg., the Sultan watch tower.

A nest was located in moderately dense sal forest,

300 m from the grassland. The leaf fall and

shedding of dried sal flowers was in progress at the

outset of the courtship period.

BREEDING RECORD OF THE COLLARED FALCONET

269

Methods

A nest was located while on elephant back.

Shrill piercing calls drew my attention to a branch

4 m above me where a pair of falconets was

mating. The male flew, plucked off a dried sal

leaf and entered a disused barbels’ nest-hole.

Periodic observations through a spotting scope

were made from a safe distance along the tracking

line at the edge of which the nest-tree stood. Once

incubation commenced, sustained close-up

observations were made from an inverted cot,

locally procured, secured between two trees,

above the reach of wild elephants. The nest was

under observation from 16th April to 15th May,

1993, for a total of 38 hrs.

Results

The female collared falconet was larger,

with the diagnostic red throat patch and belly

deeper than the male whose plumage was overall

lighter. An unused barbet’s nest-hole (either the

large green Megalaima zeylanica or lineated

M. lineata) was occupied for nesting. The larger,

dominant female influenced the male’s activities

during incubation. The characteristic, constant

vertical flicking of the tpil facilitated location of

the bird, given its small size. Vantage perches on

bare branches around the nest were utilized during

the day for food transfers, feeding, and by the

male, for perching.

Nest and Nest-tree specifications

A disused barbet’s nest 18 m high on a sal

tree (three quarters up the nest-tree below the

canopy) was used for nesting. The nest-hole faced

northwest and was on the underside of a 45°

vertically angled, outward sloping bare branch

(perhaps as protection against adverse weather

conditions). The rim formed an almost complete

circle, the vertical and horizontal diameters being

6.5 cm and 6 cm respectively. The depth of the

entrance was 29.5 cm. Two nests from Burma

described by Baker (1935) were varyingly 7 m to

30 m high on different tree species, usually on

the underside of a decayed or bare branch.

The nest-tree was well over 20 m high with

the girth at breast height being 165 cm. The nest-

tree’s leaf fall was complete, the tree itself bare

while other sal trees in the vicinity were all in

new leaf. The nest-tree was situated in moderately

dense sal forest (in forestry terms 0.5 to 0.6) at

the edge of the tracking line, 300 m from Thandi

Sadak road, the dividing line between the chaur

and the forest. The undergrowth consisted mainly

of Lantana sp., curry leaf Murray a coenigii,

rohini Mallotus phillipensis and sal leaf litter.

Courtship and Mating

Courtship and mating were in progress

when the pair were located on 16th April, 1993.

Prior to mating, the male performed an extended

courtship ritual, accompanied by frequent shrill

and piercing whistles. The female mostly

remained perched on a bare horizontal branch,

while the male flew intermittent sorties of a short

duration, returning frequently to perch excitedly

alongside the female before flying off. On these

sorties, the male would often pluck dried sal

leaves with the feet in active flight and deposit

them in the nest-hole (n=4). The larger leaves

frequently got wedged at the nest-hole entrance

and were dropped. Sometimes he would perch

alongside the female with the leaf (an offering?)

before depositing it in the nest. After each sortie,

when the male alighted alongside the female, the

pair greeted each other with calls, the male

additionally attracting the female’s attention by

frequently spreading his wings. The pair would

perch close, indulging in much bill touching and

cheek preening initiated mainly by the male,

occasionally by the female. Clumping and

extended bouts of allopreening appears to be

common among the sociable Microhierax

falconets (Sparks 1965, Kemp and Crowe 1994).

The depositing of leaves, bill touching and allo-

preening appear significant in maintaining the pair

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

bond. During the late courtship period the pair

would occasionally deposit leaves in the nest-hole

without any ritual.

Mating usually followed the courtship

display and continued well into the incubation

period. Mating was more frequent throughout

courtship than during the early incubation period.

Once mating was observed 20 m from the nest,

but mostly it occurred within a few metres of the

nest.

During incubation no extended courtship

ritual preceded mating. Either one of the

incubating adults, generally the female, would fly

from the nest-hole to where its mate was perched.

The pair would either briefly touch bills with

much chattering or immediately commence

copulation, which was accompanied by a rapid

high-pitched chatter. Duration of copulation was

4 to 8 seconds (n=9), the male maintaining

balance with much wing-flapping. Once the male

mounted the female for almost a minute, though

actual mating lasted only a few seconds.

Copulation was mostly observed during the

mornings of both the courtship and early

incubation periods.

Incubation

A total of about 33 observation hours were

spent monitoring incubation between 30th April

to 15th May, 1993. The attentiveness of the female

at the nest increased markedly after 28th/29th

April. Prior to these dates, incubation was

sporadic and its duration gradually increased till

the complete clutch was laid. Tight incubation

commenced on 30th April. Both adults

incubated, the female for longer periods 82%,

male 12%, while the eggs were unattended for

6% of the observation period. The longest

incubation stint by the male was, an hour. Once

during the early incubation period, after steady

incubation had commenced, the nest was

unattended for 36 mins from 0645 to 0721 hrs.

During incubation dried sal leaves were

occasionally deposited in the nest-hole by the pair

(male n=3, female n=l). This activity was

performed primarily by the male for both

courtship and early incubation periods. When

both adults were observed to be in the nest-hole

(n=7, usually during the afternoon), the female

invariably incubated, with the male settled just

within the nest-hole entrance (for durations

ranging from 2 mins to 2.38 hrs). All sounds

(whether human, animal or bird) were

immediately investigated by peering out of the

nest-hole, or flying momentarily to a nearby perch

to assess the potential danger, before returning to

the nest.

By the fourth or fifth day of incubation, an

increasing patch of droppings on the lower rim

of the nest-hole, on the branch below, and

favourite perches in the nest-vicinity were

indicative of an active nest. During the afternoon

hours, the male would often settle just within the

nest-hole entrance, instead of the usual perches

used during the mornings and evenings. Once

the male remained mostly within the nest-hole

entrance from 1500 to 1900 hrs except for two

short bouts (outside the nest) totalling 72 mins.

The female initiated changeovers by flying to the

male, chattering constantly. She sidled up to him,

and after brief bill touching, nudging and finally

shrill vocal urging, the male would be induced to

commence incubation. The pair suddenly

abandoned the nest on 17th May, (after 19 days

of incubation) and vanished thereafter. Mynas and

parakeets repeatedly investigated the deserted

nest-hole, but did not occupy it.

Calls

In greeting or prior to mating, the pair

would chatter in unison. Frequent, shrill, piercing

whistles accompanied the courtship ritual and

mating. A typical, thin, rapid high-pitched chatter

(in unison) Che-che-che-che-che was associated

with mating, while similar calls were delivered

singly in slower, shorter, staccato whistles. Many

of the male’s activities (eg. relieving the

incubating female, hunting, prey visits, nest

BREEDING RECORD OF THE COLLARED FALCONET

271

defence) were initiated through calls by the

dominant female. She vocalised more frequently

than the male (89% versus 1 1 % by the male), and

her calls were more high pitched.

High pitched, quickly repeated calls

(suggesting urgency?) that subsequently lapsed

into single note calls were mostly used to summon

the male. Persistent calling by the female resulted

in the male sometimes flying to the nest-hole

perch with prey. She would greet him with a shrill

twe, twe, twe... in rapid succession, the call rising

to a crescendo, then varyingly repeated. The

incubating female vocalised solely from the nest-

hole entrance, never from within the incubation

chamber.

Roosting

The pair roosted together in the nest-hole

generally by 1 920 hrs about 30 mins after sunset

or occasionally earlier. The female always

incubated at night, while the male roosted just

within the nest-hole entrance.

Interspecific Conflicts

The competition for nest-holes by other

species was severe during the incubation period,

and even a momentary absence from the nest often

invited investigation from other hole-nesters. The

pair had to repeatedly repel attempts mostly by

parakeets, mainly rose-ringed Psittacula krameri ,

red-breasted Psittacula alexandri and common

mynas Acridotheres tristis from investigating

their nest-hole. The male was once displaced from

his perch by an Indian tree-pie Dendrocitta

vagabunda and twice engaged in an extended

dogfight with a black drongo Dicrurus adsimilis.

The female occasionally broke off incubation to

drive away parakeets and mynas.

Food and Hunting

Only three prey visits to the nest were

observed during the study period. One fresh and

two cached prey items were brought to the nest

solely by the male, relieving the female (once for

upto 23 mins) at incubation while she fed away

from the nest. Prey was not taken into the nest-

hole, but eaten mainly on the nest-hole branch or

nearby perches.

Though the collared falconet takes a variety

of prey, mainly insects and lizards (Ali and Ripley

1978, Baker 1935, Brown and Amadon 1968),

only birds were observed being brought to the

nest. Prey was cached on the nest-hole branch

and on other frequently used bare horizontal

branches in the nest vicinity. The male mostly

hunted during the late courtship stage (though

sometimes with the female), and solely during

the incubation stage. The male foraged in the

forest around the nest and in the nearby chaur

upto at least 200 - 300 m from the nest.

Discussion

The sudden termination of incubation and

disappearance of the pair remains a mystery. In

all likelihood, the eggs may have been addled and

the pair lost interest. Predation too cannot be ruled

out.

Baker (1935) collected a full clutch of eggs

from a nest on 14th April from Burma, which

perhaps indicates a later nesting period in the

Central Himalayan foothills relative to that in

Burma, or late nesting by the pair under

observation. Although the nest was not physically

checked to avoid disturbance, it is likely that the

clutch was completed at about the time the

female’s attentiveness at the nest increased. The

full clutch was, therefore, incubated for about 19

days before being abandoned.

Clumping and allopreening is apparently

not restricted to the breeding period of the species,

as observed by Sparks (1965) in a non-breeding

captive pair.

It has been suggested that clumping and

allopreening indicate the social nature of the

species and the genus as a whole, and may be

linked with aggression and autopreening

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

behaviour, acting probably to reduce aggressive

behaviour and facilitate clumping, and that the

species may even breed cooperatively (Sparks

1965, Kemp and Crowe 1994). In a subsequent

study, Kemp and Van Zyl (in prep.) report co-

operative breeding in the race burmanicus , having

observed two almost fledged young attended to

by five adults, and fed by at least three — two

possible males and the breeding female. I

observed no signs of aggression, the pair under

observation nested in isolation from congenerics.

One explanation could be that at Corbett the

species has a naturally low breeding population

density or it could be a straggling breeder. The

species is evidently social, moving about in small

parties in the non-breeding season, and frequently

observed at Corbett between October and

February.

The information presented here adds much

to our basic knowledge of the biology of the

species, though more information is required on

the breeding biology and ecology of the species,

the full extent of the breeding period, duration

and commencement of courtship, incubation and

nestling periods and detailed role of sexes during

the breeding period. Prey and prey preferences

throughout the breeding period, preferably from

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1968): Handbook of the Birds of

India and Pakistan, 2nd Edition, Vol. 1, Oxford

University Press, New Delhi.

Baker, E.C.S. (1935): Nidifi cation of Birds of Indian

Empire, Taylor & Francis, London.

Brown, L.H. & D. Amadon (1968): Eagles, Hawks and

Falcons of the World, Vol. 1 & 2, Country Life

Books, London.

Kemp, A.C & T.M Crowe (1994): Morphometries of

different areas should be studied as the limited

hunting and prey data suggests that when

breeding, the species supplements its normal prey

(mainly insects but also lizards) with larger prey

viz. small birds. Nestling success and average

number of young reared, whether co-operative

breeding does occur and to what extent, habitat

requirements and territory; hunting success and

dependency period of young are all areas for

further investigation.

Acknowledgements

The study was part of a collaborative

Bombay Natural History Society and United

States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) project

sponsored by the Ministry of Environment, Govt,

of India. A. S. Negi, Field Director at Corbett

provided all possible help and co-operation. Dr.

Alan Kemp readily provided his unpublished data.

I am grateful to David Ferguson of the Office of

International Affairs, USFWS for his active

interest and prompt assistance, and to J. C. Daniel

for his support and encouragement. Dr. Asad R.

Rahmani and Shahid Ali commented on the final

draft. Godrej A. Dastoor typed the initial draft

of the manuscript.

NCES

falconets and hunting behaviour of the Black-

thighed Falconet Microhierax fringillarius. Ibis

136(1): 44-49.

Kemp, A.C & A. Van Zyl, Cooperative breeding by

Collared Falconets Microhierax caerulescens. In

prep.

Sparks, J.H. (1965): Clumping and allopreening in the

Red-thighed Falconet Microhierax caerulescens

burmanicus. Ibis 107 : 247-248.

PHYTOPLANKTON AS INDICATION OF ECOSYSTEM STATUS:

A CASE STUDY OF AN URBAN WATERBODY1

Z.D. Kanhere2 and V.R. Gunale3

Key words: phytoplankton, ecosystem status, physico-chemical parameters

The influence of urbanisation on an aquatic ecosystem was investigated using changes in

the phytoplankton species composition over the years. In addition to phytoplankton, supportive

parameters such as dissolved oxygen, carbon dioxide, chlorides, hardness and nutrients (nitrates

and phosphates) from the water were analysed and compared with the data from studies carried

out about 16 years ago.

There was a definite shift in the algal species, as also increase in the nutrient levels. The

paper discusses the types of phytoplankton species, which were once common, that have not been

recorded in the present study. The appearance of a few new species indicates the changing quality

of water. These findings when compared with the earlier work signify the changes in the ecosystem.

Introduction

Rapid urbanisation over the past few years

has created numerous environmental problems.

It is estimated that at the end of this century nearly

40% of the population will be living in urban

areas, as compared to the current 25-30%.

Increase in urban population has created pressure

on natural resources. Most of the urban areas in a

developing country like ours are spreading

without proper provision of sanitation and water

supply, resulting in the deterioration of water

quality.

The use of an algal community to indicate

trophic status has been made by many workers

following the pioneering work by Kolkwitz and

Marsson (1908). These authors have classified

water-bodies into poly(-), meso(-) and oligo-

saprobic categories. Thereafter, a number of

workers began using planktonic algae to indicate

organic enrichment of water bodies. A more

comprehensive account was proposed by Palmer

(1969). He presented a list of algal genera and

species, based on which a genus or species index

can be calculated. Descy (1976), reported algae

'Accepted March, 1997

2School of Environmental Sciences, University of Poona,

Ganeshkhind, Pune 41 1 007, India,

department of Botany, University of Poona, Ganeshkhind,

Pune 411 007, India.

to be the most important group among aquatic

plants for assessment of water quality. Groups of

algal species, particularly diatoms, were used to

indicate quality of water by Patrick (1973). Cairns

and Schalie (1980), have also suggested the use

of living organisms as the best biological

indicators.

Venkateswaralu et al. (1994), showed that

growth of algal species was influenced by

environmental factors and used them as indicators

of pollution gradient. Gunale (1991), also used

algal communities as indicators of water

pollution, in a study of Mula-Mutha rivers from

Pune city.

In this study we examine the changes in

the phytoplankton composition and water quality

of an urban lake, known as Pashan Lake, from

Pune metropolitan area, which supplies water to

Pashan and surrounding areas. The lake is situated

on Ram river and was away from urban influence

in the past. The data are compared with the

previous studies of the same lake (Pingle 1976).

Material and Methods

Physico-chemical and biological analysis

were carried out at monthly intervals from 5

different sampling stations covering 4 different

seasons. The physico-chemical parameters have

been analysed as per APHA (1989).

274

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Table 1

ALGAL SPECIES COMMON IN 1976 BUT ABSENT

DURING THIS STUDY

Biological analysis: Plankton net of 25

mesh size was used for qualitative analysis of

phytoplankton species.

The quantitative plankton analysis was

done by using Lackey’s (1938) drop method to

calculate the percentage of each class of algae.

Results and Discussion

The pH of lake water was slightly alkaline,

the maximum pH value was 8.8 in summer,

indicating conditions suitable for high production

of phytoplankton. The total alkalinity was in the

range of 246-355 mg/1. The dissolved oxygen

values fluctuated from a low of 1.6 mg/1 to a

maximum of 8.8 mg/1 in summer and winter

respectively. The low value was indicative of

inflow of biodegradable waste into the lake.

Nitrates and phosphates also showed some

increase as compared to the previous study

(Table 3), indicating conversion of the water body

from oligotrophic to eutrophic condition. The

encroachment of macrophytic growth and

seasonal blooms of certain algae also indicate a

succession from oligotrophic to eutrophic

condition. Absence of species such as Synura

uvella, Dictyosphaerium puchellum , Dinobryon

sortulavia , etc., which are known to occur in clean

(oligotrophic) water-bodies (Gunale, 1991), also

indicate eutrophication.

Table 3

COMPARISON OF SOME PHYSICO-CHEMICAL

PARAMETERS

Pingle 1976 This study 1993

D.O = Dissolved oxygen

Tot. Aik = Total alkalinity

Table 4

DOMINANT CLASSES OF ALGAE IN PREVIOUS

The species which were rather common 16

years ago were not recorded in the present study

(Table 1), whereas a few new species from

Bacillariophyceae and Cyanophyceae are now

common (Table 2). Occurrence of these algae

supports the process of eutrophication. Patrick

(1973) has correlated dominance of diatoms and

PHYTOPLANKTON AS INDICATION OF ECOSYSTEM STATUS

275

blue green algae with increasing levels of nitrates

and phosphates.

There was a shift in dominance of algal

groups (Table 4). There are nearly 18 genera,

which were commonly found in 1976 and are

absent in 1993. Similarly, there are 9 new genera

recorded such as Amphora sp., Tetraspora sp.,

R EFE

Apha (1989): Standard Methods for the Examination of

Water and Waste water, 17th Edition, Published

by APHA Washington DC.

Cairns, J. Jr. & W.H. Schalie (1980): Biological

monitoring Part 1 - early warning systems, Water

Research 14, pp 1179 - 1196.

Descy, J.P. (1976): In Principles and methods for

determining ecological criteria on

hydrobiocenoses, Pergamon Press, Oxford and

New York.

Gunale, V.R. (1991): Algal communities as indicators of

pollution. J. Environ. Biol, pp 223-232.

Kolkwitz, R. & M. Marsson (1908):, Okolagie der ptlan

zlichen saprobein Ber Denisch Bot Ges 26 pp 505-

519, In Tripathi A.K. and S.N. Pandey, Water

Pollution, Ashish Publishing House, New Delhi.

Selenastrum sp. which were not found in 1976

(Table 2).

From the above discussion, it is quite clear

that there was a change, both in terms of qualitative

and quantitative aspects of phytoplankton. Such

changes in species diversity are due to increasing

inflow of biodegradable and other wastes.

ENCES

Lackey, J.B. (1938): The manipulation and counting of

river plankton and changes in some organisms due

to formalin preservation, US Public Health Reports

53: 2080-2093.

Palmer, C.M. (1969): A composite rating of algae

tolerating organic pollution. J. Phycol. 5: 78-82.

Patrick, R. (1973): Use of algae especially diatoms in

the assessment of water quality. In Biological

Methods for the assessment of water quality ASTM

STP pp 76-95.

Pingle, S.D. (1976): Studies on algae of impoundment

and streams in Maharashtra Ph.D. Thesis, Poona

University, Pune.

Venkateswaralu V., G. Sudhakar & B. Jyoti (1994): Role

of diatoms as indicators of pollution gradients,

Environ. Monit. Assess. 33 (2): 85-99.

MORPHOMETRIC RELATIONSHIPS IN TROPICAL ANURANS AND THEIR

RELATIONSHIP TO SOME LIFE HISTORY PARAMETERS1

J.K. Mahanta, S.K. Swain & Madhab C. Dash2

(With one text-figure )

Key words: morphometry, life history, terrestrial, arboreal, semi-aquatic, aquatic.

Morphometric relationships between snout-vent length (SVL), femur length (FL), body

weight (BW) and gonad weight (GW) of two terrestrial, three terrestrial burrowing, one arboreal,

one aquatic swimming and two semi-aquatic jumping anuran species collected from five different

habitats show that the ratio of body mass of female : male is highest (2.6) in aquatic species and

lowest (1 .053-1 .287) in the terrestrial burrowing species. In semi-aquatic (1 .553- 1 .61 6) and arboreal

species (1.784) this ratio lies in between these two extreme values. The SVL was approximately

2.4, 2.0 and less than 2.0 times larger than the femur length in terrestrial and terrestrial burrowing

species, in aquatic and semi-aquatic anurans and in arboreal species respectively. Significant

sexual dimorphism, except in the burrowing species, with regard to body mass and other parameters

were observed. The gonad development is a function of body size and is sex specific. The amplex

adult weight is sex specific. Morphometric features appear to be correlated to habitat requirement

of each species.

Introduction

Although India has a very rich fauna of

amphibians (Inger and Dutta, 1987; Das, 1996),

extensive quantitative ecological studies have not

been made on the amphibian communities in the

Indian ecosystems except for the recent work of

Dash and Mahanta (1993). The different

morphological parameters, like total body length

(snout to vent), femur length, body weight, gonad

weight are indices of growth and development in

the amphibians. The growth and development

processes are sequential and usually proportionate

(Mahapatro and Dash 1991). Hence a propor-

tionate relationship among the various growth

parameters like snout-vent length (SVL), femur

length (FL), body weight (BW) and g$nad weight

(GW) etc. is theoretically expected.

We wanted to examine if these relationships

are species-specific, functions of some life history

parameters and based on their habitat

‘Accepted January 1996

2 School of Life Sciences, Sambalpur University,

Jyoti Vihar - 768019, Orissa, India.

requirements. The present study involving 15

months of field work also covered the

morphometry of nine anuran species i.e. Bufo

melanostictus, B. stomaticus , Microhyla omata,

Ramanella variegata, Polypedates maculatus,

Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis , Limnonectes

limnocharis, Hoplobatrachus tigerinus, and

Tomoptema rolandae collected from five different

habitats. Dutta et al. (1991) made size analysis

and reported the sex ratio of Hoplobatrachus

crassus. Mohanty-Hejmadi (1974) provides

information on the range of snout-vent length,

and femur length of 11 anuran species (mature

individuals of 10 species and juvenile individuals

of 2 species) but does not answer the questions

we have examined.

Material and Methods

Study sites

The study sites consisted of 500 acres of

irrigated and unirrigated paddy fields, 20 acres

of natural hill forest and two human habitation

MORPHOMETRIC RELATIONSHIPS IN TROPICAL ANURANS

277

sites (one urban 300 acres and one rural 500 acres

of Larambha village area) in the Sambalpur

district of Orissa. The maximum, minimum and

mean temperature of 15 months (October 1990

to December 1991) was 33.9°C, 17.9°C and

24.9°C respectively. The total rainfall during the

study period was 1528.9 mm and maximum

rainfall of 537.9 mm was recorded in July. The

mean relative humidity was 65.7% (range: 48.3

to 84.6%).

The detailed descriptions of the study sites

and sampling methods have been reported in Dash

and Mahanta (1993). Adult and immature anurans

were collected by stratified transect sampling and

brought to the laboratory for morphometric

measurements and identification of sex, and then

the animals were released near the sampling plots

(using the methods of Crump 1971, Heyer 1973,

Daniel 1963, 1975). Sampling sizes varied as the

relative density and availability of species during

the sampling time was not constant. On some

occasions, animals had to be sacrificed to note

the development of gonads. The snout-vent

length, femur length were measured by calipers

and the weight was measured by chenomatric

balance (± 1 mg).

Morphometric relationships were analysed

by regression and correlation analysis (Snedecor

and Cochran 1967).

Definition of some terms used:

(a) Snout-vent length (SVL): The length (mm)

from snout to vent.

(b) Femur length (FL): The length from vent to

end of femur.

(c) Gonad development: After dissection the

development of gonad was observed under

a magnifying glass and dissecting micro-

scope.

(d) Minimum amplex size: The smallest male

and female size observed in amplexus.

(e) Life history groups: The species were

grouped according to their habits and

ecological adaptations, as follows:

(i) Terrestrial: Bufo melanostictus , B.

stomaticus.

(ii) Terrestrial burrowing: Microhyla ornata,

Ramanella variegaia , Tomopterna

rolandae.

(iii) Arboreal: Polypedcites maculatus.

(iv) Semi-aquatic jumping: Limnonectes

iimnocharis , Hoplobatrachus tigerims.

(v) Aquatic Swimming: Euphlyctis

cyanopldyctis.

Results and Discussion

Morphometric measurements:

Measurement of parameters like snout-vent

length (SVL), femur length (FL), body weight

(BW), gonad weight (GW) of nine tropical anuran

species indicate that the mature female in all

species has a larger body mass than the mature

male, showing distinct sexual dimorphism. The

highest ratios of SVL of female : male is 1.45

and body mass of female : male is 2.60 in

Fdiphlyciis cyanophlyctis, an aquatic swimming

species. The ratios are lowest in the terrestrial

burrowing species irrespective of their body sizes

(Table 1 & 2) (SVL ratio 1.067 ± 0.036 and BW

ratio 1.145 ± 0.125). In semi-aquatic species

which make big jumps, the SVL ratio is 1.181

± 0.008 and body weight ratio is 1.584 ± 0.044).

In Bufo species (complete terrestrial) the SVL

ratio is 1.079 ± 0.048 and BW ratio is 1.401

± 0.182). These data support the view that female

anurans are typically larger than their male

counterparts (Crump 1974, Shine 1979,

Mahapatro and Dash 1991) but in some burrowing

species ( Microhyla ornata and Ramanella

variegata) there is no statistically significant

difference in adult male and female body size

(Table 1).

The SVL is found to be 2.383 ±0.18 and

2.548 ±0.212 times larger than in terrestrial and

terrestrial burrowing species respectively. The

ratio of SVL to FL is lowest (1.82 ± 0.026) in the

arboreal species. This ratio is 1.962 ± 0.033 in

aquatic swimming species and 1.944 ± 0.12 m

278

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Table 1

RELATIONSHIP IN THE BODY WEIGHT OF MALE AND FEMALE ANURANS

Average Body Body Weight

Weight (g) ± SD Ratio

Number in parentheses indicates the sample size.

* Difference is not statistically significant.

semi-aquatic jumping species (Table 3). These

values do not differ significantly between male

and female and size groups (mature males, mature

females and immatures) (Table 3, Fig. 1).

Considering the S VL/FL length in different

ecological groups of amphibians, we interpret that

since the arboreal species make long strides

(jumps) from tree to tree and place to place, the

body weight and S VL should be such that it does

not put a lot of pressure on the femur for jumping

purpose. Hence the ratio is minimum in

Polypedates maculatus in comparison to other

groups. The semi-aquatic and aquatic species not

only swim very fast but also often jump from the

banks to the water and hence a larger body weight/

SVL would be disadvantageous. Their SVL/FL

ratio varies between 1.859 to 2.023 which is close

to the arboreal species. The terrestrial surface

dwelling and terrestrial burrowing species do not

make long strides; they move slowly and hence a

large body weight or a larger SVL is not

disadvantageous to them. Besides, a large body

size would be advantageous to repel smaller

predators.

Irrespective of the habitats, signifi-

cant positive correlation exists in the adult anurans

between the values of SVL and FL, SVL and

BW (log values) SVL and GW, FL and BW

(log values), BW and GW. In Bufo melano-

stictus, gonad development starts when SVL is

40 mm and the corresponding average BW is 6.92

+ 1 .285 g. The amplex adult weight is sex specific.

The amplecting males have a minimum SVL of

61 mm and corresponding average BW 26.83 +

MORPHOMETRIC RELATIONSHIPS IN TROPICAL ANURANS

279

Table 2

RELATIONSHIP IN THE SVL OF MALE AND FEMALE ANURANS

Number in parentheses indicates the sample size.

* Difference is not statistically significant.

1 .44 g. Amplecting females have a minimum SVL

66 mm and corresponding average BW 28.83 +

6.525 g. In Bufo stomaticus the gonad

development starts when the SVL is 35 mm and

the average BW is 5.825 + 0.377 g. The

amplecting males have a minimum SVL 58 mm

with corresponding BW of 28.4 + 1.277 g. In

Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis development of gonad

starts when SVL is 25 mm and the corresponding

average BW is 1.84 + 0.255 g. The amplecting

males have a minimum SVL of 46 mm with average

BW of 10.867 + 0.416 g. In Limnonectes

limno charts the SVL value is 20 mm and the

corresponding average BW value is 1.064 + 0.134

at the time of gonad development. The amplect-

ing males have a minimum SVL 23 mm with

average BW 1.454 + 0.237 g. The amplect-

ing females have a minimum SVL 27 mm with

corresponding BW of 2.175 + 0.323 g

(Table 4).

Data on the gonad development of

other species are not available. The amplect-

ing males have the minimum SVL of 16 mm,

40 mm, 20 mm, 105 mm, 28 mm and correspond-

ing average BW 0.600 g, 5.65 + 1.343 g, 1.3 +

0.141 g, 170.0 g, 3.275 + 0.266 g in Microhyla

ornata, Polypedates maculatus , Ramanella

variegata, Hoplobatrachus tigerinus, and

Tomoptema rolandae. The amplecting females

have the minimum SVL of 19 mm, 45 mm,

22 mm, 125 mm, 31 mm and corresponding

average BW of 0.7 g, 7.267 + 1 .040 g, 1 .3 g,

320.25 + 0.353 g, 4.025 + 0.594 g in Microhyla

ornata, Polypedates maculatus, Ramanella

variegata, Hoplobatrachus tigerinus and

Tomoptema rolandae (Table 4).

280

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

■5

bO

G

<D

CD

’S

CHJ

G

<D

>

i

on

CD

OJO

<n

CD

3

A. TERRESTRIAL

BURROWING SP.

B. TERRESTRIAL SR

C. SWIMMING &

JUMPING SR

D. ARBOREAL SP.

Fig. 1. Ratio of average S-V length/femur length in four groups of tropical anurans

with different mode of living

Conclusion

A review of literature indicates that

generalisation based on morphometric

relationships, life history parameters and habits

in anurans have not been made earlier. This

generalisation indicates a distinct trend in the ratio

of S VL and FL in different groups of anurans with

different habitats (terrestrial, arboreal, terrestrial

burrowing, aquatic swimming and semi-aquatic

jumping etc.). The work also provides field data

on the body size at gonad development and of

amplecting adults of nine tropical anuran species.

The data indicates that ecological groupings of

amphibians like terrestrial, terrestrial burrowing,

arboreal, aquatic swimming and semi-aquatic

jumping, etc. are an added value to pure

taxonomic classification.

Table 3

RELATIONSHIP OF THE SNOUT- VENT LENGTH (SVL) AND

FEMUR LENGTH (FL) OF NINE ANURAN SPECIES

* sample size is given in Table 4

MORPHOMETRIC RELATIONSHIPS IN TROPICAL ANURANS

281

Table 4

RELATIONSHIP OF SNOUT- VENT LENGTH AND BODY WEIGHT WITH GONAD DEVELOPMENT AND

M — Male

F — Female

SVL — Snout- Vent Length

BW — Body weight

Numbers in parentheses indicate the sample size.

282

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Acknowledgements

We wish to thank Dr. Dwight R. Platt of

Bethel College, North Newton, Kansas, USA

Refer

Crump, M.L. (1971): Quantitative analysis of the

ecological distribution of a tropical herpetofauna;

Museum Nat. Hist. Univ. Kansas publ. Occ. pap.,

3: 1-62.

Crump, M.L. (1974): Reproductive strategies in a tropical

anuran community. Museum Nat. Hist. Univ.

Kansas Misc. publ. No. 61: 1-68

Daniel, J.C. (1963): Field guide to the amphibians of

Western India. I & II. J. Bombay not. Hist. Soc.

60:415-438;690-702.

Daniel, J.C. (1975): Field guide to the amphibians of

Western India. ID. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72\

506-522.

Das, Indraneil (1996): Checklist of Indian Amphibians.

Frog Leg, 1 (2): 2-3.

Dash, M.C. & J.K. Mahanta (1993): Quantitative analysis

of the community structure of tropical amphibian

assemblages and its significance to conservation.

J. Biosci. 18: 121-139.

Dutta, S.K., P. Mahapatra & P. Mohanty-Hejmadi

for going through the manuscript and for valuable

suggestions. J.K. Mahanta wishes to thank

CSIR, New Delhi for a Senior Research

Fellowship.

ences

(1991): Size analysis and sex ratio of Jerdon’s

bullfrog Rana crassa (Anura: Ranida e).7. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 88(2): 234-241.

Heyer, W.R. (1973): Ecological interactions of frog larvae

at a seasonal tropical location in Thailand. J.

herpetol. 7: 337-361.

Inger, R.F. & S.K. Dutta (1987): An over- view of the

amphibian fauna of India. 7. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

(Suppl.) 83: 135-146.

Mahapatro, B.K. & M.C. Dash (1991): Breeding

behaviour and morphometric relation of Bufo

stomaticus Lutken (Anura: Amphibia). 7. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 88: 20-25.

Mohanty-Hejmadi, P. (1974): Amphibian fauna of Orissa.

Utkal Univ. 7. Science. Vol. 11 (1 & 2): 89-97.

Shine, R. (1979): Sexual selection and sexual dimorphisms

in Amphibia. Copeia. 1979: 297-306.

Snedecor, G.W. & W.G. Cochran (1967): Statistical

Methods. 6th ed. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co.

New Delhi pp. 593.

TINGIFAUNA OF SOUTHERN INDIA: DISTRIBUTION, HOST PLANTS,

NATURAL ENEMIES AND GENERIC KEY1

David Livingstone, M.H.S. Yacoob, S. Jeyanthibai and A.R. Livingstone2

(With one plate and two text-figures )

Key words: Tingidae, southern India, distribution, host plants, egg parasitoids,

generic key.

The pattern of distribution of 45 species belonging to 28 genera and 2 subfamilies of Tingidae

of southern India, along with 56 species of their host plants and 5 species of their egg parasitoids,

have been documented. Twenty species of tingids and four species of their egg parasitoids are

new discoveries. Thirty two species of host plants are new records. Verbenaceous plants support

a larger number of tingid species, whereas more species of Labiatae support the Ocimum tingid

Cochlochila bullita. While Tingis buddleiae Drake is recorded only at 2500 m above msl,

C. bullita , Habrochila laeta and Teleonemia scrupulosa occur at all elevations in this region

throughout the year, Teleonemia scrupulosa, the Mexican Lantana lace bug, raises more than 12

generations in a year on Lantana weed and is well established in this region. Paralleloptera

polyphaga, a mymarid egg parasitoid of more than twenty species of Tingidae, Erythmelus

empoascae, also a mymarid egg parasitoid, Lathromeromyia (lathromeromina) tingiphaga, L (1.)

corythaumaii and Epoligosita ( epoligositina ) duliniae of Trichogrammatidae have been reported

as new. Generic key for 28 genera has been formulated.

as the tubercles that carry a tracheal branch

(Livingstone, 1962 a & b, 1968, 1976 & 1978b).

Only the cephalic tubercles are retained, as the

loral, frontal, postgenal and antenniferous

tubercles, in the adults. Species of Copium (on

Teucrium-Labiatae) and Paracopium (on

Clerodendron-'VerbQna.ce&e) are specialized

cecidogenous anthophagous tingids, causing

monolocular floral galls (Monad and Carayon,

1958; Drake and Mamet, 1961; Jaeger, 1976).

Leaf curl galls are caused by Corythauma ayyari

on Jasminum (Livingstone, 1962, 1977, 1978a).

The mechanism of rotation of the eggs by 180°

in the bursa, while ovipositing in the flower bud

in gall - producing tingids, is still an unresolved

question.

One of the earliest biocontrol agents tried

in India at the Forest Research Institute,

Dehradun, to control the mexican weed Lantana,

is Teleonemia scrupulosa Stal, the Mexican

Lantana lace bug, imported in 1941. The

unfounded fear that this bug would become a

Introduction

The Tingidae Laporte, commonly known

as lace bugs and polyglottally known by different

names in different countries, are relatively small

(1.5 mm to 4.5 mm), phytosuccivorous

cimicomorphs, with gorgeous lacy designs on

their hemelytra. All the five instars and adults

congregate underneath leaves, where they feed,

moult, defecate and foul the area, causing

chlorotic patches that betray their presence on the

affected plant. Older instars move to more tender

parts of the plant. The adults mate and insert their

eggs into tender tissues such as mesophyll, tender

stems, pistil and other floral parts, exposing only

the operculum of the egg. With very few

exceptions, all nymphal instars bear characteristic,

species-specific body outgrowths (Plate 1) such

'Accepted May, 1995

2Di vision of Entomology, Department of Zoology,

Madras Christian College, Tambaram,

Chennai 600 059, India.

284

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Voi 94 (1997)

threat to teak plantations forced the FRI insectary

management to destroy the entire culture stock

in 1943 (Khan, 1945; Roonwal 1952, 1953); but

a few escaped and established themselves

in the adjacent hill range. Interestingly, this insect

that raises hardly two to three generations in

a year in north India is very successfully

established on Lantana in southern India, raising

more than 12 generations a year (Livingstone

et al. 1980, 1981b). Livingstone (1961, 1978b),

on the basis of the incidence of population and

sweating phenomenon, categorized the Tingidae

of northern India into summer and winter species.

While the Coconut lace bug Stephanitis

typica (Mathen, 1960; Mathen and Kurian, 1972;

Mathen et al, 1972), the Ocimum lace bug

Cochlochila huilita (Samuel, 1939; Sharga, 1953;

Mohanasundaram and Rao, 1973); the

Brinjal lace bug Urentius hystricellus (Patel and

Kulkarny, 1955), the Jasminum lace bug

Corythauma ayyari (Livingstone, 1977) and the

Barleria lace bug Habrochila laeta

(Mohanasundaram and Basheer, 1963; Asari,

1972) are known to be alarmingly serious pests

of agriculture and horticulture, the rest of the

species are not pests.

In their world catalogue of Tingidae, Drake

and Ruhoff (1960, 1965) listed 1820 species

belonging to 236 genera and 3 subfamilies. Of

these, only 99 species of 49 genera and 2

subfamilies (Cantacaderinae and Tinginae) were

known from India. The third subfamily

Vianaidinae, whose members (4 species) are

myrmecophilous, and whose nutritional and

reproductive behaviours are not fully established,

are not so far known from India. Since then,

numerous species have been added from other

parts of the world, mostly from the Ethiopian

Region. After the publication of the taxonomic

descriptions of 57 species of 30 genera and 2

subfamilies of Tingidae from India, Burma and

Ceylon, by Distant (1904, 1910), the systematics

of Oriental Tingidae has undergone substantial

revision (Bergroth, 1911; Drake and Maa, 1953,

1954, 1955; Drake and Lutz, 1953). Menon and

Hakk (1959a) reported a new subfamily called

Phyllogastrotingis which was none other

than the coreid Craspidum. Their (Menon and

Hakk, 1959b) revision of the genus Urentius ,

with the addition of five more new species

(U. euphorbiae, U. indicus ; U. pusaensis\ U. sidae

and U. ziziphifolius), also was rejected as nomen

nudum by Drake and Ruhoff (1965). Subse-

quently, Mohanasundaram (1962), Drake and

Mohanasundaram (1961 ), Drake and Livingstone

(1964), Livingstone (1972), Livingstone and

Jayanthibai, 1993, 1994 a, b added more species

to the checklist of Indian Tingifauna.

In most records, the host plants are

“unrecorded”. The first attempt in India to fill this

lacuna was made by Livingstone (1961, 1962a)

for north Indian species and subsequently by

Mohanasundaram (1972) for a few South Indian

species. The biology and population dynamics of

not more than twenty Indian species are known

(Iyengar, 1924; Samuel, 1939; Khan, 1945;

Sharga, 1953; Patel and Kulkarny, 1955; Mathur,

1955, 1979; Mathen, 1960; Livingstone, 1959,

1968, 1976, 1978b; Livingstone et al, 1980,

1981, 1982, 1983; Asari, 1972; Nair and Nair,

1974). The natural enemies of Tingidae in India

have been identified by Livingstone (1962b, c,

1962, 1977); Mathen, Shantha and Kurien (1972),

and the tingid egg parasitoids, representing

Mymaridae and Trichogrammatidae (Hymenop-

tera) were reported by Livingstone and Yacoob

(1982, 1987 a, b); Livingstone et al (1982a, b).

In the present paper, we give primary

importance to updating and documenting host

plant records, and natural enemies of Tingidae

and provide a key for the identification at least

upto generic level.

1. Spatial Distribution

Ecosystem and altitude wise distribution of

45 species belonging to 28 genera and 2 subfamilies

of Tingidae in the four southern states with more

intensive survey of Tamil Nadu, are represented in

Figs. 1 & 2 respectively. All are macropterous,

performing short circled flights. Cantacader

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 94

D. Livingstone et al. Tingid sp

Plate ,1

1. Nymph of Habrochila laeta, Barleria tingid

2. Stephanitis typica nymph. Globules of tubercles

TINGIFAUNA OF SOUTHERN INDIA

285

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quinquico status and Balenus dentatusait collected

in light traps and their host plants are not known.

In the former, no males are known and all specimens

collected have been immature females. None of the

known 30 spp. of Cantacader and 7 spp. of Belenus

from the world have any host record and all were

collected in light traps (Drake and Ruhoff, 1965;

Livingstone 1972).

Every ecosystem has its representative

tingifauna. The scrub jungle ecosystem that

prevails in this region, extending from plains to

moderate elevations, intervening agroecosystem

and semiarid zones, records the maximum number

of tingid species, the characteristic ones being

Afrotingis phanueli, Agramma therasii , Belenus

dentatus , Cantacader quinquico status, Haedus

grewii, Naochila nigra, Physatocheila asiatica

and Tingis premnae. The characteristic species of

semiarid zone include Agramma gramini ,

Ammiarus ravanus, Haedus manii, and

Perissonemia ecmeles. In the tropical rainforests

more endemic species are recorded, namely

Corythauma gibbosa, Dictyla hessargattaensis,

Eteoneous cinchonii, Haedus yacoobii, H. ruthii ,

Longiscutella menonii, Naochila minuta,

Phatnoma costalis, Pontanus puerilis, Stephanitis

charieis, S. cinnamomi and Tingis buddleiae. The

ubiquitous species include Cochlochila bullita,

Corythauma ayyari, Dulinius conchatus,

Habrochila laeta, Phenotropis cleopatra,

Stephanitis typica, Teleonemia scrupulosa,

Urentius hystricellus and U. euonymus.

Fig. 2 Vertical distribution of Tingidae and their parasitoids in southern India

286

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Fig. 2 Contd.

TINGIFAUNA OF SOUTHERN INDIA

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288

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, VoL 94 (1997)

Table 1

HOST PLANT RECORDS OF SOUTH INDIAN TINGIDAE (* NEW HOST RECORDS)

S.No. Host family Host plant Tingid species

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

Acanthaceae

Boraginaceae

Euphorbiaceae

Graminae

Labiatae

Lauraceae

Loganiaceae

Malvaceae

Moraceae

Musaceae

Oleaceae

Barleria cristata Linn.

*Barleria mysoriensis Roth.

*Justicia prostata Gamble

*Justicia simplex D. Don

*Ruellia ( Justicia ) prostata Poir

*Peristrophe bicalyculata Nees

*Cynoglossum denticulatum

A. DC var zeylanicum C.B.Garke

*Cynoglossum furocatum Wall.

* Carmona microphylla (Lamk.) Don.

*Ehretia sp.

*Acalypha alnifolia Klein ex Willd.

*Chryzophora rottleri A. Juss.

*Chrysopogon fulcrus (Spreng) Chiov.

99

*Chrysopogon verticillatus (Roxb)

Sacckarum ojficinarum Linn.

*Colebrookea sp.

*Hyptis suaveolens Poit.

Mentha sp.

*Moschosnta polystachyum Benth.

Ocimum basilicum Linn.

Ocimum canum Sims.

Ocimum gratissimum Linn.

Ocimum sanctum Linn.

* Orthosiphon glatratus (Benth.)

*Salvia coccines Linn.

*Cinnamomum sp.

*Persea macrantha (Nees) Kostreum

Buddleia asiatica Linn.

* Hibiscus rosa sinensis Linn.

*Pavania zeylanica Cav.

Sida sp.

Artocarpus integrifolia Linn.

Ficus sp.

Musa paradisiaca Linn.

*Jasminum cardifolium Wall.

Jasminum rigidum Zenk.

Jasminum sambac Ait.

Habrochila laeta Drake

Lasiacantha justiciaii Livingstone & Jeyanthibai

99

Lasiacantha ruelli Livingstone & Jeyanthibai

Lasiacantha peristrophi Livingstone & Jeyanthibai

Dictyla hessarghattaensis Livingstone & Jeyanthibai

Naochila minuta Livingstone & Jeyanthibai

Naochila nigra Livingstone & Jeyanthibai

Afrotingis phanueli Livingstone & Jeyanthibai

Urentius euonymus Distant

Aconchus urbanus (Horvath)

Agramma hupehanum (Drake & Maa)

Agramma gramini Livingstpne & Jeyanthibai

Abdastartus atrus (Motschulsky)

Eteoneus cinchonaensis Livingstone & Jeyanthibai

Cochlochila bullita (Stal)

Stephanitis cinnamomae Livingstone & Jeyanthibai

Stephanitis macranthai Livingstone & Jeyanthibai

lingis buddleiae Drake

Phatnoma costalis Distant

Urentius euonymus Distant

99

Stephanitis charieis Drake & Mohan asundar am

Pexissonemia ecmeles Drake & Mohan asundaram

Stephanitis typica (Distant)

Corythauma ayyan (Drake)

99

Stephanitis typica (Distant)

Phaenotropis cleopatra (Horvath)

Cysteochila javansis Drake & Poor

Dulinius conchatus (Distant)

99

Haedus ruthii Livingstone & Jeyanthibai

TINGIFAUNA OF SOUTHERN INDIA

289

Table 1 (contd.)

HOST PLANT RECORDS OF SOUTH INDIAN TINGIDAE (* NEW HOST RECORDS)

Most species occur in the plains and lower

elevations below 2000 m above msl Eteoneus

cinchonii , Stephanitis cinnamomii, S. macranthii

and Tingis buddleiae occur at more than

2000 m above msl whereas, Cochlochila bullita,

Dictyla hessargattaensis , Habrochila laeta

and Teleonomia scrupubsa occur at all eleva-

tions.

No gall making tingids are known from this

region, even though Clerodendron spp. are found

at all elevations. The mymarid egg parasitoids are

recorded at all elevations, whereas the

trichogrammatid egg parasitoids occur in lower

elevations (Fig. 2).

All species of Tmgidae from southern India

were found to be multivoltine, occurring

throughout the year at varying population

densities. Heavy rains wash away the life stages,

even though they remain concealed underneath

leaves and other parts of plants that become

charred and crinkled during heavy infestation.

Congregational feeding is a rule and positively

geotactic behaviour among the grass tingids

such as Agramma spp. and Aconchus urbanus

is common. Almost all collections of these two

genera were made from congregates in root

mesh in loose, moist soil. Falling from twigs,

feigning death and swift running towards the

base of the stem when disturbed, are some of

the evasive behaviour patterns of these bugs.

Jerky movement characterise Haedus and

Lasiacantha species. Body outgrowths of

nymphal instars (Plate 1) secrete an adhesive

substance for the arhenaceous materials,

promoting camouflaging behaviour (Livingstone,

1976). The spreading rate of these bugs from

one plant to another and from one region to

another, apparently varies from about 4 km a

year (Roonwal, 1952) in northern India to several

kms, as in Teleonemia scrupulosa in southern

India.

2. Host plants and host specificity

The largest number of species of tingids

(130 spp.) so far recorded from all over the world,

are on Leguminaceae (87 spp.), and the largest

290

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Table 2

OCCURRENCE OF PARASITOIbS OF THE TINGID EGGS IN SOUTHERN INDIA

number of recorded species (98) of host plants

belong to Compositae, that hosts 75 spp. of

tingids. Only 33 species of tingids are known to

be species specific, (Drake and Ruhoff, 1965).

In the present survey (Table 1) 45 species

of tingids belonging to 28 genera and 2

subfamilies, are recorded on 58 species of host

plants from 44 genera and 19 families;

Verbenaceae is found to be the most favoured of

all. As these bugs are poor fliers, host preference

is detectable only when several plants of the same

host species occur among several other species

in the same locality at the same time. Cochlochila

bullita is specific to the genus Ocimum , but it

prefers 0. canum , when all other species such as

0. sanctum , 0. basilicumand O. gratissimum are

TINGIFAUNA OF SOUTHERN INDIA

291

Table 2 (< contd .)

OCCURRENCE OF PARASITOIDS OF THE TINGID EGGS IN SOUTHERN INDIA

Parasitoids Host tingids Host Plants

also present in the same locality. Spreading occurs

only in the event of 0. canum being completely

destroyed and when the other species of Ocimum

are not in the vicinity, they spread on adjacent

plants of Labiatae such as Mentha , Salvia,

Orthosiphon, Hyptis, Moschosma etc., and raise

one or two generations on them.

Similarly, Corythauma ayyari is specific

to Jasminum sp. But it rarely attacks / primulium

and 7. grandiflorum , when heavy infesta-

tion occurs on 7. sambac, 7. multiflorum and

7. pubescens that grow in the same locality and

elsewhere. While Urentius hystricellus is confined

only to Solanaceae, with specific preference to

Solanum melongena, Urentius euonymus that

enjoys a permanent abode on the perennial,

Abutilon indicum, attacks several other

malvaceous annuals as well as Chrysophora

rottleri of Euphorbiaceae. Most other species have

been found to be host specific.

Plot effect characterises tingid attack in this

region. By this, several bushes of the same locality

and adjacent localities remain refractile to tingid

attack when a bush in the middle remains

susceptible and subjected to heavy attack. Plot

effect in Tingidae is reported by Livingstone

(1962c, 1968,1977), Asari (1972), Harley et al

(1979) and Livingstone et al (1981b). It is

difficult to ascribe the status* of a primary host

plant in the context of polyphagy because nothing

deters this bug from raising one or two generations

on any host plant that it invades during heavy

infestation, and diapause phenomenon is not yet

known in these bugs in this temperate region.

Khan (1945) tried forced feeding of Teleonemia

scrupulosa on teak leaves and reported that such

nymphs never completed development.

Several species of a genus of different

genera of host plants are simultaneously attacked

by different species of the same genus of tingids,

Lesiacantha justiciaii , L. peristrophic and L.

ruellii are found on Justicia prostata , Justicia

simplex , Peristropha bicalyculata and Ruellia

prostata , all are members of tae family

Acanthaceae. Similarly, Naochila nigra and N.

minuta attack Ehretia sp. and Carmona

microphylla respectively, of the family

Boraginaceae. Diverse species of diverse genera

292

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoL 94 (1997)

of tingids are also found on plants of the same

genus. The grass tingids such as Aconchus

urbanus , Agramma gramini and Agramma

hupehanum are found on the grass Chrysopogon

fulerus , C. verticullatus and C. fulerus

respectively. More than one species of tingids

concurrently attacking the same host plant is also

common. Dasytingis rudis, D. semota and

Ammianus ravanus are found affecting Vitex

negundo at different localities at the same time.

Headus yacoobii and Longiscuteila menonii are

found concurrently on the same host plant

Triumfetta pilosa.

3. Natural enemies

The list of the natural enemies of Tmgidae

does not appreciate much in space and time, being

variable regionwise and countrywise.

Coleopteran, neuropteran, thysanopteran,

dermapteran, heteropteran and acarinid predators

as well as brachonid, mymarid and tricho-

grammatid parasitoids have been reported on stray

cases of tingids by a few authors. Larvae and

adults of Coccinella spp. (Coccinellidae);

Chrysopa spp. (Neuroptera); Stethoconus

praef actus/ Apollodotus praef actus (Miridae) and

Xystieus cristatus (Acarinidae) have been

recorded as predators of economically important

species of Tmgidae in India by Mathen, Shantha

and Kurien, (1972) and Livingstone, (1968).

Among the five chalcidoid egg parasitoids so far

recorded in this region (Table 2), the mymarid

Erythmelus empoascae Subba Rao, originally

reported as an egg parasitoid of Jassidae, is now

known to be an egg parasitoid of the teak tingid,

Pontanus puerilis , Lantana tingid Teleonemia

scrupulosa and the Vitex “giant” tingid,

Ammianus ravanus , all three of which have long

operculate eggs. The second mymarid

Parallelaptera polyphaga Livingstone & Yacoob

is highly polyphagous, so far recorded on no less

than 22 species of Tmgidae, at all elevations.

Polymorphism of the female genitalia,

corresponding to the opercular height of the host

egg, has been considered as convincing evidence

of biodiversity in parasitoid-host relationship

(Livingstone and Yacoob 1986). The three species

of trichogrammatid egg parasitoids are:-

Lathromeromyia ( iathromeromina ) tingiphaga

Livingstone & Yacoob, which is predominantly

found on grass tingids such as Aconchus urbanus ,

Agramma hupehanum and A.graminii, as well as

on the Barleria tingid, Habrochila laeta and the

Ocimum tingid Cochlochila bullita;

Lathromeromyia ( Iathromeromina ) corythaumai

Livingstone & Yacoob which is specific to the

Jasmine tingid, Corythauma ayyari and

Epoligosita ( epoligositina ) duliniae Livingstone

& Yacoob which is specific to the Morinda lace

bug, Dulinius conchatus. Parasitised tingid

eggs always exhibit the characteristic

development of the compound eyes and the ocelli

of the pupating parasitoid at the cephalic end and

the accumulation of the meconium at the caudal

end.

GENERIC KEY FOR THE IDENTIFICATION OF THE

SOUTH INDIAN TINGID AE

a. Subfamily: Cantacaderinae Stal

Stenocostal area present, cephalic tubercles 4 in

number; bucculae far exceeding the limit of the

head Cantacader Amyot & Serville

— Stenocostal area absent: 7 porrect cephalic

P hat noma Fiebr.

b. Subfamily: Tinginae Laporte

1 . Cephalic tubercles either absent or reduced to not

more than three nodules; paranotum present or

absent; pronotum either with median carina or

with very much reduced median and lateral

carinae 2

— Cephalic tubercles always five in number;

paranotum either reduced or highly expanded:

pronotal hood either absent or highly expanded

3

2. Cephalic tubercles absent: pronotum with lateral

spine; paranotum absent Eteoneus Distant

— Cephalic tubercles reduced to a single pair of

nodules (loral pair): either small or large in size;

paranotal expansion wanting: pronotum with only

a median carina; hemelytra without tumid

elevations 2a

— Cephalic tubercles 3: moderately tuberculate;

small to median size; paranotal expansion well

developed and reflexed back upon the pronotum

T1NGIFAUNA OF SOUTHERN INDIA

293

with varying degrees of complexity: cephalic

hood present or absent: hemelytra with tumid

elevation: median carina well formed, often

concealed by the paranotal expansion, lateral 5.

carinae moderately developed 2b

Minute to small, antennae short, the first flagellar

segment not exceeding double the length of the —

terminal segment, often setaceous; body elongate;

hemelytra without any markings

Agramma Stephens 5a.

Body oval, hemelytra with dark patch

Afrotingis Drake & Hill

Larger size: more elongated, antennae very long,

the first flagellar segment more than three times —

longer than the terminal segment, almost bare;

distinct cell present

... Perissonemia Drake & Poor

The paranotal expansion completely reflexed 5b.

back and completely covering the pronotum on

either side of the median carina; pronotal hood

moderately developed; bucculae not prominently —

projecting anteriorly beyond the level of the head;

minute to medium size; discoidal area vesicular

Naochila Drake

Paranotal expansion reflexed but not completely

covering the pronotum on either side of the 5c.

median carina 2c

Paranotal expansion reflexed and almost reaching

the pronotum, leaving a narrow space on either

side of the median carina; discoidal area with only —

tumid elevation; bucculae anteriorly protruding

beyond the level of the head: moderately large

Dictyla Stal

Paranotal expansion developing as a vesicle but 5d.

not touching the pronotum: the median carina

hairy, not forming vescile anteriorly the lateral

carina uni seriate but concealed by the paranotal —

vesicle; 2 tumid elevations along the radial vein

Cochlochila Stal

Pronotal hood present; paranotal expansion well

developed and elaborately expanded 4 6.

Pronotal hood absent: paranotal expansion either

absent or when present broadly expanded 5

Pronotal hood laterally compressed and

moderately gibbose, elongate, extending beyond

the base of the head; paranotal expansion earlobe-

like, uniseriate or multiseriate 6

Pronotal hood moderately bulbous: paranotal

expansion multiseriate, not extending beyond the —

base of the head 7

Pronotal hood enormously gibbose: paranotal

expansion uniformly broad, vertically uniseriate

or multiseriate and reflexed back on the pronotum

and often extending beyond the base of the head

8

Paranotal expansion absent or narrow and

uniseriate: cephalic tubercles either prominently

stout or slender 5a

Paranotal expansion broadly expanded or

foveated: cephalic tubercles conspicuously

spinous: hemelytra angulate 5b

Paranotal expansion absent, only median carina

present and the pronotum darkly punctate:

cephalic tubercles very feeble

Phaenotropis Horvath

Paranotal expansion uniseriate: pronotum

tricarinate, each carination uniseriate; hemelytra

bare or with spines: cephalic tubercles

prominently elongate 5c

Paranotal expansion broadly expanded anteriorly

with spines on the anterior margin, otherwise with

long non-pedicellate hairs Belenus Distant

Paranotal expansion deflected back opposed in

the pronotum of either side of the median

carination and transversely foveated: body

dorsally clothed with sharp pedicellate spines

Urentius Distant

Antennal segment highly setose: flagellar

segments stout: hemelytral constriction not well

defined: body moderately elongate

Teleonernia Costa

Antennal segment very slender and elongate:

body slim and much elongated with prominent

subapical constriction of hemelytra: paranotum

anteriorly pointed reaching the eye 5d

Body very much elongated: bare, lacking spines:

legs very long; with spatulate hairs on the

distitarsus Abdastartus Distant

Body moderately elongate, clothed with both

decumbent and punctate hairs: ommatidia with

setal combs: pterostigma on the radial vein may

or may not present Haedus Distant

Paranotal expansion earlobe-like vertically

uniseriated: pronotal median carina laterally

compressed anteriorly and sharply pointing,

extending beyond the head; the median carina

and scutellum together forming vesicle:

hemelytral areolations much limited in number

with tumid elevations in the discoidal area: body

non-spinous Aconchus Horvath

Paranotal expansion broadly expanded,

multiseriate; median carina deeply constricted in

the middle, anteriorly developed into moderately

expanded vesicle and posteriorly into vertical

294

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

multiseriate plate; lateral carinae raised,

uniseriate; hemelytra subapically constricted and

body clothed with pedicellate spines

Lasiacantha Stal

7. Middle region of the paranotal expansion

developed into a transversely elongate

multiseriate plate; hood more prominent; largest

known among tingids; subcostal area multiseriate:

hemelytra banded in the middle and the sutural

area pigmented Ammianus Distant

(largest species recorded in S. India)

— Paranotal expansion either gradually enlarged in

the middle or uniformly broad 7a

— Paranotal expansion deflected back and fused

along the margin of the pronotum; the head and

pronotum beset with stramineous hairs

Physatocheila Fieber

7a. Paranotal expansion moderately prominent only

in the middle; the hemelytra banded in the middle

and the sutural area pigmented: large in size

Dasytingis Drake & Poor

— Paranotal expansion broad, marginally wavy and

dentate: multiseriate or slightly reflexed on the

pronotum and then deflexed vertically 7b

7b. Paranotal expansion broad; multiseriate and

marginally wavy and dentate; body bare

Pontanus Distant

— Paranotal expansion slightly reflexed on the

pronotum and then deflexed vertically, body

tomentouse; areolae with cartwheel arrangement

of hairs Tingis Fabricius

8. Paranotum vertically uniseriate or 2-3 areolae

thick, hemispherical or earlobe-like or broadly

expanded extending beyond the eye; hemelytra

with tumid elevation or vesiculate 8a

Paranotum either narrow and transversely

uniseriate or broad and multiseriate: median

carina constricted behind the anterior hood or not

constricted or terminating midway 8b

8a. Paranotal expansion auricular or hemi spherically

expanded: discoidal area or discoidal and radial

area together forming vesicle: lateral carinae

expanded or not visible: median carina posteriorly

expanded with the scutellum or not 8c

— Paranotal expansion broad and anteriorly

extending upto the eye; median carina not forming

Refer

Asari, K.R. (1972): Bionomics and immature stages of

the Barleria lace bug, Habrochila laeta Drake

(Heteroptera: Tingidae). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

72(1): 97-100.

any hood behind the anterior vesicle; lateral

carinae short and reduced; radial area vertically

disposed Stephanitis Stal

8b. Paranotal expansion broad and multiseriate:

median carina constrictd in the middle and

posteriorly extending along with the scutellum

far beyond the middle of the discoidal area; body

almost bare

Longiscutella Livingstone & Yacoob.

— Paranotal expansion narrow and uniseriate or

multiseriate and reflexed; median carina not

constricted and scutellum not extending beyond

the anterior half of the discoidal area 8d

8c. Paranotum hemispherically expanded: median

carina posteriorly not expanded but the lateral

carinae expanded and meeting above the median

carina: forming a vesicle, concealing the entire

scutellum, discoidal area alone vesicular

Dulinius Distant

— Paranotum auricular, median carina anteriorly and

posteriorly forming vesicles; the posterior one

completely concealing the scutellum: the lateral

carinae absent; discoidal and radial areas together

forming the vesicle Habrochila Horvath

8d. Paranotal expansion narrow, uniseriate, the

anterior hood of the median carina almost

completely concealing the head; scutellum

obtusely pointed Corythauma Drake & Poor

— Paranotol expansion multiseriate and reflexed,

covering the pronotum lateral to the lateral

cari nation Cysteochila Stal

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the ICAR,

New Delhi, for financial support during the

tenure of the scheme, the authorities of the

University of Madras, Bharathiar University,

Coimbatore and Madras Christian College,

Tambaram, for facilities and encouragement, to

Dr. D. Henry, Botanical Survey of India,

Coimbatore and Prof. D. Giles Lai, M.C.C.,

Tambaram for determining the host plant species

for us.

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SPECIES COMPOSITION, SEASONAL VARIATION, SEX RATIO AND BODY

LENGTH OF SMALL CETACEANS CAUGHT OFF WEST, SOUTH-WEST AND

SOUTH COAST OF SRI LANKA1

Anouk Ilangakoon2

(With three text -figures)

Key words: species composition, seasonal variation, sex ratio, cetaceans

The present study on small cetacean catches in Sri Lanka was undertaken in an attempt to fill

atleast some of the many gaps in the knowledge regarding the interaction between small cetaceans

and the fisheries industry in Sri Lanka. The study concentrated on data from four selected sites on

the west, southwest, south coasts of Sri Lanka and species composition, seasonal trends, sex

ratios and size categories occurring in the catch are discussed. The study recorded a total of 14

species in the catch and found Stenella longirostris to be the most abundantly caught species at all

sites. Contrary to the results of previous short term studies, the post-monsoonal period from the

end of August to November was the season when peak catches were recorded at all sites selected

for data collection. Sex composition and length frequency distribution were comparatively analysed

for the four major species in the catch, bringing out certain interesting trends which may be a

cause for concern. The practice of deliberate harpooning was found to account for a sizable

proportion of the small cetacean catch while the practice itself seems to be spreading to new

areas.

Introduction

Very little information is available on the

species composition of small cetaceans around

Sri Lanka although they inhabit these waters.

The first known record of a cetacean in Sri Lanka

was by Emerson Tennent (1859). Dolphins had

been hunted and eaten by local populations

since early days. Nevill (1887), reports of a

dolphin fishery that existed in Ceylon in the

late 1880’s. Recent studies on the accidental take

of small cetaceans around Sri Lanka are limited

to short term studies at a few fish landing sites

along the west and east coasts. Prematunga et al

(1985), concentrated on the landed catch at

Trincomalee on the east coast and recorded 11

species, having examined 398 specimens. Joseph

et al (1983) undertook a four month study at

the Negombo fish landing site on the west coast

1 Accepted October, 1995

2Director Field Studies, Fauna International Trust,

218/1 Bauddhaloka Mawatha, Colombo 7, Sri Lanka

and recorded 5 species, having examined 33

specimens. Ailing (1985b) examined the catch at

three landing sites, namely Beruwala (west coast),

Valaichenai and Trincomalee (east coast),

recorded 11 species and estimated nearly 40,000

small cetaceans being landed in Sri Lanka’s

fishery annually. Joseph and Siddeek (1985)

recorded 11 species from the catch at Beruwala

and Negombo (west coast) and estimated an

annual catch rate of only 9,129 small cetaceans

in Sri Lanka. Leatherwood (1986) and

Leatherwood and Reeves (1989) report on all

aspects of small cetaceans in Sri Lanka, includ-

ing historical data, sightings at sea, stranding

and observations at fish landing sites and mar-

kets all around the island.

Though only preliminary figures are

available, it is evident that the accidental by-catch

of small cetaceans has been increasing since the

mechanisation of the fishing fleet and the

introduction of synthetic gillnets in the late

1960’s.

SPECIES COMPOSITION OF SMALL CETACEANS CA UGHT OFF SRI LANKA

299

Material and Methods

From May 1985 to December 1988, four

commercial fish landing sites, namely Negombo,

Beruwala, Mirissa and Kottegoda were visited

once a fortnight and the species composition of

small cetaceans in fishing boats was sampled.

Species were identified based on Watson (1981)

and Leatherwood and Reeves (1983). Species

composition, total body length and sex were

recorded. Further, the number of small cetaceans

killed by harpooning was also noted by observing

harpoon marks on the animals. The area of

gillnetting and harpooning was recorded by

questioning the fishermen. The stretched mesh

size of the gillnets, the number of pieces in each

net, their height, number of hours spent fishing

etc. were also recorded.

In Sri Lanka a variety of boats ranging

from 5 1 0 cm fibreglass boats with outboard engines

to fully mechanised 780 - 960 cm boats operate, to

fish for pelagic species such as tuna, shark, marlin

and skipjack, using gillnets (stretched mesh size

125 mm), pole and lines, long lines and trolling.

Hand held harpoons are used in some areas for

direct take, of small cetaceans from mechanised

boats.

Results

Species Composition

Fourteen species were identified from the

four landing sites (Table 1 ). Stenella longirostris

was the dominant species in the catch at all

sampling stations. The maximum number of

species recorded at a station was 11, for both

Negombo and Mirissa, and the minimum was 7

at Kottegoda.

Stenella longirostris constituted 51.4% of

the total recorded catch at all stations together

and S. coeruleoalba 13.9%, Tursiops truncatus

9.3%, S. attenuata 9.0%, Grampus griseus 5.5%,

Peponocephala electra 4.1%, respectively. Each

of the remaining 8 species constituted less than

2.0%.

Table 1

NUMBER OF SPECIMENS RECORDED FOR EACH

SPECIES

* St.l=Negombo St.2=Beruwala St.3=MirissaSt4=Kottegoda

Seasonal Variation

The seasonal distribution of catches,

according to station, is shown in Fig. 1. Negombo

showed year round catches with zero catch only

in June and a catch peak in October. Two sub-

300

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

□ ST1 +ST2 • ST3 A ST4

Fig. 1. Seasonal distribution by stations

peaks were seen in March and August. Beruwala

also had year round catches, with a zero catch

in March, a sub-peak in July and the maximum

catch in October. Mirissa had zero catch in

February and a sharp increase in numbers

caught in September, reaching a peak in October.

These three stations showed a definite peak

in catches in October, dropping sharply in

November. Kottegoda differed from this

pattern as catches were recorded only in the

period from April to October with zero catches

in the other five months of each year.

The maximum catch for this station was

in September, with declining numbers in

October.

The seasonal variation of the catch for the

four major species, namely Stenella. longirostris,

S. coeruleoalba, S. attenuata and Tursiops

truncatus is shown according to season for the

total catch in Fig. 2. All four species had peak

catches in the post-monsoon season from

September to December and smaller numbers at

other times of the year. Stenella longirostris and

Tursiops truncatus were caught in larger numbers

during the monsoon season from May to August

than in the pre-monsoon season between January

and April. However, there was no difference in

the catch rates of Stenella coeruleoalba and S.

attenuata between the pre-monsoon and

monsoon seasons. There was a slight variation

from the general pattern at Kottegoda for Stenella

coeruleoalba, which had a peak catch in the pre-

monsoon season with large numbers being landed

in April and a smaller peak in the post-monsoon

season in October, which was the peak at other

stations.

SPECIES COMPOSITION OF SMALL CETACEANS CAUGHT OFF SRI LANKA

SOI

b

Fig. 2. Length frequency distribution range (of 4 major species)

a: Stenella longirostris; b: S. coeruleoalba

302

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

d

Fig. 2 contd. Length frequency distribution range (of 4 major species)

c: Tursiops truncatus; d: Stenella attenuata

Sex Ratio

The sex ratio of the catch for each species

and each station is given in Table 2. For all species

together, the catch at Negombo consisted of an

equal number of males and females. At Beruwala

and Kottegoda a larger number of males were

caught while at Mirissa a larger number of females

were caught. A significantly larger number of

Stenella longirostris males were caught at

Beruwala and Kottegoda, while at Negombo also

more males were caught but the difference

between the sexes was less significant. Of the total

366 specimens, 197 males and 159 females were

recorded while 10 were unidentified, comprising

a frequency of 53.8% males, 43.4% females and

2.7% unidentified.

For Stenella longirostris the largest

percentage of both males and females caught

came in the range of 150 - 179.9 cm and from

90 - 119.9 cm for S. coeruleoalba. In Tursiops

truncatus most males caught measured 150.0 -

179.0 cm, and 210 - 239.9 cm, but most females

SPECIES COMPOSITION OF SMALL CETACEANS CA UGHT OFF SRI LANKA

303

caught measured 210 - 239.9 cm. Females of

Stenella attenuata were caught in high numbers

in the 150 - 179.9 cm range and the males in the

180 - 209.9 cm‘ range, with fairly high numbers

between 150 - 179.9 cm, and 210 - 239.9 cm.

Only 3, females of the four dominant species

measured less than 90 cm. The only catch larger

than 240 cm was Tur slops truncatus , the majority

of which were females.

Body Length

The body length of Stenella longirostris

ranged from 86.25 to 197.50 cm (SD=22.08),

Stenella coeruleoalba from 86.25 to 228.12 cm

(SD=49.43), Tur slops truncatus from 120.00 to

278.75 cm (SD=44.22) and Stenella attenuata

ranged from 86.25 to 225.00 cm. (SD=37.97).

The frequency distribution of Stenella

longirostris was similar for Negombo, Beruwala

and Mirissa, but all specimens recorded at

Kottegoda were above 120 cm in length, ranging

upto 210 cm. The frequency distribution for

Stenella coeruleoalba was similar for all four

stations. A high percentage of specimens at all

stations come within the 90 - 119.9 cm range,

indicating that a large number of juveniles are

caught. Turslops truncatus had a similar

frequency distribution at Negombo and Beruwala.

At Mirissa all specimens were above 180 cm

indicating that only adult animals were caught at

this station. This species was not recorded at

Kottegoda during the study period. The sample

size for Stenella attenuata was

not adequate to comment on frequency

distribution.

Capture Methods

The capture methods resulting in the

mortality of small cetaceans in Sri Lanka are

shown according to station in Table 3. Negombo

and Mirissa practise direct harpooning in addition

to accidental gillnet entrapment. All small

cetaceans recorded at Beruwala and Kottegoda

were accidental bycatch of the gillnet fishery. At

Mirissa more small cetaceans were caught by

Table 2

SEX RATIO BY SPECIES AND STATION

*St. 1 =Negombo St.2=Beruwala St.3=Mirissa St.4=Kottegoda

direct harpooning than as bycatch, and viceversa

at Negombo. Of the total of 366 specimens

recorded from all four stations, 69.1% was

bycatch in gillnet fishery while 30.9% was by

harpooning.

Area of Operation

The area of operation of mechanised boats

(780 - 960 cm) engaged in gillnet operations in

all sampling stations was approximately 55 to 60

km offshore. Therefore, the area in which small

cetaceans are killed as a result of accidental

bycatch is an approximately 15 km wide belt off

the west and southwest coast as shown in Fig. 3.

Direct harpooning, on the other hand, could be

done anywhere between the shorelines and 60 km

offshore when small cetaceans are sighted and

weather conditions are favourable.

Discussion

The present paper has identified 14 species

in the total recorded catch, two of which

( Peponocephala electra and Orcinus orca ) have

not been recorded before. De Silva (1987) reports

of a Peponocephala electra skull in the Calicut

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Table 3

CAPTURE METHOD B Y STATION

museum and sight records of Orcinus orca off

southern Sri Lanka in the 19th century. I found

that Peponocephala electra was among the six

most frequently caught species in the catch,

comprising 4.0% of the total recorded catch.

Orcinus orca was recorded only once during the

present study when a 277.5 cm long female

specimen was landed as bycatch at Negombo on

8th April, 1986. Joseph etal. (1983), Joseph and

Siddeek (1985) recorded Orcella brevirostris as

one of the dominant species in the landed catch

at Negombo. However, this species was not

recorded at all during the present study.

Prematunga et al. (1985) and Ailing (1985a, b)

did not record this species from either Beruwala

on the west coast or Trincomalee and Valaichenai

on the east coast. Pseudorca crassidens and Stem

bredanensis have both been recorded by Ailing

(1985a) at Beruwala and in the present study

Pseudorca crassidens was recorded at Beruwala

and Mirissa while Steno bredanensis was

recorded at Negombo, Beruwala and Mirissa in

small numbers. The species Globicephalus

macrorhynca and Ziphius cavirostris recorded by

Ailing (1985b) at Trincomalee were not

encountered in the present study. Joseph and

Siddeek (1985) report that Stenella longirostris

was the dominant species in the catch at Negombo

and Beruwala, comprising 40.1 % of the catch and

Ailing (1985a, b) records it as the dominant

species in the catch both on the west and east

coasts. The present study also confirms that

Stenella longirostris was the dominant species at

all four landing sites, comprising 51.3% of the

total recorded catch. Ailing (1985b) reported that

Fig. 3. Map of Sri Lanka showing the study area

Stenella longirostris comprised 34% of total

sightings within 48 km off the coast. This could

possibly account for the abundance of this species

in the catch. However, not enough is known about

the population dynamics of small cetaceans in Sri

Lanka’s waters to reach an accurate conclusion

on this at present.

Seasonal variation of the catch in the

present study differs from previous studies. Joseph

and Siddeek (1985) record that April, May and

August had large landings at Negombo and

Beruwala. Ailing (1985a) records large numbers

for Beruwala in June, July and December 1982,

November and December 1983, and January,

April, and November 1984. In the present study,

SPECIES COMPOSITION OF SMALL CETACEANS CA UGHT OFF SRI LANKA

305

there was a consistent increase in numbers landed

in September, reaching a peak in October at

Negombo, Beruwala and Mirissa. At Kottegoda

the peak was in September, declining in October.

Fairly high catch rates were also recorded for

August and November at all stations. There were

slight variations between stations in the seasonal

catch of individual species, but in general the peak

was always between the end of August and

November which was considered as the post-

monsoon season in the present study. The only

exception was at Kottegoda which had a peak

catch of Stenella coeruleoalbam April. The only

explanation that can be offered at present for the

general peak between August and November is

that fishing effort is generally highest during the

calm season, between the southwest and

northeast monsoons. Therefore, bycatch in gillnet

operations shows an increase in these months on

the southwest coast. In Negombo and Mirissa,

where harpooning is practised, this would also be

the ideal time of year as harpooning is only possible

when the sea is calm. Therefore, the increased catch

in September and October is possibly due to the

calm sea conditions.

Joseph et al. (1983), Joseph and Siddeek

(1985), and Ailing (1985a, b) have not discussed

frequency distribution of body length of different

species in relation to the sex ratio. These two

sets of data were compared in the present study

for the four major species. In Stenella longirostris

54.3% of the measured specimens were in the

150 - 179.9 cm range, while 60.1% of these

specimens were males and 37.7% were females.

Therefore, it can be concluded that a high

percentage of adult males are being caught. In

Stenella coeruleoalba also, the percentage of

males caught is 54.9%, and 42.0% of the catch

were in the 90 - 119.9 cm range. This indicates

a high percentage of juvenile males being caught.

The reason for this is not known. High juvenile

mortality is a cause for concern as it could have

an adverse effect on the recruitment rate of the

population. Tursiops truncatus differs from the

general pattern by having a higher percentage

of females (61.7%) in the total catch, while 46.8%

of the total catch is within the 210 - 239.9 cm

range. The adult body length for this species is

220 - 400 cm and females are known to reach

sexual maturity at 220 - 240 cm (Leatherwood

et al ., 1982). Therefore, a majority of this species

being caught off the south and west coast are

breeding females. The pattern for Stenella

attenuata is very similar to that of S. longirostris,

with a higher percentage of males (54.4%) being

caught, while 32.2% of the total catch is in the

150 - 179.9 cm range.

Of the four fish landing sites chosen for

this study, harpooning was practiced only at

Negombo and Mirissa. Joseph et al. (1983) and

Joseph and Siddeek (1985) state that no specimens

examined by them either at Negombo or Beruwala

were harpooned. In the present study, 44.1% of

the catch at Negombo and 66.9% at Mirissa were

harpooned. Of the total 366 specimens examined

from all four landing sites 30.8% were harpooned.

Thus, although harpoon-ing is only practised in a

few areas it is a cause for concern. This practice

might spread to other areas since the present study

found it being done in Negombo where it had not

been recorded earlier by Joseph and Siddeek

(1985).

More offshore research is necessary to

assess the impact of fishery on the population of

small cetaceans in Sri Lanka’s waters. More

information on the population dynamics of the

various species is also essential.

Acknowledgements

I wish to express my gratitude to Dr. Hiran

W. Jayewardene for initiating the Marine

Mammal Programme at NARA and for making

the field research possible. I also thank Dr. J.

Jinadasa of the NARA Governing Board for his

guidance in preparing this paper.

306

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

References

Alling, A. (1985a): Small Cetacean Entanglement: A case

study of the incidental entrapment of small

cetaceans in Sri Lanka’s gillnet fishery. Vancouver,

British Columbia.

Alling, A. (1985b): Small Cetacean Entanglement: A case

study of the incidental entrapment of small

cetaceans in Sri Lanka’s gillnet fishery. D.c.Sc/

37/SMS, IWC, Bournemouth, U.K.

de Silva, P.H.D.H, (1987): Cetaceans (Whales, Dolphins

and Porpoises) recorded off Sri Lanka, India, from

the Arabian Sea, Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea.

7. Bombay not. Hist. Soc. 84 (3): 505-521.

Joseph, L & M.S.M. Seddeek (1985): Threat to dolphins

and small whales from commercial fisheries.

SLAAS, Colombo (unpublished).

Joseph, L., M.S.M. Siddeek & D.S. Jayakody (1983):

Cetaceans landed by fishermen in Negombo,

Sri Lanka. Symposium on Marine Mammals in

the Indian Ocean, Colombo, Sri Lanka

(unpublished).

Leatherwood, S. (1986): Whales, Dolphins and Porpoises

of the Indian Ocean Sanctuary; a catalogue of

available information, Hubbs Marine Research

Center Tech. Rep. No. 87-197.

Leatherwood, S. & R.R. Reeves (1983): The Sierra Club

Handbook of Whales and Dolphins.

Leatherwood, S & R.R. Reeves (1989): Marine Mammal

Research and Conservation in Sri Lanka 1985-

1986. Marine Mammal Technical Report No. 1,

UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya.

Leatherwood, S., R.R. Reeves, W.F. Perrin & W.E. Evane

(1982): Whales, Dolphins and Porpoises of Eastern

North Pacific and adjacent waters: a guide to their

identification. NOAA Technical Report, NMFS drc.

444.

Prematunga, W.P., A. Alling & S. Leatherwood (1985):

Species composition of small cetacean bycatches

in gillnets off Trincomalee, Sri Lanka, January

1984 through April 1985. IWC, Bournemouth,

U.K. (unpublished).

Tennent, J.E. (1859): Ceylon. An account of the island,

physical, historical and topographical with notes

of the natural history, antiquities and productions.

Vol. 1. Longman Green, Longman and Roberts,

London.

Watson, Lyall, (1981): Sea Guide to Whales of the World.

POPULATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF BRONZEWINGED ( METOPIDIUS

INDICUS) AND PHEASANT-TAILED ( HYDROPHASIANUS CHIRURGUS)

JACANAS IN KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK, BHARAIPUR, RAJASTHAN1

Ramachandran N.K.2 and Vuayan V.S.3

(With four text-figures )

Key words: Metopidius indicus, Hydro phasianus chirurgus, macro-invertebrate,

PCA, population, spatial distribution.

The temporal and spatial patterns of the population of two species of jacana ( Metopidius

indicus and Hydrophasianus chirurgus ) were studied in a monsoonal wetland (Keoladeo National

Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan) of the Gangetic plains of India for three years. The population of

both the species varied significantly over seasons and years, usually rising during monsoon-

winter. The Pheasant-tailed had the highest number in 1988, and for the Bronzewinged in 1986.

The spatial distribution of jacanas inside the Park was not determined by the size of the aquatic

blocks. Both the species had particular patterns of distribution which correspond with the

distribution pattern of certain macro -invertebrate taxa.

Introduction

Detailed information on the ecology of

most Jacanidae, a circum-tropical family of

shorebirds that inhabit freshwater swamps and

marshes, is very scanty. This family comprises

eight species and possesses a number of unique

characteristics, the most outstanding of which

are their exceedingly long toes and claws which

allow them to walk with ease over floating

vegetation (Austin 1983).

The species which occur on the Asian

continent are pheasant-tailed jacana

(Hydrophasianus chirurgus ) and bronzewinged

jacana (Metopidius indicus). The general

distribution of both pheasant-tailed and

bronzewinged jacanas in the Indian subcontinent

was reported by Ali and Ripley (1983) and their

population has been estimated as part of the

'Accepted February, 1995

2Bombay Natural History Society, Horabill House,

S.B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023.

’Present Address:

Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Naturlal History,

Kalampalayam P.O. Coimbatore- 642 010.

Asian waterfowl census (Scott and Rose 1989).

However, intensive studies on the population and

distribution in a specific area have not been

attempted so far. Therefore, a three year study

was undertaken at Keoladeo National Park,

Bharatpur to look into the spatio-temporal

aspects of their population.

The spatial abundance of jacanas in the

Park did not have a positive linear relation to

the aquatic area, as smaller blocks had more birds

than did the larger blocks. Many researchers have

emphasized the role of macro-invertebrates in

the habitat preference of different waterfowl

species, especially during the breeding season

(Murkin 1979, 1982, Murkin and Kadlec 1986,

Murkin and Batt (1987). Therefore, a spatial

correspondence between the distribution of

jacanas and macro-invertebrate taxa inside the

Park is expected during their breeding season.

This correspondence is examined using principal

component analysis.

StudV Area

The study was conducted in Keoladeo

National Park, Bharatpur, a well known, man-

308

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

modified wetland situated in the Indogangetic

plains. The Park is situated between 27° 7.6’ &

IT 12.2' N, and 77° 29.5' & IT 33.9' E in

Rajasthan. The total area of the Park is 29 sq. km.

It is almost flat with a gentle slope towards the

centre forming a depression and, during the years

of normal rainfall and water supply, the inundated

area covers around 8.5 sq. km. The aquatic portion

of the Park has been divided into various unequal

compartments or blocks by means of dykes (Fig.

1). The Park receives water annually from a

reservoir — the Ajan bund — situated about 500

m south of the Park.

Bharatpur receives the southwest monsoon

which sets in towards end-June and continues upto

September, sometimes to October. The

total rainfall was 424.7, 423.4 and 614.2 mm

during 1986, 1987 and 1988 respectively. The

monthly rainfall varied from year to year

(Fig. 2).

Material and Methods

Fortnightly census was conducted in the

morning hours using the dykes as transects. All

the birds seen on either side of the dykes were

counted, using a pair of binoculars. Duplication

of sighting was assumed to be nil, as the species

concerned restrict themselves to the same area

once they are settled. The entire aquatic area was

surveyed in each census trip.

Macro-invertebrates were sampled weekly

from fixed sampling stations (Fig. 1) using a

modified version of the Wisconsin Trap (Clark

and Murkin 1989). The radius of the sampler was

7.5 cm. It was immersed in water for some time,

so as to nullify the disturbance caused by the

movement of the sampler, as well as boat, and

then taken out gently. The contents along with

the vegetation and other material present inside

the sampler were washed carefully into a sieve

POPULATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF J AC AN AS

309

260

mm

200

160

60

1 flfci

an Apr Jui Oct Jan Apr Jul Oct Jan Apr Ju! Oct

86 87 I 88

Fig. 2 Monthly variation of rainfall in the Park from 1986 to 1988

and the macro-invertebrates were hand-picked to identify the pairs of blocks which differ

from it. Insects were identified up to order level significantly. All statistical analyses were done

and counted. using the software SYSTAT (Wilkinson 1988).

Statistical analysis

Multivariate analysis

Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used

to compare the population mean of jacanas

over the years. The differences of population

between years were also tested using ANOVA.

To compare the mean of population of both the

species in a given a year, paired sample t-test

was used.

Similarly, ANOVA was used to determine

the overall differences in the population of

jacanas among the blocks. Newman-Keuls test

was used for the multiple comparison of blocks

Data on the population of jacanas were

sorted out block-wise and correlated with

different macro-invertebrate taxa in order to

identify the taxa influencing the spatial pattern

of the distribution of jacanas. Only the data for

the monsoon and winter (August to March) were

taken into consideration. This was deemed

necessary for avoiding the effect of seasons in

the analysis. Three such seasons, starting from

August 1986, and ending with December 1988,

were included in the principal component

310

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Aug Oct Dec Feb Apr Jun Aug Oct Dec Feb Apr Jun Aug Oct Dec

I 1986 I 1987 I 1988 !

Fig. 3 Population of the Pheasant-tailed jacana from 1986 to 1988

analysis. To begin with, principal component

analysis was done on each data set which

included block wise data on both species of jacana

and abundance of different macro-invertebrate

tax a. The components derived from each data

set represent the spatial variability of a particular

data set. The analysis began with the extraction

of the first principal component which is the

linear function of the eight variables accounting

the highest variation. The analysis then proceeds

with computation of the next component and so

on, till all the variabilities in the data set were

accounted for. All the components were extracted

from the original data set containing of 42

observations independent of one another. The first

component of each data set was taken for further

analysis. Thus, the first principal component of

each jacana species was correlated with the first

components of each macro-invertebrate taxa. The

significance of the correlation coefficients was

obtained with 40 degrees of freedom (Jeffers

1987).

Results and Discussion

Population of the Pheasant-tailed Jacana.

Population of the pheasant- tailed jacana

had a distinct seasonal pattern: the number shot

up in autumn and winter, decreased in the spring

POPULATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF JACANAS

311

and was totally absent during summer (Fig. 3).

Ali and Ripley (1983) observe that the pheasant-

tailed jacana is a local migrant and can be seen

in good numbers in the plains during autumn-

winter. The pattern obtained during this study

support their observation.

The population of the pheasant-tailed

varied significantly in 1988, from that of 1986,

and 1987, thereby making the total variation

significant (ANOVA, F = 58.98; P = 0.0001).

The contribution of variation from 1986 vs. 1987

was not significant to the over all variation

Table 1

COMPARISON TO DETERMINE THE CONTRIBUTION

BY INDIVIDUAL YEARLY VARIATION TO THE

TOTAL YEARLY VARIATION IN THE POPULATION

OF PHEASANT-TAILED JACANA.

(Table 1). Their population was high during

monsoon and winter of 1988 compared to that

of 1986 and 1987 {x = 12 (1986), 5.82 (1987),

44 (1988)}. During 1988 they bred inside the

Park, unlike in 1986 and 1987. The failure of

breeding in 1987 may be due to poor monsoon.

But 1986, was partially good in terms of rain and

water input to the Park. Thus, the absence of

nesting in this year cannot be attributed to the

monsoon. Instead, it might be the result of

abundant growth of Eichhomia crassipes. Thus,

yearly fluctuation in the population of the

pheasant-tailed jacana must be a combined effect

of monsoon and the availability of suitable habitat

(Ramachandran 1993).

Population of the Bronzewinged Jacana.

The population of the bronzewinged jacana

also had a distinct, but different seasonal

variation from that of the pheasant-tailed jacana

(Fig. 4). Their population started building up in

August and attained a peak in October, December

and November during 1986, 1987 and 1988

respectively. During autumn and winter

(September through December) the number did

not show much change as in other seasons. From

January the population started declining and

reached the lowest point during summer,

especially in May and June.

Significant variation in the population of

the bronzewinged was noticed in different years

(ANOVA, F = 8.00 P = 0.001). It was striking

between 1986 and 1987, and 1986 and 1988 but

not so between 1987 and 1988 (Table 2). In

Table 2

COMPARISON TO DETERMINE THE CONTRIBUTION

BY INDIVIDUAL YEARLY VARIATION TO THE

TOTAL YEARLY VARIATION IN THE POPULATION

OF BRONZEWINGED JACANA

contrast to the population of the pheasant-tailed

jacana, the population of bronzewinged was

maximum during the monsoon and winter of

1986 (Table 2), which was mainly due to their

breeding success. Their preferred habitat for

nesting — Eichhomia crassipes patches — was

abundant during this season in 1986. Barman

and Bhattacharjee (1993) also reported the

importance of Eichhomia sp. for bronzewinged

as the preferred cover besides Hymanachae sp.

During 1987, the population declined because of

the failure of the monsoon, whereas during the

monsoon and winter of 1988, they could not breed

in good numbers (only one nest and two families

with chicks were sighted) as the habitat was

unsuitable. The near total absence of Eichhomia

crassipes and Ipomoea aquatica might have been

the reason for their decreased nesting activity.

It may be noted that while the bronzewinged

use mainly Eichhomia crassipes patches for

nesting, they use Ipomoea aquatica as a cover

for themselves and their young ones from

predators.

312

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 94 (199 7)

Fig. 4 Population of the Bronzewinged jacana from 1986 to 1988

Comparison of population of the Pheasant-

tailed and the Bronzewinged Jacanas

The population of both the species varied

significantly during the monsoon and winter of

1986 and 1988, whereas in 1987 it did not vary

(Table 3). Thus, the year 1986 was productive

for the bronzewinged and 1 988 for the pheasant-

tailed but 1987 was not particularly so for either

of the species. Since both 1986 and 1988 had

more or less similar rainfall, it cannot be

considered as a factor for the difference in

population between the two species. Therefore,

it can be explained only by the different habitat

requirement of both species and the availability

of preferred habitat patches.

Table 3

PAIRED SAMPLES T-TEST SHOWING VARIATION

BETWEEN THE PHEASANT-TAILED AND

BRONZEWINGED JACANAS IN THE SAME YEAR

Distribution of the Pheasant-tailed Jacana

The highest mean number of the pheasant-

tailed was sighted in block D and lowest in block

POPULATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF J AC AN AS

313

B. The blocks E and F held the same number of

the pheasant-tailed jacana (Table 4). Similarly

blocks N and Lw, and L and K had the same

average population. However, the population

varied significantly between many of the blocks

(ANOVA: F = 7.47, P = 0.0001).

Table 4

MEAN FOR THE BLOCK- WISE POPULATION OF

J AC AN AS (n = 42).

The multiple comparison of absolute mean

using Newman-Keuls test (Table 5) showed that

blocks D, E and F differed significantly from all

other blocks and at the same time did not vary

among themselves.

Distribution of the Bronzewinged Jacana.

The highest mean population of the

bronzewinged was in block L followed by D

and E. The blocks N, Lw, and B held almost the

same mean population (Table 4). In this species

also, there was significant difference in its

population between blocks (ANOVA: F - 5.98,

P = 0.000).

As in the pheasant-tailed multiple

comparison of blocks was attempted (Table 6).

The analysis showed that block D differed from

blocks N, Lw, L and B’; block E from blocks N,

Lw, B and K; and block F from blocks L, D and

E. The blocks B and K differed from L, and L

from N and Lw.

The role of macro -invertebrate taxa in the

distribution pattern of the bronzewinged and

pheasant-tailed jacanas.

Eight taxa of macro-invertebrates were

recorded from the Park comprising six insect

orders, molluscs and oligochaetes (Table 7). The

first principal component obtained for each taxa

of macro-invertebrate and the jacanas with the

total variation explained is given in Table 8 and

9 respectively.

When the first principal component

obtained for pheasant-tai led jacana was subjected

to correlational analysis (Table 10) with that of

different macro- in vertebrate taxa, it was found

that the spatial pattern of this species positively

corresponds with the spatial pattern of Odonata,

Mollusca and Oligochaeta. But its relation with

the Ephemeroptera was negative. Its relation with

Mollusca is striking because in a year when the

Table 5

NEWMAN-KEULS MULTIPLE COMPARISON OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF PHEASANT- TAILED JACANA IN

VARIOUS BLOCKS

Note: the values are absolute mean differences

*P = 0.000; ** P <0.02

314

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Table 6

NEWMAN-KEULS MULTIPLE COMPARISON OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF BRONZEWINGED JACANA IN

VARIOUS BLOCKS

Note: COL = Coleoptera, DIP = Diptera, EPH = Ephemeroptera, HEM = Hemiptera, LEP =Lepidoptera, ODO, Odonata,

OLI = Oligochaeta, MOL = Mollusca

POPULATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF J AC AN AS

315

Table 9

THE FIRST PRINCIPAL COMPONENT OBTAINED

Table 10

COEFFICIENTS OF CORRELATION BETWEEN THE

FIRST PRINCIPAL COMPONENT OF THE

BRONZEWINGED AND THE PHEASANT-TAILED

J ACAN A AND THE FIRST PRINCIPAL COMPONENT

OF VARIOUS MACRO-INVERTEBRATE TAXA

Taxa Bronzewinged jacana Pheasant-tailed jacana

abundance of Mollusca inside the Park was very

poor, the pheasant-tailed chose to breed in an

artificial village pond in Banera. 50 m away

from the boundary of the Park, where the

molluscs were abundant. None of the taxa

showed any significant correspondence with the

pheasant-tailed. Since some other factors also

contribute to the variability in the distribution

of this species, the combined effect of all these

may be the reason for the pattern observed, or

all the correlated macro-invertebrate

components may be inter-related in their

distributional pattern.

In the case of the bronzewinged, the first

principal component had significant positive

relation to Coleoptera and Lepidoptera, but

negative to Oligochaeta (Table 10). The negative

relation of Oligochaeta may be due to the

negative relation of this taxa with other positively

related taxa. It need not be the result of direct

interaction between the bronzewinged and

Oligochaeta.

Invertebrate food resources are an

important factor in determining the waterfowl

and blackbird ( Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus

and Agelaius phoeniceus ) use of prairie wetlands,

particularly during the breeding season (Murkin,

1979; Murkin and Kadlec, 1986; Murkin and Batt,

1987). Habitat preferences of breeding black

ducks {Anas rubriceps ) appear to be influenced

by the cover and invertebrate densities

((Ringelmanef a/., 1982). They indicated that the

ducks avoided wetland habitat types having low

invertebrate densities. Similarly the distribution

of jacanas inside the Park in a given season may

be explained by three major factors, namely

distribution of vegetation patches, macro-

invertebrate fauna and water depth, or combined

effect of all these factors. Among the above

mentioned variables, variability of water depth

among the different blocks in any particular

season was negligible and the distribution of

macro-invertebrates is defined by the charac-

teristics of vegetation patches as recorded by

Jeffries (1993). The importance of a macro-

invertebrate diet in fulfilling the protein demand

of ducks, especially from the pre-laying period

to egg-laying period has been documented earlier

(Swanson and Meyer 1973, Krapu 1974,

Swanson et al. 1979, Noyes and Jarvis 1985).

Moreover, Barman and Bhattacharjee (1993)

found animal food as the most preferred item for

the bronzewinged jacana. Hence,

macro-invertebrate can be a good predictor

variable for the spatial distribution patterns of

waterbirds, especially during their breeding

season.

The correlation obtained between the

distribution of jacana species and the distribution

of various macro-invertebrate taxa indicates that

316

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

jacanas might be fulfilling their protein demand

by feeding opportunistically on them. Baldessarre

and Bolen (1994) had come to the same

conclusion in the case of waterfowl.

Whilst correspondence has been

documented in the spatial distribution of both

the species of jacanas and various macro

invertebrate taxa by this study, it is to be

mentioned that the observed relation cannot be

explained fully until quantitative data on their

food habits are available. Nevertheless,

correspondence of their occurrence with a

particular taxon of macro-invertebrate suggests

that they should be feeding on it.

Refer

All S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the birds of

India and Pakistan. Compact edition. Oxford

University Press, New Delhi, India.

Austin, L.O. (1983): Birds of the World. Optimum Books,

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Baldessarre, G.A. & E.G. Bolen (1994): Waterfowl

ecology and management. John Wiley and Sons Inc,

NY.

Barman, R. & P.C. Bhattacharjee(1993): Habitat quality

estimation by habitat suitability index inMetopidius

indicus. In Bird Conservation: Strategies for the

Nineties and Beyond (Eds. Abraham Varghese, S.

Sridhar & A.K. Chakravarthy). Ornithological

Society of India, Bangalore.

Clark, W.C. & H.R. Murkin (1989): Vertebrates. In:

Marsh ecology research program: Long term

monitoring procedures manual. Technical Bulletin

2.

Jeffers, J.N.R. (1978): An introduction to systems analysis

with ecological applications. Edward Arnold

Publishers, London.

Jeffries, M. (1993): Invertebrate colonization of artificial

pondweeds of differing fractal dimension. Oikos 67:

142-148.

Krapu, G.L. (1974): Feeding ecology of Pintail hens during

reproduction. A uk 91: 278-290.

Murkin, H.R. (1979): Responses by waterfowl and

blackbirds to an experimentally manipulated cattail

marsh. M.S. Thesis, McGill University, Montreal,

PQ.

Murkin, H.R. & B.D.J. Batt (1987): The interaction of

Acknowledgement

The study was conducted as part of the

BNHS’ multidisplinary study on the ecology of

Keoladeo National Park supported by the U.S.

Fish & Wildlife Service and the Govt, of India.

We are indebted to Mr. J.C. Daniel, BNHS for

encouragement. We are thankful to Dr. P.A.

Azeez and Dr. D.F. Singh of S£lim Ali Center

for Ornithology and Natural History for going

through and critically commenting on an earlier

version of the manuscript. We are grateful to

Rajasthan Forest Department officials for

extending their cooperation during the study.

iNCES

vertebrate and invertebrate in peatlands and

marshes. Mem. Entomol. Soc. Can. 104: 15-30.

Murkin, H.R. & J.A. Kadlec (1986): Relationship between

waterfowl and macro-invertebrate densities in a

northern prairie marsh. J. Wildl. Manage. 50: 212-

217.

Noyes, J.H. & J.L. Jarvis (1985): Diet and nutrition of

breeding female Redhead and Canvasback ducks

in Nevada. J. Wildl. Manage. 49: 203-211.

Ramachandran, N.K. (1993): Comparative ecology of the

Pheasant-tailed and Bronzewinged jacanas in

Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan.

Ph D Thesis, University of Bombay, Mumbai.

Ringelman, J.K. & R.B. Owen (1982): Breeding habitat

selection and home range of radio-marked Black

Ducks (Anas rubripes) in Maine. Can. J. zool. 60:

241-248.

Scott, D. A. & P.M. Rose (1989): Asian waterfowl census

1989. IWRB, Slimbridge.

Swanson, G.A. & M.I. Meyer (1973): The role of

invertebrates in the feeding ecology of Anatidae

during the breeding season. In The waterfowl

management symposium. Monotor, N.B. pp 143-

177.

Swanson, G.A., G.L. Krapu & J.R. Serie(1979): The foods

of laying female dabbling ducks on the breeding

grounds. In Waterfowl and wetlands - An

integrated review (Ed. T. A. Bookhout.) La Crosse

Printing Co., La Crosse, Wis. pp 47-57.

Wilkinson, L. (1988): SYSTAT: The system for statistical

analysis, Evanston, IL: Inc.

LABORATORY STUDIES ON THE LIFE CYCLE OF SIMOCEPHALUS

SERRULATUS KOCH 1881 (CLADOCERA: CRUSTACEA)1 2

2Subash Babu and C.K.G. Nayar

(With one plate )

Key words: Simocephalus serrulatus , Cladocera, life cycle, instar, parthenogenetic,

ephippium.

The life cycle of the cladoceran Simocephalus serrulatus has been described on the basis

of laboratory culture. The neonates produced from the same brood pouch may be all female, all

male or both male and female. The female neonates pass through 3 preadult instars and 1 8 adult

instars, while the males have only 2 preadult instars and there is no moulting in the adult stage.

Egg production starts at the 4th instar. The maximum number of eggs is produced during 10th to

12th instars.

Introduction

The successful culture of Cladocera

depends on our knowledge of the biology and

life cycle of individual species. Several

investigators have attempted to study the life

cycle of a few species of Indian Cladocera. These

include the works of Navaneethakrishnan and

Michael (1971) on Dapknia carinata , Murugan

and Sivaramakrishnan (1973) on Simocephalus

acutirostratus , Murugan (1975a) on Moina

micrura , Murugan and Sivaramakrishnan (1976)

on Scapholeberis kingi, Murugan (1975b) on

Ceriodaphnia cornuta , Murugan and

Venkataraman (1977) on Daphnia carinata ,

Murugan and Job (1982) on Leydigia

acanthoceroides, Kanaujia (1982) on

Ceriodaphnia cornuta. Kanaujia (1983) on

Daphnia lumholtzi and Kanaujia (1987) on

Simocephalus vetulus. Recent study of

Thresiamma et al. (1991) on the production and

population density of Moina micrura is the only

report on similar studies from Kerala. The above

papers give good accounts of the life history of

1 Accepted August, 1995.

2 Research Laboratory, Christ College, Irinjalakuda 680 125,

Kerala, India.

parthenogenetic females, but they do not give

sufficient information about the role of males and

ephippial females in the life cycle. The present

study is a detailed investigation of the life cycle

of Simocephalus serrulatus , a common

cladoceran species of Kerala.

Material and Methods

Simocephalus serrulatus is a large

cladoceran found among the littoral weeds and

sediments of ponds. The specimens for the

present study were collected from a shallow pond

situated near Christ College campus and brought

live to the laboratory. Twenty-five healthy, egg-

bearing females were sorted out under a

stereoscopic microscope and were transferred into

•an earthern pot of 5 litre capacity containing the

culture medium. This was maintained as the stock

culture. The culture medium was prepared in pond

water and filtered through a net made of No. 25

bolting silk. Powdered groundnut cake (500 mg/

1) was used as manure for growing algal cells.

The medium contained mainly unicellular alga

Chlorella sp. at a density of about 10 x 103 cells/1.

One ovigerous female was isolated from the

stock culture with the help of a pipette and

inoculated into a beaker containing 250 ml of the

318

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

same culture medium. This female was kept under

constant observation so as to isolate the newly

hatched young neonates. They were individually

reared in 20 different petri dishes containing the

culture medium which was changed every 24

hours. The time of hatching and moulting, number

of neonates hatched in each brood and the life

span of all the individuals were regularly recorded

until their death. The experiments were repeated

thrice and mean values were taken. All

observations were made at room temperature

27±2°C.

The ephippial females were also collected

from the stock culture and isolated under the

microscope. Free ephippia found in large

numbers floating on the surface of the culture

medium as well as sticking onto the sides of the

container were easily collected with the help of

a brush or a pipette. Another set of 5 individuals

was simultaneously reared in the same medium

for dissection, using microtungsten needle.

Measurements were made with a calibrated

ocular micrometer.

Observations

In the culture medium, the females were

generally found clinging on to the side wall of

the container with the help of their antennal

hooks. They kept their body upside down while

swimming. The males were found to be more

active than the females, and always swimming

in the medium. During mating, the male

remained adhered to the hind end of the female.

The mating behaviour is found to be similar to

that of Pleuroxus denticulatus , as described by

Shan (1969).

In the first set of experiments, out of the

20 neonates produced from a brood, 16 were

found to be females and the rest males. The

female neonates measured a mean length of

0.615 mm while males measured 0.55 mm. But

in the second set all the neonates produced were

males while in the third set all the neonates

were parthenogenetic females. In addition to their

smaller size, the males could also be distinguished

by the presence of two sensory setae on the middle

of the antennule and prehensile claws on the

first thoracic leg. Unlike other daphnids, the

antennule of the male is not elongated. The newly

hatched young were found to be similar to the

adults in morphology except for their miniature

size. (Plate l,Fig. 1).

The female neonates pass through 3

preadult instars and 18 adult instars in a life span

of 35.8 days, with an average instar duration of

40.9 hours. The males, however, had only 2

preadult instars and there was no moulting in

the adult stage. The average instar duration of a

male was 56 hours with a life span of 6.5 days.

The males matured after two moults. A pair of

elongated testes extending over one-third of the

length of the animal was distinctly visible at this

stage. The mature males had a mean length of

0.675 mm (Plate 1, Fig. 2)

In mature females, the ovaries were seen

as a pair of elongated sacs on each side of the

alimentary canal. The contents of the ovaries

were discharged through a small opening at the

posterior end into the brood-pouch. This

discharged mass later became spherical and

formed the eggs. (Plate 1 , Fig. 3). The relationship

between mean size of each instar and the number

of eggs produced from each brood, and instar

duration are given in Table 1 .

The morphological features of the

embryonic stages ofS. serrulatus are given below,

following the terminology of Green (1966):

Early stage: At this stage, the newly

formed eggs are spherical with a mean diameter

of 0.27 mm. They are green in colour with a

transparent marginal zone (Plate 1, Fig. 4).

Middle stage: At this stage the embryo is

somewhat elongated. The head lobe and

rudiments of thoracic legs and antennae are

visible. Numerous fat globules are also present

(Plate 1, Fig. 5).

Final stage: The head is distinct and the

eyes are well developed. Antennae are elongated

and segmented. A transparent carapace is formed

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 94 Plate 1

S. Babu and C.K.G. Nayar: Simocephalus serrulatus

Fig. 1. Newly hatched young (0.6 mm); 2. Mature male (0.67 mm);

3. Parthenogenetic female (1.6 mm); 4. Parthenogenetic eggs (0.25 mm);

5. Developing embryo (0.304 mm) (inset); 6. Embryo with well developed antennae. (0.329 mm);

7a. Ephippium (0.63 mm); 7b. Leathery chorion (0.63 mm);

7c. Resting egg showing outer membrane. (0.27 mm).

ry

THE UFE CYCLE OF SIMOCEPHALUS SERRULATUS KOCH 1881

319

Table 1

VARIATION IN SIZE AND DURATION OF INSTARS OF SIMOCEPHALUS

enclosing the body appendages and postabdomen.

Alimentary canal is fully extended (Plate. 1,

Fig. 6). Towards the end of this stage the

appendages are fully developed and the young

starts exhibiting movements.

The total duration of embryonic development

was observed to be 40-42 hours, after which the

young were released from the brood-pouch by

jerking movements of the postabdomen of the

mother. This took place at any time before the

mother passed through the next moult.

Immediately after moulting, another clutch of eggs

was discharged into the brood-pouch and the

parthenogenetic cycle was repeated.

The ephippial females could be

distinguished from the parthenogenetic females

by their smaller size and by the absence of the

blunt posterior spine on the carapace. The

ephippium is a modified brood pouch formed on

the dorsal half of the valves and is slightly

yellowish in colour, its outer surface ornamented

with a honeycomb pattern. It is somewhat

triangular in shape, with a mean length of 0.63

mm and contains only .the resting egg. (Plate 1.

Fig. 7a). The resting egg was encased by two

membranes, an inner vitelline transparent

membrane and an outer thick leathery chorion.

When the ephippial females collected from the

stock culture were transferred to the beaker

containing fresh culture medium, many of them

cast off their ephippia along with the moult. The

newly released ephippia floated on the surface

of the medium for some time and then sank to

the bottom or remained adhered to the side walls

of the container.

Discussion

Simocephalus acutiro stratus and S. vetulus

are the other two tropical species of the genus

Simocephalus whose life cycles have been studied

by Murugan (1977) and Kanaujia (1987)

320

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 ( 1997 )

Table 2

COMPARISON OF THE LIFE CYCLES OF THREE SPECIES OF SIMOCEPHALUS FROM INDIA

similarities, particularly in the number of preadult

instars, adult instars and instar duration (Table 2).

The effect of temperature and food on the number

and duration of instars has been studied by a few

workers. Anderson and Jenkin (1942), Murugan

and Sivaramakrishnan (1976) have observed that

differences in the culture medium might cause

variation in the number of instars. Kanaujia

(1988) pointed out in S. vetulus that temperature

is one of the factors influencing the number

of adult instars, and lack of food and temperature

above 20°C might increase the number of pre-

adult instars. In the present study, however, no

such variation was observed. Murugan (1975a)

and Venkataraman (1981) could not observe any

variation in the number of instars in Moina

micrura and Daphnia carinata respectively.

Since the number of instars is likely to be

hereditary and species-specific, the influence of

extrinsic factors on the number of instars needs

further study.

Increase in the size of the individual at each

instar is found to be more rapid during the

preadult phase and gradually slows down towards

the later stages of the life cycle (Table I). Green

(1956) also observed the maximum growth rate

in the early preadult instars of many daphnids.

Murugan and Job (1982) have observed uniform

preadult instar durations in Leydigia

acanthoceroides. In the present study, how-

ever, both preadult and adult instar duration

varied widely. But the duration of preadult in

star was always shorter than the adult instar

duration. Primiparous instar had a longer duration

than the longest preadult instar duration.

Murugan and Job (1982) have also observed

a long primiparous instar duration in

L. acanthoceroides.

In S. serrulatus the egg production was

initiated at the fourth instar and the maximum

number of eggs per brood was found during the

10th to 12th instars, after which there was a

decline. Similar observations were also made by

Green (1956), and Kanaujia (1988). However,

Navaneethakrishnan and Michael (1971)

observed in Daphnia carinata that the egg

numbers gradually increased from the first to the

last instar. In L.acanthoceroides, Murugan and

Job (1982) observed only two eggs in all adult

instars, without any increase or decrease in egg-

production rate.

Reduced number of preadult instars with

long instar duration, absence of adult instars and

short life-span of males observed in the present

species are likely to apply to other species as well.

The rare occurrence of males in the natural

population of cladoceran species indicates that

the appearance of males is not obligatory in their

life cycle. The male, however, is important in

the production of ephippial females, which

enable the species to tide over drought and other

unfavourable environmental conditions. In the

present study, a large number of ephippial

females appeared in the stock culture when the

population attained its peak, with a density of

29,000 individuals per litre of culture medium.

Pennak (1953), Michael (1962) and Hutchinson

(1967) also observed the presence of a large

THE UFE CYCLE OF SIMOCEPHALUS SERRULATUS KOCH 1881

321

number of ephippial females when the culture

medium became overcrowded.

An important observation in this study is

the development of both males and females from

the same brood of parthenogenetic females. This

has also been observed by Muthu (1983) in

Moina micrura. Factors responsible for this

phenomenon are not yet understood.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Rev. Fr. Jose Chittilapilli,

Principal of Christ College, Irinjalakuda for

providing necessary facilities and to the

Department of Science, Technology and

Environment, Govt, of Kerala, for financial

assistance.

References

Anderson, B.G. & J.C. Jenkins (1942): A time study of

events in the life-span of Daphnia magna. Biol.

Bull. 83:260-212.

Green, J. (1956): Growth size and reproduction in

Daphnia (Crustacea: Cladocera). Proc. zool. Soc.

bond. 126: 173-204.

Hutchinson, G.E. (1967): A treatise on limnology. Vol. II.

John Wiley & Sons. Inc., New York, pp 1115.

Kanaujia, D.R. ( 1982): Instar duration, instar number, egg

production and longevity in Ceriodaphnia comuta

at two temperature ranges. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 79(2): 441-445.

Kanaujia, D.R. (1983): Life history, ephippia development,

cyclomorphosis and temperature effect on life cycle

in Daphnia lumholtzi Sars Cladocera: Daphnidae).

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 80(2): 442-448.

Kanaujia, D.R. (1 987): Biology and ephippia development

in Simocephalus vetulus (O.F. Muller, 1976)

(Cladocera: Daphnidae). Indian J. Animal Sci.

57(1): 1153-1160.

Kanaujia, D.R. (1988): Life cycle of Simocephalus vetulus

(O.F Muller, 1 976) (Cladocera: Daphnidae) under

laboratory conditions and the effect of food on the

life history. Indian J. Anim. Sci. 58(2): 1462

Michael, R.G. (1962): Seasonal events in a natural

population of the cladoceran Ceriodaphnia comuta

Sars and observations on its life cycle. J zool. Sci.

India , 14: 211-218.

Murugan, N. (1975a): Egg production, development and

growth in Moina micrura Kurz 1874 (Cladocera:

Moinidea). Freshwater Biol. 5: 245-250.

Murugan, N. (1975b): Biology of Ceriodaphnia comuta

Sars (Cladocera: Daphnidae). J. Inland Fish. Soc.

India , 7:80-87.

Murugan, N. (1977): The biology of Simocephalaus

acutirostratus King (Cladocera: Daphnidae).

Hatchability of parthenogenetic egg cultured in

artifial media. Hydrobiologia 54: 273-277 .

Murugan, N. & K.G. Sivaramakrishnan (1973): The

biology of Simocephalus acutirostratus King

(Cladocera: Daphnidae). Laboratory studies on life

span, instar duration, egg production, growth and

stages in embryonic development. Freshwater

Biol. , 7:80-87. "

Murugan, N. & K.G. Sivaramakrishnan (1976):

Laboratory studies on the longevity, instai duration ,

growth, reproduction and embryonic development

in Scapholeberis kingi Sars (1903) (Cladocera:

Daphnidae). Hydrobiologia 5(7:75-80.

Murugan, N. & K. Venkataraman (1977): Study of them

vitro development of the parthenogenetic egg of

Daphnia carinata King (Cladocera: Daphnidae).

Hydrobiologia 52( 2-3 ): 1 29- 1 34.

Murugan, N. & S.V. Job (1982): Laboratory studies on

the life cycle of Leydigia acanthoceroides Fisher

(1854) (Cladocera: Chydoridae). Hydrobiologia

89: 9-16.

Muthu, M.S. (1983): Culture of live feed organisms III,

Cladoceran Moina sp. Technical Paper No. 14.

C.M.F.R.I., Cochin.

Navaneethakrishnan, P. & R.G. Michael (1971): Egg

production and growth in Daphnia carinata King.

Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 73: 117-123.

Pennak, R.W. (1953): Freshwater invertebrates of the

United States. Ronald Press, New York.

Shan, K. (1969): Life cycle of a chydorid cladoceran

Pleuroxus denticulatus Birge. Hydrobiologia 34:

513-523.

Thresiamma, J., T.V.A. Mercy & D.M. Thampy (1991):

Production and population density of Moina

micmra Kurz. cultured in different media. J. zool.

Soc. Kerala 1(1): 21-31.

Venkataraman, K. (1981): Field and laboratory studies

on Daphnia carinata King (Cladocera: Daphnidae)

from a seasonal tropical pond. Hydrobiologia 78:

221-225.

CROP DAMAGE CAUSED BY BLACKBUCKS {ANTILOPE CERVICAPRA ) AT

KARERA GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD SANCTUARY,

AND POSSIBLE REMEDIAL SOLUTIONS1

Jagdish Chandra2

(With three text-figures )

Key words: blackbuck, crop damage, great Indian bustard (GIB), sanctuary, management,

culling, capture.

An alarming increase in the population of the blackbuck, (Antilope cervicapra), at Karera

Great Indian Bustard Sanctuary, has been a cause of concern for its nuisance value as a pest of

agricultural crops. This paper deals with two and half years of efforts to resolve the problem,

along with possible remedial solutions. Efforts were made to catch the animals to translocate

them to Madhav National Park, Shivpuri. On experimental basis, one animal was captured alive,

but later it died of shock within the enclosure, therefore the process was discontinued. Crops like

Mung (a pulse) and Ramas (a bean) were sown near the affected fields so as to reduce the

pressure of grazing on the privately owned agricultural fields. Experts from the Wildlife Institute

from India, Dehradun, were requested to survey and evaluate the crop damage, and to suggest

alternatives to mitigate this problem. Their findings are still awaited.

Introduction

In 1981, the State Govt, of Madhya Pradesh

declared Karera Great Indian Bustard Sanctuary,

near Shivpuri district, to protect the Great

Indian Bustard and other wildlife. Evidently, it

was aimed to provide fullest protection to this

bird. As a result, other fauna of the sanctuary

also started increasing. I took over as the first

superintendent of the Karera GIB sanctuary, in

January 1983, and estimated the population of

blackbucks to be around 150. With protection and

management, their population increased

alarmingly and in the year 1991, it was estimated

at 2626 animals. Such an increase resulted in the

problem of crop raiding in the cultivated fields

(Prasad, 1982). This paper reports the obser-

vations and studies made from 1985 to 1988, for

two and half years. Steps were also taken to

mitigate the crop damage problem. Proposals and

1 Accepted August, 1995

2Assistant Director, Pench National Park, Barapathar 480 661 ,

Seoni (M.P.) & Ex.- Superintendent, GIB Sanctuary, Karera.

project reports were sent to the Chief Conservator

of Forests (Wildlife), M.P., Bhopal, to cope with

this problem.

Distribution of Blackbuck:

In India, blackbuck used to be distributed

from northwest to south-central India, almost

everywhere, except for the thickly forested

areas of Kerala, and high forests of Madhya

Pradesh. It is also not found on the high altitudes

of Uttar Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir and in the

Eastern parts of the country, (Ranjitsinh, 1982,

Prasad, 1982). (Map-1). As early as 1947, the

popula-tion was estimated at 80,000 heads, but

by the end of 1964 only 8,000 remained (Prasad,

1982). After the enactment of the Wildlife

(Protection) Act, 1972, and owing to protection,

the blackbuck population increased conside-

rably. Presently, their population is variably

estimated to be around 11,000 plus (Prasad,

1982), and more than 22,500 (Ranjitsinh, 1982).

The statewise populations are given in

Table 1.

>2

CROP DAMAGE CAUSED BY BLACKBUCKS (ANTILOPE CERV1CAPRA)

323

PUNJAB

HARYANA

gujarat-A^*,

MAHARASHTRA

MADHYA PRADESH

jpRISSAj/> WEST BENGAL

GOA

KARNATAKA

ANDHRA PRADESH

KERALA — <•

TAMIL NADU

600 km

Fig. 1 Present distribution of blackbuck in India

Apart from this, more than 350 animals of the Shivpuri district of Madhya Pradesh, the

have been reported from various parts of Seoni, Karera Great Indian Bustard Sanctuary covers

Rajnandgaon, Raisen, Hoshangabad, Gwalior, an area of 202.21 sq. km, and lies between 25°

Mandsaur, Vidisha, Guna, Damoh, Narsingarh 30' to 45’ lat. and 78° 5' to 15' long. The main

and Shahdol district (Ranjitsinh, 1982). sanctuary area is 20 km from Karera. (Map 1)

The Karera Sanctuary: Geology and Topography :

Located in the Karera and Narwar Tehsil Most of the terrain is plain, with gentle

324

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Table 1

THE DISTRIBUTION OF BLACKBUCK IN INDIA

In Madhya Pradesh, blackbuck are reported in the following

protected areas (Ranjitsinh, 1982):

approx popln.

slopes and undulations which can be seen more

toward the east and northwest of the sanctuary.

However, a few chains of hills which are exposed

on the top and look saddle-shaped are also

scattered over the area. The highest peak is 368 m

above msl. The sanctuary area has sandy loam

and laterite (Murram) soil, but low lying areas

have shallow black cotton soil. Boulders and

stone consisting of granite mixed with quartz

are frequently seen near the foothills and on the

elevated areas. Two roads, namely Karera-

Behgawan and Karera-Sunari, trisect the

sanctuary (Map 3). There are seven man-made

wetlands interspersed within the sanctuary;

these are Ronija tank, Barsori tank, Berkhera

tank, Karai-Ramgarha tank, Gadhai tank,

Baraua tank and the Dihalia jheel. Constructed

mainly for irrigation and fishery, one of them is

famous (Dihail a jheel), and is the largest water

body inside the sanctuary. About 377 ha in area,

this jheel is visited by tens of thousands of

migratory birds in the winter season (Chandra,

1987). It has been proposed as a Ramsar site

(Rahmani, 1987).

Vegetation :

Most of the sanctuary land is barren, with

scattered vegetation, mostly comprising ber

(Ziziphus jujuba ), babool ( Acacia nilotica ), etc.

Kardhai ( Anogeissus pendula ) trees, found on

most of the hills, are now growing horizontally

because of overgrazing. One can still see the old

remnants of kardhai as sacred groves in some

of the plain areas of the sanctuary. According to

Champion and Seth (1968), the sanctuary area

comes under the Northern Tropical Dry

deciduous Forest (5B/D54) type.

Climate :

There are three distinct seasons, viz.

summer (March-June), rain (July -October), and

winter (November-February). Temperature

varies from a minimum of 4°C in winter to

46°C in the summer. Sometimes the ground

temperature goes up to 48°C in the peak summer.

Annual rainfall varies from 65.00 cm to

75.00 cm mostly in the months of August-

September.

Human Settlements :

The' Karera Great Indian Bustard

Sanctuary is peculiar in that out of 202.21

sq.km., only 56 ha belong to the forest

department, the rest being private holdings

(145.31 sq.km), revenue department (55.55

sq.km) or is covered under village constructions

(1.35 sq.km). There are 33 villages spread over

the sanctuary, out of which one is abandoned.

Nearly 27,000 (census 1981) people reside in

the sanctuary i.e. about 133.50 persons per

sq.km.

CROP DAMAGE CAUSED BY BLACKBUCKS ( ANTILOPE CERVICAPRA)

325

I

Fig. 2 Map showing the villages inside sanctuary

326

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Livestock :

According to the 1981 census, the cattle

population in 32 villages inside the sanctuary is

around 36,000, which includes cows, buffaloes,

goats and sheep. Other animals such as pigs,

dogs, and donkeys are also present. Cattle density

is about 178 heads per sq. km.

Land use:

Almost all revenue and private lands are

used for cattle grazing. Blackbucks are directly

competing for food and are always at loss, due

to heavy biotic pressure. Villagers, who have

leased out land from the District (Revenue)

authorities, often dig wells and construct houses

and cultivate crops near the agriculture site.

Thus, agricultural fields are interspersed

irrationally. Attempt has never been made to

cultivate the fields in contiguous areas. Study

reveals that unplanned landuse has further

shrunken the available land, therefore village

land has covered up to 1 .66 sq.km, revenue land

52.43 sq.km and private land 148.12 sq.km. The

number of wells, hutments etc. constructed in

the main study area during the past five years

are given in Table 2.

Other activities such as quarrying, fishing,

governmental transportation and cow dung

collection are regular practices. Human impacts

include construction of irrigation canals,

electrification of houses and road repairs.

Two crop seasons prevail in the area. The

winter or Rabi crops include wheat ( Triticum

vulgare), Bengal gram ( Cicer arietinum), lentil

(. Lens esculentus). Rainy season or Kharif crops

include maize ( Zea mays), til ( Sesamum indicum ),

paddy ( Oryza sativa), etc.

Seasonal vegetables such as potatoes,

radish, ladies finger, etc. are also grown. Wheat

is grown over 30.38% of the area, followed by

gram (11.54%), maize (10.55%), groundnut

(7.71%) and paddy (2.93%). (Source: District

statistical data, Shivpuri, 1981).

The Blackbuclc.

In 1981, when Karera was declared as a

Great Indian Bustard Sanctuary, there were about

150 blackbuck in it. Ranjitsinh (1982), however,

reported a population of only 80. Thereafter, the

author counted 1169 animals in 1988 (Table 3),

and the present population is reported to be 2626

animals (Census 1991). Census data for 1984-

88 are given in Table 3.

Table 2

FIVE YEARS OF DEVELOPMENT IN CONSTRUCTION WORK IN KARERA GIB SANCTUARY

CROP DAMAGE CAUSED BY BLACKBUCKS ( ANTILOPE CERVICAPRA)

327

Fig. 3 Map showing distribution of blackbucks and their movement

328

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94(1997)

Table 3

CENSUS FIGURES FOR BLACKBUCK IN KARERA,

GIB SANCTUARY

* See Appendix 1 for graphical representation.

Blackbucks are distributed throughout the

sanctuary except for the extreme north and

southwest. However, they are less frequently seen

on the hills, near the wetlands and areas with black

cotton soil. The following are the main areas of

their distribution inside the sanctuary (Map 4).

Turkani: This is one of the areas highly

populated with blackbucks and is also a core area

for the bustards. The Mahuar river in the east

forms a natural barrier. This area is about 400 ha

with around 250 animals.

Behgawan: This is the largest habitat in

the sanctuary for blackbucks, towards the West

it extends up to Naraua and Dhamdauli villages,

outside the sanctuary. As many as 300 animals

are seen here. Animals of this area visit the

Bauraua and nearby villages frequently.

Karewah: On the left bank of Kharicha hill,

this area has a population of about 100 animals.

Berkhera/plantation: In the southeast of the

sanctuary, this is another good area for

blackbucks. About 20 ha miscellaneous

plantation in this area gives an ideal cover for

blackbucks. Almost equal to Turkani in area

(along with the plantation of 20 ha), this area is

more under pressure because of the Berkhera

water body, which is about 104 ha in area.

Approximately 200 animals are seen here.

Rasori-Kundpatha: About 200 ha in extent,

this area is almost centrally located, and falls

around Fatehpur, Silra and Kharicha villages.

Due to extensive agriculture, not much area is

left barren.

Social structure ofblackbuck populations :

The following types of social grouping

were observed: .

1. Solitary or territorial male,

2. Group of adult males,

3. Group of adult females,

4. Females along with young,

5. Group of sub-adult males,

6. Mixed herd consisting of bucks and does of

various ages,

7. Sub-adult females,

I always found the maximum number of

animals in the 4th group above. As many as 93

animals were counted in one such group.

Ranjitsinh (1982), has, however, recorded 123

heads near Dholi, Gujarat.

In all, 33 groups were observed during the

study period. A total of 1028 blackbuck were

counted in June 1988, of which 469 were adult

and sub-adult males. This lead to a ratio of 1 :2.19

in favour of females. Sharma (1989), indicated

this ratio for Karera blackbucks as 1 :2.17. Prasad

(1982), in his studies elsewhere, has mentioned

male to female ratio as 1:1.96, and Ranjitsinh

(1982), has indicated this ratio for Velavadar

(Gujarat) as 1:2.8.

Feeding and crop damage :

Blackbuck in India are mostly

graminivorous (Ranjitsinh, 1982; Mungall,

1978). They have also been reported feeding on

Emblica taeriamcottom (Schaller, 1967), exotic

Prosopis juliflora (Dharmakumarsinhji, 1967),

Zizyphus jujuba berries, leaves of Acacia

nilotica , and ripe fruits of Eagle marmelos

(Prasad, 1982). At Karera, almost similar type

of feeding habits have been observed for natural

vegetation. However, I have also observed them

feeding rather raiding on Anogeissus pendula

leaves. These animals were also observed feeding

on the agricultural crops raised in and around

the sanctuary area (Table 4).

Ranjitsinh (1982), and Prasad (1982), have

also reported on crop raiding by blackbucks.

CROP DAMAGE CAUSED BY BLACKBUCKS (ANTILOPE CERVICAPRA)

329

Table 4

SEASONAL CROP DAMAGE AT KARERA GIB SANCTUARY BY BLACKBUCK

— Not cultivated, *Low, ** Medium, *** High, ****Veryhigh

Quantitative data on crop damage by

blackbuck were collected during the study period.

Main blackbuck areas were frequently visited and

information was collected on the basis of personal

interview with farmers. Other staff of the

sanctuary also gathered such information. These

interviews and studies revealed that more crops

were damaged in the high blackbuck density

areas. A similar problem was observed in Natal,

South Africa, where “reed bucks” cause damage

to the agricultural crops (pers. comm. R. Putman,

1987). The damage was observed more on the

succulent crops, especially the tender shoots and

blades. Damage to wheat, jowar and paddy was

mostly at the succulent stage. These crops were

less preferred when their leaves became coarser.

Species-wise feeding preference was found in the

following descending order: Lentil <Sonha <

Mustard < Bengal gram < Wheat < Jowar <

Mung < Til <Paddy. Crop damage in the villages

are given in Table 5.

Table 5

ESTIMATED CROP DAMAGE BY BLACKBUCK

INSIDE THE SANCTUARY VILLAGES

In subsequent years, it has been found that

crop damage is increasing. Species-wise crop

damage estimated by Sharma (1989), is given in

Table 6.

Measures taken to manage the blackbuck

populations :

After the inception of the sanctuary an

evaluation of the habitat and land use was made,

and proposals were put forward to deal with this

problem.

Capture: Efforts were made in 1987, to

capture some of the blackbuck and to shift them

to Madhav National Park, Shivpuri. For this, long

nylon nets about 2.5 m in height were made and

spread (like a corral) over the affected areas.

Animals were driven towards the netting site to

enclose them, but no success was achieved.

In 1988, Mogia or Pardhi tribals who are

traditionally animal trappers by profession, were

engaged to catch these animals alive. We were

able to catch only one doe, but due to shock it

died on the same day within the enclosure.

Therefore the operation was stopped.

Raising alternative crops: Proposals made

to cultivate agriculture crops similar to those by

the farmers in the affected areas, so as to reduce

the pressure of blackbuck on the cultivated

fields. In 1990-91, an area of 32 ha. was culti-

vated by the forest department by spending about

Rs. 76,000/-. In 13 ha. mung and ramas (a kind

330

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Table 6

SPECIES- WISE CROP DAMAGE BY BLACKBUCK

* See Appendix 2 for graphical representation.

of pulse and bean), were sown and in 1 9 ha. bengal

gram was sown. The success achieved is yet to

be evaluated, but the effort has been discontinued.

Canals: The irrigation department is going

to build a major irrigation project in the

Sanctuary area. This would lead to a great

disturbance in the blackbuck and bustard habitat.

Three distributory canals are proposed to pass

through the Sanctuary, namely D3, D4 and D5.

Diversion of route of one of the irrigation canal

D5was carried out with the help of the Irrigation

department so that the GIB and blackbuck habitat

is safeguarded. Change in the course of canal

D3 is yet to be carried out. However, canal D4

may not affect the habitat so much.

Acquirement: Near Behgawan, 56 ha of

revenue land was acquired through the Collector,

Shivpuri, in 1986. It was fenced by a cattle-proof

trench from one side, to provide a suitable habitat

for the blackbuck and bustard.

A proposal for acquiring the “Turkani”

(397.5 ha) habitat was sent to the Collector

Shivpuri, so as to make this area suitable for

bustard and blackbuck. A proposal to enclose

this area was also sent to the Chief Conservator

of Forests, (Wildlife), Madhya Pradesh, in

1986.

Extension proposed: A proposal for the

extension of the Sanctuary towards the western

side of Naraua, Dhamdauli, and Gwalipura

villages, was also sent to Bhopal, in 1987, to

provide alternate habitat for the blackbuck and

bustard.

Compensation: To reduce the loss to the

villagers, a proposal for provision of

compensation for crop damage was also sent in

1988.

Ban on lease of the land: District revenue

authorities were approached not to issue any

“patta” (land on lease) to the villagers. Finally,

the Collector, Shivpuri, issued an order on 27th

September, 1983, not to lease out any land inside

the sanctuary area.

Survey: The Wildlife Institute of India,

Dehradun and Bombay Natural History Society,

were approached from time to time to look into

this problem and to suggest alternatives. The

former, sent their Scientists in 1987. They were

appraised of the situation and taken into the

sanctuary for survey, unfortunately no solutions

have been received so far.

CROP DAMAGE CAUSED BY BLACKBUCKS ( ANTILOPE CERVICAPRA)

331

Other possible measures :

Based on past experiences, we can suggest

the following:

1. Physical capture of blackbuck and their

translocation to Madhav National Park,

Shivpuri, or other similar areas could be

tried. Apart from efforts made before, rocket

netting, drop netting, capture with noose etc.

(Gopal, 1992; Giles, 1981; Sale and

Berkmuller, 1988) could be effective

solutions.

2. Chemical immobilization and subsequent

transportation of these animals to

sustainable habitats can also be tried. For

this, appropriate drugs, such as rompan,

ketamine hydrochloride, hellabrun mixture

etc. can be used under expert guidance.

3. Fencing of the proposed Turkani area by

chainlink fence and bringing the animals

inside it by luring them with artificial feed

like gram, mahua (Madhuca indica ), etc.

4. Fencing of the agriculture crops could be

another solution, but as the fields are

disjunctly distributed, it would be a very

difficult task.

5. Creating a blackbuck sanctuary as a

“Sanctum santorum” and shifting of the

affected villages elsewhere.

6. Fertility control of the animals to reduce the

rate of reproduction may be another

possibility.

Refer

Champion, H.G. & S.K. Seth (1968): General silviculture

for India, Govt, of India Publn. New Delhi, pp 237

- 254.

Chandra, J. (1987): Bird ringing at Karera GIB Sanctuary,

Zoos Print, Oct. 1987, pp 5 to 6 & 23.

Chandra J. ( 1 990) The unique Karera GIB Sanctuary, Tiger

Paper, Thailand Vol. XVII No.(l) Jan-March 1990

pp 16-20

Dharmakumarsinhji, K.S. (1967): Browsing behaviour of

Gazella bennetti and Antilope cervicapra in

capacity and natural habitat, Int. U. Forest, Res.

Organ , XIV Congr. Sect., 26, Munich pp 424-465.

Gopal, R. (1992): Fundamentals of Wildlife Management,

7. As done before, large scale departmental

cultivation could also be tried, so that crop

raiding on the farmers’ cultivation is

mitigated. But this is not a long term

solution.

8. Culling of the population, if agreed at all

the levels, (Putman R., 1984), could be tried.

9. Providing compensation to the villagers for

crop damage, but as the number of blackbuck

in the sanctuary is increasing, it will not be

practical in the long run. However, as

compensatory relief it can be tried, to reduce

the antagonism from the farmers

Acknowledgement

I am thankful to the Ex-C.C.F. (WL), of

Madhya Pradesh, Shri J.J. Dutta, I.F.S., Shri R.C.

Mehrotra, I.F.S., P.M. Lad, I.F.S., Shri Rajesh

Gopal, I.F.S.Shri M.K. Mishra,I.F.S. Shri A.K.

Sonakia I.F.S. and Dr. A.R. Rahmani for their

valuable guidance when I was posted at Karera

Sanctuary.

I thank the staff of Karera sanctuary, posted

during 1983-88, for their help in carrying out

this work.

Thanks are also due to the district revenue

authorities and irrigation department of Narvar

for providing me timely help in the sanctuary

management and shifting the route of canal

D5.

ENCES

Just. Home., Allahabad, pp 469-568.

Giles, R.H. (1981): Wildlife Management Techniques,

Natraj Publishers, Dehradun. pp 277-497.

Mungall, E.C. (1977): Social development of the young

blackbuck antelope. AAZPA,Reg. Con. 1977.

Prasad, N.L.N.S. (1982): Management and Husbandry

of blackbuck, FAO, UN, Bangkok, pp 1-40.

Putman, R. (1984): Human control of land mammal and

birds, Univ. of Surrey, Guildford, England, pp 124-

129.

Rahmani, A.R. (1987): Dihaila Jheel, conservation

strategies, Tech, report No. 12, Bombay Natural

History Society, Mumbai.

332

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Ranjitsinh, (1982): Thesis on Ecology and behaviour of

Indian blackbuck, Ph.D. Thesis, Saurashtra

University, Gujarat.

Sale, J.B. & K. Berkmuller (1988): Manual of Wildlife

Techniques of India, FAO, UN, WII, Dehradun.

Chap. 2.5 - 3.9.

Schallar, G.B. (1967): The deer and tiger. Univ. of

Chicago, pp 370.

Sharma, R.D. (1989): Evaluation of crop damage at Karera

GIB Sanctuary, an official document.

SEXUAL SYSTEM AND POLLINATION ECOLOGY OF

CARDIOSPERMUM HALICACABUM L. (S APIND ACE AE) 1

K. Rama Das,2 C. Subba Reddi,3 Raju J.S. Aluri3 and J.B. Atluri4

Key words: sexual system, xenogamy, wasps, bees, Cardiospermum halicacabum

Cardiospermum halicacabum is a weed perennating through rootstock, and also reproducing

through seed, it produces inflorescences on long peduncles in leaf axils in acropetal succession.

The inflorescence is a trichasial compound cyme, each cyme consisting of three flowers. Only

one flower of a cyme antheses at a time, not necessarily in sequence, reflecting a ‘steady state’

pattern of flowering. Flowers are either staminate or pistillate, and at any given time both types

occur on a plant, facilitating geitonogamy. C. halicacabum is also cross-compatible, and the

small number of flowers opening daily and limited nectar production compel the floral visitors,

both bees and wasps, to fly from patch to patch, thereby accomplishing xenogamy. The wasps

Rhynchium sp. and Vespa sp. are particularly more mobile and assume greater importance as

cross-pollinators. The small, white flowers with a yellow nectar guide exhibit wasp flower

syndrome. The sexual system with options for both geitonogamy and xenogamy enables this

twining weed to survive in changing environments.

Introduction

The information available on the

reproductive ecology of Sapindaceae is limited.

The studied species include both Neotropical

and Paleotropical members. Cupania guate-

malensis bears first staminate, then usually

pistillate and finally staminate flowers; the

temporal separation of sexual phases largely

facilitates outcrossing. It is primarily pollinated

by species of Trigona in Costa Rica (Bawa 1977).

Urvillea ulmacea is self-compatible and

temporally dioecious and pollinated by bees in

secondary tropical forests in Venezuela (Zapata

and Arroyo 1978). Sapindus emarginatus exhibits

temporal dioecism with the same sequence of

sexual phases as that of Cupania guatemalensis.

It is geitonogamously pollinated by bees and flies

and xenogamously by wasps and butterflies in

India (Subba Reddi et al. 1983). Litchi chinensis

‘Accepted October, 1996

department of Botany, Noble College,

Machilipatnam 521 001, India.

department of Environmental Sciences,

department of Botany, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

530 003, India.

also exhibits temporal dioecism and is pollinated

by insects in India (Khan 1929). Cruden (1988)

reports that temporal dioecism may be a common

sexual system in Sapindaceae.

Cardiospermum is another genus in

Sapindaceae consisting of 23 species. The species

are herbaceous tendrilar climbers and distribu-

ted chiefly in tropical America and Africa. Two

species have been reported to occur in India,

C. halicacabum and C. canescens (Cooke 1902;

Anonymous 1950). There appears to be no

published reports on the reproductive ecology

of the members of this genus. The present

study describes the sexual system and pollina-

tion ecology of Cardiospermum halicacabum

which is a major component of the ground

vegetation which thrives during the rainy season

in the study area. Besides, it has some medi-

cinal value. The root is used as a diuretic,

laxative, and for treating rheumatism and

nervous diseases. The leaf juice is used as ear

drops to cure ear ache and foul smell in the

ear. The leaves are rubbed with castor-oil and

applied externally as a paste to reduce swellings

and tumours (Thammanna and Narayana Rao

1990).

334

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Material and Methods

The dense patches of Cardiospermum

halicacabum L. found along roadsides, fallows

and at the peripheries of the degraded scrubland

in Visakhapatnam (17° 42' N Long and 82° 18’ E

Lat.), Andhra Pradesh, India were studied. After

witnessing the flowering season, observations on

the phenology of flowering at population,

individual and inflorescence levels were made.

To determine inflorescence flowering phenology,

25 mature inflorescences were tagged to record

the daily anthesis rate and the duration of

flowering life. As this species bears staminate and

pistillate flowers within the same inflorescence,

their numbers were separately counted each day.

From these numbers, the sex ratios for the

inflorescence and for an individual plant were

arrived at. Whether the anthesis of the staminate

and pistillate flowers overlapped or not have also

been observed at different phases of flowering.

The daily anthesis schedule, anther dehiscence

time, mode of dehiscence, determination of pollen

production, pollen-ovule ratio, duration of pollen

viability and stigma receptivity, flower life-time,

nectar secretion, breeding systems, natural fruit

set rates, etc., were examined using the

methodology given by Aluri and Subba Reddi

(1994). The flower visitors were captured and

identified by tallying them with specimens

already identified by Commonwealth Institute of

Entomology, London. Foraging activity, foraging

behaviour, forage resources sought, and foraging

efficiency of the visitor species were thoroughly

observed.

Results

Plant flowering phenology: This is a

herbaceous vine reproducing sexually by seed and

asexually by vegetative growth. The seeds

germinate soon after the southwest monsoon

showers in June; they germinate and grow

vegetatively at a rapid pace. Perennating

rootstock remains underground and becomes

active, producing vegetative growth and/or

flowering vigorously, as soon as moisture is

available in the soil. After 2-3 weeks of vegetative

growth, they gradually produce inflorescences

and initiate flowering in the 1st week of June.

Once flowering begins in the mature

inflorescences, it continues until all flowers are

anthesed. With the periodic rainfall during the

monsoon, new branches originate from the stem

and produce new leaves and inflorescences. With

the addition of new inflorescences, vigorous

blooming in an individual plant extends to

November/December. Plants in wet soil flowered

even to the end of January. In such soils, the seeds

produced in July germinated in the same season,

produced a few leaves and immediately started

flowering. Within 2-3 weeks, they terminated

flowering and withered. Flowering is not

observed on days preceded by heavy rains. The

inflorescences which completed flowering

quickly produced fruit in about 15 days. Soon

after fruit production, the fruit-bearing parts

become dry. Thus the plant bears some withered

branches and some branches in either vegetative

phase or flowering phase at the same time. The

total duration of the flowering of an individual

plant lasts for 8-9 months. The plants in an area

and in different areas come to bloom nearly at

the same time.

It is observed that summer rains in April/

May also trigger seed germination and

subsequent vegetative growth and flowering.

Once the plants begin vegetative growth as a

response to summer showers, they continue to

grow due to subsequent monsoon showers or rain

in June.

Inflorescence flowering phenology: The

plants produce trichasial compound cymes in the

axils of leaves. Each trichasial cyme is subtended

above by a pair of tendrils. In a trichasial

compound cyme, each cyme bears 3 flowers, and

altogether 9 flowers are produced. Once

flowering in a trichasial cyme starts it produces

1 or 2 flowers a day until all 9 flowers are

anthesed. Within a 3-flowered cyme, only one

SEXUAL SYSTEM AND POLLINATION ECOLOGY OF HALICACABUM

335

flower matures at a time. The flowering life of a

trichasial cyme is 5-6 days.

Flower morphology and sexuality: The

staminate and bisexual flowers are

morphologically identical except for the essential

organs. The flowers are small (5 mm),

pedicellate, white and odourless. The calyx is light

green and has four sepals arranged in two rows.

The outer two are small while the inner ones are

twice as large as the outer ones; all sepals are

regulose and concave. The calyx is persistent,

even after fruit maturation in bisexual flowers.

The corolla is white and contains four obovate

petals. They are free and arranged alternately

with the sepals; each petal is 2.0-2. 5 mm long.

Additionally, there are four scales originating

inside the petals and covering the vertically held

staminal complex/ovary from the base to the top.

The two anterior scales are fused to 1/4 of their

length from the base and are villous to glabrous.

The scales are white except for the apex, which

is yellow and quite prominent at a distance to

attract flower-visitors. Further, the apices have

an appendage which is white, deltoid, villous and

deflected towards the anthers situated on the

posterior side. The two posterior scales are

completely white, free from the base to the top

and sparsely villous to almost glabrous giving

the appearance of a hood sheltering the staminal

complex. These scales do not possess the

appendage. Androecium constitutes 8 stamens

in both flower types. They are free, aggregated

and hooded by the posterior scales. The stamens

are of three different lengths. In staminate

flowers, the longer three stamens are 2.5 mm

long, the two medium stamens 2.0 mm and the

three shorter ones 1 .5 mm long. All three lengths

of stamens are 0.5 mm less and not aggregated

in bisexual flowers. In bisexual flowers, the

gynoecium consists of a 3-carpelled syncarpous

ovary with a short style having 3 stigmas. Each

carpel has one locule containing one ovule. The

ovary is 3-lobed, obcordate and densely villous.

The stigmas are white in colour like the anthers.

At a glance, the stigmas give the impression that

they are stamens. The stigmas become persistent

crowning the fruit apex. There is a disc with 2

broad glands on the side of the posterior scales

and two small glands on the side of anterior scales

situated at the base of the flower in both staminate

and bisexual flowers. This glandular disc secretes

nectar and is fully protected by the closed vertical

column formed by both anterior and posterior

scales.

The stamens in bisexual flowers are not

prominent because of their small size and

attachment to the sides of the ovary lobes below.

They possess pollen-bearing but non-dehiscing

anthers. In staminate flowers, the stamens are

prominent and possess pollen-bearing dehiscing

anthers. Therefore, the apparently bisexual

flowers are functionally pistillate, and hereafter

mentioned like that. The plants are thus

functionally monoecious.

Sex ratios: Each trichasial cyme produces

both staminate and pistillate flowers; both flower

sexes are produced within a simple cyme. In the

simple cyme if the first flower is pistillate, the

other two are staminate flowers; if the first one

is a staminate flower, the other two are one

staminate and the other pistillate. Both flower

sexes were produced on the same day but on

different cymes and within the same trichasial

cyme. There is no staggering of sexual phases.

The ratio of staminate versus pistillate flowers

in a trichasial cyme is either 1.25:1 or 1:1.25 or

2:1. The first ratio is found in 50% of trichasial

cymes, the second in 30% and the third in 20%

of the cymes. At plant level, the ratio of staminate

and pistillate flowers is 1.2:1 (Table 1). Overall,

the observed ratio is biased in favour of staminate

flowers. The ratios remained constant throughout

the flowering period.

Anthesis and anther dehiscence: Both the

flowers open, irrespective of their gender, during

0500-0900 hrs; with a higher frequency (65%)

during 0500-0600 hrs at 29-32°C and relative

humidity of 70-80% (Table 2). The anthesis is

delayed on cool and/or cloudy days; the length

of delay from the scheduled time is subject to

336

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Table 1

NUMBER OF STAMIN ATE AND PISTILLATE

FLOWERS ON DIFFERENT INFLORESCENCES IN

CARDIOSPERMUM HALICACABUM

the degree of coolness, it ranged from 1 to 2

hours. In both flower sexes, anthesis starts with

gradual unfolding of petals, which take about 35-

40 minutes for complete unfolding. The vertical

column comprising anterior and posterior scales

and covering the stamen/ovary remains in the

same position and the scales do not unfold during

the entire period of flower life. In staminate

Table 2

RATE OF ANTHESIS IN

CARDIOSPERMUM HALICACABUM

flowers, the anthers dehisce by longitudinal slits

an hour after anthesis.

Nectar characters: The glandular disc

present at the base of both staminate and pistillate

flowers produces nectar in traces soon after

anthesis and is protected by the vertical column

formed by the scales.

Pollen characters: Pollen grains of

staminate and pistillate flowers are the same

except for the size and germinability/viability.

Both grains are smooth on exine, without

ornamentation, triangular and tricolpate, light and

powdery. The size of the pollen grain in staminate

flowers is 40-63 pm and that in pistillate flowers

is about half of the size of the former. The pollen

grains in the pistillate flowers are normally

deformed.

The number of pollen grains per anther of

staminate flowers averaged 360 (R 340-395), and

that per flower came to 2880. In pistillate flowers,

an anther produced an average of 175 pollen

grains (R 160-188).

Pollen-ovule ratio: The anthers of pistillate

flowers are indehiscent. Therefore, their pollen

is not considered for calculating the pollen-ovule

ratio. At the inflorescence level, the ratio of viable

pollen grains (from staminate flowers) per single

ovule is either 1 200: 1 or 768: 1 or 1 920: 1 . At the

plant level, the P/O ratio is 6136:1.

Pollen viability: The pollen grains of

staminate flowers are viable with anther

dehiscence. They germinated well in 20-25%

sucrose solution with 5 ppm detergent. Viability

lasted for 24 hrs. The stored grains after 6 hrs

showed 100% germination, after 18 hrs and 24

hrs showed 30% and 10% germination

respectively. Thus, the grains appear to remain

viable throughout the flower life (Table 3).

Although anthers of pistillate flowers do

not dehisce, they were also tested for viability.

The grains did not germinate in any of the sugar

concentrations from 0 to 60% with or without

detergent. Thus, the pollen grains in pistillate

flowers are completely sterile.

SEXUAL SYSTEM AND POLLINATION ECOLOGY OF HALICACABUM

337

Table 3

RESULTS OF IN VITRO OF POLLEN IN

CARDIOSPERMUM HAUCACABUM

Stigma receptivity: The stigmas of

pistillate flowers attained receptivity by the time

the anthers of staminate flowers release their

pollen. The stigmas were viscid and shiny at this

time and remained in that state for about 12 hrs.

The stigma receptivity was also tested by fruit

set. The fresh stigmas and also the 7 hrs old ones

yielded 100% fruit set. The 10 hrs old stigmas

produced 40% fruit set and 12 hrs old ones gave

10%. The stigmas which were 13 hrs old did not

fruit. Therefore, the stigma receptivity in a flower

lasted for 12 hours (Table 4).

Table 4

RESULTS OF IN VIVO STIGMA RECEPTIVITY IN

CARDIOSPERMUM HAUCACABUM

Breeding behaviour: The results of

breeding experiments indicated that pistillate

flowers do not produce fruit through apomixis.

Geitonogamy and xenogamy operate, the former

with 100% success and the latter with 66%

(Table 5). As the staminate and pistillate flowers

anthese at about the same time at the

inflorescence level and plant level, geitonogamy

is likely to occur. Xenogamy is also operative

because the plants occurring in an area and in

different areas come to flower nearly at the same

time.

Table 5

RESULTS OF BREEDING EXPERIMENTS IN

CARDIOSPERMUM HAUCACABUM

Natural fruit set: The intensity of fruiting

varied in different phases of flowering. The rate

of fruiting corresponds to the degree of foraging

activity of the visitors. The fruiting in the initial

phase was 80%, followed by 100% during the

peak phase of flowering. The fruiting rate

gradually declined from 75 to 45% towards the

end of the flowering period (Table 6).

Table 6

NATURAL FRUIT SET RATES AT DIFFERENT PHASES

OF FLOWERING IN CARDIOSPERMUM HAUCACABUM

Flower visitors: There were eight different

species of insects foraging at both staminate and

pistillate flowers (Table 7). These included bees,

wasps, a fly and a butterfly. The species of

foragers at two different sites were common

between the two sites. But, species appearance at

different phases of flowering at each site varied

slightly. Apis and Trigona (bees), Vespa (wasp)

and Eristalinus (fly) were evident throughout the

flowering period at the two sites. Ceratina (bee)

338

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Table 7

FLOWER VISITORS AND THEIR FORAGE TYPE IN

CARDIOSPERMUM HAUCACABUM

and (wasp) appeared during the initial

and peak phases of flowering only. The

unidentified butterfly species foraged at the peak

and final phase of flowering at WAURSH site

and at the initial and peak phase at the WAUHC

site. Overall, the foraging visits of bee species

were more than those of wasps, fly and butterfly

species taken separately or collectively (Table 8).

The Apis species were the first to forage

on either flower sexes. They commenced their

foraging even before sunrise at 0530 hrs and

continued upto 1100 hrs. They resumed from

1430 hrs and ceased by 1600 hrs. Their activity

was very brisk during morning hours. Trigona

and Ceratina nearly commenced their foraging

activity at the same time from 0830 hrs onwards

and ceased foraging by 1500 hrs with occasional

visits during 1200-1330 hrs. The wasp species

first appeared to forage at the flowers at 0830

hrs and continued until 1500 hrs. They were

relatively more active during 0830-1100 hrs and

made occasional visits at other times. Eristalinus

foraged during 0800-1100 hrs and again during

Table 8

CENSUS OF FORAGERS ON CARDIOSPERMUM

HAUCACABUM DURING THE INITIAL, PEAK AND

FIN AL PHASES OF FLOWERING

(Flowers under observation 100 at each site)

Site I: Wild habitat behind A.U.R.S. Hostel (WAURSH)

Site II: Wild habitat behind A.U. Healthcare Centre (WAUHC)

1500-1600 hrs. The butterfly species was active

from 0730 hrs foraging now and then until 1500

hrs; thereafter it ceased foraging.

Foraging behaviour: In both flower sexes,

the yellow spots on the anterior scales appeared

to serve as nectar guides for the flower visitors.

Accordingly, the insect visitors approached the

flower frontally by landing or hovering on the

vertically held posterior scales sheltering the

stamen/ovary. The bee species foraged for both

nectar and pollen. For collecting nectar, they

inserted their proboscids into the floral base from

above on the side of anterior scales with yellow

spots. After collecting nectar, they withdrew their

proboscids from the flower. For collecting pollen,

they first held the posterior scales with their legs

and collected pollen from the dehisced anthers.

In either case, the pollen got deposited on the

lower part of the head and the entire ventral side

of the bee body. When the medium sized Apis

species landed and foraged, the flower swung and

the insects probing activity resulted in the

separation of vertically held scales to some extent.

This facilitated collection of floral rewards very

SEXUAL SYSTEM AND POLLINATION ECOLOGY OF HALICACABUM

339

easily by these bees. After the departure of these

bees, the separated scales did not get back to their

original position. Subsequent visits, 2 or 3, by

these bees to such flowers led to the near complete

removal of pollen in the staminate flowers and

the deposition of pollen grains on stigmata in

pistillate flowers. Trigona and Ceratina bees are

small in size and their landing or probing

behaviour did not result in the separation of scales

in fresh flowers. They easily probed the flowers

which were visited earlier by Apis species. The

two wasp species approached the flower on the

side of posterior scales and hovered while

inserting their proboscides from above through

the staminal complex touching the appendages

of the anterior scales for collecting nectar. During

collection, the ventral side of their body and the

lower part of their head were dusted with pollen

grains in staminate flowers and if they made

subsequent visits to pistillate flowers, the pollen

grains were transferred from their ventral surface

t«) the stigmas, effecting pollination. While the

wasps foraged at the flower, the scales were not

separated to the extent in the case of foraging by

Apis bees. The fly and butterfly species were

ineffective in separating the scales, but both

collected floral rewards without disturbing the

flower and pollen grains were carried away on

the head/ventral surface of the body in the former

and on the proboscis, head, anterior/ventral side

of the body in the latter. All visitor species moved

between staminate and pistillate flowers within

and between plants, the inter-plant movement

rate varying with each group of insects. All these

visitors foraged on both staminate and pistillate

flowers without any discrimination.

Foraging efficiency: In a single visit, the

bees and the flies collected nectar and pollen in

staminate flowers; sometimes, only one reward,

nectar or pollen per visit was collected. As the

staminate flowers offered two floral rewards and

the pistillate flowers only one, the flower visitors

spent more time per flower in the former and

less time for exploiting nectar in the latter.

However, determination of length of time spent

in each case became difficult because of

morphological similarity of both flower sexes. In

general, the time spent per flower by all species

was 7-9 seconds except for Trigona which spent

more time (11.5 seconds) than other visitors.

In terms of mobility, the Apis species and the

wasps were mobile and foraged 7-9 flowers in a

unit time while the others foraged 1-2 flowers

(Table 9). It indicated that honeybees and wasps

are efficient in foraging and in their flight from

one flower to another.

Table 9

FLOWERS VISITED PER MINUTE AND LENGTH OF A

FORAGING BOUT IN SECONDS

Visitor species Average no. of flowers Average time spent

foraged per minute per flower in seconds

Pollination: The complete overlapping of

sex stages of a plant is clearly an adaptation

favouring geitonogamy. The almost synchronous

flowering in the plants of an area and in different

areas provides possibilities for xenogamous

pollination. The bees and the fly tended to stay

on the same patch and infrequently moved

between patches, while the wasps and the

butterfly tended to move frequently between

patches. This indicated that the bees and the fly

are important for geitonogamy, while the wasps

and the butterfly are more important for

xenogamy.

Discussion

Cardiospermum halicacabum is func-

tionally monoecious. The plants appear annually

340

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

with the monsoon rains both from the perennial

rootstock and from the seed produced after sexual

reproduction. The rootstock gives rise to bushy

growth while the seed gives rise to a plant which

subsequently ramifies. Both forms produce

trichasial compound cymes. A mature branch

produces inflorescences in the leaf axils; ft

continues to produce inflorescences in the tender

leaf axils. Thus, inflorescence production is in

acropetal succession. After maturation and

dispersal of fruits in these branches, secondary

branches arise from below and they in turn

produce inflorescences in acropetal succession.

Such branching depends on the availability of

moisture. During the dry periods, the mature

active flowering branches are at a pause. Thus,

depending on the moisture availability, flowering

is seen at intervals. This is comparable to the

‘episodic’ flowering of certain plant species,

sensu Bullock et al. (1983).

Inflorescence is a trichasial compound

cyme and produces nine flowers, at the rate of

three flowers per cyme, over a period of 5-6 days,

and within a three- flowered cyme, only one

flower antheses at a time, not necessarily in

sequence. This pattern of producing a limited

number or few flowers on a daily basis reflects

the pattern of ‘steady state’ flowering, sensu

Gentry (1974). At any time, both staminate and

pistillate flowers are available on the plant, and

the staggering of sexual phases which is supposed

to be characteristic of Sapindaceae (Bawa 1977,

Subba Reddi et al. 1983) was not seen. The co-

occurrence of the two sexual phases on this

functionally monoecious plant might be a strategy

for geitonogamous reproduction. Experimental

manipulation of selfing through geitonogamy has

resulted in 100% fruit, showing that the taxon

has adapted to selfing through geitonogamy.

C. halicacabum is a herbaceous twiner

weed and a species by its occurrence in situations

disturbed by man (Baker 1965). Certain

characters are associated with weeds, among

which those related to reproduction are: (1) low

pollen/ovule ratio with self-pollination, and thus

an economy of pollen production; (2) when cross-

pollinated this is achieved by a non-specialised

flower visitor or wind; and (3) very high seed

output (Baker 1955, Mulligan 1965, Allard 1965,

Cruden 1973). Mulligan and Findley (1970)

found that all the annual weeds they studied were

capable of selfing and concluded that selfing is

of special adaptive value to annual weeds.

Stebbins (1965) while studying the colonising

species of the native Californian flora stated that

the material he analysed suggested that for* an

annual weed species, the most adaptive condition

is self-fertilisation and for a perennial obligate

outcrossing is most often favoured by selection.

Bentley (1979) based on her study of the role of

heterostyly in the pollination and seed set of

Turnera trioniflora, a roadside weed of

the Amazon basin suggested that a high level

of genetic heterogeneity is advantageous for

tropical weed plants. The reproductive traits of

C. halicacabum comply with the above cited

weed characters.

C. halicacabum is also compatible to

xenogamous pollination, if not of the same level

as of geitonogamy, and such pollination in

experiments yielded 66% fruit set. In plant

species with a provision for outcrossing, the

amount of legitimate pollen transfer decreases

with each flower visited and 6-10 flowers is the

maximum number that can be visited before all

pollinations become geitonogamous (Levin et al.

1971). Therefore, a flowering strategy with a

small number of flowers opening at a given time

would maximise cross-pollination and hence fruit

set (Cruden 1976). This strategy is adopted by

C. halicacabum and enables it to achieve cross-

pollination and cross-fertilisation with the

attendant genetic variability. The small number

of anthesed flowers and limited nectar production

compel the flower visitors to move from patch to

patch, thereby moving xenogamous pollen

(Heinrich and Raven 1972, Cruden 1976). The

two wasp species ( Rynchium sp. and Vespa sp.)

are particularly mobile, and assume importance

as cross-pollinators. The small size of the flower

SEXUAL SYSTEM AND POLUNATION ECOLOGY OF HALICACABUM

341

with white corolla, and a yellow nectar guide

appear to correspond with the wasp pollination

syndrome described by Heithaus (1979) and

Faegri and van der Pijl (1979).

The hetergeneity of both physical and

biotic factors over a local scale in both space and

time is being increasingly recognised in tropical

environments (Ashton 1969, Bentley 1979).

Where environmental heterogeneity is high, it

Refer

Allard, R.W. (1965): Genetic systems associated with

colonizing ability in predominantly self-pollinated

species. In: The Genetics of Colonising species.

(H.G. Baker and G.L. Stebbins, eds.), Academic

Press, New York, pp 50-78.

Aluri, R.J.S. & C. SubbaReddi (1994): Pollination ecology

and mating system of the weedy mint, Leonotis

nepetaefolia R. Br. in India Froc. Indian Natn.

Sci. Acad. B60 : 255-268.

Anonymous. (1950): The Wealth of India: A Dictionary of

Indian Raw Materials and Industrial Products. Vol.

IV, CSIR, New Delhi.

Ashton, P.S. (1969): Speciation among tropical forest trees:

some deductions in the light of recent evidence. Biol.

J. Linn. Soc. 1 : 155-196.

Baker, H.G. (1955): Self-compatibility and establishment

after “long-distance” dispersal. Evolution 9: 347-

348.

Baker, H.G. (1965): Characteristics and modes of origin

of weeds. In: The Genetics of Colonizing species.

(H.G. Baker and G.L. Stebbins, eds.), Academic

Press, New York, pp 147-172.

Bawa, K.S. (1977): The reproductive biology of Cupania

guatemalensisR&dlk (Sapindaceae). Evolution: 31:

52-63.

Bentley, B.L. (1979): Heterostyly in Tumera trioniflora,

a roadside weed of the Amazon Basin. Biotropica

11: 11-17.

Bullock, S.H., J.H. Beach & K.S. Bawa (1983): Episodic

flowering and sexual dimorphism in Guarea

rhopalocarpa in a Costa Rican rain forest. Ecology

64: 851-861.

Cooke, T. (1902): Flora of Bombay Presidency, Part II

Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta.

Cruden, R.W. (1973): Reproductive ecology of weedy and

cultivated Mirabilis (Nyctaginaceae). Am. J. Bot.

60: 802-809.

Cruden, R.W. (1976): Fecundity as a function of nectar

production and pollen-ovule ratios. In: Tropical

trees. Variation, Breeding and Conservation. (J.

seems that selection would favour a sexual system

which produces both the parental genotypes as

well as genotypes “pre-adapted” to conditions

different from those under which the parent

germinated and established (Bentley 1979). The

sexual system of the functionally monoecious C.

halicacabum and its flowering strategy ensuring

geitonogamy with possibilities for xenogamy

attest to the above prediction.

ENCES

Burley and B.T. Styles, eds.). Academic Press,

London and New York, pp 171-178.

Cruden, R.W. (1988): Temporal dioecism: Systematic

breadth, associated traits and temporal patterns.

Bot. Gaz. 149: 1-15.

Faegri, K. & L. van der Pul. (1979): The Principles of

Pollination Ecology, Pergamon Press, Oxford.

Gentry, A.H. (1974): Flowering phenology and diversity

in tropical Bignoniaceae. Biotropica 6: 64-68.

Heinrich, B. & P.H. Raven (1972): Energetics and

pollination ecology. Science 176: 597-602.

Heithaus, E.R. (1979): Rower- visitation records and

resource overlap of bees and wasps in northwest

Costa Rica. Brenesia 16: 9-52.

Khan, K.S.A.R. (1929): Pollination and fruit formation

in litchi ( Nephalium litchi, Camp). Agric. J. India

24: 183-187.

Levin, D.A., H.W. Kerster & N. Niedzlek (1971):

Pollination flight directionality and its effect on

pollen flow. Evoution: 25: 113-118.

Mulligan, G. A. (1965): Recent colonization by herbaceous

plants in Canada. Can. J. Bot. 23: 127-146.

Mulligan, G.A. & J.N. Findlay (1970): Reproductive

systems and colonization in Canadian weeds. Can.

J. Bot. 48: 859-860.

Stebbins, G.L. (1965): Colonizing species of the native

California flora. In: The Genetics of Colonizing

species. (H.G. Baker and G.L. Stebbins, eds.),

Academic Press, New York and London, pp 173-

192.

SubbaReddi, C., E.U.B. Reddi, N.S. Reddi & P.S. Reddi

(1983): Reproductive ecology of Sapindus

emarginatus Vahl. (Sapindaceae). Proc. Indian

Natn. Sci. Acad. 49: 57-72.

Thammanna & K. Narayana Rao (1990): Medicinal plants

in Tirumala. Department of Gardens, Tirumala

Tirupati Devasthanam, Tirupati, India.

Zapata T.R. & M.T.K. Arroyo (1978): Plant reproductive

ecology of a secondary deciduous tropical forest in

Venezuela. Biotropica 10: 221-230.

COMMUNAL ROOSTING IN COMMON MYNAS ACRIDOTHERES TRISTIS

AND ITS FUNCTIONAL SIGNIFICANCE1

Anil Mahabal2

(With two text-figures)

Key words: communal roosting, common myna, Acridotheres tristis

The common myna Acridotheres tristis (Linnaeus) is a familiar urban bird. Throughout the

year they roost communally at night in large numbers either independently or forming mixed

species roosts. The various communal roosts of mynas situated in and around Pune (Maharashtra)

were kept under observation for studying the occupation, abandonment and reestablishment of

roosts and roosting trees, and the daily routine of mynas from 1973 to 1976. Three well marked

seasons were observed in its annual cycle: the pre-breeding, breeding and post-breeding seasons.

The probable functional significance of communal roosting in mynas has been discussed in the

paper.

Introduction

Communal roosting and the activities

associated with it have been a popular subject

studied in a number of avian species (Wynne-

Edwards 1962, Braestrup 1963, Siegfried 1971,

Zahavi 1971, Gadgil 1972, Tast & Rassi 1973,

Ward & Zahavi 1973, Gadgil & Ali 1975, Gyllin

& Kallander 1 975, Khera & Kalsi 1 986) and also

in common mynas (Sengupta 1973, Counsilman

1974, Feare 1976, Greig-Smith 1982). The

detailed studies on the flock structure, directional

routes, population fluctuations, pre-roost

gatherings and communal displays, diurnal

rhythms in the awakening and roosting activities,

intra- and interspecific assemblages during day

time and night, mixed roosting and the related

social behaviour of common mynas have already

been dealt by Mahabal & Vaidya (1989), Mahabal

et al (1990), Mahabal & Bastawade (1991) and

Mahabal (1992, 1993- a & b).

The common myna Acridotheres tristis

(Linnaeus), (Sturnidae: Passeriformes) is a

Accepted January, 1995

2Zoological Survey of India,

Western Regional Station, 1182/2 Fergusson College Rd,

Shivajinagar, Pune 41 1 005

familiar urban bird. It is omnivorous and a hole-

nester. Mynas are social in their habits. They

are generally seen in pairs or in small groups

during day time. Throughout the year, they

roost communally at night in groups of 100-

10,000 birds, either independently or forming a

mixed roost along with some other species of

birds.

The present paper deals with the

observations on the communal roosts and

roosting trees, their abandoning and

reestablishment, and the probable functional

significance of communal roosting of the common

myna.

Material and Methods

The studies on common myna were carried

out at Pune (18° 30' N lat., 73° 53’ E long.) and

surrounding areas. Altogether 27 communal

roosts of mynas within a radius of 24 km were

located (Fig. 1) and censused. Of these, eight

roosts were situated in the surrounding areas and

the remaining nineteen communal roosts were

centrally located within a radius of 8 km. These

nineteen roosts were designated as R-I to R-XIX

for convenience while recording the observations.

COMMUNAL ROOSTING IN COMMON MYNAS

343

Fig. 1 Locations of communal roosts of common myna in and around Pune . R-I: Police Ground,

R-II: St. Vincent, R-III: Film Institute, R-IV: Peshave Park, R-V: Race Course. R-VI: Koregaon Park, R-VII: Yerawada. R-VIII: Pashan,

R-IX: Diwagi Metal Works, R-X: Pune Railway Station, R-XI: Bund Garden, R-XII: Vaikunth, R-XHI: N.C.L., R-XIV: Agriculture College,

R-XV: Cantonment Hospital. R-XVI: Deccan College, R-XVII: Sancheti Hospital. R-XV1H: Engineering College, R-XIX: Wanwori.

344

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

They were censused once a month during June

1973 to August 1976 to study the population,

roosting behaviour, roost occupation and

abandonment, and the daily routine of mynas.

These observations were repeated for

confirmation at roost R-IV during August 1980

to July 1981.

Results

Communal Roost and Roosting TVees:

Out of the 19 communal roosts observed within

city limits, ten roosts were recorded throughout

the period of study (permanent roosts). The

remaining nine roosts were found to be

temporary. They were abandoned frequently or

totally during the study period (Fig. 2). At all

these sites, mynas have roosted in close proximity

with human settlement, on trees of different species

at a height ranging between 3.00 and 12.5 m.

Further, it was observed that altogether 75

roosting trees were occupied by mynas at all the

nineteen (permanent and temporary) communal

roosts located within the city area. The maximum

occupation was noticed on banyan ( Ficus

bengalensis ) trees (48%) which seem to be the

most favourable for roosting. The other trees

occupied by mynas were Mangifera indie a -

mango (10.4%), Cassia siamea - kassod (10.4%),

Saraca indica - ashoka (7.8%), Acacia arabica

- acacia (7.8%), Delonix regia - gulmohar

(5.2%), Azadirachta indica - neem (5.2%),

Tamar indus indica - tamarind (2.6%) and

Syzygium cumini - jamun (2.6%). It was also

observed that mynas used only a single tree for

roosting at each temporary roost,- whereas at

permanent roosts, they occupied 3 to 16.

Out of the eight communal roosts located

in the surrounding suburban areas of Pune city

(Fig. 1), at seven places mynas have chosen to

roost mostly on trees of Ficus bengalensis ,

whereas at one place, they have roosted inside a

factory (Cooper Engineering, Pimpri) on iron

structures built near the ceiling. All these roosts

were permanent in nautre.

It was noticed that some of the roosting

trees at a permanent roost situated within the

city area were abandoned temporarily and were

again reoccupied during the period of study. The

seasonal frequency of abandoning of roosting

trees was then calculated by considering all the

ten permanent roosts (Table 1) along with their

average population during the season. It indicates

that in general the seasonal frequency of

abandoning of roosting trees was lowest in the

Table 1

MEAN FREQUENCY OF ABANDONING OF

ROOSTING TREES AND AVERAGE NUMBER OF

BIRDS AT TEN PERMANENT ROOSTS

* Average number of birds have been compiled from Mahabal

etal (1990).

post-breeding season and was highest in the

breeding season in each year of observation.

Daily routine: In the annual cycle of

Indian myna the following three well marked

seasons were observed: pre-breeding (November-

March), breeding (April-July) and the post-

breeding season (August-October). In general,

the daily routine of mynas at a roost is as follows:

after a night-long rest, mynas slowly become

active in the early morning by vocalizing and

vacate the roost around sunrise in the various

group-sizes. They spend the day time in the

feeding arena in various activities. They start

their return journey towards the roosts in the

evening, arrive at the roosts around sunset in the

various group-sizes and vocalize loudly till they

finally retire for a communal night sleep. Further,

particularly towards the end of the post-breeding

TEMPORARY ROOST PERMANENT ROOST

COMMUNAL ROOSTING IN COMMON MYNAS

345

1973 1*74 1*75 1976

MONTHS OF OBSERVATION

Fig. 2 Periods of occupation of permanent and temporary roosts of

common mynas during study period 1973-76.

346

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

season (from October) and throughout the pre-

breeding season, mynas gather and perform

certain movements in the vicinity of the roosts

and perform post- and pre-roosting communal

displays. However, during the breeding and part

of the post-breeding seasons (i.e. April to

September), most of them go directly to the roost

without performing movements and communal

displays.

Discussion

Permanent roosts of mynas have been

observed at certain localities since the beginning

of this study in 1973, during 1980-81 and are still

known to exist there (1994). Some of the roosts

have been known to exist for more than 50 years.

This indicates that these are traditional roosting sites

chosen by mynas, year after year. Counsilman

(1974) stated that common mynas occupy a roost

continuously for many years in succession.

Generally, mynas have roosted in trees during the

night, although a roost at Pimpri was found to be

inside a factory building. Mynas have also been

observed to roost inside railway stations on iron

structures at Ambala and Chandigarh (pers. obs.).

Mynas in Pune city have avoided night

roosting at highly wooded areas in the town such

as the Botanical garden and Empress garden,

which have negligible human settlement. At the

same time, they have avoided highly congested

localities in the city area for roosting. It seems

therefore, that they require some optimal density

of human population with an open area around

the roosting site. Further, why do mynas not stay

at a single huge roost, instead of dispersing over

a number of roosting sites in the city? This may

probably be done to avoid overcrowding.

Secondly, dispersing to various roosts is more

profitable in order to exploit better feeding spots

and also for securing the nearest breeding

territories in the breeding season.

The phenomenon of primary establish-

ment, abandoning and re-establishment of

roosting trees at a permanent roost seem to be

common in mynas. This is probably correlated

with the population of mynas in the city area. The

total population of mynas increases during the

post-breeding season and during this period the

frequency of abandoning of the roosting trees is

comparatively the lowest. On the contrary, as the

population decreases in the pre-breeding and

breeding seasons, the abandoning of roosting trees

at roosts also become more frequent. Further, it

is not clear why mynas abandon temporary roosts

frequently or totally. Gadgil (1972) has pointed

out that, at mixed communal roosts, abandoning

of roosts by Corvus sp. is followed by abandoning

of roosts by common mynas. Similarly, this may

perhaps be applicable to a certain extent in our

study on mynas.

Functional Significance of Communal

Roosting: There has been a great deal of

discussion on the functional significance of

communal roosting in various bird species. Even

so, this phenomenon is still not fully understood.

A number of suggestions and hypotheses have

been put forth, among them are a few major

hypotheses which have been discussed in the

context of our present study on common mynas.

1. Heat Conservation: That communal

roosts undeniably minimize the loss of heat on

cold nights has been suggested by various workers

as summarized by Counsilman (1974). Further,

he has pointed out that the conservation of heat

cannot be a consideration in common mynas as

neither are the winters severe in the areas

inhabited by them in New Zealand, nor are the

birds usually in contact with each other at the

roosts. Gadgil & Ali (1975), rejecting the

hypothesis on two grounds, have stated that i)

communal roosts should be commoner amongst

the birds of higher latitudes and altitudes but such

is not the case, and ii) the ambient temperature is

unlikely to produce vital changes under Indian

conditions. Similarly, environmental conditions

are quite pleasant in Pune, there are no extreme

changes in the ambient temperature, hence this

hypothesis may not be applicable in our studies

on mynas.

COMMUNAL ROOSTING IN COMMON MYNAS

347

2. Population regulation: Wynne-Ed wards

(1962) hypothesized that communal roosting

enables the birds to assess population density,

which is then adjusted to the prevailing level of

food supply through emigration or adjustment of

reproductive rate. Many workers have raised

objections to this hypothesis, indicating that it is

inconsistent with the principles of natural

selection. Counsilman (1974) stated that he does

not see how it can be applicable to the myna.

Wynne-Edwards (1962) further states that species

of dissimilar feeding habits associate in mixed

roosting only in rare cases. Gadgil & All (1975)

while rejecting the hypothesis pointed out that

their data does not support the hypothesis as well.

The phenomenon of mixed roosting also poses

difficulties, as an associate species is more likely

to be of dissimilar rather than of similar feeding

habits. Similarly, our data show that birds of

diverse food habits often associate with common

mynas at a number of mixed roosts (Mahabal &

Bastawade, 1991). Hence our studies do not

support the hypothesis at present.

3. Feeding efficiency: Ward (1965),

Siegfried (1971), Zahavi (1971), Ward & Zahavi

(1973) and many others have suggested that

communal roosts serve as centres for the

exchange of information regarding the location

of food sources and have been evolved for the

efficient exploitation of patchily distributed food

sources. Gadgil & Ali (1975), Feare (1976) and

Greig-Smith (1982) have also supported this

theory of information transfer. Ward & Zahavi

(1973) have further pointed out that the pre-

roosting displays and roost advertisement

behaviour are devices for attracting the maximum

number of birds at communal roosts. This in turn

makes it possible to search larger areas for food

and increases the chance of getting good feeding

places. The studies on mynas do raise some

doubts with respect to this novel hypothesis: i)

the roost sites chosen by mynas in Pune city are

traditional and occupied year after year, ii) the

presence of post-roosting displays in the morning

and the complete absence of post- and pre-

roosting communal displays over six months from

April to September is difficult to explain the

theory of roost advertisement for attracting the

maximum number of birds at roosts. However,

communal displays may have other functions

which are dealt in detail by Mahabal (1993b).

Counsilman (1974) has also clearly pointed out

that common mynas in New Zealand use the

roosts for many years and most birds are faithful

to a particular roost, therefore daily advertisement

is unnecessary. Khera & Kalsi (1986) have stated

that pre-roost gatherings of bank mynas (observed

only during non-breeding season) did not function

as advertising centres, iii) common mynas

invariably form mixed roosts with crows,

parakeets, egrets, kites and other birds (Mahabal

& Bastawade, 1991). The food habits of these

associates are totally divergent and it is difficult

to imagine that the strictly frugivorous parakeets

contribute any information to the strictly

carnivorous kites or to the mynas. It was also

noticed that the flight, speed, direction and timing

of departure and arrival of various species of

mixed roosting birds are different from those of

common mynas. Hence, the communication of

information regarding the location of food sources

may not be functioning at interspecific level but

it may be possible at the intraspecific level

(Mahabal & Bastawade, 1991).

4. Antipredatory function: It is inferred

that communal roosting enables birds to reduce

the risk of predation and serves an antipredatory

function (Zahavi 1971, Gadgil 1972, Sengupta

1973, Counsilman 1974, Gadgil & Ali 1975, and

Khera & Kalsi 1986). However, Ward & Zahavi

(1973) have suggested that communal roosting

positively increases the susceptibility to predators

and that the information exchange is the only

function of communal roost. Gadgil (1972) has

stated that the phenomenon of mixed roosting

strongly supports the notion of antipredator

function. Further, Gadgil & Ali (1975) have

indicated that it is more likely that different

species of birds roost communally for predator

avoidance and pool this advantage by forming

348

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

mixed roosts of greater numerical strength. Khera

& Kalsi (1986) have also pointed out that bank

mynas and associated species at mixed roosts

respond readily to each others’ alarm calls, which

is an efficient antipredator mechanism. This may

also outweigh the disadvantage of communal

roosts being more conspicuous. Counsilman

(1974) has stated that communal sleeping habit

protects common mynas more from predators than

if they slept solitarily.

Likewise, it is possible that common mynas

and their mixed roosting associates have

developed a system of antipredatory warning

signals (Mahabal & Bastawade, 1991) which

increases the awareness of the individual bird and

thus affords some kind of protection not only at

the roosts at night but also in the feeding area

during day time (Mahabal, 1992).

5. Social significance: Braestrup (1963)

has quoted that the chief survival value of

communal roosts consists in reduced mortality

during night. This does not necessarily mean that

communal roosts have no social significance.

Tast & Rassi (1973) while supporting the above

statement indicated that probably roosting

behaviour functions to synchronize various

activities. Gyllin & Kallander (1976) have also

mentioned that besides the antipredatory function,

synchronizing social behaviour may also be

important. Various systematic and synchronized

behavioural patterns observed in our studies on

mynas (Mahabal & Vaidya 1989, Mahabal 1993

a & b) do suggest that the communal roost has

social significance.

In conclusion, the data reveal that

gathering and flocking tendencies of the

common mynas within its own species and

with other species of birds during day time and at

communal roosts have been evolved not only

through mutual attraction but also to get certain

benefits out of the social system, particularly

the synchro-nization of various activities,

avoidance of predation, and information about the

food sources, as also indicated by Mahabal

(1993a).

Acknowledgements

I thank the Director, Zoological Survey of

India, Calcutta and Officer-in-charge, Zoological

Survey of India, Pune and Solan for providing

the necessary facilities to carry out the work. I

am also grateful to Dr. V.G. Vaidya, Scientist El

(Retd.) for his valuable suggestions and to Dr.

Madhav Gadgil, I.I.Sc.C.E.S., Bangalore for

inspiring this investigation.

References

Braestrup, F.W. (1963): The functions of communal

displays. Dansk Omithol. Foren. Tidsskr., 57: 133-

142.

Counsdlman, J.J. (1974): Waking and roosting behaviour

of the Indian Myna. Emu, 74 (3): 135-148.

Feare, C.J. (1976): Communal roosting in Mynah

Acridotheres tristis. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 73

(3): 525-527.

Gadgil, Madhav (1972): The function of communal

roosts; relevance of mixed roosts. Ibis, 114: 531-

533.

Gadgil, Madhav & Salim Ali (1975): Communal roosting

habits of Indian birds. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

72 (3): 716-727.

Greig-Smth, W. Peter (1982): Behaviour of birds entering

and leaving communal roost of Madagascar Fodies

Foudia madagascariensis and Indian Mynahs

Acridotheres tristis. Ibis, 124: 529-534.

Gyllin, R. & H. Kallander (1976): Roosting behaviour

of the Jackdaw Corvus monedula at Orebro,

Central Sweden. Omis Scand., 7: 113-125.

Khera, S. & R.S. Kalsi (1986): Waking and roosting

behaviour of the Bank Myna, Acridotheres

ginginianus, in Chandigarh and surrounding areas.

Pavo, 24 (1 & 2): 55-68.

Mahabal, Anil (1992): Diuranal intra- and interspecific

assemblages of Indian Mynas. Biovigyanam, 18(2):

116-118.

Mahabal, Anil (1993a): Seasonal changes in the flocking

behaviour of Indian Myna Acridotheres tristis

(Linnaeus). Biovigyanam, 19(1 & 2): 55-64.

Mahabal, Anil (1993b): Communal display behaviour

of Indian Myna Acridotheres tristis (Linnaeus).

Pavo, 31 (1 & 2): 45-54.

COMMUNAL ROOSTING IN COMMON MYNAS

349

Mahabal, Anil& D.B. Bastawade (1991): Mixed roosting

associates of Indian Myna Acridotheres tristis in

Pune city, India. Pavo, 29 (1 & 2): 23-32.

Mahabal Anbl, D.B. Bastawade & V.G. Vaidya'(1990):

Spatial and temporal fluctuations in the populations

of Common Myna Acridotheres tristis (Linnaeus)

in and around an Indian city. 7. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc., 87(3): 392-398.

Mahabal, Anil & V.G. Vaidya (1989): Diurnal rhythms

and seasonal changes in the roosting behaviour of

Indian myna.Acridotheres tristis (Linnaeus). Proc.

Indian Acad. Sci. (Anim.) 98 (3): 199-209.

Sengupta, S. (1973): Significance of communal roosting

in the Common Myna Acridotheres tristis (Linn.).

7. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70 (1): 204-206.

Siegfried, W.R. (197 1): Communal roosting of the Cattle

Egret. Trans, roy. Soc. S.Afr., 39 (Part IV): 419-

443.

Tast. J. & P. Rassi (1973): Roosts and roosting flights of

wintering Jackdaws Corvus monedula at Tampere,

Finland. Omis Fennica, 50(1): 29-45.

Ward, P. (1965): Feeding ecology of the Black-faced

Dioch Quelea quelea in Nigeria. Ibis, 107: 173-

214.

Ward, P. & A. Zahavi (1973): The importance of certain

assemblages of birds as “information centres” for

food finding. Ibis , 115: 517-534.

Wynne-Edwards, V.C. (1962): Animal dispersion in

relation to social behaviour. Edinburgh: Olive &

Boyd, pp. 653.

Zahavi, A. (1971): The function of pre-roost gatherings

and communal roosts. Ibis, 113: 106-109.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE POST-NATAL DEVELOPMENT OF INDIAN FALSE

VAMPIRE BAT MEGADERMA LYRA (MICROCHIROPTER A) 1

R. SUBBARAJ2, J. BALSINGH3 AND M. SlNGARAVEL2

(With two text-figures)

Key words: Megaderma lyra, bats, forearm length, weaning, fledgling stage.

Growth and development of the young Megaderma lyra were observed under natural

conditions. Forearm length, length of third and fifth fingers were measured as indices of growth

rate in M. lyra. By the age of 5 to 6 weeks young bats attained about 80% growth characteristics

of the adults and were able to fly. Weaning occurred at the age of 2.5 months.

Introduction

In several species of bats, the growth of

the body of the young is rapid during early life.

The young animals weigh almost as much as the

adults when they are about 5 months of age, so

that young ones cannot be distinguished from

the adults on the basis of the size of the body

after this age (Madhavan 1978). The growth

curves of certain species of bats such as Rouse ttus

aegyptiacus show that individual variations are

very slight in the first phase of development. This

may be taken as a hint of a strict genetic

determination of the neonatal period (Noll 1979).

Many qualitative and analytical approaches have

been used to describe post-natal growth in

insectivorous bats. Some workers have used

various kinds of allometric analyses to

characterize post-natal growth (Yokoyama^ra/.

1975). Since in many cases growth of forearm

length and the fingers can be measured easily

and consistently, they have become the characters

of choice in most studies on post-natal

development (Kunz and Anthony 1982). In

‘Accepted December, 1995.

department of Animal Behaviour and Physiology,

School of Biological Sciences, Madurai Kamaraj University,

Madurai - 625 021, India.

department of Zoology, St. John’s College,

Palayamkottai - 627 002, India.

general, the length of forearm is stabilized at about

5-6 weeks of age and is close to the adult size (as

in Plecotus townsendii - Pearson et al. 1952;

Nyctalus noctula- Kleiman 1969; and Myotis

velifer - Kunz 1973). The growth of the 3rd and

4th fingers occurs at a more rapid rate than that

of the 2nd and 5th fingers (Funakoshi and Uchida

1981). In most species of bats, increase of body

weight is very rapid during the first four weeks

following birth. Birth weight of young is 20% to

25% of the mother’s post-partum weight and

double by the end of 2nd week (Orr 1970).

Although some aspects of reproduction and

sexual cycles such as mating, gestation and

embryology of the Indian false vampire bat

Megaderma lyra (Gopalakrishna 1969) have

been studied in detail, post-natal development

in this species is poorly understood. We have

gathered data relating to growth and

development of the young in M. lyra. The

information given here is based upon bats born

in their natural habitat.

Material and Methods

The studies on M. lyra were conducted in

a temple roost at Krishnapuram (8° 44' N lat,

77° 42' E long - Southern India). Data on growth

of M. lyra were obtained from the maternity

colony of approximately 70 adult females and

BODY WEIGHT (gm)

POST-NATAL DEVELOPMENT OF INDIAN FALSE VAMPIRE BAT MEGADERMA LYRA

351

their young located in the temple during the

breeding months (March-June) in 1990. Juvenile

bats were captured with a hand-held collecting

net along with mothers from the day roost. Each

individual was banded with a plastic collar

having a coloured bead for individual

identification (Balasingh et al. 1992). The sex

of the young ones was noted, and the presence

or absence of an umbilical cord or placenta was

recorded. Right forearm length and the length

of third and fifth fingers was measured with high

precision Vernier calipers. To maximise sample

size, juveniles were also collected from other

roosts like cow-sheds and unused houses between

1930 hrs and 2100 hrs following the departure

of mothers for foraging. After taking

measurements of the forearm length and the

length of third and fifth fingers, the juveniles

were placed back in their respective roosting

places, usually before adult females returned from

their foraging bouts. On each visit all accessible

banded bats were recaptured, and the

measurements regarding their growth were taken

again.

Results

Post-natal development

Neonates: The young are functionally

altricial at birth, but they are extremely large,

weighing 23.67% of the mother’s postpartum

mass. Several juveniles ofM. lyra were collected

with umbilical cords attached. Forearm length

of individuals varied between 30.6 and 33.1 mm

(x + SD = 31.63 + 0.9 mm); the length of third

Table 1

MEASUREMENTS OF GROWTH PARAMETERS

OF MALE AND FEMALE M. LYRA NEONATES.

The numbers in parentheses denote standard deviation.

finger varied between 41 and 43 mm (x + SD =

41.97 + 0.7 mm) and fifth finger between 30.2

and 33.1 mm (x + SD= 31.67+ 1.08 mm). These

bats were considered neonates. Infants with long

and fresh umbilical cords attached or infants with

forearm length less than or equal to the length

of the largest umbilical cord attached to the bat

were considered to be one-day old (Kunz 1974).

The umbilical cord in a newborn baby bat

measured 31 mm. The umbilical cord remained

0 30 40 50 60

FOREARM LENGTH (mm)

Fig.l. Regression of body weight and forearm length in males and females of M. lyra.

352

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Table 2

GROWTH PATTERN OF A TAGGED MALE JUVENILE M. LYRA.

Percentage of mother’s postpartum measurements are in parentheses.

attached to the baby till it reached a maximum

weight of 13 g with maximum forearm length of

38 mm. The length of the third and fifth fingers

was 59 mm and 47 mm respectively. The growth

parameters measured in male and female bats did

not differ significantly (Table 1).

Fledgling stage: Young M. lyra began to

fledge when they reached 58.85% of the mother’s

postpartum body weight. The forearm length of

the fledglings varied between 55 and 58 mm (x

+ SD = 56.9 ±1.7 mm); the length of the third

finger varied between 84 and 96 mm (x + SD =

91.5 + 3.5 mm) and fifth finger between 64 and

76 mm (x + SD = 70.8 ± 3.1 mm). The baby at

this stage was able to crawl on the wall, flutter

its wings, show free head and ear movements

and even attempt to fly a short distance inside

the temple roost.

Weaning: Young M. lyra did not begin to

forage till they reached 80.85% (29.2 - 31.6 g)

of the mother’s postpartum body weight. The

mean body weight at weaning was 30.06 ± 0.9 g

(n=10). The forearm length varied between 61

and 66 mm which is 97.55% of the adult size (x

+ SD = 63.9 ±1.7 mm), the third finger length

varied between 105 and 126 mm, which is

97.82% of the adult size (x + SD = 116.9 ± 6.3

mm) and the length of the fifth finger varied

between 84 and 92 mm which is 92.43% of the

adult size (x + SD = 88.0 ± 2.7 mm). The

juvenile at this stage is able to fly well. The rate

of growth of a tagged individual male M. lyra is

represented in Table 2 which exhibits a pattern

similar to that obtained from cumulative data on

several bats.

The body weight and the length of the third

and fifth fingers of the juvenile are significantly

and positively correlated with forearm length

from neonates to weaned young. The correlation

coefficients are found to be significant (r-value

ranging from 0.90 to 0.97) for both juvenile males

and juvenile females (Fig. 1 and 2). Comparison

of the body weights and finger measurements

with the forearm measurements among juveniles

FINGER (mm) III FINGER (mm)

POST-NATAL DEVELOPMENT OF INDIAN FALSE VAMPIRE BAT MEGADERMA LYRA

353

Fig.2. Regression of length of HI finger, V finger and forearm length in males and females of M. lyra

354

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

indicates that the growth of forearm and fingers

and gain in body weight is a continuous process

from the neonatal period till the weaning is

over.

Discussion

The post-natal development of young bats

varies from species to species (Orr 1970).

Newborn young of M. lyra were naked with their

eyes closed. The eyes opened at about 5 days

after birth and fur formation was not dense.

According to the reports of several authors, the

eyes opened at different age levels for different

species, which varied from a few hours after birth

to about 10 days of age (Jones 1967; Gould 1971;

Kunz 1971). Interestingly, in the phyllostomid

bat Artibeus planirostris trinitatis ( Jones 1946),

the eyes opened at birth and the head, back,

forearms and interfemoral membranes were

covered with hair. According to Orr (1970),

members of the Megachiroptera were more

advanced in development than the Micro-

chiroptera at birth. This statement accords with

the observation that the eyes of Cynopterus sphinx

are open at birth. However, Kulzer (1958)

reported that the eyes of Rousettus aegyptiacus

do not of open until the young are 9 days old.

Refer

Balasingh, J., S. Suthakar Isaac & R. Subbaraj (1992):

A convenient device for tagging bats in the field. Bat

Research News 33: 6.

Funakoshi, K. & T.A. Uchida (1981): Feeding activity

during the breeding season and post-natal growth in

the Namie’s frosted bat, Vespertilio superans superans.

Jap. J. Ecol. 31: 67-77.

Gopalakrishna, A. (1969): Gestation period in some

Indian bats. J. Bombay, nat. Hist. Soc. 66: 317-322.

Gould, E. (1971): Studies of maternal-infant

communication and development of vocalizations in the

bats Myotis and Eptesicus. Convn. Behav. Biol.

A. 5: 263-313.

Jones, C. (1967): Growth, development and wing loading

in the evening bat ,Nycticeius humeralis (Rafinesque).

J. Mammal. 48: 1-19.

Jones, T.S. (1946): Parturition in a West Indian fruit bat

The length of the forearm has been the most

consistently measured parameter of growth

(Gould 1971; Kunz 1971) and in M. lyra the

forearm length at the time of birth and at the time

of weaning (about 2 1/2 months of age) was

48.3% and 97.5% of the adult measurement

respectively. This is in accordance with the

development of the forearm length in different

species of vespertilionids, such as Myotis velifer

(Kunz 1971). However, young bats of these

species are weaned at the age of 6 weeks. The

temporal variations could well be related to inter-

specific differences in the maturity of the young

at birth.

According to Orr (1970), the body weight

of newborn bats ranges from 15 to 30% of the

weight of non-pregnant adult females, which

agrees with our observations and several other

reports (Kleiman 1969; Kunz 1971).

Body weight in M. lyra was found to be

reduced in most of the young bats following the

critical period of weaning, since during this stage

(between weaning and post-weaning) mothers

paid relatively little attention to their young. In

addition to the neglect in suckling and reduced

lactation among mothers at this stage, young bats

had to face difficulties in capturing enough prey

due to poor foraging skills.

NCES

(Phyllostomidae). J. Mammal. 27: 327-330.

Kleiman, D.G. (1969): Maternal care, growth rate

and development in the noctule ( Nyctalus

noctula), pipistrelle ( Pipistrellus pipistrellus ) and

serotine (Eptesicus serotinus) bat. J.Zool. 157: 187-

211.

Kulzer, E. (1958): Untersuchungen uber die Biologie

von Flughunden der gattung Rousettus gray. Z.

Morphos. Oikol. Tiere 47: 374-402.

Kunz,T.H. (1971): Ecology of the cave bat, Myotis velifer

in South Central Kansas and north western Oklahoma,

Ph.D. dissertation, Univ. Kansas.

Kunz, T.H. (1973): Resource utilization: Temporal and

spatial components of bat activity in central Iowa. J.

Mammal. 54: 14-32.

Kunz, T.H. (1974): Reproduction, growth and mortality

of the vespertilionid bat, Eptesicus fuscus, in Kansas.

POST-NATAL DEVELOPMENT OF INDIAN FALSE VAMPIRE BAT MEGADERMA LYRA

355

J. Mammal. 55: 1-13.

Kunz, T.H. & E.L.P. Anthony (1982): Age estimation

and post-natal growth in the bat Myotis licofigis. J.

Mammal. 63: 23-32.

Madhavan, A. (1978): Breeding habits and associated

phenomena in some Indian bats. Part V. - Pipistrellus

dormeri (Dobson) - Vespertilionidae. J. Bombay not.

Hist. Soc. 75: 426-433.

Noll, U.G. (1979): Post-natal growth and development

of thermogenesis in Rousettus aegyptiacus. Comp.

Biochem. Physiol. 63 A: 89-943

Orr, R.T. (1970): Development: prenatal and postnatal.

In: W.A. Wimsatt (Ed.), Biology of Bats, vol.I,

Academic Press, New York, pp.2 17-23 1 .

Pearson, O.P., M.R. Koford & A.K. Pearson (1952):

Reproduction in the lump nosed bat Corynorhinus

rafinesquei in California. J. Mammal. 33: 273-320.

Yokoyama, K., T.A. Uchida & S. Shiraishi (1975):

Functional morphology of wings from the standpoint

of adaptation for flight in Chiroptera. I. Relative growth

and ossification in forelimbs, wing loading and aspect

ratio. Zoological Magazine, Tokyo. 84: 233-247.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

FIRST REPORT OF GENUS HEMITAXONUS ASHMEAD (HYMENOPTERA,

SYMPHYTA, TENTHREDINIDAE: SELANDRIINAE) FROM INDIA WITH TWO

NEW SPECIES1

Malkiat S. Saini and Tajinder P. Saini2

{With eight text-figures)

The sawfly genus Hemitaxonus Ashmead is recorded for the first time from India with the

addition of two new species. Described as new species are Hemitaxonus garhwalensis from Mandal

Uttar Pradesh and Hemitaxonus kumaonensis from Ramgarh, Uttar Pradesh. Each species is

described and illustrated. A key is provided to distinguish all three Oriental species of the genus.

Introduction

Genus Hemitaxonus was erected by

Ashmead ( 1 898) taking Taxonus dubitatus Norton

(by original designation) as its type species from

North America. Takeuchi (1928) described a new

species Hemitaxonus formosanus from Formosa.

This was the first report of this genus from the

Oriental region. In this paper, two new species

are added to it from India, bringing the total

number of species from the oriental region to

three.

Genus Hemitaxonus Ashmead

Hemitaxonus Ashmead, 1898; Konow,

1 905; Rohwer, 1911; Enslin, 1914; MacGillivray,

1916; Malaise, 1931; Malaise, 1933; Conde,

1934; Ross, 1937; Takeuchi, 1941; Ross, 1951;

Smith, 1966.

Type: Taxonus dubitatus Norton. Original

designation.

Epitaxonus MacGillivray, 1908; Rohwer,

1911 (= Hemitaxonus Ashmead); MacGillivray,

1916; Malaise, 1933.

Type: Taxonus albidopictus Norton.

Original designation.

Sahlbergia Forsius, 1910; Enslin, 1914

(= Hemitaxonus Ashmead).

Type: Sahlbergia struthiopteridis Forsius.

Monotypic.

‘Accepted March, 1995.

department of Zoology, Punjabi University,

Patiala- 147 002, India.

Description

Based on Smith (1969); this genus is

characterised by: Antenna long and slender;

second segment globular, as long as wide; third

segment subequal in length to fourth segment;

sixth segment at least two times longer than wide.

Frontal area distinct, enclosing the median

ocellus. Post genal carina present. Clypeus

slightly emarginate; malar space equal to or

slightly wider than diameter of front ocellus.

Epicnemium present as flat sclerite, separated

from mesopleuron by suture, or present as raised

shoulder, separated from mesopleuron by furrow.

Forewing with an almost perpendicular anal

crossvein; proximal anal cell twice length of

distal anal cell; nervulus joins medius apically of

middle of discoidal cell. Hindwing with two

closed middle cells; anellan cell petiolate or

sessile. Tarsal claw simple or with minute inner

tooth.

In order to accommodate the new species,

the following generic characters have been made

slightly broad based: pedicel equal or shorter than

its apical width and malar space may be less than

diameter of median ocellus.

The terminology of Malaise (1945) and

Ross (1937, 1945) has been followed. Holotypes

will be deposited in the National Pusa Collections,

IARI, New Delhi.

Abbreviations: AT=Apical tooth,

CL=Clypeus, EL=Eye length, IATS=Inner apical

tibial spur, ICD=Intercenchral distance, IDMO-

Interocular distance at the level of median ocellus,

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

357

ITD=Intertegular distance, LB=Labrum,

LID=Lower interocular distance,

MB=Metabasitarsus, OATS=Outer apical tibial

spur, OCL=Ocello occipital line, OOL=Oculo-

ocellar line, POL=Post ocellar line, SAT=Sub-

apical tooth.

Key to Oriental Species

1. Antennal segment 3 shorter than 4 in ratio 6:7;

abdomen auratus; tarsal claw with a minute subapical

tooth 2

— Antennal segment 3 & 4 equal; abdominal segments

3-6 reddish yellow; tarsal claw without subapical

tooth Hemitaxonus formosanus Takeuchi 1928.

2. Distal 1/3 metafemur yellow; malar space 0.4x

diameter of median ocellus; inter & post ocellar

furrows merely indicated. ITD:ICD :: 3.5:1. 0 Female

lancet, saw sheath & tarsal claw as in Figs. 7, 5, 3

Hemitaxonus garhwalensis sp. nov.

— Distal 2/3 metafemur yellow; malar space Q.6x

diameter of median ocellus; inter and post ocellar

furrows indistinct; ITD:ICD :: 3.0: 1.0. Female lancet

saw sheath and tarsal claw as in Figs. 8, 6, 4

Hemitaxonus kumaonensis sp. nov.

Hemitaxonus garhwalensis sp. nov.

(Figs. 1,3, 5, 7)

Female : Average length 8 mm. Body black,

with whitish yellow dorsolateral angles of

pronotum, tegula, meso- and metacoxae except

their extreme bases, all trochanters and the

adjoining parts of all femora, apices of pro- and

mesofemora, distal 1/3 of metafemur, anterior

aspects of tibiae and tarsi of the 4 front legs;

proximal 2/3 femur, tibia and tarsi of hind leg

piceous. Abdomen auratus. Wings hyaline, stigma

and venation dark brown to black.

Antenna slender, 2.8x head width, scape

wider than long, longer than pedicel which is

also apically much wider than its length, segment

3 shorter than 4 as 6:7. Anterior margin of clypeus

roundly shallowly subemarginate (Fig. 1).

Labrum broader than long as 3:1 with bluntly

pointed anterior margin. Malar space 0.4x

diameter of median ocellus. Supraclypeal area

subtrianguiarly raised with blunt longi-

tudinal carina. LID:IDMO:EL :: 2.0:2.2:2.0;

OOL:POL:OCL : : 1 .0: 1 .0:0.8. Frontal area above

the level of eyes, supraantennal tubercles

insignificant and posteriorly connected with the

blunt carina like well defined frontal ridges.

Median fovea broad, distinct and divisible into

two parts due to a transverse ridge of the elevation

of frontal ridges. Upper part of median fovea is

U-shaped and flat bottomed, whereas the lower

part is open anteriorly and with a distinct pit in

its posterior half. In middle frontal ridges laterally

connected to inner margins of eyes through a

transverse carina. Circum-ocellar furrow distinct,

inter- and postocellar furrows merely indicated.

Lateral furrows sunken, pit-like, abruptly ending

only halfway to hypothetical posterior margin of

head. Post ocellar area hump-like, strongly

elevated in its anterior half and depressed in its

posterior half, wider than long as 2:1.

Inner margins of eyes subparallel. Head

narrowing behind eyes. Hind orbits carinated only

below. Mesoscutellum subconvex, appendage

not carinate. ITD:ICD :: 3. 5: 1.0. Epicnemium

subconvex, separated from mesopleuron by a

fine furrow. Mesepisternum obtusely raised

without carina or acute apex. Subapical tooth

of tarsal claw (Fig. 3) much shorter than apical

one. Metabasitarsus slightly shorter than all

the following joints combined, as 6:7. Saw

sheath tapering into a narrow pointed apex

(Fig. 5).

Head and thorax smooth, shining,

apunctate, except the posterior slope of

mesoscutellum that bears isolated punctures

arranged in a row. Abdomen subshining,

apunctate. Body entirely without pubescence.

Lancet with 7 serrulae (Fig. 7).

Male: Unknown.

Holotype : Female, Uttar Pradesh; Mandal,

2200 m, 12.vi.1985.

Paratype : 1 Female, same data as holotype.

Distribution : India; Uttar Pradesh.

Etymology : The species is named after the

Garhwal hills in which its type locality is

situated.

358

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

8

Figs 1-8. Clypeus: 1. Hemitaxonus garhwalensis; 2. H. kumaonensis.

Tarsal claw: 3. H. garhwalensis; 4. H. kumaonensis.

Saw sheath: 5.H. garhwalensis ; 6. H. kumaonensis Lancet: 7. H. garhwalensis ; 8. H. kumaonensis.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

359

Hemitaxonus kumaonensis sp. nov.

(Fig. 2, 4, 6, 8)

Female : Length 8 mm. Body black, with

whitish yellow - dorsolateral angles of pronotum,

tegula, meso- and metacoxae except their extreme

bases, all trochanters and the adjoining parts of

all femora, apices of pro- & mesofemora, distal

2/3 of metafemur, anterior aspects of tibiae and

tarsi of 4 front legs; proximal 1/3 femur, tibia and

tarsi of hind leg piceous. Abdomen auratus. Wings

hyaline, stigma and venation dark brown to black.

Antenna slender, 2.9x headwidth, scape

wider than long, longer than pedicel which is also

apically much wider than its length, segment 3

shorter than 4 as 6:7. Anterior margin of clypeus

roundly shallowly submarginate (Fig. 2). Labrum

concealed beneath clypeus. Malar space 0.6 x

diameter of median ocellus. Supraclypeal area

subtriangularly raised with blunt longitudinal

carina. LID:IDMO:EL: :2.0:2.33:2.0,OOL:POL:OCL

:: 1.0:1. 0:0.9. Frontal area above the level of eyes,

supra-antennal tubercles insignificant and

posteriorly connected with the blunt carina like

well defined frontal ridges. Median fovea broad,

distinct and divisible into two parts due to a

transverse ridge of the elevation of frontal ridges.

Upper part of median fovea is U-shaped having

flat bottom whereas lower one is open anteriorly

and with a distinct pit in its posterior half. In

middle frontal ridges laterally connected to inner

margins of eyes through a transverse carina.

Circumocellar furrow distinct, inter and post

ocellar furrows indistinct. Lateral furrows sunken,

pit-like, abruptly ending only halfway to

hypothetical posterior margin of head. Postocellar

R EFE

Ashmead, W.H. (1898): Classification of homtails and

sawflies of the suborder Phytophaga. Canad. Ent.

XXX, pp. 141-145, 177-183,205-213,225-232,249-

257,281-287 and 305-316.

Conde, O. (1934): Ostabltische Tenthredinoidea, II. Teil.

(Hym) Karresp. Bl. naturf. Verzu Riga 61: 168-198.

Enslin, E. (1914): Die Blatt. und Holzwespen

area hump-like, strongly roundly elevated in its

anterior half and depressed in its posterior half,

wider than long as: 2:1. Inner margins of eyes

subparallel. Head narrowing behind eyes. Hind

orbits carinated only below. Mesoscutellum

subconvex, appendage not cainate. ITD:ICD ::

3.0: 1.0. Epicnemium subconvex, separated from

mesopleuron by a fine furrow. Mesepisternum

obtusely raised without carina or acute apex.

Subapical tooth at the middle of tarsal claw (Fig.

4), much shorter than apical one. Metabasitarsus

shorter than all following joints combined as 5:6.

IATS:MB:OATS :: 2.0:7.0:1.8. Saw sheath

broadened with blunt apex (Fig. 6).

Head and thorax smooth, shining and

apunctate except the posterior slope of

mesoscutellum that bears isolated punctures

arranged in a row. Abdomen subshining,

apunctate. Pubescence negligible. Lancet with 6

serrulae (Fig. 8).

Male : Unknown.

Holotype : Female, Uttar Pradesh; Ramgarh,

1800 m, 19.vi.1991.

Distribution : India; Uttar Pradesh.

Etymology . The species is named after the

Kumaon hills among which its type locality is

situated.

Acknowledgement

We are grateful to Dr. D.R. Smith,

Systematic Entomology Laboratory, USDA,

Washington, D.C., for his helpful and valuable

suggestions. Thanks are also due to US, PL- 480

and ICAR, New Delhi, for financial assistance to

the project under which this work was carried

out.

ENCES

(Tenthrediniden) Mitteleuropas, insbesondere

Deutschlands. In: Die Insekten Mitteleuropas, hrsg.

V.chr. Schroder. Bd. 3. Stuttgart 95-213, 4 Taf.

Forsius, R. (1910): Eine neue selandriaden - Gattung.

Helsingfors Medd. Soc. Fauna et. FI. Fenn. 36: 49-

52.

Konow, F.W. (1905): Hymenoptera, Family

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Tenthredinidae. In P. Wytsmen (Ed). Genera

Insectorum Fasc: 29:73. Bruxelles.

Macgillivray, A.D. (1908): Emphytinae New Genera &

Species & Synonymical Notes (Hymn). Canad.

Ento. London (Can.) 40: 365-369.

Macgillivray, A.D. (1916): Tenthredinoidea. In Viereck,

H.L., Guide to the insects of Connecticut, pt. 3,

the Hymenoptera, or Wasp-Like Insects of

Connecticut, Conn. Goel. Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 22:

25-175.

Malaise, R. (1931): Blattwespen aus Wladiwostok und

anderen Teilen Ostasien (Hym). Ent. Tidskr.,

Stockholm 52: 97-159.

Malaise, R. (1933): A New Genus and Synonymical

Notes on Tenthredinoidea (Hym). Ent. Tidskr ;

Stockholm 54: 50-59.

Malaise, R. (1945): Tenthredinoidea of South-Eastern

Asia with a general Zoogeographical review. Opusc.

Ent., Suppl. 4: 288.

Rohwer, S.A. (1911): New Sawflies in the collections of

the United States National Museum (Hymenoptera).

Washington D.C. Smithsonian Inst. Proc. U.S.

Nation. Mus. 41 (1866): 377-411.

Ross, H.H. (1937): A Generic Classification of the

Nearctic Sawflies (Hymenoptera, Symphyta) Illinois

Biol. Mono, 34: 173.

Ross, H.H. (1945): Sawfly Genitalia, Terminology and

Study Techniques. Ent. News 56: 261-268.

Ross, H.H. (1951): Tenthredinidae. In Muesebeck, C.F.W.,

et al., Hymenoptera of 'America North of Mexico,

Synoptic Cat., U.S. Dept. Agr. Monog. 2: 22-64, 66-

82.

Smith, D.R. (1966): The Nearctic Sawflies of the Genus

Hemitaxonus Ashmead (Hym: Tenthr.). Proc. ent.

Soc. Wash. 68: 113-120.

Smith, D.R. (1969): Nearctic sawflies II. Selandriinae;

Adults (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae). U.S. Dept.

Agr. Tech. Bull. 1398, 48 pp.

Takeuchi, K. (1928): New Sawflies from Formosa I

(Hym). Trans. Nat. Hist. Soc. Formosa, Taihoku 18:

38-45.

Takeuchi, K. (1941): A Systematic Study of the Suborder

Symphyta (Hymenoptera) of the Japanese Empire

(4). Tenthredo, Kyoto 3: 230-274, 3 figs.

FIFTEEN NEW SPECIES OF FERNA MALAISE FROM INDIA WITH A REVISED

KEY TO THE ORIENTAL SPECIES (HYMENOPTERA, SYMPHYTA,

TENTHREDINIDAE: ALLANTINAE)1

Malkiat S. Saini2 and V. Vasu

(With fifty -nine text-figures)

To the previously recorded four species of genus Fema Malaise from India, fifteen new

species are added. The new species described are: F. indiana, F. chambali, F. nigra, F. naga, F.

canalicula, F. acclivata, F. himenderi, F. foveolata, F. emarginata, F. cinguliventris, F. himalayana,

F. dutti, F. sagittata, F. brevis and F. pupa. A revised key for the identification of all the Oriental

species has been provided.

Key words: new species, Fema key, Hymen optera, Allantinae, India.

Introduction

With six new species. Malaise (1961)

erected genus Fema taking F. longiserra as its

type. After more than three decades, only one new

species F. bengalensis was added by Saini and

Deep (1993).

In the present text, fifteen new' species are

being described and illustrated. Though 3 species

have already been recorded from India, i.e., F.

brevigenata Malaise by Muche (1983) and the

remaining two, F. longiserra Malaise and F.

punctifossa Malaise by Saini and Deep (1993),

yetE bullifrons Malaise, F. latifrons Malaise and

F. acutiserra Malaise are from the faunistic area

of Burma. While preparing the key to the Oriental

species, we examined all the species except F.

acutiserraM&l&ise, for which a figure pertaining

to the ovipositor sheath and some other key

characters have been obtained from literature.

The holotypes of the new species are

presently in our collections and will be deposited

in the Pusa National Collections, Division of

Entomology, Indian Agricultural Research

Institute (IARI), New Delhi, India, after this work

is published.

‘Accepted May, 1997

department of Zoology, Punjabi University, Patiala- 147002,

India.

Abbreviations used in the text are: EL =

eye length, IATS = inner apical tibial spur, IDMO

= interocular distance at the level of median

ocellus, LID = lower interocular distance, MB =

metabasitarsus, OATS = outer apical tibia! spur,

OCL = ocello-occipital line, OOL = ocello-ocular

line, POL = postocellar line.

Key to the Oriental species of Fema Malaise

1. Ovipositor sheath acutely triangular in lateral view

(Fig. 7) F. acutiserra Malaise, 1961.

— Ovipositor sheath broadly rounded or roundly pointed

in lateral view (Figs. 8-11) 2

2. Post-, inter- and circumocellar furrows absent

F. bengalensis Saini & Deep, 1993

— Post-, inter- and circumocellar furrows distinct 3

3. Mesosternum entirely yellowish white 4

— Mesosternum entirely black 1 1

4. Median fovea in form of broad, deep, oval pit

F. indiana sp. nov.

— Median fovea broad ditch-like to narrow seam-like 5

5. All tibiae and tarsi uniformly fuscoferruginous

F. punctifossa Malaise, 1961.

— At least base and apices of metatarsi fuscous to black

6

6. All metatarsi entirely fuscous 7

— Only bases and apices of metatarsi fuscous

F. chambali sp. nov.

7. Median fovea deep ditch-like or narrow seam-like in

its anterior half and posteriorly not reaching median

ocellus 8

— Median fovea deep ditch-like or narrow seam-like and

clearly extending to median ocellus 9

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

8. Tergites 2-8 entirely black except posterior border of

tergites 2 and 3 in the middle; postocellar area broader

than long as 3:2; median fovea in form of narrow

seam; scape 1.4 x its apical width; pedicel slightly

shorter than its apical width; segments 3 and 4 as 10:11

F. nigra sp. nov.

— Posterior margins of tergites 2-8 yellowish white;

postocellar area broader than long as 2:1; median

fovea in form of broad, deep ditch; scape as long as

its apical width; pedicel 1.3 x its apical width;

segments 3 and 4 as 4:5 F. naga sp. nov.

9. Median fovea in form of deep, narrow seam at least

in its anterior 3/4 10

— Median fovea broad ditch-like in its anterior half,

posteriorly broad and shallow

F. brevigenata Malaise, 1961

1 0. Median fovea clearly reaching median ocellus; scape

1.3 x its apical width; segments 3 and 4 as 6:7;

POL:OCL:OOL :: 2:2:3 F. canalicula sp. nov.

— Median fovea very shallowly reaching median ocellus,

scape as long as its apical width; segments 3 and 4 as

8:11; POL:OCL:OOL :: 4:4:5 .. F. acclivata sp. nov.

11. A transverse band at the most on posteroventral lower

2/3 of mesopleuron (i.e. not touching epicnemium)

12

— A transverse band on lower 1/2 of mesopleuron

extending from epicnemium to coxal rim 14

12. A narrow transverse band on posteroventral 1/2 of

mesopleuron present F. himenderi sp. nov.

— A transverse band on posteroventral 2/3 of

mesopleuron present 13

13. Malar space 0.5x diameter of median ocellus; median

fovea in form of deep narrow seam extending upto

median ocellus; a yellowish white spot present before

mesoscutellum; all femora, tibiae and tarsi uniformly

fuscoferruginous F.foveolata sp. nov.

— Malar space lx diameter of median ocellus; median

fovea deep ditch-like in its anterior half, posteriorly

broadens and shallowly reaching median ocellus; a

spot before mesocutellum missing; all femora, tibiae

and tarsi not so F. longiserra Malaise, 1961

14. All tergites entirely black above 19

— All tergites not entirely black above 15

15. Mesonotal middle lobe entirely black 16

— Sagitated apex of mesonotal middle lobe yellowish

white latifrons Malaise, 1961

16. Malar space 0.5x diameter of median ocellus

F. emarginata sp. nov.

— Malar space lx diameter of median ocellus 17

17. Posterior margins of some tergites yellowish white

18

— Tergites 2 and 3 entirely yellowish white

F. cinguliventris sp. nov.

1 8. Median fovea in form of deep, narrow seam extending

upto median ocellus; postocellar area broader than

long as 3:2- F. bullifrons Malaise, 1961

— Median fovea broad ditch-like with a median pit in

its anterior half, posteriorly broadens and only

shallowly reaching median ocellus; postocellar area

broader than long as 2:1 F. himalayana sp. nov.

19. Malar space 0.5x diameter of median ocellus;

F. dutti sp. nov.

— Malar space lx diameter of median ocellus 20

20. Mesonotal middle lobe entirely black 21

— Sagittated apex of mesonotal middle lobe yellowish

white F. sagittata sp. nov.

21. Median fovea ditch-like in its anterior 1/2 and

posterior only shallowly reaching median ocellus;

postocellar area broader than long as 3:2; scape and

pedicel each as long as its apical width; segments 3

and 4 as 4:5; clypeus roundly incised upto 1/2 of its

medial length F. brevis sp. nov.

— Median fovea ditch-like in its anterior 1/2 and

posteriorly not reaching median ocellus; postocellar

area broader than long as 2:1 ; scape and pedicel each

1 .3x its apical width; segments 3 and 4 as 8:9; clypeus

subrectangularly incised upto 1/2 of its medial length-

F. pupa sp. nov.

Ferna indiana sp. nov.

(Figs. 12, 23,45)

Female : Unknown.

Male : Colour: Body black; the following

areas are yellowish white: clypeus; labrum;

mandible barring apex; supraclypeal area

extending upto the upper rim of antennal socket;

lower 3/4 of inner orbit; hind orbit extending upto

temple; extreme posterolateral margins of

pronotum; tegula; mesopleuron except dorsal 1/

2; metapleuron, except a spot on metepimeron;

tergite 9 entirely; deflexed lateral sides of all

tergites; all sternites more or less; all coxae and

trochanters; all femora except inner dorsal aspects

of apical 3/4. Rest of the parts of all legs light

brown to fuscous. Wings hyaline; venation

including costa, subcosta and stigma fuscous.

Structure : Length 4. mm. Antenna 3.7x

head width; scape and pedicel each as long as its

apical width; segment 3 shorter than 4 as 4:5;

clypeus (Fig. 1) subrectangularly incised upto 1/

3 of its medial length; labrum broader than long

as 2:1; malar space 1.5x diameter of median

ocellus; LID:IDMO:EL :: 6:7:4; head without

postgenal carina; supra-antennal tubercles and

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

363

frontal ridges insignificant; median fovea in the

form of deep pit in its anterior half and posteriorly

not reaching median ocellus (Fig. 45); post-, inter-

and circumocellar furrows distinct; lateral furrows

distinct, parallel and abruptly ending just before

hypothetical hind margin of head; postocellar area

broader than long as 3:2; head narrowing behind

eyes; POL:OCL:OOL :: 4:4:5; mesoscutellum

subconvex; appendage not carinate; tarsal claw with

a subapical tooth shorter than apical one and without

basal lobe; metabasitarsus shorter than following

joints combined as 3:4; metatibial spurs subequal

in length; IATS:MB:OATS :: 5:12:4. Genitalia:

penis valve (Fig. 23), gonoforceps (Fig. 12).

Sculpture and pubescence : Head with

dense, minute, distinct punctures, surface shining;

thorax punctate like head except apunctate

appendage, surface shining with general oily

lustre; abdomen apunctate, subshining. Body

covered with silvery pubescence.

Holotype : Male, Nagaland, Vizho-Razho,

1700 m, ll.v.1993.

Distribution : Nagaland.

Diagnosis'. The broad, deep, oval pit-like

median fovea; colour pattern of body; broadly

rounded ovipositor sheath; distinct post-, inter-

and circumocellar furrows and insignificant

frontal ridges distinguish F. Indiana from other

species of this genus.

Etymology : The species is named from

India, in which the type locality falls.

Ferna chambali sp. nov.

(Figs. 13,24, 34,46)

Female : Colour: Body black; the following

areas are yellowish white: clypeus; labrum;

mandible barring apex; supraclypeal area; broad

lower 3/4 of inner orbit; hind orbit extending upto

temple; posterodorsal margin of pronotum; tegula;

a spot on anterior 1/2 of mesocutellum;

parapterum; mesepisternum except anterodorsal

aspect; mesostemum; lower 1/2 of metapleuron;

deflexed latei al sides of all tergites; all sternites

entirely; all legs except apical tip of all tibiae,

extreme apices and basis of all tarsi which are

fuscous. Wings hyaline; venation including costa,

subcosta and stigma dark brown.

Structure : Average length 6 mm. Antenna

3.3x head width; scape as long as its apical width;

pedicel 1.5x its apical width; antennal segment 3

shorter than 4 as 4:5; clypeus (Fig. 1) subsquarely

incised upto 1/2 of its medial length; labrum

broader than long as 2:1; malar space 1.5x

diameter of median ocellus; LID:IDMO:EL ::

7:8:4; head without postgenal carina; supra-

antennal tubercles moderate ^nd confluent, with

similar roundly raised frontal ridges; median

fovea in the form of deep ditch in its anterior half

and posteriorly broadly reaching median ocellus

(Fig. 46); post-, inter- and circumocellar furrows

sharp; lateral furrows deep, parallel and ending

abruptly just before hypothetical hind margin of

head; postocellar area subconvex, broader than

long as 4:3; head narrowing behind eyes;

POL:OCL:OOL :: 4:4:5; mesoscutellum

subconvex; appendage not carinate; tarsal claw

with a subapical tooth shorter than apical one and

without basal lobe; metabasitarsus shorter than

following joint combined as 4:5; metatibial spurs

subequal in length; IATS:MB:OATS :: 3:7:2.

Lancet (Fig. 34) having 13 serrulae. Lateral view

of ovipositor sheath as in Fig. 9.

Sculpture and pubescence : Head with

dense, minute, distinct punctures, surface shining;

thorax punctate like head except apunctate

appendage, surface shining with general oily

lustre; abdomen apunctate, less shining. Body

covered with silvery pubescence.

Male : Average length 5.5 mm. Similar to

female. Genitalia: penis valve (Fig. 24),

gonoforceps (Fig. 13).

Holotype : Female, Uttar Pradesh, Dhanolti,

2200 m, 25.vii.1993.

Paratypes : 7 females, 14 males with same

date as holotype.

Distribution'. Uttar Pradesh.

Diagnosis'. Characteristic shape of median

fovea; distinct colour pattern of legs; clear post-,

inter- and circumocellar furrows, apically rounded

364

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

ovipositor sheath; scape as long as its apical

width; pedicel 1.5x its apical width and malar

space more than the diameter of median ocellus,

are some of the characters which distinguish F.

chambali from other species of Ferna.

Etymology : The species is named after Dr.

Amrik S. Chambal, who is working on sawfly

taxonomy at Punjabi University, Patiala, India.

Ferna nigra sp. nov.

(Figs. 14, 25, 35, 47)

Female : Colour: Body black, yellowish

white are: eiypeus; labrum; mandible barring

apex; a squarish spot on supraclypeal area; lower

1/2 of inner orbit; hind orbit extending upto

•temple; poster odorsal and extreme posterolateral

margins of pronotum; tegula; a spot before

mesoscutellum; a spot on mesoscutellum;

parapterum; mesepisternum except anterodorsal

spot; extreme posteroventral tip of mesepimeron;

mesosternum; metepimeron except anterodorsal

spot; extreme hind border in the middle of tergites

2 and 3; tergite 9 entirely; deflexed lateral sides

of all tergites; all sternites; all coxae and

trochanters; all femora except inner dorsal aspects

of apical halves. Remaining parts of all legs light

brown to fuscous. Wings hyaline, basal 1/2 of

stigma fulvous; venation including costa and

subcosta piceous.

Structure : Average length 5.5 mm. Antenna

3.7x head with; scape 1.4x its apical width;

pedicel slightly shorter than its apical width;

segment 3 shorter than 4 as 10:11; clypeus (Fig.

5) subrectangularly incised upto 1/2 of its medial

length; labrum broader than long as 3:2; malar

space 1.5x diameter of median ocellus;

LID:IDMQ:EL :: 2:2:1; head without postgenal

carina; supra-antennal tubercles moderate and

confluent with similarly roundly raised frontal

ridges; median fovea in form of deep narrow seam

in its anterior 3/4 and posteriorly not reaching

median ocellus (Fig. 47); post-, inter- and

circumocellar furrows distinct; lateral furrows pit-

like, parallel and ending abruptly well before

hypothetical hind margin of head; postocellar area

broader than long as 3:2; head narrowing behind

eyes; POL:OCL:OOL :: 4:4:5; mesoscutellum

subconvex; appendage not carinate; tarsal claw

with a subapical tooth shorter than apical one;

metabasitarsus shorter than following joints

combined as 3:4; metatibial spurs subequal;

IATS:MB:OATS :: 3:5:2; Lancet (Fig. 35) having

16 serrulae. Lateral view of ovipositor sheath as

in Fig. 10.

Sculpture and pubescence : Head with

dense, minute, distinct punctures, surface shining;

thorax punctate like head, except apunctate

appendage, surface shining with general oily

lustre; abdomen apunctate, less shining. Body

covered with silvery pubescence.

Male : Average length 5.5 mm. Similar to

female. Genitalia: penis valve (Fig. 25),

gonoforceps (Fig. 14).

Holotype : Female, Arunachal Pradesh,

Bomdila, 2550 m, 7.V.1992.

Paratypes : Aruanchal Pradesh, Bomdila,

2550 m (5 females, 50 males) 7-9.V.1992.

Distribution : Arunachal Pradesh.

Diagnosis'. Though F. nigra is allied to F.

naga, it can be distinguished from it as well as

other Ferna species on the basis of the

characteristic median fovea; scape 1.4x its apical

width; pedicel a little shorter than its apical width;

segments 3 and 4 as 10: 1 1 , distinct colour pattern

of body; and rounded ovipositor sheath.

Etymology : The species name pertains to

the general black colour of the body.

Ferna naga sp. nov.

(Figs. 6, 36, 48)

Female : Colour: Body black; the following

areas are yellowish white: clypeus; labrum;

mandible barring apex; a spot on supraclypeal

area; lower 3/4 of inner orbit; hind orbit extending

upto temple; tegula; a spot before mesoscutellum;

parapterum; mesepisternum except anterodorsal

aspect; posterior margins of tergites 2-8; tergite

9 entirely; deflexed lateral sides of all tergites;

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

365

all sternites entirely; all coxae and trochanters;

all femora except fuscoferruginous dorsal aspects

of apical 1/2; tibiae and tarsi of front four legs

except fuscoferruginous posterior parts. Metatibia

with somewhat brownish tinge; metatarsi fuscous.

Wings hyaline, venation including costa, subcosta

and stigma fuscous.

Structure: Average length 5 mm. Antenna

3.2x its apical width; antennal segment 3 shorter

than 4 as 4:5; clypeus (Fig. 6) accurately incised

upto 1/2 of its medial length; labrum broader than

long as 3:2; malar space 1 .5x diameter of median

ocellus; LID:IDMO:EL :: 6:7:4; head without

postgenal carina; supra-antennal tubercles and

frontal ridges insignificant; median fovea in the

form of a deep ditch in its anterior 3/4 and

posteriorly not reaching median ocellus (Fig. 48);

post-, inter- and circumocellar furrows sharp,

lateral furrows distinct parallel and ending

abruptly just before hypothetical hind margin of

head; postocellar area subconvex, broader than

long as 4:3; head narrowing behind eyes;

POL:OCL:OOL :: 4:4:5; mesoscutellum sub-

convex; appendage not carinate; tarsal claw with

a subapical tooth shorter than apical one and

without basal lobe; metabasitarsus shorter than

following joints combined as 4:5; metatibial spurs

subequal in length; IATS:MB:OATS :: 5:12:4.

Lancet (Fig. 36) having 14 serrulae. Lateral view

of ovipositor sheath as in Fig. 10.

Sculpture and pubescence : Head with

dense minute punctures, surface shining;

mesonotum with dense, minute, irregular

punctures; surface shining; mesoscutellum with

scattered, minute punctures on its posterior part;

appendage apunctate, polished; mesepisternum

minutely punctured; mesosternum with few

scattered, minute punctures, surface shining with

general oily lustre; abdomen apunctate, less

shining. Body covered with silvery pubescence.

Male: Unknown.

Holotype: Female, Nagaland, Pfutsero,

2100 m, 20.V.1993.

Paratype: 1 female, with same data as

holotype.

Distribution: Nagaland.

Diagnosis: F. naga comes close toP. nigra,

but is distinct from it and from other species of

this genus by the following characteristic shape

of median fovea; distinct colour pattern of body;

postocellar area broader than long as 2:1; scape

as long as its apical width; pedicel 1.3x its apical

width; antennal segments 3 and 4 as 4:5.

Etymology: The species is named after

Nagaland, the state in which the type locality falls.

Ferna ccmalicula sp. nov.

(Figs. 2, 15, 26, 37, 49)

Female: Colour: Body black; the following

areas are yellowish white: Clypeus; labrum,

mandible barring apex; a square spot on

supraclypeal area; lower 1/2 of inner orbit; hind

orbit extending upto temple; posterodorsal and

extreme posterolateral margins of pronotum;

tegula; a spot before mesoscutellum; a spot on

mesoscultellum; parapternum; mesepisternum

except anterodorsal spot; extreme posteroventral

tip of mesepimeron; mesosternum; metepimeron

except anterodorsal spot; extreme hind border in

the middle of tergites 2 and 3; tergite 9 entirely;

deflexed lateral sides of all tergites; all sternites;

all coxae and trochanters; all femora except inner

dorsal aspects of apical halves. Rest of parts of

all legs light brown to fuscous. Wings hyaline,

basal 1/2 of stigma fulvous; venation including

costa and subcosta piceous.

Structure: Average length 5.5 mm. Antenna

3.6x head width; scape 1.3x its apical width;

pedicel as long as its apical width; segment 3

shorter than 4 as ratio 6:7; clypeus (Fig. 2) roundly

incised upto 1/2 of its medial length; labrum

broader than long as 3:2; malar space 2x diameter

of median ocellus; LID:IDMO:EL :: 2:2:1; head

without postgenal carina; supra-antennal tubercles

insignificant and confluent with roundly raised

frontal ridges; median fovea in form of deep

narrow seam distinctly reaching median ocellus

(Fig. 49); post-, inter and circum-ocellar furrows

distinct; lateral furrows deep, parallel and abruptly

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

ending well before hypothetical hind margin of

head; postocellar area broader than long as 3:2;

head narrowing behind eyes; POL:OCL:OOL ::

2:2:3; mesoscutellum subconvex; appendage not

carinate; tarsal claw with a subapical tooth shorter

than apical one and without basal lobe;

metabasitarsus equal to following joints

combined; metatibial spurs subequal in length;

IATS:MB:OATS :: 4:8:3. Lancet (Fig. 37) having

14 serrulae. Lateral view of ovipositor sheath as

in Fig. 9.

Sculpture and pubescence : Head with a

few minute punctures on frontal area, surface

shining; thorax with dense, minute, irregular

punctures, more conspicuous on posterior slope

of mesoscutellum, but appendage apunctate and

polished; abdomen microstriated, surface

subshining. Body covered with silvery

pubescence except on yellowish white parts where

it appears to be golden.

Male: Average length 5.5 mm. Similar to

female. Genitalia: penis valve (Fig. 26),

gonoforceps (Fig. 15).

Holotype : Female, Arunachal Pradesh,

Bomdila, 2550 m, 8.V.1992.

Paratypes : Arunachal Pradesh, Bomdila,

2550 m (5 females, 37 males) 7-9.V.1992.

Distribution : Arunachal Pradesh.

Diagnosis : The deep, narrow seam-like

median fovea clearly reaching median ocellus;

scape 1.3x its apical width; segments 3 and 4 as

6:7; POL:OCL:OOL :: 2:2:3; and distinct colour

pattern of the body are the distinguishing

characters which separate P. canalicula from its

allied species F. acclivata and other species of

the genus.

Etymology : The species is named

canalicula from the seam-like median fovea

reaching median ocellus.

Ferna acclivata sp. nov.

(Figs. 1, 16, 27, 38, 50)

Female. Colour: Body black; the following

areas are yellowish white: clypeus; labrum;

mandible barring apex; a square spot on

supraclypeal area; lower 1/2 of inner orbit; hind

orbit extending upto temple; posterodorsal and

extreme posterolateral margins of pronotum;

tegula; a spot before mesoscutellum; a spot on

mesoscutellum; parapterum; mesepisternum

except anterodorsal spot; extreme posteroventral

tip of mesepimeron; mesosternum; metepimeron

except anterodorsal spot; extreme hind border in

the middle of tergites 2 and 3; tergite 9 entirely;

deflexed lateral sides of all tergites; all sternites;

all coxae and trochanters; all femora except inner

dorsal aspects of apical halves. Remaining parts

of all legs light brown to fusous. Wings hyaline,

basal 1/2 of stigma fulvous; venation including

costa and subcosta piceous.

Structure : Average length 5 mm. Antenna

3.6x head width; scape as long as its apical width;

pedicel as long as its apical width; segment 3

shorter than 4 as 8:11; clypeus (Fig. 1)

subrectangularly incised upto 1/2 of its medial

length; labrum broader than long as 2:1; malar

space 2x diameter of median ocellus;

LID:IDMO:EL :: 3:3:2; head without postgenal

carina; supra-antennal tubercles and frontal ridges

insignificant; median fovea in form of deep

narrow seam in its anterior 2/3 and posteriorly

only shallowly reaching median ocellus (Fig. 50);

post-, inter- and circumocellar furrows sharp and

distinct; lateral furrows shallow, pit-like,

diverging backwards and ending well before

hypothetical hind margin of head; postocellar area

broader than long as 3:2; head narrowing behind

eyes; POL:OCL:OOL :: 4:4:5; mesoscutellum

subconvex; appendage not carinate; tarsal claw

with subapical tooth shorter than apical one;

metabasitarsus shorter than following joints

combined as 3:4; metatibial spurs equal in length;

IATS:MB:OATS :: 1:3:1. Lancet (Fig. 38) with

15 serrulae. Lateral view of ovipositor sheath as

in Fig. 10.

Sculpture and pubescence : Head with

dense, minute, distinct punctures, surface shining:

thorax punctate like head except apunctate

appendage, surface shining with general oily

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

367

lusture; abdomen apunctate, less shining. Body

covered with silvery pubescence.

Male : Average length 5 mm. Similar to

female, Genitalia: penis valve (Fig. 27),

gonoforceps (Fig. 16).

Holotype : Female, Arunachal Pradesh,

Bomdila, 2550 m, 8.V.1992.

Paratype : Arunachal Pradesh, Bomdila,

2550 m (5 females, 84 males) 7 - 9.V.1992.

Distribution : Arunachal Pradesh.

Diagnosis : F. acclivata is distinct in having

median fovea shallowly reaching median ocellus;

scape as long as its apical width; segments 3

and 4 as 8:11; POL:OCL:OOL :: 4:4:5;

mesosternum yellowish white; all metatarsi

entirely fuscous, and rounded ovipositor sheath.

These characters suffice to separate it as a distinct

species.

Etymology : The species name pertains to

the gradual rise of median fovea in its posterior

half.

Ferna himenderi sp. nov.

Figs. (5, 10, 12, 39,51)

Female : Colour: Body black; the following

areas are yellowish white: clypeus; labrum;

mandible barring apex; broad lower 1/2 and

narrow streak-like upper 1/2 of inner orbit; lower

1/2 and narrow streak-like upper 1/2 of inner

orbit; lower 1/4 of hind orbit; spot on temple;

posterodorsal margin ofpronotum; tegula; a stripe

on lower posterior 1/2 of mesopleuron; deflexed

lateral sides of all tergites; all sternites entirely;

all coxae, trochanters, femora and tibiae; rest of

parts of all legs fuscoferruginous to fuscous.

Wings hyaline, venation including costa, subcosta

and stigma piceous.

Structure : Length 5 mm. Antenna 3.2x

head width; scape 1.3x its apical width; pedicel

2x its apical width; antennal segment 3 shorter

than 4 as 8:9; clypeus (Fig. 5) subrectangularly

incised upto 1/2 of its medial length; labrum

broader than long as 2:1; malar space 1.5x

diameter of median ocellus; LID:IDMO:EL ::

5:5:3; head without postgenal carina; supra-

antennal tubercles moderate and confluent with

similar roundly raised frontal ridges; median

fovea in form of deep ditch in its anterior 1/2 and

posteriorly broadly, shallowly reaching median

ocellus (Fig. 51); post-, inter- and circumocellar

furrows sharp and distinct; lateral furrows distinct,

parallel and ending abruptly just before

hypothetical hind margin of head; postocellar area

subconvex, broader than long as 2:1; head

narrowing behind eyes; POL:OCL:OOL :: 1:1:1;

mesoscutellum sub-convex; appendage not

carinate; tarsal claw with subapical tooth shorter

than apical one and without basal lobe;

metabasitarsus shorter than following joints

combined as 6:7; metatibial spurs subequal in

length; IATS:MB:OATS :: 5:12:4. Lancet (Fig.

39) having 12 serrulae. Lateral view of ovipositor

sheath as in Fig. 10.

Sculpture and pubescence: Head and

mesonotum with dense, minute punctures, surface

shining; mesoscutellum with scattered, minute

punctures on its posterior part; appendage

apunctate, polished; mesepisternum minutely

punctured; mesosternum with a few scattered,

minute punctures, surface shining with general

oily lustre; abdomen apunctate, less shining. Body

covered with silvery pubescence.

Male : Unknown.

Holotype : Female, Arunachal Pradesh,

Bomdila, 2550 m, 9.V.1993.

Distribution : Arunachal Pradesh.

Diagnosis : F. himenderi is unique in having

presence of a transverse band on lower

posteroventral 1/2 of mesopleuron; characteristic

shape of median fovea; mesosterna entirely black;

rounded ovipositor sheath; distinct post-, inter-

and circumocellar furrows. These and the ratio

of antennal segments 3 and 4; and relative lengths

of metabasitarsus and following joints combined,

easily differentiate F. himenderi from the rest of

Ferna species.

Etymology : The species is named after Mr.

Himender Bharti, who is working on saw fly

taxonomy at Punjabi University, Patiala.

368

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

1-6. Clypeus & labrum: 1. acclivata ; 2. ccmalicula\ 3 . foveolatcr, 4. emarginata; 5. himenderi', 6. naga;

7-11. Lateral view of ovipositor sheath: 7. acutisera ; 8. brevis; 9.foveolata; 10. himenderi; 11. himcdayana;

12-14. Gonoforceps: 12. indiana; 13. chambcdi; 14. nigra.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

369

Figs. 15-22. Species of genus Fema Malaise

15-22. Gonoforceps: 15. canalicula; 16. acclivata; 17 . foveolata; 18. emarginata;

19. cinguliventris; 20. himalayana; 21. dutti; 22. sagittata.

370

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Figs. 23-33. Species of genus Fema Malaise

23-33. Penis valves: 23. indicma; 24. chambali; 25. nigra; 26. canalicula; 27. acclivata; 2$.foveolata;

29. emarginata; 30. cinguliventris; 31. himalayana; 32. dutti; 33. sagittata.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

371

Figs. 34-39. Species of genus Fema Malaise

34-39. Lancets: 34. chambali ; 35. nigra; 36. nag a; 37. canalicula ; 38. acclivata; 39. himenderi.

372

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Figs. 40-44. Species of genus Fema Malaise

40-44. Lancets: 40. foveolata; 41. himalayana; 42. sagittata; 43. brevis ; 44. pupa.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

373

Figs. 45-59. Species of genus Fema Malaise

45-59. Frontal area of head showing median fovea: 45. indiana; 46. chambali\ 47. nigra,, 48. naga\

49. canalicula ; 50. acclivata; 51. himenderi; 52. brevis ; 53 .foveolata\ 54. cinguliventris\ 55. himalayana\

56. dutti ; 57. sagittata\ 58. pupa, 59. emarginata.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Ferna foveolata sp. nov.

(Figs. 3, 9, 17, 28, 40, 53)

Female : Colour: Body black; the following

parts are yellowish white: clypeus; labrum;

mandible barring apex; a square spot on

supraclypeal area; narrow inner orbit; tegula; a

spot each on meso- and metascutella; a transverse

band on lower postero ventral 1/2 of mesopleuron

not reaching epicnemium; metepimeron except

anterodorsal 1/2; deflexed lateral sides of tergites

2-4; sternites 2-4; all coxae and trochanters. Rest

of parts of all legs uniformly fuscoferruginous.

Wings hyaline venation including costa, subcosta

and stigma fuscous.

Structure. Length 5.5 mm. Antenna long,

3.2x head width; scape as long as its apical width;

pedicel 2x its apical width; segments 3 shorter

than 4 as 4:5; clypeus (Fig. 3) roundly incised

upto 1/2 of its medial length; labrum broader than

long as 3:2; malar space 0.5x diameter of median

ocellus; LID:IDMO:EL :: 6:7:4; head without

postgenal carina; supra-antennal tubercles

moderate and confluent with similar roundly

raised frontal ridges; median fovea in form of deep

seam in its anterior half and posterior clearly

reaching median ocellus (Fig. 53); post- inter- and

circumocellar furrows sharp and distinct; lateral

furrows distinct, deep parallel and ending just

before hypothetical hind margin of head;

postocellar area almost flat, broader than long as

5:4; head narrowing behind eyes; POL:OCL:OOL

:: 2:3:3; mesoscutellum subconvex; appendage

not carinate; tarsal claw with subapical tooth

shorter than apical one and without basal lobe;

metabasitarsus shorter than following joints

combined as 8:9; metatibial spurs subequal in

length; IATS:MB:OATS :: 3:8:2. Lancet (Fig. 40)

with 19 serrulae. Lateral view of ovipositor sheath

as in Fig. 9.

Sculpture and pubescence : Head with a

few scattered, minute punctures, surface shining;

thorax almost apunctate except mesonotum which

is punctured like head, surface shining with

general oily lustre; abdomen apunctate, shining.

Body covered with survey pubescence.

Male: Length 5 mm. Similar to female.

Genitalia: penis valve (Fig. 28), gonoforceps (Fig.

17).

Holotype : Female, West Bengal,

Darjeeling, 2280 m, 7.V.1993.

Paratype : 1 male, with same data as

holotype.

Distribution : India: West Bengal.

Diagnosis'. F. foveolatus is close to F.

longiserra Malaise, but can be distinguished by

the malar space being 0.5x diameter of median

ocellus; characteristic shape of median fovea;

distinct colour pattern of the body; ratio of

antennal segments 3 and 4, and relative lengths

of metabasitarsus and following joints combined.

Etymology: The species name pertains to

the characteristic shape of median fovea.

Ferna emarginata sp. nov.

(Figs. 4, 18, 29, 59)

Female: Unknown.

Male: Colour: Body black; the following

areas are yellowish white: scape; clypeus; labrum;

mandible barring apex; a spot on supraclypeal

area extending upto upper rim of antennal socket;

broad inner orbit; lower margin of hind orbit;

tegula; inner margin of mesonotal lateral lobe

adjoining mesonotal middle lobe; anterior 1/2 of

mesocutellum; parapterum; a transverse band on

lower 1/2 of mesopleuron; lower 1/2 of

metapleuron; posterior margin of tergite 2;

deflexed lateral sides of all tergites; all sternites

entirely; all coxae and trochanters. All femora,

tibiae and tarsi of front four legs, are

fuscoferruginous; metatarsi fuscus. Wings

hyaline; venation including costa; subcosta and

stigma piceous.

Structure: Average length 5 mm. Antenna

3.7x head width; scape and pedicel each as long

as its apical width; segment 3 shorter than 4 as

4:5; clypeus (Fig. 4) subtri angularly incised upto

1/3 of its medial length; labrum broader than long

as 2:1; malar space 0.5x diameter of median

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

3 75

ocellus; LID:IDMO:EL :: 6:7:4; head without

postgenal carina; supra-antennal tubercles

moderate and confluent with similarly roundly

raised frontal ridges; median fovea in form of deep

ditch in its anterior 1/2 and posteriorly reaching

median ocellus (Fig, 59); post- inter- and

circumocellar furrows distinct; lateral furrows

distinct, excurved (bulging) and abruptly

ending just before hypothetical hind margin of

head; postocellar area broader than long as 3:2;

head narrowing behind eyes; POL:OCL:OOL ::

2:2:3; mesoscutellum subconvex; appendage

not carinate; tarsal claw with subapical tooth

shorter than apical one and without basal lobe;

metabasitarsus shorter than following joints

combined as 5:4; metatibial spurs sub-

equal in length; IATS:MB:OATS :: 4:10:3.

Genitalia: penis valve (Fig. 29), gonoforceps

(Fig. 18).

Sculpture and pubescence : Head with

dense minute punctures, surface shining;

mesonotum with dense, minute, irregular

punctures, surface shining; mesoscutellum with

scattered, minute punctures on its posterior part;

appendage apunctate, polished; mesepisternum

minutely punctured; mesosternum with a few

scattered, minute punctures, surface shining with

general oily lustre; abdomen apunctate,

subshining. Body covered with silvery

pubescence.

Holotype : Male, Assam, Jatinga, 800 m,

7.V.1993.

Paratypes : 2 males, with same data as

holotype.

Distribution : Assam.

Diagnosis'. The triangularly incised

clypeus; malar space equal to half the diameter

of median ocellus; entirely black mesosternum

and mesonotal middle lobe; characteristic shape

of median fovea; ratio of antennal segments 3 and

4, are some of the significant characters which

distinguish F. e marginal a from other species

described under the genus.

Etymoloty : As the clypeus is triangularly

incised, the species is named F. emarginata.

Ferna cinguliventris sp. nov.

(Figs. 19, 30, 54)

Female : Unknown.

Male : Colour: Body black; the following

parts are yellowish white: clypeus; labrum;

mandible barring apex; a spot on supraclypeal

area; narrow inner and hind orbits; posterodorsal

and posterolateral margins of pronotum; tegula;

a spot on anterior 1/2 of mesoscutellum; a

transverse band on lower 2/3 of mesopleuron;

lower 1/2 of metapleuron; tergites 2 and 3;

deflexed lateral sides of tergites 2 and 3; sternites

2-4 entirely; all legs except all tarsi of four hind

legs which are more or less fuscous. Wings

hyaline; venation including costa, subcosta and

stigma piceous.

Structure : Average length 4 mm. Antenna

3.3x head width; scape as long as its apical width;

pedicel 1.5x its apical width; segment 3 shorter

than 4 as 6:7; clypeus (Fig. 3) roundly incised

upto 1/2 of its medial length; labrum broader than

long as 2:1; malar space lx diameter of median

ocellus; LID:IDMO:EL :: 6:7:4; head without

postgenal carina; supra-antennal tubercles

moderate and confluent with similar roundly

raised frontal ridges; median fovea in form of deep

narrow seam clearly extending upto median

ocellus (Fig. 54); post-, inter- and circumocellar

furrows sharp and distinct; lateral furrows distinct,

parallel and ending just before hypothetical hind

margin of head; postocellar area broader than long

as 5:4; head narrowing behind eyes;

POL:OCL:OOL :: 2:2:3; mesoscutellum sub-

convex; appendage not carinate; tarsal claw with

subapical tooth shorter than apical one;

metabasitarsus shorter than following joints

combined as 4:5; metatibial spurs subequal in

length; IATS:MB:OATS :: 4:8:3. Genitalia: panis

valve (Fig. 30), gonoforceps (Fig. 19).

Sculpture and pubescence : Head with

dense minute punctures, surface shining;

mesonotum with dense, minute, irregular

punctures, surface shining; mesoscutellum with

scattered, minute punctures on its posterior part;

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

appendage apunctate, polished, mesepisternum

minutely punctured; mesosternum with a few

scattered, minute punctures, surface shining with

general oily lustre; abdomen apunctate, less

shining. Body covered with silvery pubescence.

Holotype : Male, Nagaland, Zunheboto,

1874 m, 16.V.1993.

Paratype : 1 male, with same data as

holotype.

Distribution : Nagaland.

Diagnosis : The characteristic shape of

median fovea; coloured band on abdomen; malar

space of the diameter of median ocellus;

mesosternum and mesonotal midle lobe entirely

black, distinguish F. cinguliventris from all the

species reported under this -genus.

Etymology. The species name pertains to

the yellowish white band that covers abdominal

segments 2 and 3 completely.

Ferna himalayana sp. nov.

(Figs. 11,20,31,41,55)

Female. Colour: Body black; the following

parts are: yellowish white clypeus; labrum,

mandible barring apex; a spot on supraclypeal

area extending upto upper rim of antennal socket;

broad inner orbit except posterior 1/4; lower 1/3

of hind orbit; a spot on temple; posterodorsal

angle of pronotum; tegula; a spot on anterior 1/2

of mesoscutellum; a transverse band on lower 1/

2 of mesopleuron; posterior margin of tergites 2-

5 and 9; deflexed lateral sides of all tergites; all

sternites entirely; coxae, trochanters and femora

of all legs. The tibiae and tarsi of front four legs

and metatibia except apical 1/4 fuscoferruginous;

apex of metatibia and metatarsi fuscus. Wings

hyaline, venation including costa, subcosta and

stigma -piceous.

Structure. Average length 5 mm. Antenna

3.2 x head width; scape and pedicel each as long

as its apical width; segment 3 shorter than 4, as

5:6; clypeus (Fig. 1) subsquarely incised upto 1/

2 of its medial length; labrum broader than long

as 2:1; malar space 0.5x diameter of median

ocellus; LID:IDMO:EL :: 3:3:2; head without

postgenal carina; supra-antennal tubercles

moderate and confluent with insignificant frontal

ridges; median fovea in form of deep ditch with a

minute medial pit in its anterior 1/2 and

posteriorly only shallowly reaching median

ocellus (Fig. 55); post-, inter- and circumocellar

furrows distinct; lateral furrows distinct and

abruptly ending just before hypothetical hind

margin of head; postocellar area broader than long

as 2:1; head narrowing behind eyes;

POL:OCL:OOL :: 2:2:3; mesoscutellum

subconvex; appendage not carinate; tarsal claw

with subapical tooth shorter than apical one and

without basal lobe; metabasitarsus shorter than

following joints combined as 6:7; metatibial spurs

subequal in length; IATS:MB:OATS :: 4:8:3.

Lancet (Fig. 41 ) having 11 serrulae. Lateral view

of ovipositor sheath as in Fig. 11.

Sculpture and pubescence: Head with a

few minute punctures, more concentrated on

frontal area, surface shining; mesonotum with

dense, minute, irregular punctures, surface

shining; mesoscutellum with few scattered minute

punctures; appendage apunctate, polished;

mesepisternum and mesosternum apunctate,

shining with general oily lustre; abdomen

apunctate, not as shiny. Body covered with

silvery pubescence.

Male : Length 4 mm. Similar to female.

Genitalia: penis valve (Fig. 31), gonoforceps (Fig.

20).

Holotype : Female, Uttar Pradesh, Barkot,

2000 m, 28.vi.1992.

Paratypes : Uttar Pradesh, Rana, 1800 m,

(2 females), 20.vi.1992; Mastura, 1800 m, (2

females), 25.vi.1992; Auli, 2480 m, (1 male),

27. vi. 1992; Barkot, 2000 m. (2 females),

28. vi.1992.

Distribution : Uttar Pradesh.

Diagnosis : The characteristic shape of

median fovea; distinct colour pattern of body;

postocellar area broader than long as 2: 1; and ratio

of antennal segments 3 and 4, distinguish

F. himalayana from other species of the genus.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

377

Etymology : Named after the Great

Himalaya, in which the type locality falls.

Ferna dutti sp. nov.

(Figs. 21,32, 56)

Female : Unknown.

Male : Colour: Body black; the following

parts are yellowish white clypeus; labrum;

mandible barring apex; a spot on supraclypeal

area; narrow inner orbit; lower 1/4 of hind orbit;

a spot on temple; posterodorsal margin of

pronotum; tegula; a faint spot before

mesoscutellum; a spot on mesoscutellum; a

transverse band on lower 1/2 of mesopleuron; a

spot on metasternum; all legs except tibiae and

tarsi, which are light brownish. Wings hyaline,

venation including costa, subcosta and stigma

dark brown.

Structure: Average length 5 mm. Antenna

3x head width; scape and pedicel each as long

as its apical width; segment 3 shorter than 4 as

4:5; clypeus (Fig. 2) roundly incised upto 1/2

of its medial length; labrum broader than long

as 3:2; malar space 0.5x diameter of median

ocellus; LID:IDMO:EL :: 6:7:4; head without

postgenal carina; supra-antennal tubercles

moderate and confluent with similar roundly

raised frontal ridges; median fovea in the form

of a deep seam in its anterior 1/2 and poste-

riorly only shallowly though distinctly reaching

median ocellus (Fig. 56); post-, inter- and

circumocellar furrows distinct; lateral furrows

distinct, excurved (bulging) and abruptly end-

ing just before hypothetical hind margin of

head; postocellar area broader than long as 3:2;

head narrowing behind eyes; POL:OCL:OOL ::

1:1:1; mesoscutellum subconvex; appendage

not carinate; tarsal claw with subapical tooth

shorter than apical one and without basal

lobo; metabasitarsus shorter than following

joints combined as 2:3; metatibial spurs sub-

equal in length; IATS:MB:OATS :: 5:12:3.

Genitalia: penis valve (Fig. 32), gonoforceps

(Fig. 21).

Sculpture and pubescence : Head with a

few minute punctures on frontal area, surface

shining; thorax with dense, minute, irregular

punctures, more conspicuous on posterior slope

of mesoscutellum, but appendage apunctate and

polished; abdomen microstricted, surface

subshining. Body covered with silvery

pubescence except for the yellowish white parts

where it appears to be golden.

Holotype: Male, Arunachal Pradesh, Nine

Mile, 1200 m, 24.V.1993.

Paratypes : 4 males, with same data as

holotype.

Distribution : Arunachal Pradesh.

Diagnosis : F. dutti is unique in the malar

space equal to half the diameter of median ocellus;

characteristic shape of median fovea; all tergites

black above; presence of a transverse band on

lower 1/2 of mesopleuron; mesosternum entirely

black. These along with ratio of antennal

segments 3 and 4, and scape and pedicel each as

long as the apical width are diagnostic.

Etymology . The species is named after the

collector, Mr. Dyal Dutt.

Ferna sagittata sp. nov.

(Figs. 22, 33, 42, 57)

Female : Colour: Body black, the following

parts are whitish yellow: clypeus; labrum;

mandible barring apex; extreme narrow orbit; a

faint spot on temple; posterodorsal margin of

pronotum; tegula; sagittated apex of mesonotal

middle lobe; a spot on mesoscutellum;

parapterum; a transverse band on lower half of

mesopleuron; lower half of metapieuron; deflexed

lateral sides of all tergites; all sternites entirely;

all legs. Wings are hyaline; venation including

costa, subcosta and stigma piceous.

Structure : Average length 6 mm. Antenna

3.2x head width; scape and pedicel each 1.3x its

apical width; segment 3 shorter than 4 as 5:6;

clypeus (Fig. 5) subrectangularly incised upto 1/

2 of its medial length; labrum broader than long

as 3:2; malar space lx diameter of median ocellus;

378

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

LID:IDMO:EL :: 6:7:4; head without postgenal

carina; supra-antennal tubercles moderate and

confluent with roundly raised frontal ridges;

median fovea in form of deep broad ditch shallowly

reaching median ocellus (Fig. 57); post-, inter- and

circumocellar furrows distinct; lateral furrows

deep, parallel and abruptly ending well before

hypothetical hind margin of head; postocellar area

broader than long as 5:4; head narrowing behind

eyes; POL:OCL:OOL :: 1:1:1; mesoscutellum

subconvex; appendage not carinate; tarsal claw

with subapical tooth shorter than apical one and

without basal lobe; metabasitarsus subequal to

following joints combined as 6:7 metatibial spurs

subequal in length; IATS:MB:OATS :: 4:8:3.

Lancet (Fig. 42) having 13 serrulae. Lateral view

of ovipositor sheath as in Fig. 9.

Sculpture and pubescence : Head with

dense, minute punctures, surface shining;

mesonotum with dense, minute, irregular

punctures, surface shining; mesoscutellum with

scattered, minute punctures on its posterior part;

appendage apunctate, polished; mesepisternum

minutely punctured; mesosternum with a few

scattered, minute punctures, surface shining with

general oily lustre; abdomen apunctate,

subshining. Body covered with silvery

pubescence.

Male : Average length 5 mm. Similar to

female except in the following: deflexed lateral

sides of all tergites and sternites entirely black;

yellowish white spot present on supraclypeal area

Genitalia: penis valve (Fig. 33), gonoforceps

(Fig. 22).

Holotype : Female, Arunachal Pradesh,

Nine Mile, 1200 m, 24.V.1993.

Paratypes : 3 females, 12 males, with same

data as holotype.

Distribution : Arunachal Pradesh.

Diagnosis. F. sagittata is unique in having

yellowish white sagittated apex of mesonotal

middle lobe; malar space of the diameter of

median ocellus; all tergites and mesosternum

entirely black; rounded ovipositor sheath. These

characters and ratio of antennal segments 3 and 4

distinguish this species from other Ferna

species.

Etymology : The species name pertains to

the coloured sagittated apex of mesonotal middle

lobe.

Ferna brevis sp. nov.

(Figs. 8, 43, 52)

Female : Colour: Body black, the following

parts are yellowish white: clypeus; labrum;

mandible barring apex; supraclypeal area; lower

1/3 of inner orbit; a narrow streak on inner margin

of eye; lower 1/2 of meso- and metapleura;

deflexed lateral sides of all tergites; all sternites;

all legs except tarsi more or less. Wings are

hyaline, venation including costa, subcosta and

stigma light to dark brown.

Structure : Length 4 mm. Antenna 3.2x

head width; scape and pedicel each as long as

its apical width; segment 3 shorter than 4 as

4:5; clypeus (Fig. 2) roundly incised upto 1/2 of

its medial length; labrum broader than long

as 2: 1 ; malar space lx diameter of median ocellus;

LID:IDMO:EL :: 6:7:4; head without post-

genal carina; supra-antennal tubercles

insignificant and confluent with roundly raised

frontal ridges; median fovea in the form of

deep ditch in its anterior 1/2 and posteriorly

shallowly reaching median ocellus (Fig. 52);

post-, inter- and circumocellar furrows sharp and

distinct; lateral furrows distinct, parallel and

ending just before hypothetical hind margin

of head; postocellar area broader than long as

3:2; head narrowing behind eyes; POL:OCL:OOL

:: 1:1:1; mesoscutellum subconvex; appendage

not carinate; tarsal claw with subapical tooth

shorter than apical one; metabasitarsus shorter

than following joints combined as 3:4; meta-

tibial spurs subequal in length; IATS:MB:OATS

:: 5:12:4. Lancet (Fig. 43) with 11 serrulae.

Lateral view of ovipositor sheath as in

Fig. 8.

Sculpture and pubescence : Head with a

few scattered, minute punctures, surface shining;

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

379

thorax almost apunctate, except mesonotum

which is punctured like head, surface shining with

general oily lustre; abdomen apunctate, shining.

Body covered with silvery pubescence.

Male : Unknown.

Holotype : Female, Sikkim, Gangtok,

1700 m, 6.V.1993.

Distribution : Sikkim.

Diagnosis : The ditch-like median fovea

posteriorly shallowly reaching median ocellus;

postocellar area broader than long as 3:2; scape

and pedicel each as long as its apical width;

segments 3 and 4 as 4:5; malar space of the

diameter of median ocellus; and all tergites and

mesosternum entirely black, distinguish/? brevis

from its nearest congeneric F. pupa and other

Ferna species.

Etymology : The species name pertains to

its comparatively small body size.

Ferna pupa sp. nov.

(Fig. 44, 58)

Female. Colour: Body black, the following

parts are yellowish white: clypeus; labrum;

mandible barring apex; supraclypeal area; broad

lower 1/2 and a narrow streak on upper 1/2 of

inner orbit; lower 1/4 of hind orbit; posterodorsal

margins of pronotum; tegula; a transverse band

on lower 1/2 of mesopleuron; a spot on lower

1/2 of metapleuron; deflexed lateral sides of all

tergites; all sternites entirely; coxae, trochanter

and femora of all legs. Rest of legs light to dark

brown. Wings hyaline; venation including costa,

subcosta and stigma dark brown.

Structure : Length 4.5 mm. Antenna 3.2x

head width; scape and pedicel each 1 .3x its apical

width; segment 3 shorter than 4 as 8:9; clypeus

(Fig. 5) subrectangularly incised upto 1/2 of its

medial length; labrum broader than long as 2:1;

malar space lx diameter of median ocellus;

LID:IDMO:EL :: 6:7:4; head without postgenal

carina; supra-antennal tubercles moderate and

confluent with similarly roundly raised frontal

ridges; median fovea in the form of deep ditch in

its anterior 1/2 and posteriorly not reaching

median ocellus (Fig. 58); post-, inter- and

circumocellar furrows distinct; lateral furrows

deep, distinct, parallel and ending abruptly well

before hypothetical hind margin of head;

postocellar area broader than long as 2:1; head

narrowing behind eyes; POL:OCL:OOL :: 4:4:5;

mesoscutellum subconvex; appendage not

carinate; tarsal claw with a subapical tooth shorter

than apical one; metabasitarsus shorter than

following joints combined as 6:7; metatibial spurs

subequal; IATS:MB:OATS :: 5:12:3. Lancet (Fig.

44) having 1 1 serrulae. Lateral view of ovipositor

sheath as in Fig. 8.

Sculpture and pubescence : Head with a

few minute punctures, more concentrated on

frontal area, surface shining; mesonotum with

dense, minute, irregular punctures, surface

shining; mesoscutellum with a few scattered

minute punctures; appendage apunctate, polished;

mesepisternum and mesosternum apunctate,

shining with general oily lustre; abdomen

apunctate, subshining. Body covered with silvery

pubescence.

Male. Unknown.

Holotype : Female, Arunachal Pradesh,

Bomdila, 2550 m, 25.V.1993.

Distribution: Arunachal Pradesh.

Diagnosis : F. pupa is distinguished by the

characteristic shape of median fovea; distinct

colour pattern of body; scape and pedicel each

1.3x its apical width; ratio of antennal segments

3 and 4 as 8:9; clypeal incision; and length of

malar space.

Etymology : The species is named after the

Punjabi University, Patiala (PUP), where this

work was carried out.

Acknowledgement

Financial assistance rendered by USDA in

collaboration with ICAR is gratefully

acknowledged.

380

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

References

Malaise, R. (1961): New Oriental sawflies (Hymenoptera:

Tenthredinidae). Entomol. Tidskr. Arg. 82(3-4):

231-260.

Muche, W.H. (1983): Die von Herm. Dr. W. Wittmerin

Indian und Bhutan gesammelten Blattwespen, mit

Beschreibung von sechs neuen Arten der

Tenthredinidae (Hymenoptera, Symphyta).

Reichenbachia Mus. Tierk. Dresden, 29: 167-180.

Saini, M.S. & J.D. Deep (1993): Revision of genus Fema

Malaise (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae:

Allantinae) from India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

90(1): 23-28.

A NEW SPECIES OF MACROTYLOMA (WIGHT & ARN.) VERDC. (FABACEAE)

FROM GARHWAL HIMALAYA, U.P., INDIA1

R.D. Gaur2 and L.R. Dangwal

(With one text -figure)

While exploring the remote localities of

Garhwal Himalaya (Pauri District), some

interesting specimens of the genus Macrotyloma

(Wight & Arn.) Verde, were collected. Thorough

consultation of literature and herbaria at

Botanical Survey of India, Northern Circle,

Dehradun (BSD) and Forest Research Institute,

Dehradun (DD), indicated generic circumscrip-

tion of Macrotyloma, though, quite distinct

from the known species, Macrotyloma

sar-garhwalensis sp. nov. is thus described.

Macrotyloma sar-garhwalensis sp. nov.

Herbae annuae, erectae, non volubiles.

Folia pentafoliolata; stipulae magnae,

lanceolatae. Calycis tubus longior quam dentibus.

Corolla intra calycem inclusa; vexillum apice

pilosum, appendices nulli, carina breviter

rostrata; stylus deorsum barbatus.

Herba annua pubescens, 15 - 50 cm alta,

caule erecto, anguste costato, simplici vel ramoso.

Folia imparipinnata, 5-foliolata, ca 8 cm longa

(petiolo incluso); foliola sessilia vel subsessilia,

ca 1.8- 4.5 cm x 0.6 - 1 .2 cm, oblonga, lanceolata

ad ovata vel elliptica, acuta, vix utrinque

pubescentia, manifeste in nervis infra, ad

marginemque; foliola lateralia parum obliqua vel

non obliqua. Stipilae 4x11 mm longae,

lanceolatae, utrinque minute pilosae.

Inflorescentia axillaris, brevi-pedunculata,

fasciculata, flores 1-2, in uno pedunculo communi

brevi, ca 7 mm longo; pedicellus brevis, ca 4 mm

1 Accepted June, 1996.

2Herbarium and Plant Systematics Laboratory,

Department of Botany, P.O. Box No. 17,

H.N.B. Gahrwal University, Srinagar (Garhwal)-246 174.

longus, pilosulus. Bracteae ovato-lanceolatae,

acutae, ca 6 mm longae, pilosae ad marginem et

in nervis. Calyx pubescens, campanulatus, 10

nervis, ca 6 mm longus, tubus longior quam

dentes, dentes inaequales. Corolla cremea, intra

calycem, inclusa, vexillum ovato-obovatum,

apice pilosum, ca 6 mm longum; ala angusta,

tenuis, ca 6 mm longa. Stamina diadelpha (9+1 ),

ca 6 mm longa; antherae plerumque, uniformes,

dithecae. Gynaecium ca 1 mm longum; ovarium

pilosum, breviter stipitatum, stylus filiformis,

sursum incrassatus, aliquantum S-formis,

deorsum barbatus, stigma capitatum cum annulo

pilorum. Legumina compressa, breviter curvata,

brunnea, ca 3 - 5 cm x 0.3 - 0.7 cm, non septata,

utrinque minute pilosa cum calyce bracteisque,

persistentibus. Semina 4 - 6 in uno legumine,

compressa, subquadrato-rotundata, ca 4 mm

longa lataque, nitida, nigra.

Typus: Sara Village, Pauri District, Uttar

Pradesh, 700 m, 17.ix.1994, R.D. Gaur, 12,380 A

Garhwal Himalayas (Holotypus - GUH);

Isotypus: Ibid. R.D. Gaur, 12,380B, Garhwal

Himalaya.

Macrotyloma sar-garhwalensis sp. nov.

(Fig. A - K2)

Annual, erect, non-twining herbs. Leaves

pentafoliate; stipules large, lanceolate. Calyx tube

longer than teeth. Corolla included within the

calyx; vexillum tip hairy, appendages absent; keel

shortly beaked. Style bearded on the lower sides

of the upper section.

Annual, pubescent, 15 - 50 cm tall herbs,

with erect, narrowly ribbed, simple or branched

stem. Leaves imparipinnate, 5-foliate, ca 8 cm

382

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

mm

Fig. 1 . Macrotyloma sar-garhwalensis sp. nov. A. Flowering and fruiting plant; B. Leaf;

Clf C2. Bracts; D. Flower; E. Calyx; F(, F2, F3. Corolla; G. Stamens; H. Gynaecium;

I. Pod; J. Seeds; K1? K2. Stipules

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

383

long (including petiole); leaflets sessile or

subsessile, ca 1.8- 4.5 cm x 0.6 - 1 .2 cm, oblong,

lanceolate to ovate or elliptic, acute, sparsely

pubescent on both surfaces, prominently on

nerves beneath and at the margins; lateral leaflets

slightly oblique or not. Stipules 4-11 mm long,

lanceolate, minutely hairy on both surfaces.

Inflorescence axillary, short peduncled,

fasciculate; flowers 1 - 2 on a short common

peduncle, ca 7 mm long; pedicel short, ca 4 mm

long, minutely hairy. Bracts obovate - lanceolate,

acute, ca 6 mm long, hairy at the margins and

nerves. Calyx pubescent, campanulate, 10-nerved,

ca 6 mm long, tube longer than teeth, teeth

unequal. Corolla cream-yellow, included within

the calyx; vexillum ovate-obovate, tip hairy, ca 6

mm long; wing narrow, feathery, ca 6 mm long.

Stamens diadelphous (9+1), ca 6 mm long;

anthers usually uniform, dithecous. Gynaecium

7 mm long; ovary hairy, shortly stipitate; style

filiform, thickened upwards, somewhat

‘S’ shaped, bearded on the lower sides;

stigma capitate, with a ring of hairs. Pods

compressed, shortly curved, brown coloured, ca

3 - 5 cm x 0.3 - 0.7 cm; not septate, minutely

hairy on both sides, with a persistent calyx and

bracts. Seeds 4 - 6 in a pod, compressed, squarish-

round, ca 4 mm as long as broad, shining black

coloured.

FI. and Fr.: August - October

Ecology: On exposed grassy slopes, along

the edge of crop fields, associated with species

of Desmodium and Alysicarpus, as well as some

shrubs.

Etymology: The plant species is named

after the type locality, village Sara of Garhwal

Himalaya, in Uttar Pradesh, India.

Acknowledgement

We thank Dr. N.C. Majumdar, Dy. Director

(Retd), Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, for

the Latin translation.

REVIEWS

1. ILLUSTRATIONS ON THE FLORA OF THE PALNI HILLS.

By K.M. Matthew. Published by Rapinat Herbarium, St. Joseph’s College,

Tiruchirapalli-620 002. pp. i-xlvi + 1-979 (24 x 16 cm), 1996.

Price Rs 250.00

This is the 7th book by Rev. Fr. K. M.

Matthew on plants of Southern India, four

volumes in six parts on “flora of Tamil nadu

carnatic” have appeared.

This book has 950 plates representing 914

species, belonging to 448 genera of

spermatophytes. Black & white line drawings, are

used methodically. The publication of this volume

brings the total number of illustrations of

vascular plants published by Fr. Matthew to 2630,

in Peninsular India, east of the Western

Ghats.

The author mentions that he has taken care

to name all the introduced plants correctly with

overseas collaboration. However, the following

identifications of endemic species require

rechecking regarding their correct nomenclature:

Plate No. 645. Actephila excelsa (Dalz.)

Muell.-Arg.

Plate No. 617. Litsea quinqueflora (Dennst.)

Suresh

Plate No. 646 .Bridelia crenulata Roxb. (Figs.

1 &8).

Plate No. 560 .Phaulopsis imbricata (Forsk.) Sw.

Plate No. 624. Dendrophthoe falcata (L.f.)

Etting.

Plate No. 625. Dendrophthoe falcata (L.f.)

Etting.

The book has over 1000 pages, and is priced

at Rs 250/-only. It is like a free gift to the reader,

considering the current cost of publication. There

is no doubt that those who have purchased the

earlier volumes of flora of Tamil nadu carnatic,

will purchase this book without any hesitation.

It is a good addition to my personal library and I

would recommend it to all botanists.

M.R. ALMEIDA

2. MAMMALS OF NEPAL, WITH REFERENCE TO THOSE OF INDIA,

BANGLADESH, BHUTAN AND PAKISTAN. By Dr. Tej Kumar

Shreshtha, 1997. Published by Mrs. Bimala Shrestha, Kathmandu, Nepal,

pp. 371 (21.5 x 14 cm). Price not given.

Nepal is a small land-locked country of about

147,181 sq. km, and has a high biodiversity due to

its location at the junction of Oriental and

Palaearctic biogeographical regions, and high

altitudinal variation from the humid terai plains to

the lofty Himalayan mountains. Nearly 225 species

of mammals, and 800 species of birds have been

reported from Nepal. Being the only Hindu country

in the world, Nepal has a long history of

conservation, and wildlife protection. All religions

claim to have conservation and wildlife protection.

All religions claim to have a conservation message,

but perhaps only Hindu philosophy comes nearest

to the modem conservation ethos. Despite being

one of the ten poorest countries of the world, Nepal

has established some of the finest wildlife reserves

in the world, such as the Royal Chitwan National

Park, Suklaphanta National Park and Annapurna

Conservation Area.

Dr. Tej Kumar Shreshtha’s book mammals

of nepal has come at the right time when all

wildlife, especially mammalian fauna, is under

severe threat due to the twin onslaught of habitat

destruction and poaching by international gangs.

I hope this book will create an interest in the

threatened mammals of Nepal.

REVIEWS

This 371 -page encyclopaedic book covers a

wide range of subjects, in chapters entitled National

Parks and Wildlife Reserves in Nepal, History of

Mammal Collection, to The Important Orders of

Mammals . The major part of the book covers

species’ descriptions, scientific, English and local

names, ecology, behaviour, distribution, habitat,

migration (if necessary) and conservation, of each

species. Some species which have been studied in

detail, such as the Gangetic dolphin Platanista

gangetica covers 23 pages, while other lesser

known species (e.g. slow loris Nycticebus

bengalensis ) has only one page.

The book is full of grammatical and

typographical mistakes. Almost every page has

one or two mistakes. For instance, all over the

book, blackbuck Antilope cervicapra is written

in two words (black buck) . Similarly, bluebull

or nilgai Boselaphus tragocamelus is also

written in two words (blue bull). In some places,

the distance is given in kilometres while in other

places, in miles! The language is quite banal

(‘small brown birds to the most colourful

pheasants’, p. 1). Captions of pictures were

written carelessly, sometimes with

incomprehensible English, e.g. ‘Inductive

Method Game and Shooting in Past’, and ‘A

Horn of Plenty’.

The book is also full of non-scientific

statements. For instance, rabbit is included in

the diet of the clouded leopard. It should have

been hare Lepus nigricollis because rabbit

Oryctolagus cuniculus is not found in Nepal. It

is claimed that the ‘river systems are much older

than the Himalayas’ while the prevalent view is

that the rivers of Nepal and north India

developed after the formation of the Himalayas.

So how can they be older than the Himalayas?

The wild boar Sus scrofa is claimed to be a

“ferocious animal”, while it is quite a timid

animal and runs away at the slightest disturbance.

On page 243, the life cycle of swamp deer Cervus

duvauceli is depicted, in which a male with large

antlers is shown feeding milk to a fawn! The

doe swamp deer does not have antlers, and the

3 85

buck swamp deer does not give milk! On page

130, the Himalayan wolf is referred to as Canis

lupus pallipes (Sykes) while the Himalayan sub-

species is actually Canis lupus chanco Gray.

Interestingly, the photograph is also of pallipes

while the description is of chanco.

There is a profusion of colour and black and

white pictures, mostly taken in captivity. Most of

the animals are photographed at close range,

perhaps to avoid showing cages. Some of the

pictures are very dark or out of focus. Pictures taken

in the wild are hazy. A picture of the domestic white

rabbit is captioned rufoustailed hare (facing page

92). Diagrams are reasonably good.

The book has an impressive list of 355

references, but some important recent references

are missing. For instance, the status and

description of blackbuck is outdated. Dr.

Ranjitsinh’s book the Indian blackbuck (Natraj

Publishers, Dehra Dun, India), is not quoted. It

is claimed that blackbuck (i) “had a wide

distribution in the Asian sub-continent” (p. 222),

(ii) “blackbucks (sic) are very vocal” (p. 225),

(iii) “two rivals interlock (225), (iv) “blackbuck

(sic) seldom drink” (p.226) and (v) “Some

isolated population is also known to occur in

Kanha National Park and certain Reserves of

Orissa in India.” (p. 228). All wrong. Blackbuck

never had a wide distribution in Asia (they are

found only in India, Pakistan and Nepal). It is

generally a silent animal, like most mammals.

How can they “interlock” their straight horns?

Blackbuck regularly drink water and the presence

of surface water throughout the year determines

its distribution. Blackbuck is still widely

distributed in suitable habitats in 13 states of

India. These mistakes could have been avoided

if recent literature had been consulted.

Despite numerous drawbacks, mammals of

Nepal is a useful book for conservationists of the

Indian Subcontinent. Let us hope that the second

edition will be properly edited and checked for

scientific accuracy.

ASAD R. RAHMANI

386

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

3. AN ANNOTATED CHECKLIST OF THE BIRDS OF THE ORIENTAL

REGION - Tim Inskipp, Nigel Lindsey & William Duckworth (1996).

pp. 294 (24.5 x 16.5 cm) with one map. Oriental Bird Club, United Kingdom.

Price: Not stated.

The book deals with the birds found in the

region covered by the Oriental Bird Club, which

is larger and of a more geopolitical nature than

the actual Oriental Region (i.e., the zoogeograpical

Indomalayan region). It is felt that the creation of

artificial boundaries which have no

zoogeographical significance - and which only

serve the interest of the Club - is not warranted.

Also sticking to the zoogeographical region would

have made the book a more user friendly source

of material for future researchers of the Oriental

region. It appears that the authors too were aware

of the same and hence in the book, have

differentiated species that occur in the Oriental Bird

Club Region and in the Oriental Region proper.

Clarity is lacking in the demarcation of the

boundaries of the Oriental Bird Club Region and

the Oriental Region in the map. The map is titled

‘Map of the Oriental Bird Club Region’ and the

reader at once presumes that the area demarcated

in it by dashes is the region mentioned by the

title. But as one goes through the text in the

introductory chapter, one learns that the

demarcated area is the Oriental Region proper,

and the extent of the Oriental Bird Club Region

are the areas marked in white. Legends are clearly

necessary.

The book summarises the information

available on the status, distribution, conservation

status, systematics and taxonomy of the birds in

the region, from information collected from a

wide range of publications. All the information

has been in compiled in one publication, which

had been lacking till now. The classification of

birds is based on the DNA-DNA hybridisation

technique, and radical changes confront those

not already familiar with the changes. For

example, all the flamingos are now regarded as

congeneric, and so the lesser flamingo has the

scientific name of Phoenicopterus minor instead

of Phoeniconaias minor that one has been used

to (page 105).

There is a discussion on the ‘Species

Concept’ in the introductory chapter. The English

names used for the species follow those of Sibley

and Monroe, and since the authors have taken

pains to provide the earlier or alternate names,

readers unfamiliar with the new names have no

reason to complain. The need for a standardised

list of English names of birds is brought out by

the authors themselves; there is a discussion on

this issue; and the suggestions given for deciding

on the names are pertinent. On the whole, this is

a neatly brought out book, the style of

presentation, format and quality of publication

are excellent.

RANJIT M ANAKAD AN

4. THE LEOPARD IN INDIA - A NATURAL HISTORY by J.C. Daniel (1996)

Nataraj Publishers, Dehra Dun pp. 228 (21.5 x 16 cm). Price not stated.

Few things bring greater joy to naturalists,

more particularly armchair naturalists, than

leafing through very old volumes of the Journal

of the Bombay Natural History Society.

The Journal of those days had a different

flavour and was distinguished by articles and

notes written by a now-extinct breed of

hunterwriters who wielded the rifle and the pen

with almost equal dexterity. The enchanting

narration is, on occasion, likely to mask the

perspicacity of their observation of wildlife. The

truth is that many of these shikaris, in the course

REVIEWS

387

of their main pursuit, had gained a formidable

knowledge of the habits and the temperamental

oddities of their quarry, so much so, that very few

of the more benevolent naturalists who followed

them into the jungle with nothing more than

binoculars and cameras have succeeded in adding

much substance to what the shikari naturalists

had told us about some of the large mammals.

This is nowhere more exemplified than in

the case of the leopard which, for some strange

reason, has not enthused the field naturalists to

the extent the tiger and the lion have. For most

of the information on the leopard we have to fall

back on the writings of hunter sportsmen of

distant decades.

In the book before us, J.C. Daniel has strung

together the essential facts about the leopard

gleaned from the writings in the Journal during a

period of over a hundred years. The writers are

also nearly a hundred in number. The earliest

extract is from an anonymous district collector

dating from 1886. The contributions peak during

the 1920s and 1930s and taper off thereafter.

This is not a scissors and paste job. The

extracts have been collated theme-wise with a

great deal of understanding and imagination. The

chapter headings like “the leopard and its races”,

“colour”, “skull, size and weight”, “the life of

the leopard”, “the leopard on the hunt”, “the

leopard and its neighbours”, “man-eaters and

myths”, etc. will show the care taken in the

compilation. More than these, the extracts are

woven together by Daniel’s own interspersed terse

and pointed comments which give the whole work

an admirable unity. Altogether, the book reads

like the work of a single author, the differences

in style notwithstanding.

In the concluding chapter on the future of

the Indian leopard, Daniel calls for “an intensive

study of the leopard in view of the remarkable

absence of data on this singular species.”

The exhaustive citations at the end of the

book will enable the reader to have access to the

original writings. And that, to be sure, will be a

rewarding experience.

It would have added to the value of the book

if brief biographical details had been given of the

authors quoted. They were a colourful lot and we

would have liked to know more about them.

We need similar compilations on the

elephant, the lion and the tiger about all of which

a wealth of material exists in the old volumes of

the Journal and no one is better equipped for the

task than Daniel. In fact, the BNHS should

seriously think of publishing anthologies of the

many fine pieces on a variety of natural history

subjects that had appeared in the Journal during

the last one hundred years. A beginning was

made under the stewardship of Daniel himself

with the publication of a century of natural

history (1983). But much more remains to be

done.

B. VIJAYARAGHAVAN

5. INTERNATIONAL LEGAL PROTECTION OF WILD FAUNA AND

FLORA, by P. van Heijnsbergen pp.26 1 (24.5 x 16.5 cm). Price not stated.

Any policy for protection of wildlife

without the teeth of law is simply not workable.

A legislation passed by the government of a

country is a crucial aspect of the policy for

protection of wildlife of that country. Some

species of wild flora and fauna have wide

distribution but, due to political unheavals in the

recent past, have been sectioned off in different

countries. Countries and international boundaries

are however intangible human concepts.

Fortunately or unfortunately, wildlife knows no

international boundaries. One drawback of this

situation is in evolving a uniform global strategy

for the protection of wild flora and fauna. There

cannot be a single piece of legislation for

protection of wildlife in such situations because

different countries are involved and are run with

different forms of governments. Fortunately there

388

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

are environmental pressure groups working in

different countries and there is a rising awareness

amongst the people regarding the importance of

protection of wild flora and fauna and of the fact

that wild heritage is not a property of one country

but it is crucial for survival of the entire mankind.

This has forced the governments of different

countries to coordinate and form unified plans

regarding several aspects of protection of wildlife.

These unified plans are to be implemented by the

countries concerned through mutual agreements,

in legal parlance referred to as conventions and

treaties. Needless to state, therefore, the

branch of the International Law regarding

protection of wild flora and fauna is of extreme

importance.

The present book has handled this

important and technical subject very ably. The

author traces the development of consensus of

the international community starting from the

London convention of 1900 to the Biodiversity

Convention of 1 994. The author has also broadly

outlined the conventions and treaties regarding

migratory species, genetic diversity, ecosystem

and habitat protection. Important concepts such

as the criteria for determining the status of the

species, sustainable development, conservation,

have been suitably dealt with. The discussion and

the information is to the point and concise. The

subject matter is neatly divided into appropriate

chapters, paragraphs and headings and

demonstrates the organised and analytical

approach of the author. The detailed references

at the bottom of the page indicate the effort made

in researching and compiling the data. The book

also has an excellent bibliography for the serious

reader to pursue further research on the subject.

Since the subject is technical, the book is

written in a textbook manner with appropriately

more attention to the accuracy and compilation

of data than of language. The book offers an

excellent compendium and reference guide to the

reader already aquainted with the subject, but is

is not so friendly to a complete novice. This may

not be a drawback as the book is clearly targeted

to the more than casual reader. In all, it is an

excellent one-source book on the subject and a

good addition to the library.

NITIN JAMDAR

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1. LIONS HUNTING A LEOPARD

I have just completed reading the very

interesting book the leopard in indla — a natural

history by J.C. Daniel, which was released on

4th October, 1996 at a function organised in New

Delhi by WWF — India. I have interesting

information to add which is very much in keeping

with contemporary India. During one of my nature

camps in the Gir Forest ten years ago, some sixty

school boys from Rajkot camping beside

Kamieshwar Temple in the Gir Forest were being

guided to see a pride of lionesses. As they were

walking along the jungle trail, there was

considerable commotion among the dried teak

leaves, and a leopard rushed towards the children

chased by two full grown lions! With the group

of humans in front and the lions in pursuit, the

leopard, in full view of the boys, scaled a slender

leafless teak tree. One of the lions, to the thrill of

the boys, stood up on its hind legs against the

tree looking up at the treed leopard. Both the lions

then sat down below the tree as though to be

admired by the ogling humans. Then a sound

diverted the lions’ attention towards the thickets

in the ravine, and the leopard quickly descended

from the tree and raced away up the hill. The lions

had been distracted by the sound of the lionesses

further along the path, which the boys were being

taken to see. I myself had been looking at the

lionesses. The experience was unbelievable and

the discipline of the schoolboys was something

to be proud of. Not one lad panicked and the group

remained together quietly even as the leopard

and the pursuing lions were rushing in their

direction. It was heart warming to be surrounded

later by the excited youngsters telling me of their

great experience. The lionesses were forgotten

as we walked back to Kamieshwar in the fading

light of the winter sun. All the schoolboys are,

today, committed conservationists.

Another frightening and equally notable

episode was enacted four years ago. The Surat

Nature Club annually arranges a nature camp

for school children in the Dang Forest. I was to

flag off the camp programme, but for some reason

I could not leave Gandhinagar and postponed

my visit by a couple of days, only to be advised

that the camp had been abandoned, because on

the fifth night one of the camp volunteers, just

before turning in around midnight, had heard

some noise.

On flashing his torch he found a leopard

tugging at a blanket from one of the tents.

The youth excitedly called his friends to

see the cat. The animal dropped what he was

tugging at and walked calmly to one side. The

volunteers, on examining what the feline was

trying to pull out discovered, to their horror, a

12 year old boy, fast asleep in the blanket. The

boy, though he had fang marks on his leg where

the big cat had got a grip on him, was bliss-

fully unaware of the brush he had with death.

What is amazing is that he continues to

participate in the Club’s activities with the

wholehearted approval of his parents and the

Dang camps are organised each year and are fully

booked! 1996 was the eleventh consecutive year

of the camp.

November 19, 1996 L AVKUMAR KHACHER

646, Vastunirman ,

Gandhinagar- 3 82 022.

2. THE CLOUDED LEOPARD IN MANIPUR AND NAGALAND

(With one text -figure)

The clouded leopard Neofelis nebulosa is and southeastern Asia mainly due to habitat loss

vanishing from part of its wide range in southern and poaching for its fur. Survey results have

390

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Table 1

CLOUDED LEOPARDS RECORDED IN MANIPUR AND NAGALAND, 1988-1996

reported them in recent years from Assam and

parts of other states of northeastern India

(Choudhury, 1993; Athreyaand Johnsingh 1995).

Information on their distribution in

Manipur and Nagaland is scarce. During general

field surveys for wildlife in Manipur in 1988 and

1996, and Nagaland in 1992 and 1996, 1 collected

information on the species which are summarised

in Table 1.

During the surveys, a picture of the clouded

leopard was shown to hunters and other

knowledgeable villagers and forest officials and

its size and habits were explained. While surveys

of such elusive animals can never give completely

accurate information on the status of the species,

the records show that N. nebulosa is still widely

distributed in the forested areas of Manipur

and Nagaland. Shrinkage of habitat and felling

have increased their encounters with villagers.

In areas such as Ukhrul district, the villagers of

the Tangkhul Naga tribe were quite familiar with

the cat, and clearly explained to me that it was

the ‘third’ big cat of their area after the tiger

Panthera tigris and the leopard P pardus, and

that it is mainly arboreal and preys mostly on

monkeys.

The total potential habitat available for the

clouded leopard in Manipur and Nagaland is about

8000 and 4000 sq. km respectively, of which only

185 sq. km in Manipur and 218 sq. km in Nagaland

are inside protected areas. The protected areas are

Yangoupokpi Lokchao in Manipur, Intanki (202

sq. km), Puliebadge (9.2 sq. km) and Fakim (6.4

sq. km) in Nagaland. Habitat type in the areas

listed in Table 1 ranges from tropical moist

deciduous and semi -evergreen in Intanki, tropical

rain forest in northern Nagaland and southwestern

Manipur to subtropical evergreen in the higher

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

391

Fig. 1. Clouded leopard photographed in Zunheboto district of Nagaland.

areas such as Shiroi, Satoi and Saramati. The

elevation of the recorded localities ranges from

200 m above msl in Intanki to more than 2400 m

above msl in Shiroi and Satoi. All over its

range in Manipur and Nagaland, the clouded

leopard is sympatric with the tiger and the

leopard.

The main threat to the species is

deforestation, through indiscriminate felling of

large and mature trees (where the clouded leopard

gives birth to cubs and even hunts) and jhum or

slash-and-burn shifting cultivation of the hill

tribes. These tribes which dominate the entire

Nagaland and hilly tracts of Manipur also eat its

flesh whenever available.

As the larger part of the forest belongs to

local tribes, setting up of protected areas is

a difficult task. The proposed National Park

at Shiroi and Wildlife Sanctuary at Keilam Hills

in Manipur should be declared without further

delay. Other areas recommended for protection

are, Tolbung-Irangmukh-Vangai-Bongmukh

(500 sq. km), Jiri-Makru (99 sq. km) and Anko

Range (400 sq. km) in Manipur, and Saramati-

Fakim (500 sq. km) and Satoi (100 sq. km) in

Nagaland.

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank the following:

in Manipur, Alauddin Choudhury (father),

T. Singh, Chief Wildlife Warden, R.K. Ranjan

Singh, S. Muviah and Ibohanbi Singh; in

Nagaland, Nat war Thakkar of Nagaland Gandhi

Ashram, M.I. Bora, Deputy Commissioner,

Zunheboto, Akato Serna, EAC, Zunheboto,

Y. Lotha, K. Sohe and Thomas, all of People’s

Group, a local NGO, and our driver Hakim for

their help during the field trip.

February 8, 1997 ANWARUDDIN

CHOUDHURY

The Rhino Foundation

C/o The Assam Co. Ltd. Bamunimaidam,

G. Bordola Path,

Guwahati 781 021, Assam.

References

Athreya, V. & A. Johnsingh (1995): Survey of the Clouded leopard ( Neofelis nebulosa ) in North-East India. Wildlife

Institute of India, Dehra Dun. 40 pp.

Choudhury, A.U. (1993): The clouded leopard in Assam. Oryx 27(1): 51-53.

392

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

3. DEBARKING BEHAVIOUR OF ELEPHANTS, ELEPHAS MAXIMUS INDICUS

IN VAZHACHAL FOREST DIVISION, KERALA, SOUTH INDIA

Elephants peel off the bark of trees for

various purposes. Guy (1967) and Olivier (1978)

related debarking to extract water and minerals.

Sukumar (1989) observed considerable

consumption of bark during the dry season,

contrary to the observations of Laws etal. (1975).

Sivaganesan (1988) pointed out increased mineral

content as a possible reason for debarking whereas

Croze (1974) observed calcium content in bark

as the main reason. However Anderson and

Walker (1974) found no relationship between

degree of debarking and mineral content of plants.

McCullough (1973) described debarking as the

response of elephants to a deficiency in essential

fatty acids. Sivaganesan (1988) observed

debarking and uprooting mainly in lactating and

pregnant elephants compared to other individuals.

Damiba and Abies (1994) suggest that debarking

is self treatment with compounds contained in the

bark of trees like Lannea. Debarking may be

location and situation specific. We studied

debarking in 1994-95 in Vazhachal Forest

Division while working on habitat utilisation of

elephants, covering forests and plantations on

which studies were not made earlier.

Vazhachal Forest Division is located in

Thrissur and Ernakulam districts of Kerala, south

India. The Division, part of which forms the

Protected Area Network proposed by Rodgers and

Panwar (1 988), holds a good population of Asian

elephants. The area comes under the purview of

Project Elephant and experiences a high tourist

influx every year. Observations on debarked

trees were made all over the Division. The results

are detailed in Table 1. About 36 species were

debarked in the Division. Frequent incidence of

debarking was found in Tectona grandis, Acacia

auriculiforms, Grewia tiliifolia. Further studies

are required to identify the exact cause of

debarking behaviour and to curtail it, because

many forest plantations have to be abandoned,

or hold low stocks due to elephant damage

in combination with Mikania micrantha

infestation.

March 31, 1997 M.M. ANIMON

Y. CHEERAN JACOB

B.N. NAGARAJ

College of Forestry, Vellanikkara ,

Kerala 680 654

Table 1

LIST OF TREE SPECIES DEBARKED BY ELEPHANTS IN VAZHACHAL FORESTS

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

393

Table 1 (contd.)

LIST OF TREE SPECIES DEBARKED BY ELEPHANTS IN VAZHACHAL FORESTS

References

Anderson, G.D. & B.H. Walker (1974): Vegetation

composition and elephant damage in the Sengwa

Wildlife Research Area, Rhodesia. Journal of the

South African Wildlife Management Association 4:

1-14.

Croze, H. (1974): The Seronera bull problem 2- The trees.

E. Afr. Wildl. J. 12: 29-47.

Damiba, E.T. & E.D. Ables (1994): Population

characteristics and impacts on woody vegetation of

elephants on Nazinga game ranch, Burkinofaso.

Pachyderm 46-53.

Guy, P.R. (1967): Diurnal activity pattern of elephant in

the Sangwa Area, Rhodesia. E. Afr. Wildl. J. 14: 285-

295.

Laws, R.M., I.S.C. Parker & R.C.B. Johnstone (1975):

Elephants and Their Habitats. Oxford, Clarendon

Press.

McCullough, K.G. (1973): The African elephants

deficient in essential fatty acids. Nature 242: 267-

268.

Olivier, R.C.D. (1978): On the ecology of Asian elephant

with particular reference to Malaya and Srilanka, Ph.D.

Thesis, University of Cambridge, U.K. 454 pp.

Rodgers, W.A. & H.S. Panwar (1988): Planning a

Wildlife Protected Area Network in India. Vol. 1&2.

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehra Dun.

Sivaganesan, N. (1988): Ecology of the Elephant. Annual

Report 1988-89. (Ed.) Daniel, J.C. Bombay Natural

History Society, Mumbai 35 pp.

Sukumar, R. (1989): The Asian Elephant-Ecology and

Management. Cambridge University Press, U.K.

244 pp.

4. VAGINAL PROLAPSE IN A WILD CHITAL, AXIS AXIS

IN RAJAJI NATIONAL PARK, INDIA.

From November 1992 to May 1993, 1 was

studying habitat use by the chital ( Axis axis ) in

Dholkhand, Rajaji National Park, India. On

31st January, 1993 (morning), I saw a group of

20 chitals, including 3 fawns, foraging on a

hillock. One doe had vaginal prolapse. The size

of the prolapsed mass was about that of a cricket

ball. The doe’s normal belly suggested that it was

not pregnant. No fawn attended the female during

the 20 minutes of my observation.

The vagina and also the uterus can get

reversed and protrude out through the vulva

during advanced pregnancy or when approaching

parturition. This condition is called vaginal

prolapse or ballooned vagina (Banerjee 1991).

Retention of placenta or weakening of the

peritonial muscles or dystokia may cause this

(Sankar 1990). It makes parturition difficult and

can cause temporary or even permanent sterility

(Banerjee 1991).

Sankar (1990) who reported recto-vaginal

prolapse in a wild chital in Sariska Tiger Reserve

concluded that animals in such condition may

have poor chances of survival. 1 have seen

two domestic dogs with vaginal prolapse.

Both were emaciated, never regained health

even after months, before they were put

down.

394

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

The doe I saw was in fair physical

condition. I could not monitor it to confirm its

recovery. However, Dr. P.K. Malik (WII, pers.

comm.) opined that if the prolapsed mass was as

small as that which I saw, there were chances of

its natural retraction and the animal regaining

health.

I thank Dr. P.K. Mailk for a useful

discussion on this aspect. I also thank an

anonymous referee for comments on an earlier

draft of this note. The observation was made

during a study funded by WII and IUCN.

April 10, 1996 SHRIDHAR. D. BHAT,

Forestry Degree Programme,

Banavasi Road,

Sirsi (N.K.)

Karnataka, India-581 401.

References

Banerjee, G.C. (1991): A text book of animal husbandry. Sankar, K. (1990): Recto- Vaginal prolapse in a wild

7th edn, Oxford & IBH Publ. Co. Pvt. Ltd., New chital Cervus axis. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 87(2):

Delhi, pp 201-203. 288.

5. COMMENTS ON A NEWLY BORN GAUR (BOS GAURUS)

On morning of 28th August, 1995 my field

assistant Mr. Kunmari and I were walking through

a mixed deciduous forest patch in Mudumalai

Wildlife Sanctuary for a routine bird census. At

0930 hours we were on a rock at 10 m observing

birds, when I heard a strange sound coming from

a bush below. A few seconds later, a single gaur

(cow) came out of a lantana bush and started

grazing about 100 m from where I was. Since I

was on the top of the rock, it did not notice me. I

silently approached the animal with my camera

to get a closer shot of it. When I was just 50 m

away, it lifted its head and stared at me, but

continued grazing. This surprising behaviour of

not being alarmed, tempted me to find out the

reason.

All my previous encounters with gaur had

suggested that the gaur is extremely shy and

sensitive to even the slightest disturbance. I halted

there and continued observing it. Scanning the

area, I noticed a calf (resembling a domestic cow’s

calf) struggling to stand up, about 10 m away from

the adult gaur. My experienced field assistant told

me that it was the calf of a gaur. Our talking

disturbed the gaur and it ran with an alarm call.

In a few seconds, the gaur disappeared from our

vicinity (c. 100 m radius). We approached the calf

to get a close look and found that it had been

delivered only a few minutes earlier. Fresh

placenta and blood were on the grass. The calf

could not move and was staring at us. It had a

pale reddish brown coat with bluish eyes. After

about 15 min it tried to run but could not balance

its hind limbs and fell down often, but somehow

managed to go behind a nearby bush. During this

period, there was no vocalization either from

the cow or the calf. I looked around the delivery

site and noted some habitat features. It was a

dry deciduous forest close to a dry stream. The

shade in the area was moderate, shrub cover low

and the ground was almost fully covered with

grass. Tectona grandis and Anogeissus latifolia

were the dominant trees and the terrain was

slightly undulating. The gaur had given birth

on the grass patch. According to Schaller (1967)

and Prater (1971), female gaurs separate from the

herd when the calf is born and remain with it,

feeding it till the calf is able to accompany it to

rejoin the herd. I could not find any gaur herd

even after a 3 km walk around the site. After a

gap of 1 5 days, I sighted one herd of gaur in the

same place consisting of 4 adult bulls, 8 adult

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

395

cows, 3 sub adults and 6 calves. All the calves January 27, 1995 V. GOKULA

were of the same age. Prater (1971) reported that Division of Avian Ecology,

the gaur gives birth all around the year but there Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and

could be a peak at some seasons. As many small Natural History ,

calves were sighted during August and Kalampalayam PO.

September, this may be one of the peak birth Coimbatore-641 010.

seasons for gaur in Mudumalai Wildlife

Sanctuary.

References

Schaller, G.B. (1967): The deer and the tiger: A case Prater, S.H. (1971): The Book of Indian Animals,

study of Wildlife in India, The University of Bombay Natural History Society & Oxford

Chicago Press, Chicago, pp 370. University Press, Mumbai, 324 pp.

6. RANGE EXTENSION OF THE KASHMIR FLYING SQUIRREL

c HYLOPETES FIMBRIATUS GRAY)

The Kashmir flying squirrel (Hylopetes

flmbriatus), belongs to the Family Scuiridae. It

has a distributional range from north Punjab and

Kashmir, eastwards to Simla in Himachal Pradesh

(Corbett and Hill 1992). Ellerman (1961) and

Prater (1980) describe two races of the Kashmir

flying squirrel from the western Himalayas,

H.f fimbriatus and H.f baberi. The race H.f

baberi is considered a different species by Corbett

and Hill (1992).

Table 1

EXTERNAL MEASUREMENTS OF HYLOPETES

FIMBRIATUS FOUND AT BALMORAL

(RANIKHET)

A dead specimen of an adult male Kashmir

flying squirrel was recovered from Balmoral site

in Ranikhet (29° 29' N, 79° 26' E), Kumaon, Uttar

Pradesh, on 8th May, 1995. The general

morphological characters and the measurements

of certain body parts were noted down.

The general colour of the dorsal surface of

the body was brownish-black with whitish

underparts. The squirrel had distinct brown pinnae

and a thick, hairy brownish black tail. Each hind

and forelimb had four functional toes almost of

same size, the fifth toe being small. Each toe had

distinct claws. The soles were bare with a spongy

pad below each toe. The measurements of the

body parts taken are given in Table 1 .

On the basis of the above characters the

species was identified as the Kashmir flying

squirrel ( Hylopetes fimbriatus). The species is

endemic to the western Himalayas (Prater 1980).

Thus the occurrence of the Kashmir flying squirrel

in Ranikhet extends the range of the species by

about 300 km.

March 22, 1997 MOHD. KHALID S. PASHA

Wildlife Institute of India

P.O. Box. 18, Chanrabani

Dehra Dun (UP) - 248 001.

INTESAR SUHAIL

Centre of Wildlife & Ornithology

Aligarh Muslim University

Aligarh (UP) - 202 002.

396

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

R EFEP

Corbett, G.B. & J.E. Hill (1992): The Mammals of

Indomalayan Region. A Systematic Review.

Natural History Museum. Oxford University Press,

New York.

Ellerman, J.R. (1961): The Fauna of India including

7. CATTLE EGRET BUBULCUS

The cattle egret Bubulcus ibis has been

associated with grazing cattle, seizing insects

disturbed by their movements (Ali 1979). The

role of this bird in the biological control of

white grubs during ploughing operations has

been documented by Parasharya et al., (1994).

The egret is known to follow ploughs and trac-

tors (Kushlan 1978) with restricted foraging

close to the heronry during the breeding season.

In addition to many species of insects, the egret

eats frogs, lizards, etc. (Ali 1979).

In the morning of 17th November, 1995, one

of the fields of the Millet Research Station,

Jamnagar was being ploughed. The crop raised

in this field in the previous kharif season was

bajra ( Pennisetum glaucum (L)). We noticed cattle

egret (21), black drongo Dicrums adsimilis (6),

bank myna Acridotheres ginginianus (2), common

myna A. tristis (2), rosy pastor Sturnus roseus (2)

and house crow Corvus splendens (3) following

the tractor. All of them were busy eating the insects

exposed by the tractor. A good number of egrets

(5 to 10) always followed the tractor very closely.

Once we observed that 5 of the egrets suddenly

stopped following the tractor and stood gazing at

one place. After a few seconds, one of the egrets

stepped forward and picked up something black in

colour, about 3 cm long, moved about a metre away

and swallowed it. A few seconds later, another egret

did the same. As we approached, the egrets moved

away a few metres. We saw a litter of golden

coloured rats attached to the postero-ventral part

of the abdomen of an adult rat, probably it was

suckling. When the adult rat ran away from us, the

ENCES

Pakistan, Burma and Ceylon, Mammalia. Vol. 3,

Edited by M.L. Roonwal. Zoological Survey of

India, Calcutta. Part I. 7 1 pp.

Prater, S.H. (1980): The Book of Indian Animals.

Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai.

IBIS FEEDING ON BABY RATS

infant got detached from its mother. The egret came

and picked up the infant and swallowed it.

Approximately 10 min later, at another place in the

same field, an egret was observed feeding on a

young rat caught from the furrow. This time three

house crows tried unsuccessfully to pirate it. The

hesitation by the egrets in catching the baby rats

(the first three feeding attempts described) must

have been due to the infants being attached to their

mother.

As the fields are ploughed by tractor, the

exposed rats with young ones hardly get time to

escape, and fall prey to the egrets. Crows also

follow the plough and being quite bold can catch

rats. It is believed that owls and other birds of prey

are the main avian predators of rats in agricultural

fields. But our observation suggests that during

ploughing the egret could be the major predator of

rats, thus playing an important role in pest control.

Acknowledgement

Dr. K.L. Mathew is grateful to the I.C.A.R.,

New Delhi, for financial support.

September 17, 1996 ' K.L. MATHEW

K.V. PETHANI

Millet Research Station

Gujarat Agricultural University

Jamnagar-361 006, Gujarat.

D.N. YADAV

Department of Biological Control

Gujarat Agricultural University

Anand-388 110, Gujarat.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

397

References

Ali, S. (1979): The Book of Indian Birds. Bombay Natural

History Society, Mumbai, p 4.

Kushlan, J.A. (1978): Feeding ecology of wading birds;

In: Wading birds (eds) A. Sprunt IV, J.C. Ogden

and S.A. Winker, National Audubon Society,

New York. pp. 249-297.

Parasharya, B.M., J.F. Dodia, K.L. Mathew and D.N.

Yadav (1994): Natural regulation of white grub

(Holotrichia sp : Scarabidae) by birds in agro-

ecosystem. J. Biosci. 19 (4): 381-389.

8. NEST BUILDING ACTIVITIES OF THE FLAMINGO

(PHOENICOPTER US ROSEUS) AT SHAHWADI (AHMED AB AD)

The flamingo ( Phoenicopterus roseus ) is a

resident, nomadic, locally migratory or

extralimital migrant in part, for the Indian

subcontinent (Ali and Ripley 1983), with a

famous breeding ground at the Flamingo City,

about 1 2 km from the Nir Bet outpost in the Great

Rann of Kutch (Hussain 1991). It is known to

breed in thousands depending upon the actual

conditions of inundation of its breeding ground

in the Rann (Himmatsinhji 1991).

The nesting of the greater flamingo was

observed near Shahwadi, a suburb located on the

outskirts of southern Ahmedabad in 19921 . The

study area is, a part of the wasteland which is

filled either with rain water or the waste water of

nearby industrial (mainly textile) units. These

units release their effluents into the village ponds,

canals and agricultural fields, replacing the fields

by temporary/permanent pools of alkaline waters

and fallow land, thus unintentionally creating

habitat for flamingos.

From April 1992, to the first week of

August 1992, a colony of flamingo, comprising

hundreds of individuals, was found at Shahwadi.

There were no juveniles. The variation in the

population of the flamingo at Shahwadi can be

seen in Table 1. The number of flamingos in the

colony was reduced considerably by the end of

July. In the second week of August, the colony

was abandoned. However, a few individuals

stayed at Shahwadi even after the emigration of

their colony from Shahwadi. The variation in the

lThe author had photographed the “nest” mounds but the

photographs are not of printable quality

number of such stray individuals is shown in

Table 1.

Table 1

NUMBERS OF THE GREATER FLAMINGOS AT

SHAHWADI (AHMEDABAD)

Nesting Activities: From 3rd July to 2nd

August, 1992, 10 flamingos were found

displaying and nesting. Observations on

construction activities of these individuals

accompanied by the breeding display confirmed

the mud structures as nests. We were aware of

the flamingo’s habit of constructing feeding

mounds which are superficially suggestive of their

breeding colonies (Abdulali 1964).

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Observations on nests and nesting

activities:

i) About twelve mounds of mud were present

amidst the shallow water.

ii) Of these, about nine were clustered

together, whereas others were located away

from the cluster.

iii) The spot where the cluster of nests was

located, was not densely covered with

grasses, hedges or other macrophytic

vegetation.

iv) Some of the nests were conical in shape

while others were cylindrical. The shape

of a few mounds was irregular. Depression

at the top of the nests (concave and

cylindrical) could not be seen because we

did not approach the nests closely to avoid

disturbance.

v) On nests, individuals were found either

sitting, standing, displaying or busy

shaping the nests.

Nest construction: Standing on top of the

nest, the flamingo moved its beak on the top of

the nest, describing an arc, it also moved its beak

along the flank of the nest in linear up and down

manner. To shape the nest with its legs, it would

stand on top of the nest, the neck would be bent

Refer

Abdulali, H. (1964): On the food and other habits of the

greater flamingo ( Phoenicopterus roseus Pallas) in

India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 61(1): 65.

Au. S< & S.D. Ripley (1983): The handbook of the Birds

of India and Pakistan. Oxford University Press, Delhi.

down so that the beak was brought in contact

with the top of the nest. Then, with the beak as a

centre (pivot) the bird would move the beak along

the rim at the top. During this circular movement

it was seen trampling or pressing down the

top of the nest by raising its feet one after

another.

About two to eleven individuals were

present at Shahwadi on different occasions after

the emigration of their colony (Table 1 ). One can

rightly doubt that the individuals staying behind

at Shahwadi, even after the departure of the

colony, would breed at the site. However, from

13th August to 25th September, neither nest

shaping nor breeding display were observed

among these birds. They were remarkably silent

and always busy feeding in the rapidly drying

waters. They were always seen away from the

nests. Moreover, the birds were absent on

subsequent visits on 27th September and 10th

November, 1992.

August 11,1993 KETAN S . TATU

Research Student, Department of Botany,

University School of Sciences,

Gujarat University,

Ahmedabad-380 009.

NCES

Himmatsinhji, M.K. (1991): The ‘flamingo city’ in the

Rann of Kutch. Newsletter for Birdwatchers 3 1 (5+6):

3-4.

Hussain, S.A. (1991): Flamingo breeding - Conservation

action needed. Newsletter for Birdwatchers 31(3-4): 5.

9. CONTAMINATION IN EGG SHELLS OF

HIMALAYAN GREYHEADED FISHING EAGLE ICHTHYOPHAGA NANA PLUMBEA

IN CORBETT NATIONAL PARK, INDIA

A study of the breeding biology of resident

raptors of Corbett National Park, Uttar Pradesh,

India was undertaken during the years 1990 to

1993. The Park is situated in the lower Himalayan

foothills known as the Sivaliks within the

Bhabar tract, between 29° 3T and 29° 35' N, lat.,

70° 41' E. long. According to Ali and Ripley

(1978), the Himalayan greyheaded fishing eagle

Ichthyophaga nana plumbea extends from the

lower foothills upto 2400 m, optimally between

1000 to 1500 m in western Himalayas and under

1000 m in the eastern Himalayas. The middle

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

399

reaches of the Ramganga river flow through most

of the Park. The topography is undulating,

varying in altitude from 200 to 1000 m, which is

the preferred range and habitat of the species.

The Park is one of the strongholds of the species

in India. In Kumaon the species was never seen

above 1000 m and prefers rivers with forested

banks. Sibley and Monroe (1990) treat it as a

separate species Ichthyophaga humilis ; now

widely accepted. Kumaon comprises the four hill

districts of Almora, Nainital, Udham Singh

Nagar and Pithoragarh in northern Uttar Pradesh

29° N, 80.1° E and 30.1° N, 80.5° E.

From 1991 - 96 the greyheaded fishing

eagle bred unsuccessfully. Eggs from seven nests

monitored during this period did not hatch, while

three nests hatched, young ones were either found

dead in the nest, or disappeared within a week

of hatching. Eggshell fragments which were

collected from one nest in April 1991, were

deformed. Thinner than normal eggshells, were

analysed in the U.S. by Dr. Robert W. Risebrough

of The Bodega Bay Institute, California. Since

no yolk remnants or membrane fragments

remained on the shell, a quantitative analysis that

could be compared with data in the literature was

not possible. Nevertheless, a number of

organochlorine compounds were detected; their

ratios provide clues to the local contamination

pattern in the area inhabited by the eagles.

The parent DDT compound, that is the

insecticidal ingredient, p,p’- DDT, constituted

36% of the DDT compounds measured; the

amount of o,p’- DDT, the minor ingredient in the

original DDT mixture, was 10% that of p,p’-DDT.

The relatively high amounts of these two

compounds indicate recent DDT applications in

local or nearby areas; the evident thinning of the

shell is most likely an effect of DDE, usually the

principal metabolite of DDT in the environment

and the compound considered primarily

responsible for shell thinning. PCB congeners

and dieldrin were detected, but at relatively low

levels of about 6% and 2%, respectively, of the

total DDTs. The dieldrin levels, however, are

significant. Dieldrin, which is highly toxic to

birds of prey, has been implicated in the

population decline of raptors in Europe and North

America (Cooke et al 1982, Newton 1979,

Risebrough 1989, 1994). Shell Chemicals, the

manufacturers, have stopped its manufacture and

sale anywhere in the world. Locally, it is most

likely derived from aldrin, which until recently

atleast, has been widely used in northern India.

These contaminants could have been passed on

only through the prey base, which for this species

is solely fish. The presence of these contaminants

in the local riverine food web is, therefore, a

plausible cause of atleast some of its unsuccessful

breeding attempts, in Corbett National Park.

On the higher reaches of the Ramganga, the

densely populated hillsides are covered with

intensely terraced cultivation. Information

obtained from agricultural supply shops and

farmers indicate that pesticides are used on a

large scale, in order to control agricultural pests.

The contaminants probably run off into the water

system during the heavy monsoon which the

region experiences.

The burgeoning human population

especially along hillstreams and rivers is having

a direct impact on the fishing eagle; through

over-fishing (using several illegal methods such

as extensive use of pesticides to poison fish and

dynamiting upstream beyond the Park’s northern

boundary), damming of rivers and degradation,

or complete destruction of riverine forest, directly

affecting the species through loss of nesting

habitat. Monitoring the reproductive success of

the local population of the eagle in Corbett is

continuing and the results of subsequent analysis

for organochlorines is being carried out.

The species is probably seriously

threatened at Corbett and likely to be similarly

affected throughout its range in India. Besides

the negative impact from chemical

contamination, this mainly sedentary species is

fully dependent on the Himalayan riverine system

and further at risk due to loss of habitat and

disturbance in the upper limits of its range.

400

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Acknowledgement

The study was conducted as part of

an Indo-US co-operative project on Indian Birds

of Prey, through the Bombay Natural History

Society, funded by the United States Fish and

Wildlife Service (USFWS) and sponsored by the

Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt, of

India. Dr. Risebrough’s help and comments are

appreciated. David Ferguson, Office of

International Affairs, USFWS and Mr. J. C.

Daniel, Principal Investigator provided able

support throughout the study period. Mr. A. S.

Negi, former Field Director of Corbett National

Park, provided logistic support. Their help is

gratefully acknowledged.

October 28, 1 995 RISHAD NAOROJI

Godrej & Boyce Mfg. Co. Ltd.

Godrej Bhavan, 4 A, Home Street,

Mumbai 400 001,

India.

References

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley, (1978): Handbook of the Birds of

India and Pakistan, second edition, Vol 1 Oxford

University Press, Delhi.

Cooke, A.S., A. A. Bell & M.B. Haos (1982): Predatory

Birds, Pesticides & Pollution, Institute of Terrestrial

Ecology, Cambridge.

Newton, I. (1979): Population Ecology of Raptors, T &

A.D. Poyser, Berkhamsted, England.

Risebrough, R. W. (1989): Toxic Chemicals and Birds

of Prey: Discussions at Eilat in 1987, In Meyburg,

B.-U & R. D. Chancellor eds., Raptors in the

Modem World, WWGBP: Berlin, London & Paris, 5 1 5-

525.

Risebrough, R. W. (1994): Toxic Chemicals and Birds of

Prey: Discussions in Berlin in 1992, In Meyburg, B.-U

& R. D. Chancellor eds., Raptor Conservation Today,

WWGBP/The Pica Press, 685-692.

Sibley, C.G. & B.L. Monroe, Jr. (1990): Distribution and

Taxonomy of Birds of the World, Yale University

Press, New Haven & London.

10. A RECORD OF PALLAS’ FISHING EAGLE HAUAEETUS LEUCORYPHUS

FROM SPITI VALLEY (H.P.)

In June, 1995 a live subadult specimen of

the Pallas’ fishing eagle was recovered from

“Shego” at an altitude of about 3800 m in the

Spiti valley, of Lahaul Spiti dist., Himachal

Pradesh, India. This is the first record of the

species in Spiti Valley and probably the first

record in the Indian Trans-Himalayan region.

The individual was recovered by local

villagers from “Shego forest” which is about

7 km from the Park headquarters, Kaza. Shego

forest is a high altitude cold desert area situated

on the banks of the river Spiti. Poplar, willow

trees and Hippophae bushes are the main

vegetation of the forest. The local villagers

informed that the bird was chased by two crows

on the bank of the river, and was running with

spread wings. When the villagers captured it, it

was not in a position to fly, because of a leg injury.

Its right leg, specially the talon, was infected and

the infection had spread all over the leg. One of

the villagers took it home and applied some

medicine on the bird’s leg. After 35-40 days of

capture he consulted the local Veterinarian, who

gave a Gentamycin injection and recommended

regular draining of the pus. Unfortunately, the

eagle died 6-7 hrs after the Gentamycin dose.

Some researchers from WII Dehradun on tour to

this area confirmed it’s identity. Its morphometric

measurements are summarized as under:

i

Length of stretched wings: 154 cm

Length of body (Beak to tail) 92 cm

The skin is preserved and kept in the office

as record.

November 9, 1995 B.S. RANA

Director

Pin Valley National Park,

Kaza, Lahaul Spiti dist.

Himachal Pradesh 172 114.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

401

11. REDLEGGED FALCON FALCO VESPERTINUS IN GUJARAT

Despite watching birds for over half a

century, the sighting of a new bird is exciting.

Perhaps, the excitement is all the more rewarding

when one has almost exhausted most of the

possibilities on one’s home turf. On Friday, 2nd

February, 1996 1 added a female redlegged falcon

to my list. .

I was walking along the northern shoreline

of the Poshitra Bay on Beyt island at the mouth

of the Gulf of Kachchh. The sun was touching

down on the western horizon in front of me when,

what I took for a kestrel flew low over me. Since

birds of prey are becoming rare and seeing one

is a joy, I stopped to watch the bird, hoping it

would hover. Instead, it glided low over me and

alighted atop an euphorbia clump - the rays of

the setting sun fully illuminating it. I immediately

realised that here was no familiar kestrel, the

overall colour was much darker, the upper

plumage was a dark grey. Unfortunately, I could

not see the legs. The bird was smaller than the

kestrel and from time to time gently bobbed its

head. A couple of years earlier Pradeep Pandya,

a knowledgeable birdwatcher from Rajkot, had

recorded a small flock of this falcon in

Saurashtra. February is too late for an outward

migration to Africa and possibly a little early for

the return passage, so it is possible that a few of

these rather uncommon birds do winter along

the coast.

April 4, 1996 LAVKUMAR KHACHER

646, Vastunirman,

Ganghinagar, Gujarat-382 022.

12. NESTING OF THE LESSER FLORICAN DURING THE SOUTHWEST MONSOON

To reproduce successfully, birds should do

so when environmental conditions are most

favourable (Earle 1981). Breeding seasons are,

however, fixed for most species and the optimal

time for nesting and therefore breeding success

is determined by the presence of adequate cover

for nesting and hiding the young, and the

availability of adequate food. The optimal nesting

period in a species would have also evolved to

fall within the breeding season when adverse

environment influences eg. snow storms or

floods, are least likely.

The lesser florican Sypheotides indica

breeds during the southwest monsoon (Jerdon

1864, Ali and Ripley 1969, Dharmakumarsinhji

1950), immigrating into western India at the onset

of the monsoons and begins emigrating in early

October (Sankaran 1991, Sankaran et al. 1992).

Like all other species of bustards, the lesser flori-

can is a ground nester. The nest in this family is a

simple scrape in the ground without any nesting

material added, and the behaviour associated with

nest building is absent (Osborne et al 1984).

Due to the nesting habitat, long grass,

florican nests are very difficult to find, more so

due to the secretive behaviour and cryptic

coloration of the hens. Because this species is

endangered, intensive nest searches were not

undertaken, and nest location was mainly

through chance flushing of incubating hens in

the field; therefore data is limited

The majority of the data was collected at

grasslands around Sailana in Ratlam district,

Madhya Pradesh, and the rest at Rampura-

Movalia-Kalitalai grasslands near Dohad in

Panchmahal dist., Gujarat. The study extended

over 475 days between July 16 and October 6,

1985; June 22 and October 10, 1986; June 16

and October 1, 1987; June 24 and October 6,

1988; August 5 and October 1, 1989. Six nests

were located (2 in 1985 and 4 in 1986) at Sailana,

and 3 nests were seen at the proposed Lala

Bustard Sanctuary near Nalliya, Abhdasa Taluka,

Kutch dist.

Clutch size & Incubation period; Of the

9 nests recorded in this study, one had five eggs.

402

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

four had four eggs and four had three eggs each

(Table 1). The incubation period was ascertained

from one nest and was 21 days. The male played

no role in the incubation of the eggs. The chicks,

were precocial, nidifugous and covered in a short,

plush-like, highly cryptic down.

Nest location: The nests were located either

at the periphery or well away from male

territories (Table 1). All nests found, barring one,

were in tall grass (> 20 cm) in the grassland.

One nest was found in a stunted, unweeded maize

field. This (the only one to be) was preyed upon,

possibly by crows.

Behaviour of female on the nest: While

on the nest, female lesser floricans, did not flush

unless almost trampled upon. They preferred to

avoid detection by sitting tight on the eggs. Thus

even a known nest with an incubating female is

unnoticeable, from as close as 3 m or even less.

The tendency of the females not to flush or move

away at the sound of approaching danger enables

the tribals of the area to trap females by throwing

a net or a basket over an incubating hen. The

female with the young stays on in the grassland

until mid or end November, as evidenced by stray

sighting and/or flushing records.

Nesting period: The nesting phase lasts

about eight weeks in the breeding season of the

lesser florican. Nesting began in the first week of

August and all eggs had hatched by the last week

of September (Table 1).

As grass growth rates and insect abundance

is dependent on the distribution and quantum of

rainfall, the temporal availability of both food

and cover, and thus optimal nesting conditions,

varied between years, with the 1986 breeding

season having suitable conditions 5 to 7 weeks

before that of 1985. The southwest monsoon

shows considerable interannual variation (Shukla

1987) and correspondingly interannual variations

are seen in grass growth rates, grass heights and

as a result of this in insect abundance (Sankaran

1991).

The rainfall regime of both 1985 and 1986

varied considerably at the Naulakha grassland

(average annual rainfall 1090 mm). In 1985, the

rains commenced about 5 weeks late and the

quantum of rainfall was subnormal (-50.9%). In

1986, the monsoon began on time and the

quantum was excessive (+49.03%). Thus

availability of adequate cover and food varied by

nearly a month between these years. The average

annual rainfall of Kutch is about 250 mm. In

1989, about 400 mm, 50% was in July.

The Lesser Florican nested between early

August and September end, in three years, 1985,

1986 & 1989, and at different sites, western

Madhya Pradesh and Kutch, with temporal

variations in resource availability. What then are

the conditions, other than availability of food and

nesting habitat that influences the onset of egg

laying in the lesser florican?

Table 1

NESTING DATA ON THE LESSER FLORICAN

NB : For 1989, all dates estimated from an assumed hatching date of one day after unhatched clutch was last seen.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

403

In normal southwest monsoon conditions,

the rains peak in the last two weeks of July. Until

early August there are frequent spells of rains

when it can rain for two or three days

continuously. Thus the risk of inundation of the

nest is high until mid-August. Females

commence laying at such a time that the risk of

loss of eggs through inundation or bad weather

is reduced. Thus females begin egg laying only

in early August, with a peak a little later, and

avoid the majority of the rains of the southwest

monsoon. Heavy rains are brief from mid- August,

and barring the early nesters, most others

effectively minimise the risk of nest inundation.

Several studies have shown that inundation

or bad weather comprises a significant proportion

of factors that destroy eggs and nests (Shipley

1984, Warriner et al. 1986). Thus females have

adapted to nest when the probability of bad

weather is least.

Acknowledgements

This study was funded by the US Fish &

Wildlife Service and was sponsored by the

Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt, of

India. I wish to thank the Gujarat Forest

Department, Kheema, Madhya Pradesh Forest

Department, J.C. Daniel, Mehboob Alam and

A.R. Rahmani for their support and guidance.

December 20, 1 995 R. S ANKARAN

Bombay Natural History Society

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road ,

Mumbai 400 023

Present Address :

Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology &

Natural History

Kalampalayam P.O.,

Coimbatore 641 010

References

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1969): Handbook of the birds

of India and Pakistan. Oxford Univ. Press, New Delhi.

Dharmakumarsinhji, K.S. (1950): The Lesser Florican

[Sypheotides indica (Miller)]: Its courtship display,

behaviour and habits. 7. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 49:

201-216.

Earle, R.A. (1981): Factors governing avian breeding in

Acacia Savanna, Pietermaritzburg. Part 1: Extrinsic

factors. Ostrich 52: 65-73.

Jerdon, T.C. (1864): Birds of India. Vol. 2. Publ. by

authors, Calcutta.

Osborne, P, N. Collar & P.D. Goriup (1984): Bustards.

Dubai Wildlife Research Centre. Dubai, U.A.E.

Sankaran, R. (1991): Some aspects of the breeding

behaviour of the lesser florican Sypheotides indica (J.F.

Miller) and the Bengal florican Houbaropsis

bengalensis (Gmelin). Ph.D. thesis, Univ. of Bombay.

Sankaran, R., A.R. Rahmani & U. Ganguli-Lachungpa

(1992): The distribution and status of the Lesser

Florican Sypheotides indica (J.F. Miller) in the

Indian subcontinent. 7. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 89:

156-179.

Shipley, F.S. (1984): The 4-egg clutch limit in the

Charadrii: an experiment with American Avocets.

South Western Naturalist 29: 143-147.

Shukla, J. (1987): Interannual variability of monsoons.

In Monsoons. Fein, J.S. & Stephen, P.C. eds.. John

Wiley & Sons, New York, pp 399-463.

Warriner, J.S., J.C. Warriner., G.W. Page & L.E.

Stenzel (1986): Mating success and reproductive

success of a small population of polygamous Snowy

Plovers. Wilson Bull. 98: 15-37.

13. THE RELATION BETWEEN BUSTARD BODY SIZE AND DISPLAY TYPE

(With two text-figures )

The variation in body size within the

family Otididae is extreme. The smallest species

(lesser ftoric&w Sypheotides indica ) weighs about

0.5 kg (wing length 180-248 mm) while the

largest species Kori (Ardeotis kori ) weighs over

10 kg (wing length 629-761 mm) and the

heaviest great bustard (Otis tarda) can weigh

over 15 kg. Bustard display types are also

varied and include both ground and aerial

displays.

404

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Wing Length (mm)

Fig. 1. Bustard wing length and body weight

In this analysis of bustard body size and

display type, all data has been extracted from

Ali and Ripley (1969), Cramp and Simmons

(1980), and Collar etal. (1986). The use of body

weights in the analysis was unsatisfactory

because variation in available data was large

(± 50% of the mean). Body weights are variable

and dependent on several factors such as season,

availability of food and condition of the bird.

Wing length, however, shows less variation

(± 20% of the mean), and once birds reach

adulthood, wing length becomes more or less

fixed and unless in moult, will not vary in

response to extrinsic factors. Both wing length

and body weight are indicators of body size, and

body weight is directly correlated to wing length

(Fig. 1). Thus, in this analysis, wing length is

used as a measure of body size.

Bustard attraction displays are divisible

into two groups, namely aerial displays and

ground displays. Aerial displays can be further

classified into two types, based on the duration

and the type of display. The first is the jumping

type of display. This is of very short duration,

e.g. lesser florican one second jump, little bustard

Tetrax tetraxhalf second jump, (Shulz 1985), and

consists of a brief vertical display leap.

The other type of aerial display is a display

flight that lasts for 6 or more seconds and consists

of a short or extended flight from one point to

another. This type of display is seen in the

black bustard Eupodotis afra, buff crested

bustard Eupodotis ruficrista (?) and black bellied

bustard Eupodotis melanogaster (Osborne et al.

1984) and the Bengal florican Houbaropsis

bengalensis.

A distinct correlation is seen between body

size and display types. The small bustards have

aerial displays, with the smallest of these having

a jumping display, those species with increased

body size having flight displays, and beyond this

body size all bustards have ground displays

(Fig. 2). This analysis also shows that the Bengal

florican and the black bellied bustard are at the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

405

180 230 280 330 380 430 480 530 580 630 680 730 780

Wing Length (mm)

Fig. 2. The relation between bustard wing length and display type

1 = Jumping display; 2 = Flight display; 0 = Ground display

size threshold beyond which all bustards

have ground displays. The next large species

i.e. the houbara is 12-15% larger than the

black bellied bustard and only has a ground

display.

The Bengal florican, being at the body

size threshold of aerial displays, has few and

sporadic displays. This bustard also has a distinct

ground display, the neck fluff display. A ground

display is also seen in the black bellied bustard

(pers. obs., Cramp and Simmons 1980). At the

other extreme of the size scale is the lesser

florican, which has very frequent display jumps

and no distinct ground displays. It is most

probable that in bustards body size plays a strong

role in the type of displays seen. The smallest

bustards have short display leaps that are made

very frequently, larger species have longer flight

displays, and as body size increases, frequency

of displays reduces. Ridley et al. (1985) also

suggest that a short leap is associated with greater

frequency. Beyond a certain size threshold, all

bustards have ground display.

Acknowledgements

This study was funded by the US Fish &

Wildlife Service and was sponsored by the

Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt, of

India. I wish to thank Mr. J. C. Daniel and

Dr. A.R. Rahmani for their support and guidance.

December 20, 1 995 R. SANK ARAN

Bombay Natural History Society,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Mumbai 400 023.

Present Address

Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology &

Natural History

Kalampalayam P.O.,

Coimbatore 641 010

406

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

References

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1969): Handbook of the birds

of India and Pakistan. Oxford Univ. Press, New

Delhi.

Collar, N.J., P.D. Goriup, & P.E. Osborne (1986):

Suborder Otides, Family Oiididae. In The birds of

Africa. Vol. II (Urban, E.K., Fry, H.C. & Keith, S.

eds.). Academic Press, London, pp 148-179.

Cramp, S. & K.E.L. Simmons (1980): (eds.) Handbook of

the birds of Europe, Middle East and North Africa.

Vol II Hawks to Bustards. Oxford Univ. Press,

London.

Osborne, P., N. Collar & P.D. Goriup (1984): Bustards.

Dubai Wildlife Research Centre, Dubai, UAE.

Ridley, M.W., R.D, Magrath & J.C.Z. Woinarski (1985):

Display leap of the Lesser Florican Sypheotides

indica. J. Bombay not. Hist. Soc. 82: 271-277.

Schulz, H. (1985): Grundlagenforschund Zur BiologieDer

Zwergtrappe Tetrax tetrax. Braunschweig.

14. FLOCKING AND COURTSHIP DISPLAY IN REDWATTLED LAPWING

(' VANELLUS INDICUS)

The redwattled lapwing Vanellus indie us

is one of the most common bird species found in

and around Kota (25° 10’ N, 75° 52’ E), in

Rajasthan. There are always a couple of lapwings

permanently present near open drains, sewage

nullahs, shallow pools & margins of tank. When

the water dries up, they are quite capable of

living on dry sunbaked land; they even nest and

breed in April-May, when the temperature ranges

between 38°C to 45°C in this part of India. Ali

and Ripley (1987) write in their ‘compact

HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN’

that redwattled lapwings do not form large

flocks (6-12 birds only), there is no mention of

any courtship display. This note is to report a

different behaviour pattern, which I have

observed.

Large congregations of redwattled

lapwings ranging from 26 to over 200

individuals, were seen flocking on large open

drains, nullahs, pools and tanks. In this paper

the term flocking , does not include loose

congregations of birds which remain scattered

on wetlands, but is strictly limited to the

gathering of birds, where they stand closely

packed apparently doing nothing. Incidentally,

redwattled lapwings breed in Kota mainly from

April to September, and a good number of eggs

and chicks can be seen during this period. Just

before commencement of breeding in April,

I have seen large flocks near waterbodies. The

number of individuals in a flock varied from

37 to 62 during February -March. These flocks

are usually seen on the margins of waterbodies

early in the morning, the birds then disperse to

feed nearby, but flock together once the feeding

is over.

Courtship display is not a very elaborate

affair in redwattled lapwings but still it is

attractive. The male bird presents itself in the best

possible manner to the probable mate. The male

bird flies off, circles the area a few times giving a

different call, and returns a little later near a

prospective female. After alighting a few feet

away, the male raises its head, fluffs its breast

feathers, so the white abdominal and contrasting

black front are presented to the female. Only the

little black head, red wattles and bill are seen

over the puffed up breast. The bird looks upright

and proud. In shuffling steps, the male

approaches the female and circles around it a

few times. If the female is responsive it lowers

its head to about 45° from the ground and lets

the male come close, otherwise the female flies

off or moves away, putting an end to the advances

of the eager male. The male bird tends to repeat

this with different females, also many males

(3-4) may be displaying close to each other with

females in audience. Once the pair formation has

taken place birds become highly aggressive and

noisy. They become territorial and actively defend

their territories against all creatures including

grazing cattle, other birds, snakes, dogs and man.

The redwattled lapwings while defending their

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

407

territory rise towards the sky noisily and suddenly

swoop down or circle over the intruder in their

territory. Both male and female birds take part

in this act; mostly it becomes contagious and

other nesting pairs also get involved in rais-

ing a racket to scare away any possible pre-

dator.

October 27, 1 995 RAKESH V YAS

2-P-22, Vigyan Nagar, Kota-324 005.

15. PLAY FEEDING BY THE GULLBILLED TERN

GELOCHELIDON NILOTIC A (GMELIN)

The fishing technique of terns is a simple

process involving only capturing and engulfing.

Before engulfing, the fish is arranged in head-

foremost position (Ali and Ripley,l 981 ).

Interestingly, a gullbilled tern ( G . nilotica ) was

observed feeding in a slightly different manner

— a manner which can be called ‘play-feeding’,

rather than the simple engulfing technique.

The tern was observed in flight with a

captured fish on 31st December, 1995 at 0800

hrs in Dombivli, Thane dist. Maharashtra. As

usual, the quarry was held vertically in head-

foremost position. Instead of swallowing it, the

bird dropped the fish and immediately caught it.

Resuming its flight, it again released the fish and

allowed it to descend for about one metre. After

catching the prey in the air, the bird went a little

higher and the play was repeated. But this time

the bird was unable to catch the fish in the first

attempt. Somehow it managed to grab the fish

after a fall of 2-3 m and finally engulfed the fish

without any more play.

Significantly, the only group of birds that

have been seen to play in a convincing manner

are the crows, especially the ravens. These are

with the highest intelligence of all avian species

(Desmond Morris, 1990).

It is also likely that the kind of play

mentioned above may not be an established trend,

but just an opportunistic display by G. nilotica.

July 10, 1996 MAHESH SABNE,

NAYAN KHANOLKAR

S.R. NAYAK

Bombay Natural History Society ;

S.B. Singh Road , Mumbai 400 023.

References

Ali, S & S.D. Ripley (1981): Handbook of the Birds of Desmond, Morris, (1990): Animal Watching — a field

India and Pakistan, Vol. 3: 42-44, 49 (2nd edn). guide to Animal Behaviour, pp 233.

16. BREEDING RECORD OF GREATEARED NIGHTJAR

{EUROSTOPODUS MACROTIS) AT SIRUVANI HILLS, TAMIL NADU

The greateared nightjar Eurostopodus

macrotis was recorded nesting in Tamil Nadu

for the first time at the foothills of Siruvani during

the first week of May 1995. C.V. was on routine

nest search, as a part of project work on the

breeding strategies of birds in a tropical moist

deciduous forest at Siruvani, Coimbatore, Tamil

Nadu. Suddenly a bird was flushed and flew into

a bush nearby. The surrounding places were

checked and two eggs were seen on the bare

ground but without any lining, surrounded by

dry leaves. The eggs were pale yellow with a few

black spots on them. After 15 min the bird came

back to the nest and started incubating. A closer

look helped in identifying the bird as the

greateared nightjar. This nest was about 50 m

408

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

from a river. After two days, one more nest of

the same species with eggs on dry leaves, was

spotted near a road, and human habitation

(100 m). The canopy cover above both the nests

was more than 80% and distance between the two

nests was about 1 km. The breeding season of

this species is recorded as March and April (Ali

and Ripley 1983). The entire nesting cycle could

not be studied since the eggs in both nests were

predated before hatching, probably by a

mongoose Herpestes sp. present in the area.

The greateared nightjar is mostly

distributed in the Kerala part of Western Ghats

and breeding has been recorded only in Kerala.

Most part of the Siruvani lies in Kerala and the

habitat is similar. The greateared nightjar has

been sighted at Top Slip Manapalli in Anaimalai

hills of the Western Ghats of Tamil Nadu by

Perennou and Santharam (1988). Ours is the first

confirmed record of this bird breeding in Tamil

Nadu.

April 3, 1996 C. VENKATRAMAN

LALITHA VIJAYAN

Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and

Natural History ;

Kalampalayam P.O.

Coimbatore-641 010.

References

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of Perennou, C. & V. Santharam (1988): The Greateared

India and Pakistan, Compact Edn, Oxford Nightjar in Tamil Nadu, Blackbuck 4(1): 28.

University Press, New Delhi.

17. FOOD OF COMMON GREY HORNBILL TOCKUS BIROSTRIS (SCOPOLI)

The common grey hornbill Tockus birostris

(Scopoli) is reported to be a resident species,

subject to local movements depending on the

fruiting season. It is found in open but well-

wooded country with a scattering of Ficus trees

(Ali and Ripley, 1 983) and is replaced in the heavy

rainfall areas of Western Ghats, north to Mumbai

and Sri Lanka, by the Malabar grey hornbill

Tockus griseus (Ali 1979). In Bombay district,

Tockus birostris is found in the Sanjay Gandhi

National park and adjoining areas. The different

types of fruit consumed by common grey hornbill

Tockus birostris were studied by observation

and analysis of the droppings of the bird at the

nest.

Observations were made in Sanjay Gandhi

National Park (19° 8’ to 19° 2V N, 72° 53’ to

72° 58' E) in the Bombay suburban district. The

area largely consists of tropical moist deciduous

forest (Champion and Seth 1968).

A nest was located on an Erythrina stricta

Roxb. tree, amidst tall trees such as Bombax

ceiba Linn., Holoptelia integrifolia Planch.,

Haldinia cordifolia (Roxb.) Ridsale, Terminalia

crenulata Roth, Grewia tiliaefolia Vahl and

Tectona grandis Linn.f. The ground cover was

largely bare except for some growth of

Haplanthodes tentaculatus (Linn.) Mujumdar

and Rostellularia procumbens (Linn.) Nees.

Most of the plants shed their foliage as

winter starts and are ready to bear flowers and

fruit. The fruiting season lasts till summer which

also coincides with the breeding season of Tockus

birostris . Fruits of Grewia tiliaefolia Vahl,

Sterculia urens Roxb., Streblus asper Lour.,

Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merrill,

Cansjera rheedii J. Gmelin, Ficus spp. are the

main source of food for the adult and young of

Tockus birostris (Scopoli).

Observations were made during the

breeding season of Tockus birostris i.e. from

March to June in 1987 and 1988. In 1987 thirty

and in 1988 forty-two samples were analysed. The

excreta of the imprisoned female and chicks are

usually ejected directly through the narrow slit

with considerable force (Ali and Ripley 1983,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

409

Hussain 1984), and accumulate at the base of the

tree. Samples of the fresh faeces along with the

food material which fell during regurgitation and

also while feeding the female and chicks, were

collected between 0800 hrs and 0830 hrs during

the breeding season. The samples were collected

from the top layer of the heap of excreta. The

material was brought to the laboratory for

identification. It was washed 4-5 times in cold water

to separate out the partly digested food material

from the dirt. The material thus obtained was then

placed on blotting paper and dried with the help of

an air blower. Later it was identified and then cross

checked with by referring to the available literature

and material. The food samples were classified into

different categories depending upon the status such

as seed cover, entire seed, seeds along with cover,

fruit fragments, entire fruit and fragments of fruits

along with seeds.

The phenology of the vegetation was sampled

in a 1.5 km radius from the nesting site. The trees

were regularly observed and the fruit-ing status was

noted as ‘fruiting’ and ‘non-fruiting.’

Fruits of 13 species of plants, namely

Cansjera rheedii J. Gmelin, Carissa carandas

Linn., Cordia dichotoma Forst. f., Ficus spp.,

Grewia tiliaefolia Vahl, Lannea coromandelica

(Houtt.) Merrill, Manilkara hexandra (Roxb.)

Dubard, Morinda tinctoria Roxb., Securinega

leucopyrus (Will.) Muell-Arg., Sterculia urens

Roxb., Streblus asper Lour., Syzygium cuminii

(Linn.) Skeels and Zizyphus mauritiana Lam.

were utilized by Tockus birostrisas food. Insects,

molluscs and scorpions were also part of the diet.

The bird preferred small fruits. Table 1 shows

that partly digested or sometimes undigested

seeds were egected in the faeces, on three

instances entire fruit was found in the faecal

matter, but considering the size of the fruit, we

feel that the fruit might have escaped or was

purposely rejected while feeding the female and

the chicks. Similar behaviour has been reported

by Hall (1918).

Streblus asperwas most preferred (17.6%)

and was consumed in larger numbers (Table 2)

Table 1

STATUS OF THE FOOD MATERIAL FOUND IN

THE EXCRETA OF TOCKUS BIROSTRIS (SCOPOLI)

SC = seed cover ES = entire seed

SWC - seed with cover FF = fruit fragments

EF = entire fruit FFS = fragments of fruits and seeds

Animal matter:

! . Pila sp. Broken shell

2. Scorpion Sting

3. Stemocera chrysidioides Thorax

followed by Carissa carandas (15.7%), Lannea

coromandelica (13.7%), Cansjera rheedii (10.8%),

Ficus spp. (9.8%) and Grewia tiliaefolia (9.3%).

The aril above the seeds of Sterculia urens

was consumed by the bird, inspite of the follicles

having stinging hairs.

The larger fruits were consumed in smaller

quantity (Levey 1987) as compared to smaller

fruits, t.g. Zizyphus mauritiana ( 1 .0%), Syzygium

cuminii (2%), Morinda tinctoria (2.5%) and

Manilkara hexandra (2.5%) (Table 2). The bird

probably finds it difficult to feed upon the larger

fruits, so they are not preferred. Table 2 gives the

phenology of the food plants and from the size of

the fruits taken it can be stated that small sized

fruits are preferred. This also supports Ridley's

statement that bird dispersed fruits are usually

small, fleshy and edible (Ridley 1930).

The mollusc Pila sp., an unidentified

scorpion and the beetle Stenocera chrysidioides

were also a part of the diet.

410

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Table 2

PHENOLOGY OF THE FOOD PLANTS

St - Straggler, S - Shrub, T - Tree, # - Size of seed, Ht - Height

Ali and Ripley (1983) recorded the

breeding period to be from January to April

whereas Hall (1918) recorded -breeding period

as April at Batala in Punjab. The birds nested on

Erythrina stricta Roxb. Earlier they have been

recorded nesting on Syzygium cuminii (Linn.)

S keels by Hall (1918).

Lowther (1942) on his observation at the

nest of Tockus birostris at Etawah and Cawnpore

(Kanpur) in Uttar Pradesh has recorded the male

feeding female and chicks with pipal ( Ficus

religiosa ) and banyan ( Ficus bengalensis ) figs,

berries of Ixorci sp., crumpled up green leaf, nim

( Azadirachta indica) berries, blood-sucker lizard

( Calotes versicolor), locust, pods of bean,

tamarind ( Tamarindus indica) pods and olive

branches, whereas Hall (1918) has recorded

jamun ( Syzygium cuminii ) berries, pipal figs

( Ficus religiosa), green leaf and black ants.

Ali (1979) has recorded large insects and young

mice apart from all the regular food items. Lint

and Lint (1981) on their observations on diet of

hornbills in captivity have observed that apart

from fruits, berries, insects and rodents, frogs,

snails, eggs and baby chicks were readily

accepted by the bird.

In the Sanjay Gandhi National Park five

species of Ficus are present, e.g. Ficus racemosa

Linn., F. religiosa Linn., F. exasperata Vahl, F.

hispida Linn.f. and F. amottiana Miq. The figs

in the faecal samples were not whole, therefore

it is difficult to identify species of Ficus involved.

Acknowledgements

We express our sincere thanks to Dr. (Mrs)

S. M. Almeida, Director, Blatter Herbarium,

St. Xavier’s College for help in identifying a few

samples. We also thank the Deputy Conservator

of Forests, Sanjay Gandhi National Park, for

permission to work in the Park.

October 28, 1995 NEEL AM PATIL

NARESH CHATURVEDI

VITHOBA HEGDE

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk,

Opp. Lion Gate, Mumbai-400 023.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

411

References

Ale S. (1979): The book of Indian Birds, Bombay Natural

History Society, Mumbai.

Ali, S. & S. Dillon Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds

of India and Pakistan. Compact Edition. Oxford

University Press, Oxford, New York.

Champion, H.G. & S.K. Seth (1968): The forest types of

India. Delhi, India.

Hall, E.F. (1918): Notes on the nidification of the

common Grey Hombill ( Lophoceros birostris). J.

Bombay not. Hist. Soc. 25: 503-505.

Hussain, S.A. (1984): Some aspects of the biology

and ecology of Narcondam Hornbill ( Rhyticeros

narcondami). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81(1): 1-18.

Levey, D.J. (1987): Seed size and fruit-handling

techniques of Avian frugivores. Am. Nat. 129(4): 471-

485.

Lint, K C. & A.M. Lint (1981): Diets of Birds in captivity.

Blandford Press, Poole, Dorset.

Ridley, H.N. (1930): The dispersal of plants throughout

the world,. Ashford, Kent: L. Reeve & Co. Ltd.

18. UNUSUAL FEEDING

CRIMSONBREASTED BARBET

When the green barked Mexican cotton

trees ( Chorlsia speciosa ) are in bloom, they

attract a variety of nectar feeding birds. On 17th

February, 1995 (0840 hrs), a crimsonbreasted

barhet joined a party of such birds. For a few

seconds, it kept watching, then moved towards a

bunch of creamish white flowers on an over-

hanging branch near its perch. Soon it pecked at

a flower and managed to pluck one of the thick

inch long petal. Finding it difficult to eat, the bird

adopted an unusual feeding pattern. The plucked

petal was placed on the branch and held underfoot,

the fragments were torn with the bill and eaten.

Since the bird was not well adapted to this pattern

of feeding, most of the fragments fell to the

19. DE-TICKING BY A HOUSE

While returning from the Asian Waterfowl

Census on 14th January, 1996 at about 1145 hrs

near Goregaon creek a Mumbai suburb, I saw a

resting buffalo and a house crow hopping

near the mouth of the buffalo and picking

something from its jaws. The buffalo made no

attempt to drive away the crow. On close

observation I found that the crow was de-ticking

the buffalo.

PATTERN AND DIET OF

{MEGALA1MA HAEMACEPHALA)

ground. In this manner it fed on three petals on

that day and repeated this behaviour for the next

two days.

The food and feeding pattern of the species

has been described in handbook (Ali and Ripley,

1987, Vol. 4, pp 300) as “banyan, pipal and other

wild figs, various drupes and berries, occasionally

moths and termites captured in clumsy aerial

sorties.” The nectar, petals or other parts of the

flowers have not been mentioned in tire diet of

the species.

November 9, 1995 A.M.K. B HAROS

27 MIG , Indravati Colony,

Raipur -492 001.

CROW (CORVUS SPLENDENS)

I have seen cattle egrets ( Bubulcus ibis )

de-ticking a walking or sitting buffalo many

times, but I do not recall this behaviour in a house

crow.

July 10, 1 996 V.K. PARALKAR

Manav Kalyan Society,

B 2/3 Bangui Nagar,

Goregaon (W), Mumbai-400 090.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

20. A PECULIAR FOOD FINDING HABIT OF

HOUSE CROW CORVUS SPLENDENS (VIELLOT)

One fine morning in November 1993, at

Himayatnagar, Hyderabad, I had the opportunity

to observe a pair of house crows Corpus splendens

(Viellot) from a porch at about 0700-0800 hrs.

The pair alighted in a hurried manner on a

small temple tree ( Plumeria acutifolia ) and

searched for something, as if they had hidden

some food material earlier. To my great surprise

one of the crows pulled out the semi-dried

sticky latex of the temple tree and devoured it

quickly.

Since my landlords required fresh flowers

of this plant for their daily puja (worship) they

used a long bamboo stick to remove the flowers.

While doing this many branches of this weak

plant broke easily and the latex oozed out

profusely to seal the injury, by covering the

broken tips. It could easily be guessed from the

food habits of these birds that their intelligence

might have prompted them to acquire knowledge

of the availability of the latex on these plants.

They may have chosen the latex as an easy source

of food. Later I noticed that these crows regularly

visit temple trees, specially after the winter leaf-

fail, which might be helping them to locate the

semi -dried latex easily due to the bareness of the

branches. It had become part of their daily food

finding activity.

June 4, 1996 D.B. BASTAWADE

Zoological Survey of India,

Freshwater Biological Station,

1-1-300/B, Ashok Nagar,

Hyderabad-500 020.

21. SMALLER GREY CUCKOO-SHRIKE ( CORACINA MELASCHISTOS)

SIGHTED AT PILLUR FORESTS, NILGIRI HILLS, TAMIL NADU

Pillur forest is situated on the southeastern

slopes of the Nilgiris and supports a moderately

disturbed dry mixed-deciduous forest. While

surveying the forest for small carnivores, I saw a

smaller grey cuckoo-shrike ( Coracina

melaschistos).

On 28th September, 1995 around 1100 hrs,

I was walking along the road to Neeralipallam

weir. At about 200 m from the Parali Valve

House, I saw a smaller grey cuckoo-shrike,

perched upright on a branch in the lower canopy

of a tree. It was dull in plumage and looked to

me like a smaller version of a female fairy

bluebird in silhouette. When I got close to it, it

flew over me to a nearby tree, and perched facing

me, now in good light. It was dark grey all over

with black wings, darker eye-stripe and faintly

barred underparts.

This species is an altitudinal migrant in

the Himalayas, wintering in the Terai and the

adjacent plains, and straggling in the Peninsula

as far as Karnataka (Ali and Ripley, 1987

COMPACT HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND

Pakistan, OUP.). There are no previous records

of this species from Nilgiris or Tamil Nadu in

literature.

February 5, 1996 T.R.K. YOG AN AND

Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and

Natural History,

Kalampalayam PO.

Coimbatore-641 010. Tamil Nadu.

22. GOLDMANTLED CHLOROPSIS ( CHLOROPSIS COCHINCHINENSIS )

FEEDING ON RAW POTATO CHIPS

On 16th March, 1995, a pair of goldmantled of a mango tree ( Mangifera indica). The male

chloropsis was seen foraging amongst the foliage flew away and returned after a few seconds,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

413

holding a raw potato chip. These were spread over

an adjacent roof for drying in the sun.

The chip was held in the bill and repeatedly

struck on the tree branches resulting in its

breaking into several pieces which fell on the

ground. The last remaining portion was eaten.

In the handbook (Ali and Ripley, 1987 -

Vol. 6, pp 408) the food of the species has been

mentioned as insects, berries, wild figs, and nectar

of a variety of flowers.

February 5, 1996 A.M.K. BHAROS

27, MIG, Indravati Colony,

Raipur -492 001, M.P.

23. POSSIBLE FEEDING ON AN UNHATCHED EGG BY

YOUNG ONE OF RED VENTED BULBUL ( PYCNONOTUS CAFER)

A pair of redvented bulbuls ( Pycnonotus

cafer) made a nest above a tube light in my room

in Sangli, Maharashtra. The nest was completed

in four days, and the first egg laid on 10th May,

1990. The second and third eggs were laid on

subsequent days. After the third egg was laid,

both the birds incubated the eggs for 24 hrs. Close

observation was possible from 16th May,

onwards. The bird that sat on the nest at night

was presumed to be a female. Every evening

another bird that did not sit on the nest at night

used to spend an hour or more with the female,

sitting on the nearby grill of the window or a

hook on the roof of the hall. At dusk (about

1900 hrs) he generally moved out of the hall and

roosted on a nearby bush ( Nyctanthes

arbortristis ).

Looking at the nest, normal movement of

people in the room or other noises did not

provoke any response from the incubating bird.

It is interesting to note that from the very first

day of incubation the female did not show any

sign of fear except that she raised her head when

we were too noisy, which happened frequently.

The duration of incubation was reduced

from 30th May, onwards. The male stopped sitting

on the nest, formerly he used to fill the gap in

incubation, when the female left the nest for food.

The incubation was completely stopped from 1st

to 8th June. The male did not visit the nest at all

from 1st to 9th June, but the female visited it

atleast thrice a day and sat on the eggs for 45-50

min before flying off.

On 9th June, at 2000 hrs the female came

and sat on the nest upto 2300 hrs. In the morning

at 0700 hrs, she was still there. After some time

she went out of the room, close observation

revealed another egg in the nest. After 19 days

of incubation and a gap of 28 days, the fourth

egg was laid by the same female. Incubation was

again regular till 20th June.

On 2 1 st June, one chick was seen; on 22nd

June, at 0900 hrs one more egg showed signs of

hatching. In the evening I found it had also

hatched and there were two chicks. The former

chick was much bigger than the latter. The

remaining two eggs did not hatch.

On 23rd June, one egg disappeared without

any trace. The next day at 1730 hrs when the

parents were out I examined the nest. The older

chick occupied more space and the smaller one

was sandwiched between it and the edge of the

nest. The second thing which I observed was

quiet interesting. There was a big bulge on the

throat of the older chick. The skin at the throat

had no feathers and at the bulge the skin was so

stretched that it was almost transparent. I felt

the bulge with my fingers; it was round and hard,

similar to an egg. Due to the transparency of the

skin I could observe the brown blotches on it. I

suspect it was the remaining egg in the nest. After

15 min there was no bulge at the throat, as the

egg went down into the stomach.

On 29th June, in the morning I saw the

smaller chick dead on the floor with two holes

in it. One in the ribs on the right side of the

414

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

sternum keel, the second one on the abdomen,

with some part of its intestines bulging out. There

is no evidence to show what had happened.

Finally, on 5th July the larger chick fledged.

July 10, 1996 HEM ANT A. DHAMKE

39/308, S.T. Nager,

Bajaj Tempo Colony,

Pimpri, Pune-411018 .

24. POSSIBLE COMMUNAL NESTING IN THE WYNAAD LAUGHING

THRUSH GARRULAX DELESSERTI DELESSERTI (JERDON)

The Wynaad laughing thrush, Garrulax

delesserti, occurs in southern Western Ghats, in

humid rain forest with dense understory (Ali

1968, birds of kerala). This bird lives in flocks.

On 18th April, 1994, about 4 km from

Thekkady on the Mangaladevi road, in Periyar

Tiger Reserve, in a semi -evergreen forest, I came

across a flock of 16 birds in the morning. They

were foraging on the ground “rummaging

amongst the mulch”, turning over dead leaves,

and uttering chattering calls.

At 0950 hrs I saw one bird followed by

another flying to an isolated 4 m tall

Actinodaphne hirsuta tree with a rootlet in its

beak. Two more birds were seen following

immediately, one with a rootlet and another

without. I saw a nest under construction, about

3 m high on the central fork of one branch of the

tree. The birds were adding nesting material to

it, and building a cup shape. The nesting activity

continued until 1150 hours. Three birds were

bringing the nesting material and the fourth,

always accompanied them without any material.

The nest building birds seemed to be

unconcerned about my presence. Other members

of the group were foraging about 5 m away.

The birds disappeared through a dense thicket at

1155 hrs and could not be traced. I could come

back to the place only after 2 days and the nest

was found damaged.

October 27, 1995 V.J. ZACH ARIAS,

Periyar Tiger Reserve,

Thekkady, Kerala.

25. FEEDING BY ROSEFINCH CARPODACUS ERYTHRINUS (PALLAS)

ON APHID SECRETION

The usual food of rosefinch ( Carpodacus

erythrinus ) includes mostly seeds (of weeds,

millet, linseed, vetch, Polygonum, bamboo, etc.),

flower buds, fruits and berries such as mulberry,

raspberries, wild cherries, banyan and pipal figs,

Lantana, Maesa, Trema; also nectar of Erythrina,

Salmalia, Butea, Woodfordia and other blossoms.

There is a single record of insects (Ali and Ripley,

HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN,

Vol. 10, pp 165, 1974). Witherby, Jourdain,

Ticehurst and Tucker, in handbook of British

birds Vol. 1, pp 89, 1938 mention young birds

taking insects and larvae. In an openwooded grove

near Dombivli (Dist. Thane, Maharashtra), a

migratory flock was observed feeding on aphid

secretion which was present on immature fruits

of Holoptelea integrifolia.

The aphid-laden young green samaroid fruit

of H. integrifolia show sweet, sticky droplets of

the honey dew secreted by aphids on the seed

wings. It is commonly observed that ants attend

aphid infested plant parts for this secretion and

in turn defend the aphids in a symbiotic

relationship. However, it was interesting to see

the birds visiting these fruits for the honeydew

not only once but regularly for about half a month

(late January, 1994). Birds were observed daily,

either between 0630 to 1 000 hrs or between 1 700

to 1830 hrs. Though there are many trees of

Holoptelea in the area, most birds of the flock

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

415

used to swarm on one or two selected aphid-rich

trees. One or at the most two days were taken by

the birds, which was dependent on the fruit

numbers to finish up the majority of the fruits.

These fruits from which the sweet honey dew

had been removed had fallen to the ground at

the base of the tree. Then, though a few birds

lingered on the same tree, most of them shifted

to nearby trees. Later, due to the scarcity of fresh

young fruits (and consequently honey dew), and

due to full blooming of Salmalia malabarica ,

Erythrina indie a etc., the birds turned to these

trees.

Though it is reported that various flower

buds form part of the regular diet of the rosefmch

(Ali and Ripley 1974), they were never observed

taking flower buds of H. integrifolia. Because

of the large number of aphids, the birds got

“aphid cluster” on their beak-commissures and

were seen to clean their beaks by rubbing them

on the stem after feeding on one or two fruits.

It is however quite possible that the aphids

might have been swallowed along with the

secretion.

While making observations, some points

arose which remain unresolved. These are:

1. The only other bird visiting the fruits apart

from finches were some warblers which made

occasional visits more for aphids than for the

honey dew. The common rivals of the

rosefmch for flower nectar such as drongos,

Refer

Ali. S. and S. D. Ripley (1974): Handbook of the birds

of India and Pakistan, Vol. 10, Oxford University

Press, Delhi, pp 165.

Ali, S. (1932): Flower-birds and bird-flowers in India.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 35: 582, 585.

mynas, crows etc., which compete for the

nectar kept away from this sweet honey dew.

Considering this, it is possible that

Carpodacus erythrinus might have chosen

this peculiar food to avoid competition.

2. Though Carpodacus erythrinus serves as an

agent in cross pollination when it visits

flowers for nectar (Ali 1932), such chances

are completely excluded here as:

i) Flowers are pollinated by wind

(anemophilous).

ii) Birds visit the tree only after the

flowering is almost over and fruits are

formed on which the exudate is present.

3. Feeding by the rosefmch can be

disadvantageous to the tree if it causes

premature fall of the fruits.

Acknowledgements

I am indebted to Mr. M.R. Almeida,

Alchemie Research Centre and to Dr. (Mrs.)

S. Unnithan, BNHS, for their kind advice and

help. I am also thankful to Mr. Humayun Abdul ali,

Mr. N. Chaturvedi and Neelam Patil of BNHS

for their useful suggestions and to Mr. Salil

Weiling for the illustration.

February 5, 1 996 NAYAN V. KHANOLKAR

‘Pitrusmruti \ Near R. B. J. Colony ;

Shastri Nagar, Dombivli (W), Dist. Thane.

EN CES

Fletcher, T.B. (1914): Some South Indian insects and

other animals of importance, pp 66, 67, 499.

Witherby H.F., F.C.R. Jourdain, N. F. Ticehurst &

W. Tucker (1938): Handbook of British Birds,

Vol. 1 pp 89.

26. ON THE SYSTEMATIC POSITION OF THE SPECIES

POLYPEDATES PLEUROSTICTUS (AMPHIBIA: RHACOPHORIDAE)

The 47 species of Indian tree frogs of the (3 species) and Rhacophorus (12 species). While

family Rhacophoridae are accommodated in three studying the amphibians of southern Western Ghats,

genera viz., Philautus (32 species), Polypedates (Ravichandran, 1992), I had the opportunity to

416

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

examine and describe 11 species of Philautus,

2 species of Polypedates . and 3 species of

Rhacophorus. Study of five species, viz.

Polypedates cruciger Blyth, P. maculatus (Gray),

Rhacophorus lateralis Boulenger, R. malabaricus

Jerdon and R. pleurostictus Gunther described under

the last 2 genera revealed that pleurostictus shows

closer affinities to species of the genus Polypedates

than to those of Rhacophorus. Hence the generic

differences are enumerated and the status of

pleurostictus is discussed here.

The genus Polypedates Tschudi, 1838 was

erected to accommodate moderate to large tree

frogs, characterized among other features by

smooth shagreened skin, the skin of the skull being

co-ossified either to frontoparietals, nasal or

squamosal bones in many species, dermal

ornamentations generally being absent, and with

fingers usually webbed only at the base, whereas

Rhacophorus Kuhl and Van Hasselt, 1822 included

species with slender body and narrow waist, with

the skin of head never co-ossified to the skull,

dermal ornamentation usually present and the

fingers and toes fully webbed. The species

pleurostictus is characterised by a broad and smooth

body, fingers with rudiments of web at base, absence

of dermal folds on forearm and tarsus, all diagnostic

features of the genus Polypedates.

The generic status of this species has been

debated. It was assigned to genus Polypedates.

Later Boulenger (1882) who differentiated the

two gener&Rhacophorus and Polypedates on the

basis of the extent of the interdigital web, and

others like Inger and Dutta (1986), Daniel and

Sekar (1989) included it under the genus

Rhacophorus.

Refer

Boulenger, G.A. (1882): Catalogue of the Batrachia

Salientia S. Ecaudata in the collection of the British

Museum, London. Taylor and Francis XVI, 503.

Daniel, J.C. & A.G. Sekar (1989): Field Guide to the

Amphibians of Western India. Part 4. J. Bombay

not. Hist. Soc., 86 (2): 194-202.

Inger, R.F. & S.K. Dutta (1986): An overview of the

Amphibian Fauna of India. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

On the basis of a detailed study of the

relative development of the interdigital webbing,

presence or absence of dermal folds on fore-

arm and tarsus, size of tympanum and general

coloration of Polypedates and Rhacophorus

dealt with under five species viz., Polypedates

cruciger, P. maculatus, Rhacophorus lateralis,

R. malabaricus and R. pleurostictus it is felt

that pleurostictus shows closer affinities to

cruciger and maculatus belonging to the former

genus to which it is now transferred as originally

done by Gunther, thereby retaining only

malabaricus and lateralis under Rhacophorus.

This view agrees with the characteristics of the

two genera drawn by Lien (1970) on the basis of

the study of osteology, morphology and

coloration, though he did not suggest the generic

transfer.

Acknowledgements

I wish to thank the Director, Zoological

Survey of India, Calcutta and Officer-in-Charge,

Southern Regional Station, Z.S.I. Chennai, for

providing research facilities. I am grateful to

Dr. P.T. Cherian, Officer-in-Charge, Southern

Regional Station, Z.S.I., and Shri T.S.N. Murthy,

D.Director (Retd.), for critically evaluating the

manuscript.

June 4, 1 996 M.S . RAVICH ANDRAN

Zoological Survey of India,

Southern Regional Station,

100, Santhome High Road,

Chennai-600 028,

Tamil Nadu.

NCES

Soc. 83 (Suppl.): 135-146.

Lem, S.S. (1970): The Morphology, Systematics and

Evolution of the Old World Tree Frogs

(Rhacophoridae and Hy peroliidae) Fieldiana Zool.

57: 145 pp.

Ravichandran, M.S. (1992): Studies on the Amphibia of

Southern Western Ghats, Ph.D. Thesis submitted

to the University of Madras (unpubl.).

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

417

27. SEX RATIO OF HILLSTREAM SNOW TROUT, SCHIZOTHORAX

PLAGIOSTOMUS HECKEL (TELEOSTEI, CYPRINIDAE)

IN THE UPLAND RIVER MANDAKINI OF GARHWAL HIMALAYA

(With two text-figures )

Sex ratio changes are used as an indicator

of population behaviour, catch composition and

fecundity. Considering its importance, little

information on this aspect is available for Indian

fishes (Pantulu 1961,Bhatt 1993,Nautiyal 1994).

The present study is an attempt to describe the

sex ratio of an economically important and

dominant snow trout species Schizothorax

plagiostomus Heckel in relation to three water

parameters (total water discharge, water velocity

and water temperature) of the glacier-fed upland

river Mandakini in Chamoli dist. of Garhwal

Himalaya, Uttar Pradesh.

Adult S. plagiostomus were collected from

the glacier-fed high altitude Mandakini river,

covering a stretch of about 30 km (Fig. 1).

Specimens were randomly sampled every month

from January 199 1 to December 1992 at four sites

- Bheri (1020 m), Chandrapuri (827 m),

Agustmuni (760 m) and Tilwara (724 m). In view

of its breeding twice a year, catch data of

S. plagiostomus had been computed in terms of

sex, breeding and non-breeding season. The

numerical figures of males and females, during

breeding and non-breeding season, are first pooled

together and then separately expressed as a

percentage of the total catch of each year. The

ratio of M : F (M - number of males, and F -

number of females) during different seasons

denotes the corresponding sex ratio.

The water condition parameters of river

Mandakini, viz., total water discharge (m3/ sec),

water velocity (m/sec) and water temperature

(0°C), during corresponding study period,

obtained from U.P. Irrigation Department Srinagar

Garhwal (as measured at Chandrapuri, Fig. 1),

were converted into mean monthly values for the

corresponding seasons.

We studied 4601 adults (3110 males and

1491 females) caught at four sampling sites.

Sample size, as expressed in percentage of total

catch during two years, does not indicate any

relationship with sex ratio (Fig. 2).

S. plagiostomus breeds twice a year, clearly

intercepted by well defined non-breeding season:-

first March, April and May, and second August,

September and October. During the study period,

a consistent pattern of sex ratio change in

S. plagiostomus was observed. It was found as

2.66:1 (January, February 1991), 2.29:1 (March,

April, May 1991), 2.24:1 (June, July 1991), and

the lowest value of one breeding cycle 2.03:1

(August, September, October 1991; second

breeding season). It again rose to 2.90: 1 (November,

December 1991, January, February 1992), 2.28:1

(March, April, May 1992; first breeding season),

2.16:1 (June, July 1992), and again the lowest 1.59:1

(August, September, October; second breeding

season) followed by an abrupt rise 2.35:1

(November, December 1992). It is, therefore,

evident that males predominate the adult population

of S. plagiostomus. The sex ratio remains higher

during the first breeding season (March, April and

May) and lowest during second breeding season

(August, September and October) (Fig. 2).

The water condition parameters have their

own bearing on the sex composition of

S. plagiostomus. Adult males comprised the

lowest sex ratio when monthly mean values of

water parameters were at their peak - total water

discharge (155.34 m3/sec., 170.63m3/sec.), water

velocity (1.805 m/sec., 1.919m/sec.) and water

temperature (15.05°C, 15.8°C) during second

breeding season (August, September, October

1991 and 1992 respectively). Higher values of

sex ratio were found during first breeding season

(March, April, May 1991 and 1992 respectively)

when mean monthly values of water condition

parameters of river Mandakini just commenced

a rising trend from the lowest monthly mean

418

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY Vol. 94 (1997)

"\

(. uttarkash

LOCATION IN INDIA

0 50

it I K«n

Fig. 1 . Location of the sampling sites on the river Mandakini

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

419

J FMAMJJ ASON DJ FMAMJJASOND

Fig. 2. Sex ratio of Schizo thorax plagiostomus in relation to sample size (male and female numbers pooled

and separately) and water parameters (total discharge, velocity & temperature) during breeding and

non-breeding seasons for 1991, 1992 (in the river Mandakini)

420

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

values during extreme winters. Thus, sex ratio

in S. plagiostomus somehow has an inverse

relationship with the values of water parameters.

Discussion

Nikolskii (1980) mentioned that optimum

sex ratio in nature is close to 1:1 in adult part of

the population but it may be far from this in

particular age and size groups; males usually

predominate in younger groups because they tend

to mature earlier and live less longer. Thus,

optimum sex ratio may vary drastically as a result

of being affected by numerous factors.

Sex composition and sex ratio of fish

population have been investigated in a number

of European fishes, viz., Huso dauricus (Soldatov

1915), North Caspian roaches (Monastyrskii

1940 ,Leuciscus idus (Soloveva 1960), coal fishes

(Mironova 1961), sea perch (Freund 1961),

coregonids (Titova 1962), roaches and carp beams

(Demin 1962) to mention a few. However, the

pattern of variation in the sex ratio is not

generalised because no single factor accounts for

such a change in all classes. Different factors

cause the sex ratio to change in different cases.

Females predominate in fishes of low fecundity

such as Pomatoschistus caucasicus where the

male is larger than the female but males are fewer

in number (Koblitskaya 1961). Females also

predominate in many other cases where a male

produces several batches of sperms but female

produces only one batch of ova. Conversely, in

other cases, males predominate, e.g., Platessa

platessa (Wimpenny 1 953), Pseudosciana corcea

(Chen Ju Fen 1962). Again, in many cases,

different population of species residing in

different regions exhibit different sex ratio, e.g.

Carassius auratus gibelio in Chinese and

Japanese waters has a ratio of 1:1 but in Amur

river the ratio is 0.48:1 (Nikolskii 1956).

In the present investigations, the sex ratio

of S. plagiostomus was never close to the

optimum 1:1 during either breeding or non-

breeding season. Males predominate throughout

the year. The changes in the sex ratio seem to

follow a consistent pattern, i.e. higher during the

first breeding season when values of aquatic

parameters of river Mandakini just begin to rise

from the lowest values of extreme winter, and

lowest sex ratio during second breeding season

when values of water parameters would be at their

peak. It may be presumed that, starting from late

February onwards, the potential sexually mature

brooders begin upstream pre-spawning migration

from lower stretches of larger glacier-fed rivers

(like Ganga, Alaknanda etc.) to their smaller

glacier-fed tributaries (like the Mandakini) in the

upper reaches. While doing so, the males lead this

upstream migration, followed by females. Earlier

arrival of male brooders changes the sex ratio

drastically in local populations at a particular

spawning/breeding locality. The first breeding

season is followed by the non-breeding period

(June, July). From July onwards, the upstream

migration of potential and/or rest of brooders,

especially to smaller spring-glacier fed tributaries,

commences again which further alters the sex ratio

to its lowest values during the second breeding

season (August, September, October). It is

possibly because an earlier departure of males

from potential spawning/breeding sites has

already started. This is the time when values of

aquatic parameters touch their zenith. The

breeding process of one year smoothly passes

through to the next year, thus maintaining and

repeating the periodicity of the process.

Higher sex ratio during the first breeding

season may result from (1) late arrival of females

and early arrival of males, (2) fresh recruitment

of new batches of subadults into male brooders,

(3) difficulties encountered by female brooders

during upstream migration because of their full

grown belly, and lower water discharge of the

river. Otherwise the conditions are conducive for

spawning and breeding as a result of rising

temperature and moderate water velocity, and

(4) vulnerability of females to their predators and

other natural hazards. Possibly, environmental

conditions during the first breeding season favour

the male part of the population while females are

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

421

favoured during second breeding season.

Nautiyal (1994) found that alteration in the

sex ratio of Tor tor is initiated by the pre-spawning

migratory phase itself in the brooder population

only. Moreover, at a particular spawning site, the

brooder males tend to be in surplus number and

stay longer; the brooder females tend to leave the

spawning site soon after spawning. This causes a

change in the sex ratio which has its own adaptive

significance for the control mechanism of

reproduction and sex composition of a reproducing

population (Nikolskii 1980). More information on

sex ratio and sex composition of population-related

species of schizothoracids from other hillstreams

would present a total picture.

Acknowledgement

I am grateful to Professor Asha Saklani,

Head, Zoology Department for research facilities.

Financial assistance provided by the Government

of India, Ministry of Environment, Forests &

Wildlife, New Delhi is thankfully acknowledged.

October 22, 1996 N. SINGH

Zoology Department ,

P. O. Box 83,

HNB Garhwal University,

Srinagar Garhwal 246 174,

U.P, India .

References

Bhatt, K.C. (1993): Present status and olfaction of snow

trout in the river Mandakini (Garhwal Himalaya).

Ph.D. thesis, HNB Garhwal University, Srinagar

Garhwal (U.P., India).

Chen-Ju-Fen (1962): Breeding grounds of Pseudosciana

corcea Rich, near the Sunchou coast, Kwangtung

Province. 7th Meeting of the Commission on Fisheries

Research in the Western Pacific.

Demin, D.Z. (1962): Semimigrant fish of the delta of the

Terek. Vopr. Ikthiol, 2(1): 22.

Freund, K. (1961): Some observation on the redfish of

the Labrador region. Rapp, et Proces-Verbaux, Conseil

Perm Intemat. Explor. Mer. pp 150.

Koblitskaya, A.F. (1961): New data on the biology of

Pomatoshistus caucasicus Kaw. of the outer delta of

the Volga. Vopr Ikthiol. 1: 19.

Mironova, N.V. (1961): Migration and causes of

variability in immature cod. Trudy Murmansk. Morsk.

Biol. Inst. 3: 7.

Monastyrskh, G.N. (1940): Methods of evaluating the

roach stock of the North Caspain. Trudy VNIRO,

pp. 11.

Nautiyal, P. (1994): Riverine mahseer. In ‘Mahseer - The

Game Fish’ Rachna Publishers, Srinagar Garhwal,

pp B23.

*Nikolskii, G.V. (1956): ‘Fishes of Amur Basin’. Izd.

Akad. Nauk. SSSR. (in Russian).

Nikolskii, G.V. (1980): ‘Theory of Fish Population

Dynamics. (Translated by J.E.S. Bradley) (R. Jones

ed.), Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun &

Otto Koeltz Science Publishers, Koeninstein,

Germany.

Pantulu, V.R. (1961): Determination of age and growth

of Mystus gulio Ham. by the use of pectoral spines

with observation on its biology and fisheries in the

Hooghly estuary. Proc. Nat. Inst. India Sen B27: 4.

Soldatov, V.K. (1915): A survey of researches on the

Amur in 1909-13. Part 2. The Amur sturgeon. ‘Data

on Russian Fisheries’, 3rd Issue, St. Petersburg,

pp. 12.

Soloveva, N.S. (1960): Fish and fisheries of

Lake Cherdynskii, Perm region. Uch. Zap. Perm Univ.

13: 1.

Titova, V.F. (1962): Breeding of Lake Coregonus

lavaretus L. Trudy Karel. Fil. Akad. Nauk SSSR,

PP 33.

Wimpenny, R.S. (1953): ‘The Plaice’. Cambridge

University Press, London.

* Not referred to in original.

28. ON THE SPECIFIC IDENTITY OF OMPOK BIMACULATUS

(SILURIFORMES : SILURIDAE)

(With one plate)

The genus Ompok Lacepede is currently viz. O. bimaculatus (Bloch), O. malabaricus

represented by four species in the Indian region ( Val .), O. pabda (Ham. Buch.) and O. pabo (Ham.

422

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Buch.). 0. malabaricus is restricted to the western

face of the Western Ghats, while the other species

are present throughout India and are widely

distributed in the Oriental region. These species

are mostly distinguished by the relative lengths

of the maxillary barbels and the anal ray count;

the maxillary barbels are longest in bimaculatus ,

followed by malabaricus, pabda and the smallest

in pabo.

Hamilton-Buchanan (1822) distinguished

5 species under the genus Silurus (referable to

Ornpok) based on maxillary barbel length and the

number of anal fin rays - pabda (A. 54), cechra

(A. 67), carnio (A. 69), duda and pabo (A. 73),

the long barbels reaching mid body in canio and

duda , beyond pectoral in pabda and cechra and

no further than head in pabo. Day (1877),

observing wide variations in anal ray counts

in bimaculatus (A. 60-75), considered cechra,

canio and duda its synonyms. He further

distinguished the species on the basis of the

shape of the caudal fin and the fusion or otherwise

of anal fin with caudal; the same was also

followed by Misra (1976) in his revisionary

work.

Talwar and Jhingran (1991), who

considered sindensis and gangeticus synonyms

of bimaculatus , while basing their key on

maxillary barbel length and anal ray count

indicated that the latter in bimaculatus varies in

number from 57-58. Their figure, on the contrary,

shows 76 rays. Their book ‘inland fishes of india

and adjacent countries” being currently followed

by several fish taxonomists may lead to

misidentification of the species, for a fish with

long maxillary barbel and an anal ray count of

more than 63 may be taken for 0. malabaricus.

If one were to follow Talwar and Jhingran (1991 ),

the anal rays in bimaculatus should vary in

number from 47-75, since sindensis has 47 rays

according to the original author and in gangeticus

it varies from 70-78 (Misra, 1976). On the basis

of studies carried out on specimens collected

recently from Manimuthar in Tamil Nadu and

Brahmaputra in Assam (Plate 1) and observations

made by earlier workers like Day (1875-78) and

Misra (1976), it is apparent that in bimaculatus

the number of anal rays varies from 60-75.

Though Talwar and Jhingran (1991) treated

sindensis, which has 47 anal rays, as a synonym

of bimaculatus, yet in all likelihood this and

gangeticus may be valid species because, unlike

in bimaculatus, in the other species the anal is

united to the caudal. Besides, there is wide

disparity in the number of anal rays in typical

sindensis in relation to bimaculatus. But their

exact systematic position should await further

studies on more material.

Acknowledgement

We are grateful to the Director, Zoological

Survey of India and Officer-in-Charge, Southern

Regional Station, for providing necessary

facilities and especially to Dr. P.T. Cherian,

Officer-in-Charge, Southern Regional Station for

critically evaluating the manuscript.

August 24, 1 996 K. REMA DEVI,

K.G. EMILIYAMMA,

Zoological Survey of India,

Southern Regional Station,

100, Santhome High Road .

Chennai 600 028.

References

Day, F. (1875-78): The fishes of India: being a natural Atlas in 4 parts. London, xx+778 pp., 195 pis.

history of the fishes known to inhabit the seas and Hamilton-Buchanan, F. (1822): An account of the fishes

freshwaters of India, Burma and Ceylon. Text and found in the river Ganges and its branches.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 94 Plate 1

Rema Devi & Emilyamma: Ompok bimaculatus

Lateral view of Ompok bimaculatus (Bloch), 171.0 mm TL, F. 4709 ZSI/SRS

0

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

423

Edinburgh and London, vii + 405 pp., 39 pis.

Misra, K.S. (1976): The Fauna of India and Adjacent

Countries. Pisces (Second Edition) Vol. III.

Teleostomi: Cyprinifonnes; Siluri. Delhi xxi + 367

pis. xv.

Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland Fishes of

India and Adjacent Countries. Vol. 2. Oxford &

IBH Publ.Co. Pvt. Ltd. 1158 pp.

29. HABITAT AND NECTAR RESOURCE UTILISATION BY BUTTERFLIES

FOUND IN SIRUVATTUKADU KOMBEI, PALNI HILLS, WESTERN GHATS

( With one text-figure )

Siruvattukadu Kombei is a valley covering

roughly 80 sq. km in the northeastern section of

the Palni Hills in the Western Ghats, between

10° 21' to 10° 25' N lat. and 77° 36' to 77° 44' E

long. (Fig. 1). The mean altitude of the valley is

750 m above msl. Siruvattukadu Kombei comprises

the watershed of the perennial stream Seradipallam

and receives nearly 1000 mm of rainfall every year.

The main forest types in the area are moist

deciduous, semi-evergreen, riparian mixed and dry

deciduous (Sustainable Development Program,

1992). The forest habitat is now patchy due to

conversion to agriculture and other human impacts.

Though there have been 2 earlier studies

that recorded the butterfly life of the Palni Hills

(Evans, 1910; Ugarte and Rodericks, 1960),

Siruvattukadu Kombei has never been explored

for its butterfly fauna, on account of being isolated

from the rest of the Hills. In the dry season of

1992 (February to June), I carried out a survey of

the butterfly fauna of Siruvattukadu Kombei by

identifying species, recording their nectar- feeding

relationships and presence/absence in various

habitat types. Four major habitat types in the

valley were chosen for systematic sampling.

Species were identified following Wynter-Blyth

(1957), Satyamurti (1966), and Varshney (1979,

1985).

Butterfly Diversity: 105 butterfly species

were recorded, out of which 13 were Papilionids,

7 Satyrids, 21 Nymphalids, 1 Erycinid, 17 Pierids,

14 Hesperids, 6 Danaids, 25 Lycaenids and

1 Acraeid.

The total butterfly species count is a high

fraction (42%) of the 248 that have been recorded

from the Palni’s so far. One species, the Tamil

Oakblue, was a new record for the Palni Hills.

Many more species are likely to be discovered,

since the present study covered only one dry

season.

Habitat and nectar resource utilisation

Lime plantations were the dominant

agricultural land-use in the area. Lime trees were

planted in regular rows with scattered cultivated

trees such as silk-cotton (Bombaxceiba), jackfruit

C Artocarpus heterophyllus) and banana (Musa

sapientum). The notable feature of the plantations

was their variety of herbaceous weeds such as

Stachytarpheta indica, Tridax procumbens,

Leucas aspera, Sida spp. and Acanthospermum

hispidum, whose flowers attracted large numbers

of butterflies. In addition, the agricultural fields

were surrounded by thickets of Lantana camara

which were flowering throughout the study period

and appeared to be an important source of nectar

for several butterfly species (Table 1).

The common butterfly species were those

that appeared restricted to open and degraded

agricultural land, including the Papilioni,-Lime

Swallowtail, Nymphalids such as the Yellow

Pansy, Blue Pansy and Peacock Pansy and

numerous Pierids such as Emigrants (Common,

Mottled and African). The Indian Skipper and the

Ceylon Ace were the only Hesperids seen in the

plantation habitat and seemed confined to it.

Lycaenids such as the Lime Blue, the Peablue,

Common Silverline and Lesser Grass Blue were

quite common in the plantation habitat and were

not spotted in any other habitat.

Apart from these sedentary species, forest

species like the Blue Mormon and Common

424

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Table 1

OBSERVATIONS ON NECTAR- FEEDING IN BUTTERFLIES

BUTTERFLY SPECIES PLANT SPECIES OF:

AGRICULTURAL & RIPARIAN ZONES FOREST ZONE

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

425

Table 1 (contd.)

OBSERVATIONS ON NECTAR-FEEDING IN BUTTERFLIES

BUTTERFLY SPECIES PLANT SPECIES OF:

AGRICULTURAL & RIPARIAN ZONES FOREST ZONE

KEYTO PLANT SPECIES;

1 : Asclepias currassavica

2: Parthenium sp.

3: Leu c as aspera

4: Stachytarpheta indica

5: Lon tana camara

6: Tridax procumbens

7: Abutilon sp.

8: Mimosa pudica

9: Tamarindus indica

1 0: Mastixia sp.

1 1 : Pongamia pinnata

12: Albizzia odoratissima

13: Pavetta indica

14: Psychotria sp.

15: Terminalia arjuna

16. Gardenia obtusa

17: Uni den. Acanthaceae

18: Xanthoxylum rhetsa

19: Strychnos potatorum

20: Murray a paniculata

NOTE: '+’ sign indicates feeding relationship was observed

Banded Peacock were often seen venturing far

away from the forest edge, feeding on Lantana at

the edge of fields. These species, being more

mobile than most forest dwelling species, use the

nectar resource available in more open habitats

too and could cross open areas to reach other

forest fragments. All the Danaids, except the

Glassy Tiger, were very common in the

agricultural fields feeding avidly on the abundant

flowers of Stachytarpheta indica.

Stream bank habitat consisted of

alternating rocky terrain and sand banks, along

which grew scattered clumps of grasses and

shrubs. In some places the stream banks were

shaded over with riparian tree species such as

Pongamia pinnata , Terminalia arjuna (upto

25 m), Mangifera indica and Maytenus

emarginata. In more open areas, shrubby species

such as Solanum torvum , Asclepias currassivica

and Lantana camara grew on the sandbanks.

These two types of habitats (i.e. shaded and open

stream bank) had distinct communities. Asclepias

currassivica, Terminalia arjuna and Pongamia

pinnata appeared to be important nectar source

for butterflies in the stream bank habitat.

This habitat was found to be the richest in

the number of butterfly species. 79% of the total

number of butterflies seen during the study were

recorded from this zone. Some of the rarest

species of this area, such as the Common Leopard,

Staff Sergeant, Common Map, Suffused Snowflat,

Water Snowflat and Blue Oakleaf were seen

alighting here on shady, moist streambanks. These

species were found mainly or exclusively in this

zone, in addition to some Lycaenids such as the

Peacock Royal and Indian Sunbeam.

In slightly more open areas, Common

Sailors, Tailed Jay, Great Orangetips and

Emigrants (all three species) joined large groups

of Bluebottles to mud-puddle on open sand-

426

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Z

Wi

Fig. 1. Location of Siruvattukadu Kombei in tbe Palni Hills (adapted from Oates 1978)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

427

banks. A few Spot Swordtails were observed

occasionally in these groups. The Common Beak

was frequently seen in these areas. It was

interesting to note that very few Dan aids were

seen mud-puddling here or elsewhere. The

Painted Courtesan was sometimes seen in

agricultural streamside patches. The Red Pierrot

was always seen flying weakly amongst low-

growing patches of Bryophyllum spp. (its food

plant) on damp sandbanks. It was perhaps the

most sedentary species encountered during the

study.

Thus the stream bank appeared to be the

most important habitat for most of the species seen

in Koinbei, including the open area species, forest

and generalist species. These butterflies gathered

here in large numbers in the dry season, possibly

because this was the only habitat where the males

could replenish their mineral needs by mud-

puddling. Therefore, if a quick inventory of the

butterfly fauna of an area is desired, the best place

to start in would be the stream bank zone.

During April and May, 1 km of the riparian

area was filled with thousands of Common Crows,

Dark Blue Tigers and some Glassy Blue Tigers.

Swarms of butterflies flew up when one walked

through this area and every leaf was covered with

butterflies. It appeared to be a migration but no

directional movement was seen. The butterflies

lingered on for nearly four weeks and fed

continuously on the flowers of Terminalia arjuna

which were trees, in full bloom then.

Moist deciduous forest was present on

most of the hill slopes around the valley. It was

dominated by the canopy species Miterophera

heyneana , Alphonsea scierocarpa , Celtis wightii,

Sapindus emarginata and Diospyros

melanoxylon. Shrubs such as Murray a paniculata,

Pavetta indica, Tarenna asiatica and Canthium

parv (flora occurred commonly in the understorey.

Common along the forest paths were

Satyrids such as the Baby Fivering, Glad-eye

Bushbrown and Dark-brand Bushbrown, the

Papilionids Blue Mormon and Crimson Rose and

the Nymphalid Chocolate Pansy. Rarer species

in this zone were the Psyche, Yam fly, Angled

Pierrot and Southern Indian Rustic. White-

fourrings were often seen feeding on horse and

donkey dung on the trails and the Tamil Oakblue

was seen flashing across the forest paths

frequently. The Common Banded Peacock was

infrequent during the study period, but towards

the end , a group of freshly emerged adults were

seen settling on a wet patch on a forest path.

Gardenia obtusa, Strychnos potatorum and

Albizzia odoratissima were major nectar sources

for butterflies in the forest during the study period.

In the riparian moist deciduous forest, the

understorey was dominated by Murraya

paniculata and Canthium parviflora while trees

such as Mangifera indica and Miterophora were

prominent in the top canopy. This habitat was

found to be vegetationally quite similar to other

forests of the area. Consequently, the butterfly

life was also similar to that in the moist deciduous

forest transects. The flowering shrub Pavetta

indica was common in this zone, and on one tree,

the flowers appeared to be monopolised by the

Mormon, which was once seen chasing off other

butterflies.

It was found that Siruvattukadu Kombei

harbours several species of butterflies that are rare

and reportedly confined to good quality deciduous

and evergreen forest, such as the Spot Swordtail,

Redspot Duke, Common Banded Peacock, Water

Snowflat, Chestnut Bob and the Common Nawab.

The fauna also includes several other species that

are endemic to the Indian subcontinent such as

the Common Map, Glad-eye Buchbrown,

Common Birdwing, Baron and the Blue Oakleaf

(Larsen, 1987a, b, c and Wynter-Blyth, 1957).

Endemics constitute nearly 25% of the fauna

discovered so far and most of these were found

to avoid man-modified habitats .

Acknowledgements

This study was conducted with financial

and infrastructural support from the Sustainable

Development Program (SDP; formerly a joint

428

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

project of Development Alternatives, Delhi and

Palni Hills Conservation Council, Kodaikanal).

I thank Dr. Rauf Ali of SDP for useful discussions

Dr. N. Parthasarathy of Pondicherry

University, Dr. B.R. Ramesh of French Institute,

Pondicherry and Mr. Rajendran of SDP for help

with the identification of plant specimens and

Refer

Evans, W.H. (1910): A list of the butterflies of the Palni

Hills with descriptions of two new species. J. Bombay

not. Hist. Soc.. 20 (2): 380-392.

Larsen, T.B. (1987a): The butterflies of the Nilgiri

Mountains of Southern India. J. Bombay not. Hist.

Soc. 84 (1): 26-54.

Larsen, T.B. (1987b): The butterflies of the Nilgiri

Mountains of Southern India. J. Bombay not. Hist.

Soc. 84 (2): 291-316.

Larsen, T.B. (1987c): The butterflies of the Nilgiri

Mountains of Southern India. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 84(3): 561-584.

Satyamurti, S.T. (1966): Descriptive catalogue of the

butterflies in the collection of the Madras Government

Ms. Soubadra Devi, of Pondicherry University,

for butterfly identifications.

April 1 8, 1 996 GHAZALA SHAHABUDDIN

School of Environment,

Duke University,

Durham, NC-27708, U.S.A.

E N C E S

Museum. Govt, of Madras.

Ugarte, E. and L. Rodericks (1960): Butterflies of the

Palni Hills: A complementary list. 7. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 57(2): 270-277.

Varshney, R.K. (1979): Revised nomenclature for taxa

in Wynter-Blyth’s book on the butterflies of the Indian

region-I. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 76(1): 33-40.

Varshney, R.K. (1985): Revised nomenclature for taxa

in Wynter-Blyth’s book on the butterflies of the

Indian region-II. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82(3): 309-

321.

Wynter-Blyth, M.A. (1957): Butterflies of the Indian

Region. Bombay Natural History Society,

Mumbai.

30. FIRST RECORDS OF SUBFAMILY TENTHREDININAE

(HYMENOPTERA : TENTHREDINIDAE) FROM INDIA

(With nine text-figures)

The genus Colochelyna with its type species

C. magrettii, was erected by Konow in 1898. It

was represented by three species from southeast

Asia, .excluding India. Now, with C. magrettii

recorded from Nagaland, the genus has extended

its limits to India as well. Similarly, Tenthredo

sauteri (Rohwer) previously recorded from

Taiwan, Burma and Tonkin and Tenthredo

kingdonwardii Malaise from China and Burma,

are now reported from India.

Colochelyna magrettii Konow, 1898

(Fig. 5)

Female: Average length: 16 mm. Body dark

reddish-brown except antennae, tibiae and tarsi

of all legs. The following parts are black:furrows

above the clypeus and of mesonotum.

mesoscutellar appendage, metanotum,

mesepimeron, mesepisternum except a spot in the

centre, metapleuron, propodeum except extreme

posterior margin, 2nd and 3rd abdominal tergites,

coxae, trochanters, and basal halves of all femora.

The labrum, an irregular spot covering frontal

area, and extreme posterior margin of propodeum

with deflexed sides are white. Wings with a darker

shade along anterior margin of forewings.

Venation blackish, costa and stigma fulvous.

Antenna slightly compressed, 2.0 x head

width, segment 3 distinctly longer than 4 as 6:3.

Clypeus slightly rounded, with a faint indication

of incision in middle. Labrum small, convex, with

a conical anterior margin. Malar space almost

equal to the diameter of median ocellus. LID:

IDMO: EL :: 3.1 : 4.0 : 3.0, OOL : POL : OCL ::

2.5 : 1 .0: 1 .7, Frontal area above the level of eyes;

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

429

Fig. 1-7: 1. Clypeus and labrum of T. sauteri\ 2. Clypeus and labrum of T. kingdonwardii\

3. Claw of T. sauteri ; 4. Claw of T. kingdonwardii\ 5. Lancet of C. magrettii; 6. Lancet of T. sauteri;

7. Lancet of T. kingdonwardii.

430

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

supra-antennal tubercles and frontal ridges

wanting. Median fovea indistinct. Circum-, and

interoceliar furrows distinct, postocellar furrows

sharp. Lateral furrows deep, but not reaching

hypothetical posterior margin of head. Postocellar

area convex, broader than long as 4:3. Scutellum

elevated, subconical with rounded apex.

Appendage without carina. ITD : ICD :: 2.5 : 1.0.

Mesosternal thorns wanting. Metabasitarsus

shorter than following 3 joints combined.

I ATS: MB : OATS :: 2.0 : 5.1 : 1.5.

Head covered with large and shallow

punctures, frontal area almost apunctate. Pro- &

mesonotum minutely and densely punctured

as compared to head, punctures becoming larger

in size on scutellum, mesoscutellar appendage

and postmesonotum which are comparatively

coarsely and densely punctured. Mesopleura and

metapleura uniformly covered with minute,

shallow punctures. Propodeum with large,

scattered punctures around the median split

and lateral ends, thus leaving a polished and

almost apunctate space in the middle of each half.

The following tergites opaque with coarse,

distinct, dense punctures, strongly contrasting

with the polished and apunctate areas of

propodeum. Female lancet as in Fig. 5 with 22

flat serrulae.

Holotype depository: NR Stockholm.

Specimens examined: 2 females,

Nagaland, Zunehebotto, 1875 m. 14.V.1993.

Population variation: None.

Discussion: The genus earlier reported by

Malaise from Burma with species C. magrettii ,

now represents the first record from India.

Tenthredo sauteri (Rohwer, 1916)

(Figs. 1, 3, 6)

Female: Length: 9.5 mm. Body black, the

following are yellowish-white: labrum and

clypeus except irregular spots in middle,

mandibles except apices, spot covering

supraclypeal area, inner orbits, supra-antennal

tubercles and laterally extending upto upper eye

corner, spot on hind margin of eye turning into

narrow stripe and extending upto temples,

posterolateral angles of pronotum, tegula, V-

shaped spot in the centre of mesonotal middle

lobe, mesoscutelum except its posterior l/3rd,

appendage, spot on mesepimeron, spot along

anterolateral convexity of mesepi sternum, spot

in middle of propodeum, small spots in middle

of last 2 abdominal tergites. Light yellowish-

brown areas include lateral deflexed sides of

propodeum, 2nd abdominal tergite, some dorsal

aspects of 4th and 5th abdominal tergite with

lateral deflexed sides along sternites, anterior

aspects of proleg except bases of coxae, extreme

proximal end of coxae, trochanters, tibiae and

entire posterior aspects of tarsi of pro- and

mesoleg, metaleg except bases of coxa, femora,

tibia and tarsus which are reddish -brown. Wings

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

43!

Fig. 9. Gonoforceps of T. ki ngdownwardi i

hyaline, costa and stigma yellowish-brown, rest

of the venation dark brown.

Antenna cylindrical, compressed in latter

half, 2.4x head width, segment 3 shorter than 4

as 3:3.5. Clypeus (Fig. 1) roundly incised upto

l/3rd of its medial length with broad acute lateral

teeth. Lab rum almost rounded but with sub-

acuminate anterior margin, as long as broad.

Malar space distinctly shorter than diameter of

median ocellus. LID : IDMO : EL :: 2.0 : 3.1 : 3.0;

OOL : POL : OCL :: 2.5 : 1.0 : 1.7. Frontal area

below level of eyes. Supra-antennal tubercles

elevated and merging into flat frontal ridges.

Median fovea deep in anterior half and with a

raised bottom in posterior half. Circum-, inter-

and postocellar furrows distinct. Lateral furrows

narrow, deep slightly excurved and reaching

hypothetical posterior margin of head. Postocellar

area only a little wider than long, almost quadrate.

Head elongate and narrowing behind eyes. ITD :

ICD = 3.0 : 1.0. Scutellum elevated into a low

pyramid with an acute and longitudinally

compressed thorn, its appendage without carina.

Mesosternal thorns lacking. Apical tooth of claw

slightly shorter than subapical one (Fig. 3).

Metabasitarsus equal to following 3 joints

combined. IATS : MB : OATS :: 1.2 : 2.5 : 1.0.

Head shining, apunctate. Mesonotum

covered with minute and isolated punctures.

Mesoscutellum with few punctures on its

posterior slope, its appendage almost apunctate.

Mesepisternum punctured like mesonotum along

convexity. Metanotum apunctate. Propodeum and

remaining tergites shining, but with a few patches

of scattered punctures on the posterior aspects.

Lancet as in Fig. 6 with 27 serrulae, having 1-2

AST and 1-3 PST.

Holotype depository : USNM Washington.

Specimen examined: 1 female. West

Bengal, Pashok, 1600 m, 19.V.86.

Discussion : This species was recorded by

Malaise from Burma and Taiwan. The collection

of a female specimen from Pashok (West Bengal)

represents the first record from India.

Tenthredo kingdonwardii Malaise, 1945

(Figs. 2, 4, 7, 8 9)

Female: Average length; 8.5 mm. Body

moss green, the black parts include antenna above,

narrow stripes outer to frontal ridges, partly

obliterated traces of ocellar spots, seams of

mesonotal lobes, spots on posterior and outer

extremities of mesonotal lateral lobes, stripe

dividing meso- and metanotum, anterior and

posterior seams of propodeum, a stripe on lateral

aspect of femora and extreme basal parts of tibiae

of all legs. 2nd to 9th abdominal tergites

femiginously red. Wings yellowish hyaline, costa

and stigma light green, rest of venation dark.

432

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Antenna slightly compressed in distal half,

1.5 x head width, segment 3 and 4 as 2:1.1.

Clypeus (Fig. 2) narrowly incised with triangular

lateral teeth. Labrum small, broader than long

with a rounded anterior margin. Malar space equal

to diameter of median ocellus. LID : IDMO : EL

:: 2.0 : 2.5 : 1.75; OOL : POL : OCL :: 3.0 : 1.0 :

2.0. Frontal area almost at level of eyes. Supra-

antennal tubercles and frontal ridges very low and

confluent, without any interruption. Median fovea

narrow, shallow and with a rounded median ridge

along the bottom. Circum-, inter- and postocellar

furrows distinct and very faintly sunken. Lateral

furrows sharp, deep and reaching hypothetical

hind margin of head. Postocellar area broader than

long as 4 : 3. Head dilated behind eyes. ITD :

ICD :: 3.0 : 1.0. Mesoscutellum with anterior face

quite horizontal and on the same level as

mesonotum, the hind face mostly abruptly falling

away. The elevated apex of mesepisternum with

a faint indication of short dorsoventral carina.

Mesostemum lacking thorns. Apical tooth of claw

subequal to subapical one (Fig. 4). Metabasitarsus

shorter than following 3 joints combined. I ATS :

MB: OATS:: 1.0:2.5:0.75.

Head with very minute, rather dense,

setigerous punctures with short black hair,

but with hardly any microsculpture; lacking oily

lustre, mesonotum likewise. Mesoscutellum

with large and shallow puncutres. Mesepisternum

almost apunctate. Metascutellum and appendage

with few punctures. Propodeum and tergites

shining and faintly microstriated. Lancet

(Fig. 7) with 25 serrules having 2 AST and 12-13

PST.

Male - Average length: 8 mm. Similar to

female except H-shaped black ocellar spot

on frontal area, mesopleural suture black, meso-

and metaleg entirely black on posterior as-

pects except coxae; black stripe on the anterior

margin of 2nd tergite; 5th to 9th abdominal

tergites ferruginously red; clypeus more deeply

incised.

Penis waive: Fig. 8.

Gonoforceps: Fig. 9.

Holotype depository: British Museum

Specimen examined: 2 females 2 males,

Uttar Pradesh, Chopta - 3000 m. 26.vi.89.

Discussion: The species T. kingdonwardii

was reported by Malaise from Burma and China

and extends its distribution to India as well.

Abbreviations: AST - anterior subbasal

teeth, AT - apical tooth, CL - clypeus, EL - eye-

length, ICD - intercenchri distance, IDMO -

interocular distance at level of median ocellus,

ITD - intertegular distance, LB - labrum, LED -

lower interocular distance, OCL - oculo-occipital

line; OOL - oculo-ocellar line, POL - postocellar

line, PST - posterior subbasal teeth, VC -

valviceps, VV - valvura, GP - gonostipes, H -

harpe, PNS - parapenis.

Acknowledgement

We thank USPL-480 for financial

assistance, and co-operating Scientist Dr. D.R.

Smith, USNM, Washington, DC., for his valuable

suggestions.

August 20, 1996 M.S. SAINI

HIMENDER BHARTI

Department of Zoology,

Punjabi University,

Patiala-147 002.

References

Konow, EW. (1898): Neue asiatische Tenthrediniden with a general zoogeographical review. Opus. Ent.,

(Hymenoptera). Ent. Nachr., 24: 86-93 and 105- Suppl., 4: 288 pp.

109. Rohwer, S.A. (1916): H. Sauter’s Formosa Ausbeute

Malaise, R. (1 945): Tenthredinoidea of south-eastern Asia Chalastogastra. Suppl. Ent., Bertin, 5: 8 1 - 1 1 3.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

433

31. NEW SYNONYMIES OF SOME INDIAN TENTHREDO LINN.

(TENTHREDINIDAE : HYMENOPTERA)

In this note we suggest synonymies

pertaining to some Indian Tenthredo Linn,

species. The holotypes of these species were

studied and after physical examination and

detailed studies of external genitalia, barring

minor colour differences, which are considered

as population variations, the following are

established as senior synonyms:

1. T. darjeelingensis (Singh et al. 1985, West

Bengal, Darjeeling, Ghum, 2280m, 30.iv.80,

Holotype) Senior synonym of T. manii

(Singh and Saini, 1988. Uttar Pradesh,

Mandal, 2300m 16.vi.85, Holotype).

2. T. harpeata (Singh et al. 1985, Himachal

Pradesh, Narkanda 2750m, 20.vi.81,

Holotype) Senior synonym of T. jalouriensis

(Singh and Saini, 1987a, b, Himachal

Pradesh, Jalouri pass, 3000m, 27.V.84,

Holotype).

3. T. okutanii (Singh et al. 1985, Himachal

Pradesh, Manali, Kothi, 2674m, 18.vi.80,

Holotype) Senior synonym of T.

corrugatocephala (Singh and Saini, 1987a,

Uttar Pradesh, Gobind Dham, 3300m,

21.vi.85, Holotype).

4. T. serraflata (Singh et al 1985, Himachal

Pradesh, Manali, Kothi, 2485m, 19.V.80,

Holotype) Senior synonym of T. khajiari

(Singh and Saini, 1987b, Himachal Pradesh,

Khajiar, 1800m, 21.vii.83, Holotype).

5. T. trunca Konow, 1908. The holotype was

not available but a specimen compared with

the holotype was provided by kind courtesy

of Dr. Devinder Singh, Zoology Dept.,

Punjabi University, Patiala, bearing labels

Himachal Pradesh, Narkanda, Baghi Road,

2080m, 21.V.84. Senior synonym of T.

labrata (Singh et al. 1986, Himachal

Pradesh, Manali, Kothi, 2674m, 20.vi.82,

Holotype).

September 13, 1995 MALKIAT S. SAINI

HIMENDER BHARTI

Department of Zoology,

Punjabi University,

Patiala 147 002, Punjab.

References

Singh, B., S.S. Dhillon & T. Singh (1985): Three new

species of genus Tenthredo Linn. (Tenthredinidae:

Hymenoptera) from India. Entomon, 10(3): 203-207.

Singh, B., T. Singh & S.S. Dhillon (1985): Two new

species of genus Tenthredo Linn. (Hym; Tenth.) from

North West Himalaya, India Uttar Pradesh J. Zool

5(1): 37-41.

Singh, B., T. Singh & S.S. Dhillon (1986): Tenthredo

labrata a New Species from North-West Himalaya

(Hym: Tenth.) Bull. Ent. 27 (2): 107-109.

Singh, D. & M.S. Saini (1987a): Six new species of

Tenthredo from Himalayas (Hym: Tenthredinidae).

J. New York Entomol. Soc., 95(2): 330-336.

Singh, D. & M.S. Saini (1987b): Six new species of

Tenthredo Linn, from North Western India

(Hymenoptera) Symphyta, Tenthredinidae).

Reichenbachis Mus. Tiesk., Dreaden 24, Nr. 29. 189-

198.

Singh, D. & M.S. Saini (1988): Six new species of

Tenthredo Linn. (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae) from

Northern India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85(2): 336-

375.

32. FRESH WATER SNAILS OF SOUTHERN RAJASTHAN

The Aravalli range is the principal and Bhilwara, Chittorgarh, Dungarpur, Rajsamand,

dominant mountain range of Rajasthan. Its widest Sirohi, and Udaipur. Southern Rajasthan receives

part is confined to southern Rajasthan. This part highest rainfall in the State, i.e. 600 mm to

of the State comprises the districts of Banswara, 1100 mm annually. The Aravalli ranges in

434

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

southern Rajasthan provide extensive catchment

to many rivers like the Som, Mansi-vakal, Banas,

Ahar, Bedach. Khari, Mahi, and Sabarmati.

A large number of dams and lakes and other

water bodies are confined to southern Rajasthan.

Among them, Mahi dam, Pichhola, Fatehsagar,

Rajsamand, Jaisamand, Gabsagar, etc., are some

important large water bodies. Many famous

wildlife sanctuaries like Sitamata, Fulwari Ki Nal,

Kumbhalgarh, Mt.Abu, Jaisamand are confined

to southern districts. All these provide suitable

habitat to land snails. However, nothing is

known about fresh water snails of southern

Rajasthan.

A list of the fresh water snails of southern

Rajasthan is given below:

Order: Mesogastropoda

Family: Viviparidae

1. Bellamya bengalensis f. typica

(Lamarck): Shell ovate. Commonly occuring in

dams and larger lakes. A large number of dead

snails can be seen at the water line of the big lakes.

Family: Bithyniidae

2. Gabbia orcula var. producta (Nevill):

Common in stagnant water of lakes. Shell ovate

and looks like a miniature Bellamya.

Family: Thiaridae

3. Thiara ( Melanoides ) tuberculata

(Muller): Shell elongated. Collected from

stagnant water, attached to the substratum.

Uncommon.

Family: Lymnaedae

A.Lymnaea (Pseudosuccinea) acuminata f.

typica (Lamarck): Shell ovately oblong, slightly

thick and smooth in appearance. Commonly

appears in flowing water of hill streams after rains.

It was also collected from wells bordering the hill

streams. It can be seen either floating or attached

to some substratum.

Family: Planorbidae

5 . Indoplanorbis exustus (Deshayes): Shell

discoidal. Common in lakes.

6. Gyraulus convexiusculus (Hurton): Shell

discoidal and looks like a flattened disc. Common

in stagnant water of lakes.

Order: Stylommatophora

Family: Ariophantidae

7 .Macrochlamys indie a (Godwin- Austen):

Shell discoidal, with convex upper surface.

During the monsoon it is seen crawling in damp

and moist places in gardens, forest floor etc.

Common.

Acknowledgements

I thank K.V. Surya Rao, Scientist, ZSI,

Calcutta, for identification of the snails.

June 4, 1 996 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA

Range Forest Officer,

Aravalli Afforestation Project,

Jhadol (F.) Dist. Udaipur-313 702,

Rajasthan.

33. CORYDAL1S PSEUDO-JUNCEA LUDLOW (FUMARIACEAE):

A NEW RECORD FOR INDIA

{With one text-figure )

During recent plant exploration in the These specimens, after thorough checking of

alpine zones of Garhwal Himalaya, I collected a literature, were identified as Corydalis pseudo-

few interesting specimens of CorydalisDC. from juncea Ludlow. They were sent to Magnus Liden,

Kauri Pass alpine zone (Garhwal Himalaya). Goteborg who has revised Corydalis in Nepal.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

435

L^v

Fig. 1 . Corydalis pseudo-juncea A. Flowering plant; B. Flower with bract; C. Flower;

D. Posterior petal spread open; E. Anterior petal; F. Carpel; G. Fruit.

436

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

He confirmed the identity of these specimens as

Corydalis pseudo-juncea Ludlow. Ludlow and

Stearn (1975), described this species from Nepal

but it has not been recorded from the Indian

Himalaya. The recent collection is of

phytogeographic interest, and represents a new

record from India.

A detailed description, line diagram and

habitat of the species are given to facilitate

identification. The voucher specimens are

maintained at Herbarium, Department of Botany,

H. N.B. Garhwal University, Srinagar (Garhwal),

India (GUH).

Corydalis pseudo-juncea Ludlow, in Bull.

Br. Mus. nat. Hist. (Bot.) 5(2): 62-64. t, 11. 1975;

Liden ,Bull. Br. Mus. nat. Hist. (Bot.) 18(6): All.

t, 4. 1989.

Slender erect herbs. Storage roots tuberous,

fusiform, sessile. Stem slender, erect, glabrous,

10-40 cm long, green. Radical leaves 1-2,

with long (upto 20 cm) filiform petioles, bitemate

with long leaflets; leaflets glabrous, lanceolate,

acute, 1. 0-2.5 cm long; cauline leaf solitary,

sessile, in upper part of stem, linear, acute,

I . 0-6.0 x 0.2-0 .4 cm. Racemes few (2-6) flowered.

Bracts linear, acute, erect, longer than pedicels,

0.8-1. 8 cm long. Flowers on 0.4-0.8 cm long

pedicels, lemon yellow, 1.0-1. 6 cm long,

not tipped with dark purple; sepals minute,

caducous; posterior petal 15 mm long (including

7 mm spur), dorsal crest very narrow, anterior

petal upto 9 mm long. Ovary linear 7.0 x 10 mm;

stigma bilobed, papillose. Fruit linear on deflexed

pedicel, 20-22 mm long including 2.5 mm style,

8-10 seeded (Fig. 1).

FI. & Fr.: June- July.

Habitat: Alpine pastures, among tufts

of grasses on gentle slopes or small grassy

gullies. Usually solitary 3250-3350 m above

msl.

Distribution: Alpine zones of West Nepal,

South Tibet, Garhwal Himalaya (India).

Specimen Examined: India, Garhwal

Himalaya, Kuari Pass area, 3250 m, vi. 1988, D.S.

Rawat 19,902 (GUH); Garhwal Himalaya, Kuari

Pass area, 3350m, vi. 1995, D.S. Rawat 26,101

(GUH).

Acknowledgement

I thank Dr. Magnus Liden, Goteborg,

Sweden for confirming the identity of the species.

Financial assistance from UGC, New Delhi is also

acknowledged.

January 19, 1996 R.S. RAWAT

Herbarium & Plant Systematics Laboratory ;

Department of Botany, P.B. 86

H.N.B. Garhwal University,

Srinagar (Garhwal)-246174, India.

34. CONYZA JAPONIC A (THUMB.) LESS. (ASTERACEAE):

AN ADDITION TO THE FLORA OF ANDHRA PRADESH

( With one text-figure)

During the floristic studies on Asteraceae in

Andhra Pradesh, Conyza japonica (Thumb.) Less,

was collected from Anantagiri and Araku valley of

Visakhapatnam dist. The identification was

confirmed with the help of literature and herbaria

(MH & CAL). Gamble (1921) reported it from

Mahendragiri hills of erstwhile Madras Presidency

which is now a part of Orissa state. As it was not

reported so far by earlier workers, it is reported as

a new distributional record from Andhra Pradesh.

Detailed description, line drawings, phenology and

distribution are provided.

Conyza japonica (Thumb.) Less., Syn. Comp.

204. 1 832; FB7 3: 258. 1881; Gamble, 682.1821; R.R.

Rao et al. FI. Ind Enum.-Ast. 27. 1988. Erigeron

japonicum Thumb. FI. Jap. 312. 1784.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

437

Fig. 1. Conyza japonica (Thumb.) Less. A. Twig; B, C & D. Outer, middle and inner involucral bracts;

E. Bisexual floret; F. Anther; G. Style; H & J. Achene with pappus; I. Female floret.

438

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. S0CIE1Y, Vol. 94 (1997)

Erect herb, grows to 40 cm, unbranched.

Leaves simple, alternate, rarely form a rosette at

base, sessile, obovate or oblong-elliptic, 2-6 x

1-2.5 cm, base attenuate in lower leaves, auricled

in upper ones, serrately dentate, apiculate. Heads

few in terminal corymbs, yellow, 6 mm,

heterogamous, not rayed; peduncle to 1 cm.

involucral bracts 26, 4-seriate, cuter ovate-elliptic,

acute, tapering; inner ones oblong-lanceolate,

acuminate. Receptacle slighlty raised, concave,

3 mm across. Female florets around 280, filiform,

corolla 3 mm, pubescent with colleters; style 3 mm,

exerted to 1.5 mm. Bisexual florets around 16,

3-3.5 mm, 5-lobed, lobes ovate, sub-acute to obtuse.

Stamens 5, linear-oblong, 1 mm, obtuse at base.

Style 2.5 mm, style branches acute. Pappus of

20-24 uniseriate, white, setose hairs, united at

base forming a ring. Achenes elliptic or obovate,

1-1.5 mm, muricate and unicellular hairy.

Ecology: Garden weed, open hill slopes at

high elevations, rare.

FI: Nov-Feb,

Distribution: A.P.: Visakhapatnam (Araku

valley), CPR 9993.

india: Jammu & Kashmir, H.P., U.P.,

Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Karnataka,

Mizoram, Orissa, Gujarat.

world: Pakistan, Nepal, America.

January 15, 1996 C. PRABHAKAR RAJU

Department of Botany, S.S.B.N. College

Anantapur-515 001.

R.R. VENKATA RAJU

Department of Botany, S.K. University

Anantapur-515 003.

35. UNUSUAL NUMBER OF SEPALS AND PETALS IN FEMALE FLOWERS OF

BAUHIN1A MALABARICA ROXB. (LEGUMINOSAE: CAESALPINIOIDEAE)

(With one text-figure)

Bauhinia malabarica Roxb. belongs to

Bauhinia subgen. Elayuna sect. Piliostigma

(Wunderline et al, Biol. Skr. Dan. Vid. Selsk.

28: 18. 1987). Recently I observed that in a

few of the female flowers, collected from a tree

of this dioecious species cultivated in divi-

sion 21 of the Indian Botanic Garden, Howrah,

the sepals and petals were unusual in number.

There were four sepals and four petals instead

of the usual five. All other floral features were,

however, similar to those flowers with five

sepals and five petals. The presence of four

sepals and four petals in a flower has neither

been reported in this species nor in any

other member of the subgenus Elayuna so

far.

A voucher specimen (14.xi.1995,

Bandy opadliy ay 18366), collected from the tree

with female flowers having usual and unusual

number of sepals and petals, has been deposited

in CAL.

Fig. 1. Bauhinia malabarica Roxb.: a. A female

flower with unusual number of sepals and petals;

b. petals removed from the flower to show sepals.

(Scale = 1 cm).

January 19, 1996 S. BANDYOPADHYAY

Botanical Survey of India,

P.O. Botanic Garden, Howrah 711 103.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

439

36. NATURAL BRANCHING IN PAPAYA ( CARICA PAPAYA L.)

Papaya ( Carica papaya L.), native of

tropical America, now widely spread in the tropics

around the world, is a popular fruit and is also

used to make fruit salad and all kinds of desserts.

The fruit contains about 10% sugar, a number of

vitamin A, some vitamin C and acts as a mild

laxative. From the latex of unripe fruits papain is

obtained; this is used as a tenderizer for meat, in

the textile industry and for medicinal purposes

(Foyet, 1972).

The papaya is normally a small unbranched

soft wooded tree, almost a herb (Chandler, 1958)

with latex vessels in all parts. Sometimes, due to

an accident or injury in the apical part of the tree,

branching takes place (Rao, 1991). In 1992, at

the Central Agricultural Research Institute, Port

Blair, a few papaya trees were planted in the

Residential area/Research Farm. One of the trees

after giving an economic yield (250 fruits/tree)

for two years produced five side branches under

natural conditions, and all the five branches are

bearing leaves and fruits, (each branch having 12-

15 good sized fruits). It is worth noting that

branching has taken place naturally, hence could

be of great economic value and advantage.

January 19, 1996 D.B, SINGH

M.A. SURYANARAYANA

Central Agricultural Research Institute ,

Port Blair - 744 010 , A&N Islands , India.

References

Chandler, W.H. (1958): Evergreen Orchards, 303-6.

Philadelphia. Rao, P.S.N. (1991): Branching in Carica papaya L.

Foyet, M. (1972): L’ extraction de le papain Fruits, 27, J. Bombay not. Hist. Soc. 90(1): 123.

37. A NOTE ON UTRICULARIA AUSTRALIS R.BR. LENTIB UL ARI ACE AE,

IN SOUTH INDIA

(With one text-figure )

Utricularia australis R.Br. was collected

from Tirumala hills of Chittoor district Andhra

Pradesh, during botanical explorations. Review

of literature and Indian herbaria revealed that

this taxon is very rarely seen in the hills of

South India. It was earlier reported by Saldanha

and Nicholson (1976) from the hills of Kar-

nataka State. Janardhanam and Henry (1992)

reported that the turions (condensed axis bear-

ing densely modified foliar segments as winter

buds) were not seen in the Indian specimens of

this taxon. However, the turions were observed

in our specimens (Fig. 1). Based on its rare and

limited distribution in South India, a taxo-

nomic analysis was made to facilitate easy

identification.

Utricularia australis R.Br. Prodr. 430.

1810; Gandhi in Saldanha & Nicolson, FI. Hassan

563. 1976; Taylor in Steenis, FI. Males. 1. 8: 299.

1977 & in Kew Bull. Add. Ser. 14: 598. f. 184.

1989. Janadhanam and Henry in Bladder worts

of India 1992. U. flexuosa sensu Clarke in Hook,

f. FI. Brit. India, p.p. quoad syn. U. australis R.Br.,

non Vahl 1804.

Rhizoids usually absent; stolons upto 25 cm

long, filiform, terete. Foliar organs dichotomous,

traps numerous on nodes and foliar segments.

Flowers in racemes, calyx lobes subequal, ovate-

oblong; corolla yellow, prominently gibbous at

base; stamens 2; ovary globose, glandular; stigma

2-lipped, lower lip deltoid, ciliate along

margin.

Ecology: Rare at high altitudes.

FI. & Fr.: September - January.

Specimens Studied: Japali Pond, Tirumala

hills (Chittoor dist., A.P.). MHR & MC

440

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Fig. 1. Utricularia australis R. Br. A. Habit; B. Foliar organ; C. Turion; D. Trap; E. Bract; F. Flower;

G. Calyx; H. Corolla; I. Stamen; J. Pistil.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

441

14505; Arkalgud (Hassan dist., Karnataka), CJS

11079.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the Council of Scientific

and Industrial Research, New Delhi, for financial

assistance.

June 15, 1996 M. CHENNA KESAVULU

M. HEMAMB ARA REDDY

R.R. VENKATA RAJU

Department of Botany,

Sri Krishnadevaraya University,

Anantapur-515 003,

Andhra Pradesh.

38. FIRST RECORD OF PERISTYLUS MONTICOLA (RIDL.) SEIDENF

(ORCHID ACEAE) FOR INDIA FROM ANDAMANS

Peristylus monticola (Ridl.) Seidenf. previously

known from Indonesia, the Philippines, New

Guinea and Malaya has been located from

Andaman Islands and reported for the first time

from India. The genus Peristylus Bl. holds over 70

species of which over 28 species occur in India

(Sathish Kumar and Manilal, 1994) and 3 species

viz. P mannii (Reichb. f.) Mukerjee,P monticola

(Ridl.) Seidenf and P. parishii Reichb. f. in

Andaman-Nicobar Islands. P. monticola was

collected by me from Saddle Peak of North

Andaman and grown in my personal collection. The

occurrence of this rare species in Andaman Island

extends its known range of distribution to

India.

Peristylus monticola (Ridl.) Seiden. & Dansk

Bot. Arkiv. 31, 3: 35. t. 13. 1977; Seidenfaden &

Wood Orch. Malay Pen. Singapore 103. t. 42. 104.

1992.

Terrestrial herbs, c. 50 cm high. Leaves oblong-

lanceolate, 3-10 x 1-3 cm. Spikes 20-40 cm long.

Rowers small, greenish-yellow. Spur as long as the

sepals and petals.

Rare, in moss-covered hilly slopes, grows

along with Actinostachys digitata (L.) Wall, ex

Hook., Eria muscicola (Lindl.) Lindl., Porpax

elwesii (Reichb. f.) Rolfe, etc.

Specimen examined: India: North Andaman,

Lower-Saddle Peak; + 600 m, 24.xi.1993, P.V.

Sreekumar 16436 (PBL)

June 1 5, 1 996 P.V. SREEKUMAR

Botanical Survey of India,

Andaman & Nicobar Circle

Post Box No. 692, Haddo,

Port Blair 744102.

Reference

Sathish Kumar, C. & K.S. Manilal (1994): A catalogue of Indian Orchids. Bishen Singh & Mahendra Pal Singh,

Dehradun.

39. ON THE PERIANTH BRISTLES IN SCHOENOPLECTUS CORYMBOSUS

(ROTH EX ROEM. & SCHULT.) J. RAYNAL

(With one text-figure)

The genus Schoenoplectus is differentiated

from the other genera of Cyperaceae by a

complex of different characters. There is no single

common character in all the species of this genus

by which it can be separated from the other

genera. The characteristics of this genus are the

spirally arranged glumes and the style not

articulated with the ovary. However, these are

common characters in many genera of

Cyperaceae, hence it is not a natural genus. A

442

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Fig. 1 . Schoenoplectus corymbosus (Roth ex Roem. & Schult.) J. Raynal

A. Obovoid nut with well developed bristles; separated bristles;

B. Flat inner face of the nut with smallest bristle; C. Nut with a single rudimentary bristle;

D. Ellipsoid nut without bristles.

natural genus has atleast some characters common

to all its species, viz .Bulbostylis has the persistent

button like style base on the nut. Fimbristylis

has the deciduous style base articulated with the

nut and Eleocharis has the dilated style base

articulated with the ovary, which is persistent on

the nut. Hence these are considered to be natural

genera and Schoenoplectus an artificial genus.

At times certain characters are highly

variable within a species (not only in

Schoenoplectus ) and often such variations can

also be found within individuals .The presence

of hypogynous bristles in Schoenoplectus

corymbosus is one such variable character. All

the earlier workers have reported that bristles are

absent in this species. But a careful study of some

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

443

specimens from Maharashtra and Gujarat

revealed that this character is highly variable. In

these specimens three, quite unequal bristles were

found. These are linear-lanceolate, acute at the

apex and antrorsely scabrous (retrorsely scabrous

in most Indian species) on the upper half. The

longest bristle varies from much smaller than to

equaling the length of the nut. It is somewhat

broad and glume-like, membranous, 0.5 - 2 mm

long. The smallest bristle is usually minute, scale-

like, upto 0.5 mm long, and is found opposite to

the broadest face of the nut. In some cases only a

single, rudimentary, scale-like bristle was found.

Also, there are specimens in which perianth

bristles are absent.

Another interesting observation is that

whenever well developed bristles are present the

nut is obovoid to broadly obovoid, but if the bristles

are absent the nut is ellipsoid. An intermediate stage

between ellipsoid and obovoid is found when the

bristle is very small or rudimentary.

Considering the highly variable nature of

this character, the possibility of proposing a new

taxon even at infraspecific level for the plants with

perianth bristles was not considered, because even

on a single specimen the nuts were found to be

with or without bristles. This abnormal behaviour

is recorded, especially for taxonomists, because

the perianth bristle is considered an important

character in the family Cyperaceae.

Acknowledgement

We thank Dr. P.K. Hajra, Director,

Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta for facilities

and encouragement.

January 19, 1996 V.P. PRASAD,

N.P. SINGH

Botanical Survey of India, Western Circle,

7, Koregaon Road,

Pune-411 001.

40. LABORATORY EVALUATION OF NATURAL RESISTANCE OF

BAMBOOS TO TERMITES

Natural resistance of timbers to insects and

other biological agencies is attributed to physical

and chemical properties of the wood (Sandermann

and Dietrichs, 1967 and Sen-Sarmaef 0/., 1975).

Bamboo is a versatile natural forest resource,

which is known to play a very important role in

the economy particularly of countries lying in the

southeast Asian-Pacific region.

Natural resistance of felled and converted

wood, to insects and other biological agencies, is

attributed to physical and chemical characteristics

of timbers. Bamboos though endowed with a hard

and highly refractive outer rind, unlike timbers,

lack chemical characteristics which impart

resistance of high category.

Notwithstanding its versatility and high

utility value, authentic data on the natural

resistance in bamboos is lacking. Except for the

pioneering work of Mishra and Rana (1992), there

is no data on the assessment of natural resistance

of bamboos to insects. In this paper, results of

laboratory evaluation of comparative natural

termite resistance of 13 species of bamboos

against the test termite Microcerotermes beesoni

Snyder are presented.

We tested material from 13 species of

bamboos growing within the New Forest campus

of Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun. The

samples were taken at 50 cm, or more above the

ground. The test blocks (2.0 x 2.0 x 1 .0 cm3 size)

were prepared from the intemodal portion of these

samples and oven dried at 85°C after smoothening

the cut surface. Since uniform size of the test

blocks could not be obtained due to varying

thickness of the wall, the percent weight-loss in

test blocks was calculated on the basis of weight

and total area of test block.

The samples were exposed to the termites,

Microcerotermes beesoni Snyder following the

standard procedure developed at this Institute

444

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

(FRI). Classification of bamboos into various

categories was done as for timber by Sen-Sarma

etal., 1975).

The results are presented in Table 1 . Among

the various species of bamboos tested, maximum

damage was observed in Bambusa tulda{ wt. loss

67.31 %) and minimum was recorded in B. nutans

(23.40%), closely followed by Dendrocalamus

strictus (wt. loss 25.63%), B. balcooa (27.42%),

D. giganteus (28.66%) and Ochlandra

travancorica (29.82%). The termite resistance

quality of these species is comparable speci-

fically to the heartwood of some of the mode-

rately resistant and economically impor-

tant primary timber species, e.g. Anogeissus

latifolia, Garuga pinnata, Shorea robusta, etc.

The termite resistance of D. calostachyus.

B. vulgaris f. waminii, Oxytenanthera albociliata

and/), membranaceus is similarly comparable to

timber species such as Aero carpus fraxinifolius,

Pterospermum acerifolium, Quercus

leucotrichophora, etc.

The outer rind of bamboo seems to be

highly resistant and refractive in nature, as the

timber damage in most of the test samples had

taken place in the cut end portion and in some

cases through the inner layer. The chemical

analysis of various portions of bamboo reveals

occurrence of a high percentage of ash and silica

in the outer rind (Semana et al. 1967 and Espiloy,

1983) which perhaps is responsible for its natural

durability as well as strength (Sanyal,ef al., 1988).

Similarly, the destructured reconstituted

boards from bamboo ( Dendrocalamus strictus),

using phenol formaldehyde adhesive, is highly

resistant to termites under laboratory conditions

and is comparable to some of the more durable

timber species such as Acacia catechu, Cedrus

deodara, Dalbergia latifolia and Tectona grandis.

Notwithstanding some of the moderately

resistant bamboo species the untreated bamboos,

in general, are destroyed in a short span of time

when exposed to actual field conditions. The

causes are found in the chemical constituents and

felling period of various species. The presence

Table 1

NATURAL TERMITE RESISTANCE OF BAMBOOS (MEAN OF 4-7 SAMPLES)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

445

of higher quantity of carbohydrates, especially

the starch content and soluble sugars makes the

bamboo relatively more susceptible to insects/

termites (Beeson, 1941; Roonwal and Thapa,

1960 and Suthoni, 1988). In addition, the

bamboos under field conditions are infected by a

large number of fungi, thus making them highly

Refer

Beeson, C.F.C. (1941): Ecology and control of forest

insects of India and neighbouring countries, (revised

1961). xii + 1-1007. (Vasant press, DehraDun).

Espiloy, Z. B. (1983): Variability of specific gravity, silica

content and fiber measurements in Kawayan Tinik ( B .

blumeana). NSTA Tech. J., 8: 42-72.

French, J.R.J. (1978): Preliminary laboratory screening

of wood decayed blocks to Coptotermes acinaciformis,

Mastotermes darwiniensis an d Nasutitermes exitiosus,

Mater, U. Org. 13: 207-221.

Mishra, S.C. & S.S. Rana (1992): Laboratory evaluation

of natural resistance of bamboos to termite

Microceroterm.es beesoni Snyder (Isoptera:

Termitidae). J. ent. Res. 16: 311-318.

Roonwal, M.L. & R.S. Thapa (1960): Experiments on

fresh water seasoning (water immerson) of three

species of Indian timbers to provide anti-insect

protection. Indian For. Rec. (N.S.) (Ent.) 10(1): 41.

Sandermann, W. & H.H. Dietrichs (1967):

Untersuchungen uber termites rezistentz. Holier. Holz.

Roh. Werkst, 15: 281-297.

susceptible to insect attack (French, 1978; Shukla

et al., 1978 and Tyagi etal., 1984).

October 16, 1995 S.C. MISHRA

M.L. THAKUR

Forest Research Institute ,

Dehra Dun 248 006.

ENCES

Sanyal, S.N., A.S. Gulati & A.K. Khanduri (1988):

Strength properties and uses of bamboos. A review.

Indian Forester 114 : 637-649.

Semana, J.A., J.O. Escolano & M.R. Monsalud (1967):

The Kraft pulping of some philippine bamboos.

TAPPI, 50: 416-419.

Sen-Sarma, P.K., M.L. Thakur, S.C. Mishra & B.K.

Gupta (1975):Wood destroying termites of India in

relation to natural termite resistance of timbers. Final

Tech. Rep., P.L. 480, F.R.I., Dehra Dun 1-187.

Shukla, A.N.,S. Singh &H.S. Sehgal (1988):Diseases and

deterioration of bamboo in India. Indian Forester, 114 :

714-719.

Suthoni, A. (1988): A simple and cheap method of

bamboo preservation. Proc. Int. Bamboo Workshop,

(14-18 Noc., Cochin, India) 209-211.

Tyagi, B.K., P.K. Sen-Sarma, PS. Rehill & PC. Pandey

(1982): Termite fungi interactions. I. Bioassay in

decayed wood block to Coptotermes heimi (Wasm.),

Neotermes bosii Snyder and Microcerotermes beesoni

Snyder. Assyut J. Agric. Assyut (Egypt) 13: 139-147.

41. NEW DISTRIBUTIONAL RECORDS OF PLANTS FROM ORISSA

In the course of our studies on flora of

Orissa, a number of plants were collected from

different parts of the state. 5 angiospermic taxa

collected recently, were identified with the help

of relevant taxonomic literature and consultation

of authentic herbarium specimens at Central

National Herbarium, Howrah (CNH) as

Aristolochia tagala Cham., Sauromatum

venosum ( Aton) Kunth., Spermacoce mauritiana

Osea Gideon ex Verde., S. latifolia Aubl. and

Spilanthes iabadicensis Moore. Scrutiny of

literature revealed that these species have not

been reported from Orissa. Updated

nomenclature, phenology, ecology, citation of

specimens studied and useful notes on them are

presented below. All the materials have been

deposited in the Herbarium of Regional Plant

Resource Centre, Bhubaneswar.

Aristolochia tagala Cham. Linnaea 7:

207.t.5.f.3.1832; Haines, Bot. Bihar & Orissa

786.1924. A. acuminataRoxb.Fl. Ind. 3:489.1832,

non Lam. 1783. A. roxburghiana Klotzsch,

Monatsber. Deutsch. Mead. Wiss. Berlin 596.1859;

Hook.f., FLBrit. India 5:75.1 886 (Aristolochiaceae)

FI. & Fr.: Throughout the year.

Ecology: Occasional, climbing on trees and

shrubs in semi-evergreen forests.

446

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Specimens examined: Sanaghagra,

Keonjhar district, 20.xi.95, B.K. Mohapatra 563.

Haines (l.c.) suspected that the species

occurs in Purneah, Bihar, but he actually did not

collect the plant. Thus, the occurrence of the taxon

in Keonjhar district is a new distributional record

for Orissa.

Sauromatum venosum (Aiton) Kunth,

Enum. P1.3:28.1841; Nasir in FI West Pak.

120: 14.1 978. Arum venosum Aiton in Hort. Kew.

3:315,1789. Sauromatum pedatum (Willd.) Schott

& Endl. Me let. Bot 17,1832; Nicolson in FI.

HassanDist. 789.1976.5. guttatum (Wall.) Schott

in Schott & Endl. Melet. Bot. 17.1832; Haines,

Bot. Bihar & Orissa 862.1924. (Araoeae)

FI.: June- July. Frs.: August-No vember.

Ecology: Locally abundant in open rocky

jungles, often found in rock crevices.

Specimens examined: Sanaghagra,

Keonjhar district, 22.xi.95, S.C. Jena 5718.

According to Haines (l.c.), it is commonly

found in Chotanagpur, Bihar at an elevation of

about 333 m. The present report of its occurrence

in Sanaghagra of Keonjhar district extends the

range of distribution of the species to Orissa.

Spermacoce mauritiana Osea Gideon ex

Verdcourt, Kew Bill. 37:547. f.26-32. 1983;

Sivarajan et al. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. (Plant Sci.)

97 (4): 356. 1987. Borreria repens DC. Prodr.

4:544.1830, non Spermacocerepens Willd. ex

Cham. & Schlecht. (1828) nes Sesse & Moc.

(1893) nec Larranaga (1923). 5. decandolleiDe b

erDutta,7. Econ. Tax. Bot. 5(5): 1044. 1984 ,nom.

superfl. (Rubiaceae)

FI. & Fr.: Throughout the year.

Ecology: Rare, in moist shady localities and

forest floors in association with Mitracarpus

villosus, Spermacoce articularis and other

herbaceous elements.

Specimens examined: Sanaghagra,

Keonjhar district, B.K. Mohapatra 5636, 3.xi.95;

Ekamrakanan (RPRC) campus, Bhubaneswar,

Khurda district, 28.xi.95, PC. Panda 4198.

Spermacoce latifolia Aublet, Hist. Guiane

Frtan l:55.t. 19.f.l.l775; Sivarajan etal. Proc.

Ind. Acad. Sci. (Plant Sci.) 97(4): 355.1987; Deb

& Dutta, J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 5(5): 1050.1984.

Borreria latifolia (Aublet) K. Schum, Mart. FI.

Bras. 6(6): 61.1888. B. eradii Ravi J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 66(3): 539.t.l.f-l-10.1970

(Rubiaceae)

FI. & Fr.: August-November

Ecology: Occasional, a weed in moist

wastelands and rocky soils in post-monsoon

period.

Specimens examined: Sanaghagra,

Keonjhar district, 3.xi.95., R.K. Moharana 5292:

Ekamrakanan (RPRC) premises, Bhubaneswar,

Khurda district, 12.xi.95, PC. Panda 4290.

Though Sivarajan et al. (l.c.) described the

flowers as pink, all the plants collected by us

always had white flowers.

Spilanthes iabadicensis A.H. Moore in

Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts. 42:542.1907; Griersonin

Dassanayake & Fosberg, Rev. Handb. Fl.Ceylon

1: 221. 1980; Verma et al. FI Raipur, Durg &

Rajnandgaon 204.1985 (Asteraceae)

FI. & Fr.: October- January.

Ecology: Occasional, a weed in moist

wastelands

Specimens examined: Sanaghagra,

Keonjhar district, 3.xi.95, B.K. Mohapatra 5296.

Spilanthes iabadicensis A.H. Moore can be

distinguished from 5. calva DC. by its having

achenes with fragile pappus bristles and ciliate

margins and from 5. paniculata Wall, ex DC. by

smaller capitula, smaller achenes and weak

pappus bristles. Probably the only report of its

occurrence in India is by Verma et al. (l.c.) from

Bhilai in Madhya Pradesh.

June 15, 1996 PC. PANDA

B.K. MOHAPATRA

PDAS

Taxonomy & Conservation Division,

Regional Plant Resource Centre,

Bhubaneswar-751015, Orissa.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

447

42. ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF HIMACHAL PRADESH FROM KULU DISTRICT

The most comprehensive work dealing with

the flowering plants of Himachal Pradesh is by

Cnowdhery and Wadhwa (1984). It enumerates

3134 taxa from this north-west Himalayan State.

Subsequently, at least 37 publications have

appeared, We are engaged in the systematic

survey of the flora of Kulu dist. since 1988.

Extensive and intensive botanical explorations of

this district during 1988-1992, with sporadic

subsequent visits, have resulted in the collection

of 930 species of spermatophytes distributed

among 504 genera of 126 families. In this paper

we present 32 species which are additions to the

flora of Himachal. The arrangement of the

families is after Hooker (1872-1897). All the

specimens cited here are conserved in the

herbaiium of the Punjabi University, Patiala.

RANUNCULACEAE

Ranunculus sardosus Crantz

Growing among rocks in wet places, 1100-

1500m.

FI. & Fr.: March-April.

Larji, D.S. Dhaliwal 16350.

PAPAVERACEAE

Papaver macro stomum Boiss. & Himet ex

Boiss.

Common weed in cultivated fields, 1500-

2700m.

FI. & Fr.: April -June.

Shoja, D.S. Dhaliwal 16351.

CRUCIFERAE

Raphanus raphanistrum Linn.

Common weed in wheat fields, 1200-

1800m.

FI. & Fr.: March-May.

Aut, Ban jar; D.S. Dhaliwal 15582, 15999

& 16078.

CARYOPHYLLACEAE

Arenaria edgewonhiana Majumdar

On sandy rocks, 3000-4000m.

FI. & Fr.: July-September.

Rohtang, D.S. Dhaliwal 15368.

Crastium fontanum Baumg. subsp.

membranaceum (Edgew. & Hook.f) M. Sharma

Common weed of cultivation, 1200- 2000m.

FI. & Fr.: March-June.

Aut, Kulu; D.S. Dhaliwal 15566, 16070.

BALS AMIN ACE AE

Impatiens reidii Hook.f.

On alpine slopes, 3000-3500m.

FI. & Fr.: August-September.

Beas Kund, D.S. Dhaliwal 15477.

PAPILIONACEAE

Lespedeza juncea (Linn, f.) Pers. var.

variegata (Camb.) Ali

Common in moist and marshy places, 1200-

1500m.

FI. & Fr.: July-October.

Bhuntar. D.S. Dhaliwal 16110.

Medicago laciniata (Linn.). Mill.

Common in agricultural fields, orchards

and wasteland, 1200- 1500m.

FI. & Fr.: April-June.

Bhuntar, Bajaura; D.S. Dhaliwal 15858,

16016.

Pueraria phaseoloides Benth.

A climber in the forests, 1200-1500 m.

FK & Fr.: Not seen throughout the course

of this study.

Bhuntar, D.S. Dhaliwal 16331.

ROSACE AE

Potentilla fruticosa Linn. var. rigida{ Wall,

ex Lehm.) Wolf. Common at high altitudes on

rocks, 3000-4000m.

FI. & Fr.: July-September.

Rohtang Pass, Jalon Pass; D.S. Dhaliwal

15434, 16343.

448

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Rubus nepalensis (Hook.f.) Kuntze

On open slopes and among shrubs, 2000-

2500m.

FI. & Fr.: May-July.

Dhundu, D.S. Dhaliwal 16291.

ONAGRACEAE

Oenothera affinis Cambess

Common on dry slopes and in wasteland

among apple orchards, 1800-2200m.

FI. & Fr.: June-September

Jarri, Naggar; D.S. Dhaliwal 16306, 16409.

UMBELLIFERAE

Bupleurutn atroviolaceum (Schulz) Nasir

On shaded rocks, 2500-3500m.

FI. & Fr.: July-September.

Jalori Pass, D.S. Dhaliwal 15357.

Pleurospermum angelicoides (DC.) Clarke

Among rocks and open slopes, 3000-

4000m.

FI. & Fr.: August-September.

Beas Kund, D.S. Dhaliwal 15846.

VALERI ANACEAE

Nardostachys grandiflora DC.

On alpine slopes, 3000-4000m.

FI. & Fr.: June- August.

Jalori Pass, D.S. Dhaliwal 16202.

Valeriana stracheyi Clarke

On rocky banks and cliffs, 2000-3000m.

FI. & Fr.: June- August.

Jalori Pass, D.S. Dhaliwal 15876.

COMPOSITAE

Artemisia absinthium Linn.

In forest clearings and near cultivated fields,

2000-3000m.

FI. & Fr.: July-September.

Jalori Pass, D.S. Dhaliwal 16294

Aster himalaicus Clarke

Common on alpine rocks and open slopes,

2500-4000m.

FI. & Fr.: August-October.

Beas Kund, Rohtang, Kothi, D.S. Dhaliwal

15495, 15999, 16138.

Coreopsis lanceolata Linn.

Common and gregarious on dry hill slopes

and in wasteland 1200- 1800m.

FI. & Fr.: April-June.

Solang, D.S. Dhaliwal 16264.

Dubyaea hispida (D.Don) DC.

Among shrubs and on rocky slopes in

forests, 3000-3500m.

FI. & Fr.: August-September.

Jalori Pass, D.S. Dhaliwal 16271.

Erigeron annuus Pers.

In moist shady places in forests and on

rocky slopes, 2000-3000m.

FI. & Fr.: May-September.

Rahla Fall, Kothi; D.S. Dhaliwal 15311,

16127.

Onopordum acanthium Linn.

In wasteland, orchard and forest, 2000-

2500m.

FI. & Fr.: June-September.

Manali, Naggar; D.S. Dhaliwal 15771,

16059.

Tricholepsis karensium Kurz

On open dry slopes, 1000-2000m.

FI. & Fr.: September-October.

Sainj, D.S. Dhaliwal 18031.

PRIMULACEAE

Androsace delavayi Franch.

On stony alpine slopes in dry areas, 3000-

4000m.

FI. & Fr.: June- July.

Jalori Pass (Serolsar lake), D.S. Dhaliwal

16427.

BUDDLEIACEAE

Buddleia madagascariensis Lam.

In shrubberies and on wasteland slopes,

1000-2000m.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

449

FI. & Fr.: March-May.

Bhuntar, D.S. Dhaliwal 15864.

BORAGINACEAE

Myosotis alpestris Schmidt

On exposed alpine slopes, 3000-4000m.

FI. & Fr.: June- August.

Beas kund, Jalori Pass; D.S. Dhaliwal

15572, 15703.

SOLANACEAE

Physalis peruviana Linn.

In moist shady places and orchards, 1000-

1500m.

FI. & Fr.: August-October.

Bhuntar, D.S. Dhaliwal 16183.

SCROPHULARIACEAE

Euphrasia simplex D.Don

On alpine slopes, 3500-4000m.

FI. & Fr.: May-June.

Beas kund, D.S. Dhaliwal 16445.

LABIATAE

Nepeta raphanorhiza Benth.

A weed in orchards or dry situations, 2500-

3500m.

FI. & Fr.: May-September.

Kothi, D.S. Dhaliwal 15400.

SPARGANIACEAE

Sparganium erectum Linn, subsp.

stoloniferum (Graebn.) Hara

Common in marshy places and along rice

fields, 1000-1 800m.

FI. & Fr.: May-July.

Raison, D.S. Dhaliwal 15895.

CYPERACEAE

Cyperus cuspidatus HBK.

Common, on wasteland slopes, 1100-

1800m.

FI. & Fr.: June- August.

Larji, D.S. Dhaliwal 1649/

GRAMINEAE

Isachne himalaica Hook.f.

Common in wet places, 1000-2000m.

FI. & Fr.: September-October.

Bhuntar, D.S. Dhaliwal 16205.

Acknowledgement

Our thanks are due to the authorities of

CAL, BSD and DD for herbarium and library

facilities and to Dr. V.J. Nair, Indian Liaison

Officer at Kew herbarium, for identifying some

taxa. D.S. Dhaliwal is obliged to University

Grants Commission, New Delhi for granting

Teacher Fellowship.

June 17, 1996 M. SHARMA

D.S. DHALIWAL

Department of Botany,

Punjabi University,

Patiala- 147002.

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By Rishad Naoroji . 267

PHYTOPLANKTON AS INDICATION OF ECOSYSTEM STATUS: A CASE STUDY

OF AN URBAN WATERBODY

By Z.D. Kanhere and V.R. Gunale 273

MORPHOMETRIC RELATIONSHIPS IN TROPICAL ANURANS AND THEIR

RELATIONSHIP TO SOME LIFE HISTORY PARAMETERS ( With one text-figure)

By J.K. Mahanta, S.K. Swain and Madhab C. Dash 276

TINGIFAUNA OF SOUTHERN INDIA: DISTRIBUTION, HOST PLANTS, NATURAL

ENEMIES AND GENERIC KEY (With one plate and two text-figures)

By David Livingstone, M.H.S. Yacoob, S. Jeyanthibai and A.R. Livingstone 283

SPECIES COMPOSITION, SEASONAL VARIATION, SEX RATIO AND BODY LENGTH

OF SMALL CETACEANS CAUGHT OFF WEST, SOUTH-WEST AND SOUTH

COAST OF SRI LANKA (With three text-figures)

By Anouk Ilangakoon 298

POPULATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF BRONZEWINGED (METOPID1US INDICUS)

AND PHEASANT-TAILED (HYDROPHASIANUS CHIRURGUS) JACANAS IN

KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK, BHARATPUR, RAJASTHAN

(With four text-figures)

By N.K. Ramachandran and V.S. Vijayan 307

LABORATORY STUDIES ON THE LIFE CYCLE OF SIMOCEPHALUS SERRULATUS

KOCH 1881 (CLADOCERA: CRUSTACEA) (With one plate)

By Subash Babu and C.K.G. Nayar 317

CROP DAMAGE CAUSED BY BLACKBUCKS (ANTILOPE CERVICAPRA) AT

KARERA GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD SANCTUARY, AND POSSIBLE REMEDIAL

SOLUTIONS (With three text-figures)

By. Jagdish Chandra 322

SEXUAL SYSTEM AND POLLINATION ECOLOGY OF CARDIOSPERMUM

HAUCACABUM L. (SAPINDACEAE)

By K. Rama Das, C. Subba Reddi, Raju J.S. Aluri and J.B. Atluri 333

COMMUNAL ROOSTING IN COMMON MYNAS AND ITS FUNCTIONAL

SIGNIFICANCE (With two text-figures)

By Anil Mahabal 342

OBSERVATIONS ON THE POST-NATAL DEVELOPMENT OF INDIAN FALSE

VAMPIRE BAT MEGADERMA LYRA (MICROCHIROPTERA)

(With two text-figures)

By R. Subbaraj, J. Balsingh and M. Singaravel 350

NEW DESCRIPTIONS 356

REVIEWS 384

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 389

Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Bombay 400 103

and published by J.C. Daniel for Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House,

Dr. Salim Ali Chowk, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023.

JOURNAL

OF THE

^3Wi

BOMBAY

NATURAL

HISTORY

SOCIETY

Vol. 94, No. 3

December 1997

BOARD OF EDITORS

Executive Editor

J.C. DANIEL

M.R. ALMEIDA

P.V. BOLE

M.K. CHANDRASHEKARAN

B.F. CHHAPGAR

B.V. DAVID

R. GADAGKAR

ANIL GORE

A.J.T. JOHNSINGH

AJITH KUMAR

A.R. RAHMANI

J.S. SAMANT

E.G. SILAS

J.S. SINGH

R. WHITAKER

Assistant Editor

GAYATRI WATTAL UGRA

INSTRUCTIONS TO CONTRIBUTORS

1. Papers which have been published or have been offered for publication elsewhere

should not be submitted.

2. Papers should be submitted in duplicate, typed double space. Preferably an additional

copy should be submitted on a floppy diskette (3.5") using Word Star.

3. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where identification has

been authentically established by comparison of specimens actually collected.

4. Photographs for reproduction must be clear, with good contrast. Prints should be at

least 9 x 12 cm and on glossy glazed paper. Text-figures, line drawings and maps

should be in Indian ink, preferably on tracing paper. Maps and figures will not be

acceptable if labelled free hand.

5. References to literature should be placed at the end of the paper, alphabetically

arranged under author’s name, with the abridged titles of journals or periodicals in

italics and titles of books or papers in roman type, thus:

Aluri, Raju J.S. & C. Subha Reddi (1995): Ecology of the pollination in two cat-mint

species. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92(1): 63-66.

Prater, S.H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay Natural History Society,

Mumbai, pp. 35-48.

6. Each paper should be accompanied by an abstract, normally not exceeding 200

words, and 6-8 key words. Key Words should include the scientific names of important

species discussed.

7. 25 reprints will be supplied free of cost to authors of main articles. In the case of

new descriptions, reviews and miscellaneous notes, authors will be sent a free

copy of the Journal.

8. The editors reserve the right, other things being equal, to publish a member’s

contribution earlier than a non-member’s.

HornbiSI House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Mumbai-400 023.

Editors,

Journal of the Bombay

Natural History Society

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE GREAT PIED HORNBILL (BUCEROS BICORN1S) IN THE

ANAIMALAI HILLS OF SOUTHERN INDIA (With one plate and two text-figures )

By Ragupathy Kannan and Douglas A. James 451

STATUS OF INDIAN GREY WOLF CANIS LUPUS PALLIPES AND ITS CONSERVATION

IN MARGINAL AGRICULTURAL AREAS OF SOLAPUR DISTRICT,

MAFIARASHTRA (With two text-figures )

By Satish Kumar and Asad R. Rahmani 466

ORCHIDS OF HIGH WAVY RECOLLECTED

By N.Sasidharan, K.P. Rajesh and Jomy Augustine 473

GROUP SIZE AND COMPOSITION OF INDIAN PEAFOWL (PAVO CR1STATUS) IN AN

AGRO-ECOSYSTEM AT ALIGARH, UTTAR PRADESH (With two text-figures )

By Shahla Yasmin 478

ON A SURVEY OF THE GANGES RIVER DOLPHIN PLATANISTA GANGETICA OF

BRAJTMAPUTRA RIVER, ASSAM (With a plate and five text-figures)

By R.S. Lai Mohan, S.C. Dey, S.P Bairagi and S. Roy 483

PROPOSED TAXONOMIC REVISION OF SOME IMPORTANT PENAEID PRAWN

GENERA (CRUSTACEA : DECAPODA) OF KONKAN COAST (WEST COAST OF

INDIA) (With fifty-three text-figures)

By D.I. Pathan and D.R. Jalihal 496

CAUSES OF DESTRUCTION OF NESTS OF WEAVER BIRDS IN RAJASTHAN

By Satish Kumar Sharma 515

THE ECOLOGY AND DISTRIBUTION OF ALCYONACEANS AT MANDAPAM (PALK

BAY, GULF OF MANNAR), SOUTH INDIA (With one text-figure)

By V. Jayasree and A.H. Parulekar 521

RECENT TRENDS IN PROTECTION OF HARVESTED BAMBOOS FROM GHOON

BORERS

By M.L. Thakur and R.S. Bhandari 525

SUBSOCIALITY IN DUNG BEETLES COPRIS REPERTUS WALKER AND COPRJS

IN DIC US GILL . (COLEOPTERA: SCARAB AEIDAE) (With one plate)

By K. Veenakumari and G.K. Veeresh 530

THE CONSERVATION OF THE POTENTIALLY ENDANGERED IRRAWADY RIVER

DOLPHIN ORCAELLA BREVIROSTRIS IN CHILKA LAGOON, ORISSA, INDIA

By P Dhandapani 536

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

FIRST RECORD OF GENUS STRONGYLOGASTER DAHLBOM (HYMENOPTERA:

SYMPHYTA: TENTHREDINIDAE: SELANDRIINAE) WITH TWO NEW SPECIES

FROM INDIA (With six text-figures)

By Malkiat *j. Saini and Tajinder P. Saini t

540

HYGROPHILA BENGALENSIS MANDAL, BHATTACHARJEE ET NAYEK SP. NOV. — A

NEW SPECIES OF HYGROPHILA BR. FROM 24-PARGANAS (S), WEST BENGAL

(With nine text-figures )

By S.K. Mandal, Aloke Bhattacharjee and Ajit Kumar Nayek 546

REVIEWS

1 . FAUNAL DIVERSITY IN THE THAR DESERT: GAPS IN RESEARCH

Reviewed by Naresh Chaturvedi 549

2. TURTLES AND TORTOISES OF INDIA

Reviewed by J.C. Daniel 550

3 . ETHNOBIOLOGY IN INDIA — A STATUS REPORT

Reviewed by M.R. Almeida 550

4. THE ATLAS OF ENDANGERED SPECIES

Reviewed by S. Asad Akhtar 551

5 . UNDERSTANDING BIODIVERSITY: LIFE, SUSTAINABILITY AND EQUITY

Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani 552

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

MAMMALS

1 . Distinguishing kills of two large mammalian

predators in Spiti Valley Himachal Pradesh

By B.S. Rana 553

2. Occurrence of the rustyspotted cat ( Felis

rubiginosa ) in Orissa

By L.N. Acharjyo, K.L. Purohit and

S.K. Patnaik 554

3. Leopard (Panther a pardus ) attempting to

prey on Indian giant squirrel (Ratufa indica

centralis)

By Prachi Mehta 555

4 . Occurrence of the brown palm civet in the wet

forest of Kalakad Mundanthurai Tiger

Reserve, Tamil Nadu

By T. Ganesh 556

5. Tibetan gazelle Procapra picticaudata in

Sikkim, India

By Usha Ganguli-Lachungpa 557

6. Sarcocystis could be a threat to barasingha,

Cervus duvauceli branderi

By A.B. Shrivastav, R.K. Sharma,

R.K. Chaudhry and Rajesh Gopal 558

7. Habitat preference of Indian bush rat,

Golunda ellioti gujerati in Aravalli Montane

ecosystem

By Ishwar Prakash and Partap Singh 559

8. The Malabar spiny dormouse

(Platacanthomys lasiurus) in the Kalakad

Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, Tamil

Nadu

By T. Ganesh 561

9. Fivestriped squirrel Funambulus pennanti

Wroughton, a predator of Helicoverpa

armigera HB. (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

By U.A. Parasara, B.M. Parasharya and

K.L. Mathew 562

1 0 . Colour variation in populations of the grizzled

giant squirrel Ratufa macroura

By Neelu Sharma 565

BIRDS

11. A large communal roost of blackwinged kites

Elanus caeruleus

By A.M.K. Bharos 566

12. Record of chir pheasant, Catreus wallichi

above 4545 metres in the Western Himalayas

By Suchitra Ghosh 566

13. Additional coot ( Fulica atra Linn.) breeding

site records from Andhra Pradesh, India

By C. Srinivasulu, Bhargavi Srinivasulu,

V. Nagulu and V. Vasudeva Rao 566

14. Recent sightings of speckled piculet

(Picumnus innominatus Burton) in Pakistan

By P.J. Benstead, N.J. Bean, D.A. Showier

and P.A. Whittington 568

1 5 . Mimicry by grey drongo Dicrurus leucophaeus

By Lavkumar Khacher 569

16. Record of the sightings and breeding of pied

mynah Stumus contra at Lahore

By Syed Ali Murtaza 569

17. New record for blackthroated jay Garrulus

lanceolatus (Vigors) in Kashmir

By Peter Zahler, Naeem I. Dar and

Karim Akhtar 570

18. Yellowbrowed bulbul Hypsipetes indicus

(Jerdon) in the Kolli Hills (Tamil Nadu),

Eastern Ghats

By S. Karthikeyan 570

19. Indian robin ( Saxicola fulicata ) foraging in

the light of fluorescent lamps

By A.M.K. Bharos 571

20. Wintering range and time extension of

Hodgson's bush chat Saxicola insignis Gray

in India

By Goutam Narayan and Lima Rosalind 572

REPTILES

2 1 . Herpetofauna of Phulwari Ki Nal Wildlife

Sanctuary, Rajasthan State

By Satish Kumar Sharma 573

22. Reptiles of Periyar Tiger Reserve, Kerala

By V.J. Zacharias 575

23 . Record of Leith's softshell turtle, Aspideretes

leithii (Gray), (Lamily Trionychidae) from

Nilambur, Kerala

By Joseph Thomas, C.P Shaji and P.S. Easa .... 580

AMPHIBIA

24. The occurrence of the common tree frog

Polypedates maculatus (Gray, 1 834) (Lamily

Rhacophoridae) in Rajasthan

By Satish Kumar Sharma 580

25. The occurrence of Bufo stomaticus and

Uperodon systoma in Haryana State

By S.K. Sharma 581

FISH

26. Occurrence of the pig-faced file-fish

Paramonacanthus choirocephalus (Bleeker)

(Pisces: Plectognathi) at Mumbai

By B.F. Chhapgar and S.B. Muley 582

INSECTS

27. Pieris brassicae Linnaeus (Lepidoptera:

Pieridae) in Delhi

By Peter Smetacek 584

28 . The Notodontid moth Cyphanta chortochlora

Hampson in Kumaon, North India

By Peter Smetacek 585

29. A new name for Plecalus morrisoni

Ramasubbarao & Ramakrishnan

By V. Ramasubbarao 585

OTHER INVERTEBRATES

30. Occurrence of the spider crab Rhynchoplax

alcocki Kemp (Brachyura: Hymenosomatidae)

in Thengapattanam estuary

By L. Prabhadevi and G. Saras wathy Ammal . 586

31 . Record of Triops (Crustacea: Branchiopoda:

Notostraca) from Pune, Maharashtra

By H.V. Ghate and Nagraj Shetty 588

32. Life-history of a succineid snail Succinea

daucina (Pfeiffer)

By S.K. Raut, T. K. Misra and S. Das 589

BOTANY

33. Rare occurrence of vegetative leaflet

outgrowth on the leaf of mustard Brassica

campesiris (Brassicaceae)

By Daya Nand Harit 59 1

34 . Record of Abutilon ranadei Woodrow & Stapf

in an area other than type locality

By M.P. Bachulkar and S.R. Yadav 591

35. On two unrecorded species of Fagonia Toum.

ex L. from Maharashtra

ByD.A. Patil 592

36. Notes on the occurrence of Wahlenbergia

hookeri and Anisochilus verticillatus in

Tamil Nadu

By D. Stephen and E. Vajravelu 594

37. A note on the identity and distribution of

Hydrolea zeylanica (L.) Vahl var. erecta

Haines (Hydrophyllaceae)

By PC. Panda 595

38. Heliotropium bacciferum Lorssk. var.

tuberculosum (Boiss.) Kazmi — A new

record for Rajasthan

By P.M. Padhye and R.P. Pandey 596

39. Critical notes on the orchid Phalaenopsis

comucervi (Breda)

By P.V. Sreekumar 599

40. Double fruiting in pineapple — A rare

phenomenon

By D.B. Singh 600

4 1 . Poa nephelophila Bor — A new record to

India from Garhwal Himalaya

By R.D. Gaur and D.C. Nautiyal 601

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are grateful to the Ministry of Science and Technology,

Govt, of India,

FOR FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE JOURNAL.

ERRATA

Vol 93(2): page 300, for last paragraph “13, Himalayan Blackbreasted Sunbird

( Aethopyga saturata saturata ): This bird was seen by me several times in winter

(February 1994 for instance) in Gidakom valley (Alt. 2400 m). The handbook states

that this bird winters in Sikkim below c. 1000 m and in the western Himalayas

between 500 and 1500 m.”

Read: “13. Himalayan Blackbreasted Sunbird (Aethopyga saturata saturata): Voice

described by me on 2-7-89 in Lhuntsi: Tr-trrrr, the last note lower pitched than the

first and also a tsi-tsi.

14. Himalayan Cinnamon Tree Sparrow {Passer rutilans cinnamomeus). This bird

was seen by me several times in winter (February 1994 for instance) in Gidakom

valley (Alt. 2400 m). The handbook states that this bird winters in Sikkim below

c. 1000 m and in the western Himalayas between 500 and 1500 m.”

Vol 94 (1): page 122 line 6, for “The highlights of this discovery is that its closest

relatives are found east of the Indus Basin”

Read: “The highlight of this discovery is that its closest relatives are not found east

of the Indus Basin”.

Vol. 94 (2): page 391, The Executive Editor regrets the publication of the photograph

of the badly mounted specimen of the clouded leopard.

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY

December 1997 Vol. 94 No. 3

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE GREAT PIED HORNBILL {BUCEROS BICORNIS)

IN THE ANAIMALAI HILLS OF SOUTHERN INDIA1

Ragupathy Kannan2 and Douglas A. James3

( With one plate and two text-figures)

Key words: hombills, Buceros bicornis , Western Ghats, breeding, food, behaviour.

A great pied hombill nest was observed for 183 hours in 1992 and 1993 in southern India.

A total of 3,104 food items were delivered by the parent hombills to the nest inmate(s), of

which 2,265 (72.9%) were fig fruits. At least nineteen species of fruit and 7 species of

vertebrate food were delivered to the nest. Fruit predominated in the food delivered through-

out the nesting period, with more fruit in the initial than in the later stages. More animal

food was delivered after the chick hatched than during incubation. Male nest visitation

rate increased steadily through the weeks, reached a peak just after the chick hatched and

then declined. Visitation rate was uniform through the morning hours, and no visits were

made in the afternoon. Incubation period was 38 days. The entire nesting cycle lasted 1 02

days, shorter than in the northern population. It is hypothesized that females moult most

of their feathers for thermoregulation and/or for space saving to increase variation in cav-

ity choices.

Introduction

Although the great pied hombill {Buceros

bicornis) is fairly widespread in its distribution

across south and southeastern Asia, little is

known about its breeding biology in the wild.

There have been some investigations in Thai-

land (Poonswad et al 1983, 1986, 1987; Tsuji et

al 1987, Poonswad and Tsuji 1994), but none

elsewhere, including peninsular India. The birds

being large and conspicuous have inspired sev-

eral useful anecdotal notes in the past (Tickell

1864, Hume 1890, Bingham 1897, Baker 1927,

'Accepted March, 1 996.

2Present Address: Department of Biology,

Westark Community College, Fort Smith, Arkansas 72913,

U.S.A.

department of Biological Sciences, University of Arkansas,

Fayetteville, Arkansas 72701 U.S.A.

Ali 1936) but their excessively shy disposition,

overall scarcity, and the largely inaccessible na-

ture of the terrain they inhabit has probably im-

peded more detailed investigations. Captive

breeding attempts around the world have pro-

vided additional information (Stott 1951, Poulsen

1970, Healy 1979, Choy 1978, 1980; Golding

and Williams 1986) and some anecdotes of young

hombills as pets further contributed to our knowl-

edge (Phipson 1898, Prater 1921, Ellison 1923).

This p«per describes observations made in 1 993

on a single nest in southern India at the

Anaimalai hills in the southern section of the

Western Ghats (around 10°25’N lat.; 76°50’E

long.). Supplementary information from other

nests in the locality have also been included, with

some data from the nest in 1992. This study

focused on the duration and displacement of

452

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

different phases of the unique nesting cycle, and

the changes in the quantity and quality of food

delivered to the nest inmate(s) by the parent(s)

during these phases.

The population of great pied hombills

in southern India, which extends all along the

Western Ghats from 18°N lat.,74°E long.

(Ali and Ripley 1987), to the southern tip of the

peninsula, is endangered, due to problems

ranging from fragmentation of the wet forest

habitat (Chattopadhyay 1985) to poaching

of squabs and adults from nests (Alan Kemp

and J.C. Daniel, pers. comm.; Ali and Ripley

1987). The species is included in Schedule I of

India’s Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 (CSE

1982).

Study Area

The study was conducted in Karian Shola,

a patch of Southern Tropical Wet Evergreen For-

est (Champion and Seth 1968) at an elevation of

750 m. For a description of vegetation, topogra-

phy and wildlife of the area see, Vijayan (1979).

The evergreen part of the forests comprise about

600 ha but the adjoining areas are covered by

open forests, bamboo hill forests and teak plan-

tations totalling 900 sq, km. The evergreen for-

est tract extends across two wildlife sanctuaries

in different states: the Parambikulam Sanctuary

in Kerala and the Indira Gandhi Sanctuary in

Tamil Nadu. The nest, which was the subject of

this study, was located about 1 00 m on the Kerala

side of the inter-state border.

Methods

Observations were made from a camou-

flaged ground hide built about 20 m from the

base of the nest tree. Field assistants helped in

data collection. The nest was observed using

10X binoculars and occasionally ah 8 to 32X

zoom spotting scope. All activities of the birds

were recorded using a micro-cassette recorder

and later transcribed. Observations totalled 183

hrs. Most of the observations were made in 6 hr

periods staggered throughout the breeding cy-

cle. Except for three days in which the observa-

tions lasted into the afternoon, all observations

were in the period between 0700 and 1300 hrs.

Observations were not conducted past 1300 hrs

because it was found that parental visitation vir-

tually ceased in this period.

Seeds and other remains from the faecal

debris beneath the nest (the midden) were regu-

larly examined, collected, and identified as far

as possible. Seeds were identified by the first

author. Some of the seeds were identified by

germinating them in a seedling nursery main-

tained in the camp. Those that were difficult to

identify were sent to the Royal Botanic Gardens

in England for identification and confirmation.

Feather samples collected from nest middens at

the base of nest trees were identified by an ex-

pert in the USA. Fresh weights of animal food

delivered were obtained from Spector (1956).

Statistical analyses were performed using SAS

routines (SAS 1985) available on the IBM 4381

mainframe computer at the University of

Arkansas: Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) with

Duncan’s Multiple Range, and Chi-square

analysis.

Samples of hombill cavity entrance plas-

ter were collected for analysis to compare with

soil and faecal matter. The analyses were con-

ducted at the Department of Horticulture and

Forestry, and the Agricultural Services Diagnos-

tic Laboratory, University of Arkansas.

Observation and Discussion

Pre-nesting courtship

Great pied hombills are a monogamous

and territorial species (Kemp 1979). The first

instance of courtship feeding of a female by a

male was observed on 5th September, 1991. This

was nearly five months before the female became

sealed inside the study nest for the 1992 season.

The courting pair was first seen with six other

conspecifics on a fruiting Ficus tree. After one

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 94

R. Kannan and D. A. James: Great Pied Hornbill

Plate 1

a. Seeds collected from the midden excreta at the base of the nest tree. b. Portion of egg discarded

after hatching of chick, collected at the midden, c. Hornbill chick a few weeks after emergence

from the nest cavity (courtesy of Bronx Zoo).

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE GREA TPIED HORNBILL

453

of the feeding bouts, the male flew to the top of a

huge tree and was shortly joined by the female,

which alighted on a branch about a metre below

the male. The male then regurgitated something,

presumably a fig, and offered it to the female

perched below, which accepted it. Similar court-

ship feeding events were noted five times more

that year. During one: of the events, the male

and female grappled with each other with bills

locked, and emitted clapping sounds. Courtship

feeding has been observed in Thailand

(Poonswad et al. 1983, 1987) but the grappling

behaviour was hitherto unknown. There is one

very unusual record of mass “lek” like courtship

behaviour in this species from southern India

(Hutton 1986). No sign of male aggression to-

wards rival males was observed.

The birds became exceptionally vocal

after January. The breeding pairs indulged in

vocal duets during the breeding season more than

in the non-breeding season. The duets were per-

formed mostly in the immediate vicinity of the

nest. The following sequence of events charac-

terized the duets: the male emitted a series of

loud, resonant “kok” sounds, at a frequency of

about one every other second, each “kok” uttered

with head jerked back and bill pointing upwards.

After three or four “koks”, the female, which was

invariably perched in a nearby branch, started a

similar series of calls, with each “kok” emitted

just prior to, or after, those of the male. This

quickly became a mixture of hoarse roars and

“barks” emitted by both birds in unison. Al-

though the mixture of calls uttered in unison

seemed haphazard, it was predictable, and

remained unchanged through the season.

Despite the commonness of these duets, they are

not mentioned in the literature. This is possibly

because they can easily be mistaken as the

vocalizations of a single bird. Indeed, the

synchrony in the calls and the difficulty in

observing the birds through the lofty vegeta-

tion made it impossible to ascertain exactly the

individual contribution of each bird in the

duet.

The Nest, Clutch and Young

The nesting cavity was on a lofty

Alseodaphne semecarpifolia (Lauraceae) tree in

deep evergreen forest. Particulars of the nest site

were: tree diameter, 72 cm; tree height, 35.15

m; nest cavity height, 17 m; cavity orientation,

242°; nearest human settlement, 1.5 km.

The cavity entrance was nearly circular in

shape. Twenty three other nests located in the

Anaimalai hills between 1 99 1 and 1 992 and in-

formation from 23 nests in Thailand (Poonswad

et al. 1987) indicate a propensity of the birds to

select a vertical slit entrance, with a width just

wide enough for the casque of the female to en-

ter. Just 4 out of 23 nests in Thailand and 6 out

of 24 in the Anaimalai hills had circular en-

trances. At the present nest, there was a knob-

like projection on the trunk on one side of the

entrance, which provided a convenient perch for

the male during nest visits. The male thus pre-

sented his profile while feeding the nest inmates,

thereby greatly assisting the viewer in visual

identification by the viewer of food material de-

livered. In the absence of such a perch site at

other nests, the male was observed clinging on

to the bark of the tree like a woodpecker, using

the tail as a brace.

The nest and its contents could not be ex-

amined closely due to inaccessibility. Just one

chick fledged in both the years of the study. Ali

and Ripley (1987) reported that the clutch size

in this species is “usually 2, sometimes 1”, and

Baker (1932) found that as many as 3 eggs could

be laid on rare occasions. However, studies of

other hombills elsewhere have generally indi-

cated that clutch size usually exceeds fledgling

number, with the supernumerary eggs either not

incubated, or their nestlings succumbing to sib-

ling competition or parental neglect (Kemp 1971,

1976 as cited in Leighton 1986). Therefore, al-

though no inferences can be made regarding the

clutch size in the present study, it is possible that

more than one egg was laid. Shortly after the

chick hatched in 1993, the female discarded a

large piece of egg shell, which we recovered from

454

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

the midden. The shell was dirty white and coarse

textured.

Entrance Sealing

In both the 1991-92 and 92-93 seasons,

the birds were first seen making short visits to

the nest in early December, more than two

months before the female bird became sealed in

the cavity. Such early visits to the nest were

seen at another nest in the same area. Accord-

ing to the local people, the parent birds clean

the nest cavity by removing debris during these

visits. This is supported by the appearance of

old feathers beneath the nest cavity after inspec-

tion visits by the adult hombills. The birds are

exceptionally shy during such visits and may

abandon a nest site if disturbed then. In Decem-

ber 1991, when the first author visited one of the

nests, the parent birds became aware of his pres-

ence below the nest. Thereafter, the nest site

was abandoned for that year (1992). However,

the nest was reoccupied and was successful the

subsequent year.

The actual sealing of the nest cavity en-

trance was not observed in either nesting sea-

son. By the second week of February, the female

was ensconced inside the cavity. A small chunk

of the wall broke loose and fell down sometime

before 17th March, 1992, and this afforded an

excellent opportunity to observe the female in

the process of repairing the damage. The bird

exclusively used its own excreta as a cementing

material, with no mud deliveries from the male.

Use of mud has been reported in the past for great

pied hombills (Stott 1951, Poulsen 1 970, Ali and

Ripley 1987). The bird turned around and depos-

ited its excreta at the rim of the hole (instead of

squirting it out as it usually does), and proceeded

to apply portions of the excrement with its bill onto

damaged area of the wall, using the flat side of

the bill very much as a mason’s trowel. The tap-

ping sound produced by the bill as it plastered the

sealing material was heard from below the tree.

The female repaired the wall continuously until

the wall was reconstructed. The wall had a mo-

saic of colours as the repairing was in progress.

The dried intact sections were dark brown, and

the wet “cement” was green and yellow. By the

end of March the entire wall was complete, dry

and uniformly brown.

Chemical analysis of the broken chunk of

cavity entrance plaster that fell to the midden

(Table 1) showed that the plaster closely matched

the chemical composition of chicken and cattle

faecal material (Spector 1956, Gerry 1968, Carey

et al. 1993) and was very different from the ni-

trogen, total ash, and organic content of tropical

soil (Sanchez 1976). This showed that the origi-

nal plaster used to seal the cavity opening was

also wholly faecal matter without an admixture

of the soil reported in the past (see above). Thus,

the original plaster was the same as what consti-

Table 1

COMPARISON OF HORNBILL PLASTER WITH FAECES AND

TOP SOIL COMPONENTS (PERCENTAGES).

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE GREA TPIED HORN BILL

455

tuted the repair work. (Chicken faecal matter

was included in Table 1 to represent a bird, and

cattle manure was added to characterize an

animal with a vegetarian diet to compare with

the fruity, mainly vegetarian diet of the

hombill.)

After the female left the cavity, the entrance

was resealed exclusively by the young (which was

43 days old when the female left - see Figure 2).

It was observed to use its excreta as the sealing

compound, with no mud deliveries from the par-

ents. The manner in which the young sealed the

entrance was similar to that employed earlier by

the female. It spent several hours of the day con-

stantly tapping the wall.

Portions of the broken wall were collected

from the midden below the nest and examined.

The fragments had the consistency of cork and

were uniformly embedded with hundreds of tiny

fig seeds. Fig seeds occurred in all the 10 other

nest- walls (from different nests) examined in the

two seasons. The seeds apparently play an im-

portant role in holding the structure together,

much like gravel in a concrete mix. (Note: This

information about the great pied hombill using

excreta as sealing compound is what I (RK) re-

ported to Kinnaird and O’Brien (1993), and not

what they attribute to me concerning the Indian

pied hombill, Anthracoceros albirostris).

Feeding

At least 19 species of fruits and 7 spe-

cies of vertebrates were delivered by the parent

hombills to the nest inmate(s) (see Appendix).

A total of 3, 1 04 food items were delivered by the

male during the 155 hours of observation in the

1993 season. Of these, 2,265 (72.9%) were fig

fruits, indicating the importance of the Ficus taxa

during the breeding period. The study in Thai-

land also showed a predominance of figs in the

breeding diet. Fifty-seven percent of the food

items were figs in that case (Poonswad et al.

1987). Tables 2 and 3 show the pattern of food

delivery during the three different phases of the

nesting cycle, i.e., female only in cavity, female

and young in cavity, and young only in cavity.

Table 2

DELIVERY OF FRUIT BY PARENT GREAT PIED HORNBILLS TO NEST OCCUPANT(S) DURING 1 993

Delivery rate per day*

Number of Items Dry weight (gm)

*0700 to 1 300 hrs

a,bReading vertically down the nesting phases, the means with the same letter(s) are not significantly different (Duncan’s Multiple

Range Test, a=0.05)

NA (not available)

456

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94(1997)

For comparison, the female-young phase was

further split as early and late for the analysis

(Table 2). Figs were classified as “large”

(>20mm diameter) and “small” (<20mm diam-

eter).

The total number of fruit items delivered

per day (Table 2) was significantly more in the

female-only and the early part of the female-

young phases than in the later phases of the cy-

cle (ANOVA; F3 16=6.78, P=0.003). Because figs

predominated in the food, an analysis was done

on the numbers and weights of figs delivered.

The number of small figs delivered was signifi-

cantly different between the early and late peri-

ods of the female-young phase, but no signifi-

cant difference was found between the phases

for the number of large figs or non-figs deliv-

ered (Table 2). Since fig numbers were con-

founded by different sizes and varying water con-

tent, fig dry weights were considered. Dry

weights were obtained in the field for various

species of figs by recording weights of sun-dried

figs. No significant difference was found between

the phases for the dry weights of large figs or

small figs delivered per day. However, the total

figs delivered in grams dry weight per day was

significantly higher in the female-young (early

and late) phase than the young-only phase

(ANOVA; F2 ,=3.76, P=0.04) (Table 2).

Since fruit alone may not furnish the pro-

tein required for early fledgling growth, animal

food is frequently used by frugivores to supple-

ment the fruit diet of their nestlings (Skutch

1945, Welty 1982, Faaborg 1988). In this study,

arthropods, reptiles, birds, and mammals were

delivered to the nest occupant(s) (Table 3), ar-

thropods throughout the nest cycle and the ver-

tebrates more sporadically. An analysis of the

total wet weights of animal food delivered per

day (Table 3) showed that significantly greater

amounts (%22=24.08, P<0.005) were delivered

when the young and female were in the nest than

when either the young or female were alone in

the cavity. Such an increase in the delivery of

animal food after the hatching of the chick has

Table 3

DELIVERY OF ANIMAL FOOD BY PARENT GREAT

PIED HORNBILLS TO NEST OCCUPANT(S) DURING

THE 1993 SEASON.

Wet weight (gm/day*)

*0700 to 1300 hrs

been reported in the past for hombills of differ-

ent species (Poonswad and Tsuji 1989).

An overview of the food delivery data in-

dicates that the hombill nest occupants are given

more fruits in the early part of the breeding pe-

riod than in the later period, and animal food is

delivered in increased quantities in the later part

of the cycle. Results of phenological studies con-

ducted concurrently in the study area showed a

community peak in fruit production in the later

part of the breeding cycle (April-May). This peak

is brought about by the synchronous fruiting of

several deep forest trees of the families

Annonaceae, Myristicaceae, and Lauraceae.

These fruits are relatively more nutritious than

those produced by open forest trees (McKey

1975, Leighton and Leighton 1983) and were

delivered by the parent hombills to the young

nestling at this time. It appears, therefore, that

the reproductive cycle of the hombill is synchro-

nised with the community peak in fruit produc-

tion. Thus, the phase when nutrition is needed

the most, after the chick is hatched, coincides

with peak fruit availability. The fact that ani-

mal food is delivered more at this time than in

other phases, along with the overall preponder-

ance of figs in the diet, suggests that a combina-

tion of high-quality fruits, figs, and animal mat-

ter is essential to meet the nutritional require-

ments of the growing chick. The nesting and

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE GREA TPIED HORN BILL

457

fledging of Great Pied Hombills during the time

of high fruit resource availability supported the

findings of Leighton and Leighton (1983) and

Leighton (1986) on Bornean hombills. African

Tockus hombills, which feed mainly on arthro-

pods, also breed during periods of high animal

prey abundance (Kemp 1976).

Food was delivered by regurgitation except

for the larger animal items, which were always

carried in by the bill. The maximum number of

fruits delivered in one load was 232, all small

figs. Regurgitation resulted from pumping ac-

tions of the neck, and the fruits came out rapidly

one by one, sometimes in twos and threes. Of-

ten, some of the fruits fell on the rim of the cav-

ity, bounced off and accumulated in the midden

at the base of the tree. These fruits were col-

lected and examined, thus greatly facilitating

confirmation of the material delivered by the

male hombill. After each visit, the male invari-

ably flew to a nearby branch and wiped the bill

by mbbing it against the boughs, before flying

away for another consignment. Both female and

young begged noisily, their quivering bill tips

appearing at the cavity entrance, during the vis-

its of the male. The begging was more vocifer^

ous each time the male appeared with large ani-

mal prey. The male was always seen to deliver

the food directly to the female and not to the

young (despite the young begging as actively as

the female). It is presumed that the female in

turn feeds the young, but how this happens could

not be determined.

On 9th March, 1993, the male delivered

1 1 ripe Strychnos nux-vomica (Loganiaceae)

fruits to the sealed- in female. The female later

excreted the silvery discoid seeds which were

collected from the midden. Bisset and

Choudhury (1974) reported the occurrence of

the CNS toxin strychnine in the pulp of ripe

Strychnos fruits. Gamble (1922) reported that

the toxin occurs in both pulp and seed, and

that it is included in the diet of hombills and

monkeys. Janzen (1983) compiled evidence of

such fruit traits and suggested that toxic

fruits may be a regular component in the

diet of some frugivores and seed-eaters (Munn

1994).

The male was seen and heard hunting for

animal food in the vicinity of the nest more fre-

quently after the chick hatched out than before

hatching. It foraged in large trees, hopping from

branch to branch, tearing down large flakes of

dead bark in search of animal prey. Flakes of

bark were held at the bill tip, examined for prey,

and discarded; geckos or arthropods flushed from

beneath the bark were caught, flicked up into

the air, and gulped down. Larger prey were

thrashed against the boughs to incapacitate them.

Even in captivity, a breeding male actively pur-

sued and captured a wild blackbird to feed its

mate at nest (Golding and Williams 1986). In

March 1992, when the open forests adjoining

the study area were in flames, a male great pied

hombill was seen flying from a burning area to-

wards the nest with a snake in its bill. The ten-

dency of the male to investigate tree cavities regu-

larly for animal prey is evident by the fact that

this study yielded six incidences of the male

hombill delivering a Travancore flying squirrel

(Petinomys fuscocapillus ) to the nest. One of

these records was based on the recovery of a par-

tially eaten carcass from the midden. These

squirrels are nocturnal, and spend the day sleep-

ing in cavities. The great pied hombill’ s habit of

capturing animals from tree cavities has also been

reported by Wood (1927) in which the hombill

devoured a brood of mynas from a hole, unper-

turbed by the attacks by the parents. In the

present study, the male was seen delivering two

altricial fledglings and one adult bird, and two

other bird species were identified from the feath-

ers collected at the midden (Appendix). The in

creased carnivorous habit of the hombill in the

nesting season makes it a feared predator in the

forests. The male was frequently harassed by a

pugnacious pair of racket-tailed drongos

(Dicrurus paradis eus) in the vicinity of the nest.

The hombill seemed unperturbed by these attacks

most of the time, but occasionally snapped at the

458

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Table 4

DURATION OF MALE FEEDING VISITS TO NEST

(MINUTES) OVER THE THREE DIFFERENT PHASES

OF THE NESTING CYCLE.

Female only 4.43± 1 .93a

Female and young 3.7±2.21a,b

Young only 2.4±0.91b

- L

’ Means with the same letter are not significantly different

(Duncan’s Multiple Range Test, a=0.05);

SD = Standard deviation

drongos.

The mean duration of male visits to the

nest was significantly different between the three

main phases of the cycle (ANOVA, F24g=3.65,

P=0.033) (Table 4). The male spent the greatest

amount of time at the nest when the female was

incubating, and the least amount of time when

only the young was in the cavity. The mean time

spent was significantly higher in the female-only

phase than in the young-only phase (Table 4).

No significant difference was found in the mean

time spent in the female-young phase in com-

parison with either of the other two phases. This

trend can be explained by the distinct difference

in the time required for fruit and animal deliv-

eries. The male spent an average of 4.12±2.12

minutes for each visit in which only fruit food

was delivered (N=36), and 2.25±1.13 minutes

for each visit in which only animal food was

delivered (N=12). Since fruit predominated in

the first half of the cycle, the male had to spend

more time regurgitating the loads of fruit. Ani-

mal food deliveries, which increased in the

latter half of the cycle, were usually done in a

Weeks since female confinement

Fig. 1. Nest visitation rate by parent great pied hombills during the 1993 season.

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE GREA TPIED HORNBILL

459

piece-meal manner and hence were of relatively

short duration.

The male visitation rate to the nes in-

creased steadily through time during the initial

phase of the nesting cycle, reached a peak

just after the hatching of the chick (6th week),

and then progressively decreased as the chick

developed (Fig. 1). This steady decline in feed-

ing frequency may be a naturally evolved

strategy of the parent to encourage the nearly

fledged young to leave the nest (Welty 1982)

before the onset of the monsoon (see later).

The slight increase in male nest visitation

rate as the chick neared fledging (Fig. 1) was

because the male remained in the immediate vi-

cinity of the nest in this period, and made fre-

quent, short visits to the nest with relatively

smaller amounts of food than earlier. From the

13 th week onwards, after the emergence of the

female, the provisioning responsibilities were

shared by both the parents, but only to a very

limited extent by the female. She seemed very

weak after the three months of confinement. An

increase in nest visitation rate after hatching was

also reported by Poonswad and Tsuji (1989) for

wild, and Choy (1980) for captive great pied

hombills. The former study also documented

the general decrease in visitation rate (Fig. 1),

as the chick aged.

Although no signs of non-human preda-

tion of hombill nests was detected in the two

years of investigation, the fact that the birds be-

came exceptionally wary and circumspect at the

advent of, and during, the breeding season indi-

cates that human predation pressure may be a

major influence on hombill breeding behaviour.

The decline in male visitation rate and duration

of visits at nest after the hatching of the chick

may at least be partly explained as precaution-

ary responses against betrayal of nest to human

predators.

Most of the nest provisioning was done

in the morning hours. Male visitation virtually

ceased in the afternoon. The male usually made

one feeding visit to the nest late in the evening

just prior to his roosting. The morning visita-

tion frequencies out of a total of 57 visits were:

0700-0800 hrs, 21.0%; 0800-0900 hrs, 15.7%;

0900-1000 hrs, 22.8%; 1000-1100 hrs, 14.0%;

1100-1200 hrs, 17.5%; 1200-1300 hrs, 8.7%.

This pattern of visitation supported the hypoth-

esis of equal visitation rates through the morn-

ing hours (%25=4.368, F*>0.05). Due to the dis-

tance from the nest, observations of the nest

could not begin earlier than 0700hrs. It is pos-

sible that at least one visit occurred shortly after

day break each day. Fresh excreta was often

found at the midden at 0700hrs.

Nest sanitation

The confined female, and later on the chick

too, ejected excreta with force through a slit in

the partially sealed cavity opening. The excre-

ment accumulated in a wide area near the base

of the tree. These middens and the undigested

seeds therein, were an important source of in-

formation on the identity of food delivered to the

nest inmates. Ant swarms and rodent pellets

were often seen in the middens, suggesting regu-

lar seed removal by these agents. The midden

emitted a distinct fruity odour. The young bird

was not observed to expel the excreta until it was

2 weeks old. Since the female spent a consider-

able amount of time cleaning the nest by throw-

ing out debris, it is presumed that the female

threw out the faecal matter of the young during

this time.

Fledging

The chick left the nest cavity on 28th May

after 65 days of confinement (Fig. 2). The ac-

tual emergence of the chick from the nest was

not observed, but a local tribesman reported that

he saw one of the parent birds tear down the wall

of the nest to help the chick come out. The chick

remained in the vicinity of the nest, perched se-

dately in a nearby tree and provisioned by both

parents, for several hours after emergence from

the nest. It was seen preening continuously and

occasionally snapping at the air (after insects?).

460

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

NEST

SEALED

S

15 FEB

NEST

SEALED

10

20

24 MAR

30 y40 50

60 70

6 MAY

80

28 V

90 100

AY

DAYS

INCUBATION 38 DAYS

FEMALE CONFINEMENT 80 DAYS

t

CHICK EXITS

102nd DAY

I

CHICK CONFINEMENT 65 DAYS

t

FEMALE EXITS

CHICK 43 DAYS OLD

Fig. 2. Nesting schedule of the great pied hombill during the 1993 season.

It begged actively when the parents were nearby.

The bill was yellowish, with the upper mandible

tinged with red, and had no casque. The eyes

were yellow. The bird appeared tidy and well

groomed, but occasionally moved clumsily be-

tween branches. The parents roared agitatedly

at the slightest sign of human intrusion in the

area. Neither the parents nor the young were

seen the next day in the area, and it was not pos-

sible to visit the area from then on. A radio-

tracked chick in Thailand remained within 2 km

of the nest for several months after fledging (Tsuji

et al. 1987). Studies of the similar, forest dwell-

ing Buceros rhinoceros in Borneo (Leighton

1986) indicate that the young may stay with and

be fed by the parents for upto six months after

fledging.

Moult

The rectrices of the female, which could

be seen through the cavity entrance just before

the ejection of excreta, remained intact through-

out the breeding cycle. However, the 4 or 5 large

flight feathers (some of them soiled and unkempt)

removed from beneath the nest indicate at least

a partial moult. Tickell (1864) and Ali and

Ripley (1987) reported a complete simultaneous

moult of all flight feathers (rectrices and remiges)

by the confined female, whereas Poonswad et al.

(1983) recorded females with both a complete

moult and no moult at all of flight feathers. It

appears, therefore, that the extent of this moult

is variable.

There are possible explanations for the

complete or near-complete moult of breeding

female great pied hombills. Since the breeding

occurs in the hot season and because the female

is sealed in the nest cavity, such a moult may

help the bird to maintain optimal body tempera-

ture without the risk of overheating. The maxi-

mum temperature recorded in the study area

during the months of February, March and April

1993, the period the female was sealed in, was

32.2, 32.2, and 34.4° C respectively. Another

possible explanation can be the scarcity of

large nest cavities, which imposes a constraint

on the breeding of these birds. This problem

may be solved by the moulting of all or most of

the feathers by the confined female resulting in

body size reduction. Such a size reduction may

increase the variety of choices from available

cavities. This hypothesis is consistent with the

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE GREA TPIED HORN BILL

461

Table 5

DURATION OF THE DIFFERENT PERIODS (NUMBER OF DAYS) OF THE BREEDING CYCLE: A COMPARISON

WITH PREVIOUS STUDIES.

NA (not available)

fact that adult female great pied hombills are

slightly smaller than males (Ali and Ripley

1 987). (Because only a few of the moulted flight

feathers were found beneath the nests, it is as-

sumed that the female uses the other moulted

feathers to line the nest cavity.)

Nesting Schedule

The entire nesting cycle in 1993 took 102

days from female confinement to chick emer-

462

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

gence from the nest (Table 5, Fig. 2). Assum-

ing that the egg is laid shortly after female con-

finement, the incubation period was estimated

to be 38 days in both the years the nest was stud-

ied (Table 5). The date of hatching was assumed

to be the day the presence of the chick was first

detected by hearing begging calls or seeing its

bill at the cavity entrance. The length of incu-

bation agreed closely with that found in previ-

ous studies, but the female confinement period

was strikingly short for the present nest in both

years compared with most of the previous stud-

ies (Table 5). This seems to indicate that female

great pied hombills in southern India may stay

in the nest cavity for a shorter time than their

northern conspecifics. Could it be that an in-

complete moult enabled the birds to stay in for a

shorter time? Possibly, the pressure of the com-

paratively frequent predation by indigenous peo-

ple in the southern Indian range than elsewhere

has shortened the female’s stay in the nest, thus

reducing its period of vulnerability (V.

Santharam, pers. comm.). Early emergence of

the female could also indirectly benefit the young

by enhancing its provisioning and thus hasten-

ing its own emergence from the nest cavity. In

1992, the female left the nest when the young

was just 16 days old, corroborating the findings

of Ali and Ripley (1987) (Table 5). The dura-

tion of the young’s stay in the nest was also

shorter in this study than in all the previous stud-

ies. A comparison with studies on the wild popu-

lation in Thailand (Table 5) indicates that the

length of the entire cycle might be shorter in the

southern than in the northern populations. In

this study, in the southern range of the hombill,

the length of the nesting cycle certainly was

shorter than in other studies (Table 5, Fig. 2).

Monsoon patterns could also explain the

reason for the apparently short nest cycle in the

southern population. Birds that nest in tree cavi-

ties, as well as ground nesting species, must com-

plete their parental duties before the onset of the

southwest monsoon (Ali 1979). This monsoon

brings most of the rains to the Indian subconti-

nent, beginning in early June in southwestern

India, and sweeping across the subcontinent in

a northeasterly direction. Heavy rainfall thus

occurs several weeks earlier in southern India

than elsewhere, making it important for birds to

finish nesting before the end of May, thus evad-

ing the disruption caused by extensive heavy

rains and high winds.

Implications for conservation

The extended breeding cycle and slow rate

of recruitment of great pied hombills makes them

an example of K-selected species and thereby

renders them vulnerable to extirpation. The

undoubted requirement of mature, deep forest

trees with natural cavities large enough for oc-

cupation by the female and the chick imposes

severe constraints on breeding opportunities,

especially in the wake of the heavy deforestation

and selective removal of large trees for timber in

the peninsular Indian range. Poaching by locals

of the helpless female, and more often the squab,

from the nest, which was found to be regular in

some areas of the range (Kannan 1993, 1994),

could seriously affect densities and recruitment

rates in those areas. Removal of fig trees to feed

captive elephants engaged in lumbering opera-

tions, which occurs regularly all over the range,

could limit foraging opportunities for hombills.

Given the preponderance of figs in the breeding

diet, along with the keystone characteristics of

the fig taxa (Kannan 1994), the importance of

conserving fig trees cannot be overemphasized

in any conservation scheme to maintain hombill

populations

Acknowledgements

J. C. Daniel of the BNHS first sugges-

ted the topic and was of invaluable assistance

throughout the duration of the project. Finan-

cial support for field work in India was

provided by the New York Zoological Society

and Ornitholidays (through the Oriental

Bird Club, U.K.). Travel grants came from

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE GREA TPIED HORNBILL

463

Dr. R. Balachander, the Arkansas Audubon So-

ciety Trust, and the University of Arkansas. Field

work in India was greatly helped by assistance

from Divya Mudappa. Dr. Roxy Layboume of

the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service identified

feather samples. Dr. Gren Lucas of the Royal

Botanic Gardens, U.K. helped in seed identifi-

cations. Dr. V.S. Ramachandran of the

Kongunadu Arts and Science College,

Coimbatore, helped with plant taxonomy. Spe-

cial thanks to the Tamil Nadu Forest Department

officials for permission to work in the sanctuar-

ies of the state and for their active cooperation.

Dr. G. L. Wheeler, and the Agricultural Serv-

ices Diagnostic Laboratory, University of Arkan-

sas, performed chemical analyses on the hombill

cavity entrance plaster, and Dr. Paul R. Nolan

gave information on faecal composition of poul-

try and cattle. The statistics benefited from com-

ments from Miguel Armella. Dr. Alan Kemp

and V. Santharam made useful comments on an

earlier version of this manuscript. Special thanks

to T.R. Sridhar for his reviews of several drafts

of the paper. Dr. Alan Kemp and Dr. Pilai

Poonswad for literature; Shekar Dattatri intro-

duced us to some very helpful tribal people. The

Kadar tribals of the Anaimalai hills played a

major role in the project by discovering nests.

APPENDIX

List of fruit and vertebrate taxa delivered

by parent great pied hombills at the nests in 1 992

and 1993.

I. FRUITS:

Family Moraceae:

1 . Ficus mysorensis

2. Ficus tsiela

3. Ficus sp.

Family Lauraceae:

4. Persea macarantha.

5. Alseodaphne semecarpifolia

6. Litsea oleoides

7. Cinnarnomum sp.

8. Beils hmedia wightii

9. Beilshmedia hourdilloni

Family Ebenaceae:

10. Diospyros montana

Family Loganiaceae:

1 1 . Sirychnos nux-vomica

Family Myristicaceae:

12. Myristica sp.

Family Annonaceae:

13. Polyalthia sp.

Family Bixaceae:

14. Scolopia crenata

Family Sapotaceae:

15. Chrysophyllum sp.

Family Sapindaceae:

16. Filiciurn decipiens

Family Burseraceae:

17. Canarium strictum

Family Elaegnaceae:

18. Elaegnus conferta

Family Oleaceae:

19. Olea dioca

II. VERTEBRATES:

Reptiles : 1 .

2.

3.

Birds : 1 .

2.

3.

4.

5.

Snake

Lizard (Agamid)

Lizard (Gecko)

Barred Jungle Owlet

Glaucidium radiatum

Grey-fronted green pigeon

Treron pompadora

Collared scops owl Otus

bakkamoena

Unidentified yellow feather

Unidentified altricial

fledglings

Mammals : 1. Flymg Squirrel Petinomys sp.

* feathers recovered from midden

464

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

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32: 374.

STATUS OF INDIAN GREY WOLF CAMS LUPUS PALLIPES AND ITS

CONSERVATION IN MARGINAL AGRICULTURAL AREAS OF SOLAPUR

DISTRICT, MAHARASHTRA1

Satish Kumar2 and Asad R. Rahmani3

( With two text-figures)

Key words: Indian grey wolf, Canis lupus pallipes, status, conservation, Solapur,

Deccan, Maharashtra

We conducted ecological and behavioural studies on the Indian grey wolf Canis lupus

pallipes for three years in an area of 30 sq. km. at Nannaj in the Jawaharlal Nehru Great

Indian Bustard Sanctuary in Maharashtra. After establishment of the Bustard Sanctuary,

good protection was given to all wildlife, resulting in an increase of blackbuck Antilope

cervicapra, which constitutes the major wild prey of the Indian grey wolf. The Sanctuary

falls in marginal agricultural areas, with numerous villages and settlements. Therefore,

wolf-human conflicts are common, chiefly because of wolf depredation on livestock. Under

conservation and soil protection schemes, the State Forest Department has raised more

than 500 plantation plots in Solapur district alone. These plantation plots range from 1 5 to

500 ha and provide excellent cover during summer to the wolf and its prey. These forest

plots also serve as undisturbed denning sites. As the Sanctuary mainly comprises a mosaic

of crop fields, grazing lands, plantation plots, and settlements, crop damage by increasing

numbers of biackbuck is a volatile issue. We have suggested the following conservation

measures for the protection of wolves: (i) better protection of the core areas, (ii) protection

of the denning sites, (iii) livestock compensation for wolf depredation to reduce wolf-man

conflict, (iv) translocation of blackbuck from locally-abundant areas to other suitable

unoccupied habitats in the Sanctuary, where the wolf may also colonize, (v) Some measure

of compensation for crop-damage by blackbuck should be worked out to reduce human-

blackbuck conflict.

Introduction

There are two subspecies of wolf in India,

the Indian grey wolf ( Canis lupus pallipes) and

the Tibetan wolf ( Canis lupus chanco). The

Indian grey wolf (henceforth called wolf in this

paper) is found in the plains of central, western,

and peninsular India, in isolated pockets in the

states of Rajasthan, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh,

Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra

Pradesh. In Maharashtra, the wolf is distributed

'Accepted May, 1996

2Centre of Wildlife and Ornithology

Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh 202 002, India.

3Present Address: Bombay Natural History Society.

Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk,

Mumbai 400 023.

in small pockets of semi-arid areas comprising

Nasik, Aurangabad, Jalna, Buldana, Akola,

Yavatmal, Ahmednagar, Beed, Pune, Satara,

Solapur, Osmanabad and Sangli (Fig. 1).

C. 1. chanco is found at high altitudes in

the Himalayas in Kashmir, Lahaul Spiti and

Sikkim, and Trans-Himalayas (Ladakh and

Sikkim) from 3000 to 4000 m. This subspecies

is fairly common in Ladakh and is reported to

take a heavy toll of livestock and kill large

numbers of Tibetan gazelle ( Gazella

picticaudata) and wild sheep ( Ovis ammon

hodgsoni). These wild antelopes and sheep are

killed frequently during winter when they

descend to lower altitudes because of heavy

snowfall (Ganhar, 1979).

STATUS AND CONSERVATION GF INDIAN GREY WOLF IN MAHARASHTRA

467

Fig. 1. Map showing the districts of Maharashtra inhabited by the grey wolf.

468

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 94 (1997)

The habitat of wolf in India is semi-arid

dry grasslands, scrublands, grazing land and

rocky low hills. The grazing lands lie mainly in

the marginal agricultural areas. There is

tremendous livestock pressure on these areas

because of the continuous increase in livestock,

which to some extent contributes to the decline

of the wolfs prey.

Except for the preliminary surveys by

Shahi (1982) and studies on wolf in Velavadar

National Park in Gujarat (Jhala 1991, Jhala and

Giles, 1991), there is lack of information on the

ecology of this subspecies in other areas of its

distribution, while on the Tibetan wolf, nothing

exists on its ecology and population estimates

in India (Mech, 1982). The present paper is a

part of the larger studies conducted on the

ecology of the wolf in the Jawaharlal Nehru

Great Indian Bustard Sanctuary, Nannaj, Solapur

and our objective is to investigate and provide

basic information on the status of the wolf

population.

Study Area

Solapur, with an area of 15,017 sq. km is

one of the largest districts of Maharashtra, both

in terms of area and human population. It lies in

the interior Deccan and is typical of the plateau.

The climate is dry and the maximum temperature

varies from 25°C in winter to 44°C in summer.

Average annual precipitation is erratic and varies

from 500 to 724 mm. The year to year fluctuation

in rainfall distribution makes the area drought

prone.

The terrain is gently undulating, typical

of the Deccan. The cropfields are restricted, by

and large, to the valleys between the plateau. The

habitat is a mosaic of scrubland, grazing land,

agriculture fields, human habitations and man-

made plantations. Large-scale plantations are

being raised by the State Forest Department in

all the sub-divisions. The main purpose is to

check soil erosion, provide firewood for local

people, fodder for cattle and to provide vegeta-

tional cover to soil. These plantations are being

made under different agencies such as Drought

Prone Areas Programme (DPAP), District Rural

Development Agency (DRDA), Employment

Guarantee Scheme (EGS), and Tree Planting

Scheme (TPS). The chief mountain-passes

(ghats) in the district are: Yedshi ghat in Barshi,

Waghola and Bodki in Karmala, Chinchgaon in

Madha. Gurvad and Phaltan range in Malshiras

and the Khanapur-Jat hills in Sangole.

The main crops are sorghum Sorghum

bicolor, sunflower Helianthus annus, wheat

Triticum aestivum, sugarcane Saccharum

officinalis, groundnut Arachis hypogea and

various pulses. There are orchards of grape Vitis

vinifera and Indian plum Zizyphus mauritiana

orchards in the areas which are under well-

irrigation. Sorghum and sugarcane are the main

crops in irrigated areas. The dominant grasses

include Aristida spp., Sehima nervosum,

Heteropogon contortus, Dichanthium annulatum

and Chrysopogon fulvus, interspersed with

scattered scrubland.

Methodology

We conducted a survey of the wolf and its

prey in Solapur and its adjoining districts during

November-December 1993. Information on the

presence of wolf, breeding, number, natural prey,

livestock density, and public attitude were taken

on a set proforma through enquiring and/or by

ground surveys. Forest Department personnel,

villagers, particularly shepherds, were

interviewed. Information collected from people

was cross-checked by ground surveys by looking

for scats and tracks, and sightings or howling.

Those areas where wolf presence was not

expected, such as intensive agriculture areas,

were not surveyed intensively. In such areas, the

crop is harvested twice a year and the area is

always occupied and frequented by humans. To

avoid over estimation, the queries with one source

about wolf numbers were tallied with information

gathered from other sources in a particular area.

STA TUSAND CONSER VA TION OF INDIAN GREY WOLF IN MAHARASHTRA

469

The maximum possible information was

sought from shepherds about the frequency of

wolf sighting in a particular area, constancy of

the pack-size, and wolf breeding in the area. If

we found evidence of denning in a particular

area, we accompanied the informer up to the

den sites and the necessary information was

collected.

All the eleven sub-divisions ( tehsils ) of

Solapur district were surveyed thoroughly and

the areas wherein wolf presence was known to

us were checked with intensive search operations

by looking for tracks and scats (as sighting is

rare). The sub- divisions are: Akkalkot, Barshi,

Karmala, Madha, Malshiras, Mohol,

Mangalvedha, North Solapur, Pandharpur,

Sangole and South Solapur. Malshiras, Sangole

and Barshi tehsils have steep hills and the rocks

are in the form of medium to large-sized boulders,

Akkalkot, Pandharpur, Mangalvedha and Madha

have the largest agriculture belts, thanks to the

development of irrigation facilities. The crops

are also irrigated from the river Bhima in these

sub-divisions. These areas have incurred heavy

increase in cultivated area and the grasslands are

continuously being converted into crop fields

because of improved irrigation facilities.

In addition to the revenue land and grazing

land, plantations totalling 5, 1 25 ha were surveyed.

A distance of 2,776 km was covered by vehicle

during the survey and indirect evidence of wolf

was found. These plantations were dispersed over

a large area of grassland and crop fields.

The wolves found within 20 km radius

around villages were considered as one pack

moving over these areas. This was tallied/

confirmed with the number of wolves seen in

these villages also (i.e., if the same number of

wolves was sighted around 4-5 villages, it was

considered as one pack). Altogether, 398 people

were interviewed about the wolves and their

whereabouts.

Results and Discussion

The wolf is present in all sub-divisions of

Solapur (Fig. 2). The results of the survey for

population estimates and density in different areas

are given in Table 1 . Solapur district supports a

minimum population of 53 and maximum of 85

wolves. Out of these figures, the packs that are

present along the district boundaries (e.g., with

Ahmednagar, Satara, Sangli and Osmanabad) and

the state border (Karnataka) contribute to

populations of either side. Much of the range is

Table 1

APPROXIMATE DENSITY OF WOLVES AND POPULATION OF NATURAL PREY IN SOLAPUR SUB-DIVISIONS

* represents the numbers supplied by the local people and the Forest Department

** wolf habitat or area available to wolves

Numbers in parentheses represent our observations

470

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Ahmednagar

District

MAHARASHTRA

Satara

District

Sangli District

RANGE OF WOLF DISTRIBUTION

BREEDING SITES

^ TEH S!L BOUNDARY

KARNATAKA STATE

20 0 20 Km

L- A I

Fig. 2. Map showing the distribution of grey wolf in the subdivisions of Solapur District, Maharashtra

ST A TUSAND CONSER VA TION OF INDIAN GREY WOLF IN MAHARASHTRA

471

inhabited by low pack sizes. The largest pack size

comprised of 12 wolves and smallest of two

individuals. The low pack size is probably because

of the high human populations in such areas and

disturbance. Moreover, the natural prey base and

livestock (goat and sheep) are also low in these

areas. There was no constancy in the pack size in

any area of the wolf range as reported by other

workers. For example, the Nannaj pack that was

followed for behavioural studies did not remain

constant over the year (Kumar unpubl. data). Most

sightings during winter were of only two animals.

We presume that this might be a result of more

activity of the alpha pair of a pack, or the only pair

(lone pair) of an area, searching for denning sites.

The blackbuck (primary prey of the wolf)

is in low numbers in most of the wolf range areas

of Solapur, except Mohol and North Solapur

sub-divisions which harbour large populations

of blackbuck (Table 1). Indian gazelle or

chinkara ( Gazella bennetii) was seen only in

three sub-divisions of Solapur (Table 1) in

extremely low numbers.

Six dens were located with the help of

shepherds and watchmen of the Forest

Department. In addition, there was one den along

the periphery of a plantation at Sohale in Mohol,

wherein the wolves were denning over the years.

However, this den got destroyed because of a

check-dam that came up in the area in 1993.

Likewise, a den was destroyed around Katphal

(Sangole) plantation because of the irrigation

canal (called Nira) that made its way through

the den. In 1992, two pups were seen by a forest

guard at the same den. We were told that this

den was also being used for many years by

wolves.

About 12-15 years ago, the wolf

disappeared from Achegaon and surrounding

villages in South Solapur and Narliwadi and

surrounding areas of Sangole tehsil, apparently

because of agricultural expansion and change in

cropping pattern. For the same reason, the range

of the wolf has shrunk in Mangalvedha and

Madha tehsils. Breeding was noticed only in

Akkalkot, Madha, Malshiras, Sangole and North

Solapur tehsils, which still have extensive areas

under marginal cultivation.

After being bitten by a wolf in 1991, a

young shepherd of Jalbhavi village died in

September 1993 due to rabies. There was a pack

of 14 wolves in 199 1 in this village area. In recent

years, this is apparently the first and only case

of human casualty by the wolf in Solapur district.

Conservation

Malshiras, Sangole, North Solapur and

Akkalkot are the best areas for the long term

survival of the wolf because of availability of prey

and denning sites. Among these areas, Malshiras

and Sangole have steep hills along adjoining

districts and have massive rock boulders. The

soil under these boulders has a soft texture which

helps the wolves to excavate it for making dens.

According to local people and also our

observations the wolves use the same dens year

after year. The livestock population in each of

these ranges is more than 20,000, which provides

regular food.

The wolf is a highly endangered species,

protected under the Wildlife (Protection) Act,

1972, but till now, not much has been done for

its protection, mainly because of its reputation

as a livestock destroyer, and in some areas as a

child-lifter. Fortunately, in Solapur district, no

case of child lifting has been reported as far as

we know, but its so-called sheep and goat

depredation makes it an unpopular animal.

During the survey, all the people interviewed

responded with a negative attitude towards wolf

conservation.

Despite continuous persecution by human

beings, the wolf has the resilience to survive,

chiefly due to its adaptability and intelligence.

The wolf, like the Great Indian bustard Ardeotis

nigriceps and blackbuck, has responded

positively to conservation measures (in the form

of plantation and grassland plots developed under

various schemes). However, this has not reduced

472

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

human-wolf conflict — the ultimate victim of

which is invariably the wolf. It is a complex issue,

without an easy solution. Nevertheless, we

recommend the following steps which might

minimize human- wolf conflict and increase the

wolfs chance of survival:

( 1 ) Adequate compensation for wolf depredation

of livestock.

(2) Translocation of blackbuck from locally-

abundant areas to other suitable unoccupied

habitats.

(3) To reduce human-blackbuck conflict,

compensation for crop-damage by

blackbuck.

(4) Special protection to denning sites and core

areas which are generally occupied by wolves.

(5) Development of large grassland and

plantation plots, especially around denning

sites used regularly by wolves.

(6) Intensive studies on the movement,

Refer

Ganhar, J.N. (1979): The Wildlife of Ladakh. Haramukh

Publications, Indra Nagar, Srinagar, pp 91 .

Jhala, Y.V. (1991): Habitat and population dynamics of

wolves and Blackbuck in Velavadar National Park,

Gujarat, India. Ph.D. dissertation, Virginia

Polytechnic Institute and State University,

Blackburg, Virginia.

Jhala, Y.V. & R. Giles Jr. (1991): The status and

conservation of wolf in Gujarat and Rajasthan,

dispersal, habitat requirements and general

ecology of the wolf in Maharashtra, using

modem techniques of radio-telemetry and

marking.

(7) Regular wolf census in Maharashtra, at least

once in two years.

Acknowledgement

We are grateful to the Forest Department,

Solapur, and the Wildlife Division (Western

Circle), Pune for their help during the survey.

We also thank Dr. Jay Samant, ex-Director,

BNHS, and Prof. A.H. Musavi, former

Chairman, Centre of Wildlife and Ornithology

(AMU) for facilities. The Grassland Ecology

Project was funded by the U.S. Fish & Wildlife

Service (USFWS) and sponsored by the Ministry

of Environment, Forests & Wildlife, Govt, of

India. We are thankful to them, especially to

Mr. David Ferguson (SFCP Coordinator), USFWS.

ENCES

India. Conservation Biology 5(4): 476-483.

Mech, L.D. (1982): The IUCN-SSC Wolf Specialist Group.

In Fred H. Harrington and Paul C. Paquet (eds.),

Wolves Of The World: Perspectives of Behaviour,

Ecology, and Conservation, Noyes Publications,

New Jersey, U.S. A. pp 327-333.

Shahi, S.P. (1982): Status of grey wolf ( Canis lupus

pallipes) in India: A preliminary survey. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 79(3): 493-502.

ORCHIDS OF HIGH WAVY RECOLLECTED1

N. Sasidharan,2 K.P. Rajesh and Jomy Augustine3

Key words: orchids, High Wavys, Periyar Tiger Reserve, Odontochilus

rotundifolius, Bulbophyllum agastyamalayanum, B. xylophyllum.

The High Wavy Mountains are remarkable for their endemic flora, particularly orchids.

Among the 34 orchids reported by Blatter in 1928, some of them could not be located and

are considered as possibly extinct, mainly due to habitat degradation. This paper deals

with 64 species of orchids including all the species reported by Blatter, except

Chrysoglossum halberii Blatt., Odontochdus rotundifolius Blatt. relocated. Bulbophyllum

agastyamalayanum Gopalan & Henry is reduced to B. xylophyllum Par. & Reichb.f.

Distribution analysis and relevant notes are provided.

Introduction

The High Wavy mountains or the

Varushanad Hills, towering more than 1500 m

above msl are steep and high spurt hills,

extending North East from Kumily at the eastern

junction of Cardamom Hills and Pandalam Hills

to Andipatti Hills of Madurai district, Tamil

Nadu. Except for the south western junction,

bordering the Idukki district of Kerala, the High

Wavys are entirely in Tamil Nadu. Parts of the

High Wavy Mountains, Manalar, Vellimala and

Brook’s peak lie adjacent to the Periyar Tiger

Reserve, Idukki district, Kerala.

During plant exploration in 1917 by Blatter

and Halberg, 34 species of orchids under 19

genera, including 3 new species and 1 new

variety, were collected. The new taxa des-

cribed were Chrysoglossum halbergii, Eria

pseudoclavicaulis, Odontochilus rotundifolius

and Dendrobium nutans var. rubrolabris. Among

the 34 species, 14 are endemic to the Western

Ghats.

Parts of the High Wavy in Tamil Nadu have

been cleared for raising plantations of cardamom,

coffee, tea and other cash crops. Owing to the

'Accepted February, 1997

2Non Wood Forest Products Division,

Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi-680 653, Kerala.

3Present Address: Dept, of Botany, St. Thomas College,

Pala, Kottayam, Kerala.

restricted distribution and habitat degradation,

the 3 new species described by Blatter from the

High Wavys could not be relocated and placed

under various threat categories (Henry et ah

1979). Though Eria pseudoclavicaulis has been

relocated from Panniyar forests and Nyamkkad,

Anamudi (Abraham & Vatsala, 1981); from

Munnar, Idukki district and Agastyamalai,

Trivandrum district (Sasidharan et ah 1990), the

other two species Chrysoglossum halbergii and

Odontochilus rotundifolius could not be located

and are considered to be possibly extinct (Nayar

and Salary, 1988).

Observations

The area bordering the High Wavy

Mountains in the Periyar Tiger Reserve is

undisturbed and supports dense vegetation.

During our studies on the flora of Periyar Tiger

Reserve, we were able to collect 64 species of

orchids from the region adjoining the High

Wavys in the Periyar Tiger Reserve, including

all the orchids except Chrysoglossum halbergii

reported by Blatter (1928). The orchids collected

are listed below with relevant notes. The

specimens cited are deposited in the Kerala Forest

Research Institute Herbarium (KFRI). The

abbreviations NS, JA, and KPR denote the names

of collectors N. Sasidharan, Jomy Augustine ,

and K.P. Rajesh respectively.

474

JOURNAL, BOMBA YNATUR.iL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

List of Orchids:

1. Aerides maculosa Lindl.

Rare, in evergreen forests. Endemic to

southern Western Ghats. JA & KPR 15364.

2. Anoectochilus rotundifolius (Blatt.)

Sathish & Rasm.

Odontochilus rotundifolius Blatt.

Very rare in evergreen forests. Endemic to

southern Western Ghats. JA 13779.

Note: This species reported from the

High Wavys by Blatter (1928) based on the

collection made in 1917 had not been collected

since then. Balakrishnan (1966) transferred it

to Anoectochilus rotundifolius (Blatt.) Balakr.

There was no report of this species for a long

period and it was considered extinct (Henry

et al. 1979); Ahmedullah and Nayar, 1987;

Nayar and Sastry, 1987). Recently, Gopalan

(1993) published a new species under a new

genus, Aenhenrya agastyamalayana, from

Agastya-malai Hills, Tamil Nadu. After critical

studies and discussion with Dr. C. Sathish

Kumar, TBGRI, it was found that Aenhenrya

agastyamalayana and Odontochilus rotundifolius

are the same. Thus the present collection is a

rediscovery from the type locality after a long

lapse. For a detailed discussion refer to Sathish

Kumar and Rasmussen, 1997.

3. Anoectochilus elatus Lindl.

Rare in evergreen forests. Endemic to

southern Western Ghats. JA 13124.

4. Brachycorythis splendida Summerh.

Occasional in grasslands. Endemic to

southern Western Ghats. JA 14061.

5. Bulbophyllum aureum (Hook.f.) J.J.Sm.

rare in evergreen forests. Endemic to

southern Western Ghats. JA & KPR 1 7089.

6. B . elegantulum (Rolfe) J.J. Sm.

Rare in evergreen forests. Endemic

to southern Western Ghats. JA 13713,

13745.

7. B. fischeri Seidenf.

Cirrhopetalum gamblei Hook.f.

Rare in evergreen forests. Endemic to

southern Western Ghats. JA 15018.

8. B. fuscopurpureum Wight

Rare in evergreen forests. Endemic to

southern Western Ghats. JA & KPR 15036.

9. B, kaitense Riechb.f.

Rare in evergreen forests. Endemic to

southern Western Ghats. NS & JA 15017.

10. B. macraei (Lindl.) Reichb. f.

Rare in evergreen forests. Southern

Western Ghats and Sri Lanka. JA 13777.

Note: This was considered endemic to Sri Lanka

until recently reported from Tamil Nadu

(Srinivasan & Chitra, 1989). The present

collection is a new record for Kerala.

11. B. neilgherrense Wight

Fairly common in evergreen forests. India

and Bangladesh. JA 14726.

12. B. xylophyllum Par. Reichb. f.

Bulbophyllum agastyamalayanum

Gopalan & Henry syn. nov.

Rare in evergreen forests. Indo-Malayan.

JA & KPR 14474.

Note: The similarity of B. agastyamalayanum

Gopalan & Henry and B. xylophyllum Par. &

Reichb.f., was commented on by Sathish Kumar

and Manilal (1994). Gopalan and Henry (1993)

described the new species as allied to

B. hymenanthum Hook.f., which belongs to

section Aphanobulbon Schltr., characterised

by “inflorescence one to few flowered or with

a lax flowered rachis” (Seidenfaden, 1979).

B. xylophyllum Par. & Reichb. f., belongs to the

section Globiceps Schltr., characterised by

“inflorescence a densely packed head of

many small dark coloured flowers”. Studies

with our collections from Periyar Tiger

Reserve an Shenduruny Wildlife Sanctuary,

Quilon district, [NS 11371 (KFRI)] and with

the type specimen Gopalan 96220 (MH), shows

that B. agastyamalayanum belongs to Sec-

tion Globiceps and is no different from

B. xylophyllum. Hence B. agastyamalayanum

Gopalan & Henry is synonymised with

B. xylophyllum Par. & Reichb. f. The present

collection extends the distribution range of the

species of Kerala.

ORCHIDS OF HIGH WA VY RECOLLECTED

475

13. Calanthe masuca (D.Don) Lindl.

Fairly common in evergreen forests. Indo-

Malayan. JA 12601, 13981.

14. C. triplicata (Willem.) Ames

Occasional in evergreen forests. Indo-

Malayan. JA 13772.

15. Coelogyne breviscapa Lindl.

Occasional in evergreen forests. South

India and Sri Lanka. KPR 14365.

16. C. nervosa A. Rich.

Rare in evergreen forests. Endemic to

southern Western Ghats. JA 13863.

17. Dendrobium anamalayanum Chandrb.

et al.

Fairly common in evergreen forests.

Endemic to southern Western Ghats. JA

& KPR 15362.

18. D. herbaceum Lindl.

Common in evergreen forests. Endemic to

southern Western Ghats and Bihar. JA 13149.

19. D. microbulbon A. Rich.

Rare in evergreen forests. Endemic to

southern Western Ghats. JA & KPR 14408.

20. D. nutantiflorum Hawkes & Heller

D. nutans Lindl. var. rubrolabris Blatt.

Rare in evergreen forests. Southern

Western Ghats and Sri Lanka. JA & KPR

15016.

21. Diplocentrum recurvum Wight

Fairly common in evergreen forests.

Southern Western Ghats and Sri Lanka.

JA 15218.

22. Disperis neilghprrense Wight

Rare in evergreen forests and grasslands.

Indo-Malayan. JA 13773.

23. Epipogium roseum (D. Don) Lindl.

Occasional in evergreen forests. Indo-

Malayan. JA 13165.

24. Eria nana A. Rich.

Rare in evergreen forests. Endemic to

southern Western Ghats. KPR 16873.

25. E. pauciflora Wight

Common in evergreen forests. Endemic to

southern Western Ghats. JA 13980.

26. E. pseudoclavicaulis Blatt.

Fairly common in evergreen forests.

Endemic to southern Western Ghats. JA

13973.

27. E. reticosa Wight

Rare in evergreen forests. Endemic to

southern Western Ghats and Himalayas. JA

14001, KPR 16874.

28. Gastrochilus acaulis (Lindl.) O. Ktze.

Saccolabium pule helium Fischer

Occasional in evergreen forests. South

India and Sri Lanka. JA 17853.

Note: Seidenfaden (1988) comments that all the

plants known by the names Saccolabium

nilagiricum Hook.f., Vanda pulchella Wight,

Gastrochilus pulchellus (Wight) Schltr., G.

nilagiricus (Hook, f.) O. Ktze., G. calceolaris

(J.E. Sm.) D. Don., and G. indicus Garay from

South India are G. acaulis (Lindl.) O. Ktze.

29. Habenaria barnesii Summerh.

Rare in grasslands. Endemic to southern

Western Ghats. JA 17880.

30. Habenaria muldcaudata Sedgw.

Rare in evergreen forests. Endemic to

southern Western Ghats. KPR 14344.

31. Kingidium niveum Sathish

Rare in evergreen forests. Endemic to

southern Western Ghats. KPR 16885.

32. Liparis cespitosa (Thou.) Lindl.

Rare in evergreen forests. Indo-Malayan.

JA 13967.

33. L. elliptica Wight

Rare in evergreen forests. Indo-Malayan.

JA & KPR 14477.

34. L, viridiflora Lindl.

Occasional in evergreen forests. Indo-

Malayan. JA 1 7843.

35. L. walker iae Grab.

Rare in grasslands. Southern Western

Ghats and Sri Lanka. JA 14006.

36. L. wightiana Thw.

Common in grasslands. Southern Western

Ghats and Sri Lanka. JA 14007.

37. Malaxis rheedei Sw.

Fairly common in evergreen forests. India

and Sri Lanka. JA 14073.

476

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

38. Oberonia anamalayana Joseph

Rare in evergreen forests. Endemic to

southern Western Ghats JA 13677.

39. O. arnotiiana Wight

Rare in evergreen forests. India and Sri

Lanka. KPR 16879.

40. O. bicornis Lindi.

Rare in evergreen forests. South India and

Sri Lanka. JA & KPR 14406.

41. O. brunoniana Wight

Occasional in evergreen forests. Endemic

to southern Western Ghats. JA 12983.

42. O. denticulata Wight

Occasional in evergreen forests. Indo-

Malayan. J. 12982.

43. O. ensiformis (J.E. Sm.) Lindi.

Common in evergreen forests. Indo-

Malayan. KPR 16886.

44. O. longibrateata Lindi.

Rare in evergreen forests. Southern

Western Ghats and Sri Lanka. KPR 14317.

45. O. santapaui Kapad.

O. lindleyana Wight

Common in evergreen forests. Endemic to

southern Western Ghats. JA 13988, 13989.

46. O. sebastiana Shetty & Vivek.

Occasional in evergreen forests. Endemic

to southern Western Ghats. JA 12972, KPR

14312, 16878.

47. O. verticillata Wight

Rare in evergreen forests. Endemic to

southern Western Ghats. JA 17854.

48. O. wightiana Lindi.

Occasional in evergreen forests. Southern

Western Ghats and Sri Lanka. KPR 16875.

49. Papilionanthe subulata (Koenig) Garay

Common in evergreen forests. Southern

Western Ghats and Sri Lanka. JA & KPR 15026.

50. Peristylus aristatus Lindi.

P. stenostachys Krzl.

Rare in evergreen forests. India, Sri Lanka

and Nepal. JA 14147.

51. P. densus (Lindi.) Sant. & Kapad.

Rare in evergreen forests. Indo-Malayan.

JA 14142.

52. Phreatia elegans Lindi.

Rare in evergreen forests. India and Sri

Lanka. JA 13951.

53. Robiquetia josephiana Manilal & Sathish

Rare in evergreen forests. Endemic to

southern Western Ghats. JA 13970.

54. Satyrium nepalense D. Don

Common in grasslands. Indo-Malayan. JA

12181, 13190.

55. Seidenfadeniella chrysantha (Wight)

Sathish

Saccolabium filiforme Lindi.

Rare in evergreen forests. Southern

Western Ghats and Sri Lanka. JA & KPR

15361.

56. Sirhookera lanceolata (Wight) O. Ktze.

Josephia lanceolata Wight

Common in evergreen forests. Southern

Western Ghats and Sri Lanka. JA 12331.

57. S. latifolia (Wight) O. Ktze.

Occasional in evergreen forests. Southern

Western Ghats and Sri Lanka. JA 13982.

58. Spiranthes sinensis (Pers.) Ames

Spiranthes australis Lindi.

Rare in grasslands. Indo-Malayan. JA

14988.

59. Tainia bicornis (Lindi.) Reichb. f.

Occasional in evergreen forests. Southern

Western Ghats and Sri Lanka. JA 13433.

60 Trias bonaccordensis Sathish

Rare in evergreen forests. Endemic to

southern Western Ghats. JA 13433.

61. T. stocksii Benth. ex Hook. f.

Occasional in evergreen forests. Indo-

Malayan. JA 13165.

62. Zeuxine cladestina Bl.

Rare in evergreen forests. Indo-Malayan.

JA & KPR 14873.

63. Z. gracilis (Breda) Bl.

Z. blatterii Fischer

Rare in evergreen forests. Indo-Malayan.

JA & KPR 14821.

64. Z. longilabris (Lindi.) Benth. ex Hook f.

Occasional in evergreen forests. Indo-

Malayan. JA 13628.

ORCHIDS OF HIGH WA VY RECOLLECTED

All

Conclusion

The distribution analysis reveals that

among the 64 species, 24 are endemic to the

southern Western Ghats, Dendrobium

herbaceum extends to Bihar and Eria reticosa

upto Himalayas. The Indo-Sri Lankan elements

are 19 and Indo-Malayan 18. The orchids of High

Wavys, especially the endemics, have a narrow

distribution range; and as many as 12 endemics

are considered rare and a few critically

endangered.

Refer

Abraham, A. & P. Vatsala (1981): Introduction to Orchids.

TBGRI, Trivandrum.

Ahmedullah, M. & M.P. Nayar (1987): Endemic Plants

of the Indian Region. BSI, Calcutta.

Balakrishnan, N.P. (1966): Nomenclatural notes on some

flowering plants. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 63: 327-

331.

Blatter, E. ( 1 928): A list of orchids with some new species

from High Wavy Mountain (Madurai District).

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 32: 518-523.

Gopalan, R. (1993): Aenhenrya: A new genus of

Orchidaceae from Southern India. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 90: 270-273.

Gopalan, R. & A.N. Henry (1993): A new species of

Bulbophyllum Thouars (Orchidaceae) from

Southern India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 89: 78-

79.

Henry, A.N., K. Vivekananthan & N.C. Nair ( 1 979): Rare

and threatened flowering plants of South India.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75(3): 684-697.

Nayar, M.P. & A.R.K. Sastry (1987): Red Data Book of

Acknowledgements

The authors are thankful to Dr. C. Sathish

Kumar, TBGRI, Trivandrum for his critical

opinion and to Dr. V. J. Nair, Deputy Director,

Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore, for

permission to examine the authentic material at

Madras Herbarium (MH). Sincere thanks are due

to Dr. K.S.S. Nair, Director, KFRI, for providing

facilities. The study was carried out with financial

assistance from the Wildlife Wing of Kerala

Forest Department.

ENCES

Indian Plants. BSI, Calcutta.

SasidhaRan, N., Muktesh Kumar, V.P.K. Nambiar &

C. Renuka (1990): Establishment of an orchidarium

in the Institute campus. KFRI Research Report 64,

Kerala Forest Research Institute, Thrissur.

Sathish Kumar, C. & Finn. N. Rasmussen (1997): The

reappearance of Odontochilus rotundifolius

(Blatter) and its transfer to Aenhenrya Gopalan

(Orchidaceae). Novon 7: 81-84.

Sathish Kumar, C. & K.S. Manilal ( 1 994): A Catalogue

of Indian Orchids. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal

Singh, Dehra Dun.

Seidenfaden, G. (1979): Orchid genera in Thailand 8.

Bulbophyllum Thou. Dansk. Bot. Ark. 33(3): 179-

185.

Seidenfaden, G. (1988): Orchid genera in Thailand 14.

Fifty nine Vandoid genera. Opera Bot. 95: 293.

Srinivasan, S.R. & V. Chitra (1989): Bulbophyllum

macraei (Lindl.) Reichb.f. — A new record for the

flora of India from Tamil Nadu. J. Econ. Tax. Bot.

13: 43-44.

GROUP SIZE AND COMPOSITION OF INDIAN PEAFOWL (PA VO CRISTATUS) IN

AN AGRO-ECOSYSTEM AT ALIGARH, UTTAR PRADESH1

Shahla Yasmin2

(With two text-figures)

Key words: Pavo cristatus, group size, group composition, social organization,

photoperiodic length.

Variation in group size and composition of Indian peafowl (Pavo cristatus) was investigated iri

an agro-ecosystem at Aligarh during 1993-94. The area included a patch of scrubland and plantation

surrounded by a vast expanse of crop fields. There was significant seasonal variation in group

size and significant difference in group size between ‘closed5 habitat (scrubland and plantation)

and ‘open’ habitat (crop fields). This was attributed to social organization and difference in

availability of food between the two habitats. Seasonal variation was found in group composition

too. This was attributed to the reproductive pattern and social organization of peafowl.

Introduction

The variation in group size is considered

as part of the species’ adaptation to its

environment (Southwell 1984). This variation

could be due to habitat structure, spatio-temporal

distribution of food and predation pressure

(Barrette, 1991). The Indian peafowl (Pavo

cristatus) is common and widely distributed in

the Indian subcontinent. However, very little

work has been done on its ecology. Trivedi (1993)

has observed that group size of peafowl varies

due to habitat structure and spatial distribution

of food. As resource abundance changes with

changing season, variation in group size is

expected between the seasons as well. Since

peafowl has adapted well to human-altered

environment, it would be interesting to study its

grouping pattern in such an environment. This

paper investigates variation in group size and

composition in a peafowl population living in

an agro-ecosystem.

Study Area

The study area was located on the outskirts

of Aligarh town (27° 30' N, 79°40' N). It included

'Accepted February, 1 995

"Centre of Wildlife & Ornithology, Aligarh Muslim University,

Aligarh-202 002

Present address: Zoology Department, Science Block,

Patna Women’s College, Bailey Road, Patna-800 001

scrubland and plantation (area=14.5 ha)

surrounded by a vast expanse of crop fields on

one side and human habitation on the other. The

scrubland had natural vegetation comprising

Azadirachta indica, Holoptelia integrifolia,

Dalbergia sissoo and Cordia dichotoma,

Capparis sepiaria was the shrub cover. The

plantation had certain fruit and ornamental trees

such as Mangifera indica, Psidium guajava,

Emblica officinalis, Syzigium cuminii, Morus

alba, Putranjiva roxburghii, Pongamia glabra,

Bombax ceiba, Polyalthia longifolia, and

Delonix regia. The ground cover in the scrubland

comprised Panicum antidotale, Achyranthes

aspera, Chenopodium album, Setaria

verticillata, Cenchrus ciliaris, C. alia, Teramnus

labialis and Pluchea lanceolata. The ground

cover in the plantation was dominated by

Dichanthium annulatum, Pluchea lanceolata and

Cynodon dactylon. A crop field was located about

50 m from the scrubland and was planted with

wheat (Triticum aestivum), mustard (Brassica

campestris) and potato (Solanum tuberosum)

during winter; vegetables during summer; bajra

(Pennisetum typhoides ), jowar (Hordeum

vulgare) and maize (Zea mays) during monsoon.

Aligarh experiences a tropical monsoon

type of climate. January was the coldest month

with maximum and minimum temperatures

GROUP SIZE AND COMPOSITION OF INDIAN PEAFOWL IN UTTAR PRADESH

479

//A

ALL FEMALE GROUP EUD MIXED GROUP

ALL MALE GROUP

Fig. 1 . Seasonal variation in group composition of peafowl.

20.6°C and 7.9°C respectively. May was the

hottest month with maximum and minimum

temperatures 41.4°C and 24.3°C respectively.

Average rainfall was 5.325 mm in winter, 18.05

mm in summer and 150.97 mm' in monsoon.

Methods

Between March 1993 to February 1994

data on group size were collected while studying

the habitat utilization pattern of the peafowl. The

peafowl population within the study area

fluctuated between 40-67 with the minimum in

January 1993 and the maximum in May 1993.

Median group size was calculated for different

seasons. Summer season comprised March- June,

monsoon comprised July-October and winter

months were November-February. During

analysis, the data from scrubland and plantation

were pooled and compared with that of the crop

fields. Data from scrubland and plantation were

pooled to see whether the group size varied

significantly between a ‘closed’ habitat

(scrubland and plantation) and an ‘open’ habitat

(crop fields). Extension of the median test

(Siegel, 1956) was used to compare the group

size of peafowls in ‘closed’ and ‘open’ habitats.

Chi-square was used to test the seasonal variation

in group composition. Spearman rank correlation

(rs) was used to measure the relationship between

the photoperiodic length and proportion of

solitary males per month. Photoperiodic length

was calculated from sunrise and sunset data.

Results

Group size: The median group size of

peafowl was one in all the three seasons. There

480

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

group size

H Summer k\\^l Monsoon

EID Winter

Fig. 2a. Grouping pattern of peafowl, adult male

was significant seasonal variation in group size

(X2 = 73.01, d.f. = 2, PO.OOl). The variation in

group size between ‘closed’ area ‘open’ area was

also significant (%2 = 30.49, d.f. = 1, P <0.001).

Solitary birds were seen more in the closed area

(70% of 1828 groups) than in the open area

(34.9% of 358 groups).

Group composition: The group

composition changed seasonally (%2 = 84.3,

PO.OOl, d.f. = 8). The proportion of solitary

males was positively correlated to the average

photoperiodic length per month (rs = 0.59,

P<0.05). Three age classes of males could be

differentiated on the basis of train elaboration

and plumage differentiation. All the three age

classes of males showed difference in grouping

pattern (Fig. 2a-d).

Adult males: Total sightings of adult males

were 1209. 78.7% occurred singly and 21.3% in

groups. They formed 32.9% of groups with

adult males, 28.7% with females, 25.9% with

sub-adult males, 8.1% with immature males,

13.9% with sub-adult females, 3.1% with

immature males and females, 2.3% with sub-

adult and immature males, 5.4% with sub-adult,

immature males and females. Single adult males

showed a seasonal change (G = 9.952, P<0.01,

d.f. = 2). The occurrence of adult males in

groups did not vary seasonally (G = 1.377, NS).

During the breeding period the proportion

of single males was 30-34% which dropped to

13.9% in the non-breeding period (Fig. 2a).

Sub-adult males: Total sightings of sub-

adult males were 532. Of them 43.4 occurred

singly and 56.6% in groups. They formed 35.2%

of groups with females, 22.3% with adult males,

1 1.6% with sub-adult males, 4% with immature

30i

1 2-5 >5

group size

Hi Summer ESS Monsoon

EID Winter

Fig. 2b. Grouping pattern of peafowl, sub-adult male

males, 1 1 .9% with adult males and females, 9.3%

with immature males and females, 2% with adult

males and immature males and 4.6% with adult

males, immature males and females. Single sub-

adult males showed a seasonal change

(G = 7.384, P<0.05, d.f. = 2) and their occurrence

in groups also varied seasonally (G = 9.258,

P<0.01, d.f. = 2) (Fig. 2b).

GROUP SIZE AND COMPOSITION OF INDIAN PEAFOWL IN UTTAR PRADESH

481

Immature males: Total sightings of

immature males were 228. Of them 19.7%

occurred singly while 80.7% occurred in groups.

They formed 43.2% of groups with females,

12.6% with immature males, 11.5% with adult

males, 6.6% with sub-adult males, 15.3% with

sub-adult males and females, 4.4% with adult

males and females, 3.3% with adult males and

sub-adult males, 7.7% with sub-adult males,

adult males and females. There was no seasonal

variation in the occurrence of immature males

either as singles (G = 1.093 NS) or in groups

(G = 2,962, NS) (Fig. 2c).

30i

1 2-5 >5

group size

H Summer E3 Monsoon

EH3 Winter

Fig. 2c. Grouping pattern of peafowl, immature male

Females: Total sightings of females were

721. 34.8% of females occurred singly while

65.2% occurred in groups. They formed 27.9%

of groups with females, 22.6% with sub-adult

males, 16.8% with immature males, 15.7% with

adult males, 7.7% with adult males and sub-adult

males, 6% with sub-adult males and immature

males, 1.7% with adult males and immature

males and 3% with adult males, sub-adult -males

and immature males. There was no seasonal

variation in the occurrence of females as singles

(G = 1.088 NS) or in groups (G = 4,934, NS)

(Fig. 2d).

30i

o*

c

• mm

•C

0>

<75

1 2-5 >5

group size

Summer (SI Monsoon

EZ3 Winter

Fig. 2d. Grouping pattern of peafowl, female

Discussion

The high seasonal variation in group size

of peafowl can be attributed to the social

organization. All the age and sex classes were

observed to be temporarily associated, except for

the females and chicks, which had a strong bond.

Species with a closed family unit structure exhibit

a constant group size whilst those with an open

structure exhibit large seasonal changes

(Rodgers, 1977). Peafowl exhibits an open

membership social structure. The seasonal

variation in group size did not appear to be

governed by the availability of food, as the species

did not face “resource crunch” due to the presence

of crop fields around the study area. The varia-

tion of group size between the ‘closed’ and

482

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

‘open’ habitats could be explained by the

structural differences of the two habitats and

the difference in the availability of food bet-

ween the two habitats. While the crop fields

provide a perennial supply of food, there is

scarcity of food during summer in the ‘closed’

habitat (Yasmin, unpubl. data). Occurrence of

greater proportion of groups in the open habitat

suggests an anti-predator strategy in response

to structural differences in the two habitats, but

at the same time feeding by ‘local enhance-

ment’ (Hinde, 1961) is also important in peafowl

because birds were seen flying directly from

roost and joining the feeding flocks in the crop

field. Clark and Mangel (1984) suggest that

birds flock in response to patchy distribution of

food rather than in response to predation

pressure. I find that peafowls aggregate in the

crop fields in larger group size mainly because

of high food availability and partly due to

increased vigilance.

The seasonal variation in group

composition could be influenced by the

reproductive pattern and social organization of

peafowl. The adult males might have the

tendency to remain solitary due to aggressiveness.

When the birds were baited on wheat in the non-

breeding season (February), usually the females

and sub-adult males fed amicably, with some

sporadic fighting. However, when the adult male

arrived, it invariably pecked the sub-adult males

away. There was an increase in the males’ solitary

behaviour during the breeding season as the

R E F E R E

Barrette, C. (1 991 ): The size of Axis deer fluid group in

Wilpattu National Park, Sri Lanka. Mammals 55(2):

207-220.

Clark, C.W. & M. Mangel (1 984): Foraging and flocking

strategies: Information in an uncertain environment.

Amer. Nat. 123: 626-641.

Hinde, R.A. (1961): Behaviour, In: Biology and

Comparative Physiology of Birds, Volume 2 Ed. A.J.

Marshall, Academic Press, New York, pp 373-441 .

Rodgers, W.A. (1977): Seasonal change in group size

amongst five wild herbivore species. E. Afr. Wild. J.

males established territories (i.e. from June-

September). The monthly variation in solitary

behaviour of males in response to monthly

photoperiodic length suggests that photo-

period acts as a cue for the onset and offset of

breeding season. The sub-adult males showed

grouping pattern intermediate between that of

adult males and immature males. They showed

seasonal change in both solitary behaviour and

formation of groups. This was probably because

sub-adults tend to establish territories and

display near adult males as well as join the female

groups while the latter visit lek. The immature

males and females did not show seasonal change

either as singles or as groups. This was pro-

bably because immature males and females tend

to live in groups for at least one year and there

was a tendency of broods to be together. The

females became solitary in the post-mating season

because of egg laying and incubation.

The proportion of mixed groups rose in the

postbreeding season in winter when the adult males

had undergone moulting and abandoned lek and

the females had brought out the chicks.

Acknowledgements

I thank Prof. A.H. Musavi, ex-Chairman,

Centre of Wildlife & Ornithology for providing

the necessary facilities and Dr. A.R. Rahmani

for examining the manuscript critically.

Dr. S.H.A. Yahya, Dr. J.A. Khan, Mr. A. Khan,

Mr. Salim Javed and Mr. Rashid helped in the

preparation of the manuscript.

N C E S

15: 175-190.

Siegel, S. (1956): Nonparametric statistics for the

Behavioural Sciences, McGrawhill Book Co. Inc.

London.

Southwell, C.J. (1984): Variability in grouping in

the eastern grey kangaroo, Macropus giganteus,

Group density and group size. Aust. Wild. Res. 11: 423-

435.

Trivedi, P. (1993): Habitat Selection by Indian Peafowl

( Pavo cristatus Linn.) in Gir Forest. M.Sc. dissertion,

Saurashtra Univ.

ON A SURVEY OF THE GANGES RIVER DOLPHIN

PLATANISTA GANGETICA OF BRAHMAPUTRA RIVER, ASSAM1

R.S. Lal Mohan2, S.C. Dey, S.P. Bairagi and S. Roy3

( With a plate and five text-figures )

Key words: Ganges river dolphin, Platanista gangetica , Brahmaputra, population

estimate, mortality, ecology, behaviour, depletion of population, recommendations.

Population of Ganges river dolphin, Platanista gangetica in the river Brahmaputra from South

Salmara to Sadiya is estimated to be 400. Annual mortality is about 60. The river was divided

into 6 sectors and the population of dolphins in each sector was studied. Size range, distribution

in relation to depth and distance from the bank, fishing activities, relation between dolphins and

river terns, behaviour, resident populations and depletion of fish stock were studied.

Introduction

The Ganges river dolphin, Platanista

gangetica is distributed in the rivers — Ganges,

Brahmaputra and Meghana river systems. It is

known as ‘susu’ in Hindi and ‘shihu’ in

Assamese. Anderson ( 1 878) published a detailed

observation of its biology, anatomy, behaviour

and ecology. About a hundred years after his

work, Pilleri (1970, 1980), a Swiss scientist made

a detailed study on its embryology, sonar

mechanism and ecology. He could capture a few

specimens from Brahmaputra. Kasuya (1972)

transported four dolphins to Japan and made

observations on its behaviour. Kasuya and Haque

(1972) conducted a study of the population of

the river dolphin, P. gangetica of Bangladesh

rivers and estimated its population to be about

770. Jones (1982); Mohan (1989, 1992, 1994a,b,

1995); Mohan et al. (1993); Gupta (1986); Rao

et al. (1989); Shrestha (1989); Reeves and

Brownell (1989); Reeves et al (1993); Sinha

(1991, 1992); Hussain etal. (1993); Smith et al.

(1994, 1995) and, Reeves and Leatherwood

(1995) studied various aspects of the Ganges river

dolphins of India and Nepal.

‘Accepted February, 1997

Conservation of Nature Trust, Calicut-673 005,

department of Zoology, Guwahati University, Guwahati,

Assam.

Gupta (op. cit.) counted 59 dolphins in the

Ganges and its tributaries. Mohan (op. cit.)

observed 2 1 dolphins in the Ganges from Kanpur

to Farakka barrage and estimated its population

to be about 600 in the Ganges. Sinha (op. cit.)

recorded 2 1 7 and 1 09 Ganges river dolphins in

1992 and 1993 respectively between Buxar and

Farakka barrage at the confluences of various

tributaries of the Ganges. Rao et al. (op. cit.)

studied the population of river dolphins of

Chambal river and estimated the number as 40.

But our information on the Ganges river dolphins

of Brahmaputra is far from satisfactory. Hence

this study was undertaken.

Material and Methods

The survey of the tributaries of the river

was conducted from October 1992 to June 19934.

The larger tributaries like Teesta, Manas,

Subansiri, Dihang, Dibong (upto Boling)

Luit (upto Teju) on the northern bank and

Jingiram, Kulsi, Kalong, Dhansiri, Disang,

Dihing, Noa-Dihing on the southern bank were

surveyed.

The main stream of the river was surveyed

from 15th February to 18th March, 1993. The

4However, the authors were visiting the resident populations

for the last four years.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

THE GANGES RIVER DOLPHIN OF BRAHMAPUTRA RIVER, ASSAM

485

river was divided into the following 6 sectors,

each covering about 100 km (Fig. 1)

Sector 1 South Salmara to Goalpara

‘ ’ 2 Goalpara to Guwahati

3 Guwahati to Tezpur

‘ ’ 4 Tezpur to Dholpur

‘ ’ 5 Dholpur to Buridihingmukh

‘ ’ 6 Buridihingmukh to Sadiya.

Both the south and north banks of the main

stream were studied. Apart from the population

estimate, physical parameters such as

temperature, transparency, depth and fisheries

of the river were also observed.

A 30 ft (9 m) boat fitted with an 8-HP

outboard engine was used for the survey.

Observations were made by the investigators seated

on the deck with binoculars, and camera fitted with

200 mm zoom lens. Whenever dolphins were

sighted, the site of surfacing was approached and

the following data were collected:

1 . Depth of water

2. Distance from shore

3. Fishing activities

4. Surfacing time

5. Length of the dolphins

Dolphins measuring below 1 m were

considered as calves, 1 to 1.75 m as adolescents

and more than 1 .75 m as adults. No attempt was

made to segregate males and females in the field,

though the adult females can be distinguished

by their longer curved beaks. Precautions were

taken not to recount or miss the dolphins. When

the dolphins were sighted, their number was

determined by the following criteria:

1. Number of dolphins surfacing

simultaneously.

2. Number of dolphins surfacing within an

interval of 5 sec at a distance of more than

10-20 m from each other.

3. Size of the dolphins.

The boat stayed at the site of surfacing for

at least 30-40 minutes for counting the numbers.

At least 3 counts were taken by each investigator

on a well defined proforma. The number of

dolphins in the area was determined after

scrutinising the data from all the investigators.

As most of the sightings were recorded from the

confluences of the tributaries, more attention was

paid whenever river mouths were reached. The

river tern, Sterna aurantia was found in

association with the dolphins and it was

considered as an indicator species. Invariably,

the river dolphins were observed in their

neighbourhood.

Number and types of fishing nets and their

catches were also observed. Upstream journey

was taken along the southern bank, while the

northern side was covered during the return

journey. It was not possible to follow a direct

path as sand bars blocked the navigation route

and the boat often got grounded, imposing great

hardship on the observers. It was difficult to

extricate the boat from the sand bar. The boatmen

were good navigators and they could cruise the

boat very carefully through the deeper parts

where there was just sufficient water to keep the

boat afloat.

As the study was undertaken during the

dry season, (March-April) the tributaries were

dry and most of the dolphins had come to the

main stream and were found- in deeper waters.

A 12-hour schedule was followed from

0600 hours to 1800 hours without any break.

Nights were spent in the boat anchored near the

‘chars’ or the river islands guarded by the

stengun wielding security personnel of the Assam

Police. The upstream journey took 13 days while

downstream was covered in 9 days.1

Observations

‘Considering the width of the Brahmaputra, the area to be

covered, and the extent to which visual observations are possible,

there are great constraints in the survey to make it truly

quantitative.

The Brahmaputra cannot be surveyed in all months due to strong

currents and cyclonic winds. Photo-identification, mark recovery

and telemetric studies are not possible for these animals owing

to their behaviour; they can neither be caught nor tamed.

Methods used for terrestrial animals and the marine dolphins

and whales cannot, therefore, be used for river dolphins.

The survey thus brings out only an indicative picture and cannot

project a hundred per cent enumeration, which, under the

circumstances, is near impossible.

486

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Physical features: Transparency of the

river was observed with the help of a Sechi disc.

Three observations were taken at 10 km intervals

and mean values of each station were recorded.

In the first 100 km downstream, transparency

was 20 cm. It was 40 cm, 45 cm, 48 cm, 57 cm

and 65 cm in sectors 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 respectively.

Water temperature was taken at 50 cm

depth at intervals of 1 0 km during the daytime,

and varied from 1 5°C-28°C. In the lower reaches,

the temperature ranged from 23°C-28°C

in sectors 1 to 4. Temperature varied from

18°C-23°C in the 4th and 5th sector. It dropped

to 15°C-T7°C in the 6th sector.

1. Dolphin Population: During the cruise

from South Salmara to Sadiya, 266 dolphins were

observed. The population density was analysed

for each 100 km sector of the river, covering a

distance of 650 km (Fig. 1). The maximum

number — 58 dolphins were observed in the 3rd

sector from Guwahati to Tezpur. The lowest

number of 23 dolphins were observed in the last

sector between Tengapani (Burhidihingmukh)

and Sadiya. Water level was very shallow in this

sector during the time of observation, and we

could observe vast exposed areas. Population of

dolphins in the first 300 km stretch was 53/100

km whereas it was only 35/100 km in the upper

300 km sector. The average number of dolphins

observed per 100 km was 44 only, i.e. 0.44/km.

In the first sector from South Salmara to

Goalpara, 47 dolphins were observed. The rivers

Jingiram, Gangadhar, Gadaghar, Sankosh,

Jinari, Moramanas and Manas become confluent

with the main stream in this region. The second

sector from Goalpara to Guwahati had a

population of 54 dolphins. The rivers Krishnai,

Singri, Dudhani, Puthimari, Kulsi and Pagaldia

are in this sector. In the 3rd sector from Guwahati

to Tezpur, 58 dolphins were observed. The

confluence of Kalong river had a herd of

dolphins. The tributaries Mangaldai, Rangapani,

Dhansiri Panchnai, Belsiri, Jiagabhara, Kalong

and Digru flow through this sector. The 4th sector

extended from Tezpur to Dholpur. In this sector

we observed only 34 dolphins. The tributaries

Bharali, Baraganga, Burai, Salang from the

northern bank and Diphlu and Dhansiri from

the south bank meet the main stream. The 5th

sector was from Dholpur to Burhidihingmukh.

45 dolphins were observed here. In this sector

many large tributaries are present. Important

among them are the Dikrang, Subansiri,

Kakadonga, Dikho, Disang and the Burhidihing.

The last sector from Burhidihingmukh to Sadiya

had only 28 dolphins. The main tributaries in

the sector are the Dibru, Noa-dihing from the

south bank and Simen, Dibong and Dihang from

the north bank (Fig. 2).

About 60% of the dolphins were found

along the north bank from South Salmara to

Guwahati, while from Guwahati to Sadiya 42%

were along the north bank, 56% along the south

bank and 2% dispersed in the main stream.

Taking all the factors and the extent of the river

into consideration, the total population in the

river may not be more than 400 from south

Salmara to Sadiya.

2. Size range: The size group of dolphins

was studied based on their length. As it was not

possible to measure the dolphin by conventional

methods because the studies were made ‘in situ’,

they were classified into calves, adolescents and

adults based on its length upto lm, 1-1.75 m and

1 .75 m and above respectively.

It was observed that 57% were adults, 30%

adolescents and 13% calves (Fig. 3). When the

data was analysed sectorwise, it was found that

the adults formed 75%, followed by 17%

adolescents and 8% calves in the first sector; 59%

adults, 37% adolescents and 4% calves in the

second sector; 60 adults, 22% adolescents and

18% calves in the third sector; 45% adults, 40%

adolescents and 15% calves in the fourth sector;

51% adults, 38% adolescents and 11% calves in

the fifth sector; 54% adults, 25% adolescents and

21% calves in the sixth sector. It may be

mentioned that adults were predominant in

almost all sectors (Fig. 4). Only in the 6th sector

were the calves more than 20%. Distribution of

THE GANGES RIVER DOLPHIN OF BRAHMAPUTRA RIVER . ASSAM

487

Fig. 2. Number of Ganges river dolphins observed in the River Brahmaputra

adults did not present a uniform trend. They were

found in greater numbers in the first 100 km

sector. Adolescents were found in greater

numbers in the second sector, while more calves

were found in the fourth sector.

3. Distribution of river dolphins in relation

to depth: 40% of the dolphins were observed

in 3.0 to 4.9 m depth and 27% were found in

7.0 to 8.9 m depth. Only 12% were found in the

shallow waters of 1.0 to 2.9 m. Deeper water of

5 to 6.9 m harboured 18%, and only 3% were

found in 9 to 15.9 m or more. The data was

analysed in relation to the distribution of calves,

adolescents and adults. The favoured depths for

adults and adolescents were 3.0 to 4.9 m whereas

calves were found in greater numbers in 7.0 to

8.9 m, indicating their preference for deeper

waters. This observation was supported by the

occurrence of calves of the dolphin in Khahalgon

in Ganges, where the calves were observed in

25-30 m deep waters.

4. Occurrence of dolphins in relation to

distance from the bank: 66% of the river

dolphins were found 1 km from the bank, 22%

from 1 to 2 km and only 1 2% were found beyond

3 km from the bank. The size groups were also

analysed to find whether there was any

preference to distance from the bank. Here again,

the adults, adolescents, and calves showed

preference to near-bank areas.

488

JOURNAL, BOMBA YNA TURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

ADOLESCENTS

Fig. 3. Percentage of adults, adolescents and calves

of Ganges river dolphins in the River Brahmaputra

5. Occurrence of dolphins in relation to

fishing activities: The river dolphins were found

in larger numbers where there was fishing

activity, which in turn, depended on the

concentration of fishes in an area. In one

instance, fishermen were seen splashing the

surface water with oars to chase away dolphins

taking away fishes from the net. Dolphins were

also found in the vicinity of human activities like

bathing ghats and washing ghats. They were seen

surfacing 5 to 10 m away from where children

were bathing. Young dolphins were found close

to human activities.

6. River tern as an indicator species: The

river tern {Sterna aurantia ) was associated with

the river dolphin. Very often dolphins could be

located with the help of river terns. The terns fly

over the surfacing dolphins and catch fishes that

jump due to the disturbance caused by the

dolphins. In a few instances, the terns were found

to snatch fish from the beaks of the dolphins. Of

the total number of terns observed, 26% were

associated with river dolphins. On one occasion,

about 3 1 terns were noticed, however, they were

usually found alone. But flocks of 10-13 were

observed at the confluences of the river Kalong.

The terns were found feeding on fishes. 16 river

terns were observed along with the river

dolphins at the confluences of the Subansiri river.

Birds were found hovering over the dolphins.

Dolphins were observed at a distance of about 1-

15m from the terns, indicating their close

relationship.

7. Behaviour: The river dolphins were

found alone in pairs or in units of 3 comprising

an adult male, a female and a calf. A school of

10 dolphins was observed at the confluence of

Kalong river, and 15 dolphins were found at the

confluence of Subansiri. Large dolphins more

than 2.4 m long were solitary.

Various modes of surfacing were observed.

The most common was the appearance of the

beak followed by the melon and the anterior part

of the body. This mode of surfacing was common

when the animal was not feeding. In another

mode, the beak was exposed at 30° to 45°

followed by the body. Here the body was more

exposed. Adult dolphins surfaced in this way.

Very often, dolphins surfaced while projecting

the melon to breathe. In this mode of surfacing,

the body was hardly exposed. While feeding,

dolphins were observed to chase the fishes,

vigorously splashing their caudal flukes. The

calves and adolescents were seen leaping over

the surface of the water, exposing their entire

body. This behaviour was usually seen in the late

afternoon. An adult dolphin was once seen to

leap over the surface in the Mihi bheel of

Kaziranga National Park. The ‘leaping’ was

found to be more frequent in calves, especially

between 1430 and 1600 hrs.

8. Surfacing Interval: Interval of surfacing

ranged from 10 sec. to 90 sec. The calves surfaced

more often than the adults. But surfacing time

was highly variable. Various factors such as depth

of the river, current flow, food availability, and

other factors like fishing activities and human

disturbances influenced the surfacing of the

dolphins.

THE GANGES RIVER DOLPHIN OF BRAHMAPUTRA RIVER, ASSAM

489

TOTAL POPULATION %

KM

Fig. 4. Distribution of Ganges river dolphins in each sector of the River Brahmaputra

The breath of the dolphins had a foul

smell, which was more keen on windless days in

small rivers like Kulsi. The smell was similar to

the breath of cows. It was pungent in bigger

dolphins.

9. Resident populations: When the river

dolphins were found throughout the year in a

river without migrating back into the main

stream during the dry months, they were

considered as a resident population. Such

populations were found in Kulsi river, Subansiri

river and in Mihi bheel. Historically, many

tributaries of Brahmaputra harboured resident

populations of dolphins. But due to human

disturbance such as fishing, sand extraction and

pollution, such populations were not found in

the tributaries. In Bhagdoi river, a river dolphin

population was found in the 1960s when Dr.

Pilleri visited the area. He captured six dolphins

from there in his attempt to transport them to

Switzerland. But all of them died. When the

senior author visited the river in 1993, no

dolphins were found in the river and the river

was silted and almost dry with less than 30 cm

of water.

a) Kulsi river dolphin population:

Kulsi river is located at 92° 30' - 93° 3 V E

and 26° O' - 26° 10' W. It is one of the southern

tributaries of Brahmaputra. River dolphins were

found near the village Kukurma which is about

35 km from Guwahati. The river originates from

the Meghalaya hills and meanders through a

distance of about 120 km before meeting the main

stream near Nagarbera. About 25 dolphins were

490

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

found in the river sector of about 2 km in 1993.

They were found in two areas adjacent to the

deeper parts of the river. One sector was found

north of the road bridge and the other on its south.

The population consisted of 64.3% adults, 25%

adolescents and 9% calves. But the river was

degraded due to sand extraction. About 100 lorry

loads of sand were extracted daily for at least

250 days in a year. The removal of the sand has

its ill effects like increase in turbidity, soil erosion

along the banks, reduction in the productivity

and silt formation in the downstream areas. There

was over-exploitation of fishery resources also.

For our study, the Kulsi river was divided into 9

sectors, each covering about a kilometre.

Dolphins took refuge in deeper areas during the

lean period, foraging in the adjacent areas where

there was an abundance of fish. Mohan (1996)

has reported 61 species of fishes and 4 species of

prawns from the Kulsi river. But with the change

in the morphology of the river due to sand

extraction, the habitat of dolphins was seriously

affected. Dolphins were not harmed by the local

people as they feel that killing them would invite

bad luck.

b) Resident population of Subansiri river:

Subansiri is one of the fast, turbulent

northern tributaries of the Brahmaputra

bordering the northern bank of the Majuli Island.

It originates from Tibet, having an annual

discharge of more than 20 million cusecs. The

area between Subansirimukh and Dikrangmukh

had a population of about 25 river dolphins.

During the 1950 earthquake which caused large

scale land slides and seismic explosion, large

numbers of dolphins died in the river. The river

bed also had aggraded to about a metre, causing

severe flood during the rainy season. Here

dolphins were killed by the ‘Mising’ tribes for

their meat. They were often brought to the

Jingramukh fish market.

c) Resident population of ‘Mihi bheeT of

Kaziranga National Park:

Mihi bheel was located inside the

Kaziranga National Park. The ‘bheel’ was about

5 sq. km in area, fringed by wetland vegetation

and water plants. The middle portion of the

bheel was about 6 m deep. The marginal areas

were so shallow that one-horned rhinoceros

and swamp deer were seen wading. As it was

located in the protected area, the bheel was very

rich in fish. Large numbers of ‘chital’ fish

( Notopterus chitala) were seen in the bheel

‘surfacing’, especially during the evening

resembling that of river dolphins. Nearly three

hours were spent in the river rowing in a small,

5 m dinghy covering the entire bheel. We could

observe only one large dolphin of about 2.4 m

length.

10. Mortality of dolphins: It was esti-

mated that in 1993-1994 about 60 dolphins

were killed accidentally or intentionally in the

Brahmaputra. Enquiries revealed that many

were killed from Malka Char (South Salmara)

to Goalpara followed by Jorhat to Dibrugarh

(Table 1).

Table 1

The dolphins were killed mainly for then-

meat and oil. ‘Mising’ tribals relish dolphin

meat, while in the lower reaches from Malkachar

to Goalpara it was mainly killed for its oil which

was used for the preparation of bait for the

catfish Clupisoma garua (Mohan and Kunhi,

1992). The oil is used for the preparation of

medicines for rheumatism and also for pain in

the joints.

A mortality curve (Fig. 5) highlights the

impact of mortality on the river dolphin

population.

THE GANGES RIVER DOLPHIN OF BRAHMAPUTRA RIVER, ASSAM

491

Fig. 5. Mortality curve of river dolphin population of the River Brahmaputra for the year 1993

The following data was used for the

calculation:

Total population

(estimated)

Calves

Adults

Adolescents

400

48 (12%) (Recruitment)

236

116

Though the actual number observed in the

main stream was 266, due to the river span which

is about 8 km in some areas, there was a

possibility of missing some of them in each sector.

Hence it was estimated that there may be 400

dolphins in the river from South Salmara to

Sadiya.

Status of its population with a mortality of

60 and 70 numbers annually was calculated using

the formula:

y = a + bx, where x is the years and y the number

It was observed that if the mortality was

60 numbers, the population would last for

38.5 yrs, and if the mortality is 70 numbers

annually, the population will last only for 23.7 yrs.

1 1 . Major threats to the dolphin population

in Brahmaputra: The major threats faced by the

river dolphins of Brahmaputra are habitat loss,

gill nets, poaching and fish stock depletion.

The Brahmaputra and its tributaries are

highly silted and most of the tributaries run dry

during summer. Though Brahmaputra is a mighty

river with a drainage basin of 2,20,057 sq. km

and receives about 60 tributaries it becomes

shallow and not navigable during summer.

The severe earthquake of 1950 had

elevated or aggraded the river bed, and caused

extensive landslides in the northeastern hills and

in the river Subansiri. Huge fissures had

developed through which sand and silt soaked

with water were ejected in many places. The river

water was laden with heavy minerals which

rendered it black. The sulphur content of the

water was so high that it was declared unfit for

consumption. The extraordinary shock of the

earthquake with the seismic explosion had

caused heavy mortality of fishes and dolphins.

The river Brahmaputra had changed its course

492

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

near Dibrugarh. Even today, some eyewitnesses

testify to the drifting of large numbers of fishes

and river dolphins in the river after the

earthquake. Unfortunately there is no official or

scientific data on the fishes or the number of

dolphins killed in the earthquake.

a) Gill nets:

Gill nets of various mesh sizes are operated

in the river. The large gill nets with mesh size of

8-12 cm having a depth of about 3 m and length

50-100 m are called ‘fasi jals\ They are

dangerous to the dolphins as they get entangled

in them. These nets are in greater numbers in

Dibrugarh, Neematighat, Silghat, Tezpur,

Guwahati, Goalpara and Dhubri. About 20 ‘fasi

jals’ were operated south Salmara and Goalpara,

30 between Goalpara and Guwahati, 15 from

Guwahati to Tezpur and about 40 between Tezpur

and Dibrugarh (Table 2.) The dolphins get

entangled in the nets when they try to feed on

the fish caught in the nets. It has been observed

that the fishermen splash the surface of the water

with oars to scare away the dolphins.

b) Poaching:

River dolphins were killed by harpoons.

One two or three pronged harpoons were used

(Plate 1, Fig. 1). A harpoon unit consists of a

wooden pole and a harpoon attached to a strong

rope. A harpoon is fitted tightly to the pole.

Fishermen throw the harpoon on the dolphin

from the boat when the dolphins surface. The

harpoon plunges deep into the flesh of the

dolphin and gets released from the pole. The

exhausted dolphin is then dragged to the boat

and killed. Deep wounds were seen in the

harpooned dolphins (Plate 1, Figs. 1 & 2). Nearly

20-25 dolphins are killed by harpoons annually.

‘Bin’ fishermen of Bihari origin, Bangladeshi

fishermen from lower Assam and the ‘Mising’

tribes of upper Assam are experts in using the

harpoons. The ‘Mising’ tribals consume the meat

whereas the Bihari fishermen and Bangladeshi

fishermen use the flesh and blubber to extract

oil for the preparation of fish bait.

c) Depletion of fish stock:

Table 2

In recent years the fish catch in

Brahmaputra has declined to a great extent

(Yadava and Chandra 1994). There was a steep

increase in the number of crafts and gear

including the harmful net ‘Kapda’ jal made of

mosquito webbing (Plate 1, Fig. 3). This net was

used extensively from Dhubri to Sadiya though

it was banned by the State Government. These

nets removed the fry and flngerlings of almost

all the species including the major carps. The

small fishes Aspidoparia morar, A. jay a, and

Chela atpar were also caught in the net.

Table 2 indicates the number of nets

observed during the cruise.

Further the ‘Mohildhar system’ of leasing

out the riverine areas to individuals based on

auction has caused great harm to the fish

resources, as the lessees are interested only in

exploitation without any concern for conservation

or augmentation of the fishery resources. Though

the lessees sign an agreement that they will stock

the rivers with spawn and fry, it is not followed

in practice.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 94

R.S. Lai Mohan, et al. : Platanista gangetica

Plate 1

Fig. 1 . River dolphin Platanista gangetica with harpoon;

Fig. 2. Harpooned Ganges river dolphin, Note the harpoon marks;

Fig. 3. The banned ‘kapda jal’ made of mosquito webbing used extensively in the river Brahmaputra.

THE GANGES RIVER DOLPHIN OF BRAHMAPUTRA RIVER, ASSAM

493

Discussion

All the species of river dolphins are

threatened all over the world due to various

human activities. Habitat degradation,

navigation and fishing activities have driven the

river dolphins of the Yangtze river, ( Lipotes

vexillifer) to near extinction. Though the status

of the Ganges river dolphin may not be as bad

as L. vexillifer, its mortality rate causes serious

concern.

The total population of the Ganges river

dolphins in the river Brahmaputra can be

assumed to be about 400. If the population is

dissected the adults will be about 236 (59%),

adolescents 116(29%) and the calves 48 (12%).

If we consider the sex ratio as 1 : 1, the breeding

population (females) will be about 118 (50% of

the adult population). Though we have no

information on the potential breeders of the

population, it may be about 70% as has been

calculated for other dolphins. In that case the

number of potential breeders may be about 82.

As they calve in alternate years, (Brownell 1984)

the recruitment per year will be 41 or 10.25% of

the population. It was observed that the mortality

in gill nets and poaching ranged from 12.5% to

15%, which was too high to maintain a

sustainable population.

Various methods were suggested for the

survey of the dolphins in the river systems (Smith

etal., 1995). But it will not be possible to follow

a uniform method in all the rivers as the

topography and the morphology of the rivers are

not the same. In the present study, the direct

method was followed, as the width of the river

is about 8 km in some places.

Kasuya and Haque (1972) found that 90%

of the dolphins sighted were solitary individuals.

They do not mention any gregarious schools.

In the present study also, 70% were solitary

individuals, 20% in pairs, 8% in threes and 2%

in a school of more than 10 dolphins. Such

schools were observed at the confluences of

the tributaries with fast current. Such schooling

behaviour may be attributed to the availa-

bility of food and not to any gregarious

behaviour.

It had been observed in the marine dolphin

Cephalorhynchus commersoni (Commerson’s

dolphin) that they got entangled in the nets not

because they did not detect the fishing nets but

because they did not always use their sonar

mechanism or when they tried to feed on the

fishes caught in the nets (Evans et al, 1988).

Many investigations have been made on the

interaction of dolphins and gill nets and ways

and means suggested to reduce dolphin mortality

in gill nets (Dawson 1994, and Goodson et al.

1994). But no satisfactory device has been made

so far to reduce the gill net entanglement.

Very little information is available on the

lactating Ganges dolphin (Brownell 1984).

According to a fisherman at Dihingmukh (upper

Assam), a dolphin of length 2.3 m got entangled

in a gill net. When it was transferred to the boat

the milk got squeezed from the mammary glands

and spilt in the boat. Two days after the incident,

a calf was caught from the same vicinity. The

dolphin was caught in April before the onset of

monsoon.

Study of the fishery of the river is essential

as fish constitute the major food item of river

dolphins (Anderson 1879, Shrestha 1989, and

Sinha 1992). From Assam, 129 species of fish

were reported by Yadava and Chandra (op. cit.)

and 119 species by Mohan and Rema Devi

(1997). During the cruise, about 80 species of

fish were collected from the main stream and 40

species were obtained from Kulsi river. Due to

various human activities the fish production of

the river has come down in recent years and

Assam gets most of its requirement of fish

from other states. Little detailed monitoring of

the fish production is carried out. The catch

statistics are available only from Guwahati and

Jorhat (CIFRI, 1989-1990). In 1989-90 the total

fish landings in both the centres were 247 tons

and 36.4 tons respectively. Fish catch should be

monitored at least from Dhubri, Goalpara,

494

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Guwahati, Tezpur, Jorhat, Sibsagar, Kamalbari,

Dibragarh and Sadiya to study the trend of fish

landings.

Conclusion

Considerable progress has been made in

recent years on the study of the river dolphin

population of the Indian subcontinent. Population

estimate is available for the major river systems.

The total population of the river dolphins in India

may be about 1000 and that of Bangladesh about

800. According to IUCN criteria, any

mammalian species having a population below

2500 should be included in the endangered list.

As the total population of P gangetica is below

2000, the species should be included in the

endangered list. At present the species is listed

under vulnerable category according to the IUCN

Red Data book. If the present mortality rate

continues, the future is bleak and it may become

extinct or cease to be a sustainable population

within 50 years.

A high profile public awareness

programme involving the local fishermen and

the ‘mohildhars’ is essential to save the dolphins.

Though the replacement of dolphin oil by fish

oils in the preparation of catfish ( Clupisoma

garua) bait will reduce poaching pressure, gill

net entanglement continues to be a major

problem for dolphins. With the increase in the

number of gill nets, the conflict between dolphins

and fishermen is bound to increase. One of the

best options to save them is to ban gill nets in

areas where a large number of dolphins are

found. The resident population of dolphins in

rivers like Kulsi can be saved if soil extraction is

stopped and further degradation of the river

prevented.

Acknowledgements

We are indebted to Mr. G. Sandy

Lumsdaine, Director, Williamson and Tea,

London for his sustained interest and concern

for the river dolphins of Brahmaputra. We are

also thankful to Mr. A. Khan, Chairman, Assam

Valley Wildlife Society, Assam and to Mr. R.L.

Rikhye, Williamson and Magor, Calcutta for

funding the project and for their encouragement.

Our thanks are also due to Dr. S. Leatherwood,

Chairman, Cetacean Specialist Group (IUCN),

Mr. Ian Buxton, Edinburgh-Consultancy,

England, Ms. Alison Smith, Project Director,

Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society,

England, for their help. We are also thankful to

Mr. Subramaniam, Director-General of Police,

Assam for providing security during the cruise,

and to the boat crew who cheerfully shared our

ordeal and privations.

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69- 97.

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India, pp 1-20.

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Gangetic dolphin ( Platanista gangetica) and Turtle

(Kachuga tecta). Half yearly progress report. July 1993-

Dec. 1993. Dept. Zoology, Patna University, Patna.

Smith, B.D., R.K. Singh, U. Regmi & K. Sapkota (1994):

Status of river dolphin, Platanista gangetica in Kamali

Mahakali, Narayani and Sapta Kosi rivers of Nepal

and India in 1993 Marine Mammal Sci. 7: 368-375.

Smith, B.D., R. Reeves & S. Leatherwood (1995): Survey

methods for population assessment of river dolphin.

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Yadava, Y.S. & Ravish Chandra ( 1 994): Some threatened

carps and catfishes of Brahmaputra river system. 4:

45-55 In: Threatened fishes of India (Ed) P.V.

Dehadarai, P. Das, S.R. Verma, Natcon publication,

Muzaffamagar, India.

PROPOSED TAXONOMIC REVISION OF SOME IMPORTANT

PENAEID PRAWN GENERA (CRUSTACEA : DECAPODA) OF KONKAN COAST

(WEST COAST OF INDIA) 1

2

D. I. Pathan and D. R. Jalihal

(With fifty-three text-figures)

Key words : taxonomic revision, penaeid prawns, Penaeus (Fenneropenaeus)

merguiensis, Metapenaeus (?) dobsoni, Metapenaeus kutchensis, Parapenaeopsis

stylifera, Acetes indicus, Acetes sibogae complex.

During the faunistic study of penaeid prawns of the Konkan coast (west coast of India),

represented by 29 species belonging to 3 families and 9 genera, several taxonomic problems

were encountered. In depth systematic studies have indicated the need for the following taxonomic

revisions : (1 ) Penaeus (Fenneropenaeus) merguiensis De Man 1888: The Australian/Pacific

Ocean form assigned to this species differs from the typical Afro-Asian/Indian Ocean form at

specific, or atleast subspecific level. (2 ) Metapenaeus dobsoni (Miers, 1878): One of the oldest

proposals of assigning M. dobsoni as a genotype of Mangalura is further strengthened by its

distinctiveness when compared with the remaining species of Metapenaeus , except M. joyneri

(Miers, 1880). (3) Metapenaeus kutchensis George, George & Rao, 1963 : It is a valid species

and not a synonym of M. affinis (H. Milne Edwards, 1837). (4) Parapenaeopsis stylifera

(H. Milne Edwards, 1837): P stylifera s.s. is a widely distributed species along both coasts of

India and exhibits considerable variation in the number of fixed spines on telson. Both P.

coromandelica/P stylifera coromandelica (from east coast of India) and P. stylifera cochinensis

(from southwest coast of India) should be treated as its junior synonyms only. However, all the

remaining species of Parapenaeopsis differ from this genotype in several features, warranting

independent generic status. (5) Acetes indicus H. Milne Edwards, 1830 : The morphological

variations between Indo-Burmese and East Asian forms are not size-linked but are indicative of

distinct geographic stocks, thereby justifying a separate nomenclature for the latter form. (6)

‘ Acetes sibogae Hansen, 1919 complex’: A thorough revision of A. sibogae complex is

essential for understanding the extent/degree of inter and intraspecific variations among its

members. Nevertheless, the Konkan material differs from all the remaining west coast forms

assigned to A. sibogae but is identical with widely separated coastal Andhra Pradesh (east coast)

material, and both together may eventually require a separate taxonomic status.

Introduction

The small maritime town of Ratnagiri

(Konkan belt of Maharashtra State, west coast

of India) is one of the major penaeid prawn

landing, processing and export centres in India.

The prawn fishery of this area is multigeneric

’Accepted April, 1997.

2College of Fisheries (Konkan Agricultural University),

Ratnagiri 415 629, Maharashtra.

and multispecific. Yet, surprisingly, information

available on it is very scanty despite the fact that

systematics of this group is not only essential in

determining species-wise exploitable resources,

but also applies to processing industry,

aquaculture etc. The present investigation was,

therefore, initiated with the twin objectives of

(i) Systematic treatment of penaeid prawn

resources of Konkan, particularly for the benefit

of carcinologists, research workers, fisheries

TAXONOMIC REVISION OF SOME PENAEID PRAWN GENERA OF KONKAN COAST

497

scientists etc. and (ii) To formulate a field-key

for the benefit of industry personnel, suppliers,

fishermen and prawn farmers of the region.

Detailed systematic study revealed that

the prawn fauna of Konkan region is represented

by 29 species belonging to 3 families and 9

genera. However, several taxonomic doubts arose

while carrying out detailed analyses of individual

species. It was strongly felt that at least some

species need nomenclatural revisions and these

are dealt with in the present paper.

1. Penaeus (Fenner op enaeus) merguiensis

De Man, 1888

Penaeus merguiensis DeMan, 1888 : 227

(Type locality : Mergui archipelago, Burma/

Myanmar) ; Penaeus indicus - Bate, 1888 : 248

(NON H. Milne Edwards, 1837); Peneus indicus

var merguiensis - Alcock, 1905 : 515; Peneus

merguiensis - Schmitt, 1926 : 360; NOT Penaeus

merguiensis - Racek,1955 : 221 (= a new form

?); Penaeus (Fenneropenaeus) merguiensis -

Perez Farfante, 1969 : 466.

Material examined : 1523 males (80 to

160 mm) and 1716 females (75 to 190 mm)

collected at Mirkarwada and Sakhartar Fish

Landing Centres as well as in and around

Konkan Krishi Vidvapeeth’s Brackish Water Fish

Farm (BWFF) from April 1989 to December

1991.

Remarks : P.(F.) merguiensis is the most

important commercial species with good culture

prospects along the south Konkan coast. The

Konkan specimens, like all other Afro-Asian /

Indian ocean material belonging to P. (F)

merguiensis , possesses a distinct gastro-orbital

carina as in De Man’s type specimens from

Mergui Archipelago (Alcock, 1906; Kubo, 1949;

Hall, 1956, 1962; Cheung, 1960; Joubert, 1965;

Chong and Sasekumar, 1982). This carina,

however, is totally lacking in the individuals from

Australia and Philippines/Pacific Ocean,

assigned to the same species (Dali, 1957; Hall,

1962; Racek and Dali, 1965; Grey et al. , 1983).

The present investigation has further revealed

that the two forms also differ in several other

characters as shown in Table 1 .

Table 1

COMPARISON OF AFRO-ASIAN / INDIAN OCEAN (= TYPICAL ) FORM OF PENAEUS (FENNEROPENAEUS

) MERGUIENSIS DE MAN, 1888 WITH THAT OF AUSTRALIAN & PHILIPPINES / PACIFIC OCEAN FORM

ASSIGNED TO IT.

498

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Even the larvae of the above two forms

exhibit several important differences including

number of nauplius stages during their

metamorphosis (Raje and Ranade, 1972 ; Motoh

and Buri, 1979).

In view of these differences, the Pacific

Ocean stock merits a separate taxonomic status.

2. Metapenaeus (?) dobsoni (Miers, 1878)

(Figs. 1-20)

Penaeus dobsoni Miers, 1878 : 302 {Type

locality : Mangalur (= Mangalore) coast,

Karnataka State, India} ; Mangalura dobsoni

Miers, 1878 : 303 ; Metapenaeus dobsoni -

Nobili, 1903 : 3 , Metapeneus dobsoni - Alcock,

1 906 : 2 1 ; Penaeopsis dobsoni - De Man, 1911:

60 ; Metapenaeus dobsoni choprai - Nataraj,

1942 : 468 .

Material examined : 1547 males (12.5 to

63.5 mm) and 1720 females (16.5 to 82.5 mm)

collected from Mirkarwada Fish Landing Centre

as well as in and around B WFF from April, 1 989

to December, 1991.

Remarks : M. dobsoni is one of the most

widely distributed and extensively studied

penaeids. However, its generic status has created

quite a lot of controversy. Miers (1878), the

original author, observed that his species was

quite unique in possessing (1) Triangular distal

segment of mandibular palp (2) Slender third

maxilliped (3) Rudimentary 5thpereiopods. But

since his collection lacked males, he refrained

from assigning it to the proposed new genus

Mangalura (named after the type locality

Mangalore, Karnataka State). This name

remained unused until Burkenroad (1963a)

pointed out its priority over the more popular

generic name Metapenaeus of Wood-Mason and

Alcock (1891). However, this generated a

controversy since Holthuis (1962) had recom-

mended to the International Commission on

Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) suppression of

such unfamiliar names under its plenary powers,

with a view to safeguarding the continuity of well

established names to avoid unnecessary

confusion. Burkenroad (1963b) responded by

proposing to revise the genus Metapenaeus.

Holthuis (1963), therefore, modified his

recommendation based on which the ICZN, in

its 1969 Addendum, included both Metapenaeus

(Name No. 1829) and Mangalura (Name No.

Table 2

COMPARISON OF METAPENAEUS (?) DOBSONI (MIERS, 1878) WITH THE OTHER FIVE SPECIES OF

METAPENAEUS (INCLUDING M. BREVICORNIS ) OCCURRING ALONG THE KONKAN COAST

TAXONOMIC REVISION OF SOME PENAEID PRAWN GENERA OF KONKAN COAST

499

Table 2 (contd)

COMPARISON OF METAPENAEUS (?) DOBSONI (MIERS, 1878) WITH THE OTHER FIVE SPECIES OF

METAPENAEUS (INCLUDING M. BREVICORNIS ) OCCURRING ALONG THE KONKAN COAST

500

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

1830) in its official list of Zoological Generic

Names but without giving Mangalura precedence

over Metapenaeus.

Unfortunately Burkenroad could not

complete his proposed revision and the issue of

giving validity to the generic name Mangalura

has remained unattended. This is only possible

by designating its genotype. The present

observations clearly indicate that M. dobsoni

should be designated as a genotype of Mangalura

since it distinctly differs in more than 20

characters (Table 2, Figs. 1-20) from all the

remaining 5 species of Metapenaeus inhabiting

the Konkan coast viz. M. brevicornis (H. Milne

Edwards, 1837), M. moyebi (Kishinouye,1896),

M. monoceros (Fabricius,1798), M. affinis (H.

Milne Edwards, 1837) and M. kutchensis George,

George and Rao, 1963.

Whether these differences are restricted

only to M. dobsoni proper or they hold true

for the entire M. dobsoni complex which in-

cludes species like M. joyneri (Miers 1880),

M. brevicornis (H. Milne Edwards, 1837),

M. lysianassa (De Man, 1888) and M. tenuipes

Kubo, 1949 (cf. Racek & Dali, 1965; Miquel,

1982), is rather difficult to surmise at present,

unless all these species are extensively studied.

The present investigation has clearly revealed

that atleast M. brevicornis is closer to the

remaining species of Metapenaeus than to

M. dobsoni. In fact, only M. joyneri is close to

M. dobsoni in possessing (1) Characteristic

barbed basal spine on 3rd cheliped of male

(2) Lateral plates of thelycum partially covering

the median plate (3) A blunt (hook-like ?)

projection dorsally along inner margin of

distolateral projection of petasma (Miquel, 1982,

Fig. 41 p. 100 and Liu etal., 1986, Fig. 110 p. 179).

In view of the above, it is hereby pro-

posed to revalidate Mangalura Miers, 1878

by designating M. dobsoni as its genotype

and including M. joyneri under that genus.

Table 3

COMPARISON BETWEEN METAPENAEUS KUTCHENSIS GEORGE, GEORGE & RAO, 1963

ANDM AFFINIS (H. MILNE EDWARDS, 1837)

TAXONOMIC REVISION OF SOME PENAEID PRAWN GENERA OF KONKAN COAST

50 1

Figs. 1-12. Metapenaeus (?) dobsoni (Miers, 1878): 1. first pereiopod; 2. second pereiopod (fingers &

palm); 3. third pereiopod of male; 4. third maxilliped; 5. pleura of first abdominal segment;

6. fourth to sixth abdominal segments; 7. carapace + rostrum (lateral view); 8. antennule;

9. mandible; 10. first maxilla; 11. gastric mill; 12. third pereiopod of female (basal portion).

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Figs. 13-20 Metapenaeus (?) dobsoni (Miers, 1878): 13. intact (unbroken) fifth pereiopod of female;

14. broken / rudimentary fifth pereiopod of female; 15. fifth pereiopod of male;

16. telson + uropods of male; 17. uropods of females; 18. petasma (dorsal view);

19. petasma (lateral view); 20. thelycum.

TAXONOMIC REVISION OF SOME PENAEID PRAWN GENERA OF KONKAN COAST

Figs. 21-26. Metapenaeus kutchensis George, George & Rao, 1963: 21. pleura of first abdominal segment;

22. fifth & sixth abdominal segments; 23. first pereiopod; 24. appendix masculina;

25. petasma (ventral view); 26. petasma (dorsal view).

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

27

Figs. 27-29. Metapenaeus kutchensis George, George & Rao, 1963: 27. fifth pereiopod of female;

28. fifth pereiopod of male; 29. thelycum.

TAXONOMIC REVISION OF SOME PENAEID PRAWN GENERA OF KONKAN COAST

505

Figs. 30-38. Parapenaeopsis stylifera (FI. Milne Edwards, 1837): 30. first pereiopod; 31. second pereiopod;

32. third pereiopod; 33. fourth pereiopod; 34. fifth pereiopod;

35. specimens with 1 pair of fixed spines on telson; 36. specimens with 2 pairs of fixed spines on telson;

37. specimens with 3 pairs of fixed spines on telson; 38. specimens with 4 pairs of fixed spines on telson;

a. telson; b. thelycum; c. petasma.

506

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Figs. 39-46 Acetes sibogae (?) Hansen, 1919: 39. telson; 40. lower antennular flagellum of male; 41. genital

coxa of male (lateral view); 42. genital coxa of male (dorsal view); 43. petasma (improper mounting-distal /

second falcate spine completely hidden); 44. third pereiopod of female (basal portion): 45. third pereiopod

of male; 46. exopod of uropod showing outer spine; C, capitulum; PA, pars astringens; PE, pars externa;

PM, pars media; PRV, processus ventralis.

TAXONOMIC REVISION OF SOME PENAEID PRA WN GENERA OF KONKAN COAST 5 0 7

Figs. 47-53. Acetes sibogae (?) Hansen, 1919: 47. first pereiopod; 48. second pereiopod;

49. third pereiopod; 50. petasma (proper mounting-showing both falcate spines clearly);

51. petasma (improper mounting-distal / second falcate spine partially hidden); 52. appendix masculina;

53. appendix masculina (lateral view).

508

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

3. Metapenaeus kutchensis George,

George & Rao, 1963

(Figs. 21-29)

Metapenaeus affinis Alcock, 1906:20

(part); Metapenaeus kutchensis George, George

and Rao, 1963 : 284 (Type locality : Gulf of

Kutch, Gujarat State, India).

Material examined: 5 males (118.5 to

123 mm) and 5 females (122.5 to 136.5 mm)

collected from New Ferry Wharf, Mumbai (=

Bombay), on 24th November, 1990.

Remarks: The specific status of

M. kutchensis was rather uncertain for nearly two

decades mainly owing to the confused systematic

position ofM affinis (H. Milne Edwards, 1837),

its closely allied species (Mistakidis, 1968).

Based on the original description and figures,

Miquel (1982) had synonymised it with

M. affinis during his revision of the genus

Metapenaeus. But later, the examination of the

holotype of M. kutchensis convinced Miquel

(1983) that the two are really distinct species,

differing from each other mainly in

(1) thickness of petasma (2) configuration of

petasma (3) shape of meral tooth of fifth

pereiopod of males. The present study has shown

that while 2 & 3 above are really valid, the same

is not true for the character number 1. In fact,

the two species can now be readily distinguished

based on other additional characters (Table 3,

Figs. 21-29).

In view of the above findings, it is now

clear that figures of thelycum and petasma

attributed to M. affinis by Alcock (1906) and

Kubo (1954), actually belong to the present

species. This is not at all surprising since all the

specimens studied by Kubo (1954) and part of

the material examined by Alcock (1906)

originated from Karachi (Pakistan), very near to

the Gulf of Kutch from where M. kutchensis was

originally described (George et al., 1963 ; George,

1 980). M. kutchensis has also been reported from

Mumbai by Kagwade (1978), who redescribed it

on the basis of larger specimens.

4. Parapenaeopsis stylifera

(H. Milne Edwards, 1837)

(Figs. 30-38)

Penaeus styliferus H. Milne Edwards,

1837 : 418 {Type locality: Around Mumbai (=

Bombay), Maharashtra State, India}; Pen aeopsis

styliferus - Bate, 1881 : 183; Parapenaeopsis

styliferus - Nobili, 1903 : 4; Parapeneopsis

stylifera - Alcock, 1906 : 36; Parapeneopsis

stylifera var. coromandelica - Alcock, 1906 : 37;

Parapenaeopsis stylifera - DeMan, 1911:9;

Parapenaeopsis coromandelica - Hall, 1962 : 27;

Parapenaeopsis stylifera stylifera - Racek &

Dali, 1965 : 98; Parapenaeopsis stylifera

coromandelica - Racek & Dali, 1965 : 98;

? Parapenaeopsis stylifera var. cochinensis

George, 1973 : 420; Parapenaeopsis

mumbayensis - Aravindakshan, 1996 : 32.

Material examined: 2517 males (32.5 to

97.5 mm) and 2832 females (91.5 to 118.0 mm)

collected at Mirkarwada and Sakhartar Fish

Landing Centres and Ratnagiri fish market from

April 1989 to December 1991; 6 males (60 to

84 mm) and 3 females (96 to 105.5 mm)

collected at Alibag fish market (Raigad district)

on 26th February, 1991.

Remarks: P. stylifera s.s. distinctly stands

apart from all the remaining species of

Parapenaeopsis (Alcock, 1901) in possessing

fixed spines ontelson (Menon, 1956 ; Dali, 1957;

Hall, 1962 ; George, 1969a, 1980; Burukovskii,

1982; Grey etal. 1983; De Freitas, 1984 ; Miquel,

1984). However, it is the number of these very

spines which has created a lot of confusion.

The crux of the problem is whether the

variety P. stylifera coromandelica of Alcock

(1906), supposedly an inhabitant of the Bay of

Bengal (along Coromandel coast) and east of it

and characterised by at the most 2 pairs (usually

only 1) of telson spines is 1. A synonym of

P stylifera (cf. George, 1969a, 1974. 1980) or 2.

A subspecies of P. stylifera (cf. Racek & Dali,

1965; Ravindranath, 1989) or 3. A separate

species (cf. Hall, 1962 ; De Bruin, 1965; Holthuis,

1980; Miquel, 1983).

TAXONOMIC REVISION OF SOME PENAEID PRAWN GENERA OF KONKAN COAST

509

Examination of an extensive series of

material in the present study has clearly shown

that the geographical isolation of the two forms,

with their so called hybridization zone situated

somewhere along the Kerala coast (southwest

coast of India), as postulated by Ravindranath

(1989), is not acceptable since the entire range

of the telson spines (i.e. 1 to 4) is represented in

the Konkan (northwest coast of India, which

incidentally is very near to the type locality,

Mumbai) specimens as under:

Number of telson

spines (Pairs)

1

2

3

4

Percentage frequency

12%

23%

61%

04%

The number of telson spines, therefore,

cannot be treated as a valid character for

separating the two forms.

According to Racek & Dali (1965),

P stylifera coromandelica possibly also differs

in possessing less number of rostral teeth i.e. 4

to 6 + 1 (epigastric). However, even this appears

to be rather improbable since the rostral formula

in the Konkan specimens is quite variable, being

3 to 6 + 1 (epigastric).

As already suggested by Racek and Dali

(1965), apart from the above two features, i.e.

number of telson spines and rostral formula,

which in our opinion merely represents

geographical variations, the two forms cannot

be segregated by any other morphological

characters including structure of petasma and

thelycum (Figs. 35 - 38a, b & c). This observation

is in complete agreement with that of George

(1969a, 1979, 1980) who was indeed right in

synonymising Alcock’s form from the

Coromandel coast with P. stylifera (H. Milne

Edwards, 1837).

While he was able to settle the issue of

Alcock’s variety, George (1973) created his own

new variety viz. P. stylifera cochinensis based

solely on 15 males from the inshore waters of

Cochin (Kerala). However, the size of specimens

as mentioned by him i.e. the total length of merely

7.2 to 9.0 mm, appears to be indeed quite strange.

Table 4

COMPARISON OF PARAPENAEOPSIS STYLIFERA ( H. MILNE EDWARDS, 1837) WITH THE OTHER FOUR

SPECIES OF PARAPENAEOPSIS (?) COLLECTED ALONG THE KONKAN COAST

510

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

In all probability this might be the result of a

typographical error since it is almost impossible

to conceive such small individuals even with

traces of petasma or appendix masculina.

Nevertheless, the figures of petasma and

appendix masculina as given by George (1973,

Fig. 1 , b & d, p.422), completely tally with those

of early developmental stages (approximately

45 mm size) of P. stylifera proper (Tirmizi, 1968,

Fig. 2a-c, p. 195). This proves that George’s

Cochin specimens are merely young ones of P.

stylifera as already pointed out by Ravindranath

(1989).

Recently, Aravindakshan (1996) inferred

that all the material known earlier from Mumbai

(= Bombay) under the name Parapenaeopsis

stylifera (H. Milne Edwards, 1837) actually

belongs to a new species namely P. mumbayensis

Aravindakshan, 1996. According to him, the new

species is unique in possessing a : ( 1) Telson with

lateral spines increasing in size distally

(2) Uropods not tipped white (3) Abdomen with

dorsal carination beginning from 4th segment

onwards (4) Rostrum with 5 or 6 teeth.

However, all these four features fall well

within the intraspecific variations exhibited by

Parapenaeopsis stylifera , the type locality of

which is Mumbai itself, a fact apparently

overlooked by Aravindakshan (1996). Hence

P. mumbayensis is synonymized under

Parapenaeopsis stylifera herewith.

Another important aspect, which needs

to be particularly stressed, is that P. stylifera

distinctly differs from all other species

assigned to the genus Parapenaeopsis (Alcock,

1901) in possessing well developed fixed spines

on the telson, which are quite discernible even

to the naked eye. In the present study it is

found to differ in at least 8 important features,

from the remaining 4 species assigned to

the genus Parapenaeopsis {viz. P. acclivirostris

Alcock, 1905, P cornuta (Kishinouye, 1900),

P sculptilis (Heller, 1862) and P. hardwickii

(Miers, 1878)} occurring along the Konkan coast

(Table 4).

These differences are strong enough to

suggest a separate taxonomic status for the

remaining species and NOT for P. stylifera since

it is not only the genotype but also the oldest

known member of the genus Parapenaeopsis.

5. Acetes indicus H. Milne Edwards, 1830

Acetes indicus H. Milne Edwards, 1830 :

351 (Type locality : Gangetic delta, India); A cetes

spiniger - Hansen, 1919 : 43 \1 Acetes indicus -

Achuthankutty & George, 1973 : 143.

Material examined: Numerous specimens

purchased from Kalyan fish market (Thane

district, near Mumbai (= Bombay)} on 6th May,

1990 : males (14.5 to 27.0 mm) and females (22.0

to 32.5 mm).

Remarks: Amongst the sergestids

collected during the present study, A. indicus is

by far the largest species. Although the original

description by H. Milne Edwards (1830) is quite

vague, it has been described in great detail by

De Man (1917), Hansen (1919), Omori (1975)

and Ravindranath (1980). Though all these

workers have pointed out the presence of a

characteristic needle-like process ventralis in the

males of this species, Achuthankutty & George

(1973) erroneously described it as lacking that

process.

Nevertheless, two types of males, based on

entirely different features, have been noted by

Omori (1975) who was able to recognise a ‘Large

Form’ (17.5 to 25.0 mm) belonging to the

samples from East Asia as against the typical

‘Small Form’ (15.5 to 19.5 mm) from the Indo-

Burmese region. He found several differences

between the two forms, which are enlisted in

Table 5.

The males in the present material, though

size-wise (14.5 to 27.0 mm) definitely fall into

Omori’s ‘Large Form’, are in complete

agreement with all the characters of his ‘ Small

Form ‘ except No. 1 of Table 5. In this respect,

they are identical with the specimens from coastal

Andhra Pradesh (Ravindranath, 1980). Further,

TAXONOMIC REVISION OF SOME PENAEID PRAWN GENERA OF KONKAN COAST

5 1 1

Table 5

COMPARISON BETWEEN THE TYPICAL INDO-BURMESE FORM (= OMORI’S ‘SMALL FORM’)

OF ACETES INDICUS H. MILNE EDWARDS, 1830, WITH THE EAST- ASIAN FORM

(= OMORI’S ‘LARGE FORM’) ASSIGNED TO IT

it is seen that the Indo-Burmese form is

characterised by sculpture of its capitulum, which

is covered with numerous spinules as against that

of its eastern counterpart which only bears a few

apical spinules (Kemp, 1917; Hansen, 1919;

Omori, 1975; Ravindranath, 1980 and pers.

obs.).

All the above differences indicate that,

although material at the disposal of Kemp (1917)

and Hansen (1919) contained a few East- Asian

specimens (= ‘Large Form’), their good drawings

are definitely based on the Typical Indo-Burmese

specimens (= ‘ Small Form’). According to Omori

(1975), “The differences between these two forms

may be largely due to the difference at maturity”.

This, however, seems to be rather doubtful in

our view as the differences between them are

certainly not size-linked. On the contrary, they

represent specific geographic stocks which may

even warrant a separate taxonomic status for the

East- Asian ‘Large Form’.

6. Acetes sibogae (?) Hansen, 1919

(Figs. 39-53)

Acetes sibogae Hansen, 1919 : 38 (Type

locality : Bay of Bima and Bawean island,

Indonesia); Acetes erythraeus - Kemp, 1917 :

51 (part); Acetes sibogae - Burkenroad, 1935 :

126; ? Acetes australis - Colefax, 1940 : 345 ; ?

Acetes sibogalis - Achuthankutty & George,

1973 : 139; ? Acetes sibogae sibogae - Omori,

1975 : 61; ? Acetes sibogae sibogalis - Omori,

1975 : 66; ? Acetes sibogae australis - Omori,

1975 : 68 ; Acetes vulgaris - Achuthankutty,

1975 : 469; ? Acetes orientalis - Achuthankutty

& Nair, 1976 : 233.

Material examined: 12 samples

containing numerous specimens collected from

Zadgaon creek, Ratnagiri, from April 1989 to

May 1991 : males (14.5 to 29.0 mm) and females

(16.5 to 29.5 mm).

Remarks: A. sibogae s.l. is a highly

variable species, the true status of which has been

512

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

confused by the creation of several species and

subspecies as much as by the relegation of some

really distinct species under it. In fact, both

Omori (1975,1977) and Ravindranath (1980)

have extensively discussed this problem of’

A. sibogae complex to which presently several

nominal species like A. australis, A. sibogalis,

A. oriental is etc. have been assigned, besides

relegation of forms like A. vulgaris. Perhaps,

this confusion seems to be due to inadequate

observations or understanding of taxonomic

features. For example, the number of falcate

spines on petasma (Fig. 50) which is a specific

feature was apparently wrongly observed (due to

improper mounting as in Figs. 43 & 51) by

Ravindranath (1980) as evident from his Fig. 9c

& d, p. 268. On the other hand, undue importance

given to features like number of segments on

lower antennular flagellum, nature of third

thoracic sternite of females etc. by authors like

Achuthankutty & George (1973) and

Achuthankutty & Nair (1976) seems to have led

to the erroneous creation of different species.

The present material, when compared with

the available literature, is found to be identical

only with Ravindranath’ s (1980) description

based on an east coast form from coastal Andhra

Pradesh, in exhibiting a characteristic sexual

dimorphism of the basial spine of third pereiopod

(found only in these two forms) which is present

and well developed in females but absent in males

(Figs. 44, 45). Although Ravindranath (1980)

seems to doubt the taxonomic validity of this

spine (since he found it to be present in one male

specimen of 18.8 mm), Pathansali (1966) had

already stressed its diagnostic value at species

level. In the present study, this spine is consistently

absent in a large series of males examined.

The similarity of the present material with

the widely separated east coast form, instead of

any of the so far known west coast forms, clearly

proves that the nature of presence or absence of

basial spine of third pereiopod is of definite

specific value and cannot be simply ascribed to

geographic variation.

The Ratnagiri material (along with

Ravindranath’s specimens from east coast of

India) further differs from the remaining forms

in the following:

1 . Pars astringens distinctly smaller than pars

externa.

2. Tips of capitulum beset with several minute

spinules (Figs. 43, 50 & 51).

The Ratnagiri and Andhra Pradesh

specimens, therefore, merit distinct taxonomic

identity.

Acknowledgements

The authors thank the authorities of

Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth, Dapoli, for giving

the necessary facilities. They express their deep

sense of gratitude to Dr. K. N. Sankolli and

Dr. Shakuntala Shenoy, College of Fisheries,

Ratnagiri, for their constant guidance and

encouragement.

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203.

CAUSES OF DESTRUCTION OF NESTS OF WEAVER BIRDS IN RAJASTHAN1

Satish Kumar Sharma2

Introduction

Three species of weaver birds, namely

Ploceus benghalensis, P. manyar and

P philippinus are found in Rajasthan (Sharma,

1991a). All these species generally initiate

nesting from June-July and their breeding

activities end in September-October. By that time,

nests are deserted by the adults with juveniles.

New nesting is started only next year in the

monsoon, i.e. after nearly 8-9 months.

The abandoned nests are destroyed by

various agencies and considerably fewer nests

remain intact at the commencement of the next

monsoon.

Study Area

To evaluate the nest destruction trend, I

conducted a study in Alwar and Udaipur districts,

in different habitats. Three sites were selected in

Alwar district and one in Udaipur as follows:

1. Site A: Tatarpur mixed plantation ‘A’,

consisting of 20 ha undulating sand dunes.

P philippinus and P. benghalensis were found

breeding there. Acacia Senegal was preferred

most for nesting by P. philippinus. Nests of

P. benghalensis were invariably present on

Saccharum bengalense. Though the area was

fenced in by the Forest Department, browsing

by goats and camels, lopping by local people for

fodder, fencing material and fuel-wood were the

major threat to Acacia Senegal , which prevails

round the year, specially in winter from January

to February. Saccharum bengalense is harvested

in winter for thatching roofs and making ropes.

2. Site B: A stretch of 1000 x 50 m

(i.e. 5 ha) area confined to the bed of Nahavani

Accepted January, 1995.

2Range Forest Officer, Aravalli Afforestation Project,

Jhadol (F), Dist. Udaipur 3 13 702.

river near Harsora Dam. It is a seasonal river,

but due to seepage of water from the dam, this

portion remains wet even in summer. Luxuriant

growth of Typha angustata and T. elephantina

can be seen in the river bed where P. manyar

breeds. Repeated grazing and trampling by cattle

round the year is a major threat to this habitat.

During winter, Typha is harvested by the locals

for rope making and thatching their houses. The

stems and leaves are cut near ground level,

bundled and carried to nearby villages and

hamlets. Nests of the striated weaver bird

P manyar, present on Typha , are pulled out by

the locals before making the bundles of cut stems

and leaves.

3. Site C: 20 old wells within a radius of

5 km near village Tatarpur were selected. Various

species of bushes and trees growing on the walls

of the wells were found to provide suitable sites

for the nests of P. philippinus. No apparent threat

to the nests was recorded.

4. Site D: A stretch of 100 ha of agricultural

land dotted with wild date palm ( Phoenix

sylvestris) was selected between the village Jara-

Pipla and Koliyari in Udaipur district. Only one

species of weaver bird, namely P. philippinus,

occurs in this locality. It preferably nests on

P sylvestris. The wild date palm is an important

tree for domestic use in this locality. Leaves of

these plants are harvested during February for

making brooms, mats etc. During March and

April, fire is put to the stems of younger palms

to burn off the scaly parts.

Methodology

Three sites in Alwar district, namely,

Tatarpur mixed plantation (site A), Nahavani

River-bed (site B), and old wells of Tatarpur

(site C) were surveyed from October 1983 to June

1984 while Jara-Pipla-Koliyari agricultural land

516

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 94 (1997)

in Udaipur district (site D) was studied from

October 1992 to June 1993. Counting of nests at

all the sites was done in the last week of every

month. Various factors were identified which were

found responsible for the destruction of nests.

Results

From the observations at different sites it

was concluded that many biotic and abiotic

agencies are responsible for destruction of nests.

Biotic factors include human and bovine

activities. Lopping off twigs of trees, harvesting

of Saccharum bengalense, Typha elephantina

and T. angustata for thatching and rope making;

harvesting of Phoenix sylvestris leaves for

making brooms, mats etc., pulling out nests for

domestic use and fire were listed as nest

destructive activities of human beings. Grazing,

trampling and wallowing of buffaloes in wet

areas, i.e. habitat of P. manyar, were noted as

major bovine nest destructive activities. Abiotic

factors like wind and hailstorms were also found

responsible for destruction of nests.

It was concluded from the data that

different quantum of destruction of nests takes

place in different habitats. Nest colonies present

in wells were more secure than all the others.

The nest destruction trends in different habitats

are given in Tables 1 and 2.

Discussion

1 . Old wells provide maximum security

to the nests while grasses and reeds are the most

unsafe habitats for nests after the breeding

period.

2. Maximum destruction of nests occurs

during winter i.e. from December to February.

3. Biotic factors like man and his cattle

are responsible for destruction of a major

percentage of nests of weaver birds.

4. Tribals of Udaipur district traditionally

put fire to stems of young wild date palms

(Phoenix sylvestris) to bum the persistent leaf

bases, to make the trunk smooth for climbing.

During this process the nests may catch fire.

5. Same habitats may provide different

levels of safety to nests of different species

as is evident in site ‘A’. This site proved

safer to P. philippinus but most unsafe to

P. benghalensis.

Half-built intact nests of Ploceus

philippinus are pulled out from host trees to use

them as baskets in and around village Tatarpur.

The “chin-strap” of a nest is gripped so that it

hangs upside down like a basket. Such baskets

are used by women and children to collect the

ripe fruits of Zizyphus nummularia and Cucumis

melo var. agrestis. Destruction of half-built nests

for this purpose is generally done from November

to January when the fruits of C. melo var. agrestis

and Z. nummularia ripen.

It has been shown by many workers that

abandoned nests of weaver birds play an

important role in protection and conservation of

many small wild animals such as the longtailed

tree mouse Vendeluria oleracea (Ali and

Ambedkar, 1956), Mus sp. (Regupathy and

Davis, 1984), painted bat Kerivoula picta

(Sharma, 1991a), Indian field mouse Mus

booduga (Akhtar and Tiwari, 1992),

whitethroated munia Lonchura malabarica (Ali,

1931; Ambedkar, 1970), house swift Micropus

affinis (Kirkpatric, 1950), spotted munia

Lonchura punctulata (Sharma, 1987), and some

arthropods (Sharma, 1991b).

The longtailed tree mouse (V oleracea )

lives in the abandoned nests of P benghalensis,

P. manyar and P. philippinus whenever an

opportunity arises. This species enters the

abandoned nests with the commencement of

winter. Abandoned nests of weaver birds are used

by the mice to give birth to blind and furless baby

mice. Mice families pass the winter there snugly.

So long as the mouse family remains inside the

nest, predators can hardly reach them. Thus nests

of weaver birds enhance the population of the

longtailed tree mouse (Ali and Ambedkar, 1956;

Sharma, 1988, 1991c).

Table 1

DESTRUCTION OF NESTS OF THREE SPECIES OF WEAVER BIRDS IN DIFFERENT HABITATS

DESTRUCTION OF NESTS OF WEAVER BIRDS IN RAJASTHAN

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CAUSES OF NEST DESTRUCTION IN SURVEYED LOCALITIES

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DESTRUCTION OF NESTS OF WEAVER BIRDS IN RAJASTHAN

519

Painted bats ( Kerivoula pi eta) use the ceiling

of the helmets of P. philippinus for roosting. Due

to growing demand for fuel-wood, most of the old

and dried trees have been hacked down, with the

result that several cavity nesting birds, mammals

and other animals have no suitable site for making

nests or roosts. Bats are probably using helmets of

baya as roosting places owing to scarcity of roosting

sites (Sharma, 1986).

Various species of munias such as

whitethroated munia Lonchura malabarica

habitually utilize old nests of P. benghalensis and

P. philippinus (Ali and Ripley, 1983; Sharma,

1991 a) for laying eggs. The spotted munia

(L. punctulata) also utilizes the old nests of

P philippinus (Sharma, 1987).

Many insects like the cotton bug Dysdercus

cingulatus, spiders like Plexippus paykullii,

Marpissa sp., Sparassus sp., Scytodes sp., etc.

not only pass winters in abandoned nests but

multiply there (Sharma, 1991b). In warm

weather, arthropods live in different niches, but

with the onset of winter, they hide themselves in

safer places to pass the cold season. Abandoned

nests of weaver birds are utilized as ‘inns’ by

insects and spiders for wintering. Some of them

breed in the nests. Many spiders were observed

with eggs and hatched young with them in the

nests. More than one type of spider was found

wintering and breeding together in the same nest.

The ceiling of the nest is the most preferred site

for Arthropods to take shelter during the winter

Refer

Akhtar, S.A. & J.K. Tiwari (1992): Brood of the Indian

Field Mouse Mus booduga in an abandoned Baya nest.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 89 (2): 245.

Ali, S. (1931): The nesting habits of the Baya (Ploceus

philippinus). A new interpretation of their

domestic relations. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 34: 947-

64.

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of Birds of India

and Pakistan, Oxford University Press, New Delhi.

Ali, S. & V.C. Ambedkar ( 1956): Notes on the Baya weaver

bird, Ploceus philippinus Linn. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 53(3): 385-393.

season. The ceiling being the most massive part

of the nest, provides the greatest insulation

to the wintering poikilothermic arthropods.

Insects like the mason-wasp Eumenes petiolatus

attach the characteristic clay brood-nests on

ceilings of the helmets of weaver birds (Sharma,

1991a).

All these animals of smaller size described

here may enter the nests of weaver birds. Using

nest entering capability as a parameter, animals

may be categorised into two groups — Entrants

and Non-entrants. House crows and jungle crows

are of larger size and cannot enter the nests,

hence they fall in Non-entrant group, which seek

the nests when they are ‘alive’ i.e. inmates are

living or at least present inside. Entrants prefer

an empty or deserted nest, but they may encroach

upon an occupied nest also. They enter the weaver

bird’s nest through existing openings or by

making denovo holes in any suitable part of the

nest. Entrants may utilize nest cavities variously

for breeding, wintering, roosting, hibernation

and escaping predation. Destruction of

abandoned nests of weaver birds deprive many

small animals of shelter.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to officials of the Forest

Department, Rajasthan, for helping me in the

present study, and to the referee for improving

the paper.

ENCES

Ambedkar, V.C. (1970): Nest of the baya Ploceus

philippinus (Linnaeus) on telegraph wires. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 66: 624.

Kirkpatric, K.M. (1950): Peculiar site of the House Swift

( Micropus affinis). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 49: 551-

52.

Regupathy, D. & T.A. Davis (1 984): Mouse, a nest-parasite

of Baya weaver bird ( Ploceus philippinus L.)

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81(1): 200-202.

Sharma, S.K. (1986): Painted bats and nests of Baya

Weaver bird J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83 (Supp.): 196.

Sharma, S.K. ( 1 987): Munias as facultative nest parasites.

520

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82(2): 444.

Sharma, S.K. (1988): Presence of fruits of Xantkium

strumarium in the nest of Ploceus philippinus J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85(3): 620.

Sharma S.K. ( 1 99 1 a): Plant life and weaver birds — with

special reference to eastern Rajasthan. Ph.D. Thesis.

University of Rajasthan, Jaipur.

Sharma, S.K. (1991 b): Nests of weaver birds and wintering

arthropods. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 88(2): 289-290.

Sharma, S.K. (1991c): Further notes on presence of

Xanthium indicum Koenig in the nests of Ploceus

philippinus. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 88(1): 115.

THE ECOLOGY AND DISTRIBUTION OF ALCYONACEANS AT MANDAPAM

(PALK BAY, GULF OF MANNAR), SOUTH INDIA1

V. Jayasree and A.H. Parulekar2

( With one text-figure)

Key words: Alcyonacea, distribution, Mandapam, Gulf of Mannar

New distribution records for 27 species of Alcyonaceans are given. These include major

genera Sinularia (12 spp.), Lobophytum (7 spp.), Sarcophyton (6 spp.), Dampia (1 sp.)

and Nephthya (1 sp.). The factors that influence the distribution of corals, such as

temperature, sedimentation and currents on this reef are discussed.

Introduction

Mostly the coral reefs of fringing type are

found in the Palk Bay and Gulf of Mannar on

the southeastern coast of India. These are chiefly

located around various islands between Tuticorin

and Rameswaram in the Gulf of Mannar and Palk

Bay at Mandapam. The reef lies between 79° 27'

40” to 79° 8' E long, and 9° 17' N lat. (Fig. 1).

The Palk Bay is a shallow basin with an average

depth of 9 m, with mainly muddy bottom at

inshore regions and depth ranges from 1 to 5 m.

In spite of some investigations of South Indian

coral reefs (Foote, 1889; Walther, 1891;

Thurston, 1895; Sewell, 1935; Pillai, 1969, 1971)

our knowledge, particularly of Octocoral fauna,

is scanty. The only literature available on this

part of the Indian Ocean is Hickson (1906), Pratt

(1906), Thomson and Henderson (1906),

Thomson and Simpson (1909).

Material and Methods

Alcyonacean coral material was studied

from collection made by N.I.O, Goa, Andhra

University, Waltair and I.I.C.T. Hyderabad

during May 1993 to February 1994 by SCUBA

Accepted February, 1996

2National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula,

Goa 403 004, India.

diving under the D.O.D. National Project on

“Development of Potential Drugs from the Sea.”

Some environmental and hydrological para-

meters such as temperature and salinity were

recorded.

All the specimens reported are preserved

in 70% methanol and deposited in the Marine

Biology Museum and Taxonomy Reference

Centre at the Nati onal Institute of Oceanography,

Goa.

Results

Major environmental and hydrological

conditions show that the study area receives both

the southwest and northeast monsoons. Rain is

moderate to heavy during October to mid-

December, with occasional gales. The average

atmospheric temperature varies from 25 °C to

3 1°C with maximum and minimum in May and

January respectively.

The surface temperature of the waters of

Palk Bay varies from 24.6°C to 29. 1°C, with the

lowest and highest in January and April

respectively. The salinity is low during January,

gradually rising to the maximum in November,

followed by a decline in December. It varies from

33 to 36 ppt. The tidal range is usually within

an amplitude of one metre. The Palk Bay remains

calm during most months except at the onset of

522

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

the northeast monsoon, when turbulent

conditions prevail. No fresh water inflow dilutes

the sea near Mandapam.

The study material comprises 27 species

which are listed in Table 1. Most of them are

new geographical records for this part of the

Indian Ocean

The most abundant and dominating

genera in the study area are Sinularia dessecta

and S. leptoclados. The species Sinularia

leptoclados is well known from numerous

Indo-Pacific sites (Verseveldt, 1980). The most

common Lobophytum spp. are Lobo-

phytum crassum and L. pauciflorum. Sinularia

manaarensis in Krusadai Island confirms

its exclusive occurrence (Verseveldt, 1980). In

the genus Sarcophyton, Sarcophyton elegans and

S. troche liophorum were the most frequent soft

corals.

The reefs in the Gulf of Mannar are the

most diverse in soft corals compared with other

parts of the Indian Ocean (Pillai, 1971). The

present study shows the accumulation of

numerous alcyoniids in shallow water. It is also

reported that a marked difference in the species

diversity is found in deeper areas (Benayahu,

1985). This survey also reveals the presence of

nephtheids and patchy assemblages of

Sinularia brassica and S. abrupta, confirming

earlier findings. The rare occurrence of these

species could be due to their low repro-

ductive potential and short-distance dispersal

of planulae. Another major factor which

influences alcyonacean distribution could be the

availability of a firm substrate suitable for

the settlement of planulae. Depth distribution

and zonation of different species is determined

by biotic and abiotic factors (Dineson, 1983).

The present survey also indicates a particular

species of soft coral which forms colonies in

different reefs. Also, the frequent occurrence

of a particular species in these areas suggests

resistance to wave action, temperature and

salinity variations, tidal influence and

sedimentation. These reefs also provide good

light penetration and tidal currents which

ECOLOGY AND DISTRIBUTION OF ALCYONACEANS AT MANDAPAM

523

Table 1

SPECIES AFFILIATION OF ALCYONACEANS IN GULF OF MANNAR

524

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

enrich the water with plankton (Klenker et al. ,

1976). The frequency of appearance of soft

corals could be based on differences in life

history or reproductive nature. Also, it is

suggested for the soft coral genera of

family Xeniidae, that the successful inhabi-

tance in Red Sea is achieved by asexual

reproduction and high fecundity (Benayahu and

Loya, 1984b).

Refer

Benayahu, Y. (1985): Faunistic composition and patterns

in the distribution of soft corals (Octocorallia:

Alcyonacea) along the coral reefs of Sinai Peninsula.

Proc. 5th Int. Coral Reef Congress, Tahiti, 1985. 6.

pp 255-260.

Benayahu, Y. & Y. Loya ( 1 984b): Life history studies on

the Red Sea soft cordi Xenia macrospiculatora Gohar,

1940. II. Planulae shedding and post-larval

development, Biological Bulletin. 166: 44-53.

Dinesen, Z.D. (1983): Patterns in the distribution of soft

corals across the Central Great Barrier Reef. Coral

Reefs 1: 229-236.

Foote, R.B. (1889): The coral reefs of Rameswaram.

Madras Christian College Magazine: 828-840.

Hickson, (1906): The Alcyonaria of the Maldives. Part I.

The genera Xenia, Telesto, Spongodes, Nephythya,

Paraspongodes, Chironephthya, Sphonogorgia,

Soleunocaulon and Melitodes In: The Fauna and

Geography of the Maidive and Laccadive

Archipelagoes, Ed. J.S. Gardiner 475-503.

Klenker, J., Z. Reiss, C. Kropach, I. Lavanon, H. Harpaz,

& H. Halicz (1976): Observation on the circulation

pattern of the Gulf of Eilat (Aqaba) Red Sea. Israel

Journal of Earth-Sciences, 25: 85-103.

Mahadevan, S. & K.N. Nayar ( 1 972): Distribution of coral

reefs in the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay and their

exploitation and utilization. Proc. Symp. Corals and

coral reefs. Journal of Marine Biological Association,

India: 181-190.

Pillai, C.S.G. (1969): The distribution of corals on a reef

at Mandapam (Palk Bay) South India, Journal of

Marine Biological Association, India. 11:, 62-72.

Acknowledgements

We are thankful to the present and former

Directors of this Institute for extending all

facilities. We gratefully acknowledge Prof A. S.R.

Anjaneyulu, Andhra University, Waltair, Dr.

Venkateswarlu, Indian Institute of Chemical

Technology, Hyderabad for sending soft coral

collections to us.

ENCES

Pillai, C.S.G. (1971): Composition of the coral fauna

of the southeastern coast of India and the Lac-

cadives. Symposium, Zoological Society, London. 28:

301-327.

Pratt, E.M. (1906): The Alcyonaria of the Maldives

Part II. The genera Sarcophytum, Lobophytum,

Sclerophyturp and Alcyonium. In: The Fauna

and Geography of the Maidive and Laccadive

Archipelagoes. Ed. J.S. Gardiner pp 504-535.

Sewell, R.B.S. (1935): Studies on coral and coral

formations in Indian waters. Mem. Asiatic Soc. Bengal

9: 461-540.

Thomson, J.A. & J.J. Simpson, (1909): An account of the

Alcyonarians collected by the Royal Indian Marine

Survey Ship “Investigator” in the Indian Ocean. II. The

Alcyonarians of the littoral area — Trustees Indian

Museum, Calcutta, 1909: 1-XVIII, 1-319, PI. 1-9.

Thomson, J.A. & W.D. Henderson, (1906a): The marine

fauna of Zanzibar and British East Africa, from

collections made by Cyril Crossland in the years 1 90 1

and 1902. Alcyonaria. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1906:

393-443.

Thurston, .E. (1895): Rameswaram Island and fauna of

the Gulf of Mannar. Bull. Madras Govt. Mus. (2nd

Ed): 108-112.

Verseveldt, J. (1980): A revision of the genus Sinularia

May (Octocorallia: Alcyonacia). Zoologische

Verhandeligen Leiden 179: 1-29.

Walther, J., (1891): Die Adamsbriicke und die

Korallenriffe der Palk strasse. Sediment studien in

tropischen: Litoralgebiet Petermanns geog.

Mitteiungen, Erganzungsheft, 102: 1-140.

RECENT TRENDS IN PROTECTION OF HARVESTED BAMBOOS FROM

GHOON BORERS1

M.L. Thakur and R.S. Bhandari2 *

In India, harvested bamboos suffer in varying degrees, from different species of ghoon

borers at the felling site and under storage conditions. Severely infested bamboos are often

reduced to heaps of dust, causing a colossal loss in revenue to the growers and the industry.

Protection of bamboos has been an important thrust area of forest research since World

War II. The Forest Research Institute, Dehradun, has played a pioneering role in developing

appropriate technologies for protecting bamboos from insects both for short (prophylactic

treatment) as well as long duration (preservative treatment).

This paper discusses the results of some of the recent researches carried out at the Forest

Research Institute, particularly on the use of synthetic pyrethroids which, though easily

biodegradable, have been found highly effective as prophylactic measures against ghoon

borers.

Introduction

Bamboo, commonly referred to as green

gold, is one of the most important and precious

non- wood forest raw materials. According to one

estimate (Tewari, 1992), roughly 14 million ha

of the earth’s surface is covered with bamboo

forests, a major portion (ca 80%) of which occurs

in Asia with 65 genera (14 endemic) and 900

species. India perhaps is one of the leading

countries with an average annual production

of nearly 3.23 million tonnes (Pathak, 1989).

In fact India with nearly 23 genera and 125

species, both indigenous and exotic, is

considered to be one of the largest bioreserves

of bamboo gene pool in the w7orld, occupying

roughly an area of 10.23 million ha. Thus, the

need to propagate and protect such a vast and

precious natural resource needs no further

emphasis.

Borers of felled and stored bamboos

In India, all species of bamboo suffer in

varying degrees, from insect pests and other

biological agencies at the felling sites, during

Accepted October, 1995

2Forest Research Institute, P.O. New Forest,

Dehradun 248006.

transportation, storage and even as finished

products in use. While none of the 40 and

odd species reported by Singh and Bhandari

(1988), Mathew and Nair (1988) and 15 species

of termites (Thakur, 1988) cause direct morta-

lity in green standing bamboos, coleopteran

borers (ca 32 species) are principally respon-

sible for serious infestation and economic loss

in the field and in stored bamboos. The most

important among them are the common ghoon

borers (3 species) of the genus Dinoderus (viz.

D. brevis, D. minutus and D. ocellaris),

Heterobostrychus aequalis and Sinoxylon

anale (Coleoptera:Bostrychidae) and one

species of Cerambycid borer, Stromatium

barbatum.

Incidence of borer damage in bamboos

Except for some recent work on 13 species

of bamboos at Forest Research Institute, Dehra

Dun, no authentic data are available on the

natural durability of most bamboos. However, it

is acknowledged that bamboos, in general, are

highly susceptible and are easily attacked by

insects (borers and termites) and fungi. This is

especially true in tropical countries, where high

temperature and humidity are ideal for insect

infestations.

526

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

The felled bamboos remain in storage for

varying periods, from one month to a year or

even more. It is in these storehouses that the

harvested and stored bamboos, if not protected

adequately, are likely to be infested, often

seriously, by insect borers, and reduced to heaps

of powdery dust, causing considerable loss in

revenue to the growers and to industry.

Some laboratory and field case studies have

revealed over 22% loss in wood substances in

one year, with a resultant ca 10% fall in

unbleached kraft yield during storage (Guha and

Chandra, 1979). Such losses can be brought

down to around 7% by suitable treatment.

However, losses in the field or open storage in

timber depots are invariably much higher because

of hot and humid conditions prevailing in most

parts of the country (Kumar et al., 1985). Though

data on such losses are not always available, it is

presumed that it must be quite high, particularly

at sites with poor storage conditions, where losses

upto 30-40% of the stock have been reported

(Kumar, 1977). In another study, carried out

recently by FRI at Jaffrabad Forest Dept, (U.P.)

(unpublished data) nearly 40% (0.15 million

kodis) of the stacked bamboo revealed very high

incidence of borer attack, with a resultant nett

loss of approximately 4.6 million rupees to the

department.

Protection of bamboo against ghoon borers

The enormous demand for bamboo poles

during the Second World War and their proven

susceptibility to biodegradation, is an important

question for the protection of bamboos, more

particularly from ghoon borer attacks. The then

Entomology Branch of Forest Research Institute

was assigned this problem. Since then, FRI has

been playing a pioneering role in developing

economically appropriate control measures. The

Entomology Division has, however, been

concentrating only on prophylactic measures for

protecting bamboos at the felling site or the

storage depots.

The traditional strategies

Beeson (1941) published detailed life

histories and control measures of major ghoon

borers, viz. Dinoderus brevis, D. minutus and

D. ocel laris. Gardner (1945) published a detailed

note on the biology and control of bamboo borers.

After independence Roonwal and Chatteijee

(1951), Roonwal et al. (1959), Singh and

Bhandari (1988), Thakur (1988), Mathew and

Nair (1988) and more recently Thapa et al.

(1992) have dealt with this problem extensively,

particularly on the nature and incidence of

damage with appropriate control measures,

some of which being currently under use, are

discussed:

The Safe Felling Period

There is strong circumstantial evidence

that the susceptibility and attraction of bamboos

to ghoon borer attack depends primarily upon

the age and season of felling, as also due to

presence of starch, certain soluble carbohydrates

and proteins, which are the essential food

component of the developmental stages of

Bostrychid and Lyctid borers. It is perhaps due

to this very low starch concentration in flowered

bamboos that they are more resistant to ghoon

borer attack (Tewari and Singh, 1979).

Studies carried out by various investigators

(Beeson, 1941; Gardner, 1945 andMathur, 1958)

indicated considerable variation in starch content

in various species of bamboos in different

localities, and a corresponding variation in their

susceptibility to borer attack. The dictum that

cold winter months are the best period for felling

bamboo is only partially true, as it does not

guarantee complete immunity from borers. The

low incidence of infestation is due to a low and

less active borer population during this period.

This dictum has relevance perhaps only to

southern India and possibly in localities where

Dendrocalamus minutus is a predominant species

(Beeson, 1941).

PROTECTION OF HARVESTED BAMBOOS FROM GHO ON BORERS

527

In northern India (Western U.P), the best

period for felling is between the end of monsoon

(i.e. end of August) to the end of December,

though in Doon Valley (D. brevis) the dates differ

slightly. Here, borer attack is least on fellings

carried out during late summer (mid June) to

early monsoon (end of July). The incidence is

low between mid October to end of December.

The bamboos felled during the first five months,

especially those of March and April, are prone

to severe borer damage. Northwest India,

comprising the states of Punjab, Himachal

Pradesh and Jammu (J&K) has Dendrocalamus

ocellaris as the predominant species. The safest

felling period is May and December, but the

felling schedules carried out from end of October

to mid January are also fairly good, a practice

schedule which is even now in vogue in this part

of the country. It is believed that the starch

content of the wood at this time is extremely low,

almost nil or in traces.

Water soaking

It is a common belief among the forest

dwellers that soaking bamboos in water, for a

varying period, imparts immunity against ghoon

borers and Lyctus attack, as a result of leaching

of starch, soluble sugars and other substances in

bamboos. In view of this, a series of experiments

were conducted at the FRI and it was concluded

that water immersion for 12 weeks or so protects

bamboos from Bostrychid borers. However, this

treatment does not provide any protection against

Lyctus attack.

Culm baking procedure

Baking of culms is a customary practice

in certain areas of the country. The procedure

involves coating of culms with rape seed oil and

then heating them over the fire for a varying

period. This process also leads to straightening

of the culms. Experiments revealed that this heat

treatment results in fixing of the starch in the

tissues and, if performed soon after felling, can

check natural starch depletion. Prolonged heating

for a period of six hours or so renders the culms

immune to borer attack due to reduction in

moisture content (upto 0-5%) which is

insufficient and too low to support Bostrychid

larval development (Gardner, 1945).

Chemical control

Notwithstanding the several attempts to

protect bamboos from borer attack in the past,

the problem persists in challenging form and the

bamboos continue to suffer serious insect attack

both at the felling site and under storage

conditions. The FRI has been conducting

experiments to evolve a suitable protection

umbrella against insect borers infesting felled

bamboos in depots.

Prophylactic spray of 0.33% BHC in

kerosene oil provided protection to bamboos

against all categories of borers in stacked

bamboos, however a dosage of 0.5% BHC in

kerosene oil was found to be the most effective

prophylactic (Roonwal and Chatterjee, 1951;

Roonwal et al, 1959).

In subsequent years, salts and toxic

chemicals of later generations were introduced.

Prophylactic treatment of stacked bamboos with

1% lindane, 3% boric acid + borax (1:1), 3%

boric acid + zinc chloride were reported to be

effective against post-harvest insect attack. It was

also reported that dip treatment of green bamboo

culms for varying period in chemical solutions

of the above compounds was more effective than

simple spray treatment and that it should be

carried out before the summer monsoon (Tewari

and Singh, 1979).

Current trends

The discovery of synthetic pyrethroids, a

highly effective yet easily biodegradable group

of insecticides, further revolutionised pest control

technology. Recently, Thapa et al (1992) have

528

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

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PROTECTION OF HARVESTED BAMBOOS FROM GHOON BORERS

529

concluded that while fenvalerate, when applied

in doses of 0.4% e.c. formulation in diesel oil

failed to protect bamboos from ghoon borer

attack, the other synthetic p^rethroid,

cypermethrin, proved fairly effective at the same

dosage and provided protection to bamboos

stored in open for about 4-5 months until the

monsoon when the insecticides are likely to get

washed out from the smooth surface, leaving little

residue on the culms. Similarly, endosulfan (35

e.c.), when sprayed at dosages of 0.75-1.5%

concentration in diesel oil with a small quantity

of sticker (triton) is reportedly effective against

borer attack for the same period as synthetic

pyrethroids. More experiments have been laid

for increasing the efficacy of the prophylactic

treatments by adding some commercially

available sticking agents such as teepol, triton,

Neogen PEN and Neogen PAN, molasses, etc. to

cypermethrin spray emulsions. Though final data

are still under analysis, indications are that the

use of Neogen PEN and molasses, added to

cypermethrin, can give adequate protection for

about a year to bamboo stored in the open.

Discussion

Investigations carried out at the FRI have

indicated that methods such as soaking, sap

displacement or diffusion treatments, etc., if carried

out as per the specified schedules, are simple, cheap

and quite effective for protection of bamboo. The

prophylactic treatment is of temporary nature and

is suitable for protecting bamboo in storage,

before it is put to use. The efficacy of the

treatment wanes and is proportional to the period

of storage. The incidence of borer attack tends

to increase with passage of time as a result of

decrease in residual toxicity of the insecticide.

Thapa et al. (1992) have recommended stacking

of bamboos under temporary shed for longer and

safe storage. Further innovative trials to improve

storage conditions in depots are, however,

necessary.

References

Beeson, C.F.C. (1941): Ecology and control of Forest

Insects of India and the Adjacent Countries. ii+ 1 -

1007 (Vasant Press, Dehra Dun).

Gardner, J.C.M. (1945) A note on the insect borers of

bamboos and their control. Indian Forest Bull., No.

125: 1-17.

Kumar, S. ( 1 977): Protection of pulp wood during storage.

A probe into the current practices and future scope.

IPPTA Zonal Seminar on Afforestation, Exploitation

and Preservation of Forest Raw-materials. FRI,

Dehra Dun (August, 1977) pp 116-120.

Kumar, S., K.K. Kalra & P.B. Dobriyal (1 985): Protection

of pulp bamboos in outside storage. J. limb. Dev.

Assoc. India, 31(4): 5-12.

Mathew. G. & K.S.S. Nair (1988) Storage pests of

bamboos in Kerala. In: Bamboo Current Research.

Proc. Int. Bamboo Workshop (Nov. 1988), pp. 212-

214.

Mathur, R.N. (1958): Culm-curing of bamboos and

susceptibility to powder post beetle attack. Indian

Forest Bull, No. 221 (NS): 1-19.

Pathak, P.S. (1989): Bamboo resources in the World. Semi.

Sivl. and Manag. Bamboos. Jabalpur, India.

Roonwal, M.L. & P.N. Chatterjee (1951): Benzene

hexachloride as successful anti-insect prophylactic

for bamboos in storage. J. Sci. Ind. Res., Delhi, (B)

10 (12): 321-322.

Roonwal, M.L., P.N. Chatterjee & R.S. Thapa (1959):

Results of laboratory and field experiments

on protection of bamboos in storage against

ghoon beetles, Dinoderus spp. (Coleoptera:

Bostrychidae). Indian For. Bull. (NS) (Ent), No.

216:2+ 1-32.

Singh, P. &R.S. Bhandari (1988): Insect pests of bamboos

and their control. Indian Forester, 114 (10): 670-

683.

Tewari, D.N. (1992): A monograph on bamboo.

International Book Distributors, Dehra Dun pp. xii

+ 1-498

Tewari, M.C. & B. Singh (1979): Bamboos-Their

utilization and protection against biodeterioration,

J. Timb. Dev. Assoc. India, 25 (4): 12-23.

Thakur, M.L. (1988): Current status of termites as pests

of bamboos and their control. Indian For., 114 (10):

720-725.

Thapa, R.S., P. Singh & R.S. Bhandari (1992):

Prophylactic efficacy of various insecticides for the

protection of bamboos in storage against ghoon

borer, Dinoderus so. J. Indian Acad. Wood Sci.,

23 (1): 39-47.

SUBSOCIALITY IN DUNG BEETLES COPRIS REPERTUS WALKER AND

COPRIS INDICUS GILL. (COLEOPTERA: SCARABAEIDAE)1

K. Veenakumari2 and G.K. Veeresh 3

(With one plate)

Key words: Copris repertus. C. indicus, nesting, parental care, bisexual

cooperation.

Nesting behaviour of Copris repertus and C. indicus were studied in the laboratory. Male-

female cooperation and parental care were observed in both the species. Earthworms belonging

to Dichogaster sp. were found to feed on the dung in the brood balls. Some atypical behaviour,

like extension of brood chamber, etc. was observed in C. repertus. Biology of Copris repertus

was also studied in the laboratory.

Introduction

Subsociality has been found in some genera

of Scarabaeinae of which Copris is one. Nesting

behaviour of several species of Copris have been

studied in detail (Fabre, 1897; Halffter and

Matthews, 1966; Rommel, 1961, Paik, 1976;

Halffter and Edmonds, 1982; Klemperer, 1982a,

1982b). Arrow (1931) has reported 34 species of

Copris in India. So far, the behaviour of none of

these has been studied. An attempt has been made

to study two commonly occurring species of

Copris, C. repertus and C. indicus , which have

variations in their nesting patterns.

Material and Methods

Adult beetles attracted to cow and sheep

dung in pastures were collected and brought to

the laboratory. They were separated sex-wise

based on morphological characters.

To study the nesting structure, large cubic

dealwood boxes of 0.9m sides were used. These

Accepted March 1994

2C.A.R.I., P.B. No. 431, Junglighat, Port Blair,

Andamans 744103.

3Vice-Chancellor, University of Agricultural Sciences,

Bangalore 560065.

were filled with moist soil, on top of which fresh

cowdung was dropped. The beetles were then

released into this box. The box was covered with

wooden planks. After about two weeks, one wall

of the box was ripped open and the soil was sliced

vertically with care, to study the nest architecture.

Nesting pattern and bisexual cooperation

were studied in glass cages measuring 60 x 44 x

3 cm3). Glass walls were fixed 3 cm apart into a

three sided wooden frame with grooves. Soil was

filled into this cage and on top of this fresh cow

dung was deposited. The beetles were then

released into the cage, and the top of the cage

covered with wire mesh to prevent the escape of

beetles. Observations such as feeding, nest

building and ball making, etc., were periodically

taken.

Results

Copris repertus. The adufts of C. repertus

emerged during the month of May. This species

was found to be attracted to both cow and

elephant dung. After their emergence they fed

initially within the dung pat and later made

shallow food burrows. Using their clypeus and

fore tibiae, an oblique tunnel was excavated. They

scqoped soil with the clypeus, brought it out

SUBSOCIALITY IN TWO SPECIES OF COPRIS

carrying it above their head and threw it onto

the surface. Later this tunnel was filled with dung

which was brought from the surface. The beetle

separated a little mass of dung from the dung

pat on the ground surface and moved backwards

into the tunnel with the rear end first. Then it

turned and packed the dung into the tunnel. This

food burrow was either single or branched, and

was occupied by a single occupant, either a male

or a female. The beetles fed on the stored dung

for one or two days and later abandoned it in

search of new dung pats. The old food burrows

were found to contain left over dung and faecal

matter. These food burrows were 5-6 cm deep.

Apart from these burrows, a long horizontal

tunnel about 2-3 cm was constructed beneath the

soil surface, which measured 9 - 12 cm long and

ended in a vertical drop of 20 - 40 cm. This was

filled with dung in which the beetles were

present. Most probably this was used for

breeding.

When newly emerged beetles were

introduced into cages with soil and dung, they

entered the soil immediately after feigning death

for a minute or two. They made food burrows

and fed on the dung. Later they were not seen to

engage in brood construction even though there

was enough dung. But when the same beetles

were removed and put afresh into rearing cages

with soil and fresh dung they started constructing

brood chambers.

Those beetles which were released in

cages (with soil+no dung) immediately entered

the soil. When fresh dung was dropped later into

these cages the beetles did not come up for

feeding on the dung, but made individual cells

and remained inactive. Even after a lapse of two

months, these beetles were found alive in the

same condition.

After the feeding period (10-15 days) they

started constructing brood chambers at an

average depth of 17.53 (10-30) cm. The brood

burrow consisted of a tunnel of diameter 1.73

(1.5 -2. 2) cm which ended in a wider brood

chamber. The female worked in the lower

53 1

portions of the brood burrow, while the male

restricted himself to the upper portion. During

the process of digging the tunnel, the female

scooped the soil, lifted it over her head and

carried it half way along towards the burrow of

the tunnel from where the male would take the

soil from her and throw it onto the surface. The

average amount of soil excavated was 172.53

(84.4-237) g.

Later, once a brood chamber had been

constructed at the base of the tunnel, the male

and the female commenced filling it with dung.

The average dimensions of the brood chamber

were 8.08 x 9.16 x 9.29 cm3.

The male, working on the surface,

separated a fragment of dung using his clypeus

and forelegs and brought it to the female who

waited near the entrance of the tunnel. She

received it from him with her forelegs and

moved down the tunnel rear end first, till her

abdomen touched the wall of the chamber. Then

she climbed over the fragment, took a 180° turn,

and packed the dung against the wall of the

chamber using her clypeus and forelegs. In a

similar manner, the entire chamber was packed

with dung. To collect dung of volume 1.0 x 8.9 x

1.8 cm3 they took 20 minutes. During the entire

process, whenever the male refused to do his

share of work, the female coaxed him by butting

him with her clypeus, after which he resumed

the work. In one instance, when the male never

returned after he went to bring the dung, the

female waited for some time and then went up to

find him resting near the entrance. She butted

him so fiercely that he fell directly into the

brood chamber after which he scurried back to

the surface to resume his work of bringing

dung.

After filling the chamber with dung (Fig. 1 )

the female excavated soil around the dung mass

and made it a free mass of dung. This soil was

partly thrown on to the surface and partly used

for closing the tunnel; by doing so the female

excluded the male, which was found in a small

cell near the tunnel from then onwards.

532

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Later, the female kneaded the accumulated

mass of dung into a smooth, big mass, in which

she laid several eggs. A small protuberance in

the dung mass indicated the presence of eggs

(Fig. 2). She separated a mass of dung along with

an egg and made a brood ball. All the brood balls

were similarly constructed. The mean number

of eggs laid per female was 6 (3-9). The brood

balls were spheroids (Figs. 3 & 4) The average

diameter and weight of the brood ball was 3.77

± 0.62 cm and 21.92 ± 11.45 g, n = 25,

respectively. During the initial stages, these brood

balls were devoid of a soil coating around them.

Later, a thin layer of soil was applied by the

mother onto each one of them. The mother kept

constantly moving the balls and changing their

position, which prevented the growth of the

fungus on them. The mother guarded the

brood against predators till the young ones

emerged.

In those cages where more than one pair

of beetles was released, only one pair constructed

a brood chamber, while the others made food

burrows and remained in them for the rest of the

time.

When the brood balls were interchanged,

the mother beetles showed no inhibiting

behaviour, but accepted and took care of them.

In another instance, two mother beetles were

found in a single nest in which six brood balls

and 236 g of dung mass were present.

In yet another case, a female had made a

brood chamber which contained six brood balls

and had extended the chamber into another small

chamber in which two more brood balls were

present.

Moisture played a crucial role in larval

development, because many brood balls which

were kept open had shrunken and shrivelled

larvae which finally died. As the moisture

percentage in the dung decreased it became

progressively less palatable for the

larva.

Twenty five pairs of beetles which were

released in cement pots of dimensions 30 x 45 x

45 cm3 produced smaller brood balls of average

diameter and weight 2.67 ± 0.22 cm, and 10.73

± 46 g, n = 22 respectively, as compared to

the average diameter (3.77 cm) and weight

(21.92 g) of normal brood balls formed in deal

wood boxes of dimensions 0.9 xO. 9x0. 9 m3.

Two eggs were laid in one of the smaller brood

balls.

In ten cases, the entire brood was destroyed

by earthworms Dichogaster sp. (Oligochaeta:

Megascoleidae: Octochaetinae). In place of the

brood, a mixture of dung, soil and excreta of

earthworms was present. The mother beetles were

found 10-12 cm away from the destroyed brood.

Ten broods had larvae along with 2-3 earthworms

present in the same ball.

The adults of C. repertus stridulated,

making screeching noises by the in and out

movements of their abdomen. During this process

a sort of creamish white liquid oozed out of the

anal opening. The larva produced a scratching

noise, when the brood balls were touched. When

such brood balls were opened it was seen that

the scratching noise was the result of the scraping

of the inner wall of the brood ball with the larval

mandibles.

The brood balls had an egg chamber

on top, with the egg glued to one end. The egg

was elongate and creamy white. There was a

fibrous network on the top of the egg chamber.

The larvae lacked the noticeable projection or

the hump, unlike the larvae of Onthophagus sp.

(Fig. 5).

The third instar larva constructed its

cocoon using its own excreta. The larva became

pale and had an emptied gut by the time it

completed cocoon construction. The pupa was

creamy yellow initially, turning golden brown

with advance in time.

Newly formed adults were chestnut red and

stayed in the brood ball for 4-5 days. It took about

8-10 days for the complete melanization of the

adults. The adults emerged by cutting a hole in

the brood ball (Fig. 6) and then entered the

soil.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 94

K. Veenakumari & G.K. Veeresh: Copris repertus

Plate 1

Fig. 1-6. Copris repertus Walker

1. Free mass of dung collected by the female for the brood chamber; 2. Small protuberances on the dung

mass indicating the presence of the eggs; 3. Brood balls; 4. Nest with brood balls.

5. Second instar larva in the brood ball;

6. Emergence hole made by the newly formed adult in the brood ball.

SUBSOCIALITY IN TWO SPECIES OF COPRIS

533

The number of days taken for completing

the different life stages is presented in Table 1

and the measurements of different life stages in

Table 2.

Table 1

NUMBER OF DAYS TAKEN FOR EACH LIFE STAGE

OF C. REPERTUS

The mother beetle was found always

moving over the brood balls, taking care of them.

In all cases, whenever the brood balls were

stacked in two tiers, she immediately made more

place near the lower layer, and placed all balls

in a single layer so that she could tend each one

of them.

The mother beetles were found to break

the brood balls into small fragments if the larva

inside the particular brood ball was dead, whereas

she repaired those brood balls (when they were

broken) if they contained a live larva.

Some atypical behaviour exhibited by these

beetles is mentioned below:

When an extra mass of dung was provided

to a mother beetle, she used it to make more brood

balls.

In one instance, when two pairs of beetles

were released in a single cage, both the females

prepared brood balls together in a single

chamber; and finally one female chased away

the other female and tended all the brood balls

by herself. The other female stayed in a cell

2 cm away from the brood chamber.

In three cases, the mother beetles tended

the brood balls for five days, after which they

extended the brood chamber by further digging

about 8 cm away and made a separate chamber

and shifted all the brood balls into it and tended

them.

Copris indicus : These beetles were

attracted mainly to sheep dung, even though they

were occasionally collected in cow and elephant

dung.

C. indicus ’ behaviour is very similar to that

of C. repertus but for a few aspects.

Adult beetles emerged during the month

of June. They made shallow food burrows (7-8

cm) and fed on the dung they buried. By the end

of June to beginning of July they started

constructing burrows. Construction of the

brood burrow involved both the male and the

female.

The pattern of construction of the brood

burrows varied from that of C. repertus.

In the laboratory, when the beetles were

provided with sheep pellets, they behaved in the

following maimer. The female in cooperation

with the male initially dug an oblique tunnel,

which was very similar to that of the food burrow.

The male carried the individual sheep pellets

with his forelegs and walked to the entrance of

the tunnel. Then he handed over the pellet to the

waiting female who carried it into the tunnel.

Similarly, they packed the tunnel with sheep

pellets. Next, the female came out and dug a

similar oblique tunnel adjacent to the first one,

and the male and female filled this new tunnel

also with sheep pellets. On an average, a pair of

beetles carried 21 (14. 1 g) sheep pellets (n = 14).

After this, the female dug around the packed

mass of dung, and made a chamber with dung in

534

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

the center. The female broke each sheep pellet

and kneaded all of them into a cylindrical mass,

of average dimensions 3.8 x 2.35 cm. The brood

burrows were constructed at a depth of 17.7 (8.0-

27.0) cm; the average weight was 9.39 (6.35 -

23.45) g.

The average dimensions of the brood

chamber were 5. 6x7. 8x2. 0 cm3 in the cages.

There was difference in the egg laying

behaviour. The female separated a part from the

dung mass and made a spheroid and then laid

an egg in it unlike C. repertus, which lays eggs

in the dung mass and then makes the brood balls.

On an average the female made 3 (2-4) brood

balls. The average diameter of the brood balls

was 2 . 3 ( 1 . 8-2 . 8) cm and the average weight was

6.69 (3.2 - 11.11) g.

The female coated the brood balls with soil

later. Then the female stayed with the brood

balls, periodically cleaning and moving them and

stayed with the brood till the young ones

emerged. The average number of days taken to

complete the life cycle was 56 days.

When two pairs of beetles were released

in a cage of dimensions 22 x 25 x 2 cm3 both the

females made their nests at a distance 9 cm apart.

When brood balls of C. repertus were given

to a mother beetle of C. indicus she broke open

the balls and killed the larvae. Similar events

occurred when the brood balls were exchanged

the other way also.

Discussion

Nidification pattern III is characterized by

the following factors - spacious underground

chamber with a mass of dung which will be

converted into brood balls; brood balls have a

shell of clay; cooperation between the male and

female in nesting; parental care (Halflter and

Matthews, 1966). Both Copris repertus and

C. indicus exhibit similar behaviour hence fitting

into nidification pattern III.

The sequence of egg laying and brood ball

making differs from species to species. In case

of C. repertus it lays eggs in the dung mass and

then separates that part of dung along with an

egg and converts it into a brood ball as seen in

C. lugubris and C. incertus, whereas C. indicus

first separates a part of the dung and converts it

into a brood ball and then lays an egg in it as in

case of all other Copris except C. lugubris and

C. incertus (Halflter and Matthews, 1966). It

was also observed that restriction of space

resulted in the reduction of the size of the brood

balls.

The female beetles guard the brood against

attack by predators and also prevent fungal

growth on the brood balls by regularly moving

them and cleaning them. In the present study

one brood was completely destroyed by

earthworms and the mother beetle was not able

to defend the brood.

Adults of Copris repertus stridulated like

other species of Copris (Halflter and Edmonds,

1982). This sound maybe produced as suggested

by Halflter and Edmonds (1982), for intersexual

communication and for communication between

the mother and the larva.

Atypical nesting behaviour in Copris

lunar is has been reported by Klemperer ( 1 982a).

In the present study, some atypical nesting

behaviour was also observed in Copris repertus ,

such as preparation of an extra brood chamber

to house the brood balls and preparation of extra

brood balls when extra dung was provided. This

atypical behaviour in these beetles must be either

due to addition or omission of some components

or factors in the nesting as suggested by

Klemperer (1982b).

References

Arrow, G.J. (1931): The fauna of British India including Fabre, J.H. (1897): Souvenirs Entomologiques. Paris,

Ceylon and Burma, Coleoptera: Lamellicornia. Ill Transl. de Mattos, A.T., London.

(Coprinae). Taylor and Francis, London, pp 428. Halffter, G. & W.D. Edmonds (1982): The nesting

SUBSOCIALITY IN TWO SPECIES OF COPRIS

535

behaviour of dung beetles (Scarabaeidae). Institute

de Ecologia, Mexico, D.F.

Halffter, G. & E.G. Matthews (1966): The natural history

of dung beetles of the subfamily Scarabaeinae. Folia

ent. Mex. 12-14: 1-312.

Klemperer, H.G. (1982a): Normal and atypical nesting

behaviour of Copris lunaris : a comparison with

related species. Ecol. Ent. 7: 69-83.

Klemperer, H.G. (1982b): Parental behaviour in Copris

lunaris: Care and defence of brood balls and nest.

Ecol. Ent., 7: 15-167.

Paik, W.H. (1976): Biology of the dung beetles in Korea.

Seoul National University College of Agriculture

Bulletin I: 153-195.

Rommel, R. (1961): Ernahrungsbiologie und Brutp-

fleggever halten des spanischen Mondhomnkavers

Copris hispanus (L.) (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae).

Biol Zbl, 80: 327-346.

Thomas, W.P. (1960): Notes on a preliminary investigation

into the habits and life cycle of Copris incertus Say

(Coprini: Coleoptera) in New Zealand. N.Z. Jl. Sci.,

33: 8-14.

THE CONSERVATION OF THE POTENTIALLY ENDANGERED IRRAWADY

RIVER DOLPHIN ORCAELLA BREVIROSTRIS IN CHILKA LAGOON,

ORISSA, INDIA1

P. Dhandapani2

Key words: Conservation, dolphin Orcaella brevirostris

As per the list of ‘IUCN Threatened Species Categories’, the Irrawady River dolphin,

Orcaella brevirostris Gray, 1966, falls under ‘Insufficiently known’ species. Considering

its localisation within restricted areas and habitats as a thin population over an extensive

range, this species is recommended to be brought under ‘Rare’ category, particularly in

the Indian subcontinent.

As assessment of the present status of Irrawady River dolphin in Chilka lagoon, India,

indicates that the deteriorating ecological condition, entangling in gill nets and drag

nets, and wanton killing for oil have driven this localised population almost to the brink

of extinction.

In order to perpetuate this species in Chilka lagoon, it is emphasised that, in addition

to regulating the operation of gill nets and drag nets to prevent accidental capture,

breeding of a protected population in a constantly monitored seminatural impoundment

set in its natural habitat is the only alternative to restore the population to its erstwhile

status.

Introduction

Orcaella brevirostris was first identified

from a skull collected from the Visakhapatnam

Harbour, Bay of Bengal, out of a collection

brought by Sir Walter Elliot. Owen (1866)

tentatively identified it as Phocaena brevirostris,

but it was Gray (1866) who described it properly

and placed it under a new genus Orcaella. Later

Anderson (1878) found these dolphins in large

numbers in the Irrawady River of Burma

(Myanmar), as far as 1500 km away from the

open sea, hence the common name.

Global Status

The global distribution of Orcaella

brevirostris is along the coastal regions of

Bay of Bengal, Malay Archipelago and Indo

Accepted November, 1995.

2Marine Biological Station. Zoological Survey of India,

100 Santhome High Road, Chennai 600 028, India.

Australian waters; in the river systems of

Ganges, Brahmaputra, Irrawady, Mekong and

Mahakam; and in the brackish waters of

Chilka lagoon (Owen, 1866; Anderson, 1878;

Annandale, 1915; Blanford, 1891; Morzer

Bruins, 1966; Tas’ an et al. 1980; Lyall,

1981; Aminul Haque, 1982 and Dhandapani,

1992).

These dolphins were found in freshwater

rivers, lakes, brackish water lagoons and muddy

estuaries. But their occurrence in open seas has

hardly ever been reported, which could be due

to their habit of not exposing themselves much

above the water surface to avoid detection. Or,

as Dudok Van Heel (1981) indicates, they were

‘forced’ to take shelter or refuge in the inshore,

estuarine and backwater regions.

Presently in the Indian subcontinent,

Orcaella brevirostris is met with only in three

localities, the Chilka lagoon, the inshore and

estuarine regions of the Orissa Coast and in the

Brahmaputra estuarine network of Bangladesh

CONSERVATION OF THE IRRAWADY RIVER DOLPHIN IN CHILKA LAGOON

537

(Annandale, 1915; Aminul Haque, 1982; James

etal 1989; and Dhandapani, 1992). Thus it can

be inferred that the habitat niche of this dolphin

is mainly in isolated pockets of the extensive

coastal regions. Such localisation within

restricted coastal pockets which are situated

bordering the Bay of Bengal, Malay Archipelago

and Indo -Australian waters rightly places this

species in the ‘Rare’ rather than ‘Insufficiently

known’ category of the IUCN Red List (1988).

It is to impress upon the nations bordering

the Bay of Bengal the need to protect and

perpetuate this species of dolphin, that a proposal

is presented here. It is based on a case study of a

particular population that is found to be

“endemic” in Chilka lagoon.

Status in Chilka Lagoon

Annandale (1915) was the first to report

the occurrence of Orcaella brevirostris in the

Chilka lagoon. He stated that this species was

found in large numbers in the outer channel at

all times of the year in fresh as well as saltwater,

in parties of three or four. He added that in

Satpara the individuals were frequently observed

rolling over and over on a shelf of sand at the

margin of the lake. But the animals, though

apparently abandoning themselves to play,

slipped into deeper waters instantaneously at the

slightest movement ashore. About the behaviour

of parties of dolphins off Ghantasila and Barkul

Point Chilka lake, Annandale (1915) stated that

‘the Cetaceans would often rush in straight

towards the rocks, as if about to land upon them. ’

Such a pleasing sight which Annandale

enjoyed is a dream now. Dhandapani (1992)

indicated the alarming status of this dolphin in

Chilka lagoon. He sighted only five dolphins

during a six month survey in the lake, and

among these two were dead. The local fishermen

and the officials of the Orissa Fisheries

Department estimated that not more than twenty

Irrawady River dolphins, which are known as

‘Bashiyya Magar’ (oil yielding dolphin) in

Oriya, exist presently in Chilka lagoon.

The present reduced status of the dolphin

in the Chilka lagoon is the result of seventy-

seven years of neglect of the lagoon. It calls for

attention to the factors that caused such a drastic

reduction of its population. Evidently, the

changing physiography of the lagoon and human

interference with the environment were

responsible.

Changing Physiography of the Lagoon

A review of the literature indicates that

the lake was orignally a part of the sea, and was

rendered shallow by deposits from the mouth of

Mahanadi and silt carried up the Bay (Blanford,

1872).

In his introduction to the ‘Fauna of Chilka

Lake’, Annandale (1915) casually mentions that

in the dry seasons the depth (?) rarely exceeds

2.4 m at the southern end and 1.2 m at the

northern end. The deepest sounding was near

Kalidai Is., measuring 3 m. He added that during

flood season the depth increased by 3 m or

3.6 m uniformly.

According to the recent Expedition Report

of the ZSI, the bathymetric data collected during

flood season near the Kalidai Is. showed a

/

maximum depth of approximately 2.8 m which

according to Annandale was 4.5 m during his

time. This indicates that silt deposition has taken

place to an extent of 1.8 m during the past seven

decades. I observed the deposits of very loose

sand in the northern sector of the lake to a depth

of 3-3.6 m which is due to river deposits. Such

an unbelievably rapid rate of reduction in depth

during the past seven decades has obviously left

the Irrawady dolphin with a shrunken and

shallow lake habitat.

Secondly, the immense growth of

vegetation over an extensive area has reduced

the waterspread portion of the lake considerably.

According to Annandale (1915) ‘in most parts

of the lake the aquatic vegetation was scanty

except in a few sheltered bays where a species

538

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

of Potamogeton was present’. Sudarshana

(1992), while estimating the rate of growth of

vegetation in Chilka lagoon from the Remote

Sensing Data of IRS IA, reveals a startling

reduction in the waterspread area at the rate of

23.42 sq. km over five years between 1984 and

1989 for emergent vegetation. But the'

submerged vegetation showed a slower rate of

5 sq. km over five years. Unfortunately, no

comparative data is available for the previous

years. Such a drastic reduction of space both

horizontally and bathymetrically would

obviously have created a non-conducive and

discouraging environment for the Irrawady River

dolphin and thus contributed to the decline of

their population.

Human Interference in Chilka lagoon

Chilka lagoon is the major fish producing

centre of Orissa. Different species of mullets,

prawns and mudcrabs form major constituents

of the lake fauna. Traditionally, fishermen living

in and around Chilka lagoon use different types

of fishing gear pertaining to a particular kind of

fishery. Notable among these are the gill nets

and drag nets which are used for capturing

mullet and prawns that are, incidentally, the food

of these dolphins. Lured by the entrapped shoal

of fish, these dolphins get entangled in the gill

nets and drag nets, thus meeting with accidental

death. Such a tragedy strikes them not only in

Chilka lagoon but also in the inshore and

estuarine regions of the Orissa coast (James

etal. 1989).

The Irrawady dolphins are hunted for their

oil, hence the Oriya name ‘Bashiyya Magar ’ (oil

yielding dolphin). Annandale (1915) narrates

the sequence of hunting as follows: “out in the

channel they commonly follow boats, and we

were told that there was a man living in Satpara

who could call them upto his boat and spear them

for the sake of their oil which, in Orissa as in

other parts of India, is regarded as a cure for

rheumatism, applied externally.”

Apart from the causes assigned above, it

is the changing physiography of the lake and

human interference (Annandale, 1915;

Sudarshana, 1992; Dhandapani, 1992) that

causes depletion in the population of the species

in Chilka lagoon, thus necessitating the

recognition of Orcaella brevirostris as a

potentially endangered dolphin.

Conservation Methods

Two major factors that govern the

existence of the Irrawady River dolphin in

Chilka lagoon, i.e. human interference and

changing physiography, need to be controlled

to restore the dwindling population.

It is not possible to completely prevent the

use of drag nets or gill nets in Chilka lagoon, as

it would interfere with the traditional rights of

the local fisherfolk and would hamper fish

supply for local consumption, thus creating a

socio-economic problem. Therefore, it is more

advisable to try educating the illiterate fisherfolk

as follows:

1 . to protect these dolphins as they drive the

fish shoals into their nets,

2 . to prevent killing of the dolphins for their

oil, which is believed to be a cure for

rheumatism, and introduce them to other

medical remedies.

3. to operate their fishing gear, particularly

the gill nets and drag nets, by hauling

them at quick intervals so as to release

these dolphins, if captured by accident,

back into the lake.

Perpetuation of the species by providing a

suitable niche is possible only by installing a

constantly monitored seminatural impoundment

at a proper location in Chilka lagoon. The data

collected during the recent survey by ZSI in

Chilka lagoon indicates that the bay that lies

between Barkul Point and Pathra is most suitable

for conversion into a habitat for the Irrawady

dolphin for the following reasons:

CONSERVATION OF THE IRRAWADY RIVER DOLPHIN IN CHILKA LAGOON

539

1 . The bay between Barkul Point and Pathra

covers an area of 20 sq. km.

2. The depth in this area, except near the

shore, is 2 m, suitable for the free

movement of dolphins and fish shoals.

3. Aquatic vegetation is comparatively

less, and can be easily removed if

necessary.

4. Water temperature varies from 25° to

32°C; and the salinity varies from 7 to 14

ppt which is a congenial brackish-water

environment for this population of the

brackish-water dolphin.

5 . This area is always under the watchful eyes

of INS Chilka, an establishment which is

keen on protecting the fauna of Chilka

lagoon.

Refer

Aminul Haque, A.K.M. (1982): Observations on the

attitude of people in Bangladesh towards small

Cetaceans. Mamm. in Seas EiO, 4: 117-119.

Anderson, J. ( 1 878): Anatomical and Zoological Research

Comprising Account of the Zoological Results of

the two Expeditions to Western Yunnan in 1 868

and 1875, and the Monograph on the two Cetacean

Genera Platinesta and Orcaella, Vol. I, Text; Vol.

II, plates. London.

Annandale, N. ( 1 9 1 5): Fauna of Chilka lake: Mammals,

Reptiles and Betrachians. Mem. Ind. Mus. 5: 1 66-

167.

Blanford, W.T. ( 1 872): Sketch of the geology of Orissa.

Rec. Geol. Surv. India, V. pp 56.

Blanford, W.T. (1891): Orcaella brevirostris and

O . fluminalis. Faun. Brit. Ind., Mammalia (Pt. 2).

pp 578-579, Fig. 189.

Dhandapani, P. (1992): Status survey of Irrawady River

Dolphin ( Orcaella brevirosiris Gray 1866) in

Chilka lake. J. mar. biol. Ass. India, 34: 90-93.

Dudok Van Heel, W.H. ( 1 98 1 ): Investigation on cetacean

sonar. III. A. A proposal for an ecological

classification of Odontocetes in relation with sonar.

Aq. mammals, 8(2): 65-69.

Conclusion

The time is ripe to take up protection,

conservation and perpetuation of Orcaella

brevirostris, the Irrawady River Dolphin, in the

Chilka lagoon, since this population may never

get another opportunity for recovery unless

immediate remedial measures are initiated.

Acknowledgement

I thank the Director, Zoological Survey of

India for the opportunity to be a member of the

multidisciplinary Chilka Lagoon Survey Team

and Dr. William Perrin, former Chairman,

Cetacean Specialists Group, IUCN, for

providing valuable literature on river dolphins.

NCES

Gray, J.E. (1866): Catalogue of Seals and Whales in the

British Museum, London.

IUCN, (1988): Red List of Threatened Animals, pp i-xviii,

1-154.

James, P.S.B.R., M. Rajagopalan, S.D. Dan, A. Bastian

Fernando & V. Selvaraj ( 1 989): On the mortality

and stranding of marine mammals and turtles at

Gahirmata, Orissa from 1983 to 1987. J. mar. biol.

Ass. India, 31 (1 & 2): 28-35.

Lyall, Watson. (1981): Whales of the World.

Hutchinson, 1-302.

Morzer Bruins, W.F.J. (1966): Some notes on Irrawady

dolphin, Orcaella brevirostris (Owen, 1866):

Zeitschrift f. saugetierkunde, 31(5): 367-370.

Owen, R. (1866): On some Indian Cetaceans collected

by Walter Elliot, Esq. Trans. Zool. Soc. London,

6: 17-47.

Sudarshana, R. (1992): Marine and coastal jmage data

module 3: Practical lesson No. 5, UNESCO,

pp 64.

Tas’an, Anny Irwandy, Sumitro, Sukiman Hendrokusomo

(1980): Orcaella brevirostris (Gray, 1866)

from Mahakam River. Jaya Acol Oceanarium,

Jakarta.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

FIRST RECORD OF GENUS STRONGYLOGASTER DAHLBOM (HYMENOPTERA: SYMPHYTA

TENTHREDINIDAE: SELANDRIINAE) WITH TWO NEW SPECIES FROM INDIA1

Malkiat S. Saini and Tajinder P. Saint2

(With six text-figures)

With the description of two new species, the genus Strongylogaster Dahlbom is recorded

for the first time from India. The new species are Strongylogaster hepaticolor sp. n from

Ghyagi (Himachal Pradesh) and Strongylogaster smithi sp.n from Narkanda (Himachal

Pradesh). The detailed description, collection data and diagnostic features of each species

is given. A key is provided to distinguish the Oriental species of this genus.

Introduction

Genus Strongylogaster was erected by

Dahlbom (1835) taking Tenthredo cingulata

Fabricius (subsequent designation by

MacGillivray, 1908) as its type species. Ross

(1937) synonymized by Thrinax Konow 1885

under this genus. Malaise (1963) in his key to

the world genera of Selandriinae treated Thrinax

Konow, 1885 as a separate genus. But Smith

(1969) again followed Ross (1937) and

synonymized Thrinax under Strongylogaster.

As far as the Oriental region is concerned,

Rohwer (1916) reported a species of Thrinax

i.e T. formosana from Formosa, and Malaise

(1961) two other species of Thrinax birmana and

Thrinax sino-birmana from Burma. However,

keeping in view the present status of Thrinax and

following Smith (1969), the species described by

Rohwer (1916) and Malaise (1961) are brought

under Strongylogaster Dahlbom 1835. In the

present communication two new species i.e.

Strongylogaster hepaticolor sp.n. and

Strongylogaster smithi sp.n. are added. A

workable key to all five Oriental species of this

genus is provided.

Genus Strongylogaster Dahlbom

Tenthredo subgenus Strongylogaster

Dahlbom, 1835; Hartig, 1837.

Accepted May, 1995

2 Department of Zoology, Punjabi University, Patiala- 147 002

India.

Strongylogaster, Costa 1859, Thomson

1870, Andre 1879, Cresson 1880, Cameron

1882, Cameron 1883, Konow 1887, Dalla Torre

1894, MacGillivray 1894, Konow 1905,

MacGillivray 1908, Enslin 1914, MacGillivray

1916, Enderlein 1920, Yuasa 1922, Ross 1937,

Takeuchi 1941, Berland 1947, Ross 1951,

Zhelokhovtsev 1951, Benson 1952, Lorenz and

Kraus 1957, Burks 1958, Malaise 1963.

Type: Tenthredo cingulata Fabricius.

Designated by MacGillivray, 1908.

Thrinax Dalla Torre 1894, Konow 1905,

MacGillivray 1908, Enslin 1913, MacGillivray

1916, Rohwer 1916, Yuasa 1922, Ross 1937 (=

Strongylogaster Dahlbom; Takeuchi 1941,

Berland 1947, Zhelokhovtsev 1951, Malaise

1961, 1963.

Type: Strongylogaster contigua Konow.

Designated by MacGillivray 1908.

Pseudotaxonus Costa 1894, Enslin 1914,

Ross 1937 (= Strongylogaster Dahlbom)

Takeuchi 1941, Berland 1947, Malaise 1963.

Type: Tenthredo filicis Klug, Monotypic.

Polystichophagus Ashmead 1898, Konow

1905 (= Strongylogaster Dahlbom; Enslin 1914

(= Pseudotaxonus A. Costa)

TypQ.Tenthredo filicis Klug. Original

designation.

Prototaxonus Rohwer, 1910; Malaise,

1933; Ross, 1937; (= Strongylogaster Dahlbom).

Type; Prototaxonus typicus Rohwer.

Monotypic.

Description: According to Smith (1969)

this genus is characterized by antenna filiform;

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

541

second segment disc like, wider than long; third

and fourth segments subequal in length;

segments beyond third gradually decreasing in

length. Postgenal carina present; clypeus very

shallowly to deeply emarginate; malar space

narrower or wider than diameter of front ocellus.

Epicnemium present as narrow raised shoulder,

separated from mesepistemum by furrow. Tarsal

claw simple or with small or large inner tooth;

basal lobe absent. Forewing with anal crossvein

present or absent. Hind wing with anellan cell

sessile or with short petiole.

The terminology of Malaise (1945) and

Ross (1937 & 1945) has been followed. Holotypes

will be deposited in National Pusa Collections,

IARI, New Delhi after this work is published.

Abbreviations: AT = apical tooth, CL =

clypeus, EL = eye length, I ATS = inner apical

tibial spur, ICD = intercenchral distance, IDMO

= interocular distance at the level of median

ocellus,- ITD = intertegular distance, LB =

labrum, LID = lower interocular distance, MB =

metabasitarsus, OATS = outer apical tibial spur,

OCL = ocello-occipital line, OOL = oculo-ocellar

line, POL = postocellar line, SAT = sub-apical

tooth.

Key to Oriental Species

1 . Clypeus, labrum, trochanter, femur and tibiae

of meso- and meta legs not yellow 2

— Clypeus, labrum, trochanter, femur and tibiae

of meso- and meta legs yellow

.. Strongylogaster formosana (Rohwer, 1916)

2. Postocellar area twice as broad as long 3

Postocellar area twice as broad as long or

broader than long at most in ratio of 3:2 4

3. Scutellum with 4-5 large punctures on its

posterior slope; base of costa and brachius pale;

3rd and 4th abdominal tergites entirely whitish

yellow in female and whitish yellow beneath

in male

Strongylogaster birmana (Malaise, 1961)

Scutellum not punctate; costa and brachius

brown; 3rd and 4th abdominal tergites reddish

in female only in middle above and below, but,

in the male, the two segments are reddish with

only a rounded black spot on each deflexed side

of tergites

Strongylogaster sinobirmana (Malaise, 1961)

4. Postocellar area almost as long as broad; hind

orbits distinctly carinated; median fovea not

divisible into 2 halves; malar space lx diameter

of median ocellus; apex of stigma yellow; scape

below, clypeus more or less, postocellar area,

mesonotal middle lobe except its anterior

border, mesoscutellum appendage and

metascutellum fuscoferruginous

Strongylogaster hepaticolor sp.n.

Postocellar area broader than long as 3:2; hind

orbits carinated only below; median fovea

divisible into 2 halves by a transverse ridge;

malar space 0.8x diameter of median ocellus;

stigma black; scape, clypeus, post-ocellar area

and thorax black

Strongylogaster smithi sp.n.

Strongylogaster hepaticolor sp. n.

(Figs. 1, 3, 5)

Female : Average length 11 mm. Body

black, and the following fuscoferruginous: scape

below, clypeus more or less, postocellar area,

middle lobe except its anterior border, area

anterior and lateral to mesoscutellum,

mesoscutellum, appendage, metascutellum broad

posterior margin of tergites 2-8, 9 entirely,

posterior margin of all sternites. Yellowish

white areas include posterior and postero-

lateral angles of pronotum, tegula, distal half of

metacoxa, metatrochanter, apices of all femora,

four front tibiae entirely, proximal 1/3 meta-

tibia, probasitarsus. Rest of legs fuscous.

Wings yellowish hyaline, costa and apex of

stigma yellow, rest of stigma and venation

fuscous.

Antenna filiform, 2.2 x head width, scape

broader than long, pedicel disc-like, shorter than

its apical width and scape, segment 3 shorter than

4, ratio 7:8. Clypeus convex, anterior margin

shallowly emarginate (Fig. 1). Labrum broader

than long as 3 : 1 with rounded anterior margin.

Malar space lx diameter of median ocellus.

Supraclypeal area subtriangularly raised with

542

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 94 (1997)

blunt longitudinal carina. LID:IDMO:EL ::

2:2. 3:1.7; OOL:POL:OCL :: 2:1:1. 9. Frontal area

above level of eyes and surrounded by low and

blunt ridges starting from lateral ocelli. Supra-

antennal tubercles insignificant, posteriorly

continuous with similar frontal ridges. Median

fovea shallow with uneven bottom and

continuous upto middle supra-antennal pit.

Circum-, inter-, and postocellar furrows distinct.

Lateral furrows sunken, diverging posteriorly

and abruptly ending halfway to hypothetical

posterior margin of head. Postocellar area

subconvex, almost as long as broad. Inner

margins of eyes subparallel. Hind orbits short,

narrowing behind eyes and distinctly carinated.

Mesoscutellum flat, appendage not carinate

ITD:ICD :: 4:1. Epicnemium narrow, distinct and

separated from mesopleuronby a distinct groove.

Mesepistemum obtusely raised without carina or

acute apex. Subapical tooth of tarsal claw much

shorter than apical one (Fig. 3). Metabasitarsus

distinctly shorter than all following joints

combined in the ratio 3:4. IATS:MB:OATS ::

2:7:1. 9.

Head on and around frontal area rugose

with dense and irregular punctures. Temples and

posterior orbits only sparsely punctate. Mesonotal

middle lobe with large, dense, and distinct

punctures except along median suture. Mesonotal

lateral lobes almost apunctate, except a few

isolated punctures on the inner side adjoining

mesonotal middle lobe. Mesoscutellum with a

few distinct, scattered punctures on its anterior

slope and a row of similar punctures along its

posterior border. Mesepistemum with large,

deep, pit-like distinct punctures and the distance

between punctures equal to diameter of each

puncture. Mesosternum with very minute,

shallow punctures. Abdomen minutely and

shallowly punctate, subshining. Body covered

with a mixture of silvery and golden pubescence.

Lancet with 12 serrulae (Fig. 5).

Male: Unknown.

Holotype: Female, Himachal Pradesh;

Ghyagi, 2500 m, 29. v 1984.

Paratypes: Himachal Pradesh: Narkanda,

2700 m, (2 females) 24.V.1984; Kothi, 2700 m,

(1 female), 2.vi.l984; Kufri, 2500 m, (1 female)

23. v. 1984.

Population variation: The colour of scape

and clypeus may be fuscoferruginous to black,

metafemur may be entirely yellow.

Distribution: India: Himachal Pradesh.

Diagnosis: Strongylogaster hepaticolor

exhibits some similarity with Strongylogaster

birmana, but it can be clearly distinguished from

the latter by the fuscoferruginous colour of scape,

clypeus, meso- and metanotum, broad posterior

margin of all tergites and all stemites (scape,

clypeus, meso- and metanotum black; 3rd and

4th abdominal segments entirely yellow in

*

female, yellow beneath in the male in

Strongylogaster birmana)’, large, dense and

distinct punctures on mesonotal middle lobe and

mesepistemum (only 4-5 large punctures on

posterior slope of mesoscutellum in

Strongylogaster birmana). Postocellar area as

long as broad (twice as broad as in

Strongylogaster birmana).

Etymology: The species name is based on

its dominating liver brown colour.

Strongylogaster smithi sp.n.

(Figs. 2, 4, 6)

Female: Length 11 mm. Body black, with

whitish yellow broad dorsolateral angle of

pronotum, tegula, extreme posterior margin of

tergites 1-7 and stemites 1-6, apices of all femora,

tibiae and tarsi of four front legs and proximal

1/3 metatibia. Rest of metatibia and metatarsal

joints fuscous. Wings hyaline, stigma and

venation brownish black.

Antenna filiform, length 2. lx head width,

scape as long as its apical width, pedicel half the

length of scape as well as of its apical width,

segment 3 and 4 as 7:8. Clypeus convex, anterior

margin almost truncate (Fig. 2). Labrum broader

than long as 3 .5 : 1, with rounded anterior margin.

Malar space 0.8x diameter of median ocellus.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

543

6.

Figs. 1-6. Clypeus: 1. Strongylogaster hepaticolor sp. n.; 2 .Strongylogaster smithi sp. n. Tarsal Claw:

3. Strongylogaster hepaticolor sp. n.; 4. Strongylogaster smithi sp. nov. Lancet:

5. Strongylogaster hepaticolor sp. n.; 6: Strongylogaster smithi sp.n.

544

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Supraclypeal area subtriangularly raised with

blunt longitudinal carina. LID:1DM0:EL :: 2:2.4: 1.8;

OOL:POL:OCL :: 1.3: 1:1. Frontal area at the

eye level surrounded by low and blunt ridges

starting from lateral ocelli. Supra-antennal

tubercles low and posteriorly continuous with

similar frontal ridges. Median fovea divisible into

two halves by a transverse ridge of the magnitude

of frontal ridges, anterior half with a deep

semicircular pit almost of the size of median

ocellus and posterior half with an uneven bottom

having three parallel longitudinal carinas.

Circum-, inter- and postocellar furrows distinct.

Lateral furrows distinct, diverging backwards,

and abruptly ending halfway to the hypothetical

posterior margin of head. Postocellar area

convex, with a median longitudinal groove and

broader than long, as 3 :2. Inner margins of eyes

subparallel. Hind orbits short, narrowing behind,

carinated only below. Mesoscutellum flat,

appendage not carinate. JTD:ICD=3.5:1.

Epicnemium subconvex, separated from the

mesopleuronby a distinct furrow. Mesepisternum

obtusely raised without carina or acute apex.

Tarsal claw with a very minute subapical tooth

(Fig. 4). Metabasitarsus shorter than all following

joints combined as 4:5. IATS:MB:OATS::2:7.5:1.9.

Head distinctly, minutely and densely

punctate on and around frontal area: temples and

hind orbits apunctate, subshining. Mesonotum and

mesopleuron apunctate and shining; meso-

scutellum apunctate, except a few large and distinct

punctures along its posterior border. Abdomen

Refer

Andre, E. ( 1 879-82): Species Des Hymenopteres D’europe

Et D’algerie. Vol. 1. Beaune (Cote-d’Or), France,

pp 642.

Ashmead, WH. ( 1 898): Classification of the Horntails and

Sawflies, or the suborder Phytophaga. Canad. Ent.

30:141-145, 177-183, 205-213, 225-232, 249-257,

281-287, 305-316.

Benson, R.B.(1952): Hymenoptera (Symphyta). Family

Tenthredinidae. In Royal Entomological Society of

London, Handbook for the identification of British

Insects, 6(2b)\ 51-137.

finely cross-striated, subshining. Pubescence

negligible. Lancet with 7 serrulae (Fig. 6).

Male: Unknown.

Holotype: Female, Himachal Pradesh:

Narkanda, 2700m, 25.V.1984.

Paratype: None.

Population variation: Single specimen

examined.

Distribution: India: Himachal Pradesh.

Diagnosis This species is characterized by

the median fovea divisible into 2 halves by a

transverse ridge, clypeus truncate, thorax almost

apunctate, abdomen finely cross-striated and

tarsal claw with a very minute subapical tooth.

Though quite distinct, still it can be compared

and demarcated from Strongylogaster

hepaticolor as follows: Postocellar area broader

than long as 3:2 in S. smithi (Postocellar area

almost as long as broad in S. hepaticolor)-, scape,

clypeus, postocellar area and thorax black in

S. smithi (scape, clypeus, postocellar area and

thorax fuscoferruginous in S. hepaticolor ).

Etymology: The species is named after

Dr. D. R. Smith of USNM, Washington, an

authority on sawfly taxonomy.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Dr D.R. Smith,

Systematic Entomology Labroratory, USD A,

Washington, D C, for his valuable suggestions.

Thanks are also due to US, PL-480, and ICAR,

New Delhi, for financial assistance.

:nces

Berland, L. (1947): Faune de France. Hymenopteres

Tenthredoides, Paris, 7 7 pp 496.

Burks, B.D. (1958): Symphyta. In Krombein, K.V., and

Burks, B.D (eds). Hymenoptera of America North of

Mexico Synoptic Catalog. 1st Sw^.,USDA. Monog. 2:8-

17.

Cameron, P. (1882): A monograph of the British

Phytophagous Hymenoptera. Vol. 1 . London, pp 340.

Cameron, P. (1883): Sessiliventria. Biol. Cent.-Amer.,

Vol. l.pp 1-70.

Costa, A. (1894): Prospetto Degli Imenotteri Italiani Da

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

545

Servire Di Prodroma Di Imenotterologia Italiana per

Achille Costa, (n.p.) Naples.

Costa, O.G. (1859):Fauna Del Regno di Napoli Pt.II.

Imenotteri. (n.p.) Naples.

Cresson, E.T. ( 1 880): Catalogue of the Tenthredinidae and

Uroceridae of North America. Amer. Ent. Soc. Trans.

8: 53-68.

Dahlbom, A. (1835): Conspectus Tenthredinidum,

Siricidum, Oryssinorum, Scandinaviae,

Hymenopterorum Familiae. Hafniae. pp 16.

Dalla Torre, C.G. (1894): Catalogue Hymenoptorum. 1.

Tenthredinidae Inch Uroceridae (Phyllophaga and

Xylophaga). Lipsiae, pp 459.

Enderlein, G. (1920): Zur Kenntnis der Tenthredininen.

Gesell. f. Naturf. Freunde 9: 347-374.

Enslin, E. (1913-14): Die Tenthredinoidea Mitteleuropas.

Beit. Deut. Ent. Ztschr. pp 99-309.

Hartig, T. (1837): Die Familien der Blattwespen und

Holzwespen, Nebst Einer Allgemeinen Einleitung

Zur Naturgeschichte der Hymenopteren. Berlin,

pp 416.

Konow, F. W.( 1 887): Neue Griechische und Einige Anders

Blattwespen. Wiener Ent. Ztg. 6: 19-28.

Konow, F.W. (1905): Hymenoptera, Fam. Tenthredinidae.

In Wytsman, P., ed., Genera Insectorum, Fasc. 29,

Bruxelles, pp 176.

Lorenz, H. & M. Kraus (1957): Die Larval Systematic

der Blattwespen (Tenthredinoidea und

Megalodontoidea). Berlin, pp 339.

MacGillivray, A.D. (1894): New species of

Tenthredinidae, with tables of the species of

Strongylogaster and Monoctenus. Canad. Ent. 26:

324- 328

MacGillivray, A.D. (1908): Emphytinae — New Genera

and species and Synonymical Notes. Canad. Ent. 40:

365-369.

MacGillivray, A.D. (1916): Tenthredinoidea. In Viereck,

H.L., Guide to the insects of Connecticut, Part III. The

Hymenoptera or Wasp-like Insects of Connecticut,

Conn. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 22: 2-175.

Malaise, R. ( 1 933) : A new genus and Synonymical notes

of Tenthredinoidea. Ent. Tidskr. 54: 50-59.

Malaise, R. (1945): Tenthredinoidea of South-Eastern Asia

with a general Zoogeographical review. Opusc. Ent.

Suppl. 4. pp 288.

Malaise, R. ( 1 96 1 ): New Oriental Sawflies (Hymenoptera:

Tenthredinidae) Tidskr. Lund. 82: 231-260.

Malaise, R. (1963): Hymenoptera Tenthredinoidea.

Subfamily Selandriinae, Key to genera of the World.

Ent. Tidskr. 84: 159-215.

Rohwer, S.A. (1910): Notes on Tenthredinoidea, with

descriptions of new species, VIII.- New species from

California. Canad. Ent. 42: 49-52.

Rohwer, S.A. (1916): H. Sauter’s Formosa- Ausbeute,

Chalastogastra (Hym.) Suppl. Ent., Berlin. 5: 81-113.

Ross, H.H. (1937): A generic classification of the Nearctic

sawflies (Hymenoptera: Symphyta). III. Biol. Monog.

34: 1-173.

Ross, H.H. (1945): Sawfly genitalia, Terminology and

study technique Ent.News 56: 261-268.

Ross, H.H. (1951): Tenthredinidae. In Muesebeck, C.F.W.

et al., Hymenoptera of the America North of

Mexico, Synoptic Catalog, USDA. Monog 2: 22-64,

66-82.

Smith, D.R. (1969):Nearctic sawflies II. Selandriinae;

Adults (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae). USDA Tech.

Bull. No. 1398: pp 48.

Takeuchi, K. (1941): A systematic study of the suborder

Symphyta (Hymenoptera) of the Japanese Empire (iv.).

Tenthredo 3: 230-274.

Thomson, C.G. (1870): Opuscula Entomologica, Fasciculus

Secundus. Lund, pp 304.

Yuasa, H. (1922): A classification of the larvae of the

Tenthredinidae.III. Biol. Monog. 7: 1-172.

Zhelokhovtsev, A. N.(1951): Survey of the Palaearctic

Sawflies ofthe subfamily Selandriinae (Hym., Tenthr.)

Moscow Gosud.Univ. Zool. Muz. Shorn. Trudy 7: 123-

152. (in Russian).

HYGROPHILA BENGALENSIS MANDAL, BHATTACHARJEE ET NAYEK SP. NOV

— A NEW SPECIES OF HYGROPHILA BR. FROM 24-PARGANAS (S), WEST

BENGAL.1

S.K. Mandal2, Aloke Bhattacharjee3, and Ajit Kumar Nayek4

{With nine text-figures)

Frutex annuus, ca. 1 m longa; caulis

erectus, parum quadratus, longitudinaleter

striatus, ad nodus tumidus, intemodia longa, ca.

3. 5-4.0 cm, minus ramosa glabra. Folia simplicia,

opposita, decussata; obovata ad elliptico-

lanceolata, 3. 5 -4.0 x 0. 7-1.0 cm, ad marginem

undulata cum pilis marginalibus, sessilia vel

minute stipitata; nervi 5-6 paribus, infra plus

prominenti. Inflorescentia axillaris cymosa,

paniculata; bracteae bracteolaeque lineari-

oblongae, obtusae, minute pilosae in area

marginali. Flores regulares, bisexuales, 2. 0-2. 4

cm, subsessiles, flavi. Calyx 5-lobatus, tubularis,

usque ad 1/3 longitudinis divisus, lobi lineares,

subequales, acuminati, ad apicem cum caespite

pilorum, intus hispida, 5-nerves, 0.7-0. 8 cm,

viridis, calyx ffuetifer divisus usque ad basin,

lobi aequales, lanceolati, raphides manifestae

praesentes, intus pilosa. Corolla bilabiata, limbus

profunde bilabiatus, lobi 5, aequales, subovati,

2. 2 -2. 4 cm, pubescentes, flavi. Stamina 4,

didynama, 2 stamina posteriora 12 mm longa, 2

anteriora 6 mm longa, anthera 2 mm, oblonga,

2-locularis, inaequalis, dorsifixa, filamentum

deorsum pilosum. Ovarium oblongum, 5 mm,

sursum minute pilosum, stylus longus, ca. 1.5 cm,

gracilis, minute pilosum; stigma lineare,

articulatum, 2-4 mm longum. Capsula 1.5 -2.0

cm longa ad dimidium inclusa in calyce

persistenti, minute pilosa, suturae 2,

longitudinaliter dehiscens, 2-locularis. Semina

1 Accepted 15 th June, 1996

2Central National Herbarium, Indian Botanic Garden,

Howrah-711103.

3Botanist, HQ., P-8 Braboume Road, BSI, Calcutta-700 001.

4Research Scholar, BSI P-8 Braboume Road, Calcutta-700 00 1 .

24-30, alternatim disposita, affixa cum

retinaculis unciformis, ovoidea, minute arillata

ad apicem, ventraliter incisurata, 0.8- 1.2 mm,

testa minute pilosa.

Hygrophila bengalensis Mandal,

Bhattachaijee et Nayek differt a H. salicifolia

Nees foliis obovatis ad elliptico-lanceolatis,

marginibus undulatis, floribus flavis, calyce

persistenti cum pilis marginalibus, stylo longo,

gracili, stigmate longo, articulato, seminibus 24-

30, alternatim dispositis per retinacula curvata

unciformes affixis, ad apicem minute arillatis,

et ventraliter incisuratis, testa cumpilis lanatis

mucilagineis.

Description

Annual shrubs, upto 1 m long; stem erect,

slightly squarish, longitudinally striated, swollen

at the nodes, intemode long, about 3. 5 -4.0 cm,

less branched, glabrous. Leaves simple, opposite

decussate, obovate to elliptic-lanceolate, 3. 5 -4.0

x 0.7- 1.0 cm, margin undulate with marginal

hairs, sessile or minutely stalked; vein 5-6 pairs,

more prominent on the lower surface.

Inflorescence axillary cymose panicle; bracts and

bracteoles linear-oblong, obtuse, minutely hairy

on the marginal area. Flower regular, bisexual,

2. 0-2. 4 cm, subsessile, yellow. Calyx 5-lobed,

tubular, divided upto 1/3 of its length; lobes

linear, subequal, acuminate, tuft of hair at apex,

inner side hispid, 5 -nerved, 0.7-0. 8 cm, green,

in fruit calyx divided upto the base, lobes equal,

lanceolate, prominent raphide present, inner side

hairy. Corolla-limb 2 -lipped, lobes equal, sub-

ovate, 2. 2-2. 4 cm, pubescent, yellow. Stamen 4,

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

547

Fig. 1-9. Hygrophila bengalensis Mandal, Bhattacharjee et Nayek, sp. nov.

1. Flowering twig; 2. Fruiting twig; 3. Dorsal surface of calyx; 4. Calyx showing hairs on ventral surface;

5. Flower — corolla split open; 6. Ovary with persistent calyx; 7. Gynaecium with articulate stigma;

8. Fruit; 9. Seed.

548

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

didynamous, posterior 2 stamens 12 mm and

anterior pair 6 mm; anther 2 mm, oblong,

2-celled, not equal, dorsifixed, lower portion

of the filament hairy. Ovary oblong, 5 mm

upper portion minutely hairy; style long, about

1.5 cm, slender, thin, minutely hairy; stigma

linear, articulate, 2-4 mm long. Capsule 1.5 -2.0

cm long, half-way included within persistent

calyx, minutely hairy, sutures 2, dehiscent

longitudinally, 2-chambered. Seeds 24-30,

alternately arranged, attached with hook-shaped

retinacula; seeds ovoid, minutely arillated

at the top, ventrally notched, 0.8 -1.2 mm,

testa minutely hairy (visible by absorbing in

moisture).

The species is allied to Hygrophila

salicifolia Nees but differs from it by the leaf-

shape being obovate to elliptic lanceolate with

undulated margins, flower yellow, persistent

calyx with marginal hairs, long slender style with

long articulate stigma, seeds 24-30 alternately

arranged, attached by curved hook-shaped

retinacula. Seeds mainly arillated at the top and

ventrally notched. Testa with mucilaginous

woolly hairs.

Locality

Gorkhara, Sonarpur, 24-Parganas (South),

West Bengal, Coll. S.K. Mandal 30.i.l996.

Holotype field No. 1 2 1 6/ A deposited in the CAL

(Central National Herbarium). Isotype field No.

12 16/B - D also deposited in the same Herbarium.

Acknowledgement

We are grateful to Dr. PK. Hajra, Director,

Botanical Survey of India and Dr. Debika Mitra,

Scientist ‘SE’, Central National Herbarium for

encouragement and valuable suggestions.

REVIEWS

1. FAUNAL DIVERSITY IN THE THAR DESERT: GAPS IN RESEARCH

By A.K. Ghosh, Q.H. Baqri and I. Prakash. Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur, India

pp 410 (21 cm x 14 cm) Price not mentioned.

This book is an outcome of the expert

meeting organised by the Desert Regional Station

of the Zoological Survey of India, Jodhpur and

local chapter of the Indian National Science

Academy.

It is a compendium of papers presented

by various zoologists who had worked on

desert fauna. The Thar desert is spread over

28 districts of four states i.e. Rajasthan, Punjab,

Haryana and Gujarat. Though there are earlier

publications on this subject, the book covers a

good number of publications on the faunal

diversity of Thar Desert.

There are 41 chapters dealing with

invertebrate and vertebrate fauna of the

desert. While most of the chapters are compiled

from published literature, there are some papers

based on original work, like “Geographical

diversification of human Plasmodia and malaria

syndrome in the Thar desert and Anopheline

vectors of Malaria in the Thar desert”, where

the impact of canal-based irrigation and seepage

water has been studied. The papers “Changing

Avifauna of Thar Desert” also provides

information on the impact of Indira Gandhi

Nahar Pariyojna (IGNP) on Ecology of the area

resulting in new habitats and increase in bird

diversity, but at the cost of some of the rare desert

avifauna.

“The ecological transformation of rodent

fauna” gives in detail how the IGNP has affected

the habitat, whereby rodent species like Mus

musculus, for instance, have reverted to the crop

fields habitat.

The chapters on invertebrate fauna pro-

vide biodiversity of each phylum i.e. Protozoan,

Freshwater sponges, Platyhelminthes and

Acanthocephala, Nematodes, Annelids, Acarina

(ticks and mites), Crustaceans and Insects.

Chapters 14 to 28 describe the diversity of

insect fauna in the Thar. Unfortunately

the chapters are arranged haphazardly, not

as per insect orders. Therefore, to get informa-

tion on Coleoptera of Thar Desert, one has to

refer to Chapter 17: Orthoptera and Coleoptera,

Chapter 23: Stored Grain Pests and Chapter 24:

Aquatic Beetles. It would have been easier

if all information on one order had been

put together as part of one Chapter, with each

paper marked as a section.

There are also contradictions in the

number of species mentioned in the Chapter

“Insect Diversity” and information given under

separate Orders. For example on page 135, the

number of Dictyoptera species found in Indian

desert is given as 20 out of 297 found in India.

However, on page 16 under Dictyoptera, it is

mentioned that over 175 species are found in

India out of which 9 are listed in the paper. In

fact, there are 10 species mentioned in the

paper.

It appears that most of the work cited

is from Jodhpur, Bikaner, and other districts

of Rajasthan and the information on faunal

diversity of Thar Desert, covering Punjab,

Haryana and Gujarat is very scanty. Besides,

the mammal fauna of the Thar there is one

chapter each on Jodhpur langurs, Eco-

behavioural diversity and on city dwelling rhesus

and langurs.

A chapter on avenues of faunal research

in the Thar desert and information on gaps

in researches for particular groups given at

the end of each chapter is very useful for all

researchers and students of zoology interested

in working on the biodiversity of the Thar

Desert. □

NARESH CHATURVEDI

550

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

2. TURTLES AND TORTOISES OF INDIA by Indraneil Das, published for World

Wide Fund for Nature-India at Oxford University Press, Bombay, 1995.

pp i-ix+176 (21.5 cm x 13 cm) 34 colour photographs and some line drawings. Price

Rs. 150.00.

This is Indraneil Das’s third book on turtles

and tortoises of the Indian subcontinent and it

firmly establishes his status as the authority on

the testudines of the region.

The armoured reptiles, turtles and tortoises

are, inspite of their protective armour, as

endangered as any other group of animals;

perhaps more so in some aspects of their life

cycle. All the thirty-four species of marine,

freshwater and land tortoises have been

described in detail. Each description has notes

on taxonomy, morphology, colour, size, sexual

dimorphism, subspecies if any, names, distribu-

tion, habitat, behaviour, diet, reproduction,

status and conservation and pertinent references.

The book is therefore a comprehensive

account of the species one is likely to encounter

in the subcontinent.

All the species are illustrated in colour though

the colour reproduction can be considerably

improved. They are as now presented, an object

example of the advantage of good colour

drawings over indifferent reproductions of

photographs.

This book as well as his Indian Turtles: A

Field Guide have been published by the WWF

and they are to be commended on the choice of

author and subject. □

J.C. DANIEL

3. ETFINOBIOLOGY IN INDIA — A STATUS REPORT by P. Pushpangadan,

Published by Ministry of Environment & Forests, New Delhi. 1994. pp i-ix +

1-68 (24 cm x 16 cm) Price not mentioned.

This report is an overview of the work done

under the ‘All India Research Project on

Ethnobiology’ which was launched in 1982. Its

first phase ended in 1988, covering about 65%

of the tribal areas in the country. 24 different

research centres in the country participated in

the programme. The book includes the following

chapters:

1. Genesis of the project, 2. Overview of

the project, 3. Tribal settings in India, 4. State of

the art of Ethnobiology, 5. Aims & objectives of

the project, 6. Ethnobotany — Some observations

7. Archaeobotany, 8. Ethnozoology, 9. Research

— Future and 10. Coordination work

The foreword of the book is written by

Mr. Rajamani, the then Secretary, Ministry of

Environment & Forests, Govt, of India.

Chapter 6 on Ethnobotany gives the

following important ethnobotanical figures:

1. Over 9500 wild plant species are used by

tribals for various requirements.

2. 7500 wild plant species are used by tribals

for medicinal purposes.

3 . About 950 new claims about plants are made

which are worthy of scientific scrutiny.

4. About 3900 wild plant species are used as

edible plants by tribals.

5 . About 800 entries of new utilities have been

recorded.

6 . About 250 entries on new utilities are worthy

of further research.

7. About 525 wild plant species are used for

fibres and cordage of which about 50 are

promising for commercial exploitation.

8 . Out of 400 plant species used as fodder about

100 are worth recommending for wider

use.

9. Out of 300 wild plant species used by the

tribals as piscicides and pesticides, 175 hold

promise as safe biopesticides.

REVIEWS

551

Actual lists of plants in the above analysis are throw some light on the real achievements of

not given in the booklet. However, a few endan- the project. □

gered and threatened plants of India are listed.

Perhaps the final report on this project will M.R. ALMEIDA

4. THE ATLAS OF ENDANGERED SPECIES. Edited by John A. Burton, with

a foreword by David Bellamy. Quarto Publishing Pic. U.K. 1991. pp 256.

(22.3 x 28.6 cm). Hardback price £16.99, with colour photographs of endangered

species and habitats, distribution maps of endangered species and maps indicating

biogeographic regions of the world, climatic regions and pollution and population profiles

of the world, a map of protected areas around the world, list of endangered wildlife,

International Conventions and a selection of International Conservation Organisations.

The indepth effort by a team of nineteen

specialist contributors, including Tim and Carol

Inskipp who are considered experts on Nepalese

ornithology, is worthwhile as it provides most

of the relevant information on endangered species

along with their distribution and causes of their

decline under one covei, though in certain

sections the effort appears to be cursory and

lacks depth.

The surveys of the seven key biogeo-

graphic areas of the world identify the

endangered animals and plants in these regions

and the problems they face. Various corrective

measures currently under way in various

countries, the successes and failures of the

conservation movement and an agenda for

individuals is given.

The dangers of taking liberties with Island

ecosystems has been dramatically illustrated by

pertinent examples, like the introduction of the

brown tree snake Boiga irregularis , a venomous

bird and egg predator on Guam in the Marianas

Islands, where in the 1970s almost all of the 18

native birds became extinct because of this

snake. One of its most spectacular victims was

the endemic and flightless Guam rail whose

population on the island plummeted from over

80,000 individuals in 1968 to zero in 1988 !

Similarly, the introducion of herbivores like the

domestic goat has played havoc with island

ecosystems like the Pinta island in the Galapagos,

increasing from just three individuals to around

20.000 in 12 years ! These catastrophes highlight

the dangers of treating island ecosystems

casually. Beware the ‘development’ activities

and attempts at species introduction in the

Andaman & Nicobar Islands.

Unfortunately, the information provided on

some species is highly erroneous. The gaur has

been described as “This cattle has been

domesticated and there are feral as well as wild

populations, including around 50,000 in

Arunachal Pradesh, India” ! Kanha National

Park, where a good population of the Gaur exists,

has not been mentioned. The Park, located in

Central India, has been erroneously placed in

the Deccan plateau, south India ! The editors

have repeated ad nauseam the magic figure of

40.000 tigers in 1930, which is misleading in

the absence of any supporting evidence.

Similarly, the orangutan’s decline has been

attributed to malaria, without mentioning the

source of information, while the more obvious

pet trade, poaching and habitat loss have been

overlooked. Some of the information is definitely

not convincing. References should have been cited.

Certain species like the blacknecked crane

Grus nigricollis and the Japanese crowned crane

Grus japonensis , have not been covered. The

endangered raptors on the Indian subcontinent

like the lesser spotted eagle Aquila pomarina and

the lesser fishing eagle Ichthyophaga humilis

552

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

have not been mentioned. No information has

been provided on the Asiatic cheetah Acinonyx

jubatus , a small population of which exists in

the Fars region of Iran. Surprisingly, except for

being listed as an endangered species, no

mention has been made of the precarious

situation of the Manipur brow antlered deer

Cervus eldi , a small population of which survives

on the 40 sq. km Keibul Lamjao, the world’s

only floating National Park. Only 100 individuals

of this species reportedly survive in the Park

located in the 300 sq. km Loktak lake in Manipur.

The chapter ‘Conservation in Action’ is

cursory and does not give a proper feedback on

the efforts which resulted in the network of

protected areas around the world. Practical

suggestions have been made with regard to

tackling the numerous conservation issues

confronting us. The advice to involve politicians

and shortlist the environmentally sensitive

amongst them for elections is very timely. This

approach is the key to most of our environmental

problems as has been recently demonstrated with

regard to the tiger and the denotification of

protected areas in India.

In spite of some glaring shortcomings, the

book with its over three hundred maps and some

spectacular pictures of endangered animals and

their habitats is a must for libraries and concerned

citizens. □

S. ASAD AKHTAR

5. UNDERSTANDING BIODIVERSITY: LIFE, SUSTAINABILITY AND

EQUITY, by Ashish Kothari. Tracts for the Times Series No. 11 Published by

Orient Longman, New Delhi. 1997. pp i-xv +161 (21.5 x 13.5 cm) Paperback

price Rs. 75.00.

Ashish Kothari is one of India’s leading

environmentalists and a spokesperson for human

rights, especially tribal rights. He has a deep

appreciation and understanding of the problems

of wildlife conservation vis-a-vis tribal

aspirations to improve their living conditions.

In this highly readable book he succinctly

advocates that the two cannot be separated.

Ashish is highly critical of the Biodiversity

Convention which he thinks favours developed

countries at the cost of developing countries. He

suggests some changes which he thinks will give

further impetus to bio-rich countries to save their

biodiversity.

Although all the six chapters are good, I

particularly liked the fourth chapter People,

Patents, Profits which gives new information on

the controversial topic of patent laws and

intellectual property rights. The language of the

book is simple and sometimes colloquial (“pay

through the noses” (sic), p. 75). It contains some

interesting information, e.g. “The entire coffee

industry of Latin America comes from seven

plants taken from Yemen a thousand years ago,

and one plant taken to Java less than 300 years

ago.” At the end of the book, Kothari has

given ‘Notes’ for each chapter, containing

published references and unpublished official

documents. There are only a few spelling

mistakes e.g. seet instead of seed (p. 156).

I strongly recommend this book to all who are

interested in the conservation of the rich

biodiversity of India. Hardcore wildlife lovers

may not agree with Ashish’s prescription for

saving India’s wildlife by opening up protected

areas for so-called participatory management.

Nevertheless, the book is worth reading for

wildlifers. □

ASAD R. RAHMANI

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1 . DISTINGUISHING KILLS OF TWO LARGE MAMMALIAN PREDATORS IN

SPITI VALLEY HIMACHAL PRADESH

Predation by wild carnivores on livestock

is an important issue that the protected area

manager needs to address. In areas where there

are two or more sympatric carnivores, one

problem is how to attribute a particular kill to a

particular carnivore species. Spiti Valley in H.P.

is one such area where at least two carnivores

predate on the livestock; the snow leopard

Panthera uncia and the Tibetan wolf Can is lupus

chanco. While the snow leopard occurs

throughout the valley, Tibetan wolf is restricted

to the left bank of the Spiti river.

The valley harbours two protected areas

— Kibbar Wildlife Sanctuary and Pin Valley

National Park on the left and right banks of the

Spiti river, respectively. Pin Valley largely

consists of steep snow covered mountain peaks,

deep valleys and alpine pastures. Kibbar, in

addition, consists of rolling slopes of the Tibetan

plateau. Among mountain ungulates, Himalayan

ibex Capra ibex sibirica forms the only wild prey

base in Pin Valley, while Kibbar Sanctuary

harbours ibex as well as bharal Pseudois nayaur.

As mentioned earlier, while only the snow

leopard occurs in Pin Valley, the Kibbar

Sanctuary has both the snow leopard and the

Tibetan wolf.

Local livestock contributes substantially to

the prey base and is a frequent victim of the

predators. Among these are the domestic yak,

horse, donkey, churn (cow-yak hybrid), sheep and

goat. As a manager of these protected areas from

1992 to 1995, I recorded more than 350 cases

where local people had applied for compensation

for killing of their livestock by wild carnivores.

In almost all cases where eye-witnesses were

absent, the locals attributed the kills to the snow

leopard. Casual interviews of the local people

indicated that they consider the snow leopard as

their main enemy, and the wolf to a lesser extent.

This is really worrying since the snow leopard is

the largest Trans-Himalayan felid. This

magnificent apex predator is highly endangered

and considered as the flagship species for

conserving the Trans-Himalayan ecosystem. I,

therefore, found it important to ascertain the

predator species responsible for killing livestock

in each case.

I examined about seventeen cases where

eye-witnesses or other evidence confirmed the

predator species. Of these, eleven kills were

definitely made by the snow leopard and six by

the Tibetan wolf. Examination of these kills

showed that the snow leopard had killed

relatively larger species like the yak, horse,

donkey etc. Sometimes it entered the cowsheds

and killed all the animals inside, small or large.

Such incidents are reported mostly from remote

localities. The snow leopard mostly attacked the

upper region of the prey’s neck. Wolf attacks were

usually lower and often resulted in puncturing

the jugular vein. Wolves were involved in surplus

killing which were usually sheep and goat,

whereas the kills of the snow leopard appeared

to be according to its requirement.

Interestingly, many kills were recovered as

headless carcasses, and later these were

confirmed by the villagers as wolf kills. In earlier

days, local people used to raid the dens of the

wolf to destroy or remove the pups during the

breeding season. During this operation the

villagers had noticed that the denning sites often

had several heads of their prey. They believe that

the heads are taken by wolves to their den to

train the pups.

Eventhough the result of this preliminary

study are in no way conclusive, simple natural

history observations of kills can help us in making

educated guesses about the predator species.

February 8, 1997 B.S. RANA

Divisional Forest Officer,

Spiti Forest Division, KAZA,

Lahaul Spiti ( H.P)- 172 114

554

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

2. OCCURRENCE OF THE RUSTYSPOTTED CAT (FELIS R UBIGINOSA ) IN ORISSA

(With one text-figure)

Two (one male and one female) rustyspotted

kittens (Felis rubiginosa) were collected from the

road leading to Bhramarbadi village inDaringbadi

block (Balliguda Forest Division) in Phulbani

dist. on 16th February, 1995 evening, by the

Sub-Collector and Sub-Divisional Police Officer

of Balliguda Sub-division and received at the

Nandankanan Zoological Park, Orissa, on 18th

February, 1995 through the good offices of the

Divisional Forest Officer, Balliguda.

These were mistakenly identified as leopard

cat kittens, with their eyes open and an estimated

age of about 3-4 weeks. The kittens were initially

kept in a well ventilated wooden box and then

shifted to an enclosure with dimensions 1.85x1.65

x 2.0 m3. They were fed with minced goat meat for

a few weeks followed by goat meat. Unfortunately

the male died on 29th March, 1995. By August

1 995, the female kitten had matured and revealed

the characteristic size and colour pattern described

for the rustyspotted cat by Prater (1971) (Fig. 1).

However, she also died on 1 5th October, 1995. The

systematic list of mammals from Orissa reported

by Das et al. (1993) does not include the

rustyspotted cat. This is the first record of the

occurrence of this rare species of lesser cat in

Orissa.

Reviewing the literature on the occurrence

of the rustyspotted cat, Chakraborty (1978) states

that this interesting cat is recorded only from

certain localities in southern India, Sri Lanka and

Seoni in Madhya Pradesh. He further states that

one female specimen of the rustyspotted cat

was collected from Udhampur (Jammu and

Kashmir) on 16th October, 1975 during the

faunistic survey.

It occurs in southern India and along the

western ghats upto the Dangs in south Gujarat

(Prater, 1971; Saharia, 1981; Gee, 1964). Sightings

of this lesser cat in Gir Wildlife Sanctuary and

National Park, and Shoolpaneshwar Sanctuary in

Gujarat have been reported in recent years (Pathak,

Fig. 1. Female rustyspotted cat in Nandankanan

Zoological Park

1 990; Chavan et al. 1991). Tehsin ( 1 994) reported

the sightings of this rare cat for the first time near

Udaipur (Rajasthan) in July, 1 992. This species has

also been reported in Panna dist., Madhya Pradesh

(Digveerendrasinh, 1995).

The present observation and the observations

of other workers on the occurrence of the

rustyspotted cat suggest that the species has a much

wider range of distribution in India than was

believed earlier.

February 8, 1 997 L.N. ACHARJYO

House No. M-71, Housing Board Colony,

Baramunda, Bhubaneswar-7 5 1 003.

K.L. PUROHIT

Range Officer,

Nandankanan Zoological Park, Bhubaneswar.

S.K. PATNAIK

Director

Nandankanan Zoological Park,

Mctyur Bhawan, Janpath,

Sahidnagar,

Bhubaneswar-75 1 007.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

555

References

Chakraborty, S. (1978): The Rustyspotted Cat, Felis

rubiginosa I. Geoffroy, in Jammu and Kashmir,

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75(2): 478-479.

Chavan, S.A., C.D. Patel, S.V. Pawar, N.S. Gogate &

N.P. Pandya (1991): Sightings of the Rustyspotted Cat,

Felis rubiginosa Geoffroy in Shoolpaneshwar

Sanctuary, Gujarat, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 88(1):

107-108.

Das, P.K., J.P. Lal & V.C. Agrawal (1993): Mammalia:

State Fauna Series- 1; Fauna of Orissa,

Part 4. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, pp 143-

180.

Digveerendrasinh (1995): Occurrence of the Rustyspotted

Cat (Felis rubiginosa) in Madhya Pradesh, J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 92(3): 407-408.

Gee, E.P.(1964): The Wildlife of India, Collins, London,

pp 1149.

Pathak, B.J. (1990): Rustyspotted Cat, Felis rubiginosa

Geoffroy: A new record for Gir Wildlife Sanctuary

and National Park, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 87(3):

445.

Prater, S.H. (1971): The Book of Indian Animals, Third

(Revised) Edition, Bombay Natural History Society,

Bombay, pp 74.

Saharia, V.B. (1981): Wildlife in India, Department of

Agriculture and Cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture,

Government of India, New Delhi, pp 95.

Tehsin, R. (1994): Rustyspotted Cat Felis rubiginosa

Geoffroy sighted near Udaipur. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 91(1): 136.

3. LEOPARD ( PANTHERA PARDUS) ATTEMPTING TO PREY ON INDIAN

GIANT SQUIRREL (RATUFA INDICA CENTRALIS)

It was the morning of 5th June, 1995 at

Satpura National Park (MP) when my driver

suddenly halted our van on seeing a huge bamboo

rhizome off the road. As we descended from the

vehicle to examine the rhizome we heard the

alarm call of a giant squirrel (Ratufa indica

centralis ) from a distance of about 20 m.

Following the direction of the very loud call, we

spotted the squirrel on the trunk of a huge Adina

cordifolia tree, lying motionless and calling

continuously. After a second appeared a leopard

(Panther a pardus) from the other side of the tree.

The leopard was balancing himself very gingerly

on the tree trunk right behind the squirrel. The

squirrel swiftly went to the other side of the tree

with the leopard following it. This chase

continued two more times around the tree.

Finally, the squirrel took a bold leap forward and

jumped on to an adjacent Terminalia tomentosa

tree and then to the next tree and disappeared.

The leopard did not pursue it further as he

jumped and vanished into the thick undergrowth

below. Various predators seem to be a perpetual

threat to giant squirrels. Raptorial attacks on

giant squirrels have been reported earlier. Borges

(1986) and Joshua and Johnsingh (1994) have

reported black eagle (Ictinaetus malayensis

perniger) attempting to predate on the giant

squirrel. Datta (1993) and I have also observed

a crested hawk eagle ( Spizaetus cirrhatus

cirrhatus ) trying to attack a giant squirrel. Hutton

(1949) had observed the Nilgiri marten

Charronia gwatkinsi (Horsfield) feeding on giant

squirrel. Leopards are known to be opportunistic

feeders and occasionally feed upon arboreal prey

such as langurs, but the giant squirrel does not

seem to be such an easv prey.

March 22, 1997 PRACHI MEHTA

Senior Research Fellow,

Wildlife Institute of India, Post Box 18,

Chandrabani, Dehra Dun-248 001.

References

Borges, R.M. (1986): Predation attempt by Black Eagle Datta, A. (1993): Space use patterns of the Indian Giant

(Ictinaetus malayensis perniger) on Indian Giant squirrel (Ratufa indica centralis) in relation to food

Squirrel (Ratufa indica elphistoni). J. Bombay nat. availability in Bori Wildlife Sanctuary, MP, India.

Hist. Soc. 86(Suppl): 203. M.Sc dissertation, Saurashtra University.

556

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Joshua, J & A.J.T. Johnsingh (1994): Impact of biotic Hutton, A.F. (1949): Feeding habits of the Nilgiri Marten

disturbances on the habitat and population of the ( Charronia gwatkinsi (Horsfield) J. Bombay nat.

endangered grizzled giant squirrel Ratufamacroura Hist. Soc. 48\ 355-356.

in South India. Biol. Cons (68): 29-34.

4. OCCURRENCE OF THE BROWN PALM CIVET IN THE WET FOREST OF

KALAKAD MUNDANTHURAI TIGER RESERVE, TAMIL NADU

The Western Ghats harbour many rare and

endemic fauna. However, distribution, status and

ecology of many of them remain unclear. In this

note, the occurrence and status of the brown palm

civet (. Paradoxurus jerdoni) in the evergreen

forest of Kakachi ( c . 1250m) in the Kalakad

Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve of south India is

discussed.

The brown palm civet ( Paradoxurus

jerdoni) is endemic to the Western Ghats and is

an inhabitant of the high elevation forests

(Jerdon, 1874). Though not considered as rare

as the endangered Malabar civet ( Viverra

civettina ), very little is known about its status or

distribution in the Agasthyamalai region of

the southern Western Ghats (Ashraf et al.

1993).

In the Kakachi-Upper Kodayar area of the

KMTR, the brown palm civet appears to be fairly

common. Over the six years (1990-1996) of our

stay in Kodayar, we have sighted this animal

more than ten times during the night and only

twice during the day. Recently in April 1996, we

sighted an individual in the canopy of the

evergreen forest, basking in the sunshine at noon

and later eating the flowers of Cullenia exarillata

until late in the afternoon. This animal was

lethargic even in our presence and was probably

sick.

Our sightings of the civet have mostly been

on or near flowering or fruiting trees during the

night. They regularly feed on the flowers of

Cullenia exarillata and ripe fruits of Elaeocarpus

munronii and Palaquium ellipticum whenever

available and probably serve as an important seed

disperser in this area.

The civets breed in this area in summer. A

pair of new bom young of this civet was found

deep inside the forest at Kakachi in May 1992.

We noticed the pups because of their yelping call.

They were in the litter, blind and probably not

more than a week old. There was no sign of

injury, but unfortunately our attempts to rear

them failed. Like the adults in the area, the pups

also had a white tipped tail.

Being nocturnal and restricted to the dense

forest of the evergreen and moist deciduous type,

the brown palm civet has rarely been sighted.

We observed that it is an important contributor

to the dynamics of tree regeneration in the wet

forest. Hence, continued protection of the species

and its habitat is very essential.

Acknowledgement

I thank Dr. Ajith Kumar of Salim Ali

Center for Ornithology and Natural History,

Coimbatore for identifying the brown palm civet.

The work was supported by a TERI-MacArthur

grant.

March 22, 1997 T. GANESH

29, Chetty Street,

Pondicherry 605 001.

References

Ashraf, N.V.K., A. Kumar & A.J.T. Johnsingh (1993): Jerdon, T.C. (1874): A Handbook of the Mammals

Two endemic viverrids of the Western Ghats, India. of India. Repr. 1984, Mittal Publications,

Oryx 27 \ 109-114. Delhi.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

557

5. TIBETAN GAZELLE PROCAPRA PICTICAUDATA IN SIKKIM, INDIA

Sikkim, India’s smallest state, lies between 27 °5'

to 28°9' N lat. and 87° 59' to 88° 56' long, covering

an area of c. 7000 sq. km. It is wedged in between

the Himalayan kingdoms of Nepal in the west and

Bhutan in the east, and bounded by Tibet in the

north and the Indian state of West Bengal in the

south.

The Tibetan gazelle is found in Sikkim only in

the trans-Himalayan north at c. 5000 m altitude. It

is a trans-border migrant coming from across the

international border between India and Tibet

(China), and roaming the Chho Lhamo plateau. This

high altitude cold desert holds several lakes,

forming the source of the river Tista which is the

main river in Sikkim. It is also the most important

grazing area for most of Sikkim’s yaks, sheep and

goats.

Surveys over the last five years usually in the

peak season of July- August showed that the animal

is not common like the resident breeding Himalayan

marmot Marmota bobak or the woolly hare Lepus

oiostolus. Along with the southern Kiang or

Tibetan wild ass Equus kiang polyodon, it inhabits

this high altitude grassland region and can be

sighted in groups of 10-15 animals even during

winter but may not be sighted regularly each year.

During an intensive survey of the area in July-

August 1995, gazelles were seen for the first time

in six years at relatively closer distances than before

in various places. On 28th July, 1995, we sighted

nine gazelles at Chho Lhamo (5099 m) near a group

of four adult and two young kiang but they were

very shy and fled even from a distance of c. 500m.

10 were then sighted at Chhulung La (5447 m) in

the valley where it is possible to get very close to

nayan or the great Tibetan sheep Ovis ammon

hodgsoni. A skin with horns was also recovered

from this place. It was later handed over to the

Forest Department. We saw two at Bamcho La the

same same day, but they were the last of the herd

which had gone across the border on hearing the

sound of our jeep. 11 gazelles were then seen at

Kongra La (5 1 3 3 m). In one day we saw 33 gazelles

on the Chho Lhamo plateau. In all areas the animals

were extremely shy and wary.

Local dokpas or the nomadic Tibetan graziers

call the gazelle raakon and are familiar with the

animal. Reporting on wild and domestic livestock

movements, they said that in winter the yaks are

taken to Olo (5568 m) near Khungyami La on the

northeastern border of Sikkim for two months; but

the sheep stay at Keraang, Chho Lhamo for almost

three months grazing the grass growing due to the

blowing away of snow by the wind. All kiang go

across the border into Tibet but upto 200 nayan

and 20 Tibetan gazelles live with the yak herd

during this lean period. A herd of yak includes upto

3000 females and 400 males. During this period

they are also preyed upon by the Tibetan wolf Canis

lupus chanco. It was estimated from discussions

that around 100 Tibetan gazelles occur precariously

in this region.

The entire area, being on the international

border, is heavily patrolled by the Indian Army

posted in the region. It is a rich storehouse of

grasses, sedges and innumerable medicinal plants.

Availability of water on the Sikkim side only has

made it the last stronghold of several rare and

endangered species of mammals other than the

Tibetan gazelle protected under the Wildlife

(Protection) Act, 1972 (as amended upto 1991).

These are mainly the southern kiang, nayan, snow

leopard, lynx and Tibetan wolf. The wetlands and

grasslands in the region also serve many species

of migratory water fowl and are home to various

breeding birds. It is vital to declare a transborder

protected area in this threatened habitat at the

earliest.

I am extremely grateful to Brigadier

Kanbargimath and Major Vivek Muthana of

the Indian Army for their assistance during this

survey.

February 18, U SH AGAN GULI-L ACHUN GPA

1997 Project Officer (WL)

Sikkim Forest Department Deorali,

Gangtok 737 1 02,

Sikkim, India.

558

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

6. SARCOCYSTIS COULD BE A THREAT TO BARASINGHA,

CERVUS DUVAUCELI BRANDER1

Sarcocystosis has come to be recognised any attention has been paid in India, (unlike some

comparatively recently as a serious disease of

practically all categories of domestic animals

throughout the world (Dubey et al. 1989)

including India (Shah and Chaudhry, 1994). This

disease is named after the protozoan genus

Sarcocystis, some of whose species cause

considerable morbidity (including abortion) and

mortality especially in young animals like sheep,

goat, cattle and pig (Levine, 1985).

Sarcocystis has a typical coccidian life-

cycle with one exception in that it involves two

hosts having prey-predator relationship.

Herbivores and omnivores act as prey animals

in which the asexual stages of the parasite

develop. This includes the most commonly

encountered stage through which this infection

is largely recognised which is known as the

“sarcocyst”. Since this stage occurs as a cyst

mostly in the cardiac and striated muscles of the

infected animals, the predators (carnivores)

acquire this infection by feeding on the infected

muscles. Now the parasite in the carnivorous host

remains confined to the small intestine and

results in the formation of sporocysts enclosing

four sporozoites, i.e. it undergoes sexual

reproduction. The sporozoites are voided in the

faeces of the predators in large numbers and

remain viable in the open for a considerable

period of time because of the protective wall of

the sporocyst. Prey animals pick up these

sporozoites while grazing. Thus the life-cycle is

linked between the two hosts. However, hardly

Referen

Dubey, J.P., C.A. Speer & R. Fayer(1989): Sarcocystosis

of animals and man. CRC Press, Boca Raton,

Florida, pp 215.

Levine, N.D. (1985): Veterinary Protozoology, IOWA State

University Press, Ames.

Shah, H.L. & R.K. Chaudhry (1994): Recent advances in

countries of America, Europe and Africa) to this

infection in the wild. The present note is probably

the first report of Sarcocystis infection in

barasingha ( Cervus duvauceli branderi ) which

is a hard ground swamp deer found only in Kanha

National Park, M.P., India.

An adult female barasingha was found

dead in the Kanha National Park, M.P. in the

month of February 1994. Histopathological

examination of various organs collected was

conducted. Microscopic examination of the

cardiac muscles revealed the presence of

sarcocysts of Sarcocystis of varying sizes. The

pathogenicity of this infection is quite evident

in domestic animals and it is responsible for a

great loss to the livestock industry in the form of

abortion and mortality in young animals. The

occurrence of Sarcocystis infection in barasingha

suggests that it could be one of the reasons for

the decline in the population of this threatened

species. A detailed study is needed to determine

the prevalence and effect of this infection on the

existing population of barasingha.

February 8, 1997 A.B. SHRIVASTAV

R.K. SHARMA

R.K. CHAUDHRY

College of Veterinary Science and

Animal Husbandry

Jabalpur-482 001, M.P.

RAJESH GOPAL

Field Director, Kanha National Park, M.P.

ES

our knowledge of Sarcocystis and Sarcocystosis in

India. A Review, pp 1-48. In R. Somvanshi and

R.R. Lokeshwar (ed.). Current Advances in

Veterinary Science and Animal Production in India.

International Book Distributing Co., (Pub. Div.),

Lucknow.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

559

7. HABITAT PREFERENCE OF INDIAN BUSH RAT, GOLUNDA ELL10T1

G (HERAT! LN THE ARAVALLI MONTANE ECOSYSTEM

The Indian bush rat, Golunda ellioti is

spread from the Peninsula to Punjab and

northwestern Assam in India, Sri Lanka and

Pakistan. Very little is, however, known about the

bush rat. During our studies on the community

ecology of small mammals in the Aravalli

ecosystem — a DST-INSA sponsored project —

bush rats were collected along with 13 more

sympatric species from the Abu hill and in

association with 1 1 species on the main Aravalli

range extending from Abu Road to Beawar in

Rajasthan during 1993-1995. Both these hilly tracts

are separated by an 11km wide valley through

which the western Banas river flows. Trapping

procedures and ecology of the Aravallis have been

reported earlier (Prakash et al. 1995).

The Indian bush rat is small (head and body

120 mm, tail 90-103 mm, body weight 47-60 g),

essentially inhabiting forests and scrublands

(Blanford, 1888-91). It is a slow moving rodent,

and follows distinct pathways or runways amidst

bushes and hedges. Being diurnal its movements

can easily be observed.

Habitat Preference: Contrary to Blanford

(loc. cit. ) the bush rat was trapped by us from five

habitats out of a total of seven. It did not occur in

thickly vegetated rocky region and the hill-top

grassland. Irrespective of the altitude of Abu hill,

it preferred two habitats: crop field (37.4%) and

runnel (35.3%), the scrubland being its next

preferred habitat (18.2%). The river bank and

sparsely vegetated rocky habitats were found to be

inhabited by 5.0% and 4.0% bush rats respectively.

On the low hills of the main Aravalli range, the

golunds were collected only from three localities

and three habitats out of 5 localities and 5 habitats.

Their most preferred habitat was rocky terrain with

sparse vegetation cover (44.4%) and crop field

(33.3%). Scrubland supported only 22.2%

golunds.

Altitudinal Preference: The frequency of

occurrence of bush rats in two major montane zones

varied considerably:

The maximum number of bush rats were

trapped at the highest altitude on Abu hill, but on

the main Aravalli range their preferred altitude was

the foothills. In the Abu hills, crop fields were the

most preferred by these rodents but on the Aravalli

range they were most abundant in rocky habitat with

sparse vegetation cover. The Cheppaberi locality,

situated on Abu hills at 500 m elevation did not

harbour G. ellioti. In the Abu hills their

preponderance at 1500-1600 m altitude was

maximum in the runnel (52.2% of total collection

from that elevation) followed by crop field (45 .7%).

Likewise in the foothills the bush rats were

relatively more abundant on the river bank. Their

predominance in the runnel and river bank may be

due to a higher soil moisture regime which sustains

green vegetation, especially Cynodon dactylon , all

the year round on which they feed.

Relative Abundance and Conspecifics:

The Abu hill is a wildlife sanctuary and is well

vegetated; though illegal grazing continues yet it is

relatively less disturbed as compared to the main

Aravalli range. Being low in altitude, the mam

range of the Aravallis receive poor monsoon

precipitation, resulting in a lower floral diversity;

besides the whole terrain has been encroached by

Lantana camara , the thickets of which provide

shelter to Golunda ellioti. Because of the spinous

stems of lantana, the mongoose, Herpestes

edwardsii, which is fairly common, is probably

unable to predate upon the rodent. These may be

plausible reasons for their greater density over the

Abu hill compared to that on the Aravalli range.

560

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Out of the 14 species of small mammals collected

from Abu hill, the relative number index of bush

rats was third, first and second being Cremnomys

cutchicus (rockrat) andSuncus murinus sindensis

(house shrew). On the main Aravalli range,

however, its relative index number was fifth

C. cutchicus , S. murinus, Tatera indica and

Millardia meltada were found to be more

abundant. At 500-600 m and 1 000- 1 1 00 m altitude,

Mus phillipsi, M. piatythrix and A/, saxicola were

the major conspecific small mammals. Bandicota

bengalensis has also ascended the hills in small

numbers and coexist mainly in crop fields.

Breeding Season: Pregnant female bush rats

were collected from February to November. Litter

size varied from 4 to 1 1 (ave. 7.3).

In conclusion the Indian bush rat, Golunda

ellioti gujerati appears to be a very successful

species which has a wide distribution in India, Sri

Lanka and Pakistan. The genus Golunda is

considered to be among the older faunas,

differentiated in the Peninsular land mass and it is

surmised that it was distributed from Peninsula to

Aravallis even before Himalayan uplift. Ryley

(1913) had found it common at Mt. Abu but at

present it is very abundant on the Abu hill.

Apparently, the northward migration of Golunda

ellioti is continuing. On the Abu hill it is one of

the most abundant small mammals out of 14 species

collected by us. On the Aravalli range, density is

lower as conjecturally it is still encroaching over

the denuded hilly terrain. The northwesterly

migration theory on the bush rat is lurther confirmed

from our ecological studies on desert rodents. This

rodent was not collected in the mammal survey of

the Thar Desert undertaken during 1952-54

(Prakash 1955, 1962). However, 20 years later

during our ecological survey of the rodents of the

Thar desert (Prakash et al. 1971) undertaken

during 1969-70, Golunda ellioti were collected

from Sirohi and Pali districts bordering the Aravalli

range. Apparently they had ventured in this region

in recent years. Further west, Taber et al. (1967)

did not collect it from Lyallpur region and Roberts

(1977) reported it from the rice fields in the coastal

regions of lower Sind and remarked that it has a

restricted occurrence in Pakistan.

One of the major reasons for the northward

invasion by Golunda ellioti is the creation of

conducive environmental conditions through the

expansion of irrigated agriculture throughout

northern India especially in Gujarat and parts of

the Thar Desert. In the Rajasthan desert the

irrigated cropping area has almost doubled during

the last two decades due to overexploitation of

ground water and the advent of the Indira Gandhi

Canal and its tributaries. Irrigation changes the sub-

soil moisture regime which then sustains weeds and

green shrubs all the year round. The longer

availability of green food adds to the nutritive intake

of food by animals and reproductive potential

enhances. The bush rat, delivers 5 to 10 young

(average litter size 6.6) in the Rajasthan desert

(Prakash, 1971) whereas its range on the Aravallis

increases from 4 to 11 (average 7.3). Thus the

species is not able to advance its recruitment

potential in the more favourable ecological

conditions but probably its survival and longevity

has also become superior.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the Director, Zoological

Survey of India, Calcutta and to Dr. Q. H. Baqri,

Officer-in-charge, Desert Regional Station, ZSI,

Jodhpur for excellent facilities and a congenial

environment for research. We thank officials of the

Rajasthan State Forest Department for their help.

Mr. A. Saravanan assisted us in the field work. We

thank DST, Govt, of India for financial support and

Indian National Science Academy, New Delhi for

awarding the Senior Scientist position to I.P

July 27,1996 ISHWAR PRAKASH

PARTAP SINGH

Desert Regional Station,

Zoological Survey of India,

107, Kamla Nehru Nagar,

Chopasani Road,

Jodhpur-342 009, Rajasthan.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

561

References

Blanford, W.T. (1888-91): The Fauna of British India,

Mammalia. Taylor and Francis, London.

Prakash, I. ( 1 955): Checklist of mammals of the Rajasthan

desert. J. Bengal nat. Hist. Soc. 28 : 1-17.

Prakash, I. (1962): Taxonomical and ecological account

of mammals of Rajasthan desert. Ann. Arid Zone.

7:142-163,2:150-161.

Prakash, I. (1971): Breeding season and litter size

of Indian desert rodents. Z. angew. Zool. 55:442-

452.

Prakash, I., R.K. Gupta, A.P. Jain, B. D. Rana &

B .K. Datta (1971): Ecological evaluation of rodent

populations in the desert biome of Rajasthan.

Mammalia , 35(3): 384-423.

Prakash, I., A. Saravanan & P. Singh (1995): Ecology

and taxonomy of field mice in the Aravalli ranges.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92(3): 372-377 .

Roberts, T.J.(1977): The mammals of Pakistan. Ernest

Benn Ltd., London, pp 361

Ryley, K.V. (1913): Bombay Natural History Society’s

Mammal Survey of India, Burma and Ceylon.

Report No. 12, Palanpur and Mount Abu.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 22:684-699.

Taber, R.D., A.N. Sheri & M.S. Ahmad (1967): Mammals

of the Lyallpur region. West Pakistan

J. Mammalogy.48(3):392-40T .

8. THE MALABAR SPINY DORMOUSE {PLATACANTHOMYS LASIURUS) IN

THE KALAKAD MUNDANTHURAI TIGER RESERVE, TAMIL NADU

The spiny dormouse is a small, beautiful

rodent, smaller than the house rat but with a very

characteristic bushy tail tip. Also called the

pepper rat, it is endemic to the Western Ghats;

found mostly in the southern Western Ghats but

can occur as far north as Shimoga (Rajagopalan,

1968). It is the only representative of the genus

in India (Jerdon, 1874). This rodent has not been

recorded from the Kakachi areas of KMTR but

occurs at a lower elevation at Bonakadu in the

same reserve (Webb-Peploe, 1947) and is

probably common in higher forest even elsewhere

in the reserve.

Being a nocturnal arboreal animal, it was

very rarely seen by us during the day, due to its

versatile ability to climb any twiners and

branches with minimum disturbance and

maximum speed. Evidence of this animal was

first noticed during my studies on seed predation

in Kakachi when many fruits and seeds were seen

removed overnight. Prolonged nocturnal

observations on seed and fruit piles gave the first

sighting of the dormouse.

The animal appears to be abundant in the

area, judging by the fruit removal from many

trees within a few acres. There is no other

nocturnal rodent with this uncanny ability to pick

seeds even from fruits twice its own size. It also

has the habit of hoarding seeds, and rarely

forages on the ground. Our preliminary studies

indicate that such foraging behaviour of the

dormouse could have significant effect on tree

recruitment through seed predation.

Acknowledgements

I thank J.C. Daniel, BNHS, for identifying

the spiny dormouse. The project was funded by

a TERI-Mac Arthur grant.

March 22, 1997 T. GANESH

29, Che tty Street, Pondicherry-605 001.

References

Jerdon, T.C. (1874): A Handbook of the Mammals with new distribution record. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

of India. Repr. 1984 Mittal Publications, Soc. 65: 214-215.

Delhi. Webb-Peploe, C.G (1947): Field notes on the mammals

Rajagopalan, P.K. (1968): Notes on the Malabar Spiny of South Tinnevelly, South India. J. Bombay nat.

dormouse (Platacanthomys lasiurus ) Blyth 1859, Hist. Soc. 46: 633.

562

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

9. FIVESTRIPED SQUIRREL FUNAMB UL US PENNANTI WROUGHTON, A

PREDATOR OF HELICO VERPA ARMIGERA HB. (LEPIDOPTERA: NOCTUIDAE)

The gram pod borer Helicoverpa armigera

Hb. (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) is one of the most

destructive pests of many important crops with

ubiquitous distribution. It is highly polyphagous

and is distributed widely over the tropic and

subtropic areas of nearly 63 countries (Boadley,

1 977) . Although voluminous work has been done

on invertebrate predators and parasites of

H. armigera in India (Achan et al. 1968, Rao,

1974), little information is available on its avian

and mammalian predators. We studied the

predation of the fivestriped squirrel Funambulus

pennanti Wroughton on H. armigera.

The common squirrel or fivestriped

squirrel Funambulus pennanti Wroughton was

observed feeding on the pupae of H. armigera

by digging out the soil in a gram (Cicer arietinum

L.) field (Parasara, 1989). Inability of

Helicoverpa larvae to go deep in the hard soil is

reported by Jayaraj (1981), however, in other soil

types Helicoverpa larvae pupate at a depth of

2.5 to 7.5 cm (Haseman, 1915) and over

wintering pupae reach a depth of 10 to 15 cm

(Bishop, 1929).

This squirrel is a granivorous rodent

(Barnett and Prakash 1975, Prater 1974).

However, occasional insectivory has been

reported, Krishnaswami and Chowhan (1956)

studied the gut content of 36 squirrels and found

remains of lac insect Kerri ca lacca (Kerr.),

termite, ants, beetles, moths, wasp, louse, mite

and lepidopteran larvae. Recently, Tiwari (1990)

has reported predation of birds by the fivestriped

squirrel but there is no report of it as a predator

of Helicoverpa armigera Hb.

At Gujarat Agricultural University, Anand

(22° 32' N and 73° E) Gujarat, the soil is sandy

loam. Paddy Oryza sativa is grown as a monsoon

crop, with the gram crop being raised in this

paddy land in the winter. The soil becomes very

hard after the first irrigation. A population of

fivestriped squirrel occurs here.

4-5 squirrels were observed regularly

visiting the gram crop. The squirrels were

observed digging out the soil and feeding on

larvae and pupae of Helicoverpa.

We also kept a squirrel in a cage of 9” x 9”

x 9”, and studied its food preference and feeding

capacity under laboratory conditions.

The squirrel was provided with 25 each of

large 5th and 6th instar larvae, medium sized

3rd and 4th instar larvae, small sized 1st and

2nd instar larvae, and pupae of Helicoverpa,

larvae of rice grain moth Corcyra cephalonica

Stainton, wet gram seeds and green pods of gram

simultaneously in separate petri dishes on two

consecutive days during the morning. The

sequence of consumption of each item was noted

to determine preference.

The squirrel was kept hungry overnight

(12 hrs) and then offered the pre-weighed 50

number of different items to determine its feeding

capacity. Feeding capacity was estimated on 4

different days using different food items and time

taken to consume each item was recorded.

To determine predation on pupae, 10 pupae

of Helicoverpa armigera were buried 1 cm deep

under moist soil in 9” x 9” area and covered with

a cage having no bottom. The squirrel was put

inside and within an hour dug out seven pupae

using its forelegs, confirming its ability to search

out pupae in the field.

Abbreviations used:

Gj = Helicoverpa small sized larvae

(1st and 2nd instar).

G2 = Helicoverpa medium sized larvae

(3rd and 4th instar).

G3 = Helicoverpa large sized larvae

(5th and 6th instar).

CL = Corcyra cephalonica Stainton larva

HP = Helicoverpa pupa

WGS = Wet gram seeds

GPG = Green pods of gram

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

563

Table i

FEEDING CAPACITY OF THE FIVESTRIPED SQUIRREL F. PENNANT!

Date of study Sr. No of Food items Number Number Wt. consumed Time taken Remarks

Note: Weight of 50 numbers: Gx = 4.300 g, GPG = 23.860 g.

It was observed that out of all the items

made available to the squirrel, the first preference

was for CL, probably due to its soft body. The

second preference was for G3 followed by G2, HP

and WGS. Only three G} were accepted, GPG

were not taken when larvae were offered.

To determine the total weight of a

particular item 50 numbers were weighed. AH

the experiments were conducted twelve hours

after depriving the squirrel of food. It was

provided with 100 G3 (50 x 2) and 300 CL

(50 x 6). It consumed 50 G? and 296 CL within

37.10 min. on the first day (Table 1). Thus, it

consumed a total of 33.26 g animal food at a

564

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

stretch. Similarly, on the second day it consumed

147 Helicoverpa larvae including all the larval

types except that G} was not eaten much. Out of

50 Gj only 12 were accepted. It consumed a total

of 36.44 g food including 0.36 g WGS. On the

third day the squirrel was provided only WGS

and it consumed 38.87 g within 34.40 min. The

same squirrel was provided only HP on the sixth

day. It consumed 88 (25.84 g) out of 100 HP

within 36.30 min.

Body weight of the captive male squirrel

was 127g, whereas another female weighed

10 1 g. Therefore, morning food consumption ranged

between 20.3 to 30.6% of its own body weight

The dead moths Corcyra cephalonica were

discarded every morning. Several squirrels came

regularly to feed on these Corcyra in the company

of mynas Acridotheres tristis and Sturnus

pagodarum, jungle babbler Turdoides striatus

and house sparrow Passer domesticus.

Vegetarian food habits of the squirrel are

well-known (Prater, 1974) and one would expect

them to damage gram pods, but we found that

insect food was preferred over vegetarian food

when both were offered. In the absence of insect

food, the squirrel subsisted on equal weight of

Refer

Achan, P.D., K.C. Mathur, P.R. Dharmadikari &

T.M. Manjunath (1968): Parasites of Heliothis spp. in

India. Technical Bulletin of the Commonwealth Institute

of Biological Control 10: 129-147.

Barnett, S.A. & I. Prakash (1975): Rodents of Economic

Importance in India. Amold-Heinemann, New Delhi &

London, pp 1-175.

Bishop, F.C. ( 1 929): The Bollworm or Earworm as cotton pest.

Fmrs.Bulls. U.S. Agric. No. 1595: 14.

Boadley, R.H. (1977): Heliothis, serious agricultural pest in

Queensland. Queensland Agric. J. 103 : 536-541.

Haseman, L. ( 1 9 1 5): The Com Earworm. J. Econ. Ent. 7: 2 1 4-

218.

Jayaraj, S. (1981): Biological and ecological studies of

Heliothis. Proc. Int. Workshop on Heliothis

Management. ICRISAT, Patancheru, India, pp 17-28.

Krishnaswami, S. & N.S. Chowhan (1956): A note on insects

consumed as food by squirrel and birds at Kundri forest.

gram seed. The weight of food consumed did not

differ significantly over three subsequent days

(33.26 to 38.86 g.) However, when the pupa of

Helicoverpa was given alone, consumption was

significantly low.

The squirrels prefer animal food, as against

plant material when available in equal

proportion. Predation on H. armigera Hb.,

regulates its population at larval and pupal stage,

in gram crop at least and several other crops

which are infested by Helicoverpa.

Acknowledgements

We are thankful to Dr. D.N. Yadav, Officer-

in-Charge of the Project, for encouragement

and to the Indian Council of Agricultural

Research, New Delhi for providing financial

assistance.

June 25, 1996 U.A. PARASARA

B.M. PARASHARYA

K.L. MATHEW

AICRP on Agricultural Ornithology,

Gujarat Agricultural University,

Anand-388 110.

iNCES

Palamau district, Bihar. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 54:

457-459.

Parasara, U.A. (1989): Role of Avian predators in Heliothis

armigera Hubner Management and Breeding Biology

of the Bank Myna Acridotheres ginginianus Latham.

M.Sc. (Ag.) thesis Gujarat Agric. Univ., Anand.

Prater, H.S. (1974): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay

Natural History Society, Mumbai.

Rao, V.P. ( 1 974): Biology and breeding techniques for parasites

and predators of Ostrinia spp. and Heliothis spp. CIBC

Final Technical Report, U.S. PLr480 Project, Bangalore,

India, pp 86.

Sood, M.L. &D.S. Dilber(1978): A note on food consumption

and preference of Northern Palm Squirrel, Funambulus

pennanti Wroughton, J. Res. PAU. 15: 132-133.

Tiwari, J. (1990): Fivestriped Squirrel Funambulus pennanti

(Wroughton) killing birds. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

87: 137.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

565

10. COLOUR VARIATION IN POPULATIONS OF THE GRIZZLED GIANT

SQUIRREL RATUFA MACRO LIRA

The grizzled giant squirrel ( Ratufa

macroura ) is slightly smaller than the Malabar

giant squirrel ( Ratufa indica). Adults weigh

approximately 1.5 kg. The tail is grizzled in black

and white. The ventral side of the tail has a distinct

creamish median line running from base to tip.

From the forehead till the middle of forelimbs, there

is a brownish black patch. A small creamish patch

is present on the forehead. The ears are short and

tufted. Forelimb and hindlimb extremities are black

in colour. The dorsal side is greyish black and

underparts creamish. The lower side of the mouth

is a light pinkish colour. The tail is slightly longer

than the body. Males have pendulous scrotal sacs,

while in lactating females, three pairs of mammary

glands can be seen (Prater, 1948).

Until now three sub-species of Ratufa

macroura have been described: Ratufa macroura

macroura from Sri Lanka, Ratufa macroura

melanochra also from Sri Lanka, and Ratufa

macroura dandolena from Sri Lanka and Southern

India (Ellerman, 1961).

The following colour variation has been

observed in wild populations of Ratufa macroura

in South India

1. The best-known population, from

Srivilliputhur, conforms to the description given

above, with the dorsal side a uniform light greyish

brown colour. The shoulder patches were distinct.

2. The animals found in Chinnar Wildlife

Sanctuary, in the southwestern comer of the Palnis

have a dark back, reddish brown in colour. The

crown is also reddish brown.

3 . A recently discovered squirrel population

in moist deciduous forest at Siruvattukkadu

Kombai, Northern Slope East (10° 22' N - 10° 24'

N lat; 77° 40' E-77° 43' E long.), is as dark as the

Chinnar population, with distinct dark shoulder

patches (Sharma, 1992).

Specimens of R. macroura were examined

in the collection of the Bombay Natural History

Society (BNHS). The specimens were collected

between 1913-1948 from Sri Lanka, Salem-

Coimbatore and the Palnis.

The specimens from Tamil Nadu (South India)

were grouped together in three categories conforming

to the areas listed above. The same colour variations

were observed. There is also a size difference, with

the specimens from Salem- Coimbatore being larger

than Palni specimens (Table 1).

Table 1

Locations Head-Body max. (cm) Tail max. (cm)

Salem-Coimbatore 95.5 101.6

Eastern Palnis 87.0 95.2

Since the grizzled giant squirrel is an

endangered species strictly protected by law,

collection of more material to confirm the subspecific

status is problematic. Recording of vocalisation

may prove to be an efficient technique to gauge the

extent of separation between the three populations.

Acknowledgements

I thank Dr. Rauf Ali for guidance and

encouragement throughout the project work. I also

thank the Bombay Natural History Society for

permission to examine specimens from their

collection.

March 22, 1 997, NEELU SHARMA

WWF-India, J&K State Office,

59, A/B, dandhi Nagar,

Jammu-180 004.

References

Ellerman, J.R. (1961): The Fauna of India. Mammalia.

Ed. M.L. Roonwal. Manager of Publications, Delhi.

2nd Edn. Vol. III.Pt I, pp 244-25 1 .

Prater, S.H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals

Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

pp 263.

Sharma, N. (1992): Status and Ecology of the Grizzled

Giant Squirrel ( Ratufa macroura) in the Palni Hills.

M.S. Dissertation submitted to the University of

Pondicherry.

566

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

11. A LARGE COMMUNAL ROOST OF BLACKWINGED KITES EL ANUS CAERULEUS

The blackwinged kite Elanus caeruleus is

found single or in widely scattered pairs, and

roosts communally at night in leafy trees (Ali &

Ripley, handbook Vol. 1, pp 53, 1987).

However, on 4th August, 1995, around

1730 hrs on the way near village Bihejhar, Raipur

district, Madhya Pradesh, a large congregation

of about 35 birds was seen perched on electric

lines and flying over a portion of a mulberry

plantation in a silk farm. Some of the birds were

observed surveying the plantation below.

The birds were using the electric wire as a

pre-roosting site. Although communal roosting

has been recorded, birds in such large numbers

have not been reported.

February 14, 1996 A.M.K. BHAROS

27, MIG, Indravati Colony,

Raipur (M.P.).

12. RECORD OF CHIR PHEASANT, CATREUS WALLICHI ABOVE 4545 METRES

IN THE WESTERN HIMALAYAS

On 9th October, 1 995, we were on our way

to Dhum-Dhar-Kandi Pass from Rishikesh, Uttar

Pradesh. About 0.75 km before Dharoadhari (alt.

4848 m), the conventional site for Camp-1 of

Black Peak expeditions, we came across a pair

of chir pheasants, Catreuswallichi. The location

(31.03°N&78.34°E)is immediately before the

meeting point of Kalanag Icefall and

Bandarpunch Glacier that was about 300 m

below us. The Survey of India contour map

showed the altitude of the location to be above

4545 m. It was before the sliding zone to the

South of Sargarohini - IV peak. The terrain was

boulder-strewn rocky slope intermingled with

grass patches. The chiefly buffy white and pale

rusty upperparts, overall size, closely barred

graduated tail with black and ashy grey and

prominent crest were unmistakable. Their

blackish abdomen, rounded wings and the long

graduated tail were conspicuous in flight. The

pair flew over us and settled on the slope 100 m

above the foot-trail. They were alternatively

crouching and leaping up as they moved along the

slope chuckling noisily. There was a male and a

female, as indicated by the difference in their size.

I have seen chir pheasants earlier at lower altitudes

(c. 3030 m) but never at this altitude. I used 8x30

binoculars for my identification.

According to Salim Ali & S.D. Ripley,

HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN, OUP,

Delhi, (1983) chir pheasants are resident in the

Himalayas between c. 1400 and 3500 m altitude.

My record from a much higher altitude of over

4545 m might indicate that these birds are

distributed over a larger area than is presumed

at present.

July 27, 1996 SUCHITRA GHOSH

Senior Lecturer in Zoology,

Bangabasi College,

19, Prof. R.K. Chakraborty Lane,

Calcutta-700 009

13. ADDITIONAL COOT (FULICA ATRA LINN.) BREEDING SITE RECORDS

FROM ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA

Ali and Ripley (1983) state that coot Fulica sporadically in peninsular India during July to

atra Linn, is a resident as well as a common and August, and fiirther south, the season is from

abundant winter visitor to India especially on November to December,

larger jheels in northern India. It breeds During the last two decades coot numbers

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

567

Table 1

COOT FULICA ATRA, BREEDING SITE RECORDS

FROM ANDHRA PRADESH

have been steadily increasing in the Indian

subcontinent. Perennou (1993) reports >95%

increase of coot In Pakistan, summarising sixteen

(16) years data. The same is the case in India, as

revealed by annual reports of the Asian Wetland

Bureau Midwinter Waterfowl Counts (Mundkur

and Taylor, 1993).

Breeding site records of coot in India were

reported by Betham (1902), Inglis (1902),

Dalgliesh (1907), Dharmakumarsinhji (1947),

Khacher (1977), Navarro (1980), Anjaneyulu

(1991), Himmatsinhji et al (1991), Nadarajan

et al. (1993), Vijaya Kumar (1994), Vijaya

Kumar and Choudhmy (1994) and Balachandran

(1994).

Nadarajan et al. (1993) confirmed coot

sporadicity in peninsular India and reported

first observations of coot chicks in a waterbody

near Kazipet Railway station ( c . 18° 59' N &

79° 29' E), Warangal district in Andhra Pradesh.

In recent years, we have recorded coot breeding

in a number of large and small perennial and

non-perennial waterbodies of Andhra Pradesh.

Most breeding sites were recorded during our

regular field surveys in various parts of Andhra

Pradesh.

A brief note on the recorded breeding sites

is given in Table 1 . Most of the breeding records

were at non-perennial tanks with abundant

growth of Ipomoea. Only at 60% of sites were

the nests located, while at other sites only coot

chicks were seen.

Acknowledgements

We thank Prof. J.V. Ramana Rao, for

encouragement and guidance, which has inspired

researchers at Department of Zoology, Osmania

University for the last fifteen years. We also thank

former Heads of Department of Zoology,

Osmania University, for permission to conduct

field trips at various stages of our work. Thanks

are also due to the Ministry of Environment and

Forests, Government of India and, Man and

Biosphere and Eastern Ghats Programme, for

financial assistance. We thank Mr. Lavkumar

Khacher, for Ms response to our query regarding

coot breeding records made by him.

July 10, 1996 C. 8RINIVASULU

BHARGAVI SRINIVASULU

V. NAGULU

V. VASUDEVA RAO

Wildlife Biology Section

Department of Zoology,

Osmania University,

Hyderabad 500 007.

568

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

References

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of Birds of India

and Pakistan. Compact Edition. Oxford University

Press, Bombay.

Anjaneyulu, M. ( 1 99 1 ): Status ofWetlands and Survey of

Avifauna at Kolleru Lake in Andhra Pradesh, India.

Ph D. Thesis Osmania University, Hyderabad.

Balachandran, S. (1994): Breeding Records of Coot

(. Fulica atra Linnaeus) in south Tamil Nadu, India.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 91(2): 314.

Betham, R.M. (1902): Nesting of Coot Fulica atra at

Poona. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 14(1): 176-177.

Dalgliesh, G. ( 1 907): Nesting of Coot Fulica atra in India.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 17(4): 1013.

Dharmakumarsinhji, K.S. (1947): Breeding of Palm Swift

Tachomis batasiensis palmarum (Gray) a coot Fulica

atra atra Linn, in Bhavnagar. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 46(4): 724-725.

Himmatsinhji, M.K., S.N. Varu & N.N. Bapat (1991):

Occurrence, status and breeding of Podiceps crist atus

(Linn.) and Fulica atra Linn. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

88(3): 439-441.

Inglis, C.M. (1902): Nesting of Coot Fulica atra.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 14(2): 392-393.

Khacher, L. (1978): The coot Fulica atra Linnaeus,

nesting nearNasik, Maharashtra. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 74(3): 525.

Mundkur, T. & V. Taylor ( 1 993 ): Asian Waterfowl Census

1 993 . Asian Wetland Bureau, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

and International Wetland Research Bureau.

Slimbridge, U.K.

Nadarajan, N.R., PA. Azeez & C.R. Ajithkumar ( 1 993):

The Coot Fulica atra Linnaeus breeding further south

in the Indian Peninsula. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 90(2):

289-290.

Navarro, S . J. ( 1 9 80 ): The Nesting of the Coot ( Fulica atra)

in the village pond of Khandala. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 77(1): 137.

Perennou, C. (1993): The Asian Waterfowl Census. In:

Wetland and Waterfowl Conservation in South and

West Asia. (Eds. Moser, M. and Van Vessen, J .)Proc.

Inti. Symp. Karachi, Pakistan, pp 62-69.

Vijaya Kumar, V. (1994): Breeding Seasons of some

Wetland Birds of Manjira. Mayura 9 (1988-92): 19.

Vijaya Kumar, V. & B.C. Choudhary (1994): A Report

on Waterfowl Studies in Manjira Wildlife Sanctuary,

Andhra Pradesh, India and its implication in long-term

management of this Sanctuary. Pavo 32(1&2)

47-57.

14. RECENT SIGHTINGS OF SPECKLED PICULET

(PICUMNUS INN OMIN ATUS BURTON) IN PAKISTAN

Roberts (1991) describes the speckled

piculet in Pakistan as extremely rare and local,

occurring in deciduous forest at low elevations,

at only a few sites. The speckled piculet has been

recorded in the Murree Hills and Margalla Hills,

near Islamabad, and the Malkandi Reserve in

the Kaghan Valley, NWFP. Breeding has been

recorded in Pakistan, egg- laying taking place

from early to mid-May and brooding lasting only

11 days.

Details of recent sightings

1. Margalla Hills, Islamabad: During a

week long stay in Islamabad in May 1994, we

spent several days birding in the nearby Margalla

Hills, an area of dry deciduous scrub forest (600

m above msl). During one of these visits on 11th

May, 1994, PW drew PB’s attention to a very

vocal male speckled piculet feeding in the bare

branches of a small tree. Both observers saw the

bird well and were already familiar with the

species from elsewhere in its range.

There are only two previous sightings of

this species in the Margalla Hills (singles in July

1977 and April 1982), despite fairly extensive

coverage by birders over a number of years

(Roberts, 1991). Roberts (1991) concludes that

the species must be an occasional visitor to the

Margalla Hills and this sighting therefore

constitutes only the 3rd published record of

speckled piculet at this site.

2. Palas Valley, District Kohistan, (35° 30' N

72° 40' E): Whilst walking up the main river

valley in Palas Valley, Kohistan dist. (1300 m

above msl) on 22nd May, a very vocal pair of

speckled piculets were located by DS, low down

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

569

in a Quercus baloot. On closer examination, a

nest-hole was located in one of the smaller

branches. Calls from within indicated the

presence of young.

This is the first record of this species for

the Palas Valley and represents a slight north-

westerly range extension in Pakistan.

This small woodpecker is often overlooked

in mixed species flocks (Ali and Ripley, 1983)

and may in fact be commoner than it appears to

be throughout its range in Pakistan. It would

seem likely that suitable areas in the foothills of

the western Himalayas hold undetected breeding

populations.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank their

colleagues Naeem Ashraf and Abdul Ghafoor,

of the Himalayan Jungle Project, for their help

whilst working in Palas Valley.

June 3, 1996 P.J. BENSTEAD

N.J. BEAN

D A. SHOWLER

PA. WHITTINGTON

Beaver House,

Norwich Road,

Reepham, Norwich NR 10 4JN

References

Ali, S. and S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of Roberts, T. J. (1991): Birds of Pakistan. Volume 1: Non-

India and Pakistan. Oxford University Press, Delhi. passerines. Oxford University Press, Karachi.

15. MIMICRY BY GREY DRONGO DICRURUS LEUCOPHAEUS

In my orchard at Vashishta, 3.5 km

up the valley above the now overcrowded

hill station of Manali in Himachal Pradesh,

I have the pleasure of the company of several

mid-altitude Himalayan birds. Among these are

a couple of pairs of rather aggressive, highly

visible and vocal grey drongos Dicrurus

leucophaeus. On the morning of 9th May,

1996 while walking to the house I heard Iora-

like piping whistles. To my astonishment and

delight, I traced the sounds to a drongo perched

atop a pear tree. The bird continued the whistles

which almost sounded like tentative attempts at

mimicry — not sure of itself the bird burst into

its metallic, challenging calls to pause and then

try out the whistles, some longer and more high

pitched than others, sounding like the familiar

Ioras warming up to full vocalisation in late

March and April. It is at this time that the grey

drongos are coming into prenuptial vigour just

prior to leaving the plains. Both Ioras and

drongos share the common flower-laden coral,

flame of the forest and other trees during that

period.

July 10, 1996 LAVKUMAR KHACHER

646, Vastunirman,

Gandhinagar-382 002.

16. RECORD OF THE SIGHTINGS AND BREEDING OF PIED MYNAH

STURNUS CONTRA AT LAHORE

The handbook (Ali and Ripley, 1987) distributional range. However, Dr. Rees Davies

reported the pied mynah ( Sturnus contra ) as reported it to T.J. Roberts as far back as 1965.

missing west of a line from about 76°E (Ludhiana This and subsequent records by Z.B. Mirza in

and Hissar) thus excluding Pakistan from its 1982 and Dr. Mubashir Hasan in 1985, all from

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Lahore and its surrounding area made Roberts

include it in his book the birds of Pakistan (1 992)

as a rare and local visitor to this country. No record

of its breeding in Pakistan has ever been given.

However, detailed observation over a

period of six years has revealed it to be an

uncommon but regular breeding visitor to the

environs of Lahore. ! have sighted the bird over

thirty times and found it to have been breeding

in some five cases. The nests are built either in

electric poles or in trees. Young were observed

to have been raised in three cases. In a sighting

in 1993, the nest was built on an electric pole at

a height of about 6 m. It was a rag-tag collection

of grasses, pieces of cloth and other material.

The two young left the nest by 2 1 st August, 1993.

They could fly well and accompanied their

parents, both of whom fed them.

The pied mynah can easily be seen around

the well-wooded suburbs of Lahore. I have

found the bird in all months of the year except

the colder ones and very late in January, which

probably indicates that it is an early breeding

visitor to Lahore, staying on till the end of the

rains.

July 10, 1996 SYED ALI MURTAZA

1-H, Guiberg III, Lahore.

References

Ali Salim & S. Dillon Ripley (1987): Handbook of the Roberts T.J. (1992): The Birds of Pakistan Vol. 2

Birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 5, pp 173. Oxford pp464.

University Press, Bombay.

17. NEW RECORD FOR BLACKTHROATED JAY GARRULUS LANCEOLATUS

(VIGORS) IN KASHMIR

The blackthroated jay Garrulus

lanceolatus (Vigors) is reported from Pakistan,

from Chitral through the outer ranges and valleys

of the western Himalayas through Kashmir to

Nepal (handbook of the birds india and Pakistan.

Ali and Ripley, 1987). It is locally common in

Pakistan in the Takhir- Suleiman range, Shingar

range, and Torghar range, as well as in Dir and

Swat through Murree and Hazara dist. into

Kashmir (the birds of Pakistan, Vol. 2,

T.J. Roberts, 1992). This jay has not been

recorded in the Gilgit region of Kashmir North.

We observed individuals and small flocks

of blackthroated jays in the Tangir and Khanbari

Valleys from 8th August to 15th August, 1995.

These side valleys are in Chilas dist. 35° 24' N

lat. and 74° 1 V E long.) on the northwest side of

the Indus River. The birds were sighted at

ca. 2000 m elevation, flying and perching among

streamside walnut and fruit trees. Indigenous tree

species at this elevation included Quercus baloot

and Pinus gerardiana.

These valleys are somewhat contiguous

with the Swat Range, so the discovery of this

species in the Chilas region should not come as

a great surprise. However, possibly due to a lack

of research in this area, the species was not

previously recorded in this part of Kashmir.

June 4,1996 PETER ZAHLER

NAEEM I. DAR

KARIM AKHTAR

P.O. Box 896

Lee. MA 01238, USA

18. YELLOWBROWED BULBUL HYPSIPETES INDICUS (JERDON) IN THE KOLLI

HILLS (TAMIL NADU), EASTERN GHATS

The yellowbrowed bulbul Hypsipetes to occur only in the evergreen biotope of the

indicus (Jerdon) (Ali and Ripley, 1983) is known Western Ghats south of Belgaum and Goa and

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

571

in Sri Lanka. It is known to affect sholas, coffee-

shade trees and edges of thick jungles.

Recently, this species has been repor-

ted from Mamandur forests (Santharam, 1991)

in Chitoor district of Andhra Pradesh, Santharam

(1991) also mentions S.A. Hussain seeing the

yellowbrowed bulbul at Tirupathi Hills.

I would like to report another sighting of

the yellowbrowed bulbul from outside its range.

As part of the Tree Shrew Project funded by

World Wildlife Fund - US through World Wide

Fund for Nature - India (Tamil Nadu State

Office), I happened to visit Kolli hills which is a

compact block of hills with steep slopes

comprising an area of 490 sq. km south of Salem.

It was during my stay at Solakkadu (1200 m

above msl; 11° 18' N, 78° 21' E) on 8th March,

1992, that my attention was drawn to the very

familiar double note which was heard a few times

before I saw a pair of yellowbrowed bulbuls

moving amidst the foliage of the trees flanking

the road through the shola. All the sightings were

in dense forests. These bulbuls were seen manv

times during the day.

It is interesting to note that all sightings

of the species outside its known range are from

hill ranges in the Eastern Ghats. Though I stayed

at Yercuad situated in the Shevaroys for almost

six months and used to walk through coffee-

estates regularly, I never encountered this species.

It would be worthwhile to map the distribution

of the species outside its designated range.

June 3, 1996 S. KARTHIKEYAN

24, Opp. Banashankari Temple,

8th Block, Jayanagar P. O.

Bangalore-560 082.

References

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of Birds of Santharam, V. (1991): Yellowbrowed Bulbul Hypsipetes

India and Pakistan. Oxford University Press. indicus (Jerdon) in the Eastern Ghats. J. Bombay

pp 737. nat. Hist. Soc. Vol 88(2): 287-288.

19. INDIAN ROBIN (SAXICOLA FUL1CATA) FORAGING IN THE LIGHT OF

FLUORESCENT LAMPS

On 29th June, 1995, inside the control room

of a 220 kv grid substation at Raipur, unusual

behaviour of the Indian robin was observed

between 1930 to 2130 hrs.

The large control room was well illu-

minated by fluorescent lamps which had attracted

a large number of insects. A male Indian robin

which was roosting inside this control room for

the last few days, perched on the edge of the

ventilator, and time and again performed short

aerial sallies to capture the winged insects and

returned to the perch. It moved from one

ventilator to another several times in about two

hours. Occasionally, a female house sparrow

( Passer domesticus) also joined it.

This act of the Indian robin was seen to be

repeated on two subsequent days but on these

days the sparrow was absent.

Foraging by the Indian robin in the light

of fluorescent lamps till 2130 hrs has not been

recorded in the literature and is rather

unusual.

October 27, 1995 A.M.K. BHAROS

27, MIG Indr avati Colony,

Raipur, (M.P)

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

20. WINTERING RANGE AND TIME EXTENSION OF HODGSON S BUSH

CHAT SAX1COLA INSIGNIS GRAY IN INDIA

( With one text-figure )

The Hodgson’s bush chat Saxicola insignis

Gray is a rare and little known winter visitor to

India occurring mostly in the Gangetic plains of

Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, ranging from Ambala

in the west to northern Bengal in the east. Also

found in the Nepal terai and Sikkim foothills, it

has not been recorded east of Jalpaiguri duars

(which extends to 89° 50' E long.). S. insignis is

reported to arrive in October and leave in March

or early April for its breeding grounds in the

mountains of Kazakhstan and Mongolia (Salim

Ali and S.D. Ripley, 1983 handbook of the birds

of India and Pakistan. Oxford University Press,

Mumbai).

During our stay at the Manas Wildlife

Sanctuary 26° 40' to 26° 50' N lat. and 90° 50' to

91° 25' E long, in the Barpeta dist. of Assam, we

saw this migratory bird every year between 1986

and 1989. A few of these birds were first seen in

March 1986 at the Kasimdaha grasslands near

Basbari. The collared bush chat S. torquata is

the most common chat of these vast open

grasslands dominated by Saccharum narenga

and Imperata cylindrica, interspersed with tall

elephant grass and very few trees, where we were

studying the Bengal florican Houbaropsis

Fig. 1 . Range extension of Hodgson's bush chat Saxicola insignis

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

573

bengalensis. This is the first record of S. insignis

for northeastern India and the state of Assam.

S. insignis, though similar in appearance

to S. torquata, can be distinguished from the

latter by its bigger size, larger white wing-patch

and white throat contra black; in the males the

black of the head tapers to a very thin black line

on the nape in insignis, whereas the whole

breadth of the nape in torquata is black. With a

little practice we were able to tell even the females

of the two species apart. They kept singly or in

loose pairs, perching on the top of low (c. 75 -

150 cm) grass or shrubs and often going to the

ground to feed. The same patch of grassland was

occupied by them for days and they defended

these small territories by chasing away any

intruding torquata. Photographs of these birds

were taken.

In 1986, the last bird was seen on 24th

April, which is a wintering time extension for

S. insignis in India as Ali and Ripley (1982) have

recorded 10th April as the previous last date. In

1987, the first bird was seen on 28th February in

the same area and they remained there till the

fourth week of April. However, in 1988, we did

not see the birds in that area till the third week

of April when a few were also seen in similar

grasslands at Kapurpora on the Manas river. In

1989 too, they were first sighted in April and

disappeared within a couple of weeks. Since the

bird is quite rare, it is possible that we could

have missed some individuals wintering in areas

not frequented by us in the last two seasons.

Our sightings indicate that S. insignis are

passage migrants through Manas Wildlife

Sanctuary on their way back to the breeding

grounds. Unlike S. torquata, they do not appear

here in September-October. However, a few

individuals stay in Manas between end February

and April during the spring migration.

This note was prepared while working

under the BNHS Endangered Species (Florican)

Project. We wish to thank Ms. Joanna van

Gruissen who helped us at Manas in 1986.

July 10, 1996 GOUTAM NARAYAN

LIMA ROSALIND

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Mumbai-400 023.

21 . HERPETOFAUNA OF PHULWARI KI NAL WILDLIFE SANCTUARY,

RAJASTHAN STATE

Phulwari Ki Nal Wildlife Sanctuary is

situated in Udaipur district at the southernmost

end of the state. The flora of the sanctuary is

mainly deciduous. Phulwari ki Nal is among the

lesser known sanctuaries of India, but it is rich

in floral and faunal diversity. Except for Sharma

(1995), we have little knowledge about the

herpetofauna of this sanctuary. McCann (1946)

has recorded nearly 17 reptilian species from

Mt. Abu, Phulwari ki Nal. In the present paper,

the reptiles seen from 1986 to August 1995 in

this sanctuary are listed below:

Family: CROCODYLEDAE

(1) Crocodylus palustris Lesson: Once

very common in the Mansi- Wakal river, the main

and principal river of the sanctuary, now rare.

During rainy season, it sometimes becomes

visible in the receding water. At present their

nearest known habitat is Jhadol Dam. Perhaps

they also breed there. I saw three in and around

the sanctuary area from July 1993 to July

1995,

Family: EMYDIDAE

(2) Kachuga tecta (Gray): Seen in the

Mansi-Wakal river. Very common in lakes of the

district. It likes to sit on emergent outcrops

specially during winter.

Family TRIONYCHIDAE

(3) Lissemys punctata Lacepede: Uncom-

mon, seen in wells and ponds. Flesh

is consumed by tribals for treatment of

tuberculosis.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Family: TESTUDINIDAE

(4) Geochelone elegans (Schoeff):

Common, locally called ‘Bhumi-kachba’. Kept

as a pet by many tribal families.

Family: GEKKONIDAE

(5) Hemidactylus flaviviridis Ruppell:

Common. Locally called ‘Vishamra’. Can be seen

on outer walls of the tribal houses after sunset.

Sometimes seen in crags also.

(6) H. brooki Gray: Common.

(7) Eublepharis macularis Blyth: A

specimen was collected from the outskirts of the

sanctuary.

Family: AG AMID AE

(8) Calotes versicolor (Daudin): Very

common, locally called ‘kangetia’. Heavy

casualties are seen on the road during rainy

season as many are ran over by vehicles. Its flesh

is applied on toe injuries by natives.

(9) Sitana ponticeriana Cuvier: Common,

specially confined in open pockets. This species

is a fast runner on ground. Besides many males,

a gravid female was recorded during August

1994.

Family: CHAMAELEONIDAE

(10) Chamaeleon zeylanicus Laurenti:

Common, locally known as ‘Halanviya’. Natives

kill it whenever seen, as they believe it can cause

leprosy by licking.

Family: SCINC1DAE

(11) Mabuya carinata (Schneider):

Common, amongst the fallen dry leaves of

Madhuca indica. Usually found on forest floor,

fields and near tribal hutments. Locally called

‘Nagarbamm’ i.e. female of head ‘brahmin’, and

hence protected by the people.

(12) Ophisops jerdoni Blyth: Very

common in hilly area, prefers flat Mil tops. It

lives beneath fallen dry leaves of Madhuca

indica. During winter generally seen from 1 1 am

to 2 pm outside its Mde-out, moving on forest

floor amongst the ground flora. Common in the

upper reaches of Madri R.F. and Som 1st R.F.

wMch are at the outskirts of the sanctuary and

are rich in this species.

Family VARANIDAE

(13) Varanus bengalensis (Schneider):

Very common. Bagged by jogis (mendicants) for

fat extraction during rainy season. Most adults

are infested by a tick Aponomma gervoisi

(Lucas). The sub-adults of Varanus are known

as ‘Chandan-goh’ in the area and people consider

them more ‘venomous’ than any snake and hence

kill them.

Family: TYPHLOPIDAE

(14) Ramphotyphlops bramina (Daudin):

Common, seen under logs, stones, and moist soil.

Locally called ‘kana’.

(15) Typhlina acutus (Dum & Bibr.): One

specimen was collected from a water tank into

wMch it had fallen during the night.

Family: BOIDAE

(16) Python molurus (Linnaeus):

Commonly occur along the banks of the Mansi-

Wakal river. One female incubating eggs was

observed at ‘Boina Parda’ Mil near ‘BirotM’ area.

Locally called ‘Agar’ or ‘ Ajgar ’. Since the trident-

like mark on the head symbolizes the trident of

Lord Shiva, the snake is protected by local

people.

(17) Eryx conicus (Schneider): Common.

Because it looks similar to the saw-scaled viper,

it is considered venomous and killed.

(18) E. johnii (Russell): Locally called by

many names like ‘Dhanrai’, ‘Andhboga’,

‘Dumbi’ etc. One adult specimen was collected

from Panarwa-kotra road. Two trampled sub-

adults were collected on the road after monsoon

rains of 1994 at the outskirts of sanctuary.

Family: COLUBRIDAE

(19) Ly codon aulicus (Linnaeus):

Common.

(20) L. striatus (Shaw): Uncommon.

(21) Oligodon taeniolatus (Jerdon): TMee

collected under stones and a fourth was found

trampled on Panarwa-Kotra Road.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

575

(22) O. arnensis (Shaw): Two specimens

were observed under stones from two different sites.

(23) Amphiesma stolata (Linn ): Very

common. A mating pair was observed on 2nd

July, 1994, on a foot-path.

(24) Macropisthodon plumbicolor

(Schneider): Very common. Hatchlings appear

in rainy season. It is very common in forest

nurseries and lives beneath poly-bags containing

seedlings.

(25) Xenochrophis piscator (Schneider):

Very common, locally called ‘Hindu’ by bhils,

and ‘Diwad’ by kathodies. During fish catching

operation with specially made bamboo baskets,

this species of snake is also trapped along

with fishes by tribals. It is present in almost

all the wells, nullahs, ponds, dams etc. of the

area.

(26) Elaphe Helena (Daudin): Common.

(27) Ptyas mucosus (Linn.): Uncommon.

(28) Dendrelaphis tristis (Daudin):

Common. During summer it is seen on medium

sized Acacia leucophloea trees. Frequent in

areas having vegetation in crown contect or

crown overlapping stages. One was seen

hibernating in a hole near a wooden post on the

verandah of a house.

(29) Psammophis leithi Gunther: One

specimen was collected from a bush.

(30) Ahaetulla nasutus (Lacepeda):

Collected one from Dharawan Reserve Forest.

(31) Boiga trigonata (Schneider):

Common. B. forstenii (Dum. & Bibr.) though

recorded in the Mt. Abu area by McCann ( 1 946)

was not seen in Phulwari ki Nal.

Family: ELAPIDAE

(32) Bungarus caeruleus (Schneider):

Common.

(33) Naja naja (Linn.): Locally called

‘Nagin’, ‘ Gogaji \ ‘Kala Hamp’ (samp) (‘s’ is

pronounced as ‘h’ by natives). It is a sacred and

protected snake in the area. Nomadic kalbelias

used to display it in cities and rural areas to earn

a living.

Family: VIPER ID AE

(34) Vipera russelli (Shaw): Uncommon.

(35) Echis carinatus (Schneider): Very

common, locally called ‘Kankariwala’. It prefers

open rocky areas.

Summary: 35 species of reptiles containing

30 genera belonging to 17 families have been

recorded from Phulwari Ki Nal Wildlife

Sanctuary. After taking measurements, animals

were released at the same site at which they were

captured.

Acknowledgements

I thank Dr. R.C. Sharma, Z.S.I. Jodhpur,

for identification of many of the snakes and

lizards. I am very grateful to Dr. A.K. Sanyal,

Scientist, Z.S.I. Calcutta, for identification of

ticks.

January 7, 1996 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA

Range Forest Officer,

Aravalli Afforestation Project,

Jhadhol (F, j, Dist. Udaipur (Raj.), 313 702.

References

Me Cann, C. (1946): Rain comes to Abu hills. J. Bombay snake Ahaetulla nasutus at “Phulwari Ki Nal”

nat. Hist. Soc. 43: 641-657. Wildlife Sanctuary in Rajasthan. J. Bombay nat.

Sharma, S.K. (1995): Presence of common green whip Hist. Soc. 92(1): 127.

22. REPTILES OF PERIYAR TIGER RESERVE, KERALA

Forty-five species of reptiles including two (in 5 families) have been recorded in Periyar

species of testudines, (in two families) 13 species Tiger Reserve. Seven species of lizard and 26

of lizards (in 4 families) and 30 species of snakes species of snakes have been collected, of which

576

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol 94 (1997)

Table 1

REPTILIA OF PER1YAR TIGER RESERVE

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

577

Table 1 ( contd .)

REPTILIA OF PERIYAR TIGER RESERVE

578

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo l 94 (1997)

Table 1 ( contd .)

REPTILIA OF PERIYAR TIGER RESERVE

Abbreviations:

E — Evergreen

MD — Moist Deciduous

SE — Semi Evergreen

13 species of snakes are endemic to the Western

Ghats. These include 4 species of pit vipers;

viz. Trimeresurus macrolepis, T. malabaricus,

T. gramineus and Hypnale hypnale. The King

Cobra Ophiophagus Hannah also occurs in

Periyar.

According to the literature, a rich fauna of

reptiles occurred in Kerala (Boulenger 1892,

1894, 1896, Ferguson 1895, 1903, Wall 1906,'

Smith 1931-43, 1949, Hutton 1948, Whitaker

1978, Daniel 1983, Murthy 1981, 1990). Butvery

little is known about their present status. Reptiles

in Kerala are threatened with poaching, wanton

killing and habitat destruction.

Periyar Tiger Reserve, a portion of the

erstwhile Cardamom Hill Reserve, is situated on

the Western Ghats in the Idukki district of Kerala

between 9° 16' and 9° 40' N lat. and from 76° 55'

to 77° 25' long. It is bordered on the north by

Peermedu Taluk of the Idukki dist., in the west

and south by Kottayam and Pathanamthitta dist.,

and in the northeast, east and southeast by

Madurai and Thirunelveli dist. of Tamil Nadu.

It has an area of 777 km. Altitude ranges from

700-2019 m and several peaks rise above 1600

m. The terrain is undulating. The Periyar Plateau

has about 50 km width on the Western Ghats.

Though it is called a plateau, it consists of a chain

of hills, separated by valleys, sometimes 300 m

deep. On the eastern and northern sides, along

the Crestline at about 2000 m elevation, runs the

state boundary. The elevation drops to about

200 m on the eastern side of the Crestline. The

Periyar plateau is drained by Mullayar and

Periyar rivers which join together at Mullakudy,

forming the Mullaperiyar river. Periyar Lake was

formed by the construction of a dam across this

river, in 1895. It has an area of about 26 sq. km.

Periyar has a humid climate with

temperature varying from 15° - 31°C and an

average rainfall of 2500 m. July has the heaviest

rainfall. November to January are cool, and

March and April are the hottest months.

The following types of vegetation have been

identified in the reserve viz. the tropical evergreen

forest (305 sq. km), tropical semievergreen forest

(275 sq. km), moist deciduous forests (100 sq. km),

grasslands (12 sq. km), eucalyptus plantation (55

sq. km), and reeds (5 sq. km). Savannah type

vegetation occurs in several areas. The high hills

are covered with grasses.

Reptiles were collected from January-

December 1992-94, preserved in 5% formaline,

and brought to the laboratory for identification.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

579

Two species of testudines, Varanus, rat snake and

King cobra were not collected. We also received

dead snakes from local people, including tribals

and firewood collectors.

Forty-five species of reptiles in 11 families

were recorded in Periyar Tiger Reserve

(Table 1).

Testudines (Turtles and Tortoises)

This group is represented by 2 species, the

pond terrapin Melanochelys trijuga and the

Travancore tortoise Indotestudo forstenii. The

terrapin is often seen basking on logs or rocks in

the lake.

Lizards

Thirteen species of lizards have been

recorded from Periyar. These include species

such as Cnemaspis indica, Calotes elliotti, C.

rouxi and Mabuya beddomii which are endemic

to the Western Ghats, and the flying lizard Draco

dussumieri , an Indo-Malayan element in

southern Western Ghats. Calotes is a major prey

of birds like the shikra Accipiter badius, while

Mabuya is preyed up on by the jungle cat Felis

chaus and Varanus by the tiger.

Serpentes

Thirty species of snakes have been recorded

from Periyar during this study. Of these 13

species are endemic to the Western Ghats. The

King cobra is rare in the Reserve.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to Mr. C. Radhakrishnan,

Deputy Director, Zoological Survey of India for

his help and to Mr. T.M. Manoharan, Chief

Conservator of Forests (Wildlife) for

- encouragement.

October 11, 1996 V.J. ZACHARIAS

Dept, of Zoology

St. Joseph's College, Devagiri,

Calicut-673 008, Kerala.

References

Boulenger, G.A. ( 1 892): Description of a new Earth Snake

from Travancore, Rhinophis travancoricus.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 7: 318.

Boulenger, G.A. ( 1 894): Description of a new snake found

in Travancore by Mr. Dighton Pirmaad J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 8: 528.

Boulenger, G.A. ( 1 896): Description of a new earth snake

from Travancore Rhinophis fergusonianus

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 10: 236.

Daniel, J.C. ( 1 983): The Book of Indian Reptiles, Bombay

Natural History Society, Bombay.

Ferguson, H.S. ( 1 895): List of snakes taken in Travancore

from 188^-95. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 10: 68-

77.

Ferguson, H.S. (1902): Travancore Snake. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 14: 386-387.

Hutton, A.F. (1948): Notes on the Snakes and Mammals

of the High Wavy mountains. Madura District India,

Pt. 1 . J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 48: 454-460.

Murthy, T.S.N. (1981): Reptiles of the Silent Valley and

the New Amarambalam area Kerala. Snake 13:

452.

Murthy, T.S.N. (1990): A Field Guide to the Lizards of

the Western Ghats. Rec. Zool. Surv. India,

Occasional paper 114.

Smith, M.A. (1931-43): The Fauna of British India, Ceylon

and Burma. Reptiles and Amphibia. Vols. I, II, III,

Taylor and Francis, London.

Smith, M.A. ( 1 949): Anew species of Pit Viper from South

India Trimeresurus huttoni. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 48(3): 596.

Wall, F. (1905): Notes on Snakes collected in Cannanore

from 5th November 1903 to 5th August 1904.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 16: 292-312.

Whitaker, R. (1978): Common Indian Snakes — A Field

Guide, Macmillan Co. India Ltd, Mad. as.

580

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

23. RECORD OF LEITH’S SOFTSHELL TURTLE, ASPIDERETES LEITHI1

(GRAY), (FAMILY TRIONY CHID AE) FROM NILAMBUR, KERALA

Five species of testudines were recorded

from Kerala excluding the marine species. They

include the Indian pond terrapin ( Melanochelys

trijuga), Indian star tortoise ( Geochelone

elegans), Travancore tortoise ( Indotestudo

forstenii). Cochin forest cane turtle ( Geoemyda

silvatica ) and the Indian flapshell turtle

(Lissemys punctata). Leith’s softshell turtle has

been reported from a number of localities by

Daniel (1983), Tikader and Sharma (1985) and

Kalaiarasan et al. (1992). This turtle is endemic

to Peninsular India (Das 1991). Das (1995) gives

the locations of occurrence of the species in

Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka,

Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and Tamil Nadu.

A specimen of Leith’s softshell turtle was

obtained from Chaliyar river at Edavanna in

Nilambur, Malappuram District, Kerala in

March 1 994. The river has an approximate width

of 150 m and a depth of about 2 m at the

collection site. The river bottom was sandy with

granite boulders. The flow rate was moderate at

the time of collection.

The specimen had a dark olive green

Refer

Daniel, J.C. (1983): The Book of Indian Reptiles, Bombay

Natural History Society, Mumbai, pp 141.

Das, 1.(1991): Colour guide to the turtles and tortoises of

the Indian subcontinent. R & A Publishing Limited,

Portishead.

Das, I. (1995): Turtles and tortoises of India. Oxford

University Press, Bombay.

Kalaiarasan, V., R. Kanakasabai &N. Rathinasabapathy

( 1 992): Record of the riverine turtle Trionyx leithii

from Thanjavur district, Tamil Nadu, J. Bombay

carapace with a light central region. The bony

carapace was 46 mm in length and 62 mm width.

The margin of the carapace had numerous yellow

spots and round markings. The central region of

the carapace had light coloured longitudinal

striations. The plastron was white in colour and

55 mm in length. The shell height of the

specimen was 14 mm.

Leith’s softshell turtle is a little known

species of the genus Aspideretes. According to

Smith (1931) and Pritchard (1979), the carapace

of the young is adorned with four to six rather

well defined ocelli or a pattern of eyelike concentric

circles. This character was not observed in this

specimen. The present observation is the first

record of A leithii from Kerala.

February 8, 1 997 JOSEPH THOMAS,

C.P. SHAJI

PS. EASA

Division of Wildlife Biology ;

Kerala Forest Research Institute,

Peechi-680 653,

:nces

nat. Hist. Soc. 89(2): 258-259.

Pritchard, P.C.H. (1979): The Encyclopedia of Turtles.

TFH Publ. Neptune, New Jersey, pp 643.

Smith, M.A. (1931): The Fauna of British India, including

Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia and Amphibia. Vol. 1 .

Loricata, Testudines, Taylor and Francis, London,

pp 170.

Tikader, B.K. & R.C. Sharma ( 1 985): Handbook - Indian

Testudines. Zoological Survey of India,

Calcutta.

24. THE OCCURRENCE OF THE COMMON TREE FROG POLYPEDATES

MACULATES (GRAY, 1834) (FAMILY RHACOPHORIDAE) IN RAJASTHAN

According to Daniel and Sekar (1989), Murthy (1964), McCann (1942), Sharma (1992,

Inger and Dutta (1986), Mansukhani and 1995 a,b) nine species of amphibians viz.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

581

Occidozyga cyanophlyctis Schneider,

O. hexadactyla (Lesson), Limnonectes

limnocharis (Gravenhorst), Hoplobatrachus

tigerinus (Daudin), Tomopterna breviceps

(Schneider), Microhyla ornata (Dum. & Bibr.),

Uperodon systoma (Schneider), Bufo

melanostictus Schneider and B. stomaticus

Lutken have been recorded from Rajasthan.

On 12th December, 1995, at about 1400 hrs

a new frog was caught from Bansi Forest Range

Office campus, on the outskirts of Sitamata

Wildlife Sanctuary in Udaipur district. When

captured, it was sitting quietly on the upper edge

of a window panel, with all four legs drawn up

well under its body. The tips of all its digits were

dilated into discs. It was identified as Polypedates

maculatus (Gray). Its snout-vent length was

measured as 45 mm and hind legs were 68 mm.

Its weight was nearly 5 gm.

Sitamata Sanctuary has very luxuriant tree

growth. Many pockets possess a shady and

humid environment round the year which may

provide a suitable habitat to Polypedates

maculatus and other species of frogs.

Acknowledgements

I am very grateful to Mr. Ram Niwas Ojha,

Forester, Aravalli Afforestation Project, Range

Bansi, for helping me to collect frogs including

Polypedates maculatus. I wish to thank the

authorities of the Department of Forests*

Rajasthan, for encouragement.

May 8, 1995 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA

Range Forest Officer,

Aravalli Afforestation Project,

Jhadol Dist. Udaipur (Raj.)-313 702.

References

Daniel, J.C. & A.G. Sekar (1989): Field guide to the

amphibians of western India. Part 4. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 86(2): 194-202.

Inger, R.F. & S.K. Dutta (1986): An overview of the

amphibian fauna of India. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 83: 135-146.

Mansukhani, M.R. & T.S.N. Murthy (1964): Fauna of

Rajasthan, Part 6. Amphibia. Rec. Zool. Survey

India. 62 (1&2): 51-60.

McCann, C. (1942): The rains come to the Abu Hills.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 43: 641-47.

Sharma, S.K. (1992): First record of Uperodon systoma

from Rajathan. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 89(1):

133-34.

Sharma, S.K. (1995a): An overview of the amphibians and

reptilian fauna of Rajasthan. Flora and fauna 1(1):

47-48.

Sharma, S.K. (1995b): Amphibians of Phulwari Ki Nal

Wildlife Sanctuary. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92(2):

271-272.

25. THE OCCURRENCE OF BUFO STOMATICUS AND UPERODON SYSTOMA IN

HARYANA STATE

Five species of amphibians, namely

Occidozyga cyanophlyctis, Limnonectes

limnocharis, Hoplobatrachus tigerinus,

Microhyla ornata, Bufo melanostictus have

been recorded from Haryana. Recently, I observed

two more, taking the total to seven species.

On 4th September, 1995, 1 saw many Bufo

stomaticus feeding under electric lights at

Sultanpur Bird Sanctuary and at Garhi Harsaru

railway station nearly 4 km south of the sanctuary

in Gurgaon district. I also observed a trampled

specimen at Manesar turn on Pataudi-Gurgaon

road, hardly a kilometer away from Garhi

Harsaru railway station.

On 5th September, 1995, I collected one

subadult of Uperodon systoma from short grass

582

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

cover near a rain water pool at Paoti village

(Rewari district) along the road. It was sitting at

the edge of the pool and was seen by torch light.

Further south, one more specimen was collected

at Bizwar Chauhan village in Alwar district,

Rajasthan.

November 6, 1995 S. K. SHARMA

Range Forest Officer,

Aravalli Afforestation Project,

Jhadol Dist.,

Udaipur,

(Rajasthan) 313 702

26. OCCURRENCE OF THE PIG-FACED FILE-FISH PARAMONACANTHUS

CHOIROCEPHALUS (BLEEKER) (PISCES: PLECTOGNATHI) AT MUMBAI

( With one text-figure)

The occasional finding of fishes and other

marine animals at Mumbai, where they do not

normally live, has been discussed earlier in this

Journal (Chhapgar and Deshmukh, 1964;

Chhapgar and Jatar, 1968). Chhapgar (1978) has

also recorded the occurrence of two leather-

jackets, viz Osbeckia (formerly A lutera) scripta

(Osbeck) and A lutera monoceros (Linnaeus)

from Mumbai. A single specimen of file-fish was

brought alive to the Taraporevala Aquarium on

9th September, 1995, and lived there for over a

month. It was later identified as

Paramonacanthus choirocephalus (Bleeker).

Description: Dorsal profile of snout

slightly concave, that of back between the two

dorsal fins horizontal. Gill opening slightly

oblique, its upper end below hind border of eye.

Paramonacanthus choirocephalus

First dorsal spine above hind border of eye.

Anterior border of dorsal spine rough, with many

(over 60) tiny upward pointing spinules, posterior

border with two rows of slightly longer and-

stronger downward pointing spines. Origin of

anal fin below 2nd dorsal fin, both these fins

hyaline. Pelvic shield with a movable spine at

its end.

Colour earthy brown with an irregular

blackish patch below 2nd dorsal fin.

Morphometry.- D I + 27, P 12, A 27, C 12.

Total length

Standard length

Length of head (mouth to gill-cover)

Length of snout (mouth to anterior border of orbit)

Distance from mouth to base of pelvic spine

Diameter of eye

Diameter of orbit

Supra-orbital width

Height of body (between origins of 2nd dorsal

and anal fins)

Depth of body (from origin of dorsal spine to

pelvic flap)

Length of dorsal spine

Length of base of 2nd dorsal fin

Height of 2nd dorsal fin

Length of pectoral fm

Length of base of anal fin

Length of caudal fin

Length of caudal peduncle

Height of caudal peduncle

81 mm

66 mm

22.8 mm

16.8 mm

32.7 mm

6.9 mm

8.4 mm

6.0 mm

29.0 mm

36.5 mm

17.0 mm

18.5 mm

8.0 mm

7.8 mm

14.5 mm

15.5 mm

9.8 mm

8.2 mm

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

583

Height of body 2.3 in standard length, 2.8

in total length. Head 2.9 in standard length, 3.6

in total length. Eye 3.3 in head, 2.4 in snout,

and slightly more than inter-orbital space. Height

of 2nd dorsal fin 1/2 in length of snout. Length

of caudal peduncle 1 . 1 in depth. Pectoral fin

about equal to distance between eye and lower

end of pectoral fin base.

Discussion: While Smith (1953) has

separated the leather-jackets ( Alutera , Osbeckia

and Pseudalutarius ) into the family Aluteridae,

Fraser-Brunner (1941), Munro (1955), De

Beaufort and Briggs (1962), and Jones and

Kumaran (1980) have clubbed them with the file-

fishes into a common family Monacanthidae.

And while the others have placed file-fishes into

20 genera, De Beaufort and Briggs (loc. cit.) have

assigned them to Monacanthus separating only

Alutera, Oxymonacanthus, Paraluteres,

Pseudaluteres and Psilocephalus.

The genus P aramon acanthus can

be distinguished from psilocephalus

(= Anacanthus) by the absence of a fleshy barb

on the lower jaw, and from Acanthaluteres,

Alutera, Amanses, Hanomanctus, Navodon,

Osbeckia, Paraluteres and Thamnaconus in

having a movable pelvic spine. It differs from

Oxymonacanthus in the absence of a long snout

ending in a dorsal mouth, from Pervagor in

having the dorsal spine originating behind the

middle of the eye, and from Laputa in not having

two rows of 8-12 strong downwardly directed

spines on the anterior face of the dorsal spine. It

differs from Stephanolepis in having a smooth

skin with minute scales.

Refe

Chhapgar, B.F. (1978): The Leather-jacket, Alutera scripta

(Osbeck) feeding on the Portuguese man-of-war

Physalia utriculus (La Martiniere). J. Bombay not.

Hist. Soc. 74(3): 541-543, 1 text-fig.

Chhapgar, B.F. & S.K. Deshmukh (1964): Further records

of lobsters from Bombay. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

61(1): 203-207, 1 pi.

Chhapgar, B.F. & J.K. Jatar (1968): Records ofrare fishes

Paramonacanthus choirocephalus can be

distinguished from P. oblongus (= barnardi of

Fraser-Brunner) in having a shorter, deeper

body — depth 2.3 times in length in the former,

2.8 times in the latter.

Fraser-Brunner (loc. cit.) created a new

species, P. horae, based on specimens from the

east coast of India, Andaman Is, and Maldives,

mainly on the grounds that it has 12 rays on the

pectoral fin, as against 14 in P. choirocephalus.

But De Beaufort and Briggs have clarified that

the holotype and other specimens in Bleeker’s

collection all have only 12 rays. (Jones and

Kumaran also mention 12 rays, Munro gives

counts only for the dorsal and anal fins, while

Day mentions 13 rays.)

Paramonacanthus choirocephalus has

been previously recorded from Chennai, eastern

coast of India, Andaman Is., Lakshadweep Is.,

Sri Lanka, Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia

eastwards. This is the first record from Bombay

(=Mumbai).

Acknowledgements

We thank the Curator, Taraporevala

Aquarium, for making available the specimen

for study, and Rishali G. Patki for assistance in

morphometry and fin-ray count.

May 26, 1997 B.F. CHHAPGAR

Taraporevala Aquarium,

Mumbai.

S.B. MULEY

Assistant Fisheries Development Officer, Sangli.

ENCES

of the family Chaetodontidae from Bombay.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 65(1): 58-63, 5 text-figs.

Day, F. (1878): Fishes of India 1 : 693, pi. 179.

De Beaufort, L.F. & John C. Briggs ( 1 962): In: Max Weber

& L.F. De Beaufort’s The fishes of the Indo-

Australian Archipelago XI: 325.

Fraser-Brunner, A. (1941): Notes on the Plectognath

fishes. VI. A synopsis of the genera of the family

584

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Aluteridae, and descriptions of seven new species.

Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. (11)8:325, text-fig. 6.

Jones, S. (1969): Catalogue of fishes from the Laccadive

Archipelago in the reference collections of the

Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute. Bull.

Cent. Mar. Fish. Res. Inst. 8: 31 .

Jones, S. & M. Kumaran (1980): Fishes of the Laccadive

Archipelago: 683, fig. 581.

Munro, Ian S.R. (1 955): The marine and freshwater fishes

of Ceylon: 274, pi. 53.

Smith, J.L.B. (1953): The sea fishes of Southern Africa:

1138 (only Paramonacanthus bamardi ), pi. 88.

27. PIERIS BRASSICAE LINNAEUS (LEPIDOPTERA: PIERIDAE) IN DELHI

There are numerous records of the Large

Cabbage White (Pieris brassicae L.) from the

plains adjoining the Himalaya. It appears

sporadically and has been recorded from

Amritsar (Sanders 1930), Peshawar and

Fatehgarh (Peile 1937), Lucknow, (Rhe Philipe,

1902) and “E. Bengal, Behar” (Maxwell-Lefroy

1909).

Recently, Rose and Venkatesh (1995) bred

the species in Patiala from eggs collected locally.

Donahue (1967) predicted the appearance

of this butterfly in Delhi. On 10th April, 1996, 1

found a female brassicae beside the road south

of Yusuf Sarai in New Delhi. The specimen is

worn and the abdomen is flaccid, indicating that

opposition had taken place. On 13th April, 1996,

I saw a male of the species in a private garden in

Defence Colony and on 1 5th April, 1 996, another

male in the company of Catopsilia pyranthe L.

at Dhaulakuan, in the scrub at the intersection

of Ridge Road and Sardar Patel Marg.

In India, it has been suggested that these

insects migrate from the hills for the cold weather

and early hot weather, breed on cultivated

Cruciferae and return to the hills for the summer,

although no return flight has been observed

(Maxwell-Lefroy, 1909; Wynter-Blyth, 1957).

Female butterflies of this species, fertilised

but without mature eggs, are capable of travelling

400 km without food in a few days. The stations

on the plains where brassicae has been recorded,

i.e. Peshawar, Amritsar, Patiala, Lucknow and

now Delhi, are well within the dispersal range

from Himalayan breeding grounds.

However, perusal of the literature

concerning the early stages of this butterfly and

its appearance on the plains of India indicate

several gaps in our knowledge.

Several authors have observed that this

insect breeds freely on cruciferous plants in the

plains during the cold weather and early hot

weather. It has been recorded on the wing

between late October and late May but there are

no records between June and early October.

Presumably, the weather is too warm during this

period. This observation has led to the

assumption that brassicae is only a sporadic

migrant on the plains.

In other parts of its range, this butterfly is

known to be capable of surviving severe and

prolonged winter conditions in the pupal stage.

There is no work on the tolerance of the

diapausing pupae to severe summer conditions

experienced on the plains of India. If it is proved

that the pupae cannot tolerate the heat, then the

traditional explanation of the appearance of this

insect on the plains will hold true. On the other

hand, if pupae can survive the summer heat, it

indicates the need for work to clarify whether

brassicae is actually a resident on the plains or a

sporadic migrant. In any event, we have an insect

that is either repeatedly attempting colonisation

but failing, or has established a very tenuous

foothold on the plains, so tenuous that when

compared with its fecundity in the hills and the

cooler parts of its range, its scarcity has led to

the impression that it is a migrant.

April 15, 1997 PETER SMETACEK

Jones Estate, Bhimtal,

Nainital,

U.P-263 136.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

585

References

Donahue, J.P. (1967): An annotated list of the butterflies

of Delhi. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 64(1) : 22-48.

Maxwell-Lefroy, H. ( 1 909): Indian Insect Life. Reprinted

by Today & Tomorrow’s Pubishers, Delhi.

Peile, H.D. (1937): A guide to collecting butterflies of India.

Staples Press, London.

Rhe-Philipe, G.W.V. De (1902): The butterflies of the

Lucknow District. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 14: 48 1 -

493.

Rose, H.S. & G. Venkatesh, (1995): Notes on the biology

of Pieris brassicae (Linnaeus) (Pieridae: Lepidoptera)

on a new host plant Cassia fistula (Caesalpiniaceae).

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92(3): 430-43 1 .

Sanders, D.F. (1930): Occurence of Colias hyale hyale

and Pieris canidia indica in the plains. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 34: 591 .

Wynter-Blyth, M.A. (1957): Butterflies of the Indian

Region. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

28. THE NOTODONTID MOTH CYPHANTA CHORTOCHLORA HAMPSON IN

KUMAON, NORTH INDIA

The taxon Cyphanta chortochlora was

described by Hampson (1892) from a male

specimen. The distribution is given as

“Himalayas”. The use of inverted commas

stresses the uncertainty of the specimen’s

origin. In the same work, the range of the

genus Cyphanta Walker, which includes

another species, C. xanthochlora, is given as

Sikkim, implying that Hampson believed that

C. chortochlora occured there.

Three specimens of C. chortochlora have

been recorded from Jones Estate in the Bhimtal

valley, Nainital district. The elevation is

ca. 1500 m above msl. The data on the specimens,

all males, is as follows:

26. ix. 1991; 28.ix.1995; 29. ix. 1995.

Forewing length 2.5 cm.

Further specimens were observed but not

collected. A specimen was collected in

Joshimath, Garhwal, at an elevation of 2300 m

in August, but the specimen was destroyed in

storage by museum beetles.

Besides matching Hampson’s description,

the specimens examined have the following

additional features; the forewing is excised along

the dorsum beyond the brown mark on the inner

basal area, much in the manner as the genus

Calyptra (Noctuidae) but unlike the other

member of the genus, Cyphanta xanthochlora. In

addition to the black speck at the end of the cell

of the forewing, there is a smaller black speck in

the middle of the cell and an incomplete series

of black specks along the termen, those on the

upper half more prominent.

On the underside, the dark postmedial line

is obscure on the forewing of one specimen but

prominent on both the other specimens. The cilia

of the forewing are green and of the hindwing

ochreous.

The flight is fluttering, unlike the swift and

purposeful flight of most Notodontids.

April 15, 1997 PETER SMETACEK

Jones Estate, Bhimtal,

Nainital 263 136

Uttar Pradesh

References

Hampson, G.P. ( 1 892): The Fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burma, Moths, Vol. 1 . Dr. W. Junk, The Hague,

reprint 1976.

29. A NEW NAME FOR HECALUS MORR1SONI RAMASUBBARAO & RAMAKRISHNAN

Ramasubbarao and Ramakrishnan (1990) H. morrisoni, and H. pusae. Perusal of literature

published three new species, Hecalus ghaurii, revealed that the name Hecalus morrisoni is

586

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

already occupied in the revision of the tribe

Hecalini from Korea by Kwon and Lee (1979).

As per the ICZN, H. morrisoni Rao and

Ramakrislinan (1990) is a primary junior

homonym of H. morrisoni Kwon and Lee (1979).

Hence, a new name is proposed here for this

species.

Hecalus paraumballaensis Ramasubbarao

and Ramakrishnan nom. nov.= Hecalus

morrisoni Ramasubbarao and Ramakrishnan in

Oriental Insects, 24\ 389,1990.

This species is named as paraumballaensis

since its male genitalia is very much like that of

H. umballaensis.

Acknowledgment

I thank Dr. A. Viraktamath, University of

Agricultural Science, Bangalore, for the

recognition of this primary' homonym and for

valuable comments.

April 17,1996 V. RAMASUBBARAO

Dept, of Entomology, Agricultural College

Khammam dist.

Aswaraopet -507 301

(A.P).

References

Ramasubbarao, V.&U. Ramakrishnan (1990): The Indian Kwon, Y.J. & C.E. Lee (1979): Revision of the tribe

species of Hecalus with description of three new Hecalini Distant from Korea. Nature and life in

species (Homoptera: Cicadellidae). Oriental Insects Southeast Asia. Kyungpook J. Biological Sciences

24: 385-397. 9(1): 41-48.

30. OCCURRENCE OF THE SPIDER CRAB RHYNCHOPLAX ALCOCKI KEMP

(BRACHYURA: HYMENOSOMATIDAE) IN THENGAPATTANAM ESTUARY

( With one text-figure)

A large number of specimens of the crab

Rhvnchoplax alcocki have been collected by

Gravely (1927) from Cochin, Alleppey and

Paravur backwaters of Kerala. Chopra and Das

(1930) reported that the genus Rhynchoplax is

common in the backwaters of Kerala. Kemp

(1917) gave the systematic descriptions of the

different species of Rhynchoplax collected from

Cochin backwaters and Portuguese India. Our

description of Rhynchoplax alcocki is based on

specimens collected from Thengapattanam

estuary in Kanyakumari district, Tamil Nadu.

Four specimens of Rhynchoplax alcocki were

found on stone pavements encrusted with small

filamentous algae and calcareous tubes of the

polychaete Serpula sp., on the southern side of

the estuary about 1 km away from the bar mouth.

Distinguishing features: The carapace is

ovate in outline, width at the broadest median

part being 4 mm. The surface of the carapace is

demarcated by two median hexagons antero-

posteriorly, and the lateral hexagons are not

distinctly visible. The length and maximum

width of the carapace are almost equal.

The rostrum is trilobed, the median lobe

being larger and with a rounded apex.

The eyes are large and more or less rounded

anteriorly and narrowing posteriorly. A short,

sharp tooth is present on the antero-lateral border

of the carapace.

The chelipeds are not compressed. The

length and width of the palm are almost equal.

The length of the dactylus is greater than that of

the palm. The fingers do not gape. Three teeth

are visible on the upper margin of the merus.

Carpus bears a tubercle on the antero-dorsal

surface.

The first walking leg has four teeth at

the posterior margin of the dactylus, including

the apical one. The second to fourth have twelve

teeth each and long hairy setae along the

margin.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

587

Fig. 1. Rhynchoplax alcocki Kemp. A. Rostrum; B. Single seta enlarged; C. Antennule; D. Antenna;

E. Cheliped; F. Dactylus of 4th walking leg;

G. Lateral wall of the carapace showing the tooth between the chela and the 1st walking leg;

H. Abdomen; I. Gonopod.

500 jd.

588

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

The terminal segment of the abdomen is

longer than the basal and not pointed as in

Rhynchoplax woodmasoni.

The male gonopod is not considerably

curved at its distal end. The curved end is very

short. A row of setae on the interior external and

distal margin is present.

Based on the characters, the present

Pv E F E R

Chopra, B. & K.N. Das (1930): On two new species of

Hymenosomatid crabs, with notes on some other

species. Further notes on Crustacea:Decapoda in

the Indian Museum. Rec. IndianMus. 32: 4 1 3-429.

Gravely, F.H. (1927): Crustacea. In: The littoral fauna of

specimen is an immature male. Kemp (1917)

detailed the adult and juvenile structural changes.

February 19, 1997 L. PRABHADEVI

G. SARASWATHY AMMAL

Department of Aquatic Biology & Fisheries,

Beach P.O., Thiruvananthapuram - 695 007,

Kerala.

N C E S

Krusadai Island in the Gulf of Mannar. Bull.

Madras Govt. Mus. (n.s.) i, no. 1, 141-155.

Kemp, S . ( 1 9 1 7 ) Notes on Crustacea:Decapoda in the Indian

Museum-Hymenosomatidae. Rec. IndianMus. 13:

243-279.

31. RECORD OF TRIOPS (CRUSTACEA: BRANCHIOPODA: NOTOSTRACA)

FROM PUNE, MAHARASHTRA

During a survey of temporary rain-water

pools of Pune we came across some tadpole

shrimps, Triops, in a large pool on the Alandi

road (about 15 km from Pune Station). We could

collect only a couple of live specimens in August

1995 but there were several fragments of

carapaces around, suggesting a large population

in July. The same pool also contained a large

population of fairy shrimps ( Streptocephalus

dichotomus) and clam shrimps (species not

identified) which are known to be prey animals

for Triops. The pool was at least 1.5 metres deep

in the centre and contained muddy and turbid

water.

Fox (1949) and Williams (1987) have dealt

with nomenclature and habits of this interesting

animal, known earlier as Apus. Though Triops

has been reported from Panchgani (Karande and

Inamdar 1959), it has not been reported from

Pune.

Tiwari (1951) had discussed taxonomic

status and listed Indian species of tadpole

shrimps, which included what he considered to

be two new species. Shanbagh and Inamdar

(1968) have pointed out that Triops is an archaic

genus that has been evolutionarily stagnant since

the Triassic period. They have also remarked on

its rarity, having been recorded only from nine

localities in India — from Kashmir in the

Himalayas to Tirunelveli (Madras) in the south.

Sanjeeva Raj (1971), citing the work of

Longhurst (1955), stated that there are only 4

valid species of the genus Triops, although more

than 40 species had been described the world

over. This is so because the genus is notorious

for tremendous variation in external morphology.

In India there are only two species — Triops

cancriformis (Bose) and T. granarius (Lucas).

The former is mainly found in the Himalayas

while the latter is found in the rest of India (at

least south of Panchgani in Satara, Maharashtra).

Surendra Nath considered Apus kashmiriensis

Das to be a synonym of T. cancriformis (Surendra

Nath 1979, 1985).

One of our college students, Mr. Sachin

Ranade, observed hundreds of Triops in a stone

quarry at Talegaon (on Pune - Mumbai road), on

28th June, 1996 and collected two poorly

preserved specimens. All four specimens (two

from Alandi road and two from Talegaon) have

a carapace length of about 9 mm and total length

(excluding furca) of about 13.5 mm.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

589

Most of the taxonomic characters of our

specimens agree well with the description of

Triops granarius as given by Sanjeeva Raj

(1971). Our specimens are however almost half

the size reported by Sanjeeva Raj (18-20 mm

median carapace length: 9 mm in our sample).

A few salient features of the four specimens are:

carina on carapace prominent but without

terminal spine, spine in the sulcus 44, dorsal

surface of the posterior region of carapace with

fine denticles, fifth endite of first thoracic leg

projects beyond hind end of carapace; number

of exposed segments behind sulcus 9, apodal

segments 9; these segments possess 9 dorsal and

8 or 9 ventral prominent, chitinised, brown

Refe

spines; telson broader than last abdominal

segment with two median spines, 3 setal spines

and 2 transverse spines at posterior margin;

lateral margin of telson spiny with 5 prominent

spines; furca (12 mm) longer than carapace

length.

We thank our M.Sc. students, especially

Neelesh Rane and Sachin Ranade, who took part

in surveying nearby ponds. Thanks are also due

to the authorities of Modern College for

encouragement and for providing facilities.

December 19, 1996 H.V. GHATE

NAGRAJ SHETTY

Department of Zoology,

Modern College, Pune-411 005.

ENC E S

Fox, H.M. (1949): On Apus : its rediscovery in Britain,

nomenclature and habits. Proc. Zool. Soc. Land.,

119: 693-703.

Karande, A. A. & N.B. Inamdar (1959): Observations on

the taxonomic characters of Triops orientalis

(Tiwari), with a note on its biology J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 56: 215-225.

Longhurst, A.R. (1955): A review oftheNotostraca. Bull.

Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.), 3: 1-57. (Not seen in the

original).

Nath, Surendra (1979): Extension of range of Triops

cancriformis (Bose) (Branchiopoda: Notostraca:

Apodidae) to Poonch valley (Jammu and Kashmir

State). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 76: 543.

Nath, Surendra ( 1 985): On the taxonomic status of Apus

kashmiriensis Das (Crustacea: Branchiopoda:

Notostraca: Apodidae). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

82: 424-427.

Sanjeeva Raj, P.J. (1971): Triops granarius (Lucas)

(Crustacea: Branchiopoda) from Tamil Nadu, and

a review of the species from India. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 68: 161-168.

Shanbagh, S.V. & N.B. Inamdar ( 1 968): On the occurrence

of Triops mavliensis (Tiwari), Notostraca

(Crustacea), in the Okhamandal region of

Saurashtra (India). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 65:

408-417.

Tiwari, K.K. (1951): Indian species of the genus Apus

(Crustacea: Branchiopoda) with description of two

new species. Rec. Indian Mus., XL1X: 197-205.

Williams, D.D. (1987): The Ecology of Temporary Waters.

Croom Helm, London.

32. LIFE-HISTORY OF A SUCCINEID SNAIL SUCCINEA DAUCINA (PFEIFFER)

Succineids are found in meadows or on

the banks of rivers, streams and lakes or in

water. From these habitats they move on to

neighbouring crop fields for feeding on

agrihorticultural plants (Rigby 1965, Valovirta

1967, Lahdesmaki 1970, Godan 1983). Some of

them are known to serve as intermediate

hosts of cestode and trematode parasites of

birds and cattle (Enigh et al. 1957, Godan

1983). India is represented by 25 species of

Succineidae, belonging to five genera (Gude

1914, Rao 1925, Hora 1925) but informa-

tion on the natural history of these snails is

confined only to Indosuccinea semiserica

(Gould) (Raut and Ghose 1984, Raut 1986).

Recently, we had the opportunity to collect some

live Succinea daucina (Pfeiffer) specimens from

amongst the vegetation at the edge of a pond

located in village Gopal chak, Contai, West

Bengal, India. They were cultured in the

laboratory and some aspects of their life-history

were studied.

590

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

A total of 45 individuals measuring 6.1-

9.0 mm in shell length and 3. 9-6.0 mm in shell

breadth were released into a culture container

45 x 20 x 30 cm in size. The container was filled

with loose soil in such a fashion that the depth

of the soil was 1 5 cm in one half of the container,

sloping down gradually in the other half to 5 cm

at the opposite wall. Pond water was poured into

the container so that the whole of the slope was

filled with water up to a level equivalent to the

15 cm deep adjacent soil area. Thus, the maximum

height of the water column at the extreme point of

the slope i.e. where the soil depth was minimum

(5 cm) was 10 cm. A few plants of Pistia

stratiotes were kept inside the container, both

on the water and soil surfaces so as to simulate

natural conditions for the snails. From time to

time, water was sprayed on the soil as well as on

P. stratiotes plants to maintain a humid

environment inside the container. Since these

snails were seen to feed on P. stratiotes in their

natural habitat, no other food was offered to them.

The snails thrived well and deposited eggs

on the soil surface as well as on the leaves

of P stratiotes within a few days. The eggs were

kept under observation. On 15th February, 1994

seventeen newly hatched individuals were selected

for the proposed study. These newly hatched snails

were released into a separate container with similar

specifications to the culture container. The snail

culture was kept fresh by changing water and

P stratiotes plants at regular intervals. To record

the growth rate, measurements of shell length, shell

breadth and total body weight were taken at

intervals of seven days. Age of attainment of sexual

maturity, egg-laying potential, mortality and

longevity of the snails was recorded.

The newly hatched (zero-day old)

S. daucina of 1.0-1. 5 mm (mean 1.1 + 0.09 SE)

shell length, 0. 5-1.0 mm (mean 0.6 + 0.09 SE)

shell breadth and 0.25-0.5 mg (mean 0.3 + 0.05

SE) body weight grew to 6. 0-7.0 mm (mean 6.25

+ 0.22 SE) 3. 5-5.0 mm (mean 4.0 + 0.29 SE)

and 32-41 mg (mean 35.75 + 1.67 SE) in shell

length, shell breadth and body weight

respectively during the period of 12 weeks.

The snails began egg-laying at age 94 days.

Of the 17 snails only 4 survived up to the age

of oviposition. These 4 individuals produced

8 egg capsules containing a total of 20 eggs.

The number of eggs varied from 1-5 per capsule.

The eggs were transparent and round, usually

0.72 mm in diameter. They were clearly visible

through the gelatinous, colourless capsule. The

egg-laying snails survived up to the age of 157

days (maximum). Production of eggs was

confined to a period of 15 days from the date of

deposition of the first capsule. Of these 4 snails,

2 aestivated on June 4, 1994 (i.e. at the age of

110 days) while the other 2 died prior to

aestivation. Of the 2 aestivated individuals one

died on 17 June, 1994 and the other became

active on 8 July, 1994 and died on 21 July, 1994.

The eggs required 13-18 days (mean 14.93 + 0. 14

SE) for hatching. Out of 20 eggs, 11 (55%) were

successful in giving rise to young snails.

According to Rao (1925) succineids are

truly amphibious, pseudo-amphibious or strictly

terrestrial. Terrestrial forms resort to aestivation

to overcome adverse climatic conditions (Rao,

1925; Hora, 1925; Raut, 1986). Since S. daucina

live in close contact with water and are also able

to aestivate (even though they have the

opportunity to go into water) it is probable that

they are on an evolutionary pathway to leading

true terrestrial life.

Acknowledgement

The authors are thankful to the Head of

the Department of Zoology, University of

Calcutta for the facilities provided.

June 4, 1997 S.K. RAUT

T.K. MISRA

S. DAS

Ecology and Ethology Laboratory,

Department of Zoology,

University of Calcutta,

35, Ballygunge Circular Road,

Calcutta-7 00 019.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

591

References

Enigh, K., E. Sticinsky & H. Ergun (1957): Die

Zwischenwrite on Davainea proglottina

(Cestoidea). Z. Parasitenkunde 18: 230-236.

Godan, D. (1983): Pest slugs and snails. Springer- Verlag,

Berlin.

Gude, G.K. (1914): The Fauna of British India. Mollusca,

Vol. II, Taylor and Francis, London.

Hora, S.L. (1925): On the habits of a succineid mollusc

from the Western Ghats. Rec. Indian Mus. 2 7: 40 1 -

403.

Lahdesmaki, L. (1970): On the occurrence of gastropods

in different vegetation zones of sea coast in Orikari,

Oulu (Northern Ostrobothnja, Finland). Finn.

Aquilo Ser. Zool. 10: 47-52.

Rao, H.S. (1925): On certain succineid molluscs from the

Western Ghats, Bombay Presidency. Rec. Indian

Mus. 27: 385-400.

Raut, S.K. (1986): Destruction of Indosuccinea semiserica

(Gastropoda: Succineidae) eggs by the beetle

Cryptobium fluviatile. Malacol. Rev. 19: 107.

Raut, S.K. & K.C. Ghose (1984): Natural History of a

succineid snail, Indosuccinea semiserica (Gould).

Bull. Zool. Surv. India 5: 191-193.

Rigby, J.E. (1965): Alimentary and reproductive systems

of Oxychilus cellarius (Muller) (Stylommato-

phora). Proc. Zool. Soc. London 141: 311-359.

Valovirta, I. (1967): List of Finnish land gastropods and

their distribution. Ann. Zool. Fennici 6: 29-32.

33. RARE OCCURRENCE OF VEGETATIVE LEAFLET OUTGROWTH ON

THE LEAF OF MUSTARD BRASSICA CAMPESTR1S (BRAS SIC ACEAE)

The leaves of mustard are raised in

Mizoram as a vegetable locally, called as

“Antum”. On 15th June, 1996. 1 saw in Kolasib

market of Aizawal district, outgrowths of leaflets

on the dorsal surface of mustard leaf. On careful

observations, I found some more mustard leaves

with quite a large number (i.e. 5 to 10) of leaflet

outgrowths, with maximum length of 11 mm.

The leaflet outgrowths were more towards the

margin of the leaf than the centre and around

rachis. At Kolasib market this leafy vegetable is

brought from Kolasib, and the surrounding area.

Mustard is propagated by germination of

seed only, and to the best of my knowledge this

growth, in the form of outgrowth of leaflets is

peculiar and of rare occurrence, and hence

worthy of record.

Acknowledgments

I am thankful to Professor B. Prasad,

Departments of Life Sciences, Manipur

University, Imphal for encouragement and

Mr. Jainath Laik for typing the manuscript.

October 12, 1996 DAYA NAND HARIT

Government Kolasib College,

Kolasib-796 081,

Mizoram.

34. RECORD OF ABUTILON RANADEI WOODROW & STAPF IN AN AREA

OTHER THAN TYPE LOCALITY

Abutilon ranadei Woodr. et Stapf

(Malvaceae), an endemic and rare species was

collected and reported by Woodrow (1897) and

Cooke (1901) from Ambaghat of Ratnagiri

district in Maharashtra. Since then there was no

report on its occurrence, which made

Ahmedullah and Nayar (1986) conclude that it

may be extinct. However, recently Mistry and

Almeida (1989) collected the species from its type

locality. Due to rarity and narrow range of

distribution the species has been declared as

endangered in the Red Data book (Nayar and

Sastry, 1990). In 1993, it was collected from the

famous Vasota fort in Koyna valley of Satara

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JOURN.AL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

district. This is the first record of its occurrence

in an area other than the type locality and about

100 km away from it. About 50 plants were

observed on hill slopes around Vasota. It grows

in association with Carvia callosa (Nees)

Bremek. As it is an endangered species, some

attempts have been made to grow the species in

the Botanical Garden of Shivaji University,

Kolhapur.

Abutilon ranadei has great ornamental

value. It has large, elegant, showy flowers with

pale purple prominent veins on orange-yellow

petals. The easiest way to conserve it is by

domestication and introduction as an ornamental

plant in gardens.

Flowering and fruiting of the species is ’

observed during January to March.

Specimen (MPB-5829) has been deposited

in the Herbarium, Department of Botany, Shivaji

University, Kolhapur.

Acknowledgement

The authors are thankful to Dr. Sanjay

Limaye, Satara for his valuable help during field

work.

March 19, 1996 M.P. BACHULKAR

Department of Botany, Vivekanand College,

Kolhapur 416 003 (MS).

S.R. YADAV

Department of Botany,

Shivaji University,

Kolhapur 416 004 (MS).

References

Ahmedullah, A & M.R Nayar (1986): Endemic plants of

the Indian Region 1. Peninsular India. B.S. I. Calcutta.

Cooke, T. (1901): The Flora of Presidency of Bombay

Vol. 1. pp 101-102.

Mistry, M.K. & S.M. Almeida (1989): Some rare,

endangered and threatened plant species from

Ratnagiri District, Maharashtra. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 86: 478-479.

Nayar, M.P. & A.R.K. Sastry (1990): Red Data Book of

Indian Plants I. pp 198.

Woodrow, G.M. (1897): The Flora of Western India.

J. Bombay, nat. Hist. Soc. 11: 126.

35. ON TWO UNRECORDED SPECIES OF FAGONIA TO URN. EX L. FROM

MAHARASHTRA

During botanical explorations in Dhule

district, Maharashtra, two interesting and

noteworthy plants were collected. These were

identified as species of Fagonia Tourn. ex L.

(Zygophyllaceae) hitherto unrecorded from

Maharashtra. They are being reported as

additions to the flora of the state. These are not

only new records for the state but also interesting

from the phytogeographic point of view as these

species have been previously recorded from

Rajasthan. This report shows their wider

distribution.

The correct nomenclature, diagnostic

characters, habitat, phenology, critical notes and

key to the species now recorded from

Maharashtra are given. The voucher specimens

are deposited in the herbarium of the College.

They are enumerated here.

1) Fagonia hruguieri DC., Prodr. 1:

704.1824; Boiss., FI. Orient. 1: 905. 1867;

Edgew. & Hook.f. in Hook.f, FI. Brit. India 1:

425.1874; Hadidi in Candollea 21:21.1966;

Ghafoor in Nasir & Ali, FI. W. Pak. 76 : 1 1 . 1 974;

Shetty& Singh, FI. Rajasthan 1:162.1987.

A prostrate to suberect, branched

undershrub, branches quadrangular, sulcate,

striate, glandular-pubescent, internodes upto

1.4 cm long. Leaves opposite, glandular-hairy,

3- and 1- foliolate, leaflets ovate-oblong,

sometimes slightly falcate, fleshy, long

mucronate, 0.4- 1.5 cm long, the mid-leaflet the

longest, petioles upto 0.5 cm long. Stipular spines

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

593

straight, rarely slightly curved, glandular-

pubescent, upto 1.6 cm long. Flowers small ±

1.1 cm across, hypogynous, pale pink, fading

white, solitary, axillary, pedicel upto 0.5 cm long;

sepals 5, green, ovate-triangular, obscurely 3-

nerved, nerves branched, glandular-hairy, acute,

upto 0.4 cm long, persistent; petals 5, distinct,

spathulate, clawed, upto 0.8 cm long, obtuse,

mucronate, veins dichotomous; stamens 10, upto

0.4 cm long, glabrous, anthers yellow, oblong,

dithecous, dorsifixed, dehiscence longitudinal,

pollen grains spherical; pistil 5-carpellate, ovary

pubescent, style glabrous, tapering, stigma

simple. Capsules pyramidal, 0.4 x 0.3 cm,

pubescent, separating into five 1 -seeded cocci

when dry, tipped with persistent style.

D.A. Patil: Borvihir 608, Kusumba 1192

2) Fagonia schweinfurthii (Hadidi)

Hadidi (in Osterr. Bot. ed. 2. 2.121: 273.1973)

ex Ghafoor in Jafri & El Gadi, FI. Libya 38:

31.1977; F. indica Burm. f. var. schweinfurthii

Hadidi in Rech.f., FI. Iran 98: 6.t.6.1972;

Ghafoor in Nasir & Ali, Fl.W.Pak. 76: 19. 1974;

Shetty & Singh, FI. Rajasthan 1: 163.1987.

A prostrate to suberect undershrub,

internodes terete, striate, 1-2 cm long, glandular-

pubescent. Leaves opposite, 3- and 1- foliolate,

leaflets linear-lanceolate, 1-2 cm long, mid-

leaflet the longest, glandular-hairy, petioles

0.5 -1.0 cm long. Stipular spines 1.0 cm long,

straight, glandular-hairy. Flowers small,

hypogynous, pinkish, 1.0 cm across, pedicel

0.4 cm long, sparsely glandular-hairy to glabrous;

sepals ovate, 0.3 -0.4 cm long, sparsely glandular-

hairy, persistent; petals 5, free 0. 4-0.6 cm long,

obtuse; stamens 10, 0.4 cm long, anthers yellow,

dithecous, dehiscence longitudinal; pistil

5-carpellate, ovary pubescent, style glabrescent,

0.7 cm long, stigma simple. Capsule pyramidal,

0.4 x 0.4 cm, separating into five 1 -seeded cocci

when dry, tipped with persistent style,

pubescent.

D.A. Patil: Nandre 1431: Bhilwad 1592

Phenology: Both the species flower and

fruit mostly from September to May.

Both the species are found particularly in

Dhule and Sakri taluka of the district. They are

sympatric and grow on gravelly soils. They are

found as roadside weeds, on wasteland, fallow

lands and even as crop weeds. They form small,

spiny cushions, and are generally avoided by

livestock. The lower 3 -foliolate leaves of the main

stem-axis are not generally observed later in the

life-span of these taxa, and hence one may

mistake them for 1 -foliolate leaves. The

glandular leaf hairs slough off with age and

render them glabrous. The capsules start

dehiscing from below and then separate into

1 -seeded cocci. The latter being light are

dispersed by wind.

Dr. Karthikeyan of Western Circle, BSI,

Pune, informed us of the rare occurrence of

F. indica, Burm.f. (=F. cretica Linn.) in

Maharashtra, particularly from the drier parts

of the districts viz., Ahmednagar, Pune and

Satara. It is not found in Dhule dist. but the

species described above are common here.

However, these are not reported from Gujarat

(Shah 1978) except F. indica. Apart from

F. indica. the other two species mentioned in the

present communication occur in Rajasthan

(Shetty and Singh, 1987). Hooker (1875) described

only two species from India and remarked “Species

variously estimated from 2 or 3 to 30, being

variable and difficult to define”. This remark and

the present report stress the necessity for a careful

search in the field and herbaria for more data on

distribution of these species elsewhere in

Maharashtra, Gujarat and Karnataka.

Key to the species of Fagonia from

Maharashtra:

1. Intemodes 4-angular; spines longer than the leaves

F. bruguien

1 . Intemodes terete; spines equal to or shorter than the

leaves 2

2a. Lower leaves 3- and upper ones 1- foliolate

F. schweinfurthii

2b. All leaves 1- foliolate F. indica

594

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Acknowledgements

I am thankful to Dr. R.M. Pai, Ex-Head,

Department of Botany, Dr. B.A., Marathwada

University, Aurangabad, for encouragement

and interest in the work. I am grateful to

Dr. Karthikeyan, Western Circle, BSI, Pune,

for necessary information and to Mr. B.M. Patil

Principal, Ghogrey Science College, for facilities.

June 15, 1996 D.A. PATIL

P. G. Department of Botany,

L.K. Dr. P.R. Ghogrey Science College,

Dhule-424 005, Maharashtra.

References

Hooker, J.D. (1875): The Flora of British India, Vol. I. Vidyanagar, India.

London, England. Shetty, B. V. & V. Singh ( 1 987): Flora of Rajasthan Vol. I.

Shah, G.L. (1978): Flora of Gujarat State, Vol. I. Vallabh B.S.I., Calcutta, India.

36. NOTES ON THE OCCURRENCE OF WAHLENBERG1A HOOKER! AND

ANISOCHILUS VERTICILLATUS IN TAMIL NADU

During botanical exploration in

Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, Nilgiris, the

authors came across the plant species which were

not collected by earlier workers. Henry et al.

(1987) did not include these species in the flora

of tamil nadu, India, ser. I: Analysis. Hence these

species are dealt with here. These species are

poorly represented in MH. To facilitate

identification of these species a brief description

is given.

Wahlenbergia hookeri (C.B. Clarke) Tuyn

in FI. Males, ser. 1.6:116. 1960. Cephalostigma

hookeri C.B. Clarke in Hook, f., FI. Brit. India

3: 429. 1881; Gamble, FI. Pres. Madras 738.

1921 (Repr. ed. 519. 1957) (Campanulaceae).

Slender erect herbs, 10-20 cm high, hispid.

Leaves 2-3.5 x 0.5-1 cm, elliptic-oblong,

lanceolate; crenate-serrate along margin, acute-

obtuse at apex, sparsely hairy. Panicles ter-

minal, 10-15 cm long; pedicels filiform,

0.5-2 cm long; bracts tooth-like. Calyx tube

campanulate, lobes 5, glabrous, persistent.

Corolla lobes 5, pale blue, oblanceolate. Stamens

5, filaments dilated at base. Capsules 2-valved,

loculicidal, glabrous. Seeds many, ellipsoid,

trigonous, brown.

FI. & Fr.: September-December; in moist

shady places.

Specimen examined: Jenubaribetta,

Doddagatti. D. Stephen 97991, 13.xii. 1991 .

Note: This is one of the rare plants. Though

Gamble (/. c. ) reported this species from Western

Ghats there is no specimen in MH. Henry et al.

(1987) does not include this species in the flora

of tamil nadu, India, ser. I: Analysis. Hence this

species is an addition to the flora of tamil nadu.

Anisochilus verticillatus Hook, f., FI. Brit.

India 4: 629. 1889: Gamble, FI. Pres. Madras

1128. 1924 (Repr. ed. 788. 1957) (Labiatae).

Herbs or subshrubs, 0.5-1 m high; root

stock woody; stems grooved, pubescent. Leaves

1.5-4. 5 x 0.2-2 cm, whorled, sessile, elliptic-

oblong, oblanceolate, entire or shallowly crenate

along the margin, acute at apex, silky hairy;

nerves 4-5 pairs. Spikes terminal, cylindrical,

7-12 cm long; bracts lanceolate. Calyx 2-lipped,

upper lip 3 -toothed, lower truncate, villous.

Corolla white, 2-lipped, lower lip decurved,

glandular. Stamens 4, didynamous. Styles bifid.

Nutlets 4, ovoid.

FL & Fr.: August-October in open

grasslands.

Specimen examined: Boleguda. D.

Stephen 97927, 15.x. 1991.

Note: Gamble (l.c.) reported its occurrence

based on Beddome’s collection from Hyderabad

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

595

and Meebold’s collection from Mysore. But there

is no specimen from Tamil Nadu in MH. Hence

the present collection is the first report from the

state.

Acknowledgements

#

Dr. D. Stephen is grateful to the Director,

Botanical Survey of India for providing a

fellowship under the Flora of India Scheme

and to the Joint Director, Botanical Survey of

India, Southern Circle, Coimbatore for all

facilities.

June 15, 1996 D. STEPHEN

Senior Research Fellow, SACON.

Kalampalayam, Coimbatore-641 010.

E. VAJRAVELU

Emeritus Scientist, Botanical Survey of India,

Coimbatore-641 003.

References

Gamble, J.S. (1921-1925): Flora of the Presidency of TamilNadu, India. I: Analysis. Vol. 2. BSI, Coimbatore.

Madras Parts 4-7, Adlard & Sons, London. Hooker, J.D. (1872-1897): The Flora of British India.

Henry, A.N., G.R. Kumari & V. Chithra (1987): Flora of Vols. 1-7. Reeve & Co., London.

37. A NOTE ON THE IDENTITY AND DISTRIBUTION OF HYDROLEA

ZEYLANICA (L.) VAHL VAR. ERECTA HAINES (HYDROPHYLLACEAE)

(With one text-figure )

The family Hydrophyllaceae is represented

by 22 genera and about 275 subcosmopolitan

species, with greater concentration in dry

Western and Northern America (Mabberley,

1987). Of these, 20 species of the genus Hydrolea

L. are known to occur in the world especially in

southeast Asia, Africa and tropical America. In

India, a single species, namely Hydrolea

zeylanica, is found throughout the country,

mostly in moist situations around ponds, tanks,

ditches, irrigation canals, in rice fields and other

wetlands.

Haines (1922) described an infraspecific

taxon under Hydrolea zeylanica based on

his collections from Purneah, Bihar and

distinguished his new variety H. zeylanica (L.)

Vahl var. erecta Haines from the type (var. diffusa

sensu Haines) by its erect habit, longer leaves

and non-glandular inflorescence. He remarked

that this erect form is a very pretty plant when

in full bloom. I collected a large number of

specimens belonging to both the varieties

from different parts of Orissa, studied their

morphological characters and is of the opinion

that H. zeylanica (L.) Vahl var. erecta Haines

is undoubtedly a distinct taxonpmic entity. It

can be distinguished from var. zeylanica

as per the following consistent key

characters:

Erect herbs, leaves narrowly lanceolate,

acuminate, glaucous beneath, cauline leaves reflexed.

Inflorescence and calyx pubescent, never glandular

var. erecta

Diffuse or procumbent herbs, rooting at nodes,

leaves broadly lanceolate to elliptic-lanceolate, acute,

not glaucous beneath. Inflorescence and calyx densely

glandular-pubescent var. zeylanica.

Nomenclature, brief description, pheno-

logy, ecology and distribution in respect of

H. zeylanica var. erecta is presented below. The

occurrence of the taxon in Orissa is a new

distributional record.

Hydrolea zeylanica (Linn.) Vahl var.

erecta Haines Bot. Bihar & Orissa 2:571.1922

(Fig-1)

Erect herbs, 20-60 cm high, glabrous

below. Inflorescence cymose, terminating the

596

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Fig. 1. Hydrolea zeylanica var. erecta.

Herbarium specimen

elongate lateral branches or panicled by

suppression of leaves, pubescent, never with

glands, calyx pubescent, lobes lanceolate,

acuminate, apex greenish, distinctly nerved.

Ovaiy 2-celled, ovules many, styles 2, distinct.

Capsule ovoid-ellipsoid, septifragal, enclosed by

the calyx lobes.

FI. & Fr.: August-November.

Ecology: Occasional; in swamps, ditches

and muddy places associated with Ludwigia spp.,

Sphenoclea zeylanica, Monochoria hastata and

some aquatic grasses and sedges.

Material examined: Nilagiri, Balasore

district (Orissa), 14.ix.1995, PC. Panda 4297.

Distribution: Bihar and Orissa. Most

likely to occur in other coastal states of India.

I also collected specimens of Hydrolea

zeylanica var. zeylanica having pure white

flowers from Ranpur mals, Nayagarh district,

Orissa (Field No. Panda 5491) where a large

population was observed in flowering condition.

This white flower colour of H. zeylanica is a new

record and is of taxonomic and ecological

interest.

Acknowledgement

I thank the Director, Regional Plant

Resource Centre, Bhubaneshwar for facilities

provided.

June 15, 1996 P.C. PANDA

Taxonomy & Conservation Division

Regional Plant Resource Centre

Bhubaneshwar-7 5 1 015,

Grissa.

References

Haines, H.H (1922): The Botany of Bihar & Orissa, Mabberley, D.J. (1987): The Plant Book, Cambridge

Part 4, Adlard & Son and West Newman Ltd., London. University Press, Cambridge, U.K.

38. HELIOTROPIUM BACCIFERUM FORSSK. VAR. TUBERCULOSUM { BOISS.)

KAZMI — A NEW RECORD FOR RAJASTHAN

(With one text-figure)

While revising the family Boraginaceae bacciferum Forssk. collected from Rajasthan

from the Indian subcontinent the authors are not actually H. bacciferum. On cri-

observed that specimens of Heliotropium tical examination, they turned out to be

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

597

Fig. 1. Heliotropium bacciferum Forssk. var. tuberculosum (Boiss.) Kazmi a. Habit; b. Single leaf;

c. Flower; d. Calyx; e. Sepal lobe; f. Corolla cut open; g. Stamen; h. Nutlets.

598

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

H. bacciferum Forssk. var. tuberculosum (Boiss.)

Kazmi. Since the identity of this plant is often

confused and no illustrative account exists in the

available literature, a short description with

nomenclature, distribution and ecological notes

along with a key to the varieties is given.

Key to the varieties

1 a. Drupes more than 3 mm across with simple or

bilobed corky cells on the back

H. bacciferum var. suberosum

lb. Drupes less than 2 mm across, with verrucose

or warty cells on the back 2

2a. Leaves flat, more than 5 mm broad, both

surfaces of leaf covered with trichomes usually

not arising from tuberculate bases.

H. bacciferum var. bacciferum

2b. Leaves terete, upto 3 mm broad, covered on

both surfaces mostly with stout trichomes,

distinctly arising from large, white, tuberculate

bases H. bacciferum var. tuberculosum.

Heliotr opium bacciferum Forssk. var.

tuberculosum (Boiss.) Kazmi, Jour. Arn. Arb.

51: 162. 1970. H. undulatum Vahl var.

tuberculosum Boiss. Diagn. PL Orient 1(2): 89.

1849. H. tuberculosum (Boiss.) Boiss. FI. Orient.

4: 147. 1875. H. kotschyi Bunge., Reliq. Lehman

404. 181. H. bacciferum Forssk. subsp.

tuberculosum (Boiss.) H. Riedl in Oesterr. Bot.

Zeitschr. 113: 167. 1966; Riedl in Rechinger, FI.

Iranica48: 20. 1967.

Vernacular name: Punjabi: Jali misala;

Gujarati: Pipal buti.

Perennial, branched, procumbent-

decumbent or erect herbs or undershrubs with

woody rootstock; younger parts covered with

tuberculate based trichomes; older stems and

branches give white dotted, glandular

appearance. Leaves sessile to subsessile,

alternate, terete, 0.5-1. 5 (3) x 0. 1-0.3 cm,

narrowed at both ends, margins undulate to

revolute, covered on both surfaces with white

tuberculate based trichomes intermixed with

simple hairs. Inflorescence 1-2.5 cm long.

bearing a few closely set sessile, ebracteate, white

flowers. Calyx divided up to the base, densely

clothed with trichomes outside. Corolla tubular,

pubescent outside, glabrous within. Corolla

tubular, pubescent outside, glabrous within.

Anthers inserted at or below the middle, yellow,

sessile, oblong. Stigma conical, shortly bifid at

the apex, obscurely pubescent with indistinct

stigmatic ring. Drupe depressed globose, covered

by persistent calyx lobes, ca. 2 mm across; nutlets

4, in two pairs, margins more or less winged,

line of separation of the paired nutlets not

conspicuous. Nutlets glabrous, warty or rugulose

on the back.

FL and Fr.: March-September.

Distribution. India: Rajasthan, Gujarat,

Punjab, Maharashtra.

Extralimital: West Pakistan, Iran, Iraq and

Australia.

Ecology: In saline to sandy loamy soils or

in rocky habitats.

Material examined: Harchandory,

Jaisalmer lO.iii. 1977, coll. B.V. Shetty 3491

(BSJO); Shivbani tank, Bikaner, 1 l.iii. 1975, coll.

G.P. Roy 1701 (BSJO).

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Dr. P.K. Hajra, Director,

Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, for

encouragement. The help rendered by Dr. B.K.

Sinha, Scientist-B, BSI, Andaman & Nicobar

circle, Port Blair, in finalising the drawing is

gratefully acknowledged.

June 15, 1996 P.M. PADHYE

BSI, Andaman & Nicobar Circle,

Port Blair-744 102.

Present Address: BSI,

Arid Zone Circle, Jodhpur.

R.P. PANDEY

BSI, Arid Zone Circle,

775/80 Subhash Nagar, Khema Ka Kuan,

Pal Basani Canal Link Road,

Jodhpur-342 008.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

599

39. CRITICAL NOTES ON THE ORCHID PHALAENOPS1S CORNUCERVI (BREDA)

(With one text-figure)

The occurrence of the species

Phalaenopsis cornucervi (Breda) Bl. & Reichb.

f. in Andaman Islands was reported by

Lakshminarasimhan and Ray (199 1). A critical

examination of the specimen quoted by the

authors (R Lakshminarasimhan & L.N. Ray,

15199-PBL) with relevant literature and the

specimens authenticated by Dr. G. Seidenfaden

reveals that the plant attributed to that report is

actually Kingidium deliciosum (Reichb. f.)

Sweet, a close relative of the genus Phalaenopsis

Blume. Recently Ray et al. (1996) reported the

occurrence of Kingidium deliciosum (Reichb. f.)

Sweet in Andaman islands based on a fresh

collection Sreekumar et Ray, 16473-PBL) from

Richie’s Archipelago. This plant could be easily

distinguished from Phalaenopsis cornucervi by

the presence of a sac on the lip and 4 pollinia,

while the latter possesses only 2 pollinia and also

has a flattened rachis of inflorescence. Hence,

the real occurrence of P cornucervi in Andaman

is doubtful, although Kurz (1876) reports it from

Fig. 1. a. Kingidium deliciosum (Reichb. f.) Sweet; b. Phalaenopsis cormucervi (Breda) Bl. & Reichb. f.

600

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Nicobar Islands, for which no specimens are

available in Port Blair. A comparative habit sketch

is provided here to distinguish both these taxa.

I would like to express my sincere thanks

to Dr. P.K. Hazra, Director, Botanical Survey of

India, Calcutta and Dr. P.S.N. Rao, Scientist ' SD'

Botanical Survey of India, Port Blair, for

encouragement and facilities.

October 12, 1996 P.V. SREEKUMAR

Botanical Survey of India,

Andaman & Nicobar Circle,

P.O. Box 692,

Haddo, Port Blair-744 012.

References

Kurz, S. (1876): A sketch of the vegetation of the

Nicobar Islands, J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 45(3): 1 OS-

164.

Lakshminarasimhan, P. & L.N. Ray (1991): The

occurrence of Phalaenopsis cornucervi

(Orchidaceae) in Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 88 (3): 469-470.

Ray, L.N., P.V. Sreekumar & P.M. Padhye (1996): Two

new records of Orchids for Andaman Islands.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93(1): 123-125.

40. DOUBLE FRUITING IN PINEAPPLE — A RARE PHENOMENON

(With one text-figure)

The pineapple Ananas comosus (L.) Merr.

belonging to family Bromeliaceae is one of the

most important commercial fruits of the world.

It is believed to have originated in Brazil, from

where it spread to other tropical parts of the

world. The fruit, having a characteristic pleasant

flavour, is a good source of vitamin A and B and

is fairly rich in vitamin C and minerals like

calcium, magnesium and iron.

During the vegetative phase of the

pineapple, the stem produces compacted

internodes and leaves. Under natural conditions,

flowering is irregular and is marked by an

increase in diameter of the meristem, one year

or more after planting, which then produces a

series of expanded floral organs and longer

internodes. After this, the diameter again

decreases until purely vegetative leaves are

produced which, with the short starchy stem,

forms the top of the fruit or inflorescence. Under

natural conditions, the pineapple plant produces

single multiple fruit with one or more crowns.

After a particular stage of fruit development the

growth of the crown ceases and remains dormant

unless it is detached for propagation and other

purposes. During my visit to a pineapple

plantation at the Central Agricultural Research

Fig. 1. Double fruiting in pineapple.

Institute, Research Complex, I noticed that in

one plant of pineapple var. Kew, two months after

emergence of inflorescence and fruit formation,

one more inflorescence and fruit emerged/

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

601

developed from the crown of the same fruit

having multiple crowns. Both the fruits on a

single peduncle developed and ripened

simultaneously, thus giving the appearance of a

single fruit in late stage. Whatever the cause may

be, this phenomenon is rare and needs further

study on nutritional, cytogenetic and physio-

logical aspects.

October 12, 1996 D.B. SINGH

Central Agricultural Research Institute

Port Blair-744 101.

41. POA NEPHELOPHILA BOR — A NEW RECORD TO INDIA

FROM GARHWAL HIMALAYA

(With one text-figure)

During plant explorations in Garhwal

Himalaya, some interesting specimens of Poa were

collected from Yamnotri in Uttarkashi district.

Critical analysis of the specimens of the species as

well as perusal of literature confirmed the identity

of the species as Poa nephelophila, so far known

from Myanmar (Burma), hitherto not reported

from India (Bor 1960, Rajbhandari 1991).

The present communication pertains to the

detailed description and illustrations of the species,

along with short notes on its distribution, and

collector’s Herbarium number. The voucher

specimens are deposited in the Herbarium, H.N.B.

Garhwal University, Srinagar (GUH).

Poa nephelophila Bor in Kew Bull. 1 948: 140.

1948; in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 50: 819. 1952;

GBCIP. 558. 1960; Rajbhandari In The Himalayan

Plants (ed. Ohba & Malla) 2: 222. 1991.

Annual, glabrous grasses; culms erect or

ascending from the geniculate base, 20-38 x 0. 15

cm, leafy; nodes 2-3, shining. Leaves flat, linear-

acuminate, 10-12x0. 3 -0.5 cm, glabrous on the

margins and both surfaces or minutely scabrid,

with rounded base, dark-green in colour; sheaths

6-16 cm long, glabrous ligules rounded at the

apex, 1. 1-1.2 mm long, outer surface glabrous.

Panicles pyramidal, 8-12 x 2-3 cm; branches

spreading, smooth, lower branches 4; spikelets

oblong, 5.5 mm long, 4-6 flowered. Lower

glumes elliptic-oblong, acuminate, 1.8 mm long,

1 -nerved, margins hyaline, keel scabrid above;

upper glumes elliptic, acute or acuminate,

2.5 mm long, 3 -nerved, margins hyaline, keel

ciliate to the basal half or more, remainder

scabrid; paleas elliptic, oblong, 2.5 mm long,

with long ciliate keels. Stamens 3; anthers 0.6

mm long. Ovary ovoid, glabrous.

FL & Fr.: September-October.

Rare - on alpine slopes, associated with other

grasses and herbs.

Specimen examined: Yamnotri (Uttarkashi)

3300 m; D.C. Nautiyal; GUH 14917.

Distribution: Previously the plant

was reported from Burma, Chimlipass, above

3300 m (Bor, 1990).

This is a very leafy species closely resembling

robust forms of Poa annua L. However, it mainly

differs in having 4 lower panicle branches and

ligules 1. 1-1.2 mm long, (Poa annua has 1 or 2

lower panicle branches and ligules measures 1.5-

3 mm long).

Acknowledgement

We are thankful to the Council of Scientific

and Industrial Research, New Delhi, for financial

assistance.

June 15, 1996 RD GAUR

D.C. NAUTIYAL

Department of Botany,

H.N.B. Garhwal University, Srinagar-246 1 74,

References

Bor, N.L. (1960): The Grasses of Burma, Ceylon, India poa L. (Gramineae) in The Himalaya. In

and Pakistan, London. The Himalayan Plants (ed. H.Ohba & S.B. Malla)

Rajbhandari, K.R. (1991): A Revision of the Genus pp 169-263.,

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

Fig. 1. Poa nephelophila Bor A. Plant; B. Spikelet; C. Lower glume; D. Upper glum

E. Lowest lemma; F. Palea; G. Anthers, ovary, styles and stigmas.

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( With one plate and two text-figures )

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PROPOSED TAXONOMIC REVISION OF SOME IMPORTANT PENAEID PRAWN

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SUBSOCIALITY IN DUNG BEETLES COPRIS REPERTUS WALKER AND COPRIS

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