JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY

NATURAL

HI STORY

SOCIETY

Vol. 95, No. 1

April 1998

BOARD OF EDITORS

Editor

J.C. DANIEL

M.R. ALMEIDA

P.V. BOLE

M.K. CHANDRASHEKARAN

B.F. CHHAPGAR

B.V. DAVID

R. GADAGKAR

ANIL GORE

A.J.T. JOHNSINGH

AJITH KUMAR

A.R. RAHMANI

J.S. SAMANT

E.G. SILAS

J.S. SINGH

R. WHITAKER

Assistant Editor

GAYATRI WATTAL UGRA

INSTRUCTIONS TO CONTRIBUTORS

1 . Papers which have been published or have been offered for publication elsewhere

should not be submitted.

2. Papers should be submitted in duplicate, typed double space. Preferably an additional

copy should be submitted on a floppy diskette (3.5") using Word Star.

3. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where identification has

been authentically established by comparison of specimens actually collected.

4. Photographs for reproduction must be clear, with good contrast. Prints should be at

least 9 x 12 cm and on glossy glazed paper. Text-figures, line drawings and maps

should be in Indian ink, preferably on tracing paper. Maps and figures will not be

acceptable if labelled free hand.

5. References to literature should be placed at the end of the paper, alphabetically

arranged under author’s name, with the abridged titles of journals or periodicals in

italics and titles of books or papers in roman type, thus:

Aluri, Raju J.S. & C. Subha Reddi (1995): Ecology of the pollination in two cat-mint

species. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92(1): 63-66.

Prater, S.H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay Natural History Society,

Mumbai, pp. 35-48.

6. Each paper should be accompanied by an abstract, normally not exceeding 200

words, and 6-8 key words. Key Words should include the scientific names of important

species discussed.

7. 25 reprints will be supplied free of cost to authors of main articles. In the case of

new descriptions, reviews and miscellaneous notes, authors will be sent a free

copy of the Journal.

8. The editors reserve the right, other things being equal, to publish a member’s

contribution earlier than a non-member’s.

Hornbill House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Mumbai-400 023.

Editors,

Journal of the Bombay

Natural History Society

VOLUME 95 (1): APRIL 1998

Date of Publication: 1-4-1998

CONTENTS

ON A RESIDENT POPULATION OF THE GANGES RIVER DOLPHIN PLATANISTA

GANGETICA IN THE KULSI RIVER (ASSAM) A TRIBUTARY OF

BRAHMAPUTRA ( With two text-figures)

By R.S. Lai Mohan, S.C. Dey and S.P. Bairagi 1

BEHAVIOUR OF THE WHITEHEADED BABBLER TURDOIDES AFFINIS JERDON

( With two text-figures)

By V.J. Zacharias and D.N. Mathew 8

POPULATION DYNAMICS OF A FEW DOMINANT PLANT SPECIES AROUND

INDUSTRIAL COMPLEXES IN WEST BENGAL, INDIA

By Amal Kumar Sahu and Sauris Panda 15

SIGNIFICANCE OF BIOMETRIC RATIOS AND BIOACOUSTIC ANALYSIS IN

AMPHIBIAN SYSTEMATICS (With one text-figure and one plate)

By Debjani Roy, Amarendra Sarma, Bijoylakshmi Borah and Bakordor W. Bannet 19

THE LIFE EXPECTANCY OF THE WILD PIG SUS SCROFA L. IN RUHUNA

NATIONAL PARK, SRI LANKA ( With five text-figures and one plate)

By Kenneth R. Ashby and Charles Santiapillai 33

BREEDING ECOLOGY OF COMMON MYNA ACRIDOTHERES TR1STIS WITH

SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE EFFECT OF SEASON AND HABITAT ON

REPRODUCTIVE VARIABLES ( With three text-figures)

By Satwant K. Dhanda and Manjit S. Dhindsa 43

TAXONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE OF EPIPHALLUS IN SOME INDIAN GRASSHOPPERS

(ORTHOPTERA:ACRIDIDAE) (With five text-figures)

By Kharibam Meinodas and Shaikh Adam Shafee 57

LARGE HERONRIES IN KUTCH AND THE NESTING OF GLOSSY IBIS PLEGADIS

FALCINELLUS AT LUNA JHEEL, KUTCH, GUJARAT, INDIA

( With two text-figures)

By J.K. Tiwari and Asad R. Rahman i 67

HOST PLANT RANGE OF ARBOREAL NESTING RED ANTS IN KANYAKUMARI

DISTRICT OF TAMIL NADU (INDIA)

By V. Kumaresan 71

INTERSPECIFIC ASSOCIATION OF JACANAS (HYDROPHASIANUS CHIRURGUS

AND METOPIDIUS INDICUS) AND THE ROLE OF HABITAT

( With five text-figures)

By N.K. Ramachandran 76

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

GLYPTOTHORAX DAVISSINGHI (PISCES: SISORIDAE) A NEW CAT FISH FROM

NILAMBUR IN THE NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE, SOUTH INDIA

( With three text-figures)

By A. Manimekalan & H.S. Das 87

A NEW SPECIES OF BIOSTERES FOERSTER FROM INDIA (INSECTA:

HYMENOPTERA: BRACONIDAE) {With three text-figures)

By S.M. Kurhade & P.K. Nikam..... . 92

STUDIES ON INDIAN SPECIES OF CARDIORHINUS ESCHSCHOLTZ

(COLEOPTERA, ELATERIDAE: CARDIORHININAE) {With eleven text-figures)

By Punam Garg and V. Vasu 96

A NEW SPECIES OF CLERODENDRUM (VERBENACEAE) FROM NORTHEASTERN

INDIA ( With a text-figure)

By A. Rajendran & P. Daniel 99

HEDYCHIUM RAOII PAL ET GIRI - A NEW SPECIES OF ZINGIBERACEAE FROM

ARUNACHAL PRADESH, INDIA ( With five text-figures)

By G.D. Pal & G.S. Giri 102

REVIEWS

1. THE BIRDS OF TOGO

Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani 105

2. INDIAN DIRECTORY OF ENVIRONMENTAL ORGANISATIONS

Reviewed by S. Asad Akhtar 106

3 . WORLD DIRECTORY OF ENVIRONMENTAL ORGANS ATIONS

Reviewed by S. Asad Akhtar 107

4. FISH REPRODUCTION

Reviewed by R. Ghosh 107

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

MAMMALS

1 . The jackal, Canis aureus Linn. — A note on some

variations

By Dinesan Cheruvat 108

2. Diet of the brown palm civet ( Paradoxurus

jerdonii) in Kalakad-Mundanthurai tiger reserve,

Tamil Nadu

By T. Ganesh, R. Ganesan and M. Soubadra 1 08

3 . On the occurrence of the tiger Panther a tigris in

Sikkim

ByUsha Ganguli-Lachungpa 109

4. Earthworm in the diet of leopard Panthera pardus

By Naim Akhtar and M.L. Narang 1 10

5. Wild water buffalo Bubalus bubalis arnee in

Dibang valley district of Arunachal Pradesh

By Anwaruddin Choudhury 110

BIRDS

6. Foraging association of white stork Ciconia

ciconia with blackbuck Antilope cervicapra

By B.M. Parasharya and Raju Vyas 1 12

7. Record of Ciconia ciconia asiaticus from Indian

territory

By Vijayraj Jadeja, Raju Vyas and

B.M. Parasharya 113

8. Occurrence of the whitewinged black tern

Chlidonias leucopterus in Rajasthan

By HarkiratS. Sangha and Harsh Vardhan 113

9. Aerial display of rufous turtle dove Streptopelia

orientalis agricola Tickell nearNambol Bazar,

Manipur

By Kh. Shamungou Singh 114

10. An Indian pitta ( Pitta brachyura) trapped in a

standard sherman live trap

By A. Prabhakar 114

1 1 . Golden oriole Oriolus oriolus preying on flying

lizard Draco dussumieri Dum. & Bibr.

By S. Balachandran ; 1 1 5

1 2 . Common myna feeding a fledgeling koel

By Anwaruddin Choudhury 115

1 3 . Mimicry by common Iora Aegithina tiphia

By A.M.K. Bharos 1 16

14. Unusual nest location of redvented bulbul

Pycnonotus cafer (Linn.)

By Abdul Jamil Urfi and Keshubha Jethua 116

15. Possible breeding by rock thrush Monticola

saxatilis (Linn.) in North Kashmir

By Peter Zahler, Naeem I. Dar and Akhtar Karim .116

1 6. Record of Siberian blue chat {Erythacus cyane)

from Pauri Garhwal, Uttar Pradesh, in the Western

Himalayas

By Suchitra Ghosh 117

REPTILES

1 7. Status of the gharial Gavialis gangeticus in the

main Brahmaputra River

ByAnwaruddin Choudhury 118

1 8 . Records of turtles from Pakhui wildlife sanctuary,

Arunachal Pradesh, Northeast India

By Aparajita Datta 121

1 9. First record of the spotted forest gecko Geckoella

collegalensis (Beddome, 1 870) from Gir Forest,

Gujarat State, India

By Raju Vyas 123

20. Inanimate feeding behaviour of tucktoo Gecko

gecko Linn.

By D.N. Harit 124

AMPHIBIA

2 1 . New local ity of the Koyna toad, Bufo koynayensis

(Amphibia)

By Aloysius G. Sekar 1 25

22. Occurrence of Ramanella variegata (Anura:

Microhylidae) in West Bengal with notes on its

distribution in India

By Kaushik Deuti 126

FISH

23. Chagunius chagunio (Hamilton-Buchanan)

(Pisces: Cyprinidae): A new record fromKumaon

Hills, Uttar Pradesh

By K.D. Joshi 127

24. New record of Puntius melanampyx

(Cyprini formes: Cyprinidae) and Microphis

cuncalus (Syngnathoformes: Syngnathidae) from

Karnataka, India.

By M. Arunachalam, J.A. Johnson

and R. Soranam 128

25. Hypselobarbus kolus (Sykes) - an addition to

Kerala

By S.M. Vairavel, C.P. Shaji and P.S. Easa 130

26. On the occurrence of two flying fish: Prognichthys

gibbifrons (Val.) and Exocoetus volitans Linn.

(Pisces: Exocoetidae) in West Bengal

By J. Sarkar, S. Talukdar, Ramakrishna and

T.K. Chatteijee 131

27. Sexual dimorphism of a perch Priacanthus

hamrur( Cuv. &Val.)

By Tessy J. Mandy and Inasu N.D 1 32

INSECT

28. Biology of the parasitic wasp Stilbum cyanurum

var. splendeus Fabr. (Chrysididae: Hymenoptera)

By G. Srinivasan, K. Sasikala and

M. Mohanasundaram 134

29. On an unusual Endoclyta (Lepidoptera:

Hepialidae) from Kumaon, in the Northwest

Himalaya, India

By Peter Smetacek 136

30. Sighting of the common Palmfly (Nymphalidae:

Lepidoptera) in Mumbai

By Kiran Srivastava 137

31. The Plain Puffin Appias indra Swinhoe:

Behaviour, life-history and distribution

By Krushnamegh Kunte 137

32 . Common Silverline caterpillar feeding on Cadaba

indica

By Krushnamegh Kunte 139

OTHER INVERTEBRATES

3 3 . Burrowing behaviour of the shore crab Ocypoda

macrocera H. Milne Edwards from Sundarban,

West Bengal

By N.C. Nandi, Sobhana Paul and

M.K. Dev Roy 140

34. Distribution and homing of tree snail Rachis

bengalensis Lamarck (Gastropoda) on a new host

plant

By Subhamoy Das and Sonali Bhaumik 142

35. On the first record of a cladoceran, Leydigia

acanthocercoides (Fischer 1 854) (Chydoridae)

from Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh, India

By Aftab Alam and Asif A. Khan 143

BOTANY

36. Extended distribution and conservation of the rare

seaweed Tydemania expeditionis Weber Van

Bosse (Chlorophyceae) in the Indian region

By P.S.N. Rao and Marcel Tigga 144

37. Nomenclature! notes on Oedogoniales

By S.M. Almeida 145

38. Wild species of Abelmoschus Medic. (Malvaceae)

from Central Himalayan Regions of India

By K.S. Negi and K.C. Pant 148

39. Use of Lindenbergia muraria leaves and

Impatiens balsamina flowers as a substitute for

Henna

By Satish Kumar Sharma 1 50

40. Amaranthus palmeri Wats. A new record for

Maharashtra

By D.A.Patil 150

152

179

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

STATEMENT OF ACCOUNTS OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY ..

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING

188

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are grateful to the Ministry of Science and Technology,

Govt, of India,

FOR FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE JOURNAL.

ERRATA

Vol. 94 (2): page 436, The author of the article entitled “ Corydalis pseudo-juncea Ludlow

(Fumariaceae): A new record for India” is D.S. Rawat, not R.S. Rawat.

We regret the error.

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY

April 1998

Vol. 95

No. 1

ON A RESIDENT POPULATION OF THE GANGES RIVER DOLPHIN PL A TANISTA

GANGETICA IN THE KULSI RIVER (ASSAM) A TRIBUTARY OF BRAHMAPUTRA1

R.S. Lal Mohan2, S.C. Dey & S.P. Bairagi3

( With two text-figures)

Key words: Ganges river dolphin, Kulsi river, ecology, habitat, population, conservation

A land-locked population of the Ganges river Dolphin, Platanista gangetica, was observed

in the Kulsi river, a southern tributary of Brahmaputra. Its number has come down from 24

animals in 1992 to 12 in 1995. Large scale sand extraction and operation of fishing gear

hazardous to the dolphins are the main causes for the decline in the population. The habitat

of the dolphin, the hydrology of river, sand extraction and the fisheries were also studied.

Conservation measures are suggested.

Introduction

The Ganges river dolphin Platanista

gangetica is found in the river Ganges,

Brahmaputra and Meghna and their tributaries

(Anderson, 1879; Mohan, 1989 a, 1989 b, 1992;

Mohan et al. 1993). Recently, while studying the

river dolphins of Brahmaputra, a residential

population of dolphins was observed in the river

Kulsi, one of the southern tributaries originating

from the hills of Meghalaya. The Kulsi river is

about 80 km in length and it meanders through

the Kamrup dist. of Assam. It crosses the

National Highway NH 37 near the village

Kukumara about 35 km west of Guwahati.

(Fig. 1 & 2).

Ganges river dolphins are found throughout

the year in the mainstream of Brahmaputra,

migrating to the tributaries for feeding during the

‘Accepted April, 1997

Conservation of Nature Trust, Calicut-5, Kerala,

department of Zoology, Guwahati University, Guwahati,

Assam.

rainy season. (Reeves et al. 1993; Mohan et al

1993; Reeves and Leatherwood, 1994). The land-

locked population of river dolphins consisting of

adults, adolescents and calves was found in a

stretch of about 1 km of the Kulsi river throughout

the year. Forty years ago, such a land-locked

population was found in Kakdanga, another

tributary (Pilleri, 1970). The river is now highly

silted and no dolphins are found.

Observations on the Ganges river dolphin

of Kulsi river were carried out from 1992 to 1995

to assess the status of its population, to study the

ecological degradation of its habitat and to suggest

conservation measures.

Methods

Though the dolphin habitat in Kulsi river

was visited periodically, atleast biannually from

March 1992 to November 1993, regular monthly

observations were carried out from March 1994

to April 1995. Water temperature, turbidity,

velocity of water current, sand extraction, fishing

2

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

93°.30"

- 26°.00"

River dolphin habitat

Fig. 1. Brahmaputra river showing the Kulsi river

activities and the species composition of fishes

which have a bearing on the ecology of the river

dolphins were studied. Two canoes with 2-3

fishermen and 2 or 3 scientific and field staff

constituted the investigating team.

The dolphins were counted directly with

or without binoculars (6x30) from the canoes. A

Canon camera with 70-300 mm zoom lens was

also used. The dolphins were counted when they

surfaced, taking care to avoid repetition or

missing them. For this purpose, body length,

distance between the surfacing dolphins, length

of the beak (adult females have longer beak) and

intervals between surfacing were given due

consideration. For example, if 3 dolphins surfaced

at the same time they are counted as three; if 5

surface at the same time, they are counted as five.

If two dolphins surface at one spot and another 3

at a distance of about 30 m within a second, the

number can be assumed as 5. If an adult and a

calf surface at different times, they are counted

as 2. Usually the monitoring team stayed for more

than 30 minutes at the surfacing area to count the

population. A video camera was also used and

the film was utilised to finalise the dolphin count.

Turbidity was measured using a Sechi disc.

Water temperature was recorded with a mercury

thermometer. The velocity of water current was

measured by allowing a cork coated with white

paint to drift for 30 seconds and recording the

distance to compute distance travelled by the cork

for one hour. Three such readings were taken and

the average was estimated.

The number of canoes engaged in sand

extraction was counted and the quantity of sand

extracted by each boat was recorded to estimate

GANGES RIVER DOLPHIN IN ASSAM

3

Fig. 2. Kulsi river showing the habitat of Ganges river dolphin

total sand extraction per day. The data was

verified with the number of lorry loads of sand

taken by contractors. Fish landing was estimated

by examining the fishes caught by each fishing

unit on the day of observation. Fish and prawn

samples were collected by the senior author,

preserved in 5% formalin and identified to the

species level. The numbers of fishing tackle such

as hook and line, traps and other devices were

also recorded.

Results

1 . Dolphin habitat in the Kulsi river:

River dolphins were found in 1 km of the

river near Kukumara village. Width of the river

dolphin habitat ranged from 10-30 m. The depth

varied from 1.5 to 10 m during the rainy season

from July to August, and 0.3 to 8 m during the

dry season. The river was divided into 4 sectors

each measuring about 250 m for recording the

depth and other landmarks (Fig 2).

Sector I was very shallow with a depth of

about 80- 1 00 cm during the wet months from July

to August. The upstream of the sector was also

very shallow with 30-40 cm of water during

September to May. A narrow stream with a strong

current of about 33m/minute circumventing an

island of about 200m2 was found in the sector.

Dolphins could be found at the confluence of this

stream with the mainstream of the Kulsi river.

During the dry months an island of 100m2 was

found at the confluence. Large scale sand

extraction was carried out in the canal.

Sector II had a trench of about 500m2 width

and depth of about 8m, even during the dry

months. The deep area was a good dolphin habitat.

The sector was highly turbid and the sand was

dumped along the banks here. The banks of the

sector was made of hard laterite in the deep areas.

An old, dilapidated, unused wooden bridge, a

concrete road bridge (NH 37) and a rail bridge

were in this sector.

In Sector III the river took a U turn, with

4

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

an area of 1000m2 and a depth of 8-10 m. Many

dolphins were found here along with calves and

forage fishes.

Sector IV was shallow with a depth of

about 40 cm in dry months and about 1.50 m in

the rainy season. Large areas in the sector and

further downstream were exposed during the dry

months from October to May.

2. Hydrology:

Hydrological conditions such as water

temperature, turbidity and the velocity of the

current are closely related to the ecology of the

dolphins. As the Ganges river dolphin is a fluvial

species, water current is important for its long

term survival. It has been reported in greater

numbers at the confluence of rivers with strong

currents (Pilleri, 1970, Mohan et al 1993).

The water temperature varied from 10°C

in December to 25 °C in April. Water temperature

was low as the river drained from the hills of

Meghalaya. The turbidity was highest in August

during the rainy season. In the upstream of

Sector I during March 1995, the Sechi disc

reading was 19 cm, while it was only 1 1-13 cm

in the downstream of the sector where intense

sand extraction was being carried out. The Sechi

disc reading was 17 cm for the summer period

in the sector. Further down in Sector III, the

reading was 16 cm and in Sector IV where there

was no sand extraction, it was 1 8 cm.

The velocity of the water current was

highest during the monsoon. In the canal of Sector

I the water current was 2.0 km/hr in March 1995,

and 1.8 km/hr in the mainstream. For the same

period in Sector II it was 1.1 km/hr, in Sector III

1.0 km/hr and 0.7 km/hr in Sector IV where the

river is highly silted.

3. Sand extraction:

Sand extraction was the major cause of

habitat degradation. Large quantities of sand were

extracted from the dolphin habitat, mostly from

the canal area of Sector I, at the confluence of the

canal, and in the area down the bridge (Fig. 2).

Good quality sand was available only at a few

places along the river. About 100 canoes

operated, from a stretch of about 1.50 km, each

making 3-4 trips daily. The Assam Government

leases out the right of sand extraction to the

contractors. Annually about 12,500 MT of sand

is taken from the river. The sand extraction has

caused silting of the dolphin habitat, smothering

of bottom fauna, and lowering of the productivity

of the river by blocking the sun-light and

preventing photosynthesis. These ecological

degradations have a serious impact on the fish

production on which dolphins depend for food.

4. Dolphin population:

Sector I was a good habitat for the

dolphins. The dolphins were invariably found at

the confluence of the canal joining the

mainstream. Four dolphins were seen in this

sector. They were found foraging here,

unconcerned with the intense sand removal and

fishing activities. The dolphins retreated to deeper

areas of Sector II after foraging in the adjacent

areas. Though Sector II was highly silted, one or

two dolphins were noticed. Calves and adults

were observed in the deep trench.

The main dolphin habitat was the deep

trench in Sector III. The trench was about 8 m

deep with an area of 1000 m2. Five dolphins

comprising of adults, adolescents and calves were

seen. The adult female dolphin was characterised

by a long curved beak and pale brown colour.

The adolescent dolphins were paler in colour. The

calves were usually dark brown. Dolphins more

than 1 .5 m in body length were considered adults,

1 .0- 1 .5 m adolescents and less than 1 m as calves.

There were differences in the behaviour between

adults and calves. Calves were often seen leaping

over the surface of the water while the adults and

adolescents surfaced exposing their beak and the

melon. Occasionally, the adolescent dolphins

exposed two-thirds of their body. On one occasion

an adolescent dolphin stood vertically, exposing

its beak and head above the surface of the water.

The dolphins surfaced at intervals of 20 seconds

to 3 minutes. The calves surfaced more frequently

GANGES RIVER DOLPHIN IN ASSAM

5

than the adults at intervals of 15 to 30 seconds.

When the adults surfaced, the ‘blowing’ sound

was very audible, with a spurt of water from the

nostrils. When an adult dolphin surfaced near

the canoe we could smell its breath which was

very similar to that of cows.

Between the years 1992 and 1995, there

has been a gradual decline in the dolphin

population in the habitat. In 1992 we observed

24 dolphins. This number came down to 17 in

1993, 14 in 1994 and 12 in 1995 (Table 1). The

decrease in population was 29% in 1992-1993,

17.6% in 1993-94, 14.3% from 1994-95. The

reduction is very high in spite of the recruitment

as indicated by the presence of calves. The people

in the area do not harm dolphins, but accidental

entanglement in gill nets cannot be ruled out.

One male dolphin, 1.75 m in length, was found

on the banks of the river on 15.10.94 near the

village Kukumara, with gill net marking near

the melon. In 1992 and 1993, as many as 12

Table i

DOLPHIN POPULATION IN THE RIVER KULSI

dolphins were seen in Sectors I and II, but in

1995 we observed only 7 dolphins in these

sectors.

6. Fishes and fishery of Kulsi dolphin habitat:

Fishes and fishery of Brahmaputra and its

drainage were studied by Motwani et al (1962),

Yadav and Sugunan (1992), Yadav and Chandra

(1994) and Biswas et al (1995). About 225

species are reported so far from Brahmaputra

(Yadav and Sugunan, Ibid). During our studies,

49 species of fishes, 4 species of prawns and

two species of turtles ( Trionyx hurum and

T. gangeticus) were recorded from the Kulsi

river. This included the food species of the river

dolphin Chela laubuca, Puntius sophore, P. ticto,

Colisa fasciata, Glassogobius giuris,

Mastacembalus pancalus, Wallago attu, Ompak

sp, Bagarius bagarius, and the prawn

Macrobrachium choprai.

The traditional fishing gear are cast nets

(Fasi jal), current net (gill net), dip nets (Dheki

jal), drag nets, stalk net (Ban Jal) and moving

cast net (othal jal). About 300-800 kg fishes were

caught from the river monthly. Mastacembalus

pancalus, Puntius spp. Mytus vittatus, Chela

laubuca and Macrobrachium choprai form the

main fishery.

Discussion

The river dolphins of Kulsi are the only

river dolphin population in the area accessible to

observers. Furthermore, the population has

survived in spite of degradation of its habitat due

to human activities, though in decreased numbers.

Pilleri (1970) observed that in November,

1959 a resident population of river dolphins at

the confluence of the rivers Kakdanga and

Bhogdoi near Neghereting in Jorhat dist. Assam.

But when we visited the river in November 1 993,

it was highly silted and the dolphin population

had become extinct. It is possible that the same

fate might fall on the dolphins of Kulsi river if

the ecological degradation such as sand

extraction is continued. Gill nets are hazardous

to the dolphins as many thousand marine

dolphins have reportedly been killed in them

(United Nations, 1990). Hence operation of

gillnets is detrimental to the river dolphins.

Perrin et al (1994) observed that a

mortality rate of 4% and 5% is not sustainable

in Sousa chinensis with a population of 2000 in

the Indian Ocean coast of South Africa and in

Stenella coeruleoalba with a population of

1,00,000 in eastern north Atlantic respectively.

The reproductive biology of these coastal

cetaceans is more or less the same as the Ganges

river dolphin. Hence, the annual reduction in the

Ganges river dolphin population, which ranged

from 14-29% during 1992-1995, cannot be

sustainable.

6

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 95 (1998)

These dolphins are at a higher trophic level

and feed mainly on fishes and prawns. Many

species of fishes have been reported from the

stomach contents of the river dolphin. (Shrestha,

1989, Sinha et al. 1993). Many of the food

species were found in the Kulsi river also. Any

degradation of the ecology of the river will have

serious impact on the fishery potential of the river,

affecting its capacity to sustain the dolphin

population.

Any efforts for the restoration of the river

should be directed towards banning or regulat-

ing sand extraction, banning the operation of gil

lnets and creating awareness among the

fishermen. Declaration of the river dolphin

habitat as a river dolphin sanctuary under the

Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 will go a

long way to protect this population. Planned

eco-tourism of ‘dolphin sighting tours’ will

help create awareness. ‘The River Dolphin

Refe

Anderson, J. (1879): Anatomical and Zoological

researches: Comprising an account of Zoological

results of the two expeditions to western Yunnan in

1 868 & 1 875; and a monograph of the two cetacean

genera Platanista and Orcaella London, Two

volumes.

Biswas, S.P, R.S. Lal Mohan, P. Kotoky, D. Baruah, A.

Baruah, R. Gogoi & A. Dutta (1995): Ecology of

chars or River islands of Brahmaputra with special

reference to fisheries. Annual report Oct. 1994

August 1995. Dept, of Life Sciences, Dibrugarh

University, Assam pp. 34.

Mohan, R.S. Lal (1989a): Threatened Ganges river

dolphin. Whale Watcher. 23(4): 6-8.

Mohan, R.S. Lal (1989b): Conservation and management

of the Ganges River dolphin, Platanista gangetica

in India, pp. 64-69. In: Perrin W.F., Brownell, R.L.

Jr., Zho Kaiya and Lin Jiankang (eds). Biology and

Conservation of the River dolphins. Occ. pap. IUCN

Species Survival Commission. 3.

Mohan, R.S. Lal ( 1 992): Dams and poaching doom river

dolphins. Down to Earth (New Delhi) 1 (6): 14-16.

Mohan, R.S. Lal, S.C. Dey, S.P. Bairagi & S. Roy ( 1 993):

Population and ecology of the river dolphin of

Brahmaputra. Annual Report. Conservation of

Nature Trust, Calicut 1-73.

Protection Committees’ under the Conservation

of Nature Trust, Calicut, has initiated many

action plans at the grassroots level to protect the

species. The Government of Assam and the

Ministry of Environment and Forest,

Government of India, New Delhi, have been

alerted about the impending danger to this

population.

Acknowledgement

We are thankful to Mr. George Lumsdaine,

Williamson and Magor Ltd., Calcutta, Mr. A.

Khan, Chairman, Assam Valley Wildlife Society,

Chariali, Assam, Ms. Alison Smith, Whale and

Dolphin Conservation Society, England, Dr.

Rema Devi, Senior Scientist, Zoological Survey

of India, Madras and Dr. K.V. Jeyachandran,

Fisheries College, Panangad, Cochin, Kerala for

their support and help.

ENCES

Motwani M.P., K.C. Jayaram & K.L. Sehgal (1962): Fish

and fisheries of Brahmaputra river system Assam 1 .

Fish fauna with observations on their Zoo-

geographical distribution Trop. Ecol. 3: 17-43.

Pilleri, G. (1970): Observations on the behaviour of

Platanista gangetica in the Indus and Brahmaputra

rivers. Invest. Cetacea, 2: 27-60.

Reeves, R.S., S. Leather wood & R.S. Lal Mohan ( 1 993):

A future for Asian river dolphins. Report from a

seminar on the conservation of river dolphins in

Indian Subcontinent. Whale & Dolphin Conservation

Society (Ed) Alison Smith and George Berry,

England, pp 37.

Perrin, W.F., G.P. Donovan & J. Barlow (1994): Report

of the Workshop on mortality of Cetaceans in passive

fishing nets and traps: Gillnets and Cetaceans. Rep.

int. whal Commn special issue, 15: 1-65.

Reeves, R.R. & S. Leatherwood ( 1 994): Report of the first

meeting of the Asian River Dolphin Committee.

Ocean Park, Hongkong pp 1-16.

Shrestha, T.K. (1989): Biology, Status and Conservation

of Ganges river dolphin In: Perrin, W.F., R.L. Jr.

Zhou Kaiya and Liu Jiankang (Eds) ‘Biology and

Conservation of the River dolphins ‘Occasional papers

of the IUCN species survival commission No. 3.

Sinha, R.K., N.K. Das, N.K. Singh, G. Sharma, & S.N.

GANGES RIVER DOLPHIN IN ASSAM

7

Ashan (1993): Gut contents of the Gangetic dolphin.

Platanista gangetica Invest, on Cetacea 24: 317-

321.

United Nations, (1990): Large scale pelagic drift net

fishing and its impact on the living marine resources.

Rep. Secretary General, 45 Sess. Agenda Item 82

pp 43.

Yadav, Y.S. & Ravish Chandra (1 994): Some threatened

carps and catfishes of Brahmaputra river system.

Threatened Fishes of India. Natcon Publications 4:

45-55.

Yadav, Y.S. & V.V. Sugunan (1992): Factors relating to

decline of fisheries in the river Brahmaputra. Bull.

60. CICFR. Barrackpore pp 19.

BHASKARACHARYA RESEARCH INSTITUTE, DHULE

Journal of Advances In

Science And Technology

(A Biannual Journal)

(Regd. No. 06147/95 TCII)

Announcement

The SPECIAL ISSUE of the Journal of Advances in Science and Technology, to be published

in July, 1998 will focus on ENERGY: Conventional andNon-Conventional. We

invite our readers to contribute their research papers/articles for this special

issue related to sources and studies on: nuclear energy, magnetohydrodynamic

energy, chemical energy, battery-power and hydro-power sources, coal, oil and

natural gas, wind and geothermal energy, biogas energy, biomass energy from

natural forests and plantations, agro-industrial byproducts, agricultural residues

and urban waste etc. It will also include assessment of global and national

strategies and topical interests such as economic analysis, evaluation of local

situations, environmentally rather safe and clean renewable systems, energy

conservation, energy laws etc.

We look forward to receive the articles at your earliest.

Editor-in-Chief

134, Jai-Hind Colony

Deopur, Dhule 424 002 (M.S.) India

BEHAVIOUR OF THE WHITEHEADED BABBLER TURDOIDES AF FINIS JERDON1

V .J. Zacharias2 and D.N. Mathew3

( With two text-figures)

Key words: whiteheaded babbler, Turdoides affinis, behaviour, home range,

sentinel, preening, interaction within groups.

The whiteheaded babbler, Turdoides affinis, lives in groups. A group has a large home

range within which there is a well defined territory. The species has a well organised

sentinel system. Though the sentinel duty was shared by other members of the group, the

breeding birds and other older birds acted more often as sentinels and for a longer duration.

It is speculated that allopreening in the whiteheaded babbler helps to reduce aggression

and promote group integration. This babbler roosts communally. The groups of whiteheaded

babblers appear to be organised hierarchically. Calls appear to have a definite function in

the species. Clumping, allopreening, sentinel system and the large repertoire of vocalizations

may be helpful in consolidating the group and co-ordinating its movements.

Introduction

Babblers of the genus Turdoides have a

wide distribution in South and West Asia and

Africa. They live in groups, defend a common

territory and nest co-operatively. Biology of the

jungle babbler Turdoides striatus was studied by

Andrews and Naik (1970) and social behaviour

by Gaston (1977). Gaston (1977, 1978) has

reviewed all previous literature on the genus

Turdoides.

From 1974 to 1977 we studied the ecology

of the whiteheaded and the jungle babbler, two

common sympatric species, resident in

Malappuram and Calicut districts, (10° 30'-45' N

lat and 75° 40'-50' E long) in Kerala, South India.

The aim of this paper is to describe some of the

behavioural characteristics of the whiteheaded

babbler.

Materials and Methods

The whiteheaded babbler Turdoides affinis

and the jungle babbler T. striatus were observed

'Accepted February, 1996.

2Periyar Tiger Reserve, Thekkady, Kerala, India-685 536.

department of Zoology, University of Calicut,

Kerala - India.

regularly in an area of 2.27 sq. km of the Calicut

University Campus. Nearly 5000 hours were

spent in the field. Twenty-three adult

whiteheaded babblers and nine jungle babblers

were trapped in mistnets and marked with

coloured plastic rings. Forty-five whiteheaded

babblers and sixteen jungle babblers were ringed

as nestlings. Day long observations were carried

out on individual groups. For comparison, the

rufous babbler T. subrufus and the Wynaad

laughing thrush Garrulax delesserti were

observed in Wynaad, Kerala and the large grey

babbler I malcolmi in Gundalupet, Karnataka.

Results

The whiteheaded babbler forages in groups

of 3-14 birds, progressing slowly by hopping and

gliding. Individuals remain within a radius of 25-

30 m from the centre of the group. Members of a

group move together, share a common foraging

area, defend a common territory and roost and

nest together. They glide from perch to perch or

from a bush or tree to the ground. From the

ground they fly to the low lying branches and

hop from branch to branch. The birds invariably

hop to the tree tops and glide again. The group

BEHA VIOUR OF THE WHITEHEADED BABBLER TURDOIDES AFFINIS JERDON

9

moves together, crisscrossing different parts of

their home range. Foraging flocks turn over dead

leaves and explore the clumps of grasses, curled

up leaves, herbs, holes on the ground, and the

crevices in tree trunks.

Home Range and Territory

The whiteheaded babbler has a larger home

range with a well defended core area, the territory

within which they roost and nest. Home ranges

of adjacent groups often overlap (Fig. 1) but

territories have established boundaries. The size

of the home range varies from 5.3 ha to 9.3 ha

(Table 1). However there is no relation between

the size of the home range and the size of the

group (Table 1).

Fig. 1. Home range of T. ajfinis in the

Calicut University Campus

The groups are highly territorial and never

allow other groups of their own species or jungle

babblers to enter into their territory. Trespassers

are mobbed by the owners of the territory.

Physical clashes occurred in a few cases.

However, up to four groups share a common

foraging area. They also share common foraging

areas with the jungle babbler.

Table 1

SIZE OF THE HOME RANGE AND THE GROUP SIZE

IN T. AFFINIS IN THE CALICUT UNIVERSITY

CAMPUS

Waking Activity and Rest

Whiteheaded babblers wake up between

0555 and 0625 hrs. The first bird to wake up

flies out to a new perch followed by others

immediately or after waiting for a few minutes.

They preen for about 3-6 minutes and start

feeding. After feeding for about 30 minutes, the

birds preen again for 10-15 minutes before

foraging is resumed. From 1330 to 1630 hrs the

whiteheaded babbler takes rest in shady areas.

Roosting

At the close of the day between (1800 and

1900 hrs) the whiteheaded babblers noisily

assemble on bushes or trees near their feeding

sites and preen themselves and one another for 3-

18 minutes. The birds rub their bills, call softly

and move to their roosting trees. The roosts are

2-6 m high from the ground (Zacharias and

Mathew, 1988). In the rainy season, they roam

about and halt temporarily on several trees before

reaching the final roost. Roosts are changed when

10

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

the group begin nesting, usually after incubation

has begun. On the roosting branch the members

of a group sit close to each other. Larger groups

roost on more than one branch. Birds reaching

late wedge themselves between others. Juveniles

roost in the middle of the group.

In March and April we observed 7 cases of

some alien adult whiteheaded babblers trying to

roost with an established group. These strange

birds seemed to be immigrants from areas our

outside our study area. When the roosting group

was disturbed by any type of commotion in the

vicinity, some of the adult birds came out and

watched the intruders till the scene became

peaceful. In two cases it was the breeding male

which came out to scrutinize.

The roosting pattern of the jungle babbler

and the rufous babbler is very similar to that of

the whiteheaded babbler. But jungle babblers are

less noisy at the time of roosting.

Sentinel

In foraging groups of the whiteheaded

babbler one bird takes position on a tree or bush

and acts as sentinel. Dharmakumarsinhji (1951)

described this first in the jungle babbler. Similar

behaviour was observed in Florida scrub jay by

McGovern and Woolfenden ( 1 989). The sentinel

has a clear view of the surroundings. It warns the

group of the approaching danger by uttering

typical alarm calls. This duty is shared by all

members of the group except juveniles, but the

breeding birds and other older birds act more often

as sentinels and for a longer duration than others

(Table 2). In one group, which was observed

continuously for about 11 hours, the breeding

male spent about 5 hours on sentinel duty. This

was observed when the group was not nesting and

spent more time feeding. As the day progresses,

the time spent on sentinel duty also increases. In

the absence of any disturbance, the sentinel

watches silently. If a predator or an intruder comes

within a distance of 10- 15m of a foraging group,

the sentinel becomes active and keeps calling, till

Table 2

SENTINEL DUTY OBSERVED IN GROUP I OF THE

WHITEHEADED BABBLER FROM OCT - NOV 1 976

Total time spent on

Total Observation 258 694

♦Became the breeding male when the breeding male

disappeared.

the danger has passed. A sentinel in action

spreads its wings and tail, flicks them fast and

keeps on pivoting. As the intruder draws closer

to the foraging group, the sentinel hovers over

it, and calls loudly and repeatedly (Fig. 2). In a

few cases the sentinel flew towards the intruder

and attacked it. The first signal of imminent

danger is usually given by the sentinel in the

form of a screaming “keak” call which is the

first part of the alarm call (Table 3) and all the

birds in the group respond by taking shelter on

Fig. 2. Poses adopted by a Whiteheaded

Babbler on sentinel duty

BEHA VIOUR OF THE WHITEHEADED BABBLER TURDOIDES AFFINIS JERDON

11

trees or in bushes. Those on exposed branches

and bushes withdraw into more concealed areas.

They resume foraging as soon as the predator

moves away. But if the intruder persists, the

owners of the territory mob it.

The sentinels of T. affinis groups move

ahead or behind the foraging party. Sometimes

the groups appear to feed without a sentinel, at

birds. The main sentinel carries out its duty as

usual. The second and third birds act only for

shorter periods.

A sentinel was present in 236 out of 238

observations on T. affinis. The sentinel activity

was observed at heights of 2-7m on the branches

of trees, bushes, rocks, compound walls, lamp

posts, sunshades and telephone wires. Changes

12

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

to act as sentinel for longer duration. The

breeding male PB and female G came next in

order. In the next nesting, the breeding male PB

disappeared and Rr took its place.

On three occasions the sentinel white-

headed babbler was attacked or chased by the

domestic cat, Ceylon shikra Accipiter badius and

jungle crow Corvus macrorhyncos, but suffered

no harm.

Interaction within group

Members of a group foraged within close

distance and no conflict was observed between

them. Juveniles often tried to snatch the prey

collected by adult birds. The adults either

conceded or moved away.

Response to Predators and

Other Alien Species

The whiteheaded babblers often foraged

together with the jungle babblers, crows, mynas,

drongos and squirrels without any conflict. But

clashes were observed between individual

whiteheaded babblers and common mynas and

babblers and black drongos over insect food.

These babblers never tolerated birds of prey

like kites, hawks, owls and owlets and ground

predators like mongooses and snakes near their

territory, or foraging areas. Babblers are

aggressive towards these predators and mob them

and never rest until the intruders move away. But

if the intruders persist, the babblers withdraw to

a safe area.

Preening and Body Care

In the intervals between feeding, the

whiteheaded babblers very often clumped

together. In clumping the birds pressed their

bodies close together. Clumping was invariably

accompanied by allopreening. The birds often

perched facing in same or opposite directions for

allopreening. Some individuals moved a little

away and indulged in autopreening. Soliciting

of allopreening is commonly observed, mostly

among juveniles and first year birds. The bird to

be preened sidled towards another bird as if to

solicit attention. The former then dropped its

wings, raised its head, erected the feathers on

the head and neck and got closer to the

prospective preener. The latter also raised itself

by stretching its legs and preened different parts

of the head and body of its partner.

Three or four birds sometimes formed

allopreening units. The breeding pair spent more

time in allopreening. Allopreening interaction

started at waking time and could be observed

during different times of the day. Longer bouts

of allopreening occurred from 0630 to 0830 hrs

and from 1300 to 1500 hrs. Similar allopreening

was observed in the jungle babbler and the

Wynaad laughing thrush. It was also recorded

in the jungle babbler and the common babbler T.

caudatus by Gaston (1977, 1978).

Hardy (1974) described the feather erection

behaviour in the head and neck region as forming

the typical submission posture among neotropical

jays of the genus Cissilopha as an invitation for

allopreening. According to Gaston (1977) in the

jungle babbler, soliciting, and receiving

allopreening help to maintain an individual’s

position within its group, reduce aggression and

promote group cohesion.

Leadership in Movements

On a few occasions when the whiteheaded

babblers crossed open areas like playgrounds and

roads or attacked intruders we could identify the

leading bird. Out of 21 such cases (group I,

during 1975-76), the breeding male proceeded

first in 9, the breeding female in 4 and a

nonbreeding male in 6 cases.

Play Among Birds

First year whiteheaded babblers indulged

in 2 types of behaviour which could be described

as play.

BEHA VIOUR OF THE WHITEHEADED BABBLER TURDOIDES AFFINIS JERDON

13

1 . Chasing each other

The first year whiteheaded babblers chased

one another from perch to perch on trees and

also on ground without any apparent provocation.

This type of behaviour was observed in the first

year jungle babbler, rufous babbler, large grey

babbler and the Wynaad laughing thrush. Gaston

(1977, 1978) has observed this in the jungle

babbler and the common babbler.

2. Leap-frogging behaviour

Two or more first year birds moving on the

ground ran one after the other with drooped

wings. They pecked each other and occassionally

one young whiteheaded babbler leaped over the

head of another.

Bathing

In the course of their foraging activities

whiteheaded babblers bathed in canals and

ditches. One by one the birds hopped into the

water, dipped their heads and underparts and

wings of each side alternately.

The babblers then moved to perches and

shook themselves vigorously for a while and

then splashed into the water again. This was

repeated 3 or 4 times, and thereafter the birds

dried their feathers and preened. This beha-

viour was observed in the jungle babbler, the

rufous babbler, and the Wynaad laughing

thrush. On one occasion these babblers were

observed bathing with jungle babblers, magpie

robin, common myna and tree pie in a small

spring.

Sunbathing

Both jungle babblers and whiteheaded

babblers sometimes exposed themselves to the

bright warm sun, stretched their body and

wings and preened. This activity appears to be

sunbathing.

Vocalization

Seven types of calls were distinguished

(Table 3) in the whiteheaded babbler. The calls

appeared to have definite functions like warning

and co-ordination of movements of the group.

Andrews and Naik (1970) listed seven and

Gaston (1977), eleven types of vocalization in

the jungle babbler.

Discussion

In our study area, the whiteheaded babbler

and the jungle babbler live sympatrically. There

is a great deal of similarity in their behaviour

patterns. The whiteheaded babbler has a large

home range with a well defended core area, the

territory. Allopreening is likely to reduce

aggression and promote group integration in the

species. The sentinel system is important in

ensuring the survival of the whiteheaded babbler.

It is noteworthy that the more mature birds like

the breeding pair which could be expected to have

a better knowledge of the group’s home range

served for longer periods as sentinels. Gaston

(1977) has suggested that the sentinel birds of

the jungle babblers were able to forgo foraging

for longer duration and that this behaviour may

be related to the birds’ superior ability to find

food. Gaston (op. cit) has also indicated that the

role of sentinel may be partly to advertise the

status of the birds concerned. Self advertisement

relating to the dominance status was described

by Moholt and Trost (1989) in blackbilled

magpie. The sentinel of T. qffinis often detected

the conspecific intruders from the territory. It may

also be possible to attribute a territorial display

for the sentinel behaviour. Since the sentinel often

flies towards the intruders and attacks them, it

takes the risk of predator attack, which indicates

an altruistic function. Several factors listed below

point to the possibility that this species has a well

established hierarchical organization.

1 . Playful fights of juveniles may be a means of

establishing their position in the hierarchical

order of the group.

14

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

2. The older birds and breeding pair spend a

lot of time in allopreening.

3 . The breeding birds and other older birds serve

longer spells as sentinels.

4. In an exceptional case where a non-breed-

ing adult male was the first sentinel, it

became the breeding male, when the breeding

male of the group disappeared.

5 . In a few cases observed, the breeding male was

the first to move out after waking and while the

group crossed an open field or playground.

Refer

Andrews, M. I. &R.M.Naik (1970): Biology of the Jungle

Babbler Turdoides striatus. Pavo 8: 1 -34.

Dharmakumarsinhji, R.S. (1951): The birds of Saurashtra,

India. Published at Bombay by the Author.

Gaston, A.J. (1977): Social behaviour within groups of

the Jungle Babbler Turdoides striatus, Anim. Behav.

25: 828-848.

Gaston, A.J. (1978): Ecology of the Common Babbler

Turdoides caudatus. Ibis 120: 4, 415-432.

Hardy, J.W. (1974): Behaviour and its evolution in

Acknowledgement

V.J. Zacharias is grateful to the BNHS

for a Salim Ali Loke Wan Tho Research Fellow-

ship to carry out the work. Our sincere thanks

are due to Dr. A.J. Gaston, Glen Woolfenden,

Jerram Brown, Amotz Zahavi and Philip Gaddis

for criticism and suggestions. Encouragement

received from the late Dr. Salim Ali, the late Dr.

R.M. Naik and Mr. J.C. Daniel are gratefully

acknowledged.

ENCES

neotropical Jays ( Cissilopha ). Bird Banding 4 5: 253-68.

McGovern, K.J. & Glen Woolfenden (1989): A sentinel

system in Florida Scrub Jay. Anim. Behav. 37: 1000-

1006.

Moholt, R.K. & Charles Trost (1989): Relation to

Dominance in Blackbilled Magpie. Anim. Behav. 38:

1079-1081.

Zacharias, V.J. & D.N. Mathew (1988): Ecology of

Babblers Turdoides spp. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

85(1): 50-63.

POPULATION DYNAMICS OF A FEW DOMINANT PLANT SPECIES AROUND

INDUSTRIAL COMPLEXES, IN WEST BENGAL, INDIA1

Amal Kumar Sahu2 and Sauris Panda3

Key words: Population dynamics, pollutants, industrial complexes, Clerodendrum

viscosum, Lantana camara var. aculeata, Croton bonplandianum, Chromolaena

odorata

The paper deals with the population dynamics of four plant species, namely Croton

bonplandianum Baill., Clerodendrum viscosum Vent., Chromolaena odorata (L.) King &

Robinson and Lantana camara L. var. aculeata (L.) Moldenke in the vicinity of two industrial

complexes at Kuntighat and Rishra in West Bengal, India. Of the four plant species, the

former two were studied at Kuntighat and the latter two at Rishra. Croton bonplandianum

and Clerodendrum viscosum showed higher flux rate than the others. Though all the species

except, Lantana camara, showed high mortality rate, they produced large numbers of

plants for survival. The aggressive nature of these species was noteworthy, in spite of the

pronounced effect of pollutants.

Introduction

The study of vegetation in the vicinity of

industrial complexes has provided excellent data

indicating the response of plant population to

environmental pollution (Porter, 1926; Little and

Martin, 1972; Jordan, 1975). It has also revealed

the capabilities of plant a species to fit into a

changing environment, at the same time

improving its chances of survival. Gemmell

(1975) gave information concerning the plant

population around an iron-smelting plant. Only

grasses were able to survive in that area.

Rosenberg et al. (1979) have studied the plant

species composition at varying distances along

the pollution gradient. They concluded that the

wastes from industrial complexes were important

in explaining the variations in plant population.

Various changes may occur in soil due to

continuous addition of wastes like carbon and

sulphur particles, ash, heavy metals and soluble

salts. The changed parameters are metal toxicity,

'Accepted February, 1997

department of Biophysics, Bose Institute, Kankurgachi,

Calcutta-700 054.

department of Botany, Gurudas College, Narikel-danga

Calcutta-700054.

acidity, alkalinity and non-availability of nutrients

(Gemmell, 1973;Ragainieftf/., 1977). These can

hamper the normal growth and distribution of

plants. Again, soil nutrient status, rainfall,

temperature and exposure to polluted

environment certainly have an impact on species

distribution (Hodgson and Townsend, 1973).

The distribution pattern of a plant species is

dependent on the interspecific and/or intras-

pecific interactions (Shim well, 1971). Plant-

animal interaction also controls the population

size. Continuous influx of species from nearby

vegetation causes the variation in plant

populations. Only species having compe-

titive reproductive abilities can survive and

reproduce well in polluted habitats, others are

annihilated.

In India, only a few researchers have

studied the qualitative ecological aspects of flora

around industrial complexes (Sreerangaswamy

etal. 1973; Pathmanabhan etal. 1979). Sketchy

work has been done on plant population

dynamics in and around industrial centres. Sahu

and Santra (1986, 1988, 1989) however, reported

the ecological, morpho-anatomical and

biochemical aspects of various plant species at

these sites.

16

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 95(1998)

The present objectives include (1)

investigation of plant population flux rate, annual

mortality rate, tolerance capacity and survival

ability, and (2) the documentation of plant species

population response to industrial pollution, which

could be used for restoration, and biomonitoring

of healthy environment around industrial

establishments.

Material and Methods

A. Study sites

The study areas — Kuntighat and Rishra,

located in southern West Bengal, India, have an

average 6 m elevation. Both are already marked

as polluted habitats (Sahu and Santra, 1989). The

nature of waste discharges is different in these

two stressed habitats (Table 1).

Table 1

STUDY SITES WITH WASTES AND SOURCE

There are little fluctuations in temperature,

rainfall, relative humidity and sunshine. Soil types

are sandy-loam at Kuntighat and loamy-sand at

Rishra, but the pH value of the soil differed

(Kuntighat: pH 4.3-4.6; Rishra: pH 6.5-7.7) as

reported earlier by Sahu (1990).

B. Methods

Quantitative sampling of species was based

on their dominance pattern at the study sites. Only

four species were taken into consideration.

Population dynamics were calculated according

to Bharadwaj and Gopal (1978). Three permanent

plots (5 m x 2 m) were taken for a period of one

year. Observations were made every month and

plants were tagged with plastic coated copper wire

at the base of each plant.

Results

The population dynamics of four taxa,

namely Croton bonplandianum and

Clerodendrum viscosum of Kuntighat,

Chromolaena odorata and Lantana camara of

Rishra, were investigated round the year. The

data on various parameters were the average

value of three permanent plots (10 m2) and are

depicted in Table 2.

The most common species at Kuntighat

industrial complex were Croton bonplandianum

and Clerodendrum viscosum. The initial and final

plant density was higher in Croton

bonplandianum than in Clerodendrum viscosum.

But nett change, rate of change and percentage

of gain was higher in Clerodendum viscosum.

In both the cases, the total number of individuals

recruited and lost throughout the year was almost

the same, although the total number of individuals

recorded was higher in Croton bonplandianum.

Annual mortality rate was found to be higher in

both the cases.

At the Rishra industrial complex area, two

species, namely Chromolaena odorata and

Lantana camara showed very low density at the

starting (9-10 individuals/ 10 m2) and also at the

end of the experiment (12 individuals/ 10 m2).

Thus the nett change, rate of change and

percentage of gain were also low. But survival

ability of these species was higher. The number

of individuals recruited, recorded and lost was

noteworthy, being always higher in Chromolaena

odorata. Annual mortality rate was low in

Lantana camara.

Discussion

Industrial complexes produce various types

of pollutants during operations. They release

wastes in the form of particles or gases. The latter

POPULA TION DYNAMICS OF PUNT SPECIES AROUND INDUSTRIAL COMPLEXES

17

Table 2

POPULATION DYNAMICS OF FOUR SPECIES AT KUNTIGHAT AND RISHRA INDUSTRIAL COMPLEXES

K-Cb — Croton bonplandianum & K-Cv — Clerodendrum viscosum of Kuntighat; R-Co - Chromolaena odorata &

R-Lc - Lantana camara var. aculeata of Rishra

* Each value is the average of three permanent plots (10m2) 75 m apart from the complexes.

are sometimes condensed to form non-volatile

products. Pollutants spread around the source are

deposited on soil or plant surfaces according to

the mass of particles, wind direction, nature of

interception, humidity, rainfall, etc. Some amount

of gaseous pollutants can be absorbed by soil

(Smith et al., 1973). Plant surface acts as a

secondary source of pollution, as the deposited

products are later transferred to the soil surface

by rainfall, fog, etc. The pollutants later intermix

with soil, changing its nature and eventually

controlling seed germination, seedling establish-

ment, plant distribution pattern, biodiversity,

dominance pattern, etc.

The study of plant population in the

vicinity of industrial complexes is of great

importance. The total number of species

occurring in a particular area were found to be

influenced both by natural phenomena and

pollution. A large number of taxa were recorded

in the study areas in the monsoon, due to water

holding capacity of soil, seed viability, seed

germination ability, in spite of the continuous

addition of toxic pollutants. This is probably due

to draining out of waste from the soil surface

before it has been sufficiently absorbed in soil.

Later, during the dry season, the number of

plants recruited were less, due to higher toxicity

which caused the death of some plants. Acidity

and alkalinity of the soil also play an important

role in determining the plant density in an area

(Little and Martin, 1972).

Annual mortality rate of the relevant

species was higher at both the sites. Mortality

at the seedling stage was highly affected by

intraspecific competition (Shimwell, 1971). The

soil pH is one of the factors determining the

distribution of species. Plant species vary

with regard to their optimum pH requirement.

At Kuntighat soil pH is highly acidic, pro-

bably resulting in high mortality rate of

plants. Soil at Rishra was nearly neutral to

slightly alkaline. Lantana camara thrives best

in this habitat, while Chromolaena odorata

fails to do so. For this reason, probably, the

former showed lower annual mortality than

the latter, although other factors were also

involved.

Our study revealed that low survival of a

species reflects different aspects of its

reproductive biology, e.g. low seed viability, low

food storage in seed and other external factors,

18

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

e.g., soil moisture content, pH of soil and

pollutant concentration within its limit.

An analysis of the impact of industrial

pollutants on population flux explained that

species population responded well to the

environment. All taxa showed high flux rate, high

mortality rate and degree of aggressiveness. It is

assessed that Croton bonplandianum.

Clerodendrum viscosum and Chromolaena

odorata showed an aggressive nature. Further,

these plants possessed a high capacity of pollen

production, pollen germination, fertility rate,

seed production, seed viability and seed

germination (Harper et al, 1970; Kamosky and

Stairs, 1974). Lantana camara is a tolerant

Refer

Baron, H. (1984): The effect of industrial pollution of

environment in Silesia on phenology of Vaccinum

myrtillus and V. vitis-idaca in pine quercetum. Kozl.

Polish Ecol. Studies 19(1-2): 61-66.

Bharadwaj, N. & B. Gopal (1978): An ecological study

of population dynamics of Tephrosia species. In:

Singh, J.S. & Gopal, B. (eds). Glimpses of Ecology.

International Sci. Publ., Jaipur, India, pp. 592.

Gemmell, R.P. (1973): Revegetation of derelict land

polluted by a chromate smelter. Environ. Pollut. 5:

181-197.

Gemmell, R.P. (1975): Establishment of grass on

Wasteland from iron smelting plant at Ottawa, Ontario,

Canada. J. Bot. 41: 1063-1078.

Harper, J.I., P.H. Lovell, & K.C. Moore ( 1 970): The shapes

and sizes of seeds. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 1: 327-356.

Hodgson, D.R. & W.N. Townsend (1973): In: Ecology

and Reclamation of devastated land. Vol. II (eds.)

Hulnik, R.J. & Davis, G. Gordon and Breach, New

York and London.

Jordan, M.L. (1975): Effects of zinc smelter emission

and fire on a chestnut oak woodland. Ecology 56: 78-

91.

Karnosky, D.F. & G.R. Stairs (1974): The effect of SO,

on in vitro forest tree pollen germination and tube

elongation. J. Environ, qual. 3: 406-409.

Little, P. & M.H. Martin (1972): A survey of zinc, lead

and cadmium in soil and natural vegetation around a

smelting complex. Environ. Pollut. 3: 241-254.

Pathmanabhan, G., C. Padmanabhan & G. Oblisami

(1979): Effect of Kiln dust pollutions on the weed flora.

J. Air Pollut. Contr. 2: 70-73.

species and showed low recruitment. This is due

to low fertility rate and in part due to aborted

maturation of fruit (Baron, 1984).

These species may help in monitoring

environmental pollution and reclamation. They

may provide useful data demonstrating the degree

of response to environmental deterioration.

Acknowledgements

The authors are thankful to the Principal

and the Head, Department of Botany, Presidency

College, Calcutta, and the Director, Bose

Institute, Calcutta, for providing laboratory and

library facilities.

NCES

Porter, C.L. (1926): Survey of the vegetation in the

vicinity of cement mills. Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci. 36:

263-267.

Ragaini, R.C., H.R. Ralston & N. Roberts (1977):

Environmental trace metal contamination in Kellogg,

Idaho, near a lead smelting complex. Environ. Sci.

Technol. 77:773-781.

Rosenberg, C.R., R.J. Hutnuc & D.D. Davis (1979): Forest

composition at varying distance from a coal burning

power plant. Environ. Pollut. 19: 307-317.

Sahu, A.K. (1990): Studies on the plant communities ;n

the industrial wasteland of Southern Bengal, India.

Ph.D. Thesis of Kalyani University, pp. 289.

Sahu, A.K. & S.C. Santra (1986): Floristic composition

of Industrial Wasteland in Southern Bengal, India. J.

Econ. Tax. Bot. 8(2): 301-306.

Sahu, A.K. & S.C. Santra (1988): Plant biochemical and

Bio-monitoring of air pollution, pp. 285-290. Sen, A.K.

(ed). Environmental Management and Planning, Wiley

Eastern Ltd., New Delhi.

Sahu, A.K. & S.C. Santra ( 1 989): Industrial air pollution

and its effect on plant’s foliar traits: A case study from

West Bengal, India. Feddes Repertorium 100 (3-4):

177-186.

Shimwell, D.W. (1971): The description and classification

of vegetation. Sidgwick & Jackson, London.

Smith, K.A., J.M. Bremner & M.A. Tabatabai (1973):

Sorption of gaseous atmospheric pollutants by soils.

Soil Sci. 116: 313-319.

Sreerangaswamy, S.R., C. Padmanabhan, R. Jambulingam

& M. Gurunathan (1973): Effect of cement dust on

ecotypes. Madras Agric. 1(60): 1776.

SIGNIFICANCE OF BIOMETRIC RATIOS AND BIOACOUSTIC ANALYSIS IN

AMPHIBIAN SYSTEMATICS1

Debjani Roy, Amarendra Sarma, Bijoylakshmi Borah and Bakordor W. Bannet2

( With one text-figure and one plate)

Key words: Amphibia, systematics, morphometric measurement, biometric

ratio, bioacoustic analysis

Out of the listed 4522 amphibian species of the world, 56 species are reported from the

northeastern region of India. These reports are based on the morphological characters. In

recent years, bioacoustic analysis of species-specific mating calls of frogs are shown to

have important relevance to amphibian systematics. The question that arises now is, whether

mere deviation in call pattern should be the basis for new species identification or should

there also be an attempt to correlate call differences with differences in morphological

characters?

The works of Kauri ( 1 959), Berger ( 1 966) and Tinsley ( 1 973, 1 975) gave an insight to this

problem. These works showed that absolute measurements of body parts may vary but their

ratios remain almost constant between individuals within the same species. Thus, when an

intraspecific call variation is recorded, the biometric ratios of the individuals that differ in

call pattern should also be worked out. If both the call pattern as well as the biometric ratios

vary from the known records, only then should it be recorded as a new species.

The present report constitutes the first detailed account of Indian amphibians describing the

call pattern in terms of temporal and spectral characters, absolute measurements and biometric

ratios for 10 species from northeast India, which are of obvious utility for any future

systematic work on Indian amphibians.

Introduction

With its wide range of variation in climate,

geography and topography, the Indian

subcontinent has a rich faunal distribution. The

distribution of amphibians is very uneven across

India, with the highest concentration in the

northeast and the western ghats of the West

Peninsular region. Because of its dense tropical

forests, varying altitudinal gradients and

relatively little ecological disturbance, the

northeastern region shows richness and diversity

of Indian amphibian species. Out of the listed

'Accepted February, 1997

institute of Self Organising Systems and Biophysics North-

Eastern Hill University. NEHU Campus, Shillong 793022,

Meghalaya, India.

4522 amphibian species (WWF, 1994) of the

world, 207 are found in India of which 56 have

so far been reported from the northeastern region

(BCPP CAMP Report 1997). Yet the northeastern

region remains unattractive for field research,

probably due to its difficult terrain. The amphibia

therefore, are incompletely known and require

extensive survey.

The existing faunal record of 56 amphibian

species from the northeast is based on

morphological characters (Pillai and Chanda

1976, Chanda 1994). Recent work from India

(Roy and Elepfandt 1993, Roy 1994, Roy et al.

1995) and abroad (Ryan 1985, 1986; Schneider

and Sinsch 1992; Sinsch and Schneider 1996) has

demonstrated that anuran mating calls constitute

an important character for species identification,

20

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

more distinctive than morphological characters.

Roy and Elepfandt ( 1 993) recorded three different

advertisement calls from frogs, all of which were

identified morphologically as Rana limnocharis,

currently known as Limnonectes limnocharis.

These differences suggest that the so called

R. limnocharis in northeast India is not one

species but a composition of several species of

similar morphological appearance. Similar results

have been reported by Sarma (1996). These

results clearly suggest the necessity of re-

examining R. limnocharis from the northeast with

biometric and bioacoustic studies. It is interesting

to note that in Nepal, which neighbours northeast

India, the previous R. limnocharis (= Limnonectes

limnocharis) has been subdivided into 4 species,

namely R. limnocharis proper, R. sahyadrensis,

R. nepalensis and R. pierrei, all of them belong-

ing to one R. limnocharis group (Dubois 1975).

Their separation has been done on the basis of

the species mating call. Among recent examples

are the yellow-bellied toad in northern Greece

consisting of several subspecies of Bufo variegata

(Vasara et al. 1991), European lake frog Rana

ridibunda (Schneider and Sinsch 1992), the water

frogs of Greece (Schneider et al. 1993) and pool

frogs of Europe Rana lessonae (Sinsch and

Schneider 1996).

The question now is whether mere

deviation of the call pattern should be the basis

for species identification or should there also be

an attempt to correlate call differences with

differences in morphological characters. The

works of Kauri ( 1 959), Berger (1966) and Tinsley

(1973, 1975) give an insight into this problem.

Tinsley (1973, 1975) showed that whereas

absolute measurements of body parts may vary,

their ratios remain almost constant between

individuals within the same species. The ratios

vary depending upon ecological interactions

which may account for their adaptation and

change in behavioural pattern in different

ecological niches. Thus, when an intraspecific call

variation is recorded, the biometric ratios of the

individuals that differ in call pattern should also

be worked out. If both the call pattern and the

biometric ratios vary from the known records,

only then should the specimen be recorded as a

new species.

With this in mind, survey was taken up

during the breeding season of the amphibians for

2 consecutive years 1994 and 1995 in northeast

India. This is the first detailed account, describing

absolute measurements, biometric ratios and call

pattern in terms of temporal and spectral

characters of 10 Indian amphibian species namely

— Limnonectes limnocharis , Limnonectes

khasiana , Hyla annectens, Polypedates

maculatus, Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis, Rana

alticola, Polypedates leucomystax, Amolops

formosus, Bufo melanostictus and

Hoplobatrachus tigerinus.

The present work also gives detailed

descriptions of colour patterns of live specimens.

Early descriptions on coloration of frogs from

northeast India are based on preserved specimens.

As a result, sometimes the colour descriptions of

preserved specimens do not match with the

coloration of live specimens, e.g., Hyla annectens

was reported to be dark grey to slate coloured

(Chanda 1994) but our observation of live Hyla

annectens shows that they are dorsally very bright

green. Correct description of coloration is also

of great significance in amphibian taxonomy

(Nussbaum and Sheng 1995).

Materials and Methods

Survey, call recordings and collections

were carried out in Assam and Meghalaya during

the breeding period from May to August in

two consecutive years, 1994 and 1995. Field

recordings and collections were made daily

from around 1 800 hrs sometimes until midnight.

Large numbers were observed on days with

cloud cover or moderate rainfall in compari-

son to dry, hot days and days with heavy

rainfall.

The calls were recorded on a professional

SONY WM-6DC cassette recorder with an

BIOMETRIC RATIOS AND BIOACOUSTIC ANALYSIS IN AMPHIBIAN SYSTEM ATICS

21

unidirectional AKG C45 1 EB shotgun condenser

microphone held approximately 40-60 cm away

from the calling frog. The calls were stored on

Maxell XLII cassette tapes. Sound pressure level

was measured by playing back isolated calls on a

Philips double cassette player DR920 with

playback volume fixed at volume 3 and the

CYGNET 2021 sound pressure level held

approximately 1 m away from the sound source.

Recorded acoustic stimuli were digitized

via a Microsoft analogue to digital interface board

onto an IBM PC and stored on diskettes.

Oscillograms shown as waveform display of

amplitude versus time trace; sonogram as the

frequency versus time trace with amplitude

represented by shades of grey and mean spectra

showing the maximum energy concentration at a

particular frequency band were prepared with a

computerised Fast Fourier Transformation (FFT)

system after passing through band pass filters.

Measurements of the following 15 absolute

morphometric characters were recorded from

atleast 5 or more individuals each of males and

females separately from each of the 10 species

studied, except for Limnonectes khasiana , where

only 3 males were found and no females were

found. From the morphometric measurements 8

biometric ratios were worked out. All

measurements were accurate to 0.1 mm.

A. MORPHOMETRIC CHARACTERS

1 . Body length: Snout to vent length (SVL)

2 . Body width: Measured at the widest part

across the abdomen

3. Head width

(min.):

At the tip of the snout

parallel to the nostril

4. Head width

(max):

Measured at the widest part

across the eyes

B. BIOMETRIC RATIOS

1 . Head width (Min) / Head width (Max)

2. Snout length / Head width (Min)

3. Eye diameter / Interocular distance

4. Nostril diameter / Intemarial distance

5. Tibia length / 4th toe length

6. 1st finger length / Lower forelimb length

7. Total forelimb length / Body length

8. Body length / Hindlimb length

5. Snout length:

Perpendicular distance from C. call characters

below the nostril to the tip 1 . Call duration Duration from the beginn-

of the mouth (sec): ing of a call to its end

22

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

Table 1

ABSOLUTE MEASUREMENTS ( IN CMS) OF 15 MORPHOMETRIC CHARACTERS OF LIMNONECTES

LIMN OCHA RIS, LIMNONECTES KHASIANA, HYLA ANNECTENS, POLYPEDATES MACULATUS, EUPHLYCTIS

CYANOPHLYCTIS, RANA ALTICOLA, POLYPEDATES LEUCOMYSTAX, AMOLOPS FORMOSUS, BUFO

MELANOSTICTUS, HOPLOBATRACHUS TIGERINUS

After noting down the morphometric

measurements and recording the calls, a few

specimens from each species were preserved in

8% formaldehyde for photography and drawing

and the rest were released in their natural habitat.

Observations

15 absolute measurements (Table 1);

8 biometric ratios (Table 2) and temporal and

spectral data after acoustic analysis of the mat-

ing calls (Table 3) of 10 anuran species from

northeast India have been compiled. In Plate 1

‘A’ represents the line drawings for the different

frog species (to scale); ‘B’ shows the mean

spectra of the mating calls and ‘C’ the

corresponding sonogram (FFT length: 265;

Overlap: 50%, Window: Hamming). Fig. 2

shows the waveform representation or

oscillogram of a single call for each of these 10

species.

Limnonectes limnocharis (Plate la. A, B,

C & Fig. la; Tables 1, 2 & 3)

1. Habit and Habitat: Known as the

cricket frog, it is generally found in shallow

marshes, damp grassland near canals and ditches

and in flooded fields during the rainy season.

Before and during the breeding period they hide

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 95 Plate 1

Debjani et al.\ Amphibian systematics

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BIOMETRIC RATIOS AND BIOACOUSTIC ANALYSIS IN AMPHIBIAN SYSTEM ATICS

23

Table 1 (contd)

ABSOLUTE MEASUREMENTS OF 15 MORPHOMETRIC CHARACTERS OF LIMNONECTES LIMNOCHARJS,

LIMNONECTES KHASIANA, HYLA ANNECTENS, POLYPEDATES MACULATUS, EUPHLYCTIS CYANOPHLYCTIS,

RANA ALTICOLA, POLYPEDATES LEUCOMYSTAX, AMOLOPS FORMOSUS, BUFO MELANOSTICTUS.

HOPLOBA TRA CHUS TIGER1NUS

themselves among vegetation and under stones.

They are good jumpers, when disturbed escape

into dense vegetation and water. They do not

remain in deep water for long but swim back

immediately to the bank.

2. Coloration (Plate la. A): Dorsal surface

grey with black spots; a wide whitish median line;

ventral surface white or creamish; throat grey,

sometimes black granulate.

3. Morphometric measurements and

biometric ratios (Tables 1 & 2): Absolute

measurements of 15 morphometric characters and

8 biometric ratios were recorded from 10 males

and 10 females respectively.

4. Call characteristics (Plate la. BC &

Fig. la; Table 3): The calls are given in rapid

succession. Each call lasts about 0.11 seconds

with 56 pulses, given at intervals of approxi-

mately 0.252 seconds. The call has a single

dominant frequency at about 1 .08 kHz, extending

from 0.35 kHz to 4.40 kHz. The sound pressure

level (SPL) of the call is 68.1dB.

24

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 95 (1998)

Table 1 (contd.)

ABSOLUTE MEASUREMENTS (IN CMS) OF 15 MORPHOMETRIC CHARACTERS OF LIMNONECTES

LIMNOCHA RIS, LIMNONECTES KH ASIAN A. HYLA ANNECTENS. POLYPEDATES MACULATUS. EUPHLYCTIS

CYANOPHLYCTIS, RANA ALT1COLA. POLYPEDATES LEUCOMYSTAX. AMOLOPS FORMOSUS. BUFO

MELANOSTICTUS. HOPLOBATRACHUS TIG ERIN US

BIOMETRIC RATIOS AND BIOACOUSTIC ANALYSIS IN AMPHIBIAN SYSTEM ATICS

25

A

B

< 1142 S >

< 0 218 S >

H

17 S

>

< 0 305 S >

Fig. 1 . Oscillograms shown as waveform display of amplitude versus time trace for a single mating call of -

a. Limnonectes limnocharis ; b. Limnonectes khasiana ; c. Hyia annectens\ d. Polypedates maculatus ;

e. Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis\ f. Rana alticola\ g. Polypedates leucomystax\ h. Amolops formosus\

i. Bufo melanostictus\ j. Hoplobatrachus tigerinus.

(FFT length - 256; Overlap - 50%; Windows - Hamming)

26

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 95 (1998)

Table 2

BIOMETRIC RATIOS OF LJMNONECTES LIMNOCHARIS, LIMNONECTES KHASIANA, HYLA ANNECTENS,

POLYPEDATES MACULATUS, EUPHLYCTIS CYANOPHLYCT1S, RANA ALTICOLA, POLYPEDATES LEUCOMYSTAX,

AMOLOPS FORMOSUS, B UFO MELA NOSTICTUS, HOPLOBATRACHUS TIGERINUS

Characters L. limnocharis L. khasianci H. annectens P. maculatus E. cyanophlyctis

Limnonectes khasiana (Plate lb, ABC &

Fig. lb; Tables 1, 2 & 3)

1 . Habit and Habitat: This species is not

found commonly. During our study only 3 adult

calling males were collected. No females were

found. Chanda ( 1 994) reported that although this

species has been recorded from Meghalaya

(Bowerger 1882), he did not come across even a

single specimen during his study.

2. Coloration (Plate lb. A): Tiny reddish

brown species. Dorsal side with brownish

triangular dark patches; ventral surface light

brown with dark patches.

3. Morphometric measurements and

biometric ratios (Tables 1 & 2): Absolute

measurements of 15 morphometric characters and

8 biometric ratios were recorded from 3 males.

No females were found.

4. Call characteristics (Plate lb.BC & Fig.

lb; Table 3): The calls are loud and given in rapid

succession. Each call lasts about 0.151 s with

many pulses, given at approximately 0.219 s. It

is a harmonic call having dominant frequencies

at about 0.67 kHz, 1.34 kHz and 3.01 kHz. The

frequency domain lies in the range of 0.35 kHz

to 4.20 kHz, the SPL of the call being 53.29 dB.

BIOMETRIC RATIOS AND BIOACOUSTIC ANALYSIS IN AMPHIBIAN SYSTEMATICS

27

Table 2 (contd.)

BIOMETRIC RATIOS OF LIMNONECTES LIMNOCHARIS, LIMNONECTES KHASIANA, HYLA ANNECTENS,

POL YPEDA TES MA CULA TUS, EUPHL YCTIS CYANOPHL YCTIS, RAN A ALTICOLA, POL YPEDA TES

LEUCOMYSTAX, AMOLOPS FORMOSUS, BUFO MELANOSTICTUS, HOPLOBATRACHUS TIGER1NUS

Hyla annectens (Plate lc.ABC & Fig. lc;

Tables 1, 2 & 3)

1. Habit and Habitat: Commonly known

as the garden frog, mainly found in potato fields

and in gardens, climbing from one tree to

another. Out of the 260 valid species of this genus

from the world, it is the only species found in

northeast India.

2. Coloration (Plate lc.A): Dorsal surface

dark green with a light brown streak from eyes

to nostrils; a black lateral streak present upto

groin, often terminating in black spots of different

sizes with interconnections; ventral surface of the

thigh yellowish; a few black spots arranged more

or less in line on the ventral surface of the femur

and tibia.

3. Morphometric measurements and

biometric ratios (Tables 1 & 2): Absolute

measurements of 15 morphometric characters and

8 biometric ratios were recorded from 7 males

and 5 females.

4. Call characteristics (Plate lc.BC & Fig.

28

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

C.D. = Call duration in seconds; C.P. = Call period in seconds; P.N. = Pulse number; L.F. = Lower frequency in kilohertz;

H.F. = Higher frequency in kilohertz; D.F. = Dominant frequency in kilohertz; SPL = Sound pressure level in decibels;

x = Mean; n = Standard deviation.

The number of calls for each species is 20. Calls are of the male frogs.

BIOMETRIC RATIOS AND BIOACOUSTIC ANALYSIS IN AMPHIBIAN SYSTEMATIC ’S

29

lc; Table 3): The calls are loud and noisy. Each

call lasts for about 0. 1 66s with many pulses, given

at intervals of 0.32 1 s. The call is harmonic having

dominant frequencies at about 1.81 kHz and 2.78

kHz. The frequency domain extends from about

0.37 kHz to 4.80 kHz, the SPL of the call being

57.48 dB.

Polypedates maculatus (Plate Id. ABC &

Fig. Id; Tables 1, 2 & 3)

1. Habit and Habitat: Found in paddy

fields and marshy grasslands, also among potato

and bean plantation. The calling males conceal

themselves under potato leaves or other

vegetation.

2. Coloration (Plate Id. A): Dorsally

yellowish brown to dark brown, limbs with brown

and white cross bars of irregular patterns; thighs

and throat light brown to yellowish; the chin and

throat bear large dark oval spots.

3. Morphometric measurements and

biometric ratios (Tables 1 & 2): Absolute

measurements of 1 5 morphometric characters and

8 biometric ratios were recorded from 10 males

and 6 females.

4. Call characteristics (Plate Id. BC & Fig.

Id; Table 3): The calls are loud and distinct. At

the initiation of the call, the calls have two distinct

components. With the passage of time the

components go on increasing in number. Each

call lasts for about 0.389s, having as many as 105

pulses, given at intervals of 2.427 s. The call has

a single dominant frequency at about 0.73 kHz,

the frequency domain extending from about 0.36

kHz to 4.06 kHz. the SPL of the call being 58.29

dB.

Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis (Plate le. ABC

& Fig. le; Tables 1, 2 & 3)

1. Habit and Habitat: These frogs are

aquatic, found in pools, muddy swamps and

canals and remain in water for long without

coming onto the land. They spend most of their

time floating motionless, with eyes and tip of the

snout above water. When alarmed they skitter

across the water surface for several feet before

diving to the bottom to hide.

2. Coloration (Plate le. A): Dorsal surface

light olive green or brown to almost black with

irregularly arranged sooty spots; posterior surface

of thigh dark, often with one or two yellow or

white, irregular, longitudinal stripes; ventral

surface white or with dark speckling; vocal sacs

dusky.

3. Morphometric measurements and

biometric ratios (Tables 1 & 2): Absolute

measurements of 1 5 morphometric characters and

8 biometric ratios have been compiled for 10

males and 10 females.

4. Call characteristics (Plate le. BC & Fig.

le; Table 3): The calls have distinct pulse

components, which increase with the passage of

time. Each call lasts for about 1.122 s, having

about 9 pulses, given at call interv als of about

3.574 s. The call is harmonic, having dominant

frequencies at about 0.78 kHz and 1 .42 kHz. The

frequency domain extends from about 0.33 kHz

to 4.36 kHz, the SPL being 62.03 dB.

Rana alticola (Plate If. ABC & Fig. If;

Tables 1,2&3)

1. Habit and Habitat: Found in ponds,

ditches, beels and low lying areas abundant in

aquatic vegetation.

2. Coloration (Plate If. A): Dorsally

yellowish to light brown; two distinct glandular

dorsolateral folds running anterior to posterior,

ending near the groin. Another glandular fold

running from below the eyes and tympanum to

the shoulder.

3. Morphometric measurements and

biometric ratios (Tables 1 & 2): Absolute

measurements of 1 5 morphometric characters and

8 biometric ratios have been compiled for 7 males

and 6 females.

4. Call characteristics (Plate If. BC & Fig.

2f; Table 3): The calls are repeated very rapidly.

Each call lasts for about 0.020 s, having

approximately 14 pulses, given at a call interval

of 0.079 s. The call has a single dominant

frequency at about 0.73 kHz, the frequency

domain lies between 0.30 kHz to 1.57 kHz, the

SPL of the call being 45.47 dB.

30

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 95 (1998)

Polypedates leucomystax (Plate lg. ABC

& Fig. lg; Tables 1, 2 & 3)

1. Habit and Habitat: This species was

mostly collected from Assam. They are found on

creepers entwining bamboo fencing or tall grass

near the vicinity of water.

2. Coloration (Plate lg.A): Dorsal surface

and sides olive to yellowish green; broad pale

stripes on dorsolateral folds running between

eyelids and groin; ventral surface cream; dorsal

surface of legs olive brown with dark markings

arranged longitudinally in lines.

3. Morphometric measurements and

biometric ratios (Tables 1 & 2): Absolute

measurements of 1 5 morphometric characters and

8 biometric ratios have been compiled for 10

males and 10 females.

4. Call characteristics (Plate lg. BC & Fig,

lg; Table 3): Distinct well spaced calls, total call

duration being approximately 0.182s with about

13 pulses, given at intervals of about 10.369s.

The call has a single dominant frequency at about

2.50 kHz and the frequency domain extends from

1.44 kHz to 3.82 kHz, the SPL of the call being

50.46 dB.

Amolops formosus (Plate lh. ABC & Fig.

Ih; Tables 1, 2 & 3)

1 . Habit and Habitat: Found by the sides

of streams as well as in uninhabited forest caves.

2. Coloration (Plate lh.A): Green with

black patches on dorsal surface; ventrally

creamish with black patches mostly concentrated

on lower jaw and throat.

3. Morphometric measurements and

biometric ratios (Tables 1 & 2): Absolute

measurements of 1 5 morphometric characters and

8 biometric ratios have been compiled for 10

males and 10 females.

4. Call characteristics (Plate lh.BC & Fig.

lh; Table 3): Can be mistaken for an insect call.

The call is a long continuous trill. Sometimes the

call consists of two components, a main trill

ending with a beep. The call duration is about

1 .840 s, having about 2 1 pulses. With the passage

of time the number of pulses increases. The call

is given at intervals of 8.802 s. It is a harmonic

call with dominant frequency at about 2.07 kHz.

and 2.45 kHz. The frequency domain extends

from 0.30 kHz to 4.32 kHz, the SPL of the call

being 52.7 dB.

Bufo melanostictus (Plate li. ABC & Fig.

li; Tables 1,2&3)

1 . Habit and Habitat: This species is found

throughout the year, mainly on land, under stones

and other damp places.

2. Coloration (Plate li.A): Brown to

yellowish brown dorsally with black spots; tips

of warts and ridges of head usually deep brown

to black; ventrally creamish, at times with light

brown spots.

3. Morphometric measurements and

biometric ratios (Tables 1 & 2): Absolute

measurements of 15 morphometric characters and

8 biometric ratios have been compiled for 10

males. Data from females not taken into account,

since the number of females collected was less

than 5.

4. Call characteristics (Plate li. BC & Fig.

li; Table 3): The loud croaks can be heard from

a distance. These are rapidly repeated calls, the

call duration being approximately 0.103 s with

as many as 105 pulses, given at intervals of about

0.134 s. The call has a single dominant frequency

at about 1 .69 kHz. The frequency domain extends

from about 0.34 kHz to 4.01 kHz, the SPL of the

call being 59.21 dB.

Hoplobatrachus tigerinus (Plate lj. ABC

& Fig. lj; Tables 1, 2 & 3)

1 . Habit and Habitat: Commonly known

as tiger frog, and always found near water in

weed-choked ponds, ditches, tanks and marshes.

During monsoon they are widespread in flooded

lowlands. Mostly found singly, on sunny days

they often spend hours crouched in grass or at

the entrance of drains and culverts. Though strong

jumpers and swimmers, they are easy to catch

since they keep sitting motionless for hours

together.

2. Coloration (Plate lj.A): The dorsal

coloration of the adult is light brown to olive,

BIOMETRIC RATIOS AND BIOACOUSTIC ANALYSIS IN AMPHIBIAN SYSTEMATICS

31

with grey or brown spots; younger frogs paler,

mostly grass green in colour; distinct, narrow,

cream coloured stripe from snout to vent, and light

line along upper surface of thigh and posterior

aspect of tibia to heel.

3. Morphometric measurements and

biometric ratios (Tables 1 & 2): Absolute

measurements of 15 morphometric characters and

8 biometric ratios have been compiled for 10

males. Data from female frogs have not been

taken into account since the number of females

collected was less than 5.

4. Call characteristics (Plate lj. BC & Fig.

lj; Table 3): These frogs have deep hoarse calls.

The call duration is about 0.290 s with 1 6 pulses,

call interval being approximately 1.01 1 s. It is a

harmonic call, with dominant frequencies at about

0.52 kHz and 1.65 kHz, the frequency domain

extending from 0.30 kHz to 4.32 kHz. The SPL

of the call is 61.09 dB.

Discussion

Until two decades ago amphibian

taxonomy was mainly based on description and

measurements of morphological characters alone.

Although Kauri (1959), Berger (1966) and

Tinsley (1973, 1975) had emphasized that

absolute measurements of body parts may vary

but their biometric ratios remain almost constant

in individuals within the same species, not many

workers have used these parameters for Indian

amphibia.

From the early 1980’s, with the availability

of sophisticated call recording instruments and

computerised call pattern analysis programs (Fast

Fourier Transformation - FFT), the role of

species-specific mating call pattern has come to

be understood as an important mechanism for

reproductive isolation and speciation. Asian and

European species, which on the basis of their

morphological characters were categorised as one

species, were shown by call analysis to belong to

more than one specie^. The question is whether

mere deviation in call pattern should be basis for

species identification or should there also be an

attempt to correlate call differences with

differences in biometric ratios of morphological

characters. The answer would be — when an

intraspecific call variation is recorded, the

biometric ratios of the individuals that differ in

call pattern should also be worked out. If both

the call pattern and the biometric ratios vary from

the known records, only then should it be

recorded as a new species.

Northeast India has a wide ranging climatic

variation along with different types of vegetation.

This is mainly due to the existence of

high mountain ranges in close proximity to

lowlands. Thus zones with similar climate are

separated at close range by zones of different

climates. This kind of biotope favours speciation,

making the northeast a “hot spot” of amphibian

speciation. Inspite of such richness, the difficult

terrain and inaccessibility of the core area has

resulted in the northeast remaining relatively

unexplored.

In view of the present situation and the

facilities available, it was felt that with the use of

biometric ratios and bioacoustic analysis of call

pattern, many new species could be identified.

This work has for the first time combined

morphometric measurements, biometric ratios

and call analysis for Indian amphibian systematic

studies, along with the coloration pattern of live

specimens.

Acknowledgements

We thank Prof. Raghavendra Gadagkar for

many helpful discussions, Drs. S.K. Dutta and

Indraneil Das for identification, the Department

of Science and Technology, Govt, of India, for

financial support and the Director of Public

Instructions, Government of Meghalaya for

awarding a merit scholarship to Bakordor W.

Bannett.

32

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

References

Berger, L. (1966): Biometrical studies on the population

of green frogs from the environs of Poznan. Ann. Zool.

(Warszawa) 23: 303-324.

BCPP CAMP Report on Amphibia. FROG LEG (II) (1)

July 1997.

Chanda, S.K. (1994): Anuran (Amphibia) fauna of

northeast India. Zoological Survey of India Publ. No.

18: 1-143.

Dubois, A. (1975): Un nouveau complexe d’especes

jumelles distinguees par le chant: les grenouiiles du

Nepal voisines de Rana limnocharis Boie (Amphibia,

anoures). C.R. Acad. Sci. Paris D 281: 1717-1720.

Kauri, H. (1959): Die Rasenbildung bei europaischen

Rana - arten und die Gultigkeit der Klimaregeln. Ann.

Soc. Tart. Invest. Const, ser. nov. Lund. 2: 1-174.

Nussbaum, R.A. & Sheng, Hai Wu (1995): Distribution,

variation and systematics of the Seychelles treefrog,

Tachyenemis seychellensis (Amphibia: Anura:

Hyperoliidae). J. Zool. Lond. 236 : 383-406.

Pillai, R.S. & S.K. Chanda (1976): The distribution

pattern of amphibia in northeast India. J. Assam Sci.

Soc. 19: 53-56.

Roy, D. (1994): Development of hearing in vertebrates

with special reference to anuran acoustic

communication. J. Biosci, 19: 629-644.

Rov, D. & A. Elepfandt (1993): Bioacoustic analysis of

frog calls from northeast India. J. Biosci. 18: 381-393.

Roy, D., B. Borah & A. SARMa (1995): Analysis and

significance of female reciprocal in frogs. Curr. Sci.

69: 265-270,

Ryan, M.J. (1985): The Tungara Frog: a study of sexual

selection and communication. Chicago University

Press, Chicago.

Ryan, M.J. (1986): Factors influencing the evolution of

acoustic communication: biological constraints. Brain

Behav. Evol. 28: 70-82.

Sarma, A. (1996): Effect of altitudinal gradient on the

morphological characters and call pattern of anurans

from northeast India. M. Phil, dissertation. North

Eastern Hill University, Shillong. (Unpublished).

Schneider, H. & U. Sinsch (1992): Mating call variation

in lake frogs referred to as Rana ridibunda Palla, 1771

- Taxonomic implications. Z. Zool. sys. Evolutions

forsch. 30 297-3 1 0.

Schneider, H. & U. Sinsch & T.S. Sofianidou (1993):

The water frogs of Greece - Bioacoustic evidence for

a new species. Z. Zool. Syst. Evolutionsforsch. 31:

47-63.

Sinsch, U. & H. Schneider (1996): Bioacoustic

assessment of the taxonomic status of pool frog

populations ( Rana lessonae) with reference to

topotypical populations. J. Zoo. Syst. Evol. Research

34: 63-73.

Tinsley, R.C. (1973): Studies on the ecology and

systematics of a new species of clawed toad, the genus

Xenopus from Western Uganda. J. Zool. Lond. 169:

1-27.

Tinsley, R.C. (1975): The morphology and distribution

of Xenopus vestitus (Anura: Pipidae) in Central Africa.

J. Zool. Lond. 175: 473-492.

Vasara, E., T.S. Sofianidou & H. Schneider (1991):

Bioacoustic analysis of the yellow-bellied toad in

northern Greece ( Bombina variegata scabra L.,

Anura, Discoglossidae). Zool. Anz. 5/6: 220-236.

WWF for Nature, India, 1994 Indira Gandhi Monitoring

Centre - A profile 1994.

THE LIFE EXPECTANCY OF THE WILD PIG SUS SCROFA L.

IN RUHXJNA NATIONAL PARK, SRI LANKA1

Kenneth R. Ashby2 and Charles Santiapillai3

( With jive text-figures and one plate)

Key words: Age determination, cementum, life expectancy, mortality, life table,

Sus scrofa , herbivores

A pick-up collection of skulls in Ruhuna National Park, made to determine age at death of

ruminant herbivores through study of layering in the cementum of their molar teeth, also

contained skulls with teeth of 29 adult wild pig (Sus scrofa). Layering present in the dentine

of the tusks cannot be used to determine age. But layering in the cementum of the molars,

although generally less clearly marked than in water buffalo ( Bubalus bubal is) y has permitted

the determination of age at death in 23 specimens. The pattern of dark layers resembles that

in Bubalus , with strongly and weakly marked lines alternating, corresponding with the

major and minor dry seasons. It differs from that in sambar ( Cervus unicolor ) and chital

(Axis axis) where a dark layer forms only in the main dry season each year. The mean life

expectancy of young adults is 6.0 years and the maximum 12 years, with no evidence of

distinction between the sexes, a situation very similar to that in the water buffalo. But

juvenile mortality due to predation is dramatically greater in wild pig, compensated for by

a correspondingly higher fecundity than in water buffalo. Sambar and chital both have

longer life expectancies as adults than water buffalo or wild pig.

Introduction

The wild pig Sus scrofa L. is an adaptable

omnivore distributed generally in the broad-

leaved forest and steppe regions of the

Palaearctic, extending through southern and

southeast Asia to Java, Bali, Flores and the

Solomon Islands (Honacki, Kinman and Koeppl

1982), and introduced as domestic or feral stock

widely elsewhere. In Sri Lanka, as the sub-species

Sus scrofa cristatus, it is a prominent mammalian

component of the ecosystem, particularly in the

dry zone of the country (Santiapillai and

Chambers 1980, de Silva et al. 1995). This

habitat is seen in a pristine form in Wilpattu and

Ruhuna (Yala) National Parks (for location see

‘Accepted October, ! 996

department of Biological Sciences, University of Durham,

Durham DH 1 3LE, England, UK

department of Zoology, University of Peradeniya,

Peradeniya, Sri Lanka

Fig. 1). It is very active as an opportunistic feeder

on the more succulent elements in the vegetation,

particularly underground storage organs, and on

carrion. Corpses are dismembered within a few

hours of death.

Inspite of the richness of its fauna of

mammals, as of other land vertebrates, there has

been little study of the ecology of the mammals

in southern and southeastern Asia. Schaller

(1967) undertook a pioneering study of the

ecological relations of the large herbivores and

predators in Kanha National Park, Madhya

Pradesh, as representative of the drier forests of

peninsular India, including an outline analysis of

the age structure of the large herbivores, but it

could only concern indices of age as his estimates

were based on tooth-wear alone. Eisenberg and

Lockhart (1972) conducted an outline survey of

the ecology of large mammals in Wilpattu

National Park in Sri Lanka. This has been

followed by more specific studies on the

3 4 JOURNA L, BOMBA Y NA TURA L HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 ( 1 998)

Fig. 1 . The study area in Ruhuna National Park (Block I, the southwestern section), and the position of

Wilpattu (#1) and Ruhuna (#2) National Parks in Sri Lanka.

population densities and annual breeding cycles

of the large herbivores, and of the leopard

Panthera pardus as the main large predator, in

Block I, the southwestern part of the coastal

section of Ruhuna National Park (Santiapillai et

al 1981, Santiapillai et al. 1982, Santiapillai et

al 1984) including one on the pig Sus scrofa

(Santiapillai and Chambers 1980). However,

there was no attempt to determine the age

structure of the species concerned.

As much of the coastal section of the Park

is short-grass prairie and population densities are

high, it is possible to find skeletons of the large

mammals which have died in that area without a

disproportionate expenditure of labour. Searching

is aided by the ground being firm and dry

throughout the main dry season from July to early

October. From 1981 through 1985, annual

searches were made to find skulls, which resulted

in a collection of over 300 specimens. It was

found, initially in water buffalo ( Bubalus bubalis )

that the well marked annual pattern of wet and

dry seasons was matched by corresponding

layering in the cementum of the molar teeth with,

LIFE EXPECTANCY OF THE WILD PIG SUS SCROFA L. IN RUHUNA NATIONAL PARK

35

as in the case of the herbivores of the African

savannah (Grimsdell, 1973), dark lines in the

cementum corresponding with periods of drought.

With increasing experience it was found that the

number of layers could also be determined in

sambar deer ( Cervus unicolor) and chital {Axis

axis), where the main problem in counting

resulted from irregularity in layering, and finally

in the pig {Sus scrofa ), where the main problem

has been the frequency of a combination of a

densely opaque white background coloration of

the cementum with weakness of definition of the

incremental lines. Despite the problems

encountered, 85% to 95% of the molar teeth

yielded counts of the number of layers in the four

species involved. Preliminary accounts of the

findings were published by Ashby and

Santiapillai (1986), Ashby and Santiapillai

(1991). Final publication was delayed in the

expectation that further collection of material

would permit calculation based on larger sample

sizes, which was particularly desirable in the case

of pig and chital. However, added to the difficulty

of organizing collection of material in the field

in the years since 1985, the epidemic of swine

fever in 1989 (De Silva et al., 1995) massively

disturbed the age structure of the pig population.

Therefore we decided to publish the data resulting

from the skulls collected from 1981 through 1985

in the belief that the life table of the pig which

has been constructed and the statistical data on

resulting wear, though lacking in detail, are

reliable in their broad characteristics.

Material and Methods

Material obtained in the annual searches of

coastal dunes, grass prairies, margins of water

holes and open bush was supplemented by

specimens found by game guards in the course

of patrols. In the case of the pig, sections were

made initially of both canines and molar teeth

and both dentine and cementum examined.

Layering was evident in the dentine of both types

of teeth in some individuals, but given that no

consistent relationship was observed between

numbers of layers and age as indicated by tooth-

wear, it was concluded that layering in the dentine

was not a good measure of age. Attention was

therefore focussed, as in the ruminants studied,

on layering in the cementum of the molar teeth.

The technique of preparation, which had to be

unsophisticated, was based on the method which

had proved successful with water buffalo and

deer. First lower molars were bisected vertically

and transversely to give vertical sections of the

cementum and dentine between roots. The surface

of the cementum and dentine was polished

successively with a coarse and a fine grade of

carborundum powder and then examined under

a 12 x handlens and a strong unidirectional light,

normally sunlight. It was found helpful to

examine the specimens with incident light from

various angles. Initially the number of layers was

counted in specimens where layering was clear.

It was then extended to those where it was less

easy to discern. In all specimens, several

independent assessments were made.

This process eventually left a residium where no

count of layers was possible. In addition the

depth of both dentine and cementum in the section

were measured with a micrometer. Where

available, the two lower first molars were used

and average values for parameters calculated.

Where this was not the case, attention concern-

ing layering was turned to upper first molars

and if necessary, to more posterior molars.

But the depth of dentine and cementum were

used in calculating regressions only from first

molars.

Estimate was made of tooth-wear in all

specimens, based on Schaller’s ( 1 967) nine point

scale which had been devised with deer

particularly in mind. While the wear pattern in

pigs is not identical to that in ruminants, given

the differences in tooth and jaw structure and

functioning, it is believed that a parallelism

between given wear-classes in ruminants and pigs

was achieved. A key wear-class in the series is

number III which occurs at the end of the subadult

36

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

Fig. 2. Relation in wild pig (Sus scrofa ) of wear of dentition to age as estimated from layering in

dental cementum.

phase when the last molar is completing eruption.

Analysis of data was simplified in the present

instance by the fact that all the specimens found

were already fully grown; where the whole of

the lower jaw was available, its length provided

confirmation of this fact. To make the estimation

of tooth- wear more sensitive, each grade of wear

was sub-divided into three, giving besides the

typical expression of the class of wear (W), a

W+ and a W- grading, with the + sign indicating

one third progression towards the next older

grade, and W- one third of a grade more youthful

than the standard, giving effectively a 27 point

scale. The most youthful specimen was judged

to be in grade III.

Given that the tusks of males are larger than

those of females, it was possible to judge the sex

of specimens where canine teeth were present or

at least the front end of the jaw was intact and

therefore their sockets remained in cases where

the canine had fallen out.

Results and Conclusions

There were 29 specimens with teeth

present, and satisfactory sections of first or second

molars were obtained in 27 of these. Estimates

of age from layering were obtained in 23, and of

depth of cement and of dentine in Ml in 20

specimens. For individuals where the two

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 95

K. R. Ashby and C. Santiapillai: Wild Pig ( Sus scrofa L.)

Plate 1

Vertical section of cementum of Ml of wild pig with dentine above. Position of a main Dark

Layer is marked by X and of an intermediate Dark Layer by an arrow. In this individual, faint

intermediate lines were formed several times per year in its last years

LIFE EXPECTANCY OF THE WILD PIG SUS SCROFA L. IN RUH UNA NATIONAL PARK

31

Fig. 3. Relation in wild pig of depth of cementum in bisected Ml to age as estimated from layering

in cementum.

parameters concerned were determined, the

relation of age as indicated by layering to wear-

class is given in Fig. 2, its relation to depth of

cementum in Fig. 3 and to depth of dentine in

Fig. 4. In the absence of data from research, it

has been assumed that the eruption of Ml is

completed towards the age of one year and that

cementum starts to form soon after eruption

finishes. Since most births occur in March and

April (Santiapillai and Chambers 1980) (although

striped young are seen at other seasons), the

first dark band in the cementum corresponding

to the latter part of the main dry season, can be

expected to form in Ml at about the age of one

and a half years. It was therefore assumed that

the age estimated from layering in Ml was the

number of such layers plus one. Where both Ml

and M2 were sectioned there was generally one

more such layer in the cementum of Ml than in

that of M2, therefore estimates of age based on

M2 alone were calculated as the number of such

layers +2.

In the specimens where layering is clearly

shown (see Plate 1), there are faint dark layers in

the cementum alternating with the main dark

layers. This characteristic was apparent in most

38

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 95 (1998)

o — cf

D - 9

X - ?

Fig. 4. Relation in wild pig of depth of dentine in bisected Ml to age as estimated from layering

in cementum.

of the teeth in specimens of water buffalo, but in

only a few specimens in deer species, and then

only in old age. It was concluded that the faint

dark layers correspond to the subsidiary dry

season which occurs around February, and that

it was much more prominent in buffalo than in

deer because the former is a species grazing out

in the open where the quality of forage is quickly

affected by drought, whereas deer, more

particularly sambar, are mainly browsers and feed

on vegetation not much affected in quality by a

short period of dry weather. The similarity of pig

to buffalo in the pattern of layering may be

attributed to its feeding mainly in open areas and

at ground level and not on the shoots of shrubs

or trees which, being deep-rooted, will be little

affected by the short dry season. From Figs. 3 &

4, it will be seen that the rate of deposition of

cement and of wear of dentine in upper Ml was

not obviously different from that in lower Ml

and the data from upper Ml teeth have therefore

been included when calculating regressions.

There was, likewise, no evidence of the relation

of the various parameters differing in males and

females. These conclusions applied also to water

buffalo and sambar deer, and with the exception

of a delayed start in cementum formation, to

chital.

From Fig. 2, it is seen that there was a strong

correlation between the estimates of wear and of

LIFE EXPECTANCY OF THE WILD PIG SUS SCROFA L. IN RUHUNA NA TIONAL PARK

39

age as estimated from layering, the regression

equation for the range of age classes which

occurred in the sample being:

Age = Wear Group x 1.53 - 1.96

r = 0.82

This compares with a value over the same

range of wear-classes of r = 0.76 in water buffalo

(N = 93), 0.83 (N = 77) in sambar deer, and 0.78

(N = 48) in chital for this relation. There was also

a good overall correlation between depth of

cement of Ml and number of annual layers as

shown by Fig. 3. The regression equation with

depth of cement (in mm) is:

Age = Cement depth x 0.13 + 1.93

r = 0.79

This compares with a correlation

coefficient for the relationship of 0.92 in water

buffalo, 0.89 in sambar deer and 0.74 in chital.

There is a broader scatter of values in older pigs

than in water buffalo and sambar, where the

relationship of these parameters remains close

throughout life.

In the relation between depth of dentine of

Ml and age, it is seen from Fig. 4 that there are

large differences in the rate of attrition of the

dentine of Ml in different individuals inspite of

the fact that for the overall dentition the

relationship of wear to age is close. This feature

was obvious on initial inspection of the

specimens: individual teeth sometimes wore at

considerably different rates, and such differences

could occur within the length of individual

molars. If individual variability is discounted, the

data suggest that the rate of attrition of the dentine

of Ml with increasing age is approximately linear.

This pattern differs from that seen in the

ruminants in this study. In these, wear was more

markedly concentrated at the Ml level of the jaws

than was the case in the pig: while the depth of

dentine remained closely correlated with age, the

rate of wear progressively lessened with time. In

fact once eruption was completed, age as

indicated by layering in Ml teeth of water buffalo

and the two species of deer was proportional to

the logarithm of the depth of the dentine.

Since there was no evidence of any marked

difference in the life expectancy of the sexes, it

is possible to construct an approximate life table

for the pig based on the fairly small size of the

sample of skulls obtained, and to compare it with

those for the ruminants where samples were

larger. The resulting curves deduced for the pig

(N = 23) and that for water buffalo (N = 126) are

given in Fig. 5. Since the youngest specimen of

pig was at least 1 .5 years old at death the present

study gives no direct evidence of mortality prior

to that age. However, its approximate value can

be deduced from observational studies, given that

the young pigs are easily seen and counted and

not cryptic like the young of sambar deer. It is

certain that neonatal and juvenile mortality is

heavy and that predation by leopard (Panthera

par dus) is an important cause. Eisenberg and

Lockhart (1972) working in Wilpattu in a similar

habitat, reported that 50% of the young pigs

disappeared within one month of birth.

Santiapillai and Chambers ( 1 980) found that 75%

of young pigs disappeared within one year. Since

their study was based on visits made every three

months, with the spring visit in May and the

majority of births occurring in April, it can be

concluded as an approximation that the young

averaged one month of age when first seen. As a

working hypothesis, it can therefore be concluded

that mortality during the first thirteen months or

so of life is in the order of seven eighths of those

bom. De Silva et al. (1995) give results in line

with this conclusion.

From the data given in Fig. 5, it can be

deduced that once the juvenile phase is past, the

life expectancy of pig and water buffalo is similar.

For individuals surviving at one year of age, the

total mean life expectancy of the pig is 6.0 years,

and of the water buffalo 5.6 years, with no

evidence of a significant difference in this

parameter between males and females. The

40

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

1000-

500-

200-

1 00 -

i 50-

2b

_L I I t I i J l l i I i I

0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Age (years)

Fig. 5. Survival of wild pig compared with that of

water buffalo ( Bubalus bubalis)

in Ruhuna National Park.

expected of length of reproductively active life

in the females of the two species at Ruhuna is

therefore similar, although perhaps rather longer

in the pig than in the water buffalo as the former

can give birth for the first time at 2 years of age

and the buffalo at 3 years. The observed birth

rate in the pig in Ruhuna National Park is in the

order of 4 + per adult female per year, while in

the water buffalo it is one per adult female per

two years. On these data and assumptions,

approximately 88% mortality in the pig when

immature is balanced by a production of young

per adult female which reaches maturity, eight

times as great as in the water buffalo. Although

the estimates are based on approximate data, the

observations on juvenile mortality and on birth

rate for the two species give concordant estimates

and strengthen the likelihood that these are

substantially accurate.

Discussion

The regime in Ruhuna National Park is one,

like that in the savannahs of Africa, where

predators take a large crop of herbivorous and

polyphagous mammals of a size which they can

profitably attack. The tiger ( Panthera tigris)

being absent from Sri Lanka, and leopard being

the largest carnivore present and a solitary hunter,

adults of water buffalo and probably also of

sambar deer are too large to be predated. Water

buffalo in good condition can also protect their

young against the leopard. Its main prey, apart

from juvenile pig, appears to include young and

subadult chital, monkeys, and such medium sized

species as the blacknaped hare ( Lepus nigricollis).

The juvenile pig may also be substantially at risk

from the marsh crocodile ( Crocociylus palustris)

and the estuarine crocodile (C. porosus ), which

at Ruhuna National Park (RNP) though not

growing to the size of crocodiles found in large

rivers and other extensive water bodies,

compensates for rather small individual bulk by

their abundance in the larger water holes in the

Park. As there appears to be little in the way of

fish on which they can feed, their diet is

dominated by corpses of animals which die

nearby (which they drag into water within a few

days, ending competition for the carrion from

pigs), and the smaller of the mammals which

come down to drink. Thus the pattern in RNP is

for the largest of the herbivores, elephant and

water buffalo, not to be substantially affected by

predation at any age, while the young of the

medium sized species, chital and more

particularly the pig, suffer heavy predation prior

to maturity and have a high juvenile mortality in

consequence. Presumably the smaller mammals,

apart from the bats and perhaps species like the

Indian porcupine ( Hystrix indica) with anti-

predator devices, will suffer heavy predation at

all stages of the life cycle, by the leopard and a

variety of smaller predators.

The larger of the grazing mammals in RNP

appear to be subject to a second important

constraint affecting their life tables. Most of the

oldest specimens of both water buffalo and pig,

those approaching 1 2 years of age, had heavily

worn dentition, and because of the reduction in

LIFE EXPECTANCY OF THE WILD PIG SUS SCROFA L. IN RUHUNA NATIONAL PARK

41

length of cutting edges through loss of ridges of

enamel adjoining dentine, particularly on the

anterior molars, were probably losing efficiency.

Lanyon and Sanson (1986) have commented that

such loss of efficiency could be important as a

mortality factor in herbivores with abrasive diets,

and set an upper limit to longevity. There is good

reason to believe that this applies to the water

buffalo in RNP, since its maximum life span there

is only a third of its potential longevity in

domestication. The rapidity of attrition of its

dentition may be attributed not only to a high

silica content of grasses and sedges in the dry

season, but also to the closeness to the ground to

which the herbage is grazed, coupled with the

gritty nature of the soil. Examination of its faeces

has confirmed that it swallows large amounts of

grit (R.D.A. Burge, pers. comm.). The extent to

which the pig roots for its food increases the

likelihood that there is a similar situation in this

species.

In sambar deer the situation is considerably

different. Whereas, as indicated by the regression

of tooth-wear on age, each wear-group lasts on

an average 1 .42 years in the water buffalo and

1 .53 years in the pig, in the sambar deer this figure

averages 2.57 years. The much slower relative

rate of wear may be attributed to the sambar being

a browser, having a less abrasive diet, containing

• little grit. Correspondingly, the maximum age

reached by sambar in RNP is much greater than

in buffalo and pig, the oldest specimens found

being estimated to have reached 24 years, and

the mean life expectancy of individuals reaching

adulthood being 10 years. The chital’s situation

is intermediate. It is predominantly a grazer under

wet conditions and a browser during the drought

(Balasubramaniam et al 1980). Each dental wear-

group lasts on an average 2.31 years, the

maximum age observed is 14 years and the life

expectancy of individuals reaching adulthood is

estimated to be 6.6. years. Also intermediate is

the African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) a close rela-

tive of the water buffalo, living in national parks

in the Serengeti and in Uganda, where the herbage

is less closely grazed than in RNP and the soil is

probably less abrasive. Sinclair (1977) has

reported that in these habitats its maximum life

span is 18 years, and that its mortality rate

starts to steepen after the low rate in early adult

life, at 10 years of age as compared with 7 years

of age in the case of water buffalo and pig in

RNP.

If the above hypotheses are correct, one

would expect wild pig to have a lower juvenile

mortality in parts of its range where predation on

its young is less intense and perhaps a longer

maximum life span where diet is not so abrasive.

Jezierski (1977) confirmed the former prediction,

but reported in addition that in Europe the life

span of Sus scrofa does not exceed 12 years.

However, even with the constraints on survival

which have been described, the pig remains very

successful in RNP. If the estimates of population

densities given by Ashby and Santiapillai (1986)

and by de Silva et al'. (1994) are accurate, the

number of pigs bom will be twice that of water

buffalo, and amongst the larger mammals living

there, may be exceeded only by the number of

chital bom.

Acknowledgements

We thank the Department of Wildlife

Conservation of the Sri Lankan Government,

for facilities and help in conducting the study in

RNP, and to the Department of Zoology,

University of Peradeniya, for laboratory faci-

lities and other assistance. We gratefully

acknowledge Mr. Tissa Alagoda’s help in

preparing the text figures and grants-in-aid from

the Royal Society of Great Britain, the Travel and

Research Fund of Durham University and the

British Council.

42

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

References

Ashby, K.R. & C. Santiapillai (1986): The life

expectancy of wild artiodactyl herbivores water

buffalo (Bubalus bubalis), sambar ( Cervus unicolor ),

spotted deer {Axis axis), and wild pig (Sus scrofa) in

Ruhuna National Park, Sri Lanka, and the

consequences for management. Tigerpaper, 13(2):\1.

Ashby, K.R. & C. Santiapillai (1991): Population age

structure of the wild pig Sus scrofa in Ruhuna National

Park, Sri Lanka. In: Global Trends in Wildlife

Management, B. Bobek., K. Perzanowski & W.

Regelin (eds.) Trans. 18th International Union of

Game Biologists Congress, Krakow 1 987. Swiat Press,

Krakow-Warszawa. Vol. 1 : 533-535.

Balasubramaniam, S., C. Santiapillai & M.R. Chambers

(1980): Seasonal shifts in the pattern of habitat

utilization by the spotted deer (Axis axis Erxleben

1777) in the Ruhuna National Park, Sri Lanka,

Spixiana, 3(2): 157-166.

De Silva, M., S. Dissanayake & C. Santiapillai (1994):

Aspects of the population dynamics of the wild Asiatic

water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) in Ruhuna National

Park, Sri Lanka. J. South Asian nat. Hist., 1(1): 65-

76.

De Silva, P.K., C. Santiapillai & S. Dissanayake (1995):

A population study of the wild pig (Sus scrofa) in

Ruhuna National Park, Sri Lanka. J. South Asian nat.

Hist., 1(2): 225-234.

Eisenberg, J.F. & M. Lockhart (1972): An ecological

reconnaissance of the Wilpattu National Park, Ceylon.

Smithson. Contrib. Zool., 101: 1-118.

Grimsdell, J.J.R. (1973): Age determination of the

African buffalo Syncerus caffer Sparrman. E. Afr.

Wildl.J., 77:31-54.

Honacki, J.H., K.E. Kinman & J.W. Koeppl (Eds.) (1982):

Mammal Species of the World. Allen Press, Lawrence,

Kansas, USA.

Jezierski, W. (1977): Longevity and mortality rate in a

population of wild boar. Acta theriologica, 22: 337-

348.

Lanyon, J.M. & C.D. Sanson (1986): Koala

(Phascolarctus cinereus) dentition and nutrition. II.

Implications of tooth wear in nutrition. J. Zool. Lond.

(A), 209: 169-181.

Santiapillai, C. & M.R. Chambers (1980): Aspects of

the population dynamics of the wild pig (Sus scrofa

L.) in the Ruhuna National park, Sri Lanka. Spixiana,

3: 239-250.

Santiapillai, C., M.R. Chambers & C. Jayawardhana

(1981): Observations on the sambar (Cervus unicolor

Kerr 1792) in the Ruhuna National Park, Sri Lanka.

Cey. Journal of Science 14(1&2): 193-203.

Santiapillai, C., M.R. Chambers & N. Ishwaran (1982):

The leopard (Panthera pardus fusca Meyer 1 794) in

the Ruhuna National Park, Sri Lanka and observations

relevant to its conservation. Biol. Conservation, 23(1):

5-14.

Santiapillai, C., M.R. Chambers & N. Ishwaran (1984):

Aspects of the ecology of the Asian elephant (Elephas

maximus L.) in the Ruhuna National Park, Sri Lanka.

Biol. Conservation, 29: 47-61.

Schaller, G.B. (1967): The deer and the tiger: A study

of wildlife in India. University of Chicago Press,

Chicago.

Sinclair, A.R.E. (1977): The African buffalo: A study of

resource limitations of populations. University of

Chicago Press, Chicago.

BREEDING ECOLOGY OF COMMON MYNA ACRIDOTHERES TRISTIS WITH

SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE EFFECT OF SEASON AND HABITAT ON

REPRODUCTIVE VARIABLES1

Satwant K. Dhanda and Manjit S. Dhindsa2

( With three text-figures)

Key words: Breeding ecology, Acridotheres tristis, breeding season, habitat effect,

reproductive success

Breeding ecology of common myna Acridotheres tristis was studied in nest boxes and

natural nests at Ludhiana, India. Breeding season extended from March to September. Nesting

material included twigs, leaves, feathers, paper and plastics; the first two material types

being used in significantly greater amounts. Size and fresh weight of eggs differed

significantly among females, although successive eggs within a clutch did not differ

significantly. Brood number, egg sequence and laying season did not affect egg size, whereas

habitat around nests affected both the breadth and volume of eggs. Average clutch size was

4.29 ± 0.85 (sd). Clutch size did not vary with brood number and habitat but laying season

affected it significantly. Clutches laid early in the season were bigger and there was a steady

decline in average clutch size with the advancement of laying season. Brood number, laying

season and habitat did not affect the number of eggs hatched or young fledged per clutch.

Incubation period ranged between 1 1 and 14 days and averaged 12.73 ± 0.88 days. Hatching

and nesting success were recorded as 66.1% and 34.4%, respectively. Average nestling

period was 21.75 ± 2.78 days. Growth of nestlings showed sigmoid curve. Hatching failure

and predation were the most important factors of egg mortality, whereas predation,

intraspecific rivalry and starvation accounted for most of the nestling mortality. Significantly

greater proportion of hole nests (80%) were successful (produced atleast one fledgling)

compared with open nests (35.7%). Overall, an average production of 1.4 fledglings per

nesting pair was recorded. This study suggests that laying season and habitat of the common

myna significantly affect its clutch size and egg size respectively.

Introduction

The common myna Acridotheres tristis,

one of the very common Indian birds, is

distributed ubiquitously throughout the Indian

subcontinent (Ali and Ripley, 1987). Reports on

some breeding parameters of this species are

available in literature from as early as 1889 when

it was restricted to a few parts of the world (Long,

1981). Later on, it spread to neighbouring areas

like Vietnam, Malaysia and Singapore as a result

of extension of range. But it was deliberately

'Accepted August, 1995

department of Zoology, Punjab Agricultural University,

Ludhiana-141 004, India.

introduced into Australia, New Zealand,

Mauritius and certain other islands like Hawaii,

Fiji and Malagasy to control insects (Long, 1981).

Most of the introductions were successful

probably because of its diverse feeding habits and

its ability to accept any suitable site for nesting.

Despite the wide distribution and ecological

importance of common myna, very meagre

information is available on its breeding ecology

(Lamba, 1963; Sengupta, 1968). The present

study was conducted to obtain quantitative data

on breeding of this species in an intensively

cultivated habitat and to examine the effect of

laying season and habitat on reproductive

performance. A comparative account of

44

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

reproductive performance of common myna in

nest boxes and natural sites has been published

elsewhere (Dhanda and Dhindsa, 1996).

Material and Methods

The study was conducted during 1992 in

the campus of the Punjab Agricultural University,

Ludhiana (30° 56' N, 75° 52' E, 247 m above

msl), Punjab, India. The study area ( ca 640 ha)

includes large tracts of agricultural fields, fruit

orchards and woodlots, in addition to university

buildings and residences interspersed with roads

and lawns. Trees are located around orchards,

canal sides, poultry farms, fish farms and all along

the campus roads.

Twenty-six nests of the common myna in

natural sites were selected at random and marked

for regular observations on various parameters

of breeding ecology. Thirty nest boxes (15

wooden and 15 made of polyvinyl chloride

(PVC), were put up in different parts of the study

area during the last week of February. Each

rectangular wooden nest box measured 22 x 22

cm at the base, 34 cm at the rear and 23 cm in

front. A PVC pipe of 16 cm diameter was used

for preparing circular nest boxes, each 33 cm high

at the rear and 28 cm high in front, with a wooden

base and a slanting lid. All boxes had an entrance

hole (6 cm in diameter) on the front, 2.5 cm from

the top. One box was placed in a building

ventilator, whereas the remaining 29 boxes were

fixed to trees at an average height of 3.95 ± 0.56

(sd) and facing different directions. .

All nests were monitored daily during the

egg laying period, twice a week after clutch

completion and again daily near the expected date

of hatching. Eggs were measured and weighed

within 24 hrs of laying. Egg volume was

calculated as 0.5 1 x length x (breadth)2 following

Hoyt (1979). All young were weighed with a

Pesola balance on alternate days till they were

17 days old, after which weighing had to be

stopped as the nestlings tried to jump from the

nest on approach. In nests where completed

clutches or already hatched young were found,

laying dates were calculated assuming that

females laid one egg a day(d). Incubation started

after laying of the last egg and lasted 13 d, and

nestlings stayed in the nest for 22 d (Sandhu,

1993). The fledging date was recorded by daily

observation of nests. After fledging, the nest

contents (if dry) were sorted and weighed. Wet

and clumped nest contents were discarded.

Twelve boxes were put up again to study the

second clutches.

Eggs which did not hatch till the young

were a week old, were removed from the nests/

boxes and were later examined to ascertain the

cause of unhatchability. Young dying within the

nests were examined at the Virology and

Parasitology Laboratory of the Punjab

Agricultural University. Data were analysed using

standard parametric and non-parametric statistical

methods (Zar, 1984). To examine the effect of

laying season, brood number, egg sequence and

habitat on reproductive variables, data from nest

boxes alone were used. All other breeding

parameters were quantified by pooling data from

boxes and natural nests.

Results

Breeding season

The breeding activity of the common myna

commenced in March and continued till

September. Mynas started adding nesting material

to nest sites in the first week of March and 15

nest boxes were occupied by 1 6th March. The

first egg was laid on 3 1 st March and the first batch

of 4 young hatched on 17th April. The first peak

in breeding activity was observed from 15th April

to 1 5th May and the second around 1 st July (Fig.

1). Some birds, however, started breeding late,

probably because of non-availability of suitable

nesting sites. Active nests of this species on

electric and telephone poles were found only after

June. The first batch of nestlings fledged on 1 1th

May. The last batch of nestlings was observed

being fed by parent birds in a natural-hole nest

BREEDING ECOLOGY OF COMMON MYNA ACRIDOTHERES TRISTIS

45

Fig. 1. Pattern of breeding activity of Common Myna Acridotheres tristis during 1992

on 27th September, which probably fledged in

the beginning of October. Thus, the breeding

season in the common myna was considerably

long, extending over a period of six months from

March to September.

Nesting Material

Nesting birds did not bring nesting material

from far off distances. All leaves and twigs found

in the nests belonged to the nest tree itself or the

adjacent trees. The usual nesting material

consisted of twigs and leaves of plants. Twigs

and leaves of neem Azadirachta indica and dhrek

i

Melia azedarach trees, if available nearby, were

the most frequently used. Other materials like

feathers, paper, plastic bags, sweet wrappers etc.,

were also found frequently in all nests.

Occasionally, materials like snake exuviae, tail

of squirrel, bird bones and fish scales were also

included.

In 15 nests, whose nesting material was

sorted and weighed, twigs and leaves were used

in significantly greater quantities than feathers,

paper and plastics (One way ANOVA: F= 1 1 .84,

df= 3,56, P< 0.0001, Table 1)

Table 1

NESTING MATERIAL IN COMMON MYNA NESTS IN

NEST BOXES AND NATURAL NESTS

Figures with same superscripts in a column do not differ

significantly (Tukey’s multiple range test)

Eggs

Eggs were laid at 24 hr intervals except for

three instances where one of the successive eggs

was laid at a 48 hr interval. These were oval,

longer than broad and turquoise-blue in colour.

46

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

The colour turned slightly dull near hatching.

Weight of freshly laid eggs ranged from 6.0 to

8.5 g and averaged 7.36±0.10g (mean ± se, n =

35, Table 2). The last egg appeared comparatively

lighter in weight as compared to the first,

especially in clutches bigger than 4 eggs.

However, differences in the average weight of

successive eggs were non-significant (F=0.937,

df = 4, 30, P = 0.456; Table 2). The average egg

weight in individual clutches ranged from 6.50 ±

0.36 g to 8.23 ± 0. 14 g and differed significantly

among different females (F = 7.65, df = 8, 26, P

< 0.001 ; Table 2). The length, breadth and volume

of 152 eggs of common myna averaged 29.1 1 ±

1.37 mm, 21.41 ± 0.71 mm and 6.82 ± 0.63 cm3,

respectively.

Table 2

WEIGHT OF EGGS OF COMMON MYNA

Difference among successive eggs: F = 0.937, df = 4, 30,

P = 0.456

Difference among nest boxes: F= 7.65, df = 8, 26, P < 0.001 .

Egg size in relation to brood number, laying

sequence and laying month

When egg size of the first, second and third

broods was compared using one way ANOVA,

difference among broods were non-significant for

all the three size parameters (Table 3). Similarly,

successive eggs of the clutches did not differ

significantly in size (Table 4). No differences

could be detected in size of eggs laid in April,

May and June (Table 5). These analyses

suggested that brood number, laying sequence

and laying month did not affect egg size.

Effect of habitat on egg size

Data on egg size were available from nest

boxes put up in six different habitats, viz., fish

farm, poultry farm, shisham woodlot, forestry

area, orchards and cultivated fields. One way

ANOVA showed no effect of habitat on the length

of the eggs, although habitat significantly affected

both breadth and volume of eggs (Table 6). Eggs

in the poultry farm area were broadest and with

biggest volume, followed by those in cultivated

fields and orchard. Egg breadth was smallest in

shisham woodlot, whereas volume was smallest

in shisham woodlot, and at par in forestry area

and fish farm. The probable reason for the biggest

egg size in poultry farm may be greater

abundance of food (scattered poultry feed)

available to the laying females in that area.

Clutch size

The clutch size of the common myna varied

from 3 to 7 but clutches of 4 and 5 eggs were the

most frequent (Fig. 2). Of 52 clutches laid in nest

boxes and natural nests, 8 were of 3 eggs, 25 of 4

eggs, 16 of 5 eggs and two of 6 eggs each. Only

one clutch in a nest box contained 7 eggs. Clutch

size averaged 4.29 ± 0.85 (sd).

Clutch size in relation to brood number, laying

season and habitat

Clutch size did not differ significantly

among first, second and third broods (Table 7).

Some birds started breeding early (beginning of

April), whereas the others started late (in June or

July). The clutch size in June (3.56 ± 0. 13 se, n =

1 6) did not differ significantly from that in July

(3.67 ± 0.33, n = 3, t = 0.33, P > 0.50). So the

data of these two months were pooled and taken

as of late breeding season. The effect of laying

season on clutch size was highly significant,

BREEDING ECOLOGY OF COMMON MYNA ACRIDOTHERES TRISTIS

47

Table 3

EGG SIZE IN RELATION TO BROOD NUMBER IN COMMON MYNA

Figures with same superscripts in a column do not differ significantly (Tukey’s multiple range test)

ns = non-significant

48

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

Clutch size

Fig. 2. Frequency of clutch size of Common Myna Acridotheres tristis during 1992

Table 7

EFFECT OF BROOD NUMBER ON CLUTCH SIZE, NUMBER OF EGGS HATCHED AND NUMBER OF YOUNG

FLEDGED IN COMMON MYNA

showing a steady reduction in average clutch size

with the advancement of season (Table 8). There

was no significant effect of habitat on clutch size

(Table 9).

Incubation period, hatching pattern and

hatching success

Data on incubation period (time elapsed

between the laying of the last egg of the clutch

and hatching of the last young) were available

for 15 clutches in nest boxes. The incubation

period ranged from 11 to 14 days and averaged

12.73 ± 0.88 (sd) days.

Hatching in 21 clutches indicated an

asynchronous pattern. The larger the number of

young hatched, the longer was the hatching

period. In larger clutches (4-5 eggs), hatching

continued for 2-3 days. Two young hatched

simultaneously on the first day of hatching in 8

cases, 3 young in 7 cases and 4 young in 2 cases.

BREEDING ECOLOGY OF COMMON MYNA ACRIDOTHERES TRISTIS

49

Table 8

EFFECT OF LAYING SEASON ON CLUTCH SIZE, NUMBER OF EGGS HATCHED AND NUMBER OF YOUNG

FLEDGED IN COMMON MYNA

Table 9

EFFECT OF HABITAT ON CLUTCH SIZE, NUMBER OF EGGS HATCHED AND NUMBER OF YOUNG

FLEDGED IN COMMON MYNA

♦Cultivated field area excluded from analysis since only clutch was recorded in this area

ns = non-significant

Table 10

HATCHING SUCCESS AND EGG MORTALITY IN

COMMON MYNA (N = 54 NESTS)

In the rest of the four clutches, all young hatched

at 1-day intervals.

Hatching success was recorded in 54 nests

in all. Of 227 eggs laid in these nests, 1 50 hatched

successfully, a hatching success of 66.1%

(Table 10).

Egg mortality

Total egg mortality recorded in this study

was 33.9%. Hatching failure was the most severe

factor claiming 42 (18.5%) eggs (Table 10).

Unhatched eggs were retained in nest boxes for

such a long period that in five cases they were

found intact even after fledging of young. In open

50

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol 95 (1998)

natural nests, unhatched eggs were not found 2-

4 days after hatching. Altogether, 13 unhatched

eggs were examined after breaking the egg shell.

Twelve of these eggs were found to be infertile,

since no embryo formation was present. In one

egg, however, a dead embryo was found in a late

stage of development. The major cause of

hatching failure, therefore, seemed to be infertility

of eggs.

Predation (loss of all eggs and/or young

from a nest) accounted for the loss of 22 eggs

(9.7%) and was the second most important factor

of egg mortality. Two nests were deserted for

unknown reasons, leading to the loss of 9 eggs

(3.96%). Two eggs (0.9%) were found cracked

in a nest box in which intraspecific brood

parasitism was recorded, while two eggs (0.9%),

one each in two different clutches, were broken

accidentally during egg measurements.

The young

The newly hatched pinkish young weighed

5-6 g and were covered with white, woolly, fluffy

down feathers along the mid-dorsal line and on

two lateral tracts. One patch of down feathers was

present behind each eye, one on head and two

small patches were visible on the lateral sides.

Three rows of black heads of feather pins were

visible through the translucent skin on the back

and one row on each wing. The eyes were closed

and the gape was pale yellow. The claws were

soft and cream coloured.

Feather pins of different tracts pierced the

skin in the following sequence: alar tract in 2-

day old, femoral tract in 3 -day old and humeral,

caudal, spinal and cephalic tracts in 4-day old

young. Eyes started opening 5 days after hatching.

Feather pins of the posterior parts of the body

were clearly visible and the wings looked quite

dark because of very thick alar pins. On the 6th

day, crural and capital feather tracts also

appeared, alar pins were 2 mm long and eyes fully

open in all the young.

One week old young of common myna

clearly displayed all the feather tracts, although

the pins were yet to open up. Two rows of wing

quills had appeared on each wing, the posterior

row being 5 mm in length. Remiges and rectrices

had developed on the eighth day. The posterior

row of remiges started opening at their terminal

ends on the ninth day and the whole wing looked

like a column of paint brushes placed side to side

with their barbs touching the adjacent feathers.

In 10-day old young, remiges were 2 cm and

rectrices 1 cm long. Small brown feathers looked

quite distinct on the dorsal side of the body. On

the 11th day, all feathers except those of the

capital tract started opening at their terminal ends,

and the second row of rectrices also appeared.

On the 12th day, all feathers on the body were

partially open. The cephalic feather pins,

however, opened on the 14th day.

With the full development of feathers, the

two weeks old young were quite active. Distinct

brown colour on the back was followed in

appearance by black on the wings with a white

patch on each wing. White colour at the tips of

rectrices also became conspicuous with the

growth of feathers.

Newly hatched nestlings gained weight

rapidly during the first five days after hatching,

followed by a steady decrease in growth rate. The

young had attained maximum weight at the age

of 15 days. Thereafter, the weight showed gradual

decrease till fledging. Thus, the growth of young

followed a sigmoidal curve (Fig. 3).

Feeding and care of young

Both parents were observed feeding the

young. The food was brought at 2-5 min intervals.

When both parents brought food simultaneously,

only one of them entered the nest while the other

waited outside. The parents were never observed

removing faecal droppings from the nests, as a

result of which a large amount of these were

recovered from the nests. Unhatched eggs and

some egg shells were also retained in the nests.

Even the dead young were not removed. Both

parents continued to feed the young for a few

days after fledging.

BREEDING ECOLOGY OF COMMON MYNA ACRIDOTHERES TRISTIS

51

Age (days)

Fig. 3. Weight increase with age in nestlings of Common Myna Acridotheres tristis during 1992

Nestling period

The nestling period, i.e., time lapsed

between hatching of the first young and fledging

of all young in a nest, averaged 21.75 ± 2.38 (sd)

days (n = 16) and ranged from 17 to 25 days.

Pox-infected unhealthy young spend longer

periods in the nests and such cases were not

included in calculations.

Nesting success and Nestling mortality

In all, 78 young fledged from 227 eggs laid

in 54 nests, a nesting success of 34.4% (Table

11). This means that each nesting pair, on an

average, fledged 1.4 young. Seventy-two

nestlings were lost to the following mortality

factors.

Pox virus:

Pox virus infected 13 young in 6 broods,

of which 5 fledged and 8 died, a nestling mortality

of 5.3% (Table 11). The virus was diagnosed by

Table 1 1

NESTING SUCCESS AND NESTLING MORTALITY IN

COMMON MYNA (N = 54 NESTS)

the presence of small tubercles on the naked areas

around the eyes and beak. In addition, skin rashes

were found on the rest of the body. The plumage

of infected young appeared rough and dry with

52

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

small white patches falling off the skin. With the

progress of the virus infection, the eyes were

almost completely closed and the young were

probably half blind. The infected young did not

die quickly but instead stayed on in the nest for

4- 10 days more than the average nestling period.

The fledging of infected young apparently

depended upon the degree of infection, those with

comparatively lesser infection could fledge. The

virus was diagnosed by the Virology Department

of Punjab Agricultural University as

“ Acridotheres tristis pox-virus”.

Starvation:

As a result of asynchronous hatching, the

developing young were of different sizes and

weights. In some cases, the difference in weight

of nestlings of the brood soon narrowed down

and the young attained almost equal weight and

size in a few days. But in others, especially in

larger broods, one or two young continued to

remain smaller and weaker than their brood mates

with very little increase in weight. Such nestlings

died in the nest and their death was considered to

be due to starvation. Eleven young (4.9% of total

eggs laid, 7.3% of eggs hatched) died because of

this reason (Table 1 1).

Intraspecific rivalry:

In four different instances, all young of the

brood were found to have been wounded and

thrown out of the nests. In all, 17 (11.3%)

nestlings died in this way (Table 11).

Circumstantial evidence suggested that this was

the outcome of intraspecific rivalry.

Predation:

When normal and healthy nestlings were

found missing from the nest, it was considered a

case of predation. In all the natural open nests,

this type of predation led to the destruction of

the whole brood. But in nest boxes and hole nests,

only one young was found missing at a time. In

one box with a single young aged 10 days, a

blood smear on the rim of the nest hole indicated

predation. In total, 21 (14%) young were lost to

predation (Table 11).

Dust storms:

Only one open nest was destroyed in a dust

storm killing three young (2% nesting mortality).

The inmates of nest boxes and hole nests were

not affected by this factor.

Effect of laying season, brood number and

habitat on hatching and nesting success

Laying season and brood number did not

affect hatching and nesting success (Tables 12

and 13). Also, habitat did not affect these two

parameters whether all broods were pooled or

only the first broods were analysed separately

(Table 14).

Table 12

EFFECT OF LAYING SEASON ON HATCHING AND NESTING SUCCESS IN COMMON MYNA

BREEDING ECOLOGY OF COMMON MYNA ACRIDOTHERES TRISTIS

53

Table 13

EFFECT OF BROOD NUMBER ON HATCHING AND NESTING SUCCESS IN COMMON MYNA

Table 14

EFFECT OF HABITAT ON HATCHING AND NESTING SUCCESS IN COMMON MYNA

Hatching success (%)

Nesting success (%)

Comparison of nesting success in open and hole

nests in natural sites

Of 14 open nests in natural sites, 9 (64.3%)

failed before fledging but 5 (35.7%) were

successful, i.e. produced atleast one fledgling. On

the contrary, 8 of 10 (80%) hole nests were

successful and only 2 (20%) failed. Nesting

success, therefore, was significantly greater in

hole nests than in open nests (Fisher’s exact test,

P = 0.047)

Discussion

Common mynas in our study initiated

breeding activity in March and continued until

September, as also mentioned in Dewar (1929),

54

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

Baker (1933) and Ali and Ripley ( 1 987). The long

breeding season of this species allows breeding

pairs to raise two or even three successive broods.

Although insect food for the nestlings in April-

May (when early breeders rear their young) is

not as abundant as in the monsoon (July-

September), breeding early in the season may be

adaptive in acquiring better nesting sites.

Commonly used nesting material included

twigs, leaves, feathers, paper, plastics etc.,

although snake moultings and metallic foil were

also used occasionally. Lamba (1963) and

Panicker (1980) have also recorded similar

materials in common myna nests. In our study,

twigs and leaves of neem and dhrek were most

frequently used as nesting material. Earlier,

Sengupta (1981) found house sparrows Passer

domesticus using leaves of neem as nesting

material in preference to other available

vegetation, probably to repel nest arthropods. The

use of nest material as insecticidal and anti-

pathogenic agents has also been reported for other

species of birds (Wimberger, 1984; Clark and

Mason, 1985). The relative proportion of other

types of material probably depended upon their

availability in the vicinity of the nest. For

example, in nests in the poultry farm area, a large

number of poultry feathers was used, whereas fish

scales were found in nests around fish ponds. Use

of huge quantity of nesting material in cavity nests

and boxes may be important because the common

myna does not incubate eggs consistently

(Panicker, 1980) and nesting material may help

in keeping the nests well insulated. Cavity nesters

like parakeets do not use much nesting material

but incubate eggs much more consistently as

compared to the common myna. Since the

common myna breeds in open nests, cavity

nesting seems to be a secondary adaptation.

So far, little information was available on

the egg weight of the common myna. Panicker

( 1 980) reported egg weight from Delhi and Tamil

Nadu. Weight of fresh eggs in our study ranged

from 6.0 to 8.5 g and averaged 7.36 ± 0.59 g

which is quite close to Panicker (1980; 7.0 g).

His results are not comparable to ours because

he did not provide variance and sample size.

Average egg weight was significantly different

among individual clutches, which was probably

due to difference in the age or body condition of

the laying female.

Average egg size in our study (29.11 x

2 1 .4 1 mm) was comparable to that reported by

Baker (1933) and Lamba (1963) but appeared

greater than in Panicker’s (1980) study (27.3 x

19.7 mm). Since these authors did not mention

the sample sizes and/or variance, statistical

comparison of egg size was not possible.Like egg

weight, significant differences among clutches in

all parameters of egg size suggested that this was

different among different females. Both volume

and breadth of eggs differed significantly among

different habitats, suggesting that these

parameters were probably affected by the

availability of food. Eggs from nests in poultry

farms had the largest volume and breadth,

whereas those from shisham woodlot had the

smallest values for these parameters. Egg volume

was not affected by laying sequence. In other

species, however, egg volume may increase as

in the least flycatcher Empidonax minimus

(Briskie and Sealy, 1990) or decrease with laying

sequence as in the American crow Corvus

brachyrhynchos (Ignatiuk and Clark, 1991).

Brood number and laying month also did not

affect length, breadth and volume of eggs,

probably because the food supply available to

breeding birds remained the same throughout the

breeding season in our area.

Average clutch size (4.29 ± 0.85, n = 52)

in our study did not differ significantly from that

reported by Lamba ( 1 963) from Tamil Nadu (4.4

± 0.50, n = 20, t = 0.54, df = 70, ns) and by

Panicker (1980) from Delhi (4.6 ± 1.17, n = 3, t

= 0.60, df = 53, ns). However, it was significantly

greater than that observed by Panicker (1980) in

Tamil Nadu (3.45 ± 0.54, n = 1 1, t 3.13, df = 61,

P < 0.005). Clutch size tends to increase with

increasing latitude in both passerine and non-

passerine birds (Lack, 1968). Clutch size in our

BREEDING ECOLOGY OF COMMON MYNA ACRIDOTHERES TRISTIS

55

study area, therefore, should have been greater

than that in southern study areas of Lamba ( 1 963)

and Panicker ( 1 980). This holds true for comparison

with Panicker’s (1980) data. Why Lamba (1963)

recorded higher clutch size is not clear.

Clutch size of pairs nesting early in the

breeding season was greater than those nesting

late, which was probably because of the age of

egg laying females. Birds breeding for the first

time generally start egg laying later than older

birds and hence have smaller clutches (Perrins,

1965). In nests where more than one brood was

reared, we assumed that these were occupied by

the same pairs as evident from their behaviour.

Successive clutches in such nests were smaller

than the earlier ones. Probably, body condition

of the egg laying females is comparatively better

when they lay the first than when they lay the

second and third broods. Seasonal decline in

clutch size has also been reported within age

groups in song sparrow Melospiza melodia

(Hochachka 1990). However, tree creepers

Certhia familiaris lay largest clutches in the

middle of the breeding season (Kuitunen and

Aleknonis, 1992).

Average incubation period (12.73 d) in our

study was significantly shorter as compared to

17-18 d reported by Lamba (1963). This was

because he defined incubation period as the time

lag between laying and hatching of the first egg,

whereas we measured it as the time elapsed

between the laying and hatching of the last egg.

Further, the incubation period of birds breeding

at higher latitudes is shorter than those breeding

at lower latitudes (Lack, 1968). Lamba’s study

area (Madras), was located at much lower latitude

than our study area which may also have

contributed to this difference in incubation period.

However, incubation period measured in our

study is comparable to other studies (Sengupta,

1968; Panicker, 1980).

Hatching success was fairly high (66%) and

comparable to Panicker’s (1980) study. The

major factor of egg loss was hatching failure

(18.5%) followed by predation (9.7%). Sterility

or infection of the embryo could result in hatching

failure. About 70% of eggs in passerines that do

not hatch are infected with pathogens such as

Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus epidermitis

(Pinowski et al. 1991).

The growth in weight of altricial young

followed logistic growth curve which is typical

for passerines (Ricklefs, 1968). Nestlings attained

maximum weight exactly two weeks after

hatching, after which they started losing weight.

The lesser the number of young in a brood, the

more was the average weight, probably because

they were better fed than those in larger broods.

One or two nestlings in larger broods were

usually underfed and these died in the nests. In

birds with asynchoronous hatching, brood size is

adjusted according to the availability of food

(Ricklefs, 1965). Parents feed the most active

members of the brood at priority. But when food

is limited, only the largest or the first hatched

survive. This behaviour, known as brood

reduction, may minimize the amount of effort

wasted in feeding extra young and enhance the

survival and long-term fitness of parents (Ignatiuk

and Clark, 1991). Brood reduction has also been

reported in three species of weaverbirds in Punjab

(Dhindsa, 1980).

Nestlings period (time lag between

hatching of first young and fledging of all young)

was 21.75 days. This is comparable to that

mentioned in Ali and Ripley (1987), although

Lamba (1963) reported it to be 2-3 weeks.

Nestling period probably depended upon the

number of young in a brood, productivity of the

habitat, nest height and age of parents. Nesting

success was higher (34%) in our study as

compared to Panicker (1980; 28.6%) although

his study was confined to those mynas which used

tree holes as breeding sites. Laying season, brood

number and habitat did not affect hatching and

nesting success of the common myna.

Our study is the first to examine the effect

of habitat, brood number and laying season on

the reproductive output of common mynas.

Success of hole nests and open nests of this

56

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

species has also been compared for the first time.

Higher nesting success in hole nests (80%)

compared with open nests (35.7%) may be

attributed to the following reasons:

1 . Hole nests are safer as compared to open

nests, because nest contents are out of the reach

of avian predators. In our study, none of the open

nests of the common myna was successful when

there was the nest of house crow Corvus

splendens on the same tree. The presence of crow

nests did not lead to failure of cavity nests of the

common myna.

2. Natural calamities like dust storms and

heavy rains, which occur frequently during

Refer

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Compact Handbook of the

Birds of India and Pakistan. Oxford University Press,

New Delhi.

Baker, E.C.S. (1933): Nidification of Birds of the Indian

Empire. Taylor and Francis, London.

Briskie, J.V. & S.G. Sealy (1990): Variation in size and

shape of Least Flycatcher eggs. J. Field Ornithol. 61:

180-191.

Clark, L. & J.R. Mason (1985): Use of nest material as

insecticidal and anti-pathogenic agents by the

European Starling. Oecologia 67: 169-176.

Dewar, D. (1929): Indian Birds’ Nests. Thacker, Spink

and Co., Calcutta and Bombay.

Dhanda, S.K. & M.S. Dhindsa (1996): Breeding

performance of Indian Myna Acridotheres tristis in

nestboxes and natural sites. Ibis 138(4): 788-791.

Dhindsa, M.S. (1980): Ecological studies on the weaver

birds of the Punjab and their control. Ph.D. thesis,

Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana.

Hochachka, W. (1990): Seasonal decline in Reproductive

performance of Song Sparrow. Ecology 71: 1279-

1288.

Hoyt, D.F. (1979): Practical methods of estimating

volume and fresh weight of bird eggs. Auk 96: 73-77.

Ignatiuk (sic), J.B. and R.G. Clark (1991): Breeding

biology of American Crows in Saskatchewan parkland

habitat. Can. J. Zool. 96: 168-176.

Kuitunen, M. & A. Aleknonis (1992): Nest predation

and breeding success in Common Tree creepers

nesting in boxes and natural cavities. Ornis Fenn. 69:

7-12.

Lack, D. (1968): Ecological Adaptations for Breeding in

Birds. Methuen and Co. Ltd., London.

breeding season, do not harm cavity nests. On

the contrary, these factors often result in the

failure of open nests.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Ram Parshad and Lai

Bahadur for their help in the field work. This

study was supported by the University Grants

Commission by a fellowship under the Faculty

Improvement Programme to Satwant K. Dhanda

and by the Indian Council of Agricultural

Research through the All India Network Project

on Agricultural Ornithology.

ENCES

Lamba, B.S. (1963): The nidification of some common

Indian birds IV. The Common Myna (Acridotheres

tristis Linn.). Res. Bull. Punjab Univ. 14: 1 1-20.

Long, J.L. (1981): Introduced Birds of the World. David

& Charles Newton, London.

Panicker, K.N. (1980): Ecology of hole nesting birds. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75 (suppl): 1227-1237.

Perrins, C.M. (1965): Population fluctuations and clutch-

size in the Great Tit, Parus major. J. Anim. Ecol. 34:

601-647.

Pinowski, J., B.P. Kavanagh & W. Gorski (Eds.) (1991):

Nestling Mortality of Granivorous Birds due to

Microorganisms and Toxic Substances. PWN-Polish

Scientific Publishers, Warsaw.

Ricklefs, R.E. (1965): Brood reduction in the Curve-

billed Thrasher. Condor 67: 505-510.

Ricklefs, R.E. (1968): Patterns of growth in birds. Ibis

110: 419-451.

Sandhu, S.K. (1993): Ecological studies on the association

of birds with trees with special reference to nest-site

selection. Ph.D. thesis, Punjab Agricultural

University, Ludhiana, India.

Sengupta, S. ( 1 968): Studies of the life of Common Myna

Acridotheres tristis tristis (Linnaeus) (Aves:

Passeriformes: Stumidae). 1 . Breeding biology. Proc.

Zool. Soc. Calcutta 21: 1-627.

Sengupta, S. (1981): Adaptive significance of the use of

margosa leaves in nests of the House Sparrow Passer

domesticus. Emu 81: 1 14-115.

Wimberger, P.H. (1984): The use of green plant material

in bird nests to avoid ectoparasites. Auk 101: 615-618.

Zar, J.H. (1984): Biostatistical Analysis, 2nd Edn.

Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N j.

TAXONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE OF EPIPHALLUS IN SOME INDIAN

GRASSHOPPERS (ORTHOPTERA: ACRIDIDAE)1

Kharibam Meinodas2 and Shaikh Adam Shafee3

( With five text-figures)

Key words: Epiphallus, Orthoptera, Acrididae, taxonomy

The present study comprises of the comparative descriptions and illustrations of epiphalli in

46 species representing 22 genera under 15 tribes belonging to three subfamilies of the

family Acrididae. The significance of epiphallus in taxonomy is also discussed.

Introduction

The epiphallus (Fig. 5) is a strongly

sclerotised isolated sclerite located on the dorsal

surface of the phallic organ that serves to grasp

the edge of the female subgenital plate and to fix

the phallus firmly during copulation. Dirsh (1956)

emphasised the importance of epiphallus in the

classification of Acrididae. Further important

contributions on epiphallus have been made by

Eades et al. ( 1 974), Harz (1975), Kevan and Chen

(1969) andKevanefa/. (1970, 1971, 1972, 1974,

1975). Moreover, Meinodas (1986), Roberts

(1941) and Usmani and Shafee (1983) have

confirmed the stability and reliability of different

parts of the epiphallus in the higher classification

of Acrididae.

Material and Methods

To study the epiphallus the apical portion

of the abdominal region of preserved male

grasshoppers was removed and boiled in a test

tube containing 10% KOH solution till the

muscles dissolved completely. After washing

thoroughly in water, it was dissected under

binocular microscope with die help of fine needles

to separate the epiphallus. After dehydration in

'Accepted December, 1997.

department of Zoology, Thoubal College, Manipur-795 138

3Section of Entomology, Department of Zoology,

AMU, Aligarh-202 001.

different grades of alcohol, clearing was done in

clove oil. The epiphallus was mounted on slides in

dorsal view in Canada balsam. The slides were kept

in an oven at approximately 40°C for a few days to

dry. Drawings were made with the help of camera

lucida.

Description

Subfamily Pyrgomorphinae

Tribe Pyrgomorphini

Pyrgomorpha conica (Oliver) (Fig. 1A):

Bridge of epiphallus broad; lateral plates with

anterior processes slightly developed, posterior

processes well developed and directed outwardly,

each bearing a small conical upward curving

projection; dorsolateral appendages narrow at

base, gradually broadened apically; ancorae and

lophi absent.

Pyrgomorpha brachycera Kirby (Fig. IB):

Same as in P. conica except lateral plates with

anterior processes indistinct, curved apical part

of posterior processes long; dorsolateral

appendages much broadened apically.

Tribe Orthacridini

Neorthacris palnensis (Uvarov) (Fig. 1C):

Bridge of epiphallus much broad; lateral plates

with well developed anterior processes, posterior

58

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

B

Fig. 5.

Parts of the epiphallus: A. ancorae; Ap. anterior processes; B. bridge; Br. branch of bridge;

Da. Dorsolateral appendages; L. Lophi; Lp. Lateral plate; Pp. posterior processes;

P. projection of posterior processes.

processes long and straight, each bearing a well

developed upward curving conical projection;

dorsolateral appendages narrow at base and broad

at apex; ancorae and lophi absent.

Neorthacris acuticeps (Bolivar) (Fig. ID):

Bridge of epiphallus with posterior processes

diverging, projections directed inwards.

Orthacris maindroni (Bolivar) (Fig. IE):

Bridge of epiphallus narrow with anterior

processes well developed, about one half of

posterior processes; projections of posterior

processes directed outwards.

Tribe Poekilocerini

Poekilocerus pictus (Fabricius) (Fig. IF):

Bridge of epiphallus very narrow; lateral plates with

anterior processes slightly developed, posterior

processes straight, each bearing a well developed

upward curving conical projection; dorsolateral

appendages narrow at base and gradually

broadened at apex; ancorae and lophi absent.

Tribe Taphronotini

Autarches miliaris (Linnaeus) (Fig. 1G):

Bridge of epiphallus narrow medially; lateral

plates broadened with anterior processes well

developed, posterior processes stout with upward

curving conical projections; dorsolateral

appendages narrow at base and gradually widened

apically; ancorae and lophi absent.

Tribe Chrotogonini

Chrotogonus trachypterus (Blanchard)

(Fig. 1H): Bridge of epiphallus uniformly narrow;

lateral plates with anterior processes slightly

developed, posterior processes triangular,

directed outwardly and without projections;

dorolateral appendages narrow at base and

abruptly rounded at apex; ancorae and lophi

absent.

Tribe Atractomorphini

Atractomorpha psittacina (Haan) (Fig. II):

Epiphallus disc - shaped; anterior margin deeply

notched in middle; posterior margin semicircular;

lateral plates developed; dorsolateral appendages

more or less uniform in width, slightly dilated in

the middle; anchorae and lophi absent.

TAXONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE OF EPIPHALLUS IN INDIAN GRASSHOPPERS

59

0.7 mm 0.5 mm

Fig. 1 . Figs. (A-K): A. Pyrgomorpha conica (Oliver); B. P. brachycera Kirby ;

C. Neorthacris palnensis (Uvarov); D. N. acuticeps (Bolivar); E. Orthacris maindroni (Bolivar);

F. Poekilocerus pictus (Fabricius); G. Autarches miliaris (Linnaeus);

H. Chrotogonus trachypterus (Blanchard); I. Alractomorpha psittacina (Haan);

J. A. himalayica Bolivar; K. A. burri Bolivar.

2.5 mm

60

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

Atractomorpha himalayica Bolivar (Fig.

1 J): Same as in A. psittacina except dorsolateral

appendages broader at apex.

Atractomorpha burri Bolivar (Fig. IK):

Same as in A. psittacina except dorsolateral

appendages which are spatulate.

Subfamily Acridinae

Tribe Truxalini

Truxalis eximia Eichwald (Fig. 2A):

Bridge of epiphallus narrow in middle, posterior

margin deeply concave; ancorae large, tooth -

like, articulated with disc, distance between them

about half the distance between posterior

processes of lateral plates; outer lophi smaller

than inner; dorsolateral appendages absent.

Tribe Acridini

Acrida exaltata (Walker) (Fig. 2B): same

as in T. eximia.

Phlaeoba infumata Brunner (Fig. 2C):

Bridge of epiphallus uniformly narrow, posterior

margin deeply concave; ancorae well developed,

slightly curved and pointed apically, distance

between them more than half the distance

between posterior processes of lateral plates;

lophi lobe - like; dorsolateral appendages absent.

Tribe Locustini

Gastrimargus africanus (Saussure) (Fig.

2D): Bridge of epiphallus slightly narrow in the

middle, posterior margin deeply concave,

branches well developed; ancorae long and

slightly curved, distance between them more than

the distance between posterior processes of the

lateral plates; lophi lobe - like; dorsolateral

appendages absent.

Oedaleus abrupt us (Thunberg) (Fig. 2E):

Bridge of epiphallus uniformly narrow, posterior

margin slightly concave, branches small and

widely spaced; ancorae long, distance between

them about one half the distance between

posterior processes of the lateral plates; lophi

broadened in middle; dorsolateral appendages

absent.

Oedaleus nigrofasciatus (De Geer) (Fig.

2F): Almost same as in O. abruptus.

Oedaleus senegalensis (Krauss) (Fig. 2G):

Same as in O. abruptus except lophi which are

much dilated, broadened apically.

Aiolopus simulatrix (Walker) (Fig. 2H):

Bridge of epiphallus uniformly narrow, posterior

margin semicircular, branches well developed and

close to each other; ancorae large, distance

between them more than half the distance between

posterior processes of lateral plates; posterior

processes of lateral plates curved inward; lophi

sandal-shaped; dorsolateral appendages absent.

Trilophidia annulata (Thunberg) (Fig. 21):

Bridge of epiphallus uniformly narrow, posterior

margin U - shaped, branches well developed and

near each other; ancorae small and conical,

distance between them half the distance between

posterior processes of lateral plates; lophi well

developed and almost triangular; dorsolateral

appendages absent.

Locusta migratoria (Linnaeus) (Fig. 2J):

Bridge of epiphallus uniformly broad, posterior

margin V - shaped, branches well developed and

close to each other; ancorae small, distance

between them slightly more than half the distance

between posterior processes of lateral plates; lophi

lobe - like; dorsolateral appendages absent.

Acrotylus humbertianus Saussure (Fig.

2K): Bridge of epiphallus narrow in the middle

with small branches; ancorae long and much

curved; distance between them more than the

distance between posterior processes of lateral

plates; posterior processes of lateral plates with

well developed inwardly directed projections;

lophi lobiform; dorsolateral appendages absent.

Morphacris fasciata (Thunberg) (Fig. 2L):

Bridge of epiphallus uniformly broad, posterior

margin U-shaped, branches well developed;

ancorae large, distance between them slightly

smaller than the distance between posterior

TAXONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE OF EPIPHALLUS IN INDIAN GRASSHOPPERS

61

*•*4

3

o

3

Fig. 2. Figs. (A-L): A. Truxalis eximia (Eichwald); B. Acrida exaltata (Walker);

C. Phlaeo infumata Brunner; D. Gastrimargus africanus (Saussure); E. Oedaleus abruptus (Thunberg);

F. 0. nigrofasciatus (De Geer); G. 0. senegalensis (Krauss); H. Aiolopus simulatrix (Walker);

I. Trilophidia annulata (Thunberg); J. Locusta migratoria (Linnaeus); K. Acrotylus humbertianus Saussure;

L .Morphacris fasciata (Thunberg).

62

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (199*'

processes of lateral plates; posterior processes of

lateral plates with well developed triangular

projections; lophi broad; dorsolateral appendages

absent.

Subfamily Catantopinae

Tribe Oxyini

Oxya hyla Serville (Fig. 3A): Bridge of

epiphallus divided medially; ancorae absent;

lateral plates small without anterior processes,

posterior processes small; outer lophi tooth-like;

dorsolateral appendages absent.

Oxya intricata (Stal) (Fig. 3B): Same as in

O. hyla, except bridge of epiphallus with anterior

margin medially having a triangular projection;

outer lophi broad and plate like.

Oxya fuscovittata (Marschall) (Fig. 3C):

Same as in O. hyla, except bridge of epiphallus

widened medially; lateral plates with well

developed anterior and posterior processes; outer

lophi broad, plate-like, truncated apically.

Oxya chinensis (Thunberg) (Fig. 3D):

Same as in O. hyla, except bridge of epiphallus

widened medially; lateral plates with well

developed anterior processes, posterior processes

small; outer lophi triangular and twisted.

Oxya japonica (Thunberg) (Fig. 3E): Same

as in O. hyla, except bridge of epiphallus broad;

lateral plates with well developed anterior

processes; outer lophi well developed and

contiguous with posterior processes, blunt

apically.

Oxya velox (Fabricius) (Fig. 3F): Same as

in O. hyla, except bridge of epiphallus narrow

medially; lateral plates with well developed

anterior processes; outer lophi well developed and

contiguous with posterior processes, inner lophi

broadly triangular.

Gesonula punctifrons (Stal) (Fig. 3G):

Bridge of epiphallus narrow, divided medially;

ancorae absent; lateral plates with indistinct

posterior processes, anterior processes well

developed, having long transverse processes;

outer lophi toothlike, inner lophi lobe-like;

dorsolateral appendages absent.

Tribe Hemiacridini

Hieroglyphus banian (Fabricius) (Fig.

3H): Bridge of epiphallus undivided; ancorae

small and toothlike, distance between them

slightly more than the distance between posterior

processes of lateral plates; lophi bilobate, outer

larger than inner; dorsolateral appendages absent.

Hieroglyphus nigrorepletus Bolivar (Fig.

31): Same as in H. banian, except bridge of

epiphallus much widened in the middle; lophi

broad and platelike.

Hieroglyphus oryzivorus Carl (Fig. 3J):

Same as in H. banian, except bridge of epiphallus

moderately broad; lophi broad and triangular.

Spathosternum prasiniferum (Walker)

(Fig. 3K): Bridge of epiphallus uniformly broad,

undivided, posterior margin deeply concave;

dorsolateral appendages absent.

Tribe Catantopini

Catantops pinguis (Stal) (Fig. 4A): Bridge

of epiphallus continuous, ancorae blunt; lophi

lobe - like, close to posterior margin of bridge;

dorsolateral appendages absent.

Xenocatantops humilis (Serville) (Fig.

4B): Bridge of epiphallus broad medially; ancorae

large, truncated; lophi elongated and transverse;

dorsolateral appendages absent.

Catantops karnyi Kirby (Fig. 4C): Bridge

of epiphallus narrow, posterior margin U -

shaped; ancorae straight, conical; lateral plates

with anterior and posterior processes small;

dorsolateral appendages absent.

Navasia insularis Kirby (Fig. 4D): Bridge

of epiphallus narrow in middle, posterior margin

U - shaped; ancorae narrow and curved, distance

between them slightly more than the distance

between posterior processes of lateral plates;

lateral plates with anterior processes triangular;

lophi small; dorsolateral appendages absent.

2 mm

TAXONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE OF EPIPHALLUS IN INDIAN GRASSHOPPERS

63

0.7 mm

Fig. 3. Figs. (A-K): A. Oxya hyla Serville; B. O. intricata (Stal); C. O. fuscovittata (Marschall);

D. O. chinensis (Thunberg); E. O. japonica (Thunberg); F. O. velox (Fabricius);

I. H. nigrorepletus Bolivar; J. H. oryzivorus Carl; K. Spathosternum prasiniferum (Walker).

64

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 95 (1998)

Tribe Cyrtacanthacridini

Cyrtacanthacris tatarica (Linnaeus) (Fig.

4E): Bridge of epiphallus of uniform width;

ancorae absent; posterior processes of lateral

plates with conical projections; dorsolateral

appendages absent.

Pachyacris violascens (Walker) (Fig. 4F):

Bridge of epiphallus narrow in the middle;

ancorae small, lateral plates with anterior

processes small, posterior processes developed;

lophi large; dorsolateral appendages absent.

Patanga succincta (Johansson) (Fig. 4G):

Bridge of epiphallus narrow in the middle;

ancorae absent; lateral plates with anterior

processes very small, posterior processes well

developed; lophi large and triangular; dorsolateral

appendages absent.

Tribe Coptacridini

Eucoptacra binghamii Uvarov (Fig. 4H):

Bridge of epiphallus divided medially; ancorae

toothlike, distance between them more than half

the distance between posterior processes of lateral

plates; outer lophi lobe-like; dorsolateral

appendages absent.

Eucoptacra praemorsa (Stal) (Fig. 41):

Same as in E. binghamii, except lophi crescent

shaped.

Tribe Eyprepocnemidini

Tylotropidius varicornis (Walker) (Fig.

4J): Bridge of epiphallus very narrow in the

middle, undivided, posterior margin U - shaped;

ancorae small, toothlike, with acute apex; lateral

plates with anterior processes small, posterior

processes indistinct; lophi large; dorsolateral

appendages absent.

Heteracris nobilis (Uvarov) (Fig. 4K):

Bridge of epiphallus broad, undivided medially;

a groove in the middle present; ancorae well

developed; lateral plates with anterior and

posterior processes small; outer lophi long and

close to posterior margin of bridge; dorsolateral

appendages absent.

Eyprepocnemis alacris (Serville) (Fig. 4L):

Bridge of epiphallus narrow in the middle,

undivided, posterior margin semicircular; ancorae

small, hooklike, with acute apex and fused with

anterior processes of lateral plates, lophi large,

lobiform; dorsolateral appendages absent.

Discussion

Dirsh (1956), Kevan et al. (1970, 1971,

1974) treated Pyrgomorphidae, Acrididae and

Catantopidae as distinct families on the basis of

presence or absence of dorsolateral appendages

and ancorae on epiphallus. Kevan et al. (1975)

and Harz (1975) recognised Pyrgomorphini,

Orthacridini, Poekilocerini, Taphronotini,

Chrotogonini and Atractomorphini as tribes of

the subfamily Pyrgomorphinae; Truxalini,

Acridini, Locustini as tribes of the subfamily

Acridinae; Oxyini, Hemiacridini, Catantopini,

Cyrtacanthacridini, Coptacridini and

Eyprepocnemidini as tribes of the subfamily

Catantopinae on the basis of the modification of

the phallic structures. Eades et al. ( 1 974) regarded

Atractomorphini as a separate tribe only on the

basis of the anchorlike form of the epiphallus.

Similarly, in the present study, dorsolateral

appendages (“dorsolateral appendices of

epiphallus” of Dirsh, 1956) are present in

Pyrgomorphinae (Fig. 1, A-K) and these are

absent in the remaining subfamilies i.e.

Acridinae (Figs. 2, A-L) and Catantopinae (Figs.

3, A-K, 4A-L). These are good subfamilial

characters. Ancorae are absent in Pyrgomorphini

(Figs. 1, A-K), Oxyni (Figs. 3, A-G) and

Cyrtacanthacridini (Figs. 4 A, E-G) and well

developed in the remaining tribes. Bridge of

epiphallus is divided medially in Oxyini (Figs.

3, A-G), Coptacridini (Figs. 4, H-I) and undivided

in the remaining tribes. These are reliable tribe

characters.

It can be concluded that hump - shaped,

bridge - shaped, unilobate or bilobate condition

TAXONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE OF EPIPHALLUS IN INDIAN GRASSHOPPERS

65

Fig. 4. Figs. (A-L): A. Catantops pinguis (Stal); B. Xenocatantops humilis (Serville);

C. Catatops karnyi Kirby; D. Navasia insularis Kirby; E. Cyrtacanthacris tatarica (Linnaeus);

F. Pachyacris violascens (Walker); G. Patanga succincta (Johansson); H. Eucoptacra binghamii Uvarov;

I. E. praemorsa (Stal); J. Tylotropidius varicornis (Walker); K. Heteracris nobilis (Uvarov);

L. Eyprepocnemis alacris (Serville).

66

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

of lophi of epiphallus and presence or absence of

branch of bridge connecting lophi with bridge

are significant generic characters. Moreover, size

of anterior and posterior lobes of lophi of

epiphallus, and the size and shape of ancorae are

stable specific characters. Comparative study of

such phallic structures can provide stable

taxonomic values for subfamilies, tribes, genera

Refer

Dirsh, V.M. (1956): The phallic complex in Acridoidea

(Orthoptera) in relation to taxonomy. Trans. R. ent.

Soc. London. 1 08: 223-36.

Eades, D.C. & D.K. McE. Kevan (1974): The phallic

musculature of Pyrgomorphidae, with particular

reference to Atractomorpha sinensis sinensis Bolivar,

and notes on the family Tristiridae and the subfamily

Pyrgacridinae, Nov, (Orthoptera Acridoidae). Acrida

3 (4): 247-265.

Harz, K. (1975): The Orthoptera of Europe. II. Dr. W.

Junk, The Hague, VIII + 939 pp.

Kevan, D.K. McE. & Y.K. Chen (1969): A revised

synopsis of the genus Atractomorpha Saussure, 1 862

(Orthoptera, Pyrgomorphidae), with an account of the

African aberrans - group. Zool. J. Linn. Soc. London,

48: 141-198.

Kevan, D.K. McE., S.S. Akbar & Y.C. Chang (1970):

The concealed copulatory structures of the

Pyrgormorphidae (Orth. Acridoidea) Part-II, Tribes

Fijipyrgini, Verduliini, Brunniellini, Psednurini,

Mitricephalini, Geloiini, Sagittacridini, Gymnohippini

and Malagasphenini, Eos, Madrid, 45: 173-228.

Kevan, D.K.McE., S.S. Akbar & Y.C. Chang (1971):

The concealed copulatory structures of

Pyrgomorphidae (Orth. Acridoidea). Part-Ill. Tribes

Chapmanacridini, Ichthiacridini, Ichthyotettigini,

Orthacridini, Popoviini and Nereiini, EOS, Madrid,

46: 123-208.

and species within the family Acrididae.

Acknowledgement

The authors are thankful to the Head,

Department of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim

University, Aligarh for providing research

facilities.

NCES

Kevan, D.K.McE., S.S. Akbar & Y.C. Chang (1972):

The concealed copulatory structures of

Pyrgomorphidae (Orth. Acridoidea). Part-IV. Tribes

Desmopterini, Monistrini, Chlorizeinini, Poekilocerini

and Phymateini. Eos Madrid. 47: 137-234.

Kevan, D.K.McE., S.S. Abkar & Y.C. Chang (1974):

The concealed copulatory structures of

Pyrgomorphidae (Orth. Acridoidea). Part-V. Tribes

Schulthessiini, Taphronotini, Dictyophorini,

Tagastini, Pseudomorphacridini, Atractomorphini,

Sphenariini and Omurini. Eos, Madrid, 48: 203-

294.

Kevan, D.K.McE., S.S. Akbar & Y.C. Chang (1975):

The concealed copulatory structures of the

Pyrgomorphidae (Orth. Acridoidea) Part- VI. Tribes

Pyrgomorphini and Chrotogonini. Eos, Madrid, 49:

131-218.

Meinodas, K. (1986): Studies on the taxonomy of the

family Acrididae (Orthoptera: Acridoidea). Ph.D.

Thesis, A.M.U. Aligarh, 292 pp.

Roberts, H.R. (1941): A comparative study of the

subfamily of the Acrididae (Orthoptera) primarily on

the basis of their phallic structures. Proc. Acad. nat.

Sci. Philad 93: 201-246.

Usmani, M.K. & S.A.Shafee (1983): A new genus and

two species of the subfamily Acridinae (Orthoptera:

Acrididae) from India. Mitt. Schweiz. Ent. Gessell.

56: 401-403.

LARGE HERONRIES IN KUTCH AND THE NESTING OF GLOSSY IBIS

PLEGADIS FALCINELLUS AT LUNA JHEEL, KUTCH, GUJARAT, INDIA1

J. K. Tiwari2 and Asad R. Rahmani2,3

( With two text-figures)

Key words: Glossy Ibis, Plegadis falcinellus , Ciconiiformes, breeding, Rann of

Kutch, India

While conducting various surveys for the grassland birds in Banni and other areas of Kutch,

we came across some large heronries, and discovered breeding glossy ibis Plegadis

falcinellus. We counted upto 250 nests of glossy ibis in 1992 and 500 in 1 994. No breeding

of glossy ibis and other wading birds took place during the drought year of 1993.

Introduction

The glossy ibis Plegadis falcinellus is a

widely distributed water bird, found in Asia,

Europe, Africa, Central America and on many

islands (Hancock et al. 1992). Ali and Ripley

(1983) and Roberts (1991) describe it as partly

resident and nomadic, and partly a winter visitor.

In the Indian subcontinent so far, the breeding of

glossy ibis has been reported in Sind, Pakistan,

Oudh (north India), Orissa, Assam and Manipur

(Ali, 1945). All these records are very old and

do not mention details of the exact location of

nesting, year of nesting and the number of nests.

In the nonbreeding season, the glossy ibis can be

seen in large flocks in many flooded portions of

Banni grassland and on the edge of the Great and

the Little Rann of Kutch. In the winter of 1992-

94, some 500 to 700 glossy ibis were seen by us

at Vakeria-Dhand, Chhari-Dhand, Servo-Dhand,

Kheeijog-Dhand, Abhada-Jheel and Mokar- Jheel

(Dhand in Sindhi-Kutchi means a shallow

seasonal lake).

Study Area

In June 1992, our field station was set up

at Fulay village to study the ecology of Banni

'Accepted February, 1 996.

^Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House,

S. B. Singh Road, Bombay- 400 023

3Centre of Wildlife & Ornithology,

Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh- 202 002

grasslands, Kutch dist. Gujarat. The first large

heronry was discovered by us in September 1992

near Luna village. Luna village is located on the

northernmost limit of the Banni grassland. Many

low-lying villages in this region are inundated

by heavy monsoons, causing them to be

seasonally abandoned. Such habitations in the

Banni region are locally known as “jheel

villages” (jheel = shallow wetland).

Survey Results

While conducting various surveys for

grassland birds in the Banni and other areas of

Kutch, we discovered four large heronries

(Fig 1.), described below:

A. Luna Heronry: On 30th September

1992 at Luna village on the edge of the Great

Rann of Kutch, about 80 km northwest of Bhuj,

we came across a huge heronry where eight

species of birds were nesting, the glossy ibis being

one of them (Tiwari 1993) (Table 1 for other

species). From September 1992 to December

1994, the Luna heronry was visited many times.

Owing to poor rainfall in 1993 (60 mm only),

the Luna jheel was dry, hence nesting birds were

absent from the heronry, but during two good

rainfall years, a large number of nests were

recorded at Luna on 30th September, 1992, and

7th August, 1994. Many nests at that time had

grown up young ones. We therefore presume

that the nest building and incubation must have

68

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

0 e 16 24

• Heronry- Site

Fig. 1. Large Heronries of Kutch dist. Gujarat (India)

started in June or July. The fledglings leave the

nest by the end of September or October.

The Luna heronry is reputed to be about

50 years old. According to the villagers, after a

good monsoon, the glossy ibis breeds regularly

in Luna, along with other species. The discovery

of such a large breeding colony of glossy ibis is a

record from western India.

Most of the nests were found on mesquite

Prosopis juliflora and Acacia nilotica trees.

During good rainfall years, water depth in Luna

varies from 0.5 m to 2.5 m. Snails, fishes and

frogs are abundant in the jheel. Besides fish and

macro-invertebrates, the glossy ibises were

observed feeding snails to their nestlings.

Upto five nests were seen on any one tree.

The nearest nesting neighbours of the glossy ibis

were mostly cattle egret Bubulcus ibis or night

heron Nycticorax nycticorax . In August 1994,

torrential rains caused heavy damage to the

nesting colony at Luna, but the colony was re-

established by the birds within a period of about

20 days. The year 1994 received unusually heavy

rainfall (1250 mm), whereas the mean annual

rainfall for Kutch dist. is 340 mm.

Nestlings of glossy ibis, about one to three

weeks old, have a pinkish rose coloured bill with

two black bands on it, one broad band in the

middle and one on top. The overall body

coloration of the young bird is faded blackish

brown. The number of young birds in the nest

varied from one to three. House crows Corvus

splendens were observed preying on the nestlings

of waterbirds including about one to two weeks

old young ones of the glossy ibis.

A large spoonbill colony was found in Luna

jheel in 1994, but it was located about half a

kilometre from the main heronry. The reason for

this could be that 1 to 2 m high bushes, which are

utilised by the spoonbills for nesting, were present

LARGE HERONRIES IN KUTCH

69

Table 1

LUNA HERONRY* NEST DETAILS

* Most numbers are approximate

only in that area.

B. Chhari-Dhand: This colony was in a

seasonal saucer-shaped natural depression in the

Banni grassland which fills with water during

rains. The area and depth of this wetland varies

with rainfall. The maximum area recorded is

around 80 sq. km after 640 mm rains in 1992.

During the monsoon, the entire area around

Chhari-Dhand gets flooded and the excess water

then flows down to the Great Rann of Kutch.

Thick mats of Eleocharis reeds, 1 to 2 m high

grow on the outer fringes of Chhari-Dhand. The

depth of this wetland varies from 0.5 to 1.5 m.

Tamarix sp . and Salvador a persica bushes grow

scattered in the wetland area. About 3,600 nests

of five species of waterbirds were estimated in

1994. We used boats to reach the breeding colony

and on each bush/tree counted the nests.

C. Devisar: This is a shallow 4 sq. km lake

near Rudramata Dam, 1 5 km from Bhuj, the district

headquarters of Kutch. Five species of egrets and

herons nest here in the month of August and

September after a well set monsoon. We estimated

800 to 1000 nests in September 1992.

D. Ningal: S. N. Varu, a keen ornithologist

of Bhuj, found a heronry near Anjar village where

painted storks Mycteria leucocephala nest

regularly after a good monsoon. In September

1992, he estimated up to 200 nests.

Table 2

CHHARI-DHAND NEST DETAILS

Discussion

Nesting success and rainfall : In the study

area, nesting of wading birds depends clearly on

the amount of rainfall. This seems to be

particularly true for the glossy ibis. There are no

perennial natural waterbodies in the saline desert

of Kutch. The major colony sites in Kutch are

located either near dams and reservoirs or in the

monsoon flooding areas in the Banni grassland

and on the edge of the Great Rann of Kutch. The

rainfall pattern of Kutch is very irregular and

erratic, and so is the nesting of wading birds.

During three years of our study period, no heronry

was seen during the drought year (Fig 2).

We found that water-dependent species

such as the glossy ibis, painted stork, egrets and

herons breed only during good monsoon years.

70

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

o>

x>

c

o

Total no. of

nests

Rainfall

Total no. of

young ones

Fig. 2. Rainfall pattern and nesting of heronry birds at Luna jheel

Strict protection of the bird colonies

is afforded by Luna villagers to the heronry.

A few years ago a pastoral community from a

neighbouring village used to collect young

birds for food, an activity which has now

stopped. Large scale commercial fishing with-

out licence at Chhari-Dhand is today the main

threat to the nesting birds, because it depletes

their food. Pumping of water from Devisar

and Ningal sites by farmers creates further

problems for the nesting birds because this

reduces the extent of the feeding areas.

According to the villagers, the painted stork

used to nest in large numbers in Luna heronry,

but now it has stopped. The reason could

be the collection of the young ones in the

past.

Ali, S. (1945): The Birds of Kutch. Oxford University

Press, London.

Ali, S. & S.D. Rjpley (1983): The Handbook of the Birds

of India and Pakistan (Compact edition). Oxford

University Press, Delhi.

Hancock, J. A, J. A. Kushlan & M. P. Kahl ( 1 992): Storks,

Ibises, and Spoonbills of the World. London Academic

ACKNOW LEDG EM ENTS

This study was done under the Grassland

Ecology Project, funded by the U. S. Fish &

Wildlife Service, and sponsored by the Ministry

of Environment and Forests, Govt, of India. We

are grateful to Mr David Ferguson and Prof. Mark

Behan of the USFWS, to Dr Jay Samant, former

Director, BNHS, and Prof. A. H. Musavi, former

Chairman, Centre of Wildlife & Ornithology,

Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. Mr. S. N.

Varu and Ashwin Pomal provided information

on Devisar and Ningal. We thank Mr

Himmatsinhji and Dr. Malcolm Coulter for their

kind suggestions. Lastly, we thank Muhammad

Saidad and Mehboob Alam for assisting us in the

field.

ENC ES

Press. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Publishers.

Roberts, T. J. (1991): The Birds of Pakistan, (Vol I).

Oxford University Press, Karachi.

Tiwari, J. K. (1993): New Breeding site for Glossy Ibis

Plegadis falcinellus in India. Specialist Group on

Storks, Ibises, and Spoonbills Newsletter. Vol. 6 No.

1 & 2: 5-6

HOST PLANT RANGE OF ARBOREAL NESTING RED ANTS

IN KANYAKUMARI DISTRICT OF TAMIL NADU (INDIA)1

V. Kumaresan2

Key words: Host range, red weaver ants, Oecophylla smaragdina.

In Kanyakumari dist. 68 species of flowering plants harbour Asian red weaver

ants ( Oecophylla smaragdina Fb.). The frequency of arboreal nesting on these

plants has been analysed in this article.

Introduction

Kanyakumari, the southernmost district of

India, lies between 8° 5' - 8° 30' N lat. and between

77° 1 O' - 77° 36' E long., covering an area of 1 ,684

sq. km. Of this, 446 sq. km are forests. All areas,

except forests, were surveyed during this

study.

Red weaver ants are found from India to

Queensland, Australia and Solomon Islands

(Lokkers, 1986.) It is generally believed that the

Asian red weaver ants live in broad leaved

evergreen trees (Bingham, 1903). The present

study reveals that they also live on deciduous

trees, small leaved trees and on some climbers.

Oecophylla smaragdina is a major pest of

some fruit trees and minor pest of some other

trees. It reduces the yield or causes difficulties

during harvesting and management of farms.

Even though it does not cause much direct

damage to the crops, some of its associates are

harmful. However, O. Smaragdina has been

known to protect some plants from harmful

insects (J.D. Tothill et al. 1930). The present

investigation illustrates the frequency of nesting

of arboreal red weaver ants in various species of

flowering plants in the study area.

Material and Methods

Field trips were frequently conducted to

different parts of the study area, and plants were

‘Accepted February, 1997.

:Dept. of Botany, Vivekananda College, Agasteeswaram,

Tamil Nadu-629 701.

observed for nests of red weaver ants. The plants

with red ants were floristically studied and dried

specimens were deposited at the Department of

Botany, Vivekananda College, Agasteeswaram.

The frequency of nesting of red ants, average

number of nests per plant and average number

of leaves found in the nests were recorded.

(Table 1).

Results and Discussion

Table 1 shows the frequency of nesting of

red weaver ants on the plants of the study area.

Red weaver ants build their nests on 68 species

of flowering plants in the area. High frequency

of nesting was noticed on Calophyllum

inophyllum, Thespesia populnea, Anacardium

occidentale, Pithecellobium dulce and Erythrina

variegata.

The frequency of occurrence of nests of red

weaver ants was low (20%) in Polyalthia

longifolia, Hibiscus rosa - sinensis, Citrus acida,

Citrus medica, Murraya koenigii, Azadirachta

indica, Gliricidia maculata, Tamarindus indica,

Albizia lebbeck, Lawsonia inermis, Carica

papaya, Ixora coccinea, Eupatorium

glandulosum, Nerium odorum, Thevetia

peruviana, Ervatamia divaricata, Plumeria

rubra, Brugmansia suaveolens, Manihot

esculenta, Manihot glaziovii, Phyllanthus acidus,

Jatropha glandulifera, J. curcas, Ricinus

communis, Ficus religiosa, F. benghalensis,

Morus australis, Musa paradisiaca, Areca

catechu, Borassus flabellifer, Cocos nucifera and

in Caryota urens. In cultivated species the

72

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 95 (1998)

Table 1

HOST RANGE OF RED WEAVER ANTS IN KANYAKUMARI DISTRICT

HOST PLANT RANGE OF ARBOREAL NESTING RED ANTS

73

Table 1 (contd.)

HOST RANGE OF RED WEAVER ANTS IN KANYAKUMARI DISTRICT

* Arranged according to An Excursion Flora of Central Tamilnadu, India.

▲ Leaf axil, leaf foldings and in bunches.

+ Leaf axil, inflorescence axis, basal portion of leaflets and in bunches.

• In old nests.

74

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

frequency of nesting was poor due to frequent

human interference during cultivation. Nesting

of red weaver ants on cultivated plants indicated

poor management of the plants. Nests were seen

on Azadirachta indica, Albizia lebbeck, Carica

papaya, Manihot esculenta, Musa paradisiaca

and Caryota urens when they were growing near

trees with red weaver ants.

It is generally believed that the red weaver

ants live in broad leaved evergreen trees

(Bingham, 1903), as observed in this study.

However, the occurrence of weaver ants was not

limited to broad leaved and evergreen trees. Plants

with small leaves such as Pithecolobium dulce

and Tamar indus indica also harboured the ants.

The frequency of occurrence is higher in P. dulce

than T. indica. The weaver ants inhabited

T. indica only when the tree was growing in close

association with other trees with dense population

of the ants. The frequency was low in Azadirachta

indica , which might be due to the presence of

azadirachtin in its leaves. However, no

investigation was made to test this.

Evergreen species were more suitable for

nesting than deciduous plants. The red weaver

ants were observed in deciduous plants such as

Bombax ceiba, Eriodendron pentandrum, Ficus

religiosa and F. benghalensis , but the frequency

was low. The frequency was low in F. religiosa

and F. benghalensis even if they were growing

by other plants with dense population of weaver

ants.

Over 80% of the plants inhabited by weaver

ants had leaves with smooth surface and with

poorly developed epidermal hairs. Dense

epidermal hairs on leaves hamper the free

movement of weaver ants and thereby reduce the

frequency of nesting.

There are several reports of the occurrence

of red weavers ants on cultivated species; such as

coconut (Tothill et al. 1930), date palm (Debach,

1974), Citrus spp. Annona reticulata and. Eugenia

caryophyllus (Hill, 1983), jack tree, cashew, litchi

and mango (Seshagiri Rao, 1972), arecanut palm

(Kumaresan, 1994). The present study added

some more plants to the list. Murraya koenigii.

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis. Annona squamosa,

Lawsonia inermis, Morinda coreia, Carica

papaya, Ixora coccinea, Nerium odorum,

Ervatamia divaricata, Plumeria rubra, Ricinus

communis, Phyllanthus acidus; Musa

paradisiaca, Borassus flabellifer, and Caryota

urens were new records. Lack of proper

management and the presence of infested trees

nearby might be the reason for occurrence of

weaver ants on these plants.

Even though in recent years red weaver ants

have been used as biological agents to kill insect

pests of plants, they have been considered as

major or minor pests for some crop plants,

because they spread some pests like coffee green

scales (Hill, 1983).

The spatial separation of the population of

weaver ants and plant species might also be a

reason why the ants did not build nests on some

plants. So it was difficult to identify the species

which were not preferred by weaver ants in the

study area. Artificial introduction of weaver ants

on such plants may give full information

regarding host plant preference by red weaver

ants.

Acknowledgements

I am thankful to Prof. R. Bothi, Head of

the Department of Botany, Vivekananda College,

for encouragement and to Dr. Dunston

P. Ambrose, St. Xavier’s College, Entomology

Research Unit, Palayankottai, for references and

suggestions.

References

Bingham, Lt. Col. C.T. (1903): The Fauna of British India Hill, Dennis, S. (1983): Agricultural Pests of Tropics and

Including Ceylon and Burma. Hymenoptera-II. Today their Control. Cambridge University Press,

and Tomorrow’s Printers & Publishers, New Delhi. Gamble, J.S. & C.E.C. Fisher (1939): The Flora of

HOST PLANT RANGE OF ARBOREAL NESTING RED ANTS

75

Presidency of Madras (3 Vols.) Botanical Survey of

India, Calcutta.

Kumaresan, V. (1994): Myrmecophily: A Harmful

Association on Areca catechu. L.J. SwamyBot. Club.

Vol. 11: 59.

Lokkers, C. (1986): The Distribution of Weaver Ants

Oecophylla smaragdina. (Fabricus) (Hymenoptera:

Formidae) in Northern Australia. Australian Journal

of Zoology. 34(5): 683-687.

Matthew, K.M. (1981): Illustration on the Flora of the

Tamilnadu Carnatic. The Rapinat Herbarium.

Tiruchirapalli.

Matthew, K.M. (1991): An Excursion Flora of Central

Tamilnadu, India. The Rapinat Herbarium.

Tiruchirapalli.

Debach, Paul (1974): Biological Control of Natural

Enemies. Cambridge University Press.

Seshagiri Rao, D. ( 1 972): A Handbook of plant Protection.

S.V. Rangaswami and Co. Pvt. Ltd. Bangalore.

Tothill, J.D., T.H.C. Taylor & P.W. Baine (1930): The

Coconut Moth in Fiji: A History of its Control by

means of Parasites. Publ. Imp. Entomol.

Commonwealth Institute of Entomology, London, pp

269.

INTERSPECIFIC ASSOCIATION OF JACANAS ( HYDROPHASIANUS CHIRURGUS

AND METOPIDIUS INDICUS) AND THE ROLE OF HABITAT1

N.K. Ramachandran2

{With five text-figures)

Key words: Metopidius indicus, Hydrophasianus chirurgus, interspecific

association, habitat similarity, spatial affinity, flocking.

The interactions of the pheasant-tailed jacana Hydrophasianus chirurgus and the

bronzewinged jacana Metopidius indicus with other avian species were studied in a tropical

monsoonal wetland in Bharatpur, Rajasthan, India. All together 25 and 29 species of birds

were recorded in the proximity of the pheasant-tailed and the bronzewinged jacanas

respectively. The pattern of occurrence of the pheasant-tailed and the bronzewinged jacanas

with all other avian species was non-random and the nature (direction) of association was

characterized as negative, because the frequency of occurrence of jacanas with the other

avian species was fewer than their frequency of sighting alone. Season-wise data on

bronzewinged jacana also showed non-random pattern and negative association. The role

of habitat preference of both the species of jacana and their associated species was studied

to determine the nature of their association. Those species which were similar to

bronzewinged jacana in their habitat preference had lesser degree of association (spatial

affinity) with it because the habitat patches were available in plenty. No predation on adult

of both species occurred, except on the eggs of the pheasant-tailed jacana by the marsh

harrier {Circus aeruginosus) during the study period. The agnostic behaviour of both the

species of jacanas and the importance of flocking in the pheasant-tailed jacana as an anti-

predatory strategy have also been discussed.

Introduction

The three broader categories of

interspecific association, namely negative,

positive and none, and assumed to be the response

of a species to its abiotic and biotic factors

(Ludwig and Reynolds 1988). The positive

association between two species may result from

a common response to environmental factors, a

behavioural (social) cohesiveness between the

species or from a behavioural or ecological

repulsion from other areas forcing individuals to

'Accepted October, 1995

2Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, S.B.

Singh Road, Bombay-400 023.

Present Address:

Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History,

Kalampalayam P.O., Coimbatore-641 010, Tamil Nadu.

co-occupy the same general sets of conditions.

Negative associations, on the other hand, may

result from differences in habitat preference,

behavioural exclusion or repulsion, or effect of

past population histories (Pielou 1972; Hubalek

1982).

Studies on the interspecific association

among birds in India are very few (Vijayan 1984;

Rahmani and Manakadan 1987). In jacana

species, interspecific grooming and possible

mutualistic interaction of wattled jacana with

Capybara Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris was

reported (Marcus 1985). To date, there is no

systematic study on the interactions of jacanas

with other avian species. Therefore, a study was

carried out for a period of three years since 1985

with the objective of recording, quantifying and

INTERSPECIFIC ASSOCIA TION OF JA CANAS

11

characterising their interactions with other avian

species.

Study Area

The study was conducted in Keoladeo

National Park, Bharatpur, a man-modified

wetland studied in the Indogangetic plains. The

Park is situated between 27° 7.6' and 27° 12.2'

N, and 77° 29.5' and 77° 33.0' E in Rajasthan.

The total area of the Park is 29 sq. km and out of

this 8.5 sq. km is covered by water during the

years of normal rainfall and water supply. The

aquatic portion of the Park has been divided into

various unequal compartments or blocks by

means of dykes (Fig. 1). The aquatic and semi-

aquatic plants provide the Park with spatial

heterogenity which is very important for

supporting and maintaining diverse avifauna. 115

species of aquatic birds have been recorded from

this area (Ramachandran 1993). The Park

receives water annually from a reservoir - Ajan

bund, situated about 500 m south of the Park.

Methodology

Observations were made walking along the

dykes using binoculars at different times of the

day to cover various activities of the species.

Habitats or vegetation patches were distinguished

using the dominant vegetation. These vegetation

patches were considered as the natural sampling

units or discrete habitable units (Pielou 1977).

When the area of the vegetation patch was very

large (>10 m2), then observations were made

within a 10 m radius of the jacana. This situation

arose only in the case of a superabundant species

of grass Paspalum distichum . All the species

found along with jacanas in each vegetation patch

were counted and recorded. The habitat type and

activity were also recorded for all the species

within the sampling unit.

▲ BHANERA

0 40©

1 _J

M

AGHAPUR

NAGLA NASWAR1A

mmmmmm BOUNDARY WALL

- CANAL

— HARO TOP ROAD

- MOTORASIE ROAD

------ AQUATIC ARIA

. . • FOOTPATH

• • . •

A VILLAGES

MAIN

A BISON MORI

A CHAR RAMNAGAR

RAMNAGA

Fig. 1. Map of Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan, a man-modified wetland

78

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

The habitat similarity and spatial affinity

were computed. The spatial affinity is a measure

of how often two species occur together. This is

a measure of association or congregation or

temporary grouping of individuals in a foraging

area.

Statistical Analysis

To test the hypothesis that the pattern of

occurrence of jacanas with or without other

species is random, a chi-square test was carried

out (Sokal and Rohlf 1981). Once the pattern is

proved non-random, the type of interaction was

attributed as positive or negative, based on the

frequency in both classes. Positive nature was

attributed when the frequency of the jacana

occurring with a particular species was greater

than when it was without the same species.

Similarly negative nature was attributed when the

case was in the reverse. Data were pooled into

three seasons, namely summer (March, April,

May and June) monsoon (July, August,

September and October) and winter (November,

December, January and February) in the case of

the bronzewinged jacana. This was done to

account for the status of the associated species

(i.e. migratory, local resident and locally moving

resident). The seasonal break-up of data was done

only for the bronzewinged because they occurred

through all the seasons, whereas the pheasant-

tailed occurred only in monsoon and winter and

hence no seasonal treatment of data was

attempted. Those species which occurred less

than five times are also included in the analysis

to represent all the species, although their

inclusion is not allowed on statistical grounds

(Greig-Smith 1983).

The spatial affinity or the degree of

association and the similarity in habitat utilization

pattern of jacana and the associated species were

expressed as an index of similarity (Bray and

Curtis 1957).

Similarity index = 2W/(A + B)

where W is the sum of the lesser values of

abundance in the two species compared, A and

B are the sum of abundances of each species. The

value of similarity ranges from 0 (for no

similarity) to 1 (for complete similarity). In spatial

affinity analysis each sighting is treated as such,

so that the influence of their spatial pattern within

the habitat can be accounted for. In order to

examine the role of habitat preference of jacanas

and the associated species in their association,

their habitat preference was compared by pooling

the data habitat-wise and calculating the

similarity.

Results

Association of the Pheasant-tailed Jacana:

The pheasant-tailed was present in good

numbers only during the monsoon and winter of

1986 and 1987, hence data collected only during

those periods were taken for analysis. Even

during those seasons their population was not as

high as in previous years. Therefore, the pattern

of association derived from the data may not be

conclusive. Nevertheless, it indicates the trend.

On the whole 198 observations were made and a

total of 25 species were recorded with the

pheasant-tailed jacana (Table 1).

Association of the pheasant- tailed jacana

with all other species was non-random, and in all

cases frequency of occurrence with each species

was less than that of without those species, thus the

association was negative (Table 1).

Spatial affinity and habitat similarity:

The pond heron Ardeola grayii has the

highest affinity followed by cattle egret Bubulcus

ibis. Another 13 species did not have any affinity

at all (Fig. 2).

The habitat use pattern of the pheasant-

tailed jacana was more similar to that of the

greylag goose Anser anser followed by common

teal Anas crecca, coot Fulica atra, little grebe

Podiceps ruficollis and the bronzewinged jacana

(Fig. 2). Among the rest, while a group of species

INTERSPECIFIC ASSOCIA TION OF JA CANAS

79

Table 1

SPECIES RECORDED ALONG WITH THE PHEASANT-TAILED JACANA AND THE CHI-SQUARE ANALYSIS

FOR TESTING THE NULL HYPOTHESES THAT THE PATTERN OF THEIR OCCURRENCE WITH AND

WITHOUT OTHER AVIAN SPECIES IS RANDOM. EXPECTED FREQUENCY = 99.

* Chi2> Chi2 Q05 and hence all null hypotheses are rejected.

R = Resident; M = Migrant

whose values ranged from 0.06 to 0.01 showed

very little similarity, another group showed no

similarity at all.

Agnostic interactions of the Pheasant-tailed

Jacana;

The marsh harrier Circus aeruginosus was

the main predator of the pheasant-tailed jacana

during 1988, preying mainly on the eggs. During

1986 and 1987, pheasant-tailed jacana were not

breeding inside the Park and their population was

also low. Hence the intensity of predatory

interactions was also less.

During 1986, pheasant-tailed jacana

foraged in flocks of eight to thirteen. Being a

polyandrous species, it has to form groups to

facilitate breeding. The grouping or flocking is

also an anti-predatory tactic and has been reported

in many bird species (Page and Whitacre 1975,

Kenward 1978, Bertram 1980). The pheasant-

tailed becomes alert on the advance of a raptor,

usually from the alarm calls and the subsequent

evading flights of another pheasant-tailed or

member of any associated species feeding in the

vicinity. The pheasant-tailed, being in the vicinity

of other species, benefited in getting early

warnings.

On hearing or seeing the warnings either

from the member of the same species or from

other species of birds in the vicinity, jacanas

80

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

Pond Heron

Cattle Egret

Indian Moornen

Large Egret

Spot bill

Shoveller

LesserWhlstlina Teal

Little §rebe

Pintail

Gadwaii

Wood Sandpiper

Siberian Crane

Whitetaiied Lapwing

Median Egret

Purple Moornen

Grey Heron

Cotton Teal

Purple Heron

Blackwinged Stilt

Bronzewingea Jacana

Coot

Common Teal

Greylag Goose

o

£ Spatial affinity

Habitat similarity

Fig. 2. Spatial affinity and habitat similarity of different avian species with pheasant-tailed jacana

always made aerial escape. They remained on the

wing for a while and later settled in the same place

or in another patch.

Association of the Bronzewinged Jacana with

other species:

Altogether 29 species were sighted along

with the bronzewinged jacana during the period

of study (Table 2). The number of bird species

sighted along with the bronzewinged jacana did

not vary much during winter and monsoon, being

24 and 22 respectively, whereas in summer it did

vary considerably. The majority of species

associated with jacana were resident in all the

three seasons. Only seven species were sighted

along with the bronze winged jacana during

summer, out of which the wood sandpiper was

the only migrant which usually leaves the

wintering ground very late (Table 1). The

decrease in number during summer was due to

the following factors: (1) all the migratory species

left the park towards the end of March, and (2)

many of the resident species started moving out

of the Park in summer as the Park dried up.

The chi-square test on four categories of

data sets, i.e. winter, monsoon, summer and the

total study period revealed a non-random pattern

and, in all cases had negative association, as the

frequency of occurrence of the bronzewinged

jacana without other species was greater than that

with the other species (Table 2).

Spatial affinity and habitat similarity

during winter, summer and monsoon:

winter: During winter, the highest spatial

affinity recorded was for the Indian moorhen

Gallinula chloropus followed by grey heron Ardea

cinerea and pheasant-tailed jacana (Fig. 3).

The habitat utilization pattern of the

whistling teal Dendrocygna javanica had the

highest similarity with that of die bronze winged

jacana, followed by the yellow wagtail Motacilla

flava (Fig. 3). Median egret Egretta intermedia

and shoveller Anas clypeata showed no similarity

to the bronze winged jacana in their habitat

utilization pattern.

Table 2

THE CHI-SQUARE ANALYSIS FOR TESTING THE HYPOTHESES THAT THE PATTERNS OF OCCURRENCE OF THE

BRONZEWINGED JACANA WITH AND WITHOUT OTHER AVIAN SPECIES ARE RANDOM

INTERSPECIFIC ASSOCIA TION OF J AC AN AS

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82

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

Indian Moorhen

Grey Heron

P.Jacana

Wood Sandpiper

Spotbil!

Biackwinged Stilt

Gad wall

Snake bird

Median Egret

Little Grebe

Pintail

W.B. Waterhen

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Coot

Yellow Wagtail

Shoveller

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Pied Myna

Comb Duck

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LesserWhistling Teal

0.13

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during winter

Pied Myna

Redwattled Lapwing

Little Egret

Wood Sandpiper

Indian Moorhen

Grey Heron

Pond Heron

Spatial

affinity

Habitat

similarity

Fig. 4. Spatial affinity

and habitat similarity

of different avian

species with

bronzewinged jacana

during summer

summer: The pied myna Sturnus contra

had the highest affinity towards the

bronze winged jacana during summer, as the

former came in flocks to the drying marshes

for foraging, and got associated with the

bronzewinged jacana (Fig. 4). The rest of the

associated species had no affinity towards the

bronzewinged jacana. The habitat utilization

pattern of the pond heron showed higher

similarity with that of the bronze winged jacana

(Fig. 4).

monsoon: The highest affinity during

monsoon was shown by the little egret Egretta

garzetta, followed by wood sandpiper Tringa

INTERSPECIFIC ASSOCIA TION OF JA CAN AS

83

Little Egret

Wood Sandpiper

P. Jacana

Pied Myna

Large Cormorant

Shoveller

Pintail

Coot

Purple Moorhen

Snake bird

Median Egret

Indian Moorhen

Crey Heron

Large Egret

LesserWhlstling Teal

Pond Heron

Purple Heron

Common Teal

Cotton Teal

Cattle Egret

W.B. Waterhen

Spatial affinity

Habitat similarity

Fig. 5. Spatial affinity and habitat similarity of different avian species with bronze winged jacana

during monsoon

glareola, pheasant- tailed jacana and pied myna

(Fig. 5). The Indian moorhen showed the highest

similarity in habitat use pattern to the

bronzewinged jacana (Fig. 5).

The values of spatial similarity and habitat

similarity were insignificant in all the seasons.

However, the pattern obtained is worth

mentioning; the values of spatial affinities in

different seasons reveal that none of the species

had shown consistent affinity throughout

the season. This is more clear during winter and

monsoon. If the species were consistently

showing more or less the same affinities towards

bronzewinged jacana during both the seasons,

they could be interpreted as associated. But

the case was reverse, which further corro-

borates the result obtained from the association

analysis.

Agnostic interaction of the Bronzewinged

Jacana:

Agnostic interspecific interactions in the

bronzewinged jacana were noted only in the

breeding season, which is associated with the

protection of young ones. On one occasion they

were found chasing away the Indian moorhen.

Mathew (1964) reports that they chase away

waterhen Amaurornis phoenicurus and pond

heron. Chattopadhyay (1981) narrated an incident

in which the bronze winged jacana aggressively

defended an injured chick from intruders, namely

cotton teal Nettapus coromandelinus, lesser

whistling teal, pheasant-tailed jacana,

whitebreasted kingfisher Halcyon smyrnensis and

little grebe. In the present study, no such

interactions were observed against

these species, probably because they are not

84

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

actual predators. Only the marsh harrier, which

is an important predator of this bird was found

eliciting an aggressive response from this bird

and on one occasion a harrier was physically

assaulted by the bronzewinged in defence of its

chick. This type of antipredator behaviour was

reported in Northern jacana spinosa against the

American purple gallinule Gallinula martinica

which is a predator of its eggs (Stephens 1984a,

1984b).

Discussion

Pielou (1972) discussed three ways by

which negative association is effected: (1)

differences in habitat preferences, (2) behavioural

exclusion or repulsion and (3) effect of past

population histories. In jacanas, difference in

habitat preference resulted in negative association

in some cases, whereas in certain cases this is

through spatial segregation.

A comparison of the values of spatial

affinity with those of habitat similarity of the

associated species revealed that in general the

species with higher affinity values had lower

habitat similarity with the pheasant- tailed jacana

(Fig. 2). The bronzewinged also reflect almost

the same trend in all three seasons (Figs. 3, 4

& 5). This indicated that resources (vegetation

patches) are abundant for those species having

higher overlap with the jacanas and there-

fore, they spatially distribute each other in such

a way resulting in negative association. Never-

theless, the pattern obtained for the bronze-

winged jacana during winter did not clearly show

this relationship (Fig. 5), for there are birds

showing medium tendencies in their relationship

between spatial affinity and habitat similarity.

This may either be due to the high density of the

associated species or the limited patch

availability.

The marsh harrier seems to be the only

important predator of bronze winged jacana. This

bird invited aggressive physical assault from

the bronzewinged and this type of direct

antagonistic reaction is reported in Northern

jacana also against the purple gallinule (Stephens

• 1984a, 1984b).

Flocking is an anti-predatory tactic in

many bird species (Page and Whitacre 1975,

Kenward 1978, Bertram 1980). Here, the Flock

is defined as a semipermanent cohesive group of

individuals of the same species, showing

synchronized behaviour. The pheasant-tailed

jacana forms only single species flocks. Birds

in flocks may be safer than solitary individuals

for at least three reasons (i) individuals in a group

may detect predators better or earlier than

smaller groups or solitary individuals (Pulliam

1973; Siegfried and Underhill 1975, Kenward

1978; Lazarus 1979), (ii) a predator which attacks

a group of prey may become confused and catch

fewer prey (Neill and Cullen 1974, Milinsky

1979; Randaue and Terborgh 1986), and (iii) an

individual in a group may reduce its chance of

being caught simply because of a dilution-effect

(Foster and Treheme 1981, Powell 1974). Carco

et al. 1980 predicted that small birds which live

in flocks (<20) respond to increased risk of

predation by increasing group size. The flock size

of pheasant-tailed jacana ranged from 8 to 13

throughout the study period and no increase in

the group size was noticed. Thirteen was the

maximum population size during the winter of

1986. McWilliams et al. (1984) also did not

observe flock size increase in cackling geese and

Ross’ geese ( Branta canadensis minima and Chen

rossii) in relation to increased predation risk. They

suspect that the flock size of these species is

primarily dictated by the distribution and

abundance of food plants and the local population

size of geese. It may be true in the case of

pheasant-tailed jacana also, where the local

population size would have decided the flock

size.

Conclusion

The pattern of occurrence of the pheasant-

tailed and bronzewinged jacanas with all other

INTERSPECIFIC ASSOCIA TION OF JACANAS

85

avian species was non-random and the nature

of association was characterized as negative, as

the frequency of occurrence with other avian

species was less than without them. The

bronzewinged jacana, when treated season-wise,

also showed non-random pattern and negative

association.

Those species which showed higher

similarity in their habitat preference to that of the

bronzewinged jacana showed lesser affinity

towards it. None of the species showed consistent

affinity with bronzewinged jacana in any season,

especially during monsoon and winter, which

proves that they are negatively associated

with it.

Acknowledgement

The study was conducted as part of the

BNHS’ multidisciplinary study on the ecology of

Keoladeo National Park funded by the US Fish &

Wildlife Service and sponsored by Govt, of India.

I thank Dr. V.S. Vijayan, Director SACON, for his

guidance and encouragement. I am indebted to Mr.

J.C. Daniel, Bombay Natural History Society for

encouragement. I am thankful to Dr. P.A. Azeez

of Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural

History for critically commenting on an earlier

version of the manuscript. I am grateful to Rajasthan

Forest Department officials for extending their

cooperation during the study.

References

Betram, B.C.R. (1980): Vigilance and group size in

ostriches. Anim. Behav. 28: 278-286.

Bray, J.R. & J.T. Curtis (1957): An ordination of the

upland forest communities of southern Wisconsin.

Acyl. Monograph 27: 351-384.

Carco, T., M.S. Martindale & H.R. Pulliam (1980):

Avian flocking in the presence of a predator. Nature

285: 400-401.

Chattopadhyay, S. ( 1 98 1 ): Observations on the parental

care of a wounded chick of the Bronzewinged Jacana,

Metopidius indicus (Latham). J Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 77: 325.

Foster, W.A. & J.C. Treherne (1981): Evidence for the

dilution effect in the shelfish herd from fish predation

on a marine insect. Nature 293: 466-467.

Greig-Smith, P. (1983): Quantitative plant ecology. 3rd

edn, Blackwell Sci. Pub., London.

Hubalek, Z. (1982): Coefficients of association and

similarity based on binary (presence-absence) data:

An evaluation. Biological Reviews 57: 669-689.

Kenward, R.E. (1978): Hawks and doves: factors

affecting success and selection in Goshawk attacks

on wood Pigeons. J. Anim. Acyl 47: 449-460.

Lazarus, J. (1979): Vigilance, flock size and domain of

danger in the White-fronted goose. Wildfowl 29:

135-146.

Ludwig, J.A. & J.R. Reynolds’(1988): Statistical Ecology:

A primer on methods and computing. John Wiley &

Sons, New York.

Marcus, M.J. (1985): Feeding association between

capybaras and jacanas a case of interspecific

grooming and possible mutualism. Ibis 240-243.

Mathew, D.N. (1964): Observations on the breeding habits

of the Bronzewinged Jacana ( Metopodius indicus

Lantham) J. Bombay nat. Hist Soc. 61(2): 295-302.

McWilliams, S.R., J.N. Dunn & D.G. Ravelling (1994):

Predator and prey interactions between eagles and

Cackling Canada and Ross’ geese during winter in

California. Wilson Bull. 106: 272-288.

Milinsky, M. (1979): Can an experienced predator

overcome the confusion of swarming prey more

easily? Anik. Behav. 27-1 122-1126.

Neill, S.R. St. J. & J.M. Cullen (1974): Experiments on

whether schooling by their prey affects the hunting

behaviour of cephalopods and fish predators. J. Zool.

172: 549-569.

Page, G. & D.E. Whit acre (1975): Raptor predation on

wintering shorebirds. Condor 77: 73-83.

Pielqu, E.C. (1972): Measurement of structure in animal

communities, In Ecosystem structure and Junction

(Ed. J.A. Wiens). Oregon State Univ. Press,

Corvallis, Oregon.

Pielou, E.C. (1977): Mathematical Ecology. Wiley

Interscience, NY, USA.

Powell, G.V.N. (1974): Experimental analysis of the

social value of flocking by starling {Sturnus vulgaris )

in relation to predation and foraging. Anim. Behav.

22: 501-505.

Pulliam, H.R. (1973): On the advantage of flocking. J.

Theor. Biol 38: 419-422.

Ramachandran, N.K. (1993): Comparative ecology of

the Pheasant-tailed and Bronzewinged jacanas in

86

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 95 (1998)

Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan. Ph.D.

Thesis, University of Bombay.

Rahmani, A.R. & R. Manakadan (1987): Interspecific

behaviour of the Great Indian Bustard Ardeotis

nigriceps (Vigors). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84(2):

317-331.

Randaue J. & Terborgh (1986): Oddity and the

“confusion effect” in predation. Anim. Behav. 34:

1372-1380.

Siegfried, W.R. & L.G. Underhill (1975): Flocking as

an anti-predator strategy in doves. Anim. Behav 23:

504-508.

Sokal, P.R. & F.J. Rohlf (1981): Biometry, 2nd edn.,

W.H. Freeman and Co., San Francisco, California.

Stephens, M.L. (1984a): Intraspecific aggression in the

polyandrous Northern Jacana: Its function and the role

of females. Auk 101: 508-518.

Stephens, M.L. (1984b): Intraspecific distraction displays

of the polyandrous Northern Jacana, Jacana spinosa.

Ibis 126: 70-72.

Vijayan, L. (1984): Comparative biology of Drongos

(Family Dicruridae, Class Aves) with special

reference to ecological isolation. Ph.D. Thesis,

University of Bombay.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

GLYPTOTHORAX DA VISSINGiil (PISCES: SISORIDAE) A NEW CAT FISH FROM

NILAMBUR IN THE NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE, SOUTH INDIA'

A. Manimekalan* 2*3 & H.S.Das2

( With three text-figures)

A new species of Glyptothorax is described from Karim Puzha, Nilambur, Western Ghats.

The specimen is different from all other known Glyptothorax species, characterised by

dorsal fin serrated posteriorly, plaited paired fins, adhesive apparatus with distinct central

pit and occipital process not reaching the basal bone of the dorsal fin.

I

Introduction

During the course of our survey of fishes

in the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (NBR), a

specimen of a new Glyptothorax, Sisoridae was

collected from the Karim Puzha and its tributary

Panna Puzha, Maancheri, Nilambur forest

(Kerala), a part of the Nilgiri Bisphere Reserve

(NBR) of Western Ghats.

Karim Puzha is one of the westward

flowing river systems in the Chaliyar river basin.

It originates from the Kundah hills and drains

through the steep western slopes of the Nilgiri

hills (Nilambur, Maancheri, Edakode and New

Amarambalam) with a series of rapids, cascades

and falls. Karim Puzha is one of the main water

source among the other three rivers (Chaliyar

Puzha, Punna Puzha and Pallisseri Puzha) in

Chaliyar river basin. It flows through the dense

moist evergreen forest areas of Nilambur Reserve

Forest.

Five specimens of Glyptothorax have been

collected from river Karim Puzha during the

survey. Occurrence of Tor khudree, a rare and

threatened fish species of Karim Puzha here, is

'Accepted July, 1996

2Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History

(SACON),

Kalampalayam P.O., Coimbatore-641 010. Tamil Nadu.

3Present address:

Senior Research Fellow (CSIR),

Centre for Environmental Sciences,

Manonmaniam Sundaranar University,

Alwarkurichi, Tamil Nadu 627 412.

remarkable. Karim Puzha is a good breeding

habitat for Tor khudree. The present species

differs from all other Glyptothorax species

described so far: Menon ( 1 954), Jayaram (1981),

Day (1994) and Talwar and Jhingran (1991).

Glyptothorax davissinghi sp. nov.

(Fig. 1)

Material and Methods

Material examined: 5 specimens 68.0-

121.0 mm standard length (SL), from Karim

Puzha and its tributary Panna Puzha, Maancheri,

Nilambur forest, Kerala. The first specimen was

collected when tribals (Cholanayakan) were

demonstrating a traditional fishing technique by

using plant material (bark of Acacia intsia) as

fish poison. Later, some individuals were

collected by dip netting under and around rocks.

Specimens were measured using dial calipers

with a least count of 0.02 mm, following standard

practices. Description of the new species is

based on the pooled average of all the samples

(Table 1). Data is presented as standard length

(SL) and head length (HL), with the mean

followed by the range in parenthesis.

Diagnosis: Head and snout greatly

depressed and broad. Eyes small, superior,

subcutaneous. 8 barbels — 2 nasal barbels, 2

maxillary barbels and four mandibular barbels.

Maxillary longer with broad base reaching

beyond base of pectoral fin. Mandibular barbels

do not reach gill opening. Adhesive apparatus

Fig. 1. Lateral view of Glyptothorax davissinghi sp. nov., 121.0 mm SL.

Fig. 2. Plaited paired fins and adhesive apparatus

with distinct central pit.

well developed with distinct central pit (Fig 2).

Dorsal fin serrated posteriorly. All fins with white

edges. Plaited paired fins with serration. Origin

of dorsal fin closer to snout than to caudal.

Occipital process not reaching dorsal fin base

Fig. 3. Occipital process not reaching the basal bone

of the dorsal fin.

(Fig. 3). Body with rough granular skin, dark

grey without bands. Lips not fringed. Ventral side

of the body golden in colour in living condition

and white on preservation, up to ventral fin.

Caudal fin deeply forked.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

89

Table 1

MORPHOMETRIC DATA OF GLYPTOTHORAX DAVISSINGHI

SP. NOV. (5 SPECIMENS)

Standard length

99.2 mm (68.0- 12 1.0)

Description: (Table 1) D. 1/6; P. 1/9-10;

V. 1/8, a. 2/5; C. 6/16-18. Dorsal side of the body

convex, ventral side almost flat. Length of head

5.39 (5.14-5.59) in total length (TL), 4.48 (4.32-

4.51) in standard length, its depth 2.13 (2.00-

2.33) and width 1.21 (1.17-1.24) in head length;

body depth 6.52 (6.00-6.87) in total length; 6.22

(5.76-6.48) in standard length; predorsal distance

3.03 (2.76-3.16), postdorsal distance 1.26 (1.21-

1 .32), distance from pectoral base to pelvic base

(3.70 (3.62-3.81), distance from pelvic to anal

4.55 (4.38-4.84), length of body cavity 2.08

(2.00-02. 1 5) in SL; dorsal situated closer to snout

than to caudal base; last unbranched ray strong,

posteriorly serrated; postdorsal distance 0.41

(0.42-0.46) in predorsal distance; height of dorsal

fin 6.12 (5.88-6.72) SL and 1.37 (1.29-1.56) in

head length; base of dorsal fin 1.51 (1.38-1.55)

in dorsal fin height; length of pectoral fin 4.52

(4.23-4.95) in SL and 1.23 (1.04-1.47) in HL;

pelvic fin 5.27 (5.22-5.38) in SL; anal fin length

5.51 (5.24-5.72) in SL; caudal fin 4.88 (4.70-

5. 1 5) in SL; depth of caudal peduncle 1 .99 (1 .92-

2.10) in its length. Eye diameter 10.01 (9.33-

10.67), snout length 1.76 (1.69-1.87) and

interorbital width 3.15 (3.00-3.50) in head

length. Four pairs of barbels, one pair each of

maxillary, nasal and two of mandibular;

maxillary pair with broad base.

Holotype: Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology

and Natural History (SACON), Coimbatore;

Register No. SACON/SSGs 11; 112 mm SL;

Karim Puzha and its tributary Panna Puzha 7 km

upstream from Cholanayakan colony at

Maancheri, Nilambur Reserve Forest, Kerala,

India; altitude 160-190 m; moist evergreen forest;

16th March and 7th April 1995; Coll.: Late D.F.

Singh, Mathew K. Sebastian and A. Manimekalan.

Paratypes: 5 specimens, with same details

as above, range 68-121 mm SL, data as above.

Type specimens deposited in SACON; one

specimen will be sent to the national collection

of the Zoological Survey of India (ZSI), Chennai.

Relationship: This new species has been

compared with related species (Table 2) such as

Glyptothorax annandalei Hora and Glyptothorax

madraspatanum (Day). Features such as the

dorsal fin serrated posteriorly, plaited paired fins,

adhesive apparatus with central pit and occipital

process not reaching the basal of the dorsal fin

easily distinguish Glyptothorax davissinghi sp.

nov. from the above mentioned species. Both

the species were described from Bhavani

river at the base of Nilgiri hills, Glyptothorax

madraspatanum from Bhavani and Moyar rivers

and their tributaries (Rajan, 1956). Glyptothorax

annandalei Hora was reported from Silent Valley,

90

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

Table 2

COMPARISON OF CHARACTERS IN THE RELATED SPECIES

Kerala (Rema Devi and Indra, 1986). During the

present survey, these two species were also

collected from same rivers.

Etymology: The nominal name is given in

memory of the late Dr. Davis Franc Singh

(D.F. Singh), Senior Scientist, Salim Ali Centre

for Ornithology and Natural History (SACON),

who was involved in survey, conservation of fish

and fish habitat of Western Ghats for more

than a decade and was the brain behind this survey.

Coloration: In live specimens the body is

dark grey and the ventral side of the body is of a

golden colour; in formalin white in colour up to

ventral fin. Adhesive apparatus reddish. All fins

have white edges.

Maximum size: 121 mm SL.

Range: Karim Puzha, Kerala, Western Ghats.

Status: Endemic to Karim Puzha, Kerala,

Western Ghats.

Key to South Indian species of

Glyptothorax

la. Adhesive thoracic apparatus well developed.. 2

1 b. Adhesive apparatus feebly developed, as long as

broad G. anamalaiensis

2a. Adhesive apparatus longer than broad 3

2b. Adhesive apparatus broader than long without

central pit G. housei

3 a. Adhesive apparatus without central pit 4

3b. Adhesive apparatus with central pit 5

4a. Occipital process reaching basal bone of dorsal,

pectoral fin non-plaited G. madraspatanum

4b. Occipital process apposed to basal bone of dorsal

fin G. lonah

5 a. Dorsal fin spine weak, smooth .. G. annandalei

5b. Dorsal fin spine strong, serrated posteriorly,

pectoral fin plaited ventrally G. davissinghi

ACKNOWLEDG EM ENTS

The paper forms part of the “Studies on

the status and conservation perspectives of

rare and endemic fishes of the Nilgiri

Biosphere Reserve (NBR)” sponsored by

MOEF, Govt, of India. We are highly indebted

to the late Dr. D.F. Singh who planned and

designed the study till his untimely demise.

We thank the Director, SACON for facilities,

Kerala forest department for permission for the

study, and Mr. M. Murali, DFO. Nilambur

(South) forest division for his kind co-operation.

We are grate-ful to Dr. A.G.K. Menon & Dr.

Rema Devi, ZSI, Chennai for confirming the

identification and for comments and Mr. V.

Gokula, Research Fellow, SACON for line

drawing.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

91

References

Day, F. ( 1 994): The fishes of India; being a natural history

of the fishes known to inhabit the seas and fresh waters

of India, Burma and Ceylon. Rev. edn, Today &

Tomorrow’s Book Agency, New Delhi, 788 pp., 1 95 pis.

Jayaram, K.C. (1981): The freshwater fishes of India,

Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma and Sri Lanka.

Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

Menon, M.A.S. (1954): Notes on Fishes of the Genus

Glyptothorax Blyth. Rec. Indian Mus. Calcutta. Vol.

LII(I), 27-54.

Rajan, S. (1956): Notes on a collection of fish from the

headwaters of the Bhavani river, South India. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 53(1): 44-48.

Rema Devi, K. & T.J. Indra (1 986) Fishes of Silent Valley.

Rec. Zool. Surv. India, 84(1-4): 243-257.

Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland Fishes.

Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., Vol. II. 639-

665. New Delhi.

A NEW SPECIES OF BIOSTERES FOERSTER FROM INDIA

(INSECTA: HYMENOPTERA: BRACONID AE) 1

S.M. Kurhade2 & P.K. Nikam3

( With three text-figures)

Introduction

The genus Bios teres Foerster belongs to

the subtribe Biosterina of the tribe Opiini of the

subfamily Opiinae. Foerster (1862) erected

Biosteres with Bracon earbonarius Nees, which

was originally designated as the type species.

Fischer ( 1 965) revised the genus Biosteres

totally and later Fischer (1967, 1971, 1973) also

attempted taxonomy of the genus. Fischer ( 1 978)

divided Biosteres into two subgenera viz.,

Chilotrichia . Foerster and Biosteres Foerster s.

str. and also provided a key to Indo-Australian

species of Biosteres Foerster s. str.

Only three species of the subgenus

Biosteres Foerster s. str. viz., Biosteres (Biosteres)

testaceipes Cameron (1911), Biosteres

(Biosteres) kashmirensis Fischer (1966) and

Biosteres (Biosteres) towensi Papp (1983) have

been recorded so far from India.

In this work, a new species belonging to

the subgenus Biosteres viz., Biosteres (Biosteres)

sahyadrensis is described on the basis of material

collected in India, Maharashtra, Aurangabad.

Thus there are five taxa under Biosteres

(Biosteres) from the Indo-Australian region of

which four are from India.

A key to the Indo-Australian species of

Biosteres (Biosteres) by Fischer (1978) which

was in German has been translated in to English

and the new species, Biosteres (Biosteres)

'Accepted February, 1997.

department of Zoology,

New Arts, Commerce and Science College,

Ahmednagar-414001 (Maharashtra), India,

department of Zoology,

Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University,

Aurangabad-43 1 004 (Maharashtra), India.

sahyadrensis is also included.

Types of this species are in the collection

of the second author and will be deposited in

the National Collection of the Zoological Survey

of India, Calcutta, India.

A key to the species of subgenus Biosteres

Foerster s. str. by Fischer (1978)

1. Mesonotum complete, moderately, uniformly

punctate; antennal segment 4 longer than 3; 4.4

mm, India, H.P.; Simla testaceipes Cameron

(1911)

— Mesonotum smooth and bare, almost stout,

notauli with small punctures throughout; antennal

segment 4 almost as long as 3 2

2. Almost complete abdomen and all legs reddish-

brown; head and thorax black; 4.1 mm, India.

J.K., Kashmir... kashmirensis Fischer (1966)

— Head and thorax not black; whole body yellowish-

red 3

3 . Body yellowish-red; ovipositor sheath black; 4th,

5th and 6th tergites reddish-brown on middorsal

side; 5.00 mm, India, Maharashtra, Aurangabad

sahyadrensis. sp. nov.

— Head, thorax and abdomen reddish-brown 4

4. Almost complete abdomen and all legs

completely black; head and thorax red; 4.1 mm,

Australia, Victoria

tenebrigaster Fischer (1978)

— Head and abdomen dark brown; all legs

brownish-yellow; thorax brownish-yellow; 3.2

mm, India, West Bengal

townesi Papp (1983).

Biosteres (Biosteres) sahyadrensis , sp. nov.

(Figs. 1-3)

Female: 5.00 mm (Fig. 1). Head (Fig. 2)

0.3 times as long as wide, head in dorsal view,

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

93

Fig. 1-3: Biosteres ( Biosteres ) sahyadrensis, sp. nov. (Female). 1. Adult, lateral view; 2. Head, frontal view;

3. Propodeum with first abdominal tergite.

behind eyes not broadening; vertex shiny,

smooth; ocelli in triangle on black oblong spot;

interorbital distance 5x ocello-ocular distance;

interocellar distance as long as ocello-ocular

distance; frons smooth, shiny, slightly concave;

antenna long, 2 + 46 segmented; scape 2x as

long as wide, smooth, very weakly punctate,

pubescent; pedicel 1 .2x as long as wide, smooth,

pubescent; 1st flagellar segment 6.3x as long as

wide, moderately punctate, pubescent; flagellum

with fine bristles throughout the length;

penultimate segment 1.5x as long as wide;

terminal segment 5x as long as wide; face 0.7

times as long as wide, smooth, weakly punctate,

pubescent; clypeus as long as wide, with a long

tooth-like outgrowth at anterior side, convex,

smooth, weakly punctate, pubescent; malar space

0.5 times the basal width of mandible, smooth;

mandible 2.5x as long as wide, bare; occipital

carina absent; temple smooth, shiny, weakly

punctate, in lateral view 1 .25x as long as eye.

thorax: 2.3x as long as wide; pronotum

shiny, moderately, shallowly punctate, pubescent;

mesoscutum smooth, shiny, convex, very weakly,

shallowly punctate, pubescent; median lobe

without any groove or carina; notauli distinct,

transversely crenulated; disc of scutellum convex,

closely punctate, pubescent, apex smooth;

propleurum smooth, weakly punctate, pubescent;

mesopleurum smooth, moderately, closely

punctate, pubescent; mesopleural suture distinct;

stemaulus not distinct; metapleurum rugosely,

moderately punctate, pubescent; post-scutellum

depressed; propodeum (Fig. 3) rugoso-reticulate,

very weakly, shallowly punctate at the basal area,

pubescent; propodeal spiracle round. Hindleg

94

JOURNAL, BOMBA YNA TURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

coxa 2.5x as long as wide, smooth, moderately,

weakly punctate, pubescent; trochanter 0.7 times

as long as coxa, moderately punctate, pubescent;

femur 8.5x as long as wide, moderately punctate,

pubescent; tibia 1.6x as long as femur; tibial

spur 0.4 times as long as basitarsus; claw bifid.

Forewing 3.5x as long as broad; stigma 5x as

long as wide; radius ending before tip of wing;

first abscissa of radius 1 .4x as long as width of

stigma; second abscissa of radius 1 .8x as long as

first abscissa; third abscissa of radius 4.5x as long

as first abscissa; first intercubitus 22. 2x as long

as second intercubitus; metacarpus 1 .4 x as long

as stigma; cubitus not sclerotized throughout;

basal 0.55 times as long as medius, costa 1.55x

as long as medius; nervulus slightly inclivous,

as long as width of stigma; subdiscoidius as long

as submedius; margin with fine bristles; hind

wing 4.6x as long as broad; subcostella

1.85x as long as mediella; mediella 6.3x as long

as basella; nervellus inclivous, 0.4 times as long

as submediella; margin with fine bristles.

abdomen: 5x as long as wide; first tergite

1 .9x as long as apical width, strigose, pubescent;

second tergite 1.2x as long as wide, striate,

pubescent; third tergite as long as wide, basal

half striate, apical half smooth, weakly punctate,

pubescent; remaining tergites smooth, shiny,

weakly punctate, pubescent; ovipositor 1.2x as

long as ovipositor sheath, the latter with stiff

bristles throughout the length.

Yellowish-red. One oblong spot on vertex,

veins, stigma, ovipositor sheath black; 4th, 5th

and 6th tergites reddish-brown on middorsal side.

male: Unknown.

Holotype: Female: India: Maharashtra:

Aurangabad, 25.xi.1987, on wing, coll. P.K.

Nikam; Antenna, wings and legs mounted on

slides and labelled as above.

Paratypes: 12 females, data same as

holotype.

Comments: According to the key to the

Indo-Australian species of the subgenus

Biosteres Foerster s. str. by Fischer (1978)

Biosteres (Biosteres) sahyadrensis, sp. nov.

approaches Biosteres (Biosteres) kashmirensis

Fischer (1966) in the following characters: (1)

propodeum rugoso-reticulate, (ii) stemaulus not

distinct and (iii) mesonotum smooth, bare.

However, the new taxa differs from the same in

having the following pecularities: (i) stemaulus

not distinct and (iii) mesonotum smooth, bare.

However, the new taxon differs from the same in

the following pecularities: (i) head in dorsal view

behind eyes not broadening, (ii) temple in lateral

view 1.25x as long as eye, (iii) antenna 2 + 46

segmented, (iv) radius ending before tip of wing

and (v) head, thorax and abdomen yellowish-red.

In addition Biosteres (Biosteres)

sahyadrensis, sp. nov. shows superficial

resemblance with Biosteres (Biosteres) townesi

Papp ( 1 983), but differs from the same in having

the following additional characters (i)

propodeum rugoso-reticulate, (ii) body 5 mm in

length, (iii) notauli distinct, (iv) first abscissa of

radius 1 .4 X as long as width of stigma and (v)

nervulus slightly inclivous.

Acknowledgements

We thank the former Head, Department of

Zoology, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada

University, Aurangabad for providing laboratory

facilities. The first author wishes to thank the

Principal, New Arts, Commerce and Science

College, Ahmednagar for permission to work at

Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada

University, Aurangabad.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

95

References

Cameron, P. (1911): On a collection of parasitic

Hymenoptera (chiefly bred), made by W.W. Froggatt,

F.L.S., in South Wales, with description of new

genera and species. Proc. Linn . Soc. N.S. Wales, 34:

333-346.

Fischer, M. (1965): Die Opiinae der nearktischen region

(Hymenoptera: Braconidae). II Teil. Pol. Pismo

Entomol., 35: 3-212.

Fischer, M. (1966): Revision der Indo-Australischen

opiinae. Series ent., I: I- VII, 1-167.

Fischer, M. (1967): Abst. Zool. Bot. Landsmus, Joanneum

Gra, Mitt, 26: 159.

Fischer, M. (1971): Index of Entomophagous insects. Hym.

Braconidae, world Opiinae, International Organization

of Biological control, Le Francois Paris, pp 1 89.

■"Fischer, M. (1973): Das Tierreich lief, 91 : 485-486.

Fischer, M. (1978): Neue Opiinae (Hymenoptera,

Braconidae) von der Australian Region, besonders aus

Tasmanien. Bulletin Entomologique De Pologne 48:

371-412.

Foerster, A. ( 1 862): Synopsis der Familien und Gattungen

der Braconiden. Naturh. Ver. Rheinlande, Verh, 19:

224-288.

Papp, J. (1983): Three new Opiinae species from India

(Hymenoptera: Braconidae). Contrib. Amer. Ent. Inst.,

20: 238-249.

* Original not referred.

STUDIES ON INDIAN SPECIES OF CARDIORHINUS ESCHSCHOLTZ

(COLEOPTERA, ELATERIDAE: CARDIORHININAE)'

PUNAM GARG AND V. VASU2

(With eleven text figures)

Key words: New species, Cardiorhinus Esch., Elateridae, India.

To the previously recorded single species of genus Cardiorhinus Eschscholtz, C. emarginatus

sp. nov. is added afresh, which is described and illustrated in detail. A combination of

significant characters which distinguish it from the previously recorded species are given

under diagnostic characters.

Introduction

Established by Candeze (1863), the

subtribe Cardiorhinites, based on genus

Cardiorhinus Eschscholtz which was raised to

subfamily Cardiorhininae by Schenkling (1927)

remained unreported from the Indian region till

Vats and Chauhan (1993) described one new

species C. truncatus from this subcontinent.

The type species is C. seminiger Eschscholtz

(1829).

The present text includes two species

collected by the authors, of which one new species

is described and illustrated, while brief diagnostic

characters and illustrations are provided for

the known species viz. C. truncatus Vats and

Chauhan.

Type material of the new species will be

deposited at the Division of Entomology, Pusa

National Collections, Indian Agricultural

Research Institute, New Delhi.

DIAGNOSTIC FEATURES OF THE GENUS! Body

pubescent, elongate. Head flat; labrum indented,

bilobed; antenna extending beyond posterior

angle of prothorax, segment 2 smallest, last

segment constricted near apex. Prothorax with

posterior margin entire; prosternal spine

rounded. Metacoxal plate dilated in the middle.

Aedeagus longer than parameres. Parameres

simple, with subapical processes.

‘Accepted May, 1997.

department of Zoology, Punjabi University, Patiala-147 002,

India.

Key to Indian species of genus

Cardiorhinus

1. Prosternal spine marginate, gradually

naiTOwing at base (Fig. 2); scutellum (Fig.

3) subquadrate, without medial depression,

lateral sides straight; elytra emarginate at

extremities (Fig. 6) less than 3x prothorax

length, striae indistinct

emarginatus sp. nov.

2. Prosternal spine not marginate, abruptly

narrowing at base (Fig. 1); scutellum (Fig.

10) subpentagonal with medial depression,

lateral sides concave; elytra (Fig. 8) truncate

at extremities, more than 3x prothorax

length, striae distinct

truncatus Vats & Chauhan

Cardiorhinus emarginatus sp. nov.

(Figs. 1-6)

Description: Colour: Body black, legs and

antennae fuscous.

Measurements: Body length 3.5 mm; head

length 2 mm, width 1.75 mm; antenna 7.75 mm,

2nd segment 0.3 mm, 3rd segment 0.4 mm, 4th

segment 0.8 mm, last segment 0.8 mm; thorax

length 6 mm, width 3.5 mm; elytra 15.5 mm.

Structure: Body width less than 0.25x its

length. Head flat, inclined, longer than broad;

frons with anterior margin arcuate; antenna

reaching posterior angles of pronotum, segment

3 longer than segment 2 as 4:3 but distinctly

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

9

Figs. 1-6. Cardiorhmus emarginatus sp. nov.: 1. Male genitalia, 2. Prostemal spine (Ventral view),

3. Scutellum, 4. Prostemal spine (Lateral view), 5. Pronotum, 6. Elytra (Posterior part);

Figs. 7-11. C. trum&Ius Vats & Chauhan: 7. Male genitalia, 8. Elytra (Posterior part), 9. Pronotum,

1 0. Scutellum, 1 1 . Prostemal spine (Ventral view).

98

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95(1998)

shorter than segment 4 as 1 :2. Pronotum convex,

longer than broad as 12:7; lateral sides parallel,

posterior margin entire; posterior angles

obliquely truncate with a tuft of setae (Fig. 5),

carinate, carina short, not reaching middle of

pronotum; prostemal spine rounded, margined,

gradually narrowing from base (Fig. 2), declined

from its main axis at 10° (Fig. 4). Metastemum

truncate between mesocoxae. Scutellum flat,

longer than broad as 4:3, anterior margin

truncate, posterior margin arcuate (Fig. 3). Elytra

convex, 2.6x prothorax length, emarginate at

extremities with pointed angles (Fig. 6); striae

indistinct. Metabasitarsus shorter than following

2 joints combined as 4:5.

Sculpture: Head with simple, dense,

small, hexagonal punctation; pronotum (Fig. 5)

and propleurae punctate like head; pros-

temum with simple, sparse, rounded punctation;

elytra with simple, dense, rounded puncta-

tion.

Pubescence: Body covered with simple,

dense, slanting, yellowish brown pubescence.

Male genitalia: (Fig. 1). Phallobase with

straight anterior margin. Parameres simple, with

subapical processes. Aedeagus almost equal to

parameres, broad, tapering posteriorly into

pointed tip; furcae not reaching anterior margins

of parameres.

Material examined: Holy type: Male,

Assam, Jatinga, 750 m, 15.V.1994, Coll. Punam.

Paratypes : 2 Females with same data as

holotype.

Distribution: india: Assam.

Diagnostic combinations: On the basis of

the following significant characters,

C. emarginatus is separated from C. truncatus:

elytra emarginate at extremities (truncate in

truncatus ); posterior angle with a tuft of setae

(without setae in truncatus ); prostemal spine

gradually narrowing from base (abruptly

narrowing in truncatus ); elytra less than 3x

prothorax length (more than 3x in truncatus ),

and scutellum subquadrate (subpentagonal in

truncatus).

Etymology: Species name alludes to

emarginate posterior margin of elytra.

Acknowledgement

We thank Prof. (Dr.) L.K. Vats,

Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, India for

allowing physical verification of beetles and for

valuable suggestions.

References

Candeze, E. (1863): Monographic des Elaterides IV. Mem. Soc. r. Sci. Liege, 17: 1-534.

Eschscholtz, J.F. (1829): Elterites. In Thom. Ent. Archiv., 2(1): 31-35.

Schenkling, S. (1927): Coleopterorum Catalogus, Elateridae II. W. Junk, Berlin, 88: 265-636.

Vats, L.K. & R.L. Chauhan ( 1 993): Four new species of Elateridae (Coleoptera) from North India. J. ent. Res., 17(1):

35-41.

A NEW SPECIES OF CLERODENDRUM (VERBENACEAE) FROM

NORTHEASTERN INDIA1

A. Rajendran2 & P. Daniel3

( With a text-figure)

A new species, Clerodendrum panigrahianum, from Arunachal Pradesh in northeastern

India, is described with an illustration.

Specimens of the genus Clerodendrum in

Indian herbaria were studied for a revision of

the Indian Verbenaceae. It was found that some

specimens collected in Arunachal Pradesh in

northeastern India and housed at assam and cal

had been wrongly identified as Clerodendrum

bracteatum Wall, ex Walp. (1845) which is

typified by Wallich, Numer. List No. 1800,

collected in Pundua, now in Bangladesh. Clarke

(1885) recorded it for British India from Sikkim,

Bhutan, Mishmee, Assam, Cachar and the

Khasia mountains. Though the specimens from

Arunachal Pradesh referred to above apparently

resembled C. bracteatum, a critical study showed

that they belonged to an undescribed species

which is described here with an illustration. A

comparison is made with the closely related C.

bracteatum.

Clerodendrum panigrahianum sp. nov.

(Fig. 1).

C. bracteatum Wall, ex Walp. affinis sed

foliis serratis; inflorescentiis terminalibus,

solitariis, capitatis; pedunculis 1-4 cm longis;

floribus multis, condensatis; bracteis lineario-

ellipticis vel oblongis; calycibus sub-

campanulatis, laviter divisis et tubis corollae

brevioribus differt.

Typus : india: Arunachal Pradesh, Kameng

F.D., Rupa to Jabrang, 23.V.1958, G. Panigrahi

16053 (cal, holotypus, isotypus). Paratypi :

'Accepted October, 1996.

^National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow-226 001 .

3Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore-641 003

Kameng F.D., 2-2.5 miles from Rahung, 5900',

5. v. 1957, R.S. Rao 7430 (assam, cal); Kameng

F. D., Nyukmadong to Dirang Diong 2.vi.l957,

R.S. Rao 8087 (cal); Kameng F.D., Morsing,

16. vi. 1958, G. Panigrahi 15728 (assam);

Kameng F.D., Shergaon to Jegaon, 20.V.1958,

G. Panigrahi 15917 (cal).

Shrub, c. 3m high; branches and branchlets

subterete; young parts yellowish pubescent,

glabrous when mature; bark thin, dark brown;

internodes 2-16 cm long. Leaves decussate-

opposite, sometimes subopposite, ovate, obtuse

or subcordate at base, irregularly and distantly

serrate along margins with acute serrations,

shortly acuminate at apex, 6-14 x 3.5-10 cm,

chartaceous, dark green, sparsely pubescent

especially on nerves beneath, 3-nerved at base;

lateral nerves 4-5 pairs; petioles terete, slender,

1-6 cm long, densely pubescent. Capitula

terminal, c. 5 x 7.5 cm; peduncles obtusely 4-

angular or subterete, 1.5 - 5 cm long, pubescent;

bracts foliaceous, ovate, c. 1.6x1 cm; bractlets

linear-elliptic or oblong, c. 1.5 x 0.4 cm,

pubescent. Flowers numerous, compact: pedicels

4-5 mm long. Calyx tubular-campanulate, c. 1 x

5 mm, 5 -toothed; teeth subequal, triangular, c. 3

x 2 mm, pubescent outside. Corolla

subinfundibular, 5-lobed, white with rose or pink

tinge; lobes subequal, obovate or suborbicular,

obtuse, c. 5x4 mm; tube narrow, slightly curvate,

4-6 x 1-2 mm, glabrous. Stamens 4, didynamous,

attached at or below mouth of corolla tube;

filaments slender, glabrous, exserted, 6-10 mm

long; anthers oblong, c. 0. 1 5 mm long, 2-loculed,

dark brown, glabrous. Ovary oblong, c. 2x1

100

JOURNAL, BOMBA YNA TURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

Fig. 1. Clerodendrum panigrahianum sp. nov.: A. Habit; B. Calyx; C. Flower.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

101

mm, 4-lobed, glabrous; style slender, minutely

2-lobed; lobes subulate, unequal, glabrous. Fruit

not seen.

Flowers: March - June.

Habitat: Evergreen forests, c, 1960 m.

Distribution: Kameng Forest Division,

Arunachal Pradesh.

Clerodendrum panigrahianum is allied to

C. bracteatum but differs from it as shown in

Table 1.

Etymology: The species is named after Dr.

G. Panigrahi, formerly Joint Director, Botanical

Survey of India, Calcutta, who has collected

extensively in northeastern India and greatly

contributed to its botany.

Acknowledgements

We thank Dr. N.P. Balakrishnan, formerly

Joint Director, Botanical Survey of India (BSI),

Coimbatore, for facilities and Dr. V.J. Nair,

Deputy Director, BSI, Coimbatore, for the Latin

diagnosis. A.R. is grateful to the Director, BSI,

for a research fellowship and to the officers-in-

References

Clarke, C.B.( 1885): Verbenaceae. /«: J.D. Hooker (Ed.), Walpers, W.G. (1845): Repertorium Botanices

The Flora of British India 4: 560-604. L. Reeve & Systematicae 4: 2-134. Fr. Hofmeister, Leipzig.

Co., London.

HEDYCHIUM RAO II PAL ET GIRI - A NEW SPECIES OF ZINGIBERACEAE FROM

ARUNACHAL PRADESH, INDIA1

G.D. Pal and G.S. Giri2

( With five text-figures)

A new species of the genus Hedychium Koen. is described below with illustrations. A tabulated key for the

allied species is also appended.

Hedychium raoii Pal et Giri, sp. nov.

(Figs. 1-5).

Proxime affinis H. robusto A.S.Rao et P.K.

Hajra sed foliis sessilibus, infra adpresse pilosa,

3-4 floribus inclusis in bractea, calyce divisa ad

medium vel infra medium, corollae tubis bracteis

aequilongis vel eis 2-4 mm brevioribus,

staminodiis lateralibus anguste lanceolatis, labio

anguste obovato vel oblanceolato, apice penitus

bilobo.

Typus: Holotypus lectus a G.D. Pal ad locum

Arunachal, Inferior Subansiri, Yazali - Kimin

Road, 20 km e Yazali, 700 m, die 20.ix. 1983, sub

numero 1254A et positus in cal. Isotypus 1254B

in Cal. Isotypus 1254C in arun.

Perennial rhizomatous herbs, 1.25-1.5 m

tall. Rhizomes: tuberous, tangled, covered with

scales, white or pinkish white inside, aromatic,

3-4.5 cm in diameter, segments subcylindric, 1-

2 cm apart, ca 2.5 cm in diameter; roots stout,

fibrous. Leaves: several, sessile, lanceolate to

oblong-lanceolate, (40-) 45-55 (-62) cm long,

(6-) 7.5-9 (-10) cm broad, base acute to subacute,

apex acuminate to long acuminate, margins

entire; subcoriaceous, glabrous above, white

pubescent throughout beneath, hairs dense along

the midrib; turning dull green above and greyish-

brown below on drying; midrib prominent

beneath, secondary nerves more or less

prominent on both surfaces; ligules membranous

or papery, oblong, 2-3.5 x 1-1.5 cm, sometimes

bilobed, prominently nerved, pubescent without,

'Accepted October, 1 996.

2Botanical Survey of India, Arunachal Field Station,

Itanagar-791 111.

greenish. Spikes: stalked, stalks 4-6 cm long,

ridged, sparsely hairy, greenish; rachis 25-40 cm

long, lax-flowered, ridged, sparsely pubescent,

green; lowermost bracts empty, oblong-

acuminate, 4-8 x 0.8-1 .2 cm; floral bracts spirally

arranged 20-30 per spike, lower strongly

convolute, upper loosely convolute or nearly flat,

oblong, (3.8-) 4-4.5 (-5) cm long and (1-) 1.2-

1.5 (-1.8) cm broad, apex acute or subrounded,

base clasping, margin membranous, sparsely to

densely pubescent without, particularly towards

base and apex, becoming glabrate with age, green

to pale green, each bract enclosing 3-4

successively opening flowers; bracteoles as long

as or 1-2 mm longer or shorter than bracts,

appressed whitish pilose without, margin

scarious, pale green or whitish green. Flowers:

white, fragrant; calyx tubular, as long as or

slightly longer than bracts, 4.7-5 cm long, split

on one side upto below the middle, apex bifid,

sparsely pubescent without, hairs more at bifid

apex, margin ciliate, nerves prominent,

membranous, greenish-white; corolla-tube

narrow cylindric, as long as or 2-4 mm shorter

than bracts, 3.8 - 4.5 cm long, 1.75-2.25 mm

diam., glabrous, white; lobes linear, straight or

twisted, 3. 5-4. 5 cm long, 1.25-1.5 mm broad,

anterior lobe usually longer than the lateral lobes;

lateral staminodes narrowly lanceolate, 3. 5-4. 2

x 0.4-0.6 cm, erect or reflexed, apex obliquely

acute, margin subentire or repand, pinnately

veined; lip narrowly obovate or oblanceolate, 4.5-

4.7 x 2-2.5 cm, spreading or shallowly concave,

margin wavy, distinctly clawed, bilobed, sinus

1-1.2 cm deep, lobes triangular or ovate-acute,

parallel- veined; stamens 2-2.2 cm, shorter than

Fig. 1-5: Hedychium raoii G.D. Pal & G.S. Giri sp. nov. 1. Habit (diagrammatic); 2. Leaf;

3. Inflorescence; 4. Flower with bracts and bracteoles; 5. Perigone with stamen.

104

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

Table 1

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF HED YCHIUM KOEN .

H. dekianum A.S. Rao et D.M. Verma

H.rcioii G.D. Pal et G.S. Giri

H. robustum A.S. Rao etP.K. Hajra

1 . Leaves sessile, upper surface glabrous,

lower surface appressed silky hairy.

2. Spikes 10-1 7 cm long, condensed,

containing 25-35 bracts.

3. Bracts each enclosing 3-9 flowers.

4. C dyx slightly shorter or longer than

bracts, deeply split.

5. Corolla-tubes exceeding the bracts

by 1 .2-2.3 cm

6. Lateral staminodes spathulate,

2. 5- 3.7 x 1-1. 6 cm

7. Lip suborbicular, 3-3.7 x 2. 3-3.4 cm,

shortly clawed, bilobed, sinus

1 .5- 2 cm deep, lobes suborbicular,

pale yellow blotches at base.

8. Stamens 1 -2 cm longer than the lip.

Leaves sessile, upper surface glabrous,

lower surface appressed silky hairy

throughout, hairs more dense along midrib.

Spikes 30-40 cm long, lax, containing

20-30 bracts.

Bracts each enclosing 3-4 flowers.

Calyx as long as or slightly shorter than

bracts, split at or below the middle.

Corolla-tubes as long as or 0.2-0. 4 cm

shorter than bracts.

Lateral staminodes narrowly lanceolate

3.5- 4. 2 x 0.4-0. 6 cm.

Lip narrowly obovate or oblanceolate,

4. 5- 4. 7 x 2-2.2 cm, distinctly clawed,

bilobed, sinus 1 -1 .2 cm deep, lobes

ovate-acute, blotch absent.

Stamens 2-2.2 cm shorter than the lip.

Leaves petiolate, upper surface hairy,

lower surface hairy along nerves only.

Spikes 20-32 cm long, lax, containing

12-22 bracts.

Bracts each enclosing 9-1 1 flowers.

Calyx longer than bracts, split much

above the middle.

Corolla-tubes exceeding the bracts

by 1-2.5 cm.

Lateral staminodes spathulate,

4.5 x 1 .5 cm

Lip suborbicular or broadly

spathulate, 4.5-5 x 3.5-4 cm,

shortly clawed, rounded or truncate

but not bilobed, pale yellow blotch

at the middle.

Stamens 1 .5-2 cm shorter than the lip.

the lip, filaments 1.2- 1.5 cm long, deeply

channelled enclosing the style; anthers linear,

0.8-1 cm long, pink; ovary subglobose, about 2

mm in diameter, trigonous, glabrous; style 6.3-

6.8 cm long, glabrous; stigma turbinate,

papillose, green. Capsules: not seen.

Flowering: September - October.

Ecology: Grows in moist but open areas

near streams or along moist forest fringes.

Distribution: india: Arunachal Pradesh:

Lower Subansiri dist., Yazali-Kimin road, 20 km

from Yazali towards Kimin, 700 m, 20. ix. 1983,

G.D. Pal 1254A (Holytype-CAL). Isotypes: Ibid.

G.D. Pal 1254B (cal); Ibid. G.D. Pal 1254C

(arun).

Note: The new species is closely allied to

Hedychium robustum A.S. Rao & P.K. Hajra, but

can be distinguished by its sessile leaves

throughout appressed hairy beneath, bracts

enclosing 3-4 flowers, calyx split at or below the

middle, corolla-tube as long as or 2-4 mm shorter

than the bracts, lateral staminodes narrowly

lanceolate and lip narrowly obovate or

oblanceolate with deeply bilobed apex. The new

species also comes closer to H. dekianum A.S.

Rao & D.M. Verma but can be easily recognised

by its long lax spikes, narrowly lanceolate

staminodes, oblanceolate or narrowly obovate lip

and smaller stamens, which are always 2. 2-2. 7

cm shorter than the lip.

A tabulated key for the three species

mentioned is given above.

Etymology: The specific epithet of this

beautiful taxon is given in memory of the late

Dr. A.S. Rao, Joint Director, Botanical Survey

of India in honour of his valuable contribution

to the flora of North-Eastern India.

Acknowledgements

The authors are thankful to the Director,

Botanical Survey of India (BSI), Calcutta for

facilities, to the Scientist incharge, Arunachal

Field Station, Itanagar for encouragement and

to Dr. N.C. Majumder, ex-Scientist SE, BSI,

Calcutta for the Latin diagnosis of the taxon.

REVIEWS

1 . THE BIRDS OF TOGO by Robert A. Cheke & J. Frank Walsh. B.O.U.

Check-list No. 14 British Ornithologists’ Union U.K. 1996. pp i - xii + 1-

212, (25 x 15.5 cm), 53 colour plates and 9 maps. Hardback price £22.

Togo is a small

country of 54,390 sq. km.

wedged between Ghana

and Benin in West Africa.

This ancient land of Ewe

tribe was devastated by

the slave trade by the

Danes, Dutch, British

and French, during the 18th and 19th centuries.

Between 1884 and start of the first world war,

Togoland, as it was formerly called, was a

German protectorate. After the Germans were

defeated in the first World War, the Treaty of

Versailles required Germany to relinquish

Togoland. This tiny country was partitioned in

1919 by the French and British. After the United

Nations monitored plebiscite in 1956, British

Togoland became part of Ghana, but French

Togoland became a self-governing republic

within the French community. Finally in 1960,

the Republic of Togo was bom as an independent

country with Lome as its capital.

As tiny Togo has seen numerous changes

in its borders, its ornithological history is quite

confusing. Many places from where the birds

were collected in former Togoland do not occur

in the present Togo. Further confusion is created

in museum specimens due to change in names,

and sometimes by two places having the same

name. For instance, Germans named an outpost

as Bismarckburg in Togo. A town with a similar

name is present in Tanzania.

Although located in West Africa, Togo

is basically a semi-arid country, with about

1500 mm rainfall. More than 90% of the land

is covered with savanna, only 7.2% is low-

land forest. Togo also suffers from the usual

negative environmental factors of an under-

developed country: low literacy rate, high

human density (64 per sq. km), rapid popula-

tion growth (3.6% per year), rapid destruc-

tion of original vegetation and uncontrolled

hunting.

This book forms a part of a series of check-

lists of birds from countries or places where not

much work has been done. Fourteen check-lists

have been published by the British

Ornithologists’ Union and three are under

preparation. The authors Dr. J. Frank Walsh and

Dr. Robert A. Cheke have listed 624 species for

Togo. Both have spent considerable time in Togo,

and even used a helicopter to visit remote areas

not visited by earlier workers.

Scientific names, English and French

names, status, distribution, abundance, habitat

and, when applicable, breeding status in Togo,

are given for each species. Many records are

based on the authors’ own previously

unpublished observations, but a thorough

literature survey (255 references), checking of

specimens from seven museums, and unpub-

lished notes of 20 observers are also used to

describe 624 bird species.

The production quality of the book is

excellent. I could not find any typographical

mistakes. Maps and colour photographs are good

and informative. I particularly liked the pictures

of standard- winged nightjar Macrodipteryx

longipennis and jacana Actophilornis africana.

I wish there were more pictures of birds from

this ornithologically rich but poorly known

country.

ASAD R. RAHMANI

106

JOURNAL, BOMBA YNA TURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 94 (1997)

2. INDIAN DIRECTORY OF ENVIRONMENTAL ORGANISATIONS. Edited by

Vandana S. A.P.H. Publishing Corpn., New Delhi, 1997. pp. 362 (25.5 x 19 cm) with

lists of Environmental NGOs, Important Public Sector and Private Sector

Organisations, Indian Universities, Environmental Activists, Standards for Cleaner

and Greener Environment, Environmental Consultancy Organisations, Environmental

Enactments, Pollution Control Boards, Testing Laboratories, Checklist of

Environmental Management Systems. Price Rs. 800/- (Hardback).

The publication is an attempt to list

environmental NGOs and organisations within

the covers of one book. The approach is

lackadaisical, illustrated by such gaffes as “the

average Briton is said to consumer over 51 b of

additives a year”. The author obviously means

that the average Briton consumes over 5 lb. of

additives a year ! At several places the monetary

units have been overlooked while quoting figures,

even units of temperature have been omitted. The

book is not exhaustive and appears to have been

published in a hurry without an appropriate

editorial effort to keep out the innumerable

mistakes and faux pas.

The topics covered in the introduction are

wide and address almost all the major issues

confronting humanity today, but the abrupt shift

from one subject to another is jarring. Thus, while

reviewing the Ramsar Convention there is a

surprising deviation to the issue of recycling of

wastes !

The editor has taken the liberty to change

names of organisations, viz. Bombay Natural

History Society has been referred to as Mumbai

Natural History Society (BNHS) ! Bombay

Environmental Action Group as Mumbai

Environmental Action Group (BE AG). The

innumerable and slovenly mistakes are in poor

taste considering that the book will now form a

standard reference text. Some examples, WWF

For Nature - India, Kothapur Divisional Officer;

Association for Urral, Social and Health Affairs;

Gujarat Aurved University; Aanti-pollution

Engineers; Indian Journal of Genertics and Plant

Breeding; Advancing Frontirs of Plant Science;

Zafar Futchally, Moitaka; Wildlife Association of

South Indian; Newsletter For Birodwatchers !

Though the various methods of measurement

of pesticidal residues as set out by the Union

Ministry of Health & Family Welfare has been

discussed cursorily, no mention has been made

of a very important and active laboratory in

Lucknow, the Indian toxicological research

CENTRE.

In the chapter “Leading Environmental

Consultancy Organisations in India”, BNHS has

not been listed inspite of its very active EIA cell

and its contributions to such studies over the

years. It is also not mentioned in the National

Register of Environmental Consultancy

Organisations. In the list of important journals

the BNHS Journal has been overlooked though

‘HombiH’ is mentioned.

It defies logic to list Important Public

Sector and Private Sector Organisations in India.

How do they qualify as Environmental

Organisations ? Similarly the list of International

Environmental Organisations is unnecessary

considering that the publication seeks to

list Indian Environmental Organisations. It

appears to be an attempt at ‘fleshing’ out the

book !

Moreover, the publication is exorbitantly

priced at Rs. 800/- which is beyond the reach of

an average environmentalist. Libraries may

order a copy if they are willing to spend

additional time in rectifying the myriad errors.

S. ASAD AKHTAR

REVIEWS

107

3. WORLD DIRECTORY OF ENVIRONMENTAL ORGANISATIONS. Edited by

Vandana S. pp. 606 (25 x 18.5 cm). A.P.H. Publishing Corpn.,New Delhi, 1997, with

lists of Environmental NGOs, Public Sector & Private Sector Organisations, Indian

Universities, Testing Laboratories, Environmental Activists, Environmental Journals,

List of Universities, Environmental Consultancy Organisations, Standards for Cleaner

and Greener Environment, Voluntary and Non Governmental Organisations,

International Register of Environmental NGOs, Checklist of Environmental

Management System. Hardback, Price Rs. 1000.

The publication is an avatar of the Indian

Directory of Environmental Organisations. The

contents are similar, except for an enhanced list

of Environmental Organisations based in foreign

countries, mainly in the U.S.A, including a list

of American Universities and Environmental

Journals of U.S.A. A list of leading Pollution

Control Equipment manufacturers from United

Kingdom has also been provided. The book

includes a list of NGOs in the Asia Pacific region.

Like its earlier version, editorial faux pas are

prominent and make a bad first impression.

Beside the innumerable editorial mistakes, the

listing of unnecessary items has continued, at

the cost of precious newsprint. The same space

could have have been used for providing more

relevant information. The General List of

Pollution Control Equipment Manufacturers

needs to be substantiated as it can be to the

commercial advantage of the manufacturers at

the cost of environmental propriety.

In short, the publication is a good attempt at

providing environment related information

within the covers of a single book, though the

slovenly editorial effort is unfortunate. The

Directory will provide basic information to

concerned environmentalists and be of assistance

in their networking programmes.

S. ASAD AKHTAR

4. FISH REPRODUCTION by N.K. Agarwal (1996). Published by APH Publishing

Corpn., 5, Ansari Road, Darya Ganj, New Delhi-1 10 002 (28.7 x 21.9 cm) pp. 157

Price Rs. 500/-

Here is a book focussing purely on the

reproductive biology and environmental

influences on spawning activities of the snow-

trout Schizothorax plagiostomus (Heckel), an

economically important protein-rich fish of

the snowfed River Alaknanda of Garhwal

Himalaya.

It presents materials on methods for

pisciculture experts and research students —

like morphohistological and histochemical

studies of the gonads. It gives a deeper insight

into testicular and ovarian cyclicity, and

emphasises field studies like the ecology of the

spawning ground and the interaction of various

environmental factors which aid spawning and

breeding.

The book stresses that such fish as this

inhabit cold water streams and lakes could be a

challenge to the modem fishery industry if new

experimental techniques like induced breeding

and genetic manipulation could be applied to

improve their fertility.

It is good comprehensive reading mate-

rial. Unfortunately there are numerous errors.

R. GHOSH

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1 . THE JACKAL, CANIS AUREUS LINN. — A NOTE ON SOME VARIATIONS

The jackal Canis aureus Linnaeus shows

geographic variations in coat colour. R.C.

Wroughton, 1916 described Canis indicus (with

two subspecies - Canis indicus indicus, Canis

indicus kola). He also reported Canis naria from

India, and Canis lanka from Sri Lanka. Prater

(1980) treated Indian jackals as a single species

having three races ( Canis aureus aureus

Linnaeus, Canis aureus indicus Hodgson and

Canis aureus naria Wroughton) and the Sri

Lankan race as Canis aureus lanka Wroughton.

The north Indian races are generally tawny but

with their chin and throat white and underside

paler or buff in colour. The grizzled pattern of

the back is characteristic of the west-coast race

{Canis aureus naria). However, occurrence of

black variants of the species in North India were

reported earlier (Prater, 1980).

A study of three jackals kept in captivity

at the Parassinikadavu snake park, Kannur

dist., Kerala indicate that the colour variation

and certain other features like size of the

animal and its muzzle shape may not be en-

tirely of geographical significance, as all the

three individuals obtained from the same

district exhibit profound differences in these

characters.

One individual *almost black with veiy few

grey hairs has a light area around the eyes and a

white spot on the chest. This individual appeared

to be more aggressive. Black variants reported

earlier suggest the possibility that it might be a

cross between a dog and a jackal. This one is

also the largest among the three. Occurrence of

hybrid dog-jackals was previously reported by

Donald (1948). The second* individual is like

that of the north Indian race in colour and is

smaller than the black one, but a little larger than

the third* one. The smallest individual among

the three, characterised by the grizzled colour,

though typical of the west-coast race, is peculiar

in having its tail tip white in colour, a feature

non-characteristic of the species.

Since all the three jackals observed are

obtained from the same area (Kannur dist.

Kerala), they augment the need for further study

of variations in populations and of possible

hybrid forms of jackals.

The author is grateful to the Director,

Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta and the

Officer-in-Charge, Zoological Survey of India,

Calicut for facilities and encouragement. He also

thanks the authorities of Parassinikadavu Snake

Park for the help rendered.

* A photograph of all three variants has been

provided by the author but is not of printable

quality. — Ed.

June 13, 1997 DINESAN CHERU VAT

Zoological Survey of India,

Western Ghat Field Research Station,

Calicut-673 002.

References

Donald, C.H. ( 1 948): Jackals, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai.

47 : 72 1 -729. Wroughton, R.C. (1916): The Indian Jackals, J. Bombay

Prater, S.H. (1980): The Book of Indian Animals. nat. Hist. Soc. 24(4): 649-653.

2. DIET OF THE BROWN PALM CIVET (PARADOXUR US JERDONII) IN

KAL AKAD-MUNDANTHURAI TIGER RESERVE, TAMIL NADU

On 19 June 1995 at about 0630 hrs when side of the road. On closer examination we found

we were driving down from upper Kothayar to it to be the brown palm civet ( Paradoxurus

Kakachi, Kalakad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, jerdoni). It had a uniform brown coat with a white

we noticed a small brown animal lying by the tail tip. The animal was fresh and must have died

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

109

just a few hours earlier and fortunately it was

not run over by any vehicle.

Palm civets are omnivorous and their diet

includes varieties of fruits (Prater 1980, the book

of Indian animals, Mumbai). We give below the

list of items identified from the stomach of the

civet.

STOMACH AND COLON CONTENTS OF BROWN

PALM CIVET

* a few sand particles were also found.

The list shows the omnivorous nature of

the animal and the presence of intact seeds in

the colon indicates that the animal can disperse

seeds. It also shows that it is not necessarily

arboreal; this is indicated by the presence of

earthworms and Rubus seeds which are available

at ground level.

Acknowledgements

We acknowledge the financial support

provided by TERI and Mac Arthur Foundation,

USA for work in Kalakad. We thank Kannan and

Ramesh for helping us with the dissection of the

animal.

November 1 7, 1 997 T. GANESH

29, Chetty St., Pondicherry 605 001.

R. GANESAN

M. SOUBADRA

Salim Ali School of Ecology &

Environmental Science,

Pondicherry’ Univ., Kalapet,

Pondicherty 605 014.

3. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF THE TIGER PANTHERA TIGRIS IN SIKKIM

The first positive occurrence of tiger in

Sikkim was reported by Col. F.M. Bailey in 1924

from Karponang, east Sikkim, where its

pugmarks were seen. It had been killing ponies

and yaks. Shooting was attempted unsuccessfully

but the animal was seen by the beaters. It was

then reported to have crossed Lagyap (3500 m)

between Gangtok and Natu La and reached

Tsomgo (3800 m), killing livestock on the way

and a yak at Tsomgo. When driven off the kill it

crossed a 4000 m ridge into the Yelli Chu valley

and thence into the Dikchu valley where it was

killed (Bailey, 1939 JBNHS 4\: 166).

The first recorded sighting of the tiger in

Sikkim was in 1 934 by the Political Officer Mr.

F. Williamson, who sat up over a mule kill at

Lagyap and actually saw the animal (Battyi, 1939

JBNHS 41: 1 65). It was speculated that the tiger,

probably a pioneer from the lower elevations

either returned or went over the Natu La into

Chumbi valley after being shot at. To corroborate

the latter hypothesis a male yak was found killed

there, with fang marks on the throat.

In April 1938 Lt. Col. F.H. Lister came

across a fresh tiger skin at Lachung in north

Sikkim (Lister, 1938 JBNHS 40: 553). In

December 1994 during my visit to Lachung, I

came across the skull and lower jaw of a tiger in

possession of an old hunter Mr. Thendup

Lachungpa and photographed it. He reported the

skull to be about 40 years old. Another local

person also reported sighting of a large male tiger

in the forest below Yumthang around 50 years

ago.

The route of the tiger from east Sikkim

towards the north has been documented by Mr.

Chezung Lachungpa, Divisional Forest Officer,

Wildlife Circle for the last 20 years, from

sporadic local reports of sightings, kills,

compensation paid by the Government and

110

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

presence of pugmarks. Plaster casts were lifted

from the prints whenever located and are now in

the State Forest Department office at Gangtok.

Usually the reports were of only one animal

which probably came in from adjacent West

Bengal or Bhutan to occupy suitable territory.

Today we have probably lost the tiger in

Sikkim. The lush jungle routes traversed by the

tiger are either no longer in existence or under

heavy military occupation. Occasional reports of

tiger from Melli, south Sikkim usually turn out

to be leopard ( Panthera pardus) kills.

February 1 8, USHA GANGULI-LACHUNGPA

1997 Project Officer (Wildlife)

Sikkim Forest Department Deorali,

Gangtok 737 102,

Sikkim, India.

4. EARTHWORM IN THE DIET OF LEOPARD PANTHERA PARDUS

The panther will kill and eat anything. It

can overpower with safety, cattle, deer and

monkeys, the smaller beasts of prey and large

rodents like the porcupine. Its bill of fare is

extended to include birds, reptiles and crabs

(Prater, 1965; the book of Indian animals). A

leopard has a great tendency to digest each type

of flesh including some cartilaginous parts but

is unable to digest hair, hooves and bones which

are left as such in its droppings.

A general study of scats was carried out

wherever they were found, in Chail Wildlife

Sanctuary and the University Campus (Nauni).

Undigested bone, hair, hooves and even green

parts (leaves) were found in droppings at Chail.

But the most interesting finding in the scats of

leopard is of the earthworm* which was collected

from the University Campus near the dairy farm

in December, 1996.

Earthworms are cold blooded annelids and

nocturnal in habit, living in burrows during the

day but coming out at night in search of food.

Numerous earthworms were seen in the morning

hours along the roadside from the University

Library to the dairy farm in winter before

snowfall (mainly Nov.-Dee.). Still, we could not

get a satisfactory reason for the consumption of

earthworms by leopard. It is known that a

leopard can devour and digest each type of flesh

but it is a mystery why earthworms were not

digested by the leopard.

*Photograph — not of printable quality — Ed.

August, 5, 1997 NAIM AKHTAR

M.L. NARANG

Dept ofSAF, COF, UHF,

Nauni, Solan: 173 230.

5. WILD WATER BUFFALO BUBALUS BUBALIS ARNEE IN DIBANG VALLEY

DISTRICT OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH

( With one text-figure)

The Asiatic wild water buffalo Bubalus

bubalis Linn, arnee Kerr, is among the globally

threatened species. The bulk of the known

population occurs in India. An account of

its status in northeast India, the only strong-

hold of the species, is given in Choudhury

(1994). In the report, occurrence of a small and

scattered population in Dibang Reserved

Forest (RF) of Arunachal Pradesh has been

mentioned.

Here I report the past and present status of

the species in the entire Dibang Valley dist. of

Arunachal Pradesh, as ascertained during field

visits between 1992 and 1994.

Till the early 1970s, wild buffalo was

widespread all over the lower areas of Dibang

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

111

Fig. 1 . Map of Dibang Valley district of Arunachal

Pradesh showing the past and present distribution of

wild water buffalo

Valley district beginning from near Nizamghat

to the inter-state border with Assam, mostly in

the chapori (riverine tracts) of the Dibang,

Deopani and the Sesseri rivers. From the late

1970s, new settlements began coming up in

many of the plains areas especially between

Roing and Santipur and in Bomjir and Bijari.

Gradually the number of khutis (= cattle camps,

mostly run by Nepalis and Biharis) also increased

on the chaporis of the Dibang river. These factors

along with growth of population have resulted

in degradation and alteration of habitat. Avai-

lability of firearms has resulted in an increase

in poaching for meat as the local tribes, both

Adis and Idu Mishmis relish it. The buffalo popu-

lation declined drastically before being surveyed

properly. The Idu Mishmis call it Maji kara.

In March 1993, I found a few solitary

bulls near Nizamghat (200m elevation), where

the Dibang river devouches onto the plains (at

28° 1 5' N, the northernmost site in the distribution

range of the species). There were no khutis in

the vicinity and the possibility of any feral

animals in the area was remote. The area is in

Sirkee proposed RF. Then I examined six horns,

of 4 males and 2 females, at Bomjir (190m

elevation), all these were shot by the local tribal

hunters during the last half-a-decade from the

chaporis of the Dibang river. They also shot 2

feral animals which deserted the khutis.

It is difficult to make an accurate

population estimate as the animals are extremely

shy due to regular persecution and are rather

thinly distributed. However, after we visited all

the known and potential areas and interviewed

local hunters, graziers of the khutis and other

tribal villagers, it can be safely assessed that there

are less than 10 animals in Sirkee proposed RF

and adjacent areas of Deopani RF. They affect

the grasslands on the Dibang and Deopani rivers

and only occasionally wander into the nearby

woodlands including the southwestern edge of

Mehao Sanctuary. In Dibang RF including the

adjacent Kerim RF, a larger population of 40 to

60 occurs, as the habitat is still fairly large and

contiguous with some of the buffalo-bearing areas

of East Siang dist. and Tinsukia dist. (Assam).

In the chapories of Sesseri river, only an

occasional stray individual is encountered. The

total habitat available for wild buffalo in the

district is about 120 sq. km (Fig. 1).

Presence of domestic buffaloes in the

khutis, especially in the lower reaches of the

Dibang river, poses a permanent problem to the

small wild population because of the potential

danger of diseases like anthrax, foot-and-mouth

and rinderpest. However, contamination of wild

stock due to interbreeding is a remote possibility,

as domestic males are usually not kept in the

khutis. Domestic animals going feral are

immediately brought back because they are too

valuable to their owners. In case of failure, the

local tribals track and shoot them, as they find

feral animals easier to shoot than the pure wild.

While habitat destruction continues to be

112

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

a threat, poaching is taking its toll and unless

conservation measures are implemented the

future of these animals is bleak. Parts of Dibang

RF, Kerim RF and Sirkee proposed RF (totalling

202 sq. km) I have been recommended for a

national park for its importance as the habitat of

Bengal florican Eupodotis bengalensis , white-

winged wood duck Cairina scutulata, tiger

Panthera tigris, elephant Elephas maximus , of

course the wild buffalo and as an important

flyway of migratory waterfowl, including the

common crane Grus grus (Choudhury, 1996).

April 1, 1997 ANWARUDDIN CHOUDHURY

The Rhino Foundation,

c/o The Assam Co. Ltd.,

Bamunimaidam, G. Bordoloi Path,

Guwahati 781 021. Assam.

References

Choudhury, A.U. (1994): The decline of the wild

water buffalo in north-east India. Oryx 28(1):

70-73.

Choudhury, A.U. (1996): Survey of the White-winged

wood duck and the Bengal florican in Tinsukia district,

and adjacent areas of Assam and Arunachal Pradesh.

The Rhino Foundation for Nature in NE India,

Guwahati.

6. FORAGING ASSOCIATION OF WHITE STORK CICONIA CICONIA WITH

BLACKBUCK ANTILOPE CERVICAPRA

We visited Velavadar Blackbuck Sanctuary

and National Park (Bhavnagar dist. Gujarat) on

November 5, 1988. At 0830 hrs, there were 500

blackbuck Antilope cervi capra scattered in small

groups around the guest house. Though at a close

range, the blackbucks were camouflaged against

almost dried grass whereas more than 50 white

storks Ciconia ciconia , which were either

foraging in the grass or flying across a short

distance, were quite conspicuous. We saw atleast

6 storks walking behind the blackbuck within 2

m distance and capturing disturbed prey. Since

the storks were attending separate groups of

blackbucks, this foraging association was not

easily noticeable. The storks frequently changed

the feeding site, pursuing one group of blackbuck

after another. This foraging association was

exactly the same as that of cattle egret Bubulcus

ibis following cattle.

Refer

Dean, W.R.J. &I.A.W. MacDonald (1918): A review of

African birds feeding in association with mammals.

Ostrich 52: 135-155.

Hancock, J. A., J. A. Kushlan&M.P. Kahl(1992): Storks,

Ibises and Spoonbills of the World. Academic Press,

London.

To capture disturbed prey, the white storks

are known to follow fire (Hancock et al. 1992),

plough in the crop field (Pinowski et al. 1991)

and other mammals (Hancock et al. 1992, Dean

and MacDonald 1981). In Africa, white storks

are known to associate with Cape buffalo, white

rhinoceros, blue wildebeest, impala and domestic

cattle (Dean and MacDonald 1981). However,

in India, white storks are not reported to associate

with any wild or domestic mammals and hence

this is the first such report.

August 20, 1 996 B.M. PARASHARYA

AINP on Agricultural Ornithology

Gujarat Agricultural University,

Anand Campus, Anand-388 110.

RAJUVYAS

Sayajibaug Zoo

Vadodara- 3 90 018.

NCES

Pinowski, J., B. Pinowski, R.D. Graff, J. Visser & B.

Dziurdzik (1 991 ): Influence of feeding habitat on prey

capture rate and diet composition of White Stork

Ciconia ciconia (L). Zakland Ochrony Przyrody I,

Zasobow Naturalnych Polskej Akademii Nauk, Studia

Naturae - Seria A : 59-83.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

113

7. RECORD OF CICONIA CICONIA ASIATICUS FROM INDIAN TERRITORY

We had procured a pair of white stork

Ciconia ciconia from a bird dealer at Calcutta

in April 1969. Another pair was procured from

Kankaria Zoo, Ahmedabad in June 1976, while

the third pair was brought from the same zoo in

1985. However, between 1976 and 1985 one stork

died, but its record is not traceable. In December

1985, we realized that out of the total of five

storks, one did not mix with the others and kept

aloof. On closer observation we realised that the

stork in question had red skin surrounding its

eyes and lores. This character was in sharp

contrast with other storks in the zoo, which had

black skin in the same area. The bill colour was

also bright red and bare gular skin was red and

not black. This strange stork appeared slightly

larger than other storks. The white storks with

black skin around the eyes were certainly the

nominate race Ciconia ciconia ciconia (Ali

and Ripley 1983). However, we failed to find

a description of the strange stork and hence

its race/subspecies.

In February 1996, during the Salim Ali

Centenary Seminar, one of us (BMP) showed a

picture of the stork to Dr. Malcolm Coulter (USA)

and Dr. Elena Mukhina (Uzbekistan), who said

that it could be the Central Asian White Stork

Ciconia ciconia asiaticus. This subspecies is

described by Hancock et al. (1992), who report

that it is larger than ciconia and its bill is redder,

upcurved, longer and heavier. However, they

have not mentioned the colour of the skin around

eyes. C. c. asiaticus is found inTurkistan, USSR,

Uzbek SSR, Tadxik SSR, Kirgiz SSR, and

Southern Kazakh SSR from Amu Dar’ya to

ISSYK Kull and Lake Balkhash and extreme

Western Sinkiang, China (Kashgar). Hancock et

al. (1992) also state that this subspecies migrates

through Afghanistan and winters mainly in the

northern parts of the Indian subcontinent, mixing

with birds of the nominate race from the Middle

East. Ali and Ripley (1983) have shown breeding

distribution of C.c. asiaticus , but they doubt the

validity of the subspecies.

Hancock et al. (1992) reported that this

subspecies winters mainly in the northern parts

of the Indian subcontinent. We believe that the

stork in our zoo must have been supplied by a

Calcutta dealer. No Indian zoo has received white

storks from any Russian Zoo and hence it is quite

likely that C. c. asiaticus was trapped from the

Gangetic plains of West Bengal or Bihar. After

1986 we have carefully watched all the white

storks in the field for red skin around the eyes

but have failed to trace even a single specimen,

especially in Gujarat.

October 11,1996 VIJAYRAJ JADEJA

RAJUVYAS

Sayajihaug Zoo, Vadodara-390 018.

B. M. PARASHARYA

A INP on Agric. Ornithology .

Gujarat Agricultural University,

Anand Campus, Anand-388 110.

References

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Handbook of the Birds of Ibises and Spoonbills of the World. Academic Press,

India and Pakistan (Compact edn.) Oxford University London.

Press, Mumbai. Ripley, S.D. ( 1 982): A Synopsis of the Birds of India and

Hancock, J.A., J.A. Kushlan & M.P. Kahl(1992): Storks, Pakistan. Oxford University Press, Mumbai.

8. OCCURRENCE OF THE WHITEWINGED BLACK TERN CHLIDONIAS

LEUCOPTERUS IN RAJASTHAN

On April 9, 1996 we were watching a became immediately aware of four jet black terns,

mixed flock of terns at Phulera lake, Jaipur and As we viewed them for more than fifteen minutes

114

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 95 (1998)

before they flew away, there was no doubt in our

minds that they were indeed whitewinged black

terns Chlidonias leucopterus in full breeding

plumage.

The next day, on April 10, only one

individual was present and we were able to shoot

a picture of this bird despite the great distance.

So far there have been only three records

of the bird from the western side of India, on the

basis of which this tern is considered to be rare

in this part of the country (Ali and Ripley, 1981,

HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN

Vol. III). This is the first record of the species in

Rajasthan.

September 17, 1996 HARKIRAT S. SANGHA

HARSH VARDHAN

B-27, Gautam Marg,

Hanuman Nagar,

Jaipur-302 021.

9. AERIAL DISPLAY OF RUFOUS TURTLE DOVE STREPTOPELIA ORIENTALS

AGRICOLA TICKELL NEAR NAMBOL BAZAR, MANIPUR

On 20th May, 1996 at about 0530 hrs, I

saw a pair of rufous turtle doves, Streptopelia

orientalis agricola on a dry twig of a big tree

enjoying the morning sun. Suddenly, one of them

(probably a male) left the perch for an aerial show

covering about one minute in three successive

phases (or models). The first-phase flight was

short, horizontal with gentle wing flapping and

unsplayed tail. This was followed by a swift and

forceful steep flight with rapid wing clapping,

producing loud sounds, but tail slightly fanned

out. In the third or final phase, it flew in gliding

and coasting in a semicircle with both wing and

tail fully fanned out. Only during this phase of

flight could the white of the terminal fringe of

tail be seen. On completing such a round flight,

it alighted about two feet away from the other bird

at first, but on the same branch, then gradually

moved in mincing paces. No display call or

aggressive attitude was exhibited by either bird.

However, this activity may be a courtship display.

July 10, 1996 Kh. SHAMUNGOU SINGH

Department of Zoology,

DM. College of Sciences

Imphal-795 00 1 , Manipur.

10. AN INDIAN PITTA {PITTA BRACHYURA) TRAPPED IN

A STANDARD SHERMAN LIVE TRAP

I studied the effect of rainforest fragmenta-

tion on small mammals by the removal method

which consisted of 50 foldable Sherman live traps

along five 5 x 10 m grids in a disturbed forest

patch of the Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary,

Tamil Nadu. The traps were baited with peanut

butter and were designed for large bodied rats

like the house rat ( Rattus rattus ), but are sensitive

even for animals weighing as little as 8g. In the

morning of 28th March 1995, while I approached

a particular trap station, the box was shaking.

The trapped creature made a few harsh sounds

which confused me. To my surprise, there was

an Indian pitta (Pitta brachyura) inside. After

identifying the bird it was released at the same

spot. I thought this record of particular interest

because a) the bird stands higher than the mouth

of the trap and b) the bird had either come for

the bait of peanut butter or to feed on the insects

or ants which had been lured into the trap by the

bait. The Indian pitta primarily feeds and forages

on insects, grubs and worms on the ground (Ali

& Ripley, 1987 compact handbook of birds of

india and Pakistan). Hence, it likely that the bird

was attracted to the insects or bugs rather than

to the peanut butter, although this needs to be

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

115

tested. The incident occured in a totally degraded

forest patch, where the food sources are scarce.

The bird’s normal ground foraging habit might

have driven it to attempt to get food in this

unusual manner.

August 20, 1996 A. PRABHAKAR

Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology &

Natural History,

Kalampalayam P.O.,

Coimbatore 641 010.

1 1 . GOLDEN ORIOLE ORIOLUS ORIOLUS PREYING ON FLYING LIZARD

DRACO DUSSUMIERJDUU. & BIBR.

On 8 January, 1996, during one of my field

trips in the Western Ghats of Kerala, in a riparian

habitat at Poringal Kuthu Dam near Vazhachal,

I observed flying lizards Draco dussumieri in

good numbers. Several trees had one or two

lizards moving around the tree trunks. I was

amazed to see the lizards in abundance. In that

area on one of the trees I saw a golden oriole

Oriolus oriolus holding its prey in its bill and

beating it on the branch to devour it. I found

that the prey in the oriole’s bill was a flying

lizard. According to the handbook of the birds

of india and Pakistan, by Ali and Ripley (1983)

the oriole is a frugivore, but occasionally eats

insects. Whether the non-availability of fruits or

the abundance of the lizard made the oriole go

for the lizard is uncertain. In any case it is

interesting to note that the flying lizard also

forms an item of the golden oriole’s diet.

March 23, 1997 S. BALACHANDRAN

Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology

and Natural History, Kalampalayam P.O.,

Coimbatore 641 010.

12. COMMON MYNA FEEDING A FLEDGELING KOEL

On 15 August, 1996, at about 1130 hrs I

observed a common myna Acridotheres tristis

feeding a fledgeling koel Eudynamys scolopacea

in the compound of Girls High School at

Mangaldoi, Darrang dist., Assam. The fledgeling

flew down to the ground for feeding where the

myna was waiting. Then in the afternoon, the

same birds were seen again, this time on the tin

roof of the school building. The fledgeling was

very noisy, which in fact caught my attention on

both occasions. While the type of food provided

during the first observation could not be

identified, the myna did not offer any food the

second time, although the fledgeling flew down

noisily and begged for food. Then the fledgeling

flew back to a nearby tree.

The young koel was a female, as was

evident from its plumage. The koel is a known

brood-parasite, usually on the house crow Corpus

splendens and the jungle crow C.

macrorhynchos. Eggs have also been recorded

from the nests of Chinese magpie Pica p. seriea,

red-billed blue magpie Urocissa e. magnirostris

and black-necked myna Gracupica nigricollis

(Editor’s footnote in Smith 1950). Smith (1950:

JBNHS 49 [2] : 304-305) recorded a very

interesting case of black drongos Dicrurus

macrocercus fostering a koel. This observation

of common myna and koel seems to be the second

published instance, the first being eggs of koel

recorded by Stuart Baker from a common myna’s

nest (Cuckoo Problems, p. 197).

March 1 4, ANWARUDDIN CHOUDHURY

1997 The Rhino Foundation,

c/o The Assam Co. Ltd.,

Bamunimaidam, G. Bordoloi Path,

Guwahati 781 021. Assam.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 95 (1998)

13. MIMICRY BY COMMON IORA AEGITHINA TIPHIA

On 10th August, 1995, around 1300 hrs

close to my residence, the repeated calls of a

black drongo (Dicrurus adsimilis ) attracted

my attention. On investigation, it was found

that a drongo was perched on a small tree

nearby and was calling. Soon far more feeble,

but similar calls were heard from another

tree nearby by a male common iora. After a

minute or so, the drongo departed but the

iora continued imitating it for quite some-

time.

This act of mimicry by the iora has not

been recorded in the literature and is rather

unusual for the species.

November 9, 1995 A.M.K. BHAROS

17 MIG, Indravati Colony,

Raipur. (M.P.) 492 001.

14. UNUSUAL NEST LOCATION OF REDVENTED BULBUL

PYCNONOTUS CAFER (LINN.)

A redvented bulbul (Pycnonotus cafer)

made a nest inside a staff bus of the ‘Space

Applications Centre’, Ahmedabad. In the first

week of May, 1996 we found it sitting on a nest

built on the luggage rack at the rear end of the

bus. The bus is usually parked at the SAC

campus, adjacent to Sundarvan but ferries

passengers twice a day — in the morning and

evening.

Interestingly, when the bus plied and was

on the move for a couple of hours or more in the

city, the bulbul continued sitting at the nest,

undisturbed by the passengers. Four eggs were

observed in the nest on 12 May, 1996. The bus

driver reported 2 fledgelings from this brood in

the last week of May. The bulbul’s mate was also

seen several times when the bus was parked.

Possibly, this pair made more than one breeding

attempt, because the nest was seen to be occupied

as late as July end.

In the same bus, three other nests — two

in the forepart of the luggage rack and one at the

rear end were found — suggesting that this pair

or maybe some other individuals had attempted

nesting prior to the observed nests. One of these

nests was taken to Sundarvan and examined

closely. Whereas this particular nest fits the

general description of a redvented bulbul’s nest

as given in Ali and Ripley (1983) handbook of

THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN, its Somewhat

‘mobile’ location is unusual.

We thank Mr. Lavkumar Khacher for his

comments and Mr. R.H. Bhatnagar, bus driver,

for cooperation.

October 3, 1996 ABDUL JAMIL URFI

KESHUBHA JETHUA

‘ Sundarvan ’

• Surendra Mangaldas Road,

Jodhpur Tekra, Ahmedabad 380015.

15. POSSIBLE BREEDING BY ROCK THRUSH

MONTICOLA SAXATILIS (LINN.) IN NORTH KASHMIR

The rock thrush Monticola saxatilis

(Linnaeus) is believed to be a common passage

migrant in Baltistan and Gilgit regions of north

Kashmir (compact handbook of the birds of india

and Pakistan, Ali and Ripley 1987). It appears to

nest occasionally in southern Baluchistan (the

birds of Pakistan, Vol. 2, Roberts, 1992). The only

suggestion of its breeding in north Kashmir is

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

117

A.E. Ward’s 1906 mention of birds collected

“from Baltistan found in the summer.” (JBNHS

17(2): 482). However, no dates are associated

with this claim, and as migration through this

area occurs at the very end of August into early

September it is not clear if the birds collected

were breeding or migrating.

A female rock thrush was observed by us

on 8th and 9th August 1995, near Hopar in the

Nagar Valley of Hunza, (36° 23' N Lat. 74° 43'

E long.) for a total of three hours over two days.

The bird was seen at an elevation of 3,400 m on

an open grassy slope near a steep boulder-strewn

hill. The bird showed strong site fidelity,

returning when approached too closely and

regularly chasing off black redstarts

(Phoenicurus ochruros ) that approached the rock

walls of a corral.

While there was no definite proof of

nesting, the female was an adult and exhibited

strong site fidelity and territorial behaviour

toward other birds. Our observations were made

after the known breeding season but prior to the

occurrence of passage migration through this

region (late August and September). We submit

that this is further evidence that the rock thrush

Monticola saxatilis is at least an occasional

breeder in the mountains of north Kashmir.

June 4, 1996 PETER ZAHLER

NAEEM I. DAR

AKHTAR KARIM

P.O. Box 896

Lee, MA 01238 USA.

16. RECORD OF SIBERIAN BLUE CHAT ( ERYTHACUS CYANE) FROM PAURI

GARHWAL, UTTAR PRADESH, IN THE WESTERN HIMALAYAS

On 29 May 1996 we were watching birds

from the premises of a temple (altitude c. 1 940

m) situated c. 1 20 metres above the town of Pauri

(30° O' N & 78° 47' E) in Pauri Garhwal dist. of

Uttar Pradesh. The forest around consisted of

tall, old specimens of fir (Abies spp.), oak

(Quercus spp.), chir pine ( Pinus roxburghii),

spruce (Picea spp.), rhododendron

(Rhododendron spp.) and deodar (Cedrus

deodar a). Around 0800 hrs, while observing a

group of small flycatchers and white-eyes, I

suddenly saw a bird flying in and settling on a

branch of a chir pine tree. The bird sat about 10

metres in front of me at eye level. The morning

being bright and sunny, I got a very clear look at

the bird. The sparrow-sized bird had beautiful

blackish blue and white plumage. I identified it

as the Siberian blue chat (Erythacus cyane). I

was familiar with the appearance of this bird from

Ali and Ripley’s Pictorial Guide Plate 8 1 . While

trying to identify an orangeflanked bush robin

(Erythacbs cyanurus) a few days earlier, initially

I could only view its dark blue dorsal parts, a

lighter supercilium, white underparts and the

dark band from near the bill that extends over

the eyes to the sides of the breast. I could not see

its orange flanks and the faint greyish tinge on

the lower breast. It looked very like the Siberian

blue chat illustrated in Plate 8 1 , but differed from

it in having the supercilium. Later, when the bird

moved, I saw the flank and breast and identified

it as Erythacus cyanurus.

The bird I saw from the Pauri temple

premises perfectly matched the illustration of the

Siberian blue chat. Through my 8x30 binoculars

I could clearly make out the lack of any trace of

supercilium, rufous-orange patch on the sides and

the faint greyish lower breast. I noticed the broad

black band extending over the eye from the bill

to the sides of the breast up to shoulder level. In

E. cyanurus the band is blue. The slaty blue

upperparts from forehead, crown to rump were

concolorous, but the upper tail coverts were a

little deeper in shade and slightly more glossy

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

than the rest. I also saw that the entire underparts,

from chin to under tail coverts and vent, were

spotless white. The legs were light pinkish in

colour. I had the Pictorial Guide in my hand

while observing this bird. Since the bird is

extremely rare in India, I checked the identifying

features many times over till I was sure about its

identity.

Ali & Ripley (1983a) give the distribution

in India as - “A straggler in winter and during

migration. Haldibari duars, Bengal 18 February

1932 (Inglis coll., Brit. Mus.); Manipur, a party

in April (Hume)”. In the footnote about

Erythacus cyane it gives the following

information - “A specimen in the Pinwill coll.

(Brit. Mus.) is labelled Simla but ‘Simla’is

written in such a way that it evidently was not

written at the time though it is Pinwill’ s writing”

(Whistler’s MS). An observation by Magrath in

Hazara in June (JBNHS 18: 197) certainly

pertains to Muscicapa leucomelanura, as does

one from Narkanda, c. 35 km NE. of Simla (von

Pelzeln, Ibis 1868: 310). Ali and Ripley (1983b)

give the distribution as ‘‘Isolated records from

Bengal duars, Manipur and S. Andamans”.

My record from Pauri may point out that

Erythacus cyane may be a straggler to Western

Himalayas and there is a likelihood that the

specimen from the Pinwill collection was

correctly labelled.

September 1 7, 1 996 SUCHITRA GHOSH

Senior Lecturer in Zoology,

Bangabasi College,

19, Prof. R.K. Chakraborty Sarani,

Calcutta-700 009.

References

Ali, Salim & S.D. Ripley (1 983a): Handbook of the Birds Ali, Salim & S.D. Ripley (1983b): A Pictorial Guide to

of India and Pakistan (compact edition), Oxford the Birds of the Indian Subcontinent, Bombay Natural

University Press, Delhi. History Society, Mumbai.

1 7. STATUS OF THE GHARIAL GA VIALIS GANGETICUS IN THE MAIN

BRAHMAPUTRA RIVER

( With one text-figure)

In the Brahmaputra river, the gharial

Gavialis gangeticus was once fairly common

(Cooper 1873), but now it is rarely seen and its

future is bleak. In some recent works (Singh

1991; Whitaker and Basu 1992), its status in the

Brahmaputra river was not dealt with in detail

and its current status is unclear. Moreover,

information provided by Singh (1991) referring

to Singh, Kar and Choudhury (1984) does not

seem to be based on actual field study. The only

recent information on the species from a part of

the river is from Choudhury (1992). Cooper

(1951 a, b) covered the Barak river system,

erroneously referred to by Singh (1991) and

Singh, Kar and Choudhury (1984).

During the past decade, I carried out field

work in different parts of the Brahmaputra river

as part of a broader survey on wildlife. The data

collected on the occurrence of the gharial are

presented below.

c. 1979: One seen near Tekeliphuta, near

Lakhimpur-Jorhat inter-district boundary, in the

afternoon hours. It was about 2.5 - 3.0 metres

long.

1 98 1 -83 : A large gharial seen near Rangdoi,

now part of Dibru-Saikhowa Wildlife Sanctuary,

Tinsukia district; it was 4.5 - 5.0 m long.

1982: One seen near Baluchar, now part

of Dibru-Saikhowa Wildlife Sanctuary, Tinsukia

district.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

119

Fig. 1 . Occurrence of the Gharial ( Gavialis gangeticus ) along the Brahmaputra river.

1982-83: One seen by Mising tribal people

near Matmora, Lakhimpur district (Choudhury

1992).

1982-84: One caught in trap especially set

up for the gharial near Rangdoi, now part of

Dibru-Saikhowa Wildlife Sanctuary in Tinsukia

district.

c. 1983: One seen basking on the river

bank near Dibru-Saikhowa Wildlife Sanctuary:

it was about 4 m in length.

1986: (a) Two seen near a pool of the river,

in January-February. They were of the same size

(about 2 m long) and were basking near Baluchar,

now part of Dibru-Saikhowa Wildlife Sanctuary,

Tinsukia district.

(b) One seen near Tekeliphuta, near

Lakhimpur-Jorhat inter-district boundary

(Choudhury 1992).

(c) One seen in the river near Laika Forest

Village, Dibru-Saikhowa Wildlife Sanctuary,

near the inter-district boundary of Tinsukia and

Dibrugarh.

1988: (a) One seen near Tekeliphuta, near

Lakhimpur-Jorhat inter-district boundary

(Choudhury 1992). It was about 2.5 m long.

(b) One seen basking on the sandy river

banks near Kaziranga National Park; it was about

3.5 m long.

1991: (a) One seen in June- July near

Bontapu Beat on the river bank in Orang Wildlife

Sanctuary, Darrang dist.

(b) One seen in late afternoon in the Siang

river between Poba Reserved Forest and Kobo

Chapori in the Dhemaji dist.; it was a small

specimen, about 1.5 m long. The upper reaches

of the Brahmaputra are known as Siang (from

near Kobo Chapori in Assam to the Indo-China

border in Arunachal Pradesh).

1992: One seen in May- June on the

banks near Phansidia Laika-gaon, a Forest Village

in Dibru-Saikhowa Wildlife Sanctuary, Tinsukia.

1992-93: Two sightings near Azan Pir’s

Dargah, Dikhowmukh in Sibsagar district. One

and two specimens sighted respectively.

The gharial has become extremely rare in

the Brahmaputra river and its extinction from

the entire river system in northeastern India

seems to be only a matter of time. The existence

of any viable breeding population is unlikely. The

main reasons for its decline are:

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

( 1 ) Heavy year-round use of the river for

commercial fishing. The entire river-bed is leased

out to Mahaldars (contractors) who employ all

types of fishing methods including gillnets for

commercial fishing.

(2) Encroachment of basking and breeding

grounds by humans for setting up fishing camps

and for settlement (on the higher banks near the

beaches).

(3 Chasing and killing any gharial sighted.

There was a case of deliberate poaching between

1982-84 when one gharial was caught in a trap

made of many harpoons, in the Brahmaputra

river in Tinsukia dist.

(4) Siltation of river-bed due to heavy

deforestation at different places.

Although it is difficult to assess the current

population size of the gharial in the river, it may

be as low as 20 individuals, mostly eastwards of

Kaziranga.

No report on breeding could be gathered

during the survey. Sighting of young gharials

(such as a specimen of about 1.5 m long in the

Siang river in 1991) suggests that breeding may

still happen in some remote areas of the Siang

river in Arunachal Pradesh.

Conservation action for the gharial in the

Brahmaputra river should be taken up on a

priority basis. Since gharial conservation in

other areas, notably Nepal, Uttar Pradesh,

Madhya Pradesh and Orissa has been successful

Refe

Choudhury, A.U. (1992): Records of the gharial from

Dhakuakhana area of Assam. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 89(3):3S0-S\.

Cooper, T.T. ( 1 873): The Mishmee Hills. Photographically

reproduced in 1 995. Mittal Publications, New Delhi.

Cooper, W.E.D. (1951a): Forty years of sport on little

known Assam rivers. Part I. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

50(1): 91-100.

Cooper, W.E.D. (1951b): Forty years sport on little known

Assam rivers Part II. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 50(2):

to a great extent, there is every reason to assume

that the same can be done in Assam and

Arunachal Pradesh. Already there are protected

areas with potential gharial habitat notably

Kaziranga, Dibru-Saikhowa, Orang and

Burhachapori in Assam, and D’Ering in

Arunachal Pradesh. Release of captive bred

gharial into these protected areas must be

seriously considered if the species is to survive

in the Brahmaputra.

Acknowledgements

For assistance during field survey I would

like to thank the following persons, Lakhimpur

district : Padma Dihingia, Lankeswar Pegu,

Biswajit Gagoi, Tankeswar Das Hodura Das,

Dharmeswar Pegu, Kula Rajkhowa and Bikul

Goswami. Tinsukia district : Paniram Das, Nur

Hussain, Bolo Pal, Anil Das, Suku Kharia,

Koruna Patir, Dulal Pegu, Ranjit Doley, Amal

Sahu, Sudhdev Das, Ram Das, Bihuram Mili,

Kamal Kalita, Mahadev Rajbongshi, Munin

Hazarika, Dilip and Babul. Sibsagar district'.

Prabhat Yien and Baneswar Daring.

March 1 8, ANWARUDDIN CHOUDHURY

1997 The Rhino Foundation,

c/o The Assam Co. Ltd.,

Bamunimaidam, G. Bordoloi Path,

Guwahati 781 021. Assam.

ENCES

313-322.

Singh, L.A.K. (1991): Distribution of Gavialis gangeticus.

Hamadryad 16(1,2): 39-46.

Singh, L.A.K., S. Kar & B.C. Choudhury (1984): India:

Status of wild crocodilians. Paper presented at the 7 th

Working Meeting of the Crocodile Specialist Group

(IUCN/SSC), Caracas, Venezuela.

Whitaker, R. & D. Basu (1982): The Gharial ( Gavialis

gangeticus): A Review. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 79(3):

531-48.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

121

18. RECORDS OF TURTLES FROM PAKHUI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY,

ARUNACHAL PRADESH, NORTHEAST INDIA.

The northeastern region of India has a high

diversity of turtles, comprising at least 1 7 species

(Das 1990). Many species are rare or of

indeterminate status. Few locality records exist

from Arunachal Pradesh (Das 1995). Four turtle

species were recorded during a six month field

project (November 1995 to April 1996) in Pakhui

Wildlife Sanctuary (WLS) in East and West

Kameng districts of Arunachal Pradesh. All the

four species recorded are endemic to South Asia

(Das 1994).

Pakhui WLS (26° 53.7' N - 27° 16.2’ N

lat. and 92° 7.5' E - 92° 22' E long.) covers an

area of 862 sq. km and the terrain is primarily

hilly with elevations ranging from 200 to 1500

m above msl. Pakhui WLS is bordered on the

south by the Nameri WLS and reserve forests of

Assam. The area is drained by two major rivers,

the Bhareli and the Pakke which are distri-

butaries of the Brahmaputra river. The vegetation

type is mainly tropical semi-evergreen with

several evergreen species as well as deciduous

elements. Canes and palms are common in the

moister areas near small nalas (= minor streams).

The sanctuary is located on the north bank of

the Brahmaputra. Several perennial hill streams

and smaller nalas crisscross the area. Tall grassy

patches are found along the larger perennial

streams such as the Khari and Lalung nalas in

the Khari area. The sandy banks along these fast-

flowing streams are strewn with pebbles and

boulders and form a good undisturbed habitat

for hardshell and softshell turtles. At many

places, rock pools are also formed along cliffs.

There is practically no disturbance, except for

occasional cane-cutters in winter. All along the

length of Khari and Lalung nalas, there are sandy

banks and boulders. The combined length of

these two nalas, which originate in the hills and

join at Khari from opposite directions, is around

20-30 km. The locals informed me that they

found turtle nests and remains of egg shells along

the sandy banks. However, I came across turtle

tracks along the sandy banks of Khari nala only

once.

In November 1995, I found a hardshell

turtle caught in a bamboo fishing basket which

had been set up on Khari nala to catch fish. The

specimen was small, and was later identified with

the help of a colleague, Rashid Raza, as the

Assam roofed turtle (Kachuga sylhetensis Jerdon

1870). The identification was made on the basis

of the prominent keel, the highly serrated

posterior marginals and the second vertebral keel

being longer than the third vertebral keel. The

individual was a juvenile (CL c. 9-10 cm).

The Assam roofed turtle is restricted to the

evergreen forest tracts of northeastern India, with

previous locality records from Assam, Nagaland

and Meghalaya (Das 1995). Fast- flowing streams

and small rivers in the hills of northeast India

forms its habitat (Das 1985, 1991). This species

is reportedly rare (Das 1991, Bhupathy et al.

1 992), and is the least known with the narrowest

distributional range (Das 1995). The first record

of this species from the north bank of the

Brahmaputra river was relatively recent (Das

1990). Later Bhupathy et al. (1992) and

Choudhury (1993) reported it from Nameri WLS

and Ghilamara in Assam respectively. The

present record is from Khari nala in Pakhui

WLS, which is just 1 00-200 m from the Assam-

Arunachal Pradesh border. This extends the

distribution further north and is the first record

of the species from Arunachal Pradesh.

In subsequent months, I did not find any

turtles or evidence thereof along the stream beds.

In April 1996, 1 found four turtles in Khari nala.

Two individuals were the Indian peacock

softshell ( Aspideretes 'lurum Gray 1831) (CCL

= 9.8 cm, CCW = 9.5 cm, CPL = 10 cm, CPW =

8.5 cm). Both were juveniles, the measurements

given above are of the bigger individual (see

Appendix 1 for a description).

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

The Indian peacock softshell turtle is

widespread in the northern part of the Indian

subcontinent, in the drainage of the Ganga,

Brahmaputra and Subarnarekha rivers (Das

1995). It inhabits rivers, ponds and lakes (Das

1985; 1991). This species has been reported by

Bhupathy et al (1992) from two localities in

eastern Arunachal Pradesh (south bank of the

Brahmaputra), all other records being from

Assam.

The other two were of the species Asian

leaf turtle ( Cyclemys dentata Gray 1831). The

measurements of the two Cyclemys are CCL = 9

cm, CCW = 8.8 cm, CPL = 8.6 cm, 7.3 cm, CPW

= 7.2 cm, 6.2 cm. Its distribution ranges from

northeast India to southeast Asia. This species

has been recorded earlier from localities in

Assam and Meghalaya (Das 1995) and three

localities in Arunachal Pradesh (Bhupathy et al

1992).

In April 1996, Mr. Pratap Singh (DCF

Wildlife, Itanagar) and I went to a place called

Pukhri (a marshy pond on a hilly plateau in

totally undisturbed semi-evergreen forest). The

pond is about 50 m wide. We sighted three turtles

basking in the sun, on a fallen log at the edge of

the water. I could tentatively identify it as the

Indian flapshell turtle ( Lissemys punctata

Bonnaterre 1789). We could only approach them

to about 15m and observed them with binoculars.

They could not be caught or measured for proper

identification. The flapshell occurring in the

northeast is a different subspecies and is

widespread in the Brahmaputra drainage (Das

1991). It is known to bask on the banks of ponds,

on driftwood and floating vegetation (Das 1995).

Pakhui WLS appears to support a highly

diverse turtle population, and an intensive survey

for turtles should lead to more detailed

information regarding nesting seasons, habitat

and localities, and further new records. The area

is undisturbed and there is practically no

exploitation for meat or egg collection. Das

(1990) stressed the need for establishing the

zoogeographic patterns of many of these species.

Bhupathy et al (1992) recorded that in Assam

and Arunachal Pradesh there are reports of 19

species of freshwater and land tortoises. Kachuga

sylhetensis was reported as rare in northeast

India, known only from a few specimens and

locality records. The Indian peacock softshell

turtle and the Asian leaf turtle were reportedly

more common. The peacock softshell was

recorded in several markets in Upper Assam

(Frazier and Das 1994). Barring the Asian leaf

turtle, the species recorded are listed in Schedule

I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.

Besides the two specimens seen in the wild,

I came across a peacock softshell and two Assam

roofed turtles in an aquarium inside a small

roadside restaurant on the Tezpur-Tinsukia

highway at Jaklabandha near Bokakhat in April

1996. Two spotted pond turtles ( Geoclemys

hamiltonii Gray 1831) were also kept in the same

tank. The owner reportedly bought them for Rs.

120 from a Arunachali, two to three years ago.

This species inhabits shallow standing water

bodies and is common in Kaziranga National

Park which was close to the area. It has been

reported from Assam and Meghalaya in northeast

India (Das 1995). The species is protected under

Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972

and in Appendix I of CITES.

I thank the Arunachal Pradesh Forest

Department for granting permission for field

work and D.N. Singh, DFO of Pakhui WLS for

help during field work. I also thank Rashid Raza

for help in identifying one of the turtle species.

June 24, 1 997 APARAJITA D ATTA

Wildlife Institute of India,

Post Bag 18, Chandrabani, Dehradun 248 001

References

Bhupathy, S., B.C. Choudhury & E.O. Moll (1992): land tortoises of India. Report of the turtle and land

Conservation and management of freshwater turtles and tortoise conservation project of the W ildlife Institute of

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

123

India and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service pp 25.

Choudhury, A. ( 1 993): Distribution of Kachuga sylhetensis

(Jerdon 1870). Hamadryad 18: 43-45.

Das, I (1985): Indian turtles: a field guide. World Wildlife

Fund-India (Eastern Region). Calcutta, pp 1 19.

Das, I (1990): Noteworthy distributional records of

chelonians from northeastern India. J. Bombay nat.

Hist.Soc. 87: 91-97.

Das, I (1 991): Colour guide to the turtles and tortoises of

the Indian subcontinent. R & A Publ. Portishead. pp

133.

Das, I (1994): The Reptiles of South Asia: checklist and

distributional summary. Hamadryad 19: 15-40.

Das, I (1995): Turtles and tortoises of India. Oxford

University Press, Mumbai, pp 1 76.

Frazier, J.G. & I. Das (1994): Some notable records of

testudines from the Indian and Burmese subregions.

Hamadryad 19: 47-66.

Appendix 1

COLORATION AND MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF TURTLES

Hardshell turtles - two of same species (Asian leaf turtle)

Both individuals had 10 marginals on each side, serration at the posterior marginals starting from

7th till 10th; four on midback, 2 in front, 2 small behind. Hooked jaw, webbed feet, though digits

free, five claws on forefeet, carapace flattened.

Bigger specimen - female (flat plastron)

Tail length - 2 cm. Carapace covered with moss and algae and a light cream brown colour with

small black radiating lines on each scute.

Smaller specimen - male (concave plastron).

Tail length - 1.8 cm. Carapace brown, plastron, a dark rufous brown colour.

Softshell turtles - two of same species (Peacock softshell turtle)

Two of the same species, both juvenile, though one about twice the size of the smaller one. Aggressive,

active, tries to bite, neck extensible, protrudes long neck. Coloration of both same. Four very prominent

large eye spots on carapace. Eye spot - black circle surrounded by orange yellow ring, the outer

circle around the yellow ring also black. Whole body mottled, blotched pattern of ochre yellow

brown rectangular patches, stripes and spots, dark brown to black background. Circular carapace.

Plastron greyish. Head with black reticulations and yellow patches. Five claws on digits on the hind

feet. Left hindfoot length - 4 cm, left forefoot length - 3.2 cm (larger specimen).

19. FIRST RECORD OF THE SPOTTED FOREST GECKO GECKOELLA

COLLEGALENSIS (BEDDOME, 1 870) FROM GIR FOREST, GUJARAT STATE, INDIA

( With one text-figure)

On 8th November, 1996 at 18:05 hrs a

brown coloured large spotted gecko was observed

under stones, along with another lizard species

Mabuya macularia and Hemidactylus brookii ,

at Pilhipat area of Gir forest, Sasan, Junagadh

dist. On examination it was confirmed to be

Geckoella collegalensis.

The measurements, colour and scales

details are as follows: total body length 7 cm;

snout to vent length 4 cm and tail 3 cm. Head

moderate, snout larger, eyes large with vertical

pupil, ear-opening small, oval. Tail shorter than

the head and body length, and swollen at the

base. Lateral fold absent. Digits clawed and

124

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

Fig. 1. Spotted forest Gecko Geckoella

collegalensis from Gir Forest, Sasan

cylindrical, last two distal phalanges compressed

and angularly bent. Hind limbs just reach the

axilla (BNHS, Regn No. 1434).

Supra labials 12, lower labial 9, posterior

labials smaller and granules near the jaw angle.

A pair of large postmental scales. Enlarged dorsal

tubercle absent, belly with rounded imbricate

scales. Tail scales larger than the dorsal and belly

scales.

Body colour light grey with large rounded

black-edged brown spots from head to tail, in

paired row, lateral spots are small. Limbs are

dark brown, marbled markings. Lower jaw and

throat white with brown dots. Belly white

coloured and tail with dark brown bands.

According to Smith (fauna of British india,

1935-1938, Vol. II) G. collegalensis is found on

the hills of southern India and Sri Lanka at low

elevations, while Sekar (Hornbill 1994 No. 4)

reported from Sanjay Gandhi National Park,

Mumbai, Maharashtra, the range extension of

the species, upto the northern end of Western

Ghats. The present record, a fust report of G.

collegalensis from Gir Forest, shows further

range extension of this species.

September 1 6, 1 997 RAJU VYAS

Sayaji Baug Zoo ,

Vadodara 390 018.

Gujarat, India.

20. INANIMATE FEEDING BEHAVIOUR OF TUCKTOO GECKO GECKO LINN.

The tucktoo is the largest among geckos

and the common house gecko of southeast Asia,

found in India only in Bihar, Bengal and Assam

(Daniel 1983). This lizard is, however, found in

Mizoram in towns like Aizawl, Champhai,

Serchhip, Kolasib, Vairangte, Lunglei and

Lawngtlai. Mizos believe that the houses which

harbour tucktoo, locally called as “ok.. ok..” are

lucky (Harit and Harit 1966). In Mizoram they

are generally found in houses made of bamboo

or Assam type houses made of asbestos tiles

(Harit 1996). In concrete houses tucktoo is

uncomon due to lack of hiding places. The

literature on this gecko is meagre. McCann

(1940) reported on its colouring, habitat and

voice. Whitaker and Whitaker (1979) have

described its breeding.

In the month of July 1997 1 was discussing

lizards with one of my friends. He told me that

one midnight he heard a sound like khat... khat...

many times and when he got up he found that it

was a tucktoo, holding one of the many plastic

toy fish hanging on the wall of the sitting room,

and battering it against the wall. The wall was a

plywood partition of the sitting room. The toy

fish was nearly 3 cm long and 1.5 cm in width,

and all the toys were joined together by a strong

thread. On seeing my friend the gecko left the

toy fish and went to its hideout. Then he heard

some sound from the water heater which he had

forgotten to switch off when he went to sleep, as

the electricity had gone off. The whole bucket of

water had nearly evaporated due to the long time

the water heater was inside. The water heater

was switched off.

My friend concluded that it was the ‘ok’

that had saved them, otherwise there would have

been an electric short circuit or fire, and hence

they were lucky to have ‘ok’ in their house. Such

is the faith of the Mizos.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

125

Lizards are generally found to feed on live

and walking insects. Dead insects under

experimental conditions are not touched. Cases

of ejection of some distasteful insects (?)

accidentally hunted and taken into the mouth has

been observed in Hemidactylus flaviviridus at

Kolasib (Mizoram) by me.

The above mentioned incident of the

tucktoo trying to feed on an inanimate object

indicates that probably the lizard is not able to

recognise whether its prey is dead or alive and is

possibly stimulated only by the movement of the

likely prey. Secondly, the continuous battering

of the toy fish also indicates that the lizard was

not able to test the taste of the prey.

This type of inanimate feeding behaviour

of tucktoo is very peculiar and unusual and hence

worthy of record.

November 10, 1997 D.N. HARIT

Department of Zoology,

Government Kolasib College,

Kolasib, Aizawl 796 081,

Mizoram, India.

References

Daniel, J.C. ( 1 983): The book of Indian Reptiles, Bombay

Natural History Society, Mumbai.

Harit, D.N. & D.K. Harit (1996): Indigneous method of

translocation of the Tucktoo Gecko gecko Linn, as

practised in Mizoram, India, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc,

93(2): 302.

Harit, D.N. ( 1 996): Report on Lacertilian fauna of Kolasib

of Mizoram, India. Himalayan Journal of environment

and Zoology Vol. 10(2): 93-94.

McCann, C (1940): A reptile and amphibian miscellany,

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 41: 742-764.

Whitaker, R. & Z. Whitaker (1979): Breeding of Tokay

gecko, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75: 499.

2 1 . NEW LOCALITY OF THE KOYNA TOAD, BUFO KOYNA YENSIS (AMPHIBIA)

The Koyna toad, Bufo koynayensis

(Amphibia) Soman 1963, was described by

Soman in 1963 from Humbali village, Shivaji

Sagar lake at Koyna, Satara dist., Maharashtra

at about 1300 m (Frost, 1985). One more toad

species was also described from the same locality

as Bufo koynayensis, namely Bufo sulphureus by

Grandison and Daniel (1964). As the

morphological features of Bufo sulphureus were

similar to Bufo koynayensis, the former was

synonymised with the latter (Dutta, 1992). The

distribution of the Koyna toad was known only

from the type locality (Frost, 1985).

In August 1995, during a survey of

amphibia along the Western Ghats in southern

Maharashtra, three adults and some juveniles of

Bufo koynayensis were collected at the forests of

Amboli ghats (15° 52’ N, 73° 56' E), at 750 m

elevation, in Savantwadi taluka, Sindhudurg dist.

Collection data and morphometric details are as

follows:

Materials: 3 exp. (2 females, 1 unsexed);

BNHS Regn No. 3018, 3019 & 3037; Amboli

(alt. 750 m); 25.viii.95 & 26.viii.96; Coll.

Aloysius G. Sekar and V.M. Hegde.

Measurements: Snout-vent length of

females 31.0-32.0 mm; head length 8.75-9.75

mm; head width 11.05-11.95 mm; tibia length

10.5-11.95 mm; snout-vent length of unsexed

specimen 27.6 mm; head length 8.2 mm; head

width 10.45 mm; Tibia length 10.3 mm.

The other morphological characters

perfectly match the description of Bufo

sulphureus (Grandison and Daniel, 1964).

However, the colouring of the toads in the present

collection slightly differs from that of the earlier

description. The dorsal surface of the adult was

described as yellowish brown and marbled with

grey on the flanks, whereas the toadlets were

greenish brown on dorsal side and could be

distinguished immediately from the blackish

brown toadlets of the common toad, Bufo

126

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 95 (1998)

melanostictus. Both the females were gravid with

ripe eggs.

Ecological notes: Two individuals were

collected from the short-grass patch in the thick

forest during a shower, whereas one specimen

was picked up from the wet soil covered with

wet leaf litter in the forest. The toadlets of Bufo

koynayensis were seen hopping around along

with the common toad Bufo melanostictus on

the forest floor. However, the Koyna toad was

not sighted with the common toad in any other

habitat except the forest habitat, while the

common toad was sighted everywhere in the

forest as well as around human habitation in the

town. The numbers of the Koyna toad were less

compared with other amphibian species at the

same site. It seems the population of this toad is

poor even in the forest habitat.

The Koyna toad, Bufo koynayensis, is

considered as an endemic species of Maharashtra

Refer

Dutta, S.K. (1992): Amphibians of India: Updated species

list with distribution record. Hamadryad 17: 1-13.

Frost, D.R. (1985): Amphibian species of the world. A

Taxonomic and Geographical reference. Allen Press Inc.

and The Association of Systematic Collections

since its first description in 1963. No information

is available on its distribution either within the

state or outside it for about 32 years. The recent

record of this species from Amboli at the southern

border of Maharashtra, on the Western Ghats,

indicates that this species may occur in the

neighbouring states of Karnataka and Goa also.

I thank Dr. Jay Samant, ex-Director,

BNHS, who initiated the survey of South

Maharashtra and Mr Vithoba Hegde who

accompanied me during the survey. I thank the

BNHS for financial support and the forest

department, Savantwadi, for their cooperation

during my visit in Amboli.

June 12, 1996 ALOYSIUS G. SEKAR

Herpetology Section

Bombay Natural History Society

Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road

Mumbai 400 023.

;nces

Lawrence, Kansas, U.S.A.

Grandison, A.G.C. & J.C. Daniel (1964): Description of

a new species of Toad (Anura: Bufonidae) from Satara

District, Maharashtra, India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

61: 192-194.

22. OCCURRENCE OF RAMANELLA VARIEGATA (ANURA: MICROHYLIDAE) IN

WEST BENGAL WITH NOTES ON ITS DISTRIBUTION IN INDIA

On the evening of 13th April, 1996, a

small microhylid frog with yellow blotches on

the back was collected from the toilet of the

Banspahari Forest Rest House, Banspahari

Range, West Midnapore Forest Division,

Midnapore District, West Bengal. It was

identified as Ramanella variegata (Stoliczka,

1872). The specimen, a male with brown spots

on the throat and measuring 2 1 mm from snout

to vent was deposited at the National Zoological

Collections (Regn No. A8748), Zoological

Survey of India, Calcutta. As the species has not

been included in the Z.S.I.’s State Fauna Series:

Fauna of West Bengal, Amphibia (Sarkar et al,

1 992) and had not been reported from Midnapore

district (Mansukhani and Sarkar, 1977), this

specimen constitutes the first record of the

species from West Bengal.

The species is known from Tamil Nadu,

Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya

Pradesh and Orissa and extralimitally from Sri

Lanka. While Daniel (1963) claimed the species

to be rare, recorded mainly from eastern

peninsular India upto Chanda in Madhya

Pradesh, Murthy (1968) who reported it from

Madras, claimed it to be common. The species

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

127

along with two others, R. montana (Jerdon, 1 854)

and R. triangularis (Gunther, 1875) was referred

to the genus Callula till Rao and Ramanna (1925)

revised and renamed it under the genus

Ramanella. Not much is known about the biology

of the species. Rao and Ramanna (1925) report

that the species is found in termitaria or under

stones in association with large black scorpions

Heterometrus sp. They live mostly under-

ground and emerge only after heavy rains when

their loud call ghauy ghauy can be heard

throughout the night. The advertisement call was

studied by Kanamadi et al. (1993) while its

Refer

Daniel, J.C. (1963): Field guide to the amphibians of

Western India. II. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 60(3): 690-

702.

Dutta, S.K., S. Jena & P. Mohanty-Hejmadi (1991):

Breeding and development of Ramanella variegata

(Anura: Microhylidae). J. Zool. Soc. Ind. 42: 55-76.

Kanamadi, R.D., C.R. Hiremath & H. Schneider (1993):

The advertisement call of the south Indian frog

Ramanella variegata (Microhylidae). J. Herpetology

27(2): 218-219.

Mansukhani, M.R. & A.K. Sarkar (1977): Amphibians

breeding and development was studied by Dutta

et al. (1991).

Acknowledgements

I thank S.K. Chanda of Z.S.I. and S.K.

Dutta of Utkal University for confirming the

identification of the specimen.

April 1 2, 1 997 KAUSHIK DEUTI

39A, Gobinda Auddy Rd,

Block ‘A ' Flat No. 3/1,

Calcutta-700 027.

ENCES

of Midnapore dist. West Bengal. Nexvsl. Zool. Surv.

Ind. 3(4): 156-157.

Murthy, T.S.N. (1968): Notes on a rare and interesting

microhylid frog ( Ramanella variegata Stol.) from

Madras. / Univ. Bombay 36(3 & 5): 1-3.

Rao, C.R.N. &B.S. Ramanna (1925): On a new genus of

the family Engystomatidae ( Batrachia ). Proc. Zool.

Soc. Lond. 587-597.

Sarkar, A.K., M.L. Biswas & S. Ray (1992): Amphibia

In : Fauna of West Bengal. Zool Surv. Ind. State Fauna

Series 3, Part 2: 67-100.

23. CHAGUNIUS CHAGUNIO (HAMILTON-BUCHANAN) (PISCES: CYPRINIDAE):

A NEW RECORD FROM KUMAON HILLS, UTTAR PRADESH

( With one text-figure)

During the course of observation of fishes

caught by a fisherman from Kali-Sharda river

from Baramdeo (240 m above msl near

Tanakpur) a fish was observed, which was later

identified as Chagunius chagunio (Hamilton-

Buchanan). The river stretch where the fish was

caught is a transition zone where the

mountainous river (Kali) reaches the plains;

further downstream, the river is known as

Sharda. The river is very deep and moderately

rapid at this zone and the substratum consists of

rocks and sand.

The above mentioned fish was caught

along with Tor putitora and Labeo dero on July

29, 1997 from the flooded river with the help of

a locally fabricated gill net. C. chagunio has not

been reported from Kumaon hills in earlier

studies (Hora 1937, Menon 1949 and Pant 1970).

Chagunius chagunio Hamilton-Buchanan

Weight 217.0 g., Total length 27.5 cm.,

Standard length 22.5 cm., Head length 5.5 cm.,

Body depth 6.0 cm.

Local name: Musaina, Dhuiyan.

Diagnostic features: D. I 8; P iii 12; V ii 8; A

ii 6; C. 22; L. 1 46

128

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

Fig. 1. Chagunius chagunio (Hamilton-Buchanan),

male

Length of head 5 cm, height of body 4.5

cm in total length. Body elongate, its depth is

more than its head length. Mouth narrow and

subterminal, barbels 2 pairs, longer than orbit.

Suborbital region, cheeks and anterior superior

margin of the orbit is covered with numerous

pores. Dorsal spine osseous, strong and recurved,

its length is rather more than that of head,

excluding the mouth. Dorsal fin commences

midway between the end of the snout and the

base of caudal fin. Scales small; lateral line

complete; lateral line scales 46; 6 scale rows

between lateral line and pelvic fin; 1 5 rows before

the dorsal fin. The specimen is identified as male,

because of the pronounced tubercles on snout and

Refe

Day, F. (1 878-88): The Fishes of India being a natural history

of the fishes known to inhabit the seas and freshwaters

of India, Burma and Ceylon. London pp. 559.

Hamilton-Buchanan (1822): An Account of the fishes

found in the river Ganges and its branches. Edinburgh

and London pp. 295, 387.

Hora, S.L. (1937): Notes on fishes in the Indian Museum

XXXIII on a contribution of fish from Kumaon

cheek, and elongated last two anal fin rays

extending to base of caudal fin.

Colour: Silvery with a pinkish tinge; black

at scale margin. Fins reddish with light outer

rays.

The occurrence of C. chagunio in this lotic

water extends its distributional range upto the

foothills of Kumaon Himalaya. In earlier studies,

the distribution of the species was recorded from

Orissa, throughout Bengal, Bihar and NW

Province to the Punjab (Day 1878-88),

Brahmaputra and Ganga drainages along the

Himalayan foothills (Talwar and Jhingran,

1991).

Acknowledg ements

I am grateful to Dr. H.B.S. Raina, Director,

National Research Centre on Cold Water

Fisheries, Bhimtal, Nainital dist. for providing

necessary facilities and encouragement.

September 1, 1997 K.D. JOSHI

National Research Centre on Coldwater

Fisheries,

Champawat dist.,

Pithoragarh-262 523 (U.P.) India.

ENCES

Himalayas. Rec. Indian Mus. 39(4): 338-341.

Menon, A.G.K. (1949): Fishes of Kumaon Himalayas,

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 62 (3): 535-542.

Pant, M.C. (1970): Fish fauna of Kumaon hills, Rec. Zool.

Surv. India. 64(1-4): 85-96.

Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland Fishes (Vol.

I). Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi

pp. 168.

24. NEW RECORD OF PUNTIUS MELANAMPYX (CYPRINIFORMES:

CYPRINIDAE) AND MICROPHIS CUNCALUS (SYNGNATHOFORMES:

SYNGNATHIDAE) FROM KARNATAKA, INDIA

During a recent survey of fishes from the collected from a stream near Kadra (a tributary

Western Ghats region of Northern Karnataka, a of Kali river, near dam site) and six specimens

few specimens of Puntius melanampyx were of Microphis cuncalus were also collected

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

129

downstream from Aghanasini river. Literature

and reports on fishes of Karnataka (Day 1878-

88, Talwar and Jhingran 1991, Jayaram in press)

show that this species was not known from this

region.

Puntius melanampyx

This species was collected in June 1996

from a stream near Kadra dam site, a tributary

of the Kali river P. melanampyx was originally

described by Day ( 1 865). It is a widely distributed

species recorded from the Wynaad, Nilgiri and

Travancore ranges of hills, and streams and the

Cauvery river. Later, Hora and Law (1941)

reported it from Pampadampara and Silas (1951)

recorded it in Vannamudi Bridge, Anamalai

Hills, Ponnai, Nelliamputhi Hills, Periyar

drainage from Kerala. This species is being

recorded for the first time from Uttar Karnataka

Western Ghats region.

Description: D ii 8, P 14, C 20, LL 19-20,

Pre.D.Sc 7. Head length 3.1 to 3.4 times in

standard length. Eye diameter 2.6 times in head

length. Body depth 2.5 times in standard length.

Colour. In live fish, light golden brown with three

dark black vertical bands on the flank. After

preservation, dull brown, the vertical bands

faded.

Microphis cuncalus

This species was collected in June 1996

downstream of Aghanasini river near Kritikada

village. Its occurrence from this area extends the

distribution range of the species to the Western

Refer

Day, F. (1865): Fishes ofMalabar: 210, pi. 16, fig 1.

Day, F. (1878-88): The Fishes of India (4th ed) Jagmander

Book Agency, New Delhi, pp. 778. (Reprint 1 994).

Hamilton, B. (1822): Fishes of Ganges 12: 362

Hora, S.L. & N.C. Law (1941): Freshwater Fishes of

Travancore Rec. Ind. Mus. 43: 246.

Jayaram, K.C. (in press): Manual for field identification

of common freshwater fishes of Karnataka. Madras:

87.

Klausewitz (1955): Senck. Biol., 36 (5/6): 315, Figs a, c.

Ghats of Karnataka. In earlier studies the species

was recorded in estuaries of northern Calcutta

(Hamilton 1822), brackish water of Bombay

(Klausewitz 1955), Dhaleswari river, northern

Munshigany, Bangladesh (Rahman 1976).

Geographical distribution in India

This species inhabits rivers ascending

far above the tidal influence, estuaries and

the low salinity habitats of West Bengal,

Orissa, Maharashtra, Goa, Kerala and Tamil

Nadu. For the first time, we recorded this species

from the stream habitats of Karnataka. Water

quality parameters, such as dissolved oxygen

(12 mg/1), alkalinity (30 mg/1), total hardness

(26 mg/1), total dissolved solids (63.7 mg/1) and

conductivity (0.047 m mhos) were recorded. The

water quality parameters show that it is a purely

freshwater (stream) habitat.

Description: D 43-44, Rings (15+17) +

(27-28), P 18-19, C 8-9. Head length 6.8 to 7.8

times in standard length. Body depth 3.4 to 4

times Head length. Eyes of moderate size situated

at mid-length of head. Colour : Preserved

specimens dusky green dorsal side, ventral side

dull white and caudal fin dark brown.

August 20, 1997 M. ARUNACHALAM

J.A. JOHNSON

R. SORANAM

Sri Paramakalyani Centre for

Environmental Sciences ,

Manonmanium Sundaranar University,

Alwarkurichi-627 412, Tamil Nadu, India.

NCES

Rahman (1976): Bangladesh Journal of Zoology., 4 (2):

45,47, Figs 1-3.

Silas, E.G. (1951): On a collection of fish from the

Annamalai and Nelliampathi hill ranges (Western

Ghats) with notes on its zoogeographical

significances. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 49(4): 673,

674.

Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland fishes of

India and Adjacent Countries. Oxford and IBL Pub.

Co. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi pp. 1158.

130

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

25. HYPSELOBARBUS KOLUS (SYKES) - AN ADDITION TO KERALA

Table 1

MORPHOMETRIC AND MERISTIC MEASUREMENTS

OF HYPSELOBARBUS KOLUS FROM KERALA

D=4/9; P=l/14; V=l/8; A=3/5; Lr =42.

The large scaled barbels of the genus

Hypselobarbus are distributed in Peninsular

India. Six species have so far been described

(Talwar and Jhingran, 1991). Recently, Menon

and Rema Devi (1995) added H. kurali from

southern Western Ghats. While describing this

new species, they considered H. kolus as a

synonym of H. curmuca without any discussion.

However, Talwar and Jhingran (1991) treated H.

kolus as a valid species and described its ranges

as Krishna, Godavari and Cauvery river systems.

A recent survey in different systems of

northern Kerala revealed the absence of H. kolus

and H. curmuca in the east-flowing river systems

(tributaries of Cauvery) whereas H. curmuca was

present in the west- flowing rivers (Shaji et al.,

Refer

Easa, P.S. & S.C. Basha (1996): A survey on the habitat

and distribution of stream fishes in the Kerala

part of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. KFRI Research

Report No. 104. Kerala Forest Research Institute,

Peechi.

Menon, A.G.K. & K. Rema Devi (1996): Hypselobarbus

1995; Easa and Basha, 1996). In the southern

parts of Kerala, both H. curmuca and H. kurali

are present (Shaji and Easa, in press). During a

recent visit to Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary

in Palghat dist., Kerala, two juveniles of the

species were collected from the Thunacadavu

reservoir. Four adult specimens (17.85-19.70 cm

SL) were also obtained from a local fisherman

residing near Chalakudy river at Malakkapara.

This is the first record of H. kolus from Kerala.

The morphometric and meristic measure-

ments are given in Table 1.

The species shares some characters such

as the number of lateral line scales and the weak

last unbranched ray of the dorsal fin, with H.

curmuca and H. kurali. But the presence of only

two barbels makes H. kolus distinct from the two.

There is a notable difference between the species

in colour. In H. kolus, the flanks are silvery with

a faint slate colour. Dorsum is slightly blackish

and ventral part dirty white. All the paired and

median fins are blackish at their bases and tipped

with orange.

Acknoweldgement

The authors are grateful to the staff of

Chalakudy and Parambikulam Forest Division

for their support in the field.

July 14,1997 S.M. VAIRA VEL

C.P. SHAJI

P.S. EASA

Division of Wildlife Biology,

Kerala Forest Research Institute,

Peechi-680 653, Kerala.

iNCES

kurali (Pisces: Cyprinidae), A new large Barb from

the South Western rivers of Peninsular India. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92: 386-388.

Shaji, C.P. & P.S. Easa (in press): Fish Fauna of Kallar, a

tributary of Achankovilar, Kerala, South India. J.

Zool. Soc. Kerala.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

131

Shaji, C.P., P.S. Easa & S.C. Basha (1995): Freshwater Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland fishes of

fish diversity in Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala, India and adjacent countries. Oxford and IBH

South India. J. Bombay not. Hist. Soc. 92: 360-363. Publishing Co., New Delhi, pp 1 1 58.

26. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF TWO FLYING FISH: PROGNICHTHYS GIBBIFRONS

(VAL.) AND EXOCOETUS VO LIT AN S LINN. (PISCES: EXOCOETIDAE)

IN WEST BENGAL

The marine Ichthyofauna of West Bengal

has been described by Talwar et al. (1994),

and Chatterjee et al (in press). In their accounts

there is no mention of the blunt-nosed flying

fish Prognichthys gibbifrons (Val.) and two-

winged flying fish Exocoetus volitans Linn.,

family Exocoetidae from West Bengal, which

are known from India as well as tropical and

subtropical seas. Recently, the authors

came across two specimens, one each of P.

gibbifrons and E. volitans of total lengths

195 mm and 147 mm respectively, caught with

drag nets by fishermen of Digha from Bay

of Bengal on 22.12.92 and 12.3.96 respectively.

The description of both species is given below.

Prognichthys gibbifrons (Val.)

Material Examined: 1 ex. locality: Digha

Hospital Ghat, Coll. S. Talukdar & P.N. Jana,

MARC. Regn No. 669, dt. 22.xii.92.

Diagnostic Characters: D. 12, P. 16, V.5,

A. 9, C. 10/12, Predorsal scales 24. Body

oblong, gill openings wide, jaws short, pectoral

fins elongated, reaching beyond the end of

dorsal. First two pectoral rays unbranched.

Origin of anal opposite 4th dorsal ray. Ventrals

much longer than the head, originating about

midway between caudal and eye. Eyes very

large, snout blunt when mouth is closed.

Colour: Brown above, white below, dorsal

and caudal brown. Pectoral gray with lighter

middle region. Ventral with darker rays in middle.

Exocoetus volitans Linnaeus.

Material Examined: 1 ex., locality: Digha

Hospital Ghat, Coll. J. Sarkar, MARC. Regn No.

1665 dt. 12.iii.96.

Diagnostic Characters: D-14, P. 14, V.6,

A. 13, C 7/9. Body moderately oblong. Gill

openings very wide, Jaws short, the

premaxillaries and maxillaries separate. Pectoral

fins elongated, and reaching caudal base.

Ventrals small, originating nearer tip of snout

than caudal base. Eyes large. Snout obtuse when

the mouth is closed. 6.5 rows of scales between

the origin of the dorsal fin and the lateral line.

Colour: Bluish along the back, becoming

lighter on the sides and beneath. Pectorals

greyish.

Acknowledgement

We thank Dr. J.R.B. Alfred, Director,

Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, for

providing facilities and for encouragement.

November 24, 1997 J. SARKAR

S. TALUKDAR

RAMAKRISHNA

T.K. CHATTERJEE

Marine Aquarium & Research Centre,

Zoological Survey of India,

Digha, Midnapore, West Bengal 721 428.

References

Chatterjee, T., S. Talukdar, A.K. Mukherjee & Talwar, P.K., P. Mukherjee, D. Saha & S. Kar (1994):

Ramakrishna (in press): Fish & Fisheries of Marine & Estuarine fishes: In state fauna Sr.,

Digha Coast of West Bengal. Rec. Zool. Surv. Fauna of West Bengal, Part II: 243-342. Zool.Surv.

India. India.

132

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

27. SEXUAL DIMORPHISM OF A PERCH PRIACANTHUS HAMRUR (CUV. & VAL.)

( With four text-figures)

The present work deals with the sexual

dimorphism of Priacanthus hamrur (Cuv. & Val),

an edible perch. Thobias (1974) drew attention

to the sexual dimorphism of a barb, Puntius

filamentosus (Val.) while Inasu (1993) worked

that out for a freshwater puffer fish Tetraodon

travancoricus Hora & Nair. Day (1958) described

the genus Priacanthus based on a single species

(P. blochi). Four species of Priacanthus were

subsequently described by W. Fischer (1974).

Sexual dimorphism has not been studied in any

of these species.

About 27 adult specimens of Priacanthus

hamrur (Cuv. & Val.) were collected in February

- March 1997 in fresh condition from

Munampam (Trichur dist. Kerala). Total length,

Fig. 1. Priacanthus hamrur (Cuv. & Val.) A: Male; B: Female

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

133

head length, caudal peduncle length, maximum

width, inter-orbital diameter and total weight of

each specimen were recorded separately. The fine

morphological differences between males and

females, ascertained by dissection, were

compared.

A clear sexual dimorphism is present in

Priacanthus hamrur (Cuv. & Val.). Females are

more than twice as large and heavy as the males

of the same age group. Lateral line in male is

curved downwards in front in the shape of a hook,

while it is less so in female. Opercular spine is

more sharply marked in males. The dorsal

anterior profile of the head in female has a greater

downward slope. The soft rays in the posterior

half of the dorsal fin of the female are more

filamentous and they protrude out from the upper

margin of the fin. Inter-orbital diameter is wider

in female.

A clear sexual dimorphism was observed

in Priacanthus hamrur (Cuv. & Val.). Females

are much larger and heavier than males. Clear

morphological differences also distinguish males

from females. N

The lateral line is arched downwards at the

front end of the body in males. This hook-like

downward bend of the lateral line is not so

conspicuous in females. The lateral line in female

is less arched in front. (Fig. 1A & B).

The soft rays in the posterior half of the

dorsal fin are more filamentous and protrude

beyond the upper margin of the fin in females,

while those in the male are less filamentous and

do not protrude so (Fig. 2 A & B).

Fig. 2. Soft rays in the posterior half of dorsal fin

A: Male; B: Female

The dorsal anterior profile of the head has

a downward slope in female, which is absent in

male (Fig. 3A & B).

Fig 3. The dorsal anterior profile of head.

A: Male; B: Female

The opercular spine is sharply marked in

males, but it is feeble in females (Fig. 3A & B).

The inter-orbital space is wide in females

(1.76 cm), but it is less wide in males (1.28 cm).

(Fig. 4A & B).

The average body weight of the female is

more than twice that of the males of the same

age group. Females also dominate the males in

all other body measurement as shown in

Table 1.

134

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

B

Fig. 4. Inter-orbital space in A: Male;

B: Female compared

Table 1

COMPARISON OF MORPHOMETRY IN MALES AND

FEMALES OF PRIA CANfHUS HAMRUR

CUV.&VAL.

AcKNOWLEDGEM ENT

We thank Rev. Fr. Jose Chittilappilly

Principal, Christ College, Irinjalakkuda,

Kerala for permission to work in the Zoology

department and Mr. Xavier Thanipilly, Marine

Exporter, Munampum for procuring the fishes

from Munampum Harbour.

September 4, 1997 TESSY J. MANDY

INASU N.D.

Department of Zoology

Christ College, Irinjalakkuda.

Kerala-680 125

References

Fischer, W (1974): “Eastern Indian Ocean and Western

Central Pacific”. Fish identifying sheets (FAO).

Day, F. (1958): Fishes of India. William Dawson & Sons

Ltd. London, Pis CXCV.

Inasu, N.D. (1993): Sexual dimorphism of a freshwater

puffer fish, Tetraodon travancoricus Hora & Nair,

collected from Trichur district. Central Kerala.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 90 (3): 523-524.

Thobias, M.P. ( 1 974): Observations on the morphological

variations in Puntius filamentosus (Val.), family

Cyprinidae with a redescription of the species. Journ.

Inland Fish. Soc. India: 45-50.

28. BIOLOGY OF THE PARASITIC WASP STILBUM CYANUR UM VAR. SPLENDEUS FABR.

(CHRYSIDIDAE: HYMENOPTERA)

( With one plate)

The chrysidid wasps Stilbum cyanurum

var. splendeus Fabr. are metallic greenish blue

in colour, seen during bright sunshine, and are

parasitoids on mud-dauber wasp grubs of the

families Eumenidae and Sphecidae. These

chrysidid females bore holes on the mud-dauber

nest surface into the cells with their long

ovipositor and deposit an egg in each cell. After

hatching, the chrysidid larva feeds on the well

developed wasp grub and pupates at one end of

the host cell. The adult chrysidid emerges by

gnawing holes at the sides of the cell.

The chrysidid wasps Stilbum cyanurum

var. splendeus Fabr. are solitary or found in

groups on vegetation (PI. 1A). They are always

seen hovering over areas where mud-dauber

wasps of the family Eumenidae and Sphecidae,

especially the mud cell builders such as Eumenes

conica Fabr., E. edwardsii Sauss., Sceliphron

madraspatanam Fabr., S. intrudens Smith., build

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 95

G. Srinivasan et al: Stilbum cyanurum

Plate 1

A: The female adult chrysidid resting on Panicum sp. grass during night;

D: The parasitoid chrysidid grub feeding on the Eumenid grubs in several cells of a nest. C-small

chrysidid grub w-wasp grub; G: Eumenid wasp cell nest showing both the chrysidid pupa and the

wasp pupa. W - Wasp pupa, C - Chrysidid pupa

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

135

their mud nests (Iwata, 1976). Eggs are laid

mostly from 1000 hrs to 1700 hrs in the evening,

till bright sunshine disappears. The chrysidid

females can be seen following the host wasp at

a few metres from the nesting site, particularly

while the chrysidid females are ovipositing on

the host nest. At times the host eumenid or

sphecid females return to the nest but the

chrysidids are not deterred. Instead they chase

the host wasp by fluttering their wings and

charging against them ferociously. It is

interesting to note that the sphecids immediately

respond by defending their cells by placing

additional mud pellets over the cell surface,

whereas eumenid females fly away and they place

the additional load of mud only after the chrysidid

wasp departs from the nesting site.

Once the chrysidid female finds a host

mud-dauber nest it first examines the surface area

for a few minutes. Then, with the help of its

salivary secretions it wets the spot for oviposition

and starts scratching the spot with the help of its

mandibles, continuing for a few minutes. It then

ejects its long protruding telescopic needle-like

ovipositor and inserts it into the scraped wet spot

and revolves it around. If the wasp finds it too

difficult to bore a hole, the ovipositor is

withdrawn into the abdominal segment. Then

again it wets the same spot with its salivary

secretions for the second time, scratches with its

mandibles, ejects its ovipositor and inserts it into

the oviposition site and starts boring the hole

again as before. The same behavioural patterns

have been observed in Chrysis fuscipennis on

Sceliphron nest (Iwata, 1976). The action of

wetting the spot and boring into it with the

ovipositor while clinging to the nest surface may

be repeated 2 or 3 times to make the hole. The

time taken to bore a single hole is between 12-

1 5 minutes as the wasp gives a hard second layer

of mud brought from a nearby termitarium. In

the case of nests of sphecid wasps of Sceliphron

sp., the time to bore the hole is less when

compared to eumenids, as Sceliphron sp. takes

wet mud directly from ground surfaces or watered

pots in the gardens. In certain instances it can be

seen that on a few nests a second coating of mud is

not given and in such cases the chrysidid

oviposition holes are clearly visible as minute holes

on the surface of the cell.

When the oviposition hole is complete the

chrysidid inserts the ovipositor and deposits a

single small white egg into the cell. The egg

hatches in 2 to 3 days. In most cases the egg

deposited may be at a time when the host wasp

cell contains the well grown grub (Fig. D), pupae

or preadult so that the parasitoid grub can

complete its life-cycle well provisioned. However,

in certain instances the egg is oviposited at a

time when the host wasp is in the egg stage. In

these instances the parasitoid chrysidid

undergoes a delay in development until the host

grub has grown to a good size (Askew, 1971). In

other cases, in a few cells if the host grub has

been attacked halfway during the larval stage

and the full grown host grub is sufficient at

that time for the chrysidid gmb, then the cadavers

of spiders or caterpillars provisioned will be

pushed to one end of the cell and the cocoon

formation of the chrysidid grub will take place

at the other end (Fig. G). The cocoon is knitted

from thin fibres formed by the salivary secretions

of the chrysidid grub. These fibres are initially

white, turning dark brown or yellow in a few

days.

During the present study the egg hatching

period was between 2 to 3 days. Larval period

was 10-12 days. Pupal period was 8-12 days.

Adult emergence took 2 to 5 days. In a period of

30 to 35 days the adult parasitoid wasp gnawed

an emergence hole on the host cell wall and

escaped.

November 1 9, 1 997 G. SRINI VASAN

K. SASIKALA

Department of Zoology, Bharathiar University,

Coimbatore-64 1 046.

M. MOHANASUNDARAM

Professor of Entomology (Retd.)

T.N.A.U. Coimbatore-3.

136

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

References

Askew, R.R. (1971): Heinemann Educational Books Ltd,

London, pp. 165.

Bohart, R.M. & A.S. Menke, (1963): Utiiv. Calif. Pub.

Ent., 30: 91-182.

Evans, E. & M.J.W. Eberhard (1970): The wasps. The

University of Michigan press, pp. 219-220.

Iwata, K. (1976): Evolution of Instinct. Amerind Publishing

Co. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi, pp 217-235, 55-57, 242-275.

29. ON AN UNUSUAL ENDOCLYTA (LEPIDOPTERA: HEPIALIDAE) FROM

KUMAON, IN THE NORTHWEST HIMALAYA, INDIA

Kumaon lies to the west of Nepal,

comprising a section of the Himalayan range

bordered by the Tibetan plateau to the north and

the Gangetic plain to the south. Insect fauna, at

least in the lower hills, consists of Indo-Malayan

as well as Palaearctic elements. Recently, an

influx of Indo-Malayan fauna has been noted, so

that at least among Hawkmoths, this group

predominates at present (Smetacek 1994).

Hitherto, only two species of Hepialids, i.e.

Palpifer sexnotatus Moore and Hepialiscus

nepalensis Walker, were known from the

Himalaya west of Nepal. Both these species have

been recorded recently from Kumaon.

On June 25, 1996, a female of the genus

Endoclyta Felder was attracted to a mercury

vapour lamp at Jones Estate near Bhimtal, in

Nainital dist. The moth appeared at around 10

pm which is unusual, since Barlow (1982)

observes that the moths of this family are active

for a limited period of 15 to 20 minutes at dusk

and are seldom encountered late at night.

Unfortunately, there does not seem to be a

modem revision of the genus Endoclyta, and

Barlow points out that his placement of the

species is tentative. As a result, the specimen

under consideration cannot be placed with

certainty.

Barlow (1982) illustrated a male of

Endoclyta (= Endoclita) chalybeatus Moore,

with which the specimen under consideration

agrees in the lack of any white marks on the

forewing and the termination of the dark discal

area on the fore wing along vein 2.

It differs in (i) the much darker ground

colour of the forewing and the fuscous head,

thorax, abdomen and hindwing, which are pale

brown in the illustrated male. This may, however,

be explained by the fact that the specimen is a

female, which is known to be darker (Hampson

1892). (ii) On the forewing, which measures 45

mm, the pale area in the cell is reduced, the pale

discal band does not reach the costa and there is

no defined pale sub-apical or sub-marginal area.

The pale discal band is outwardly sharply defined

by an inwardly pale and outwardly dark fascia.

The area beyond this is crossed by numerous

discontinuous striae. The most prominent of these

striae are those bounding the sub-terminal band,

which are also inwardly pale and outwardly dark.

The band begins above vein 2, proceeding

upward in two discontinuous steps to vein 4.

From vein 4 to vein 8 the outer fascia is

continuous but irregular, while the inner fascia

is discontinuous throughout its length. Above

vein 9, the band and bordering fasciae lose their

prominence among several striae.

Hampson has treated Endoclyta

chalybeatus as a synonym of “ Phassus signifer

Walker” which, according to him, may be

distinguished chiefly by the darker discal

markings of the fore wing terminating along vein

2. P. signifer , however, has white marks in the

forewing cell. He mentions an unusual specimen

from Burma (Myanmar) in which the ground

colour of the forewing is pale brownish yellow,

with no white spots in the cell. This unusual

specimen is what subsequent workers have

treated as E. chalybeatus.

There does not appear to be any Indian

member of Endoclyta combining the

characteristic termination of the dark area along

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

137

vein 2 and the lack of white spots on the forewing.

On the basis of the above, I have placed the

specimen under consideration as Endoclyta

chalybeatus, although this is a tentative

placement.

The range of Endoclyta chalybeatus is

Burma (=Myanmar) Thailand and Malaya

according to Barlow, and that of “Phassus

signifer” is Sylhet (Bangladesh), Burma and

Borneo according to Hampson.

In any event, the appearance of a female

in good condition belonging to this species or a

very closely related one over one thousand

kilometres west of its known habitat is worthy of

note. Barlow gives Erythrina as one of the larval

host plants of E. chalybeatus. Two species of

Erythrina occur in Jones Estate, i.e. E. suberosa

Roxb. or the Coral Tree and E. arborescens Roxb.

Therefore, if the specimen is chalybeatus after

all, its appearance is perhaps not surprising,

given the increasing influx of Indo-Malayan

moth species in the Kumaon Himalaya.

August 28, 1997 PETER SMETACEK

Jones Estate, Bhimtal

Nainital, UP. 263 136

References

Barlow, H.S. (1982): An Introduction to the Moths of

South East Asia, E.W. Classey Ltd., Faringdon.

Hampson, G.F. (1892): The Fauna of British India

including Ceylon and Burma, Moths Vol. 1 , Dr. W.

Junk, The Hague. Reprinted Today & Tomorrow’s

Publishers, Delhi.

Smetacek, P. (1994): The Hawkmoths (Lepidoptera:

Sphingidae) of Kumaon, N. India: A probable case

of faunal drift. Rec. Zool. Sur. India, Occ. Paper

156, pp 55.

30. SIGHTING OF THE COMMON PALMFLY (NYMPH ALIDAE : LEPIDOPTERA)

IN MUMBAI

On 23 October, 1996 at around 0915 hrs,

a common palmfly, Elymnias hypermnestra

caudata was spotted flying low in the garden of

Colaba woods, South Mumbai. The specimen

was bright and its striking colour pattern with

brownish-black forewings, with a prominent,

single white band and rust orange hindwings was

unmistakable. Recently, this garden acquired

additional palm saplings of Areca sp. from

Mangalore and it is quite possible that one of

them carried the eggs and pupa of this species.

It may be noted that Mumbai had inclement

weather due to the cyclonic conditions prevailing

on the west coast of India during that period.

Mr. Naresh Chaturvedi, Curator of the

BNHS, confirmed the species and recommended

that this sighting be recorded, as the common

palmfly is rarely seen in Mumbai and the

surrounding areas. The last sighting was in

Kihim across on the mainland in September 1972

(Salman Abdulali JBNHS 70: 228).

Subsequently, four more specimens were

sighted in Alibag on 7th and 8th June 1997.

July 7, 1 997 KIRAN SRIVASTAVA

131 Mehr-Dad, 13th Floor,

Cuffe Parade,

Mumbai 400 005.

3 1 . THE PLAIN PUFFIN APPIAS INDRA SWINHOE: BEHAVIOUR,

LIFE-HISTORY AND DISTRIBUTION

(With one plate)

The Plain Puffin (Appias indra Swinhoe, and white butterfly. Its distribution covers Sri

Pieridae: Lepidoptera) is a medium-sized black Lanka, Western Ghats, Nepal, NE. India and

138

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

Myanmar southwards, covering most of SE. Asia,

mainly around the subtropical evergreen forest

zone (Wynter-Blyth 1956, Larsen 1987). It is

generally considered to be rare. Wynter-Blyth

(1956) gives its distribution in south India from

Coorg to Travancore. There are a few records of

this butterfly from Maharashtra, and in Pune

there are recent records of breeding of the Plain

Puffin.

I have personally sighted it in Maharashtra

only from Bheemashankar. The Plain Puffin flies

mostly in the canopy, occasionally descending

to feed on flowers of Leea and Adelocurrium and

more rarely to bask. At Bheemashankar, there

would always be one or two Plain Puffins

mudpuddling in the forest stream. In the late

afternoon, from 3 to 5 pm, a group of 3 to 10

Puffins would be seen in the mud, sitting still

with their forewings drawn into the hindwings

(a habit of most Appias sp.).

The natural history of the Plain Puffin is

poorly recorded. Neither Wynter-Blyth nor

anybody else, as far as I know, has recorded its

larval foodplant in the wild and other breeding

habits. Interestingly, four years ago this forest

dwelling butterfly was found breeding on

Putranjiva roxburghii Wall (family

Euphorbiaceae) in the environs of Pune city. A

single larva was successfully reared by Mr. Shonil

Bhagwat. A few caterpillars were discovered in

January 1993 on the same plant. But the imagines

were never seen. For next two years, there was

no record of adult butterflies, but in mid-

September, 1 996, came the burst of Plain Puffins.

The butterflies were seen feeding on the flowers

of Melia sp. in a school compound. On searching,

some 50 caterpillars of various instars were found

feeding on the tender leaves of Putranjiva plants.

Life cycle: The eggs are laid on the

underside of tender leaves in batches of 4 to 8.

The egg is yellow, typical of a pierid, bottle-

shaped and ribbed on the sides.

Larva: The little caterpillar, just after

hatching out, is quite difficult to locate due to its

extremely small size and pale yellow colour,

which matches the mid-rib and veins on the leaf

perfectly. It remains pale yellow till it grows upto

4 mm or so in length. Then it begins to develop

a remarkably beautiful, rich cerulean-blue coat

with black conical projections. It is lemon-yellow

on the underside and a similar yellow line runs

on each side along the length of the body. The

head is yellow. The caterpillar refuses to eat

mature leaves, and feeds on young leaves, petioles

and even the shoots which bear them. It rests on

the underside of young or old leaves, branches

etc. without any effort at concealment, though

the bright colours make it conspicuous. The

caterpillar attains its full length, around 3.5 cm.,

in about 17 ± 4 days. The body-band is very thin

and tightly spun around the caterpillar. The

caterpillar is arguably among the finest and most

handsome ones from our region.

Pupa: The pupa is found on the underside

of the host leaf and is unusual in colour: the

ground colour varies from lemon yellow to shades

of greenish yellow, with small black dots on it.

A long, pointed projection, which is generally

upturned at the tip, is present before the head.

On the back of the thorax are three flat

projections on each side, making a broad flat area

on the thorax. Their tips are commonly curved

downwards. The pupal period varies from 6 to 9

days.

Parasites: Out of the 20 caterpillars I

collected, 2 were parasitized by a wasp belonging

to family Chalcidae. Generally, the parasites on

butterfly caterpillars are minute in size, but this

one was 6 mm long. On pupation, the infected

pupa turned dark yellow within 3 days. The

parasite could be seen as active within the

puparium. The parasite larva pupated inside the

dead puffin pupa, without making a cocoon,

commencing 3-4 days after the Puffin pupation

began. The host pupa was completely devoured

except for the eyes, and the parasite pupa could

be seen in the thoracic region of the Puffin

puparium. After 1 1 days, that is 6 days after the

butterflies from healthy pupae had emerged, the

chalcid wasps emerged through the thorax of the

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 95

Krushnamegh Kunte: Plain Puffin ( Appias indira )

Plate 1

1. Caterpillar; 2. Pupa of Plain Puffin (Appias indira)

1

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

139

dead host pupae by making a round exit-hole 3

mm in diameter. The pressure of the chalcid

parasites on the Plain Puffin caterpillar

population seems to be high. Out of about 40

pupae investigated in the field, 8 were parasitized

by the chalcid wasps, i.e. approximately 20%.

Some caterpillars were found to be attacked and

killed by unidentifiable microbes and still more

by the wandering larvae of unidentified lace wing

flies (order Neuroptera).

Out of 18 butterflies that emerged

successfully almost half (8) were females and this

proportion was also seen in the free-ranging

imagines recorded.

The butterfly is consistently present,

perhaps in growing numbers, and is breeding

here since the last four years. Given the abun-

dant foodplant (Putranjiva has been planted as

a roadside avenue plant at many places) and

temperate climate, it may not be very hard for

the Plain Puffin to establish itself in the

city.

November 20, * KRUSHNAMEGH KUNTE

1997 Wildlife Institute of India,

M.Sc Students Hostel,

Post Box No. 18, Chandrabani,

Dehra Dun 248 001.

References

Wynter Blyth, M.A. (1956): Butterflies of the Indian Larsen Torben, B. (1987): The Butterflies of the Nilgiri

Region, Bombay Natural History Society, Mountains of south India, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

Mumbai. 84: 48.

32. COMMON SILVERLINE CATERPILLAR FEEDING ON CAD ABA INDICA

The Common Silverline ( Spindasis

vulcanus Fabricius: Lycaenidae: Lepidoptera)

larvae have been recorded feeding on various

species of plants belonging to families

Rubiaceae, Rhamnaceae and Verbenaceae. Their

choice of larval foodplant does not seem to

depend much on the plant itself, but on the

presence of attending ants, so the butterfly has

managed to breed on species of diverse plant

families.

Dr. Makarand Dabak found a cater-

pillar of a Lycaenid in a small cell made of a

few Cadaba sp. (Capparidaceae) leaves,

constantly attended by small black ants. I reared

it at home and the caterpillar fed happily on

the leaves of Cadaba. After it was full grown

it went into pupation and formed a jet black

pupa. The Common Silverline emerged out of

the pupa.

No Lycaenid has been recorded as feeding

on plants of Capparidaceae, which are common

foodplants of many of the Pierids. The present

record adds the family Capparidaceae to the host

plants of the Lycaenidae. This record also

supports the postulated tight relationship between

Silverline caterpillars and ants which attend

them, and also demonstrates that chemical

composition of the foodplant seems to have little

relevance in this relation.

April 1 5, 1 997 KRUSHNAMEGH KUNTE

Life Research Foundation

Pranav, 1000/6-C, Navi Peth, Pune 411 030.

Present Address:

Wildlife Institute of India,

MSc Students Hostel,

Post Box #18, Chandrabani,

Dehra Dun-248 001.

140

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

33. BURROWING BEHAVIOUR OF THE SHORE CRAB OCYPODA MACROCERA

H. MILNE EDWARDS FROM SUNDARBAN, WEST BENGAL

( With one text-figure)

Although brachyuran crabs comprise one

of the major components of coastal macrofauna

of the Sundarban delta, very little is known about

the burrowing behaviour of these crabs, especially

ocypodid crabs, from this region (Bakshi et al.

1980; Chakraborty et al. 1986; Bhunia et al.

1989; Mandal and Nandi, 1989; Nandi and Dev

Roy, 1991; Nandi and Pramanik, 1994; Bairagi,

1995). This study deals with structure and

distribution of burrows of the ocypodid crab,

Ocypoda macrocera H. Milne Edwards.

Initially we studied the sea-shores of

Bakkhali and Jambudwip in 1986, and

subsequently reinvestigated Bakkhali beach,

Sundarban, in 1996. In all, 188 burrows, 75 in

1986 and 1 13 in 1996 (Table 1) were studied, to

ascertain the course of the burrows. The burrows

were round slightly inclined and descending

downwards (Fig. 1) and were found at the sand-

flats between High Water Spring Tide (HWST)

and High Water Neap Tide (HWNT). They

usually had one external opening and

occasionally up to three openings with inter-

connections between them. The diameter of the

external opening varied from 1.9 to 7.2 cm,

descending to a depth of 7.9 to 46.2 cm (Table 1).

It is evideht from Table 1 that more than

60% burrows were of 30 mm to 50 mm diameter.

The depth of the burrow reaches its peak in case

of burrow diameters ranging from 40 to 50 mm.

This indicates that the crabs inhabiting burrows

of 30 - 50 mm diameter were dominant over

others. However, the crabs occupying burrows

of 40 - 50 mm diameter appear to be more active

burro wers.

The burrows were usually located on moist

mid-littoral sand-flats having moisture content

ranging from 11.8 - 23.0%, and burrow

temperature 25.5 - 27.5 °C when air temperature

was 20.0 - 22.5 °C. The number of burrows was

found to vary from 2-10 per square metre with

an average of 3.6 per sq. m. The maximum

density was recorded at the middle of mid-littoral

zone, wherein an average density of 6.5 per sq.

m was encountered in January, 1 996. The average

density of burrows near the brick embankment

at Bakkhali beach was also found to be on the

higher side (5.9/sq. m.) in December 1986. But

in 1996, the same site was found to be abandoned

by the crabs, probably due to increased winter

fishing activities around this area. The depth of

burrows near the embankment site was invariably

low and the crabs below the brick zone could be

captured easily.

The literature on the ecological distribu-

tion of ocypodid crabs (Ono, 1965; Jones, 1972;

Lighter, 1974; Crane, 1975; Warner, 1977;Murai

et al 1982, Macintosh, 1984) indicates that the

Table 1

DISTRIBUTION AND DEPTH OF BURROWS OF OCYPODA MACROCERA FROM SUNDARBAN

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

141

Fig. 1 . Ocypoda macrocera burrows with single

external opening (A, C, D) and three external

openings (B).

distribution, depth and zonation of burrows are

associated with the nature of the substratum,

food availability, humidity, temperature,

desiccation and water stresses of the intertidal

environment. Human activities also play an

important role in the distribution of ocypodid

crabs. Thus the absence of this fascinating red

shore crab species from some areas in the beach

indicates their sensitivity to increased human

interference and stresses the need for coastal zone

management.

Acknowledgements

We thank the Director, Zoological Survey

of India (ZSI), Calcutta and the Officer-in-

Charge, Sundarban Field Research Station, ZSI,

Canning, for research facilities and Dr. R.K.

Varshney, Addnl Director, ZSI, for kindly

reviewing the manuscript.

August 24, 1996 N.C. NANDI

SOBHANAPAUL

Zoological Survey of India, M-Block,

New Alipore, Calcutta-700 053.

M.K. DEV ROY

Wildlife Preservation (E.R.)

Udalbakra, Lai Ganesh,

Guwahati-781 034,

Assam .

References

Bairagi, N. (1995): Ocypodidae: Decapoda: Crustacea.

Estuarine Eco. Sr. Part. II, Hugh Matla Estuary, Z.S.I.

pp 263-287.

Bakshi, S.K., T.K. Ray & C. De (1980): On the workings

of some crabs on the sandy beach of Western

Sundarbans, Bengal delta, India. J. geol. Soc. India,

21(1): 184-187.

Bhunia, A.B., K.C. Patra & A. Mitra (1989): Ecology of

a burrowing decapod ( Sesarma taeniolatum) with

reference to the damage it causes to dykes of brackish-

water ponds. J. Indian Soc. Coastal agric. Res., 7(1):

49-57.

Chakraborti, S.K., A. Choudhury & M. Deb (1986):

Decapod Brachyura from Sundarbans mangrove

estuarine complex, India. J. Bengal Nat. Hist. Soc. N.S.,

5(1): 55-68.

Crane, J. (1975): Fiddler crabs of the World. Ocypodidae:

Genus Uca. Princeton University Press, Princeton,

pp 736.

Jones, D.A. (1972): Aspects of the ecology and behaviour

of Ocypode ceratophthalmus (Pallas) and O. kuhlii

de Haan (Crustacea: Ocypodidae). J. exp. mar. Biol.

Ecol.,8: 31-43.

Lighter, J.F. (1974): A note on the behavioural spacing

mechanism of the ghost crab Ocypode ceratophthalmus

(Pallas) (Decapoda, family Ocypodidae). Crustaceana,

27: 312-14.

Macintosh, D.J. (1984): Ecology and productivity of

Malaysian mangrove crab populations (Decapoda:

Brachyura). Proc. As. Symp. Mangr. Sur.Res. and

Manag., pp 354-377.

Mandal, A.K. & N.C. Nandi (1989): Fauna of Sundarban

mangrove ecosystem, West Bengal, India. Fauna of

Conservation Areas, Part III, pp. 1-116.

Murai, M., S. Goshma & Y. Nakasone (1982): Some

behavioural characteristics related to food supply and

soil texture of burrowing habitats observed on Uca

vocans vocans and Uca lactea perplexa. Mar. Biol.,

66: 191-197.

Nandi, N.C. & M.K. Dev Roy (1991): Burrowing acti-

vity and distribution of Scylla serrata (Forskal)

from Hooghly and Matla estuaries, Sundarban,

West Bengal. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 88(2): 167-

171.

142

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

Nandi, N.C. & S.K. Pramanik (1994): Crabs and Crab

Fisheries of Sundarban. Hindustan Publ. Corp. (India),

Delhi, pp 192.

Ono, Y. ( 1 965): On the ecological distribution of Ocypodid

crabs in the estuary. Mem. Fac. Sci., Kyushu Univ. Ser.

E. Biol., 4: 1-60.

Warner, G.F. (1977): The Biology of Crabs, Elek Science,

London, pp 202.

34. DISTRIBUTION AND HOMING OF TREE SNAIL RACHIS BENGALENSIS

LAMARCK (GASTROPODA) ON A NEW HOST PLANT

The tree snail Rachis bengalensis Lamarck

(Gastropoda), was found only in six districts of

West Bengal viz. Calcutta, Hooghly, Malda, North

24-Parganas, South 24-Parganas, and Purulia

(FAUNA OF WEST BENGAL - STATE FAUNA SERIES-3; Part

9, mollusca; Z.S.I. Calcutta 1992; Raut & Biswas

1991. But the same species (Z.S.I., lot no. Moll-

906 IR No. 20196) was also found by us from the

school compound of Baishnabchak (15 km from

Kolaghat Station, beside the river Rupnarayan)

Midnapur, West Bengal, India. Despite thorough

observations, the authors did not find this snail at

any other places in this district except at

Baishnabchak.

Though Gude (1914) described its

taxonomic characters and Raut & Biswas (1991)

described its natural history, our observations differ

in a few points. According to Raut & Biswas (loc.

cit.) the snails were very specific for hardwood trees

viz. Mangifera indica, Aegle marmelos, Zizyphus

mauritiana, Erythrina indica, Citrus aurantifolia

and Lannaea coromandelica. But we observed

that, although all the above mentioned trees were

present in the garden in large numbers, the snail,

Rachis benghalensis was found only on Codiaeum

variegatum and Aganosoma dichotoma. Both

these species are bushy shrubs. The snails were

observed on these plants in colonies. They

occasionally came down from their host plants at

night, but never climbed Mangifera indica, Aegle

marmelos, Erythrina indica and Citrus

aurantifolia situated nearby. A few snails however,

were observed occasionally on Zizyphus

mauritiana.

From our observations, we can conclude that

the snails are not very specific to their host plant.

Moreover, their first preference was for Codiaeum

variegatum, followed by Aganosoma dichotoma,

Zizyphus mauritiana and other plant species.

According to our study these snails generally

prefer semi-decomposed leaves rather than bark,

as their food. Regarding homing, in most cases

(85%) after foraging, they were able to come back

to the same host plant day after day. The snails

travelled about 240 (30 - 735 ± 86) cm, in a night,

though the distance covered by this snail depends

on its size and amount of rainfall during the night.

Regarding egg laying, our findings are similar to

those of Raut & Biswas (loc. cit.). We, however,

observed that a few snails laid their eggs on the

dorsal surface of the leaf of Aganosoma

dichotoma, but these failed to hatch.

We thank Mr. K. V. Surya Rao, Deputy

Director, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, for

identification of the snail. We are also thankful to

the Headmaster, Baishnabchak M.C. High School

for his permission, co-operation and for the

facilities provided, and lastly to the villagers of

Baishnabchak.

May 5, 1997 SUBHAMOY DAS

BaishnabchaLM.C. High School,

Baishnabchak, Midnapur-721 158.

SONALI BHAUMIK

B/7, Saswati Estate, 87/1, A.K.M. Road,

Calcutta-700 090.

References

Gude, G.K. (1914): The fauna of British India. Mollusca the tree snail Rachis bengalensis Lamarck

II. Taylor and Francis, London. (Gastropoda: Enidae). Bull of Malacology, R.O.C. 1 6:

Raut, S.K. & A. Biswas (1991): Natural History of 75-80.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

143

35. ON THE FIRST RECORD OF A CLADOCERAN,

LEYDIGIA ACANTHOCERCOIDES (FISCHER 1854) (CHYDORIDAE)

FROM ALIGARH, UTTAR PRADESH, INDIA

(With one text-figure)

In spite of the several publications dealing single satisfactory investigation regarding

with the ecology of zooplankton (Khan and cladoceran diversity has been made from Aligarh

Siddiqui, 1974; Haque and Khan, 1994), no (U.P.), India. Nine species belonging to six

Fig. 1. Leydigia acanthocercoides A: Adult female; B: Head; C: Post-abdomen

144

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

genera of Cladocera have been reported from this

region so far. We describe a rare cladoceran

Leydigia acanthocercoides (Fischer), for the first

time from this locality.

L. acanthocercoides is a widely distributed

species in India (Nayar, 1971; Sharma, 1978;

Michael and Sharma, 1988) and Sri Lanka

(Rajapaksa and Fernando, 1982). In a study of

Cladocera of the Indian subcontinent extending

from 6°N (Sri Lanka) to 37°N (Kashmir) Lat.

Fernando and Kanduru (1984) have included L.

acanthocercoides in a group of cladocerans

which occurred at all latitudes over 32-20° N

except Srinagar.

The species inhabits aquatic weeds in

polluted ponds. Specimens were preserved in 5%

formalin, sketched with the help of camera lucida

and measured. The species was identified after

Battish (1992).

Female: Body measures 0.64 mm in

length. Main features include oblong, oval

shaped, compressed shell without crest with

small extended head. Dorsal margin of the shell

not evenly rounded. Shell valves with

longitudinal striations on the postero-ventral

edge. Entire ventral margin of valves with long

cilia. Labral keel rhomboidal with rounded

corners and provided with cilia. Ocellus

pentagonal and larger than rounded eye. Post-

abdomen large with numerous cilia, while

expanded post-anal part with a number of large

spines of varying lengths. Claws long and slender

without basal spine. Colour pink in living

specimen.

Acknowledgment

We are thankful to the Chairman,

Department of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim

University, Aligarh, for providing working

facilities.

November 28, 1997 AFTAB ALAM

ASIF A. KHAN

Limnology Research Laboratory,

Department of Zoology,

Aligarh Muslim University,

Aligarh-202 002, India.

References

Battish, S.K. (1992): Freshwater Zooplankton of India.

Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi, pp

232.

Fernando, C.H. & A. Kanduru (1984): Some remarks on

the latitudinal distribution of Cladocera on the Indian

subcontinent. Hydrobio logia, 113 : 69-76.

Haque, N. & A. A. Khan (1994): Temporal and spatial

distribution of Cladoceran population in a fresh-

water pond at Aligarh. J. Freshwater Biol. 6(3): 225-

229.

Khan, A. A. & A.Q. Siddiqui (1974): Seasonal changes in

the limnology of a perennial fish pond at Aligarh. Indian

J. Fish., 2 1(2): 463-478.

Michael, R.G. & B.K. Sharma (1988): Fauna of India:

Indian Cladocera (Cr.: Br.: Cl.) ZSI, Calcutta, pp. 1-26.

Nayar, C.K.G. (1971): Cladocera of Rajasthan.

Hydrobiologia, 37: 509-519.

Rajapaksa, R. & C.H. Fernando (1982): The Cladocera

of Sri Lanka (Ceylon) with remarks on some species.

Hydrobiologia, 94: 49-69.

Sharma, B.K. ( 1 978): A note on the freshwater cladocerans

from West Bengal. Bangladesh J. Zool., 6: 1 49- 151.

36. EXTENDED DISTRIBUTION AND CONSERVATION OF THE RARE SEAWEED

TYDEMANIA EXPEDITIONS WEBER VAN BOSSE (CHLOROPHYCEAE) IN THE

INDIAN REGION

The genus Tydemania Weber Van Bosse is archipelago, Philippines, Marshall Islands, Liu-

represented by only two species viz. T. gardineri Kiu Islands, Caroline Islands, Nancowry Island

and T. expeditionis in the world, with their in the Bay of Bengal and Chagos Archipelago,

principal centres of distribution in Malayan Amirante Islands. From the Indian region,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

145

Srinivasan (1954) has reported this species from

Nancowry Island of the Andaman-Nicobar

archipelago in the Bay of Bengal. A perusal of

the literature on Indian marine flora shows that

no further collection of this species was made

anywhere in the Indian region in the last four

decades, thereby indicating its restricted

distribution on the Indian coasts (Anonymous,

1983; Jagtap, 1985; Anonymous, 1987).

The authors, while studying the Marine

Algal Flora of Andaman-Nicobar Islands,

collected this taxon from Red Skin Island of

Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park near

Port Blair, South Andaman, confirming its

extended distribution in the Indian region. It is

seen growing attached to coralline rocks in a

sheltered bay, forming clumps below the low tide

mark. Sometimes the alga may be mistaken for

some marine animal with its thick caterpillar-

like form, owing to the presence of characteristic

sub-spheroid branched structures, the glomerules

contiguously placed on the upright shoots.

Taxonomic Description: Coenocyte

slightly calcified. Prostrate system thick

branched, creeping rhizome, monosiphonous,

constricted at shorter or longer intervals, up to

550 p or more across. Rhizoids constricted at

base, torulose. Flabella rare. Erect system with

several erect shoots. Shoots with a series of

glomerules giving a characteristic appearance to

the alga. About 16 glomerules on each axial

filament, each measuring 1 cm high and 1 cm

broad. On drying, the alga takes on an ash colour,

because of the feeble calcification of the

glomerules.

Conservation: The natural habitats from

where the authors and Srinivasan (1954) have

reported T. expeditionis are known to show only

a few patches of the alga and its collection is

attended with a certain amount of risk. The

coralline rocks on which this rare green alga

grows are constantly dashed by waves, and are

almost always completely submerged by the swell

of the tide. The recent spurt in quarrying of

coralline rocks for limestone has threatened rare

marine flora. The declaration of the habitat of

T. expeditionis as the Marine National Park near

Port Blair is aimed at conserving many such

species of rare occurrence and marine biological

diversity.

Acknowledgements

The authors are thankful to Dr. P.K. Hajra,

Director, Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta for

encouragement; and Dr. D.V. Rao, Zoological

Survey of India, Port Blair for assistance rendered

in the collection of specimens.

February 13, 1997 P.S.N. RAO

MARCEL TIGGA

Botanical Survey of India,

Andaman & Nicobar Circle,

Port Blair-744 102

References

Anonymous, ( 1 983): Mariculture potential of Andaman and

Nicobar islands- An indicative study, CMFRI Bulletin,

pp 47-51.

Anonymous, ( 1 987): Seaweed Research and Utilisation in

India, CMFRI Bulletin, 4 1 , pp 1 00- 111.

Jagtap, T.G. (1985): Studies on littoral flora of Andaman

Islands, pp 43-50, In: V. Krishnamurthy & A. G.

Untawale (eds.) Marine Plants Seaweed Research and

Utilisation, Madras.

Srinivasan, K.S. (1954): On a rare and little known alga

( Tydemania expeditionis Web. V. Bosse) new to

Nancowry, Phytomorphology, 4(1-2): 249.

37. NOMENCLATURAL NOTES ON OEDOGONIALES

I received a copy of a book entitled A. Gonsalves (Retd.), during a visit to her

oedogoniales as a gift from the author, Prof. Ella residence in August 1 996. While going through

146

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

the book, a few nomenclatural errors have been

noticed and the present paper deals with such

nomenclatural changes.

1. Oedogonium candollei (Le Cl.) Breb.

(1884) is the correct name for Oedogonium

fragile Wittr. (1870) based on Prolifer a candollei

Le Cl. Mem. Mus. Paris 3: 473, pi. 23, (1817).

Accordingly, the nomenclature of the varieties

under this species has to be corrected as follows:

27 B. Oedogonium candollei (Le Cl.) Breb. var.

abyssinicum (Him) Almeida comb. nov.

= O. fragile Wittr. var. abyssinicum Him.

Acta Soc. Sci. fenn. 27:97, t-6, f.35, 1900.

27 C. Oedogonium candollei (Le Cl.) Breb. var.

subdepressum (Jao) Almeida, comb. nov.

= O. fragile Wittr. var. subdepressum Jao,

Bot. Bull. Acad. Sinica 2:51, f.2,K, 1948.

2. Oedogonium tumidulum Pringsh.

(1855) is the correct name for Oedogonium

urbicum Wittr. (1874). Actually, there are three

homonyms as follows:

248. Oedogonium tumidulum (Kutz.) Wittr.

(1874), based on Conferva tumidulum

Kutz. (1833).

54. Oedogonium tumidulum Pringsh. (1855).

53. Oedogonium tumidulum (Roth.)

Areschoug. (1864).

Prof. Gonzalves has accepted homonym

no. 248 as the correct name on the basis that its

basionym has priority. However, when Wittr.

transferred it to the genus Oedogonium, the

species epithet was already occupied and

therefore cannot be used for the species.

Consequently, the species number is provided

herein with a new name Oedogonium ellaianum

Almeida (nom. nov.) in honour of Prof. Ella

Gonzalves.

As has been already accepted Oedogonium

upsaliense (Wittr.) Tift ( 1 939) is the correct name

for O. spetsbergene Wittr. (1874).

3 . Oedogonium spetsbergene Wittr. ( 1 874)

is the correct name for O. vulgar e (Wittr.) Tift.

(1939). The latter is based on O. cryptoporum

var. vulgare Wittr. (1874). As the rule of priority

does not apply outside the rank of the taxon, O.

vulgare (Wittr.) Tiff. (1934) is the illegitimate

name.

In consequence of the above situation, the

following new combination is necessitated:

58B. Oedogonium spetsbergene Wittr. forma

robusta (Bharad.) Almeida (comb. nov).

= O. vulgare (Wittr.) Tiff, forma robusta

Bharad., Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. B, 57:2,

1963.

4. Oedogonium vernale (Hassk.) Wittr.

(1874), based on Vesiculifera vernalis Hassk.

(1843), is the correct name for O. crispum

(Hassk.) Wittr., based on a later name published

in 1854. Him (1900) had accepted V. vernalis

hassk. as part of the composite taxon O. crispum

Wittr.

Consequently, the following infraspecific

taxa require nomenclatural modifications:

80B. Oedogonium vernale (Hassk.) Wittr. var.

vernale forma inflatum (Him.) Almeida,

comb. nov.

= O. crispum (Hassk.) Wittr. var. crispum

forma inflatum Him. Acta. Soc. Sci. fenn.

27: 161, pi. 25. f.140, 1990.

80C. Oedogonium vernale (Hassk.) Wittr. var

gracilescens (Wittr.) Almeida, comb. nov.

= O. crispum (Hassk.) Wittr. var.

gracilescens Wittr. in Wittr. & Nordst.,

Alg. exs. No. 509, 1883.

80D. Oedogonium vernale (Hassk.) Wittr. var.

granulosum (Nordst.) Almeida, comb,

nov.

= O. crispum (Hassk.) Wittr. var.

granulosum Nordst., Ofvers Vetensk.

Akad. Forh. Stockh. 34: 24, 1877.

80E. Oedogonium vernale (Hassk.) Wittr. var.

hawaiense (Nordst.) Almeida, comb. nov.

= O. crispum (Hassk.) Wittr. var.

hawaiense Nordst., Minneskr. Fys.

Salisk. Lund. 7:20, pl.2. f. 9-10, 1878.

80F. Oedogonium vernale (Hassk.) Wittr. var.

Uruguay ense (Mag. & Wille) Almeida,

comb. nov.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

147

= O. crispum (Hassk.) Wittr. var.

uruguayense Mag. & Wille in Wille, Bih.

svensk. Vetensk. Akad. Handl. 8:39, pi.

2, f. 63, 1884.

5 . Oedogonium sphaericum Hall. ( 1 905) is

the correct name for O. hallasiae Tiff.

(1934).

6. Oedogonium monticchii Fior-Mazz

(1860) is the correct name for O. inversion Wittr.

(1876) which necessitates the following new

combination:

126B. Oedogonium monticchii Fior-Mazz. var.

minor (Vill.) Almeida, comb. nov.

= O. inversum Wittr. var. minor Vill., Rev.

gen. Bot. 60:677, f. 1, no. 12, 1953.

7. Vesiculifera compressa Hassk. ( 1 845) is

the earliest name for Oedogonium calcar eum

Cleve ex Wittr. (1840). This fact compels the

following nomenclatural changes:

138. Oedogonium compressum (Hassk).

Almeida, comb. nov.

= Vesiculifera compressa Hassk., Hist.

Brit. Fresh- water Algae 204, t-53, f.4,

1845.

138B. Oedogonium compressum (Hassk.)

Almeida var. africanum (Fremy)

Almeida, comb. nov.

= O. calcareum Cleve var. africanum

Fremy, Bull. Soc. Hist. Nat. Nat. Afr.

Nord. 21:74, pl.6, f.9b, 1930.

8 . Oedogonium calosporum Him ( 1 895) is

the correct name for O. longiarticulatum

(Hansg.) Tiff. (1934), which is based on

O. crenulatocostatum Wittr. var.

longiarticulatum Hansg. (1886).

As the rule of priority does not apply

outside the rank of the taxon, O. longiarticulatum

(Hansg.) Tiff, is an illegitimate name.

9. Oedogonium platygynum Wittr. var.

platygynum forma platygynum is the correct

name for O. platygynum Wittr. var. platygynum

forma obtusum Hirn, as it includes the type

O. platygynum Wittr. Consequently, the

following combinations are essential:

279 A. Oedogonium platygynum Wittr. var.

platygynum forma major (W. West.)

Almeida, comb. nov.

= O. platygynum Wittr. forma major W.

West, J. Linn. Soc. (Bot.) 29:109, pi. 18,

f. 1, 1891.

279 B. Oedogonium platygynum Wittr. var.

platygynum forma platygynum.

= O. platygynum Wittr. forma obtusum

Him. Acta Soc. Sci. fenn. 27:277, pl.47,

f. 303, 1900.

10. Oedogonium borisianum (Le cl.) Wittr.

forma tropicum Isl. & Sarma (1965) has priority

over O. dachense Gonzalves (1981). Therefore,

the following new combination is proposed:

292. B Oedogonium borisianum (Le Cl.) Wittr.

var. borisianum forma tropicum (Isl. &

Sarma) Almeida, comb. nov.

= O. borisianum (Le Cl.) Wittr. forma

tropicum Isl. & Sarma, Pak. J. biol. agric.

Sci. 8:178, pl.3, f.32, 1965.

= Oedogonium borisianum (Le Cl.)

Wittr. var. borisianum forma dachense

Gonzalves, Oedogoniales 397, 1981.

1 1 . Oedogonium vesicatum Link. ( 1 856) is

the correct name for O. decipiens Wittr. (1870).

This necessitates the following new

combinations:

381 B. Oedogonium vesicatum Link. var.

africanum (Tiff.) Almeida, comb. nov.

= O. decipiens Wittr. var. africanum Tiff.

Ohio. I. Sci. 29:74,1929.

381 C. Oedogonium vesicatum Link. var.

compressum (W. West.) Almeida, comb,

nov.

= O. londinense (Wittr.) Hirn. var.

compressum W. West., J. Linn. Soc.

(Bot.) 29: 110, pi. 18, f. 10-12,1891.

= O. bernardense Bates (1886).

= O. decipiens Wittr. var. bernardense

(Bates) Him (1900).

Although O. bernardense Bates (1886) is

a prior name, it is not legitimate under varietal

rank, because the mle of priority does not apply

outside the rank of the taxon.

148

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

381 D. Oedogonium vesicatum Link var.

dissimile (Tiff.) Almeida, comb. nov.

= O. decipiens Wittr. var. dissimile

(Him) Tiff. N. Amer. Flora II: 68, pi.

24, f. 384, 385, 1937.

1 2 . Oedogonium vesicatum (Lyngb.) Wittr.

(1874) is the later homonym of O. vesicatum

Link (1856).

Although Conferva vesicatum Lyngb.

(1819) had priority, the specific epithet vesicatum

was pre-occupied in the genus Oedogonium and

the name proposed by Wittr. becomes an

illegitimate name.

Therefore the following new name is

proposed:

485 . Oedogonium marselinae Almeida, nom.

nov.

= O. vesicatum (Lyng) Wittr., Nova Acta

Soc. Sci. Upsal 9:39, 1874 (non, 1873).

= Conferva vesicata Lyng Tent,

hydrophyth. danicae. Hafniae 140, pi.

47, f. Dl, 1819.

This specific epithet proposed here is in

honour of Marselin (Mr. M.R. Almeida) for his

contribution to Indian Botany.

13. Bulbochaete variens Wittr. var. major

(Pringsh.) Almeida, comb. nov.

= Bulbochaete pygmaea var. major

Pringsh. Jb. Wiss. Bot. 1:74, pi. 6, f. 11, 1858.

= B. variens Wittr. var. subsimplex

(Wittr.) Him. (1900).

Although B. subsimplex Wittr. (1870) is

the prior name, under the rank of species, the

varietal epithet major has priority.

Acknowledgement

I am grateful to Prof. Ella Gonsalves for a

copy of oedogoniales as a gift, which enabled

me to prepare this article; to Mr. M.R. Almeida,

for encouragement and guidance and to Mr. B.G.

Gavade for help rendered while preparing the

manuscript.

February 13, 1997 S.M. ALMEIDA

Blatter Herbarium, Botany Department,

St. Xavier ’ s College,

Mumbai.

References

Gonzalves, Ella A. (1981) Oedogoniales — Indian

council of Agricultural Research New Delhi, pp

144-579.

Prescott, G. W. (1951a): Algae of the Western Great Lakes

Area, Cranbrook, Inst. Sci. Bull. 31:946 WM. C.

Brown Co. Inc. Iowa 2nd Ed. 1962.

Greuter, W. (1994) International Code of Botanical

Nomenclature (Tokyo code), Germany.

38. WILD SPECIES OF ABELMOSCHUS MEDIC. (MALVACEAE) FROM CENTRAL

HIMALAYAN REGIONS OF INDIA

Abelmoschus Medic. (Malvaceae) has 15

species which have originated and are cultivated

all over the tropics in Asia and Australia (Hooker

1874, Babu 1977, Santapau and Henry 1984).

In India, only 8 species are available throughout

the hotter parts (Anonymous 1985, 1991). After

the most thorough study to date, Waalkes (1966)

stated that the 14-15 species recognized earlier

can be reduced to 6-7 species only. The National

Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR) in

its National Programme of crop-specific study

on okra germplasm exploration in the eight

hill districts of U.P., India from 1985 to 1992,

procured, collected and assembled three species

of wild okra from the Central Himalayan

region.

The material collected was compared with

authentic collections preserved in Northern

circle, Botanical Survey of India, Dehradun

(DD), specimens were identified as Abelmoschus

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

149

ficulneus (L.) Wight & Arn. ex Wight, A.

manihot ssp. tetraphyllus (Roxb. ex Homem.)

Borss. var. pungens (Roxb.) Hochr. and A.

moschatus Medic. Through our evaluation

programme during 1993 and 1994 at Regional

Station-Bhowali, a comparative study of

taxonomical characters, distribution, habitat,

variability etc., of 3 wild species of okra is

presented.

Uttar Pradesh Dist. Chamoli; BSD-57625,

Basarkhet to Guigani, Dish Almora; BSD-

40180, Lachiwala, Dehradun.

Local uses: Tuberous roots are edible as

fresh and green vegetable; sometimes stems and

roots roasted; fibres used as twine and light

cordage.

Abelmoschus moschatus Medic.

Local name: Kasturi Bhindi

Hispid herb 170 cm tall. Leaf orbicular-

elliptic, palmate, cordate at base, 15.0 x 26.4

cm. Calyx 8 in numbers. Fruits 6.1 cm long,

oblong-lanceolate, thinly hispid. Seeds 70 in

number. Flowers yellow with crimson centre.

FI. & Fr.: October-February

Habitat and Distribution. Negi- 1473/

NIC -14 154, Ranikhet, 1500 m, dist. Almora,

24.vi.1992; BSD-64615, Ghansali roadsides,

1200 m, Dist. Tehri.

General variability observed in wild okra,

all the 3 species were short in length and of

medium thickness, while the colour of fruits

varied from green, purple to light purple. The

height of plant ranged from tall to very tall

types.

This report of their occurrence and

distribution etc. forms an addition to the flora of

Chamoli and Nainital, U.P. Himalaya (Gupta

1968, Naithani 1984) and to the other temperate

Himalayan flora of India (Collett 1902, Duthie

1906, Polunin and Stainton 1984).

A brief note is provided here to facilitate

further collection and easy identification. These

three species of wild relatives of okra have been

grown, multiplied and maintained at NBPGR,

Regional Station-Bhowali.

Abelmoschus ficulneus (L.)

Wight & Am. ex Wight

Local names: Kapasi, Jangli Bhindi, Ran-

Bhindi.

Much branched, prickly herb 185 cm tall.

Leaf rounded, cordate at base, upper leaves

palmate, 15.0 x 23.4 cm. Calyx 5 in number.

Fruits 3.6 cm long, tomentose, ovoid, viscid hairs

when green. Seeds 3 1 in number. Flowers light

yellow with pink centre.

Fh & Fr.: October- January

Habitat and Distribution: Pant-233,

Chanoda, roadsides, 1200 m, Dist. Almora,

20.x. 1985; BSD-934, Bindal river bank, Dist.

Dehradun; BSD-3337, Motherwala, Dist.

Dehradun; BSD- 1095, Song river bed, 600 m,

Dist. Dehradun; BSD-34004, Rispina,

Dehradun; BSD-52420, Chopta, Kumaon; BSD-

57507, Dwarhat, 1500 m, Dist. Almora; BSD-

78086, Dam site, Dhauliganga dam, Dist.

Pithoragarh.

Local uses: Fresh, green, tender fruits

cooked as vegetables.

Abelmoschus manihot ssp. tetraphyllus

(Roxb.) ex Homem. Borss. var. pungens

(Roxb.) Hochr.

Local names: Kapasi, Jangli Bhindi

Bristly herb 255 cm high. Leaf ovate, sub-

orbicular, palmate, cordate at base, 24.0 x 41.7

cm. Calyx 4 in number. Fmits 5.2 cm long,

oblong, pointed hispid. Seeds 59 in number.

Flowers yellow with purple centre.

FI. & Fr.: September-December.

Habitat and Distribution: Negi-882,

Karanprayag, 1150 m, Dist. Chamoli, 1.x. 1988

Tewari et al. 1667/NIC- 14490, Near Kaliasaur

150

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

landslides, 500 m, Dist. Pauri; Negi, Dogaon,

800 m, Dist. Nainital, Oct. 1988 (sic.); BSD-

53758.

Acknowledgements

We are thankful to the Director, NBPGR

(ICAR), Pusa Campus, New Delhi, Dr. K.P.S.

Chandel, for providing facilities and

encouragement and Mr. V.K. Pant, Technical

Refer

Anonymous (1985): The Wealth of India. New Delhi.

Anonymous (1991): Report of an International Workshop

on okra genetic resources, 1990, IBPGR, Rome,

pp. 2-3.

Babu, C.R. (1977): Herbaceous Flora of Dehradun. New

Delhi, pp 81-83.

Collett, H. (1 902): Flora Simlensis, London, pp 60-61 .

DuTfflE, J.F. (1906): Catalogue of Plants of Kumaon and

of the adjacent portions of the Garhwal and Tibet

1918. Based on the collections of Strachey and

Winterbottom during the years 1846-1849 (Rep.

Bishen Singh and Mahendra Pal Singh, 1974),

Officer, for maintaining the germplasm.

February 13, 1997 K.S. NEGI

K.C. PANT

National Bureau of Plant

Genetic Resources (ICAR),

Regional Station,

Bhowali-263 132,

Niglat, Dist.-Nainital, U.P.

NCES

Dehradun, pp 24.

Gupta, R.K. (1968): Flora Nainitalensis. New Delhi, pp

38.

Hooker, J.D. ( 1 874): Flora of British India, London Vol.

1:334-344.

Naithani, B.D. (1984): Flora of Chamoli, B.S.I., Howrah,

pp 94-95.

Polunin, O. & A. Stainton (1984): Flowers of the

Himalaya, New Delhi, pp 62.

Santapau, H. & A.N. Henry (1984): A Dictionary of the

Flowering Plants in India, New Delhi.

Waalkes, B. (1966): Abelmoschus. Blumea 14: 89-105.

39. USE OF LINDENBERGIA MURARIA LEAVES AND

IMP A TIENS BALSAMINA FLOWERS AS A SUBSTITUTE FOR HENNA

Leaves of Lawsonia inermis Linn, yield a

colouring matter called “henna” which is used

by women in various ways. But, Lawsonia

inermis is not easily available in the tribal belt

of southern Rajasthan. The juice of the leaves of

Lindenbergia muraria (Roxb. ex. D.Don) P.

Bruehl (Family Scrophulariaceae) is used as a

substitute for leaves of L. inermis by the Bhils of

southern Rajasthan. Fresh leaves of the plant are

ground into a paste and the juice is extracted. It

is stored in cups made of leaves of Butea

monosperma. The juice is applied to the palms

and fingers to produce the henna stain. The plant

L. muraria is found on old walls, crevices of rocks

near moist situations, and near drains at moist

rocky edges. The local name is “Kormi Mehndi”

or “Kali Mehndi”. Similarly a paste of

flowers flowers of Impatiens balsamina L.

(Family Balsminaceae) is used as a substitute for

“henna”. This plant is locally called “Timda” in

southern Rajasthan.

May 1 3, 1 997 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA

Range Forest Officer,

Aravalli Afforestation Project,

Jhadol (F.), Dist. Udaipur (Raj.) Pin 313 702.

40. AMARANTHUS PALMER! WATS. A NEW RECORD FOR MAHARASHTRA

During plant collection trips in Dhule dist. interesting Amaranthaceae in wastelands and

(Maharashtra) the author gathered some along highways near Dhule city. After critical

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

151

study of the literature, the specimens have been

identified as Amaranthus palmeri Wats, hitherto

unreported from the state of Maharashtra

(Karthikeyan, 1981; Pradhanpers. comm.). The

taxon is an exotic floral element, denizen of

southwest United States. It is fast naturalising

and forms pure stands, usually replacing the local

plant species. The great probability of its

extending distribution in the district can not be

overlooked, the present site being at the

crossroads of two national highways. The taxon

is likely to distribute widely due to very large

seed set and viability.

In this communication the detailed

description of the taxon is given to facilitate easy

identification. It also gives the phenology and

habitat along with the possibility of its dispersal.

The voucher herbarium specimens are deposited

in the herbarium of the College.

Amaranthus palmeri Wats, in Proc. Am.

Acad. 12:274.1877; Saur in Joum. Indian bot.

Soc. 43: 573-756. 1922; Shetty & Singh, FI.

Rajasthan 2:728-729.1991.

Erect, dioecious, profusely branched

annuals, 90 to 220 cm tall, stem pale green,

sometimes tinged pink at nodes, sulcate-angular,

nearly glabrous, main stem minutely tuberculate

and dark pink-purple at base. Leaves ovate,

rhombic to lanceolate, lamina upto 12x7 cm,

oblique at base, apex obtuse, mucronate, mucro-

hyaline, upto 1 mm long, margin entire,

undulate, pubescent when young, glabrous at

maturity, prominently nerved and paler beneath,

petiole upto 8 cm long, channeled.

Flowers small, green, in terminal branched

spikes and in small axillary or rarely extra-

axillary spicate clusters; terminal spike upto 70

cm in length, sometimes the main central spike

branched towards base or rarely towards the top,

pink at fruiting. Female Flowers: Tepals 2-3 mm

long, 1 -nerved, oblong to obovate or spathulate,

bracteoles 1.5 to 3 times as long as tepals, spine-

tipped, rigid, bent at maturity, gynaecium paler,

styles two, ovule solitary. Male Flowers: Tepals

2-3 mm long, 1-nerved, oblong, acute-

mucronate, bracteoles weaker and shorter than

the one in pistillate flowers, anthers yellow,

dithecous. Capsules subglobose, paler, 2-beaked,

rugose at top, upto 2 mm long excluding beaks,

dehiscence circumscissile, seed solitary, 1 .2 mm

across, rounded to obovate, biconvex, margined,

shining, dark red-brown.

Locality: Dhule 68, 1401.

FI. & Fr.: September-December.

Naturalised in neglected comers of fields,

wasteland and along roads in exposed sunny

places and under partial shade.

I am thankful to Dr. S.G. Pradhan, BSI

(WC), Pune for information and to the Principal,

Mr. B.M. Patil for facilities.

February 1 9, 1 997 D. A. PATIL

P.G. Department of Botany

S.S. V.P.S ' s L., Dr. P.R. Ghogrey Science College,

Dhule 424 005,

Maharashtra.

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

Hombill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023.

112TH ANNUAL REPORT AND ACCOUNTS

FOR THE YEAR

1ST APRIL 1995 TO 31ST MARCH 1996

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 1995-96

President Mr. B.G. Deshmukh, IAS (Retd.)

Vice Presidents Mrs. D.S. Variava Dr. P.R. Saraiya

Mr. D.S. Chavda

Hon. Secretary Dr. A.M. Bhagwat

Hon. Treasurer Mr. Sunil R. Zaveri

Director Dr. Jay S. Samant

MEMBERS FROM 1995-1996

Mr. M.R. Almeida, Mr. Yogi Andley, Dr. B.F. Chhapgar, Mr. J.C. Daniel

Dr. Arun Joshi, Dr. A. Kothari, Mr. K.P. Karamchandani, Dr. Shashi Menon,

Dr. A.N.D. Nanavati, Mr. Ulhas Rane, Dr. Rajendra Shinde, Dr. V.S. Vijayan

The Secretary, Ministry of Environment & Forests, Govt, of India,

The Director of Archaeology & Museums,

Govt, of Maharashtra.

SPECIAL INVITEE

Mr. Humayun Abdulali

ADVISORY COMMITTEE

Dr. D.K. Lahiri Choudhury, Prof. Raghavendra Gadagkar, Dr. Anil Gore, Prof. K.C. Malhotra,

Lt. Gen. Baljit Singh, AVSM, VSM, Mr. Samar Singh, Mr. Romulus Whitaker.

AUDITORS

M/s Habib and Company, Chartered Accountants, Bombay.

A.G.M. 1995-96 -PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

153

REPORT OF THE SUB-COMMITTEES OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

The following office-bearers were Ex-officio on all the Sub-Committees:

Hon. Secretary Dr. Ashok M. Bhagwat

Hon. Treasurer Mr. Sunil R. Zaveri

Director Dr. Jay S. Samant

PUBLICATIONS SUB-COMMITTEE

Chairman Dr. Jay Samant (Director)

Members Dr. P.R. Saraiya (Vice President)

Dr. B.F. Chhapgar

Mr. J.C. Daniel

Convenor Dr. Gayatri Ugra (Publications Officer)

The year 1995-96 augured well for the

Publications Department as there were

satisfactory sales of all titles, especially the

updated edition of the Pictorial Guide to the

Birds of the Indian Subcontinent, 1995. This

year two new titles were published and released.

The Pictorial Guide: The Pictorial Guide

to the Birds of the Indian Subcontinent, 1995,

which was released on 1 1th November, 1995, by

the Hon. Mayor of Mumbai, marked the

beginning of the Dr. Salim Ali Centenary

celebrations.

The Book of Indian Birds: The revision

of the Book of Indian Birds also reached

completion and the book was printed and made

ready for release as a part of the Centenary

celebrations.

A Guide to the Cranes of India (New title

by Prakash Gole): This booklet covering the six

species of cranes found in India, was released at

the Salim Ali International seminar on 12th

February, 1996, by Shri Mohan Dharia.

A Week with Elephants (New title edited

by J.C. Daniel and Hemant Datye): The

proceedings of an International Seminar on the

Asian Elephant was published and released at

the Salim Ali International Seminar on 15th

February, 1996.

Other Titles: The Publications Section

continues to publish its popular titles such as the

Book of Indian Animals, Book of Indian

Reptiles, Some Beautiful Indian Trees and

Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs.

BNHS titles are marketed by Oxford

University Press. Meetings were held with OUP

to determine the terms and conditions for renewal

of the Sale Agreement, which was to expire in

September 1996. The Royalty received for the

year is Rs 9,30,443.00.

It is to be noted that the pricing policy of

the Society has been formulated keeping in mind

the objectives of the BNHS, to promote nature

education with the help of reasonably priced but

scientifically unmatched publications.

New titles under production

Seaside Stories by B F Chhapgar

Illustrated Flora of Keoladeo National Park

by V P Prasad et al.

The Book of Indian Trees by K C Sahni

A Field Guide to the Butterflies of India by

N Chaturvedi & Isaac Kehimkar

The Book of Indian Seashells by Deepak Apte

154

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

Hornbill

Notable success was achieved in the

publication of six issues of Hornbill, including

a special issue to commemorate Dr. Salim Ali

Centenary year. This issue was released on 12th

February, 1996, at the Salim Ali International

Seminar. The Hornbill issues 1994 (3) and (4),

and 1995 (1), (2), (3) and (4) were published,

while 1996 (1) was sent into press.

Though the Hornbill is supported by funds

from the Mehta Scientific Education and

Research Trust and the Seth Purshotam Das

Thakurdas and Divaliba Charitable Trust, the

publication is a drain on the Society’s funds.

Some support has been obtained through

advertisements. Since the Hornbill is the sole

benefit for most of the outstation members, it is

felt necessary to make it of as high quality, both

editorially and in production value, as the

available resources permit. This can be

substantiated by the comparative quotations

available for perusal.

Journal

The oldest scientific Journal on the natural

history of the Indian Subcontinent, the JBNHS

Vol. 92, no. 1, 2 and 3 were published, covering

the year 1995. The first issue for 1996, Vol. 93,

no. 1, has also been published. The Department

of Science and Technology, Govt, of India, has

released a grant of Rs. 50,000 as financial aid

for the Journal.

The shortfall of funds for the Hornbill

and Journal are met by the BNHS as

these publications are crucial to the dissemina-

tion of scientific information and popular

interest.

M/s Jasra Graphics Pvt Ltd. were requested

and they agreed to give a 30% rebate on scanning

charges, amounting to Rs.74,843.00 for the year

on Hornbill.

M/s Stusa Mudra Pvt Ltd. were requested

and they agreed to give a discount of 18% on

printing charges for the Salim Ali Special

Hornbill, amounting to Rs 7,600.00.

PRODUCTS SUB-COMMITTEE

Chairperson

Members

Mrs. D. S. Variava (Vice-President)

Ms. Anjana Thadani

Ms. Agnes Rajesh

Ms. Juliet Mendonca

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Mr. Francis D’ costa

Mr. Joslin Rodrigues (Products Executive)

Convenor

The Products Sub-Committee continued to

fulfill its objective of producing cards and

calendars that reflect the Society’s commitment

to excellence in quality and reasonable prices.

Inspite of ups and downs in production,

total 2,62,247 cards were sold and out of these

cards, 2,43,333 cards were sold in Mumbai and

19,414 were sold outside Mumbai.

In keeping with the previous years’

calendar theme of Gems from Nature, this

year’s theme was Birds. The exquisite bird

illustrations were from the rare collection of John

Gould’s paintings. This calendar was dedicated

to Dr. Salim Ali, being his birth centenary year.

This product was highly appreciated and

altogether 20,873 calendars were sold. 3000 of

these were sent to Russia by Lupin Laboratories.

A portfolio of 4 special prints by John

Gould from the rare book collection was produced

.It was released on 16th December during the

inauguration of the Rare Books Exhibition by

the Maharana of Kutch. It was priced at Rs.

280.00 per set. Since this product was released

late in the year, it could not pick up on sales.

Nevertheless the total number of prints sold was

2,511.

A. G.M. 1995-96 - PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

155

The Products section produced 2 special

calendars for Colour-Chem and Videocon.

10,000 corporate wall calendars were specially

produced and designed in the BNHS on the theme

Orchids for Colour-Chem. For Videocon, 1 lakh

corporate wall calendars were produced on the

theme The World of Videocon.

The Products Committee appreciates the

co-operation of all concerned members of the staff

and volunteers to produce high quality results.

The Products section would be highly

obliged to the members of the BNHS for

informing them of organisations which make

special calendars, so that they could be

approached for these jobs which would bring

further contribution to the Society.

NATURE EDUCATION, PROGRAMMES, MEMBERSHIP SUB-COMMITTEE

Chairman Mr. Ulhas Rane

Members Dr. Ashok Kothari

Dr. Arun Joshi

Dr. Shashi Menon

Mr. V.K. Paralkar

Mr. T.V. Sowrirajan

Mr. Vilas Shingre

Mr. Naresh Chaturvedi (Curator)

Mr. P.B. Shekar (Programme Officer)

Mr. Deepak Apte ( Nature Education Officer)

Mrs. Caroline Vincent (Membership Officer)

MEMBERSHIP

This year altogether 1078 new members

were elected during the year 1995-96. The total

number of annual members who renewed their

membership was 1432.

This year there is an overall increase in all

the membership categories. This can be directly

attributed to the publicity BNHS received during

the celebration of Dr. Salim Ali’s Birth

Centenary, which commenced on the 12th of

November 1995.

Issuing laminated membership cards to

all Life Members on submission of their

photographs was initiated.

The Membership Department is grateful

to all the members who helped in enrolling new

members and publicising the Society’s activities.

* = Indian members; F$ = Foreign members including from SAARC countries

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95(1998)

PROGRAMMES

Annual Nature Camps:

Annual nature camps are very popular

among members and no sooner they are

announced, the seats get booked within half a

day on the registration day. For such camps, there

is always a reserved quota for outstation

members. This year the highlights of the

Programmes for members were the Annual

Camps held at Kaziranga National Park, Wildlife

Sanctuaries of South India (Dandeli,

Ranganathittu, Nagarhole, Topslip,

Parambikulam), Castlerock in North Kanara,

Ratnagiri, Great Indian Bustard Sanctuary

(Solapur), Phansad Wildlife Sanctuary,

Bhandardara (Wilson Dam), Palamau Tiger

Reserve (Solar Eclipse observation), Nandur-

Madmeshwar, Bhimashankar Wildlife

Sanctuary and Marleshwar sacred groves.

Overnight Nature Camps:

These camps are held on weekends or a

holiday. Such camps were held at Malavali

(Lonavala), Malshej Ghat and Ulhas River Valley.

Nature Walks:

Such walks are usually ideal for beginners

and are held during weekends. The outings were

arranged at BNHS land, Kamala Bird Sanctuary,

Godrej Land (mangroves & birds), Rajbhavan,

Sanjay Gandhi National Park, Tungareshwar,

Kondgaon Lake and Mahim Nature Park. Dusk

walks were also held in the Sanjay Gandhi'

National Park and BNHS land.

Besides nature walks, Shramdan and

nature study programmes are held at the

BNHS land regularly every month. This

programme initiated nursery development

and water conservation with members’

participation.

Films / Slides:

Every Thursday of the year video as well

as 16 mm films on various natural history

subjects were screened during the year. Talks

illustrated with slide shows were given by invited

guest speakers, BNHS members and staff.

Earth Day (22nd April):

On this occasion Mr. R B Giri, Forester,

Melghat was invited to give a talk on Medicinal

Plants of Melghat Tiger Reserve. On the day

before, a public meeting was held to highlight

the plight of the Tiger as part of the TIGER

LINK.

World Environment Day (5th June)

To commemorate this day, an exhibition

of wildlife photographs by Mr Sudheer Agashe,

an active BNHS member, was arranged at

Hombill House from 5th June to 8th Jun^.

Wildlife Week

The first week of October was celebrated

as Wildlife Week, when a Nature Film Festival

was held. Wildlife Films were screened during

this week throughout the day at regular intervals.

Viewing was open to the general public besides

members.

NATURE EDUCATION

Summer camps

As part of the Summer Vacation

Programme, a camp was arranged at Tansa

Sanctuary which was attended by 32 students.

57 species of birds were seen during the three-

day camp. Pug marks of various animals were

observed. Demonstration on taking pug mark

casts was shown. Since it was summer, all

afternoon programmes were held indoors. A

session on line drawings was enjoyed by the

participants. Quiz competition was well

participated. A very informative session on

A.G.M. 1995-96 - PROCEEDINGS AND A CCOUNTS

157

nature education and students participation in

conservation efforts was conducted.

Another summer camp was attended at

Khandala organised by the YWCA. Two trails

were led in the nearby forest area. Also two

lecture sessions were arranged on nature

education. The camp was attended by 35 school

students.

Post Monsoon Camp

Camping during monsoon is an unique

experience. This year 60 students along with 4

teachers enjoyed the monsoon at Tansa Wildlife

Sanctuary. Various activities like trails, sessions

on pond ecosystem and forest ecosystem were held.

Nature Rambles

In all 29 field trips to various places like

Sanjay Gandhi National Park, Tungareshwar,

Kamala and Amala, Juhu beach, BNHS land at

Goregaon were conducted. Of these 29 trips, 2

were for college students and rest were for school

students of standards 8-10. 850 students and 60

teachers participated in nature rambles

throughout the year.

A special nature trail was arranged for

the hearing and speech impaired children. The

programme was well participated and was greatly

appreciated by their principal so much so that

they are now planning to hold these programmes

regularly.

Talks illustrated with slides/films

Talks illustrated with slides on various

aspects of natural history and nature education

were conducted in schools, colleges and for

members. Out of the eleven slide shows held,

five were for school students, two for college

students and two for members. A total of 1255

students attended the slide shows.

Seven wildlife films were screened in

schools and colleges, and besides these activities,

two snake shows, two visits to the BNHS

collections, two visits to the aquarium and two

to the zoo were also conducted. Of these, snake

shows were most popular and attended by

maximum number of students. A total of 1080

students attended these programmes.

Workshop

A three-day workshop arranged by CEP

was attended by the Education Officer at Hombill

House and at BNHS land. This workshop helped

in planning activities for students.

Certificate Course

This year a one-year Correspondence

Certificate Course in Ornithology was

successfully launched. A total of 62 participants

registered for the course. The first four lessons

have been sent to the participants. The course is

being conducted as part of the fund raising

activity.

Special Programme

Tree Plantation activity was undertaken on

23rd July. A batch of 25 students participated in

this programme.

Other activities:

122 species of sea shells from BNHS

collections were identified and numbered.

The Education Officer was invited to

interview candidates for the Homi Bhabha Young

Scientist Award at Parle college.

National Painting Competition

As part of the Salim Ali Centenary

Celebrations a national painting competition for

school students was arranged. Over 4000 entries

were received from thirteen centres from all over

India. The prize distribution ceremony was

arranged on 5th June 1996. This activity was

sponsored by CEP and conducted with assistance

from the Nature Education Department.

Exhibitions

Mobile exhibitions were arranged at

Saraswati High School and V K Krishna Menon

College to create nature awareness among

158

JOURNAL, BOMBA YNA TURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

students and staff. The programme was attended

by about 1500 students.

Membership drive

Two stalls were arranged as part of the

membership drive programme, one at S C

College and another at Smghania High School.

A total of 10 new members (student) registered

during these programmes.

In all a total of 9800 students, 1200 others

(general public), and 70 teachers participated in

various activities like camps, nature rambles,

slide/film shows, snake shows, workshops,

painting competition, exhibitions etc. This year

seven new schools were enrolled in the Nature

Education Scheme.

CONSERVATION EDUCATION PROJECT

Chairman Dr. Shashi Menon

Members Mr. Ramesh Dandekar

Mr. P.V. Bole (Sp.Invitee)

Convenor Mr. Arvind Karandikar (Proj. Mgr.)

Mr. T. K. Bharathan (Proj. Adm. Mgr.)

Activity Report

In the three project areas the teams

conducted 87 educational programmes, designed,

field-tested and developed various educational

material and interacted at programme level with

different agencies in particular area. Efforts were

also made to liaise with agencies which have

development interventions available with them

and some introductions were made possible with

the target groups taking their help. Improved

stoves, plantations, biogas plants, smokeless

stoves are such examples.

Rapport with government agencies and

non-government organisations has started

yielding positive results in the form of small

projects being supported by the government

departments, activities being executed jointly

with the agencies and periodical invitations

forwarded by these agencies to the CEP staff as

resource persons (atleast 23 major assignments).

BNHS celebrated the year starting from

12th November 1995 as the birth centenary year

of Dr. Salim Ali. To pay a tribute to this

visionary the CEP organised a national painting

competition on 25th February 1996 to raise

awareness about environment among school

children. Over 4000 children from thirteen cities

of India participated in the event. A prize

distribution ceremony was planned on 5th June

1996, World Environment Day.

Conservation Education Centre (CEC)

CEC construction activity at Goregaon was

continued and efforts were made to expedite the

matters at government level. At the end of the

reporting period the construction is 95 percent

completed. It is expected to be completed by end

of April 1996 and it is planned to shift to the

CEC in May 1996.

At the request of the British Council

Division, an independent agency was appointed

in May 1995 to conduct the technical audit of

the CEC construction and it submitted its final

report in July 1995 which brought out a few

procedural lacunae while expressing overall

satisfaction on the quality of construction.

The interior furniture and installation of

display techniques were taken up simultaneously

and are expected to be completed by end of April

1996. Water connection is now available on site

and electrical connection is expected by May 1 996.

Meanwhile the land was marked with five

nature trails, designed and worked upon, and the

groups of students and teachers started visiting

the centre (12 educational programmes in the

reporting period) to participate in educational

A.G.M. 1995-96 - PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

159

programmes started by the CEP team. The response

is encouraging and plans for optimum utilisation

of the CEC in the forthcoming academic year (June

1996 - May 1997) are being finalised.

With the full year support forthcoming

from ODA for centre’s operation, it is envisaged

that the centre including the mobne units, will be

fully operational by the end of the project period.

Training and Workshops

The project team met in Gudalur in July

1995 to assess the project progress and to plan

further programmes, mainly development of

educational resources. The Indian Project Co-

ordinator and BCD Project Manager were also

present for the meeting.

During September 1995, Mr. Kevin

Roberts from RSPB UK visited the CEP and a

workshop was held with the project team on

centre operation and management. CEC

management plan was designed and drafts of

various parts of the plan viz. education plan,

reserve plan, food and catering are ready. The

final management plan based on these drafts are

being prepared by the project team.

There were two visits of the UK technical

co-ordinator of the project, Mr David Elcome

during the reporting period, first in October 1995

and second in February 1996. In October, Mr

Elcome traveled to all the three field stations and

assessed the progress. During his stay in

Mumbai, the BCD had arranged a half-day

meeting of various individuals from BNHS and

BCD interested in the CEP and overall progress

and future plans were discussed during the visit.

Impact of the Project

The three mobile field education units have

been operational and working satisfactorily. More

than 250 educational programmes were

conducted since launching of the project and

were received well by the target groups like local

community, schools, tourists and local NGOs.

Change in attitudes of all target groups was

noticed, especially when the interactions with

them was constant.

Several groups were formed like ‘Eco

Clubs’, or ‘Birdwatchers Club’ of like-minded

people, so that they could act upon various issues

of environmental protection. Such groups, even

informally formed out of the project, provide

sufficient support towards conservation oriented

activities. These groups on their own initiatives

have already started planning action against

commercial tree felling, nuisance by tourists to

wildlife, cruelty to animals and similar problems.

They have also adopted several environment-

friendly practices such as using fuel-efficient

stove/chullah, installation of biogas plants,

improved breed of cattle, energy plantations

besides general tree planting and composting to

replace chemicals in agriculture. Willingness to

accept these techniques comes out of interaction

of the CEP team with them through educational

programmes.

Change in attitudes of Park Management

The major change visible at the park

management level, at least at two of the project

areas, was willingness on the managers’ part to

initiate discussion and deliberations with local

people regarding various issues concerning the

park and the people.

Bharatpur: The park manager has over

the last year participated in some of the CEP

educational programmes, held informal

discussions with local people, appointed some

of the newly trained local youths as naturalists

or field guides by granting licenses and requested

BNHS to have joint programmes with the forest

department in education and training.

Mumbai: The park manager has shown

interest in considering BNHS as an advisory

agency or implementing agency in revitalising

the existing interpretation centre at Sanjay

Gandhi National Park.

Gudalur: The forest department invited

CEP team to discuss possibility of taking up

educational programmes for people living in and

on the periphery of the sanctuary and sanctioned

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95(1998)

a pilot project of Rs. 10,000/- in March 96.

Women always have participated in large

numbers in the educational programmes of CEP,

especially in fuel related programmes like

demonstrations of improved stoves and biogas

technology.

Sponsorship

Initiative was taken to arrange for short and

long-term sponsorship for the Conservation

Education Centre (CEC) at Goregaon. After the

culmination of the ODA funded CEP, the running

cost of the CEC at Goregaon and the mobile unit

will be the responsibility of the BNHS. In view

of this, packages are being developed to be offered

to potential sponsors.

Consultancy

The project has made a good impact on the

local NGOs and Government officials. It was

also given wide coverage in the recent

International Seminar on “Conservation of

Avifauna of Wetlands and Grasslands” in

February 1996. Slowly there has been response

shown by the concerned Government agencies

in giving consultancy work to the BNHS through

our Conservation Education Project (CEP), e.g.

1. Department of Forest, Tamil Nadu has

requested the CEP-Gudalur Team to undertake

a short awareness survey around Mudumalai

Wildlife Sanctuary (Rs. 10,000/-); 2. The Punjab

State Forest Department has enquired about

Harike (Ramsar Site) and Ropar Wetlands.

Maharashtra Forest Department has expressed

willingness, after an initial meeting with the Co-

ordinator of the Project, to assign development

of the two Nature Interpretation Centres in and

around Sanjay Gandhi National Park with the

help of World Bank funded Maharashtra

Forestry Project and Thane Municipal

Corporation respectively. Wetland International

- Asia Pacific has supported a short-term nature

awareness programme at Point Calimere, a

wetland of international significance for

migratory birds.

UNIVERSITY STUDY SUB-COMMITTEE

Chairman Dr. Jay S Samant (Director)

Members Mr. M.R. Almeida

Prof.P.V. Bole

Dr. B.F. Chhapgar

Mr. J.C. Daniel

Mr. N. Chaturvedi (Curator)

Convenor Mr. Deepak Apte (Nature Education Officer)

In the beginning of the year, the circular

regarding admissions to the M.Sc. and Ph.D.

courses was sent to colleges from Mumbai and

major research institutes all over India. In

response to this, 15 applications for Ph.D. and 9

for M.Sc. were received.

The following students were registered in

the year for M.Sc. and Ph.D. courses.

A.G.M. 1995-96 - PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

161

Mr M. R. Almeida was recognised by the Dr. S.B. Chapekar and Dr. Sanjay Deshmukh

University of Bombay as Research Guide for received recognition for taking M.Sc. and Ph.D.

Ph.D. students for botany at the BNHS. Similarly, students at the BNHS.

LIBRARY SUB-COMMITTEE

Chairman Dr. Ashok Kothari

Members Dr. B.F. Chhapgar

Ms. Mehru Dubhash

Ms. Doreen D’Sa

Mr. V.K. Paralkar

Mr. Vilas Shingre

Mr. N. Chaturvedi (Curator)

Convenor Ms. Shubhangi Puradkar (Asst. Librarian)

Altogether, 1 262 new books were added

to the library, including 265 bound volumes

of periodicals, 82 books purchased for the library,

353 books purchased under various projects, 550

books received as donation or complimentary and

1 2 books for review. Complimentary copies were

received from authors, publishers, and

institutions.

Two new periodicals were subscribed, three

new periodicals were received in exchange for the

BNHS Journal and two on complimentary basis.

That brings the total of national and international

periodicals received in the library to 177.

As the process of setting up of audio-visual

library is in progress, this year 150 slide jackets

were purchased to store slides. The slides were

arranged according to the respective topics on

natural history and conservation. 40 video

cassettes have been catalogued on the computer.

These are issued only to educational institutions

at a nominal charge and deposit.

Sale of damaged and withdrawn books, as

recommended by the Library Sub-Committee and

approved by the Executive Committee was

organised.

An exhibition of Rare Books, inaugurated

by the Maharao of Kutch, was held at Hombill

House as part of the Salim Ali Centenary

Celebrations. The exhibition was well received by

the media and public.

The Microfiche Reader-cum-Printer

service is continuously being used for referring

and photocopying articles from old volumes of

the JBNHS.

All the work concerning the preparation

of the publication Salim Ali’s India is being done

in the library, which includes selecting, listing,

arranging of articles, photographing plates, and

correspondence with the sponsors, printers and

others involved in the project.

162

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 95(1998)

RESEARCH AND COLLECTIONS SUB COMMITTEE

Chairman Mr M R Almeida

Members Mr Humayun Abdulali (Emeritus Naturalist)

Dr P S Saraiya (Vice President)

Dr B F Chhapgar

Mr J C Daniel

Mr K P Karamchandani

Dr Shashi Menon

Dr Rajendra Shinde

Convenor Mr S R Nayak (Project Secretary)

Three meetings of Research and Collections Sub-Committee were held during the year.

COLLECTIONS

This year several distinguished visitors

visited the Collections and among them were Shri

R T Kadam, Mayor of Mumbai, Shri Govind

Swaroop, IAS, Secretary, Cultural Affairs,

Government of Maharashtra, Mr. M.F. Ahemed,

IG Forests, Ministry of Environment and Forests,

Government of India, Mr. A.K. Ghosh, Director,

Zoological Survey of India, Mr Ratho, IAS, Raj

Bhavan, Mumbai, Members of the University

Panel for the Post-Graduate studies in Botany

and family members of the British High

Commissioner.

From the international community of

scientists. Dr. John Burton, UK, Dr. Simon

Poucton,UK, Dr. Charles Woods, USA, Dr. Eric

Finley, Australia, Mr. Gunnar Steidel, Germany

and several others who had come during

the international seminar visited the collec-

tions.

The Collections were visited in groups by

several school students and under-graduate as

well as post-graduate students from various

colleges.

Identification

Photographs and specimens of plants and

animals (mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians

and insects) received were identified and relevant

information was given.

Additions

Br. Navarro’s collection of mammal and

bird specimen from St. Xavier’s School was

registered and added to the Society’s collections.

75 skulls and jaw bones of blackbuck were

received from the Grassland Project. 212

specimen of butterflies from Mr. Roger Ashton’s

collection were identified and added to the

collections.

A total of 1091 plant specimens were

identified, registered, the data entered in

the computer and the specimens added to the

herbarium this year. Out of this 77 specimens

were from Neyveli Lignite Corporation, Madras,

507 from Nandur-Madhameshwar, 101

from Dahod, Gujarat, 45 from Karera, Madhya

Pradesh, 20 from Western Ghats, Maharashtra,

390 from Bharatpur and 28 from Maharashtra.

Herbarium sheets for 315 specimen were

prepared.

Computerisation

Computerisation of the bird collection data

began in February and up to March, 6000 entries

were made. A ‘Dictionary of Indian Mammals’

was made for its use in computer application.

Bird specimens are being catalogued and at

present Part 38 (sparrows) of the Catalogue is

being processed.

A.G.M. 1995-96 - PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

163

Surveys

A preliminary survey to study birds on

Karanja was conducted and a report was

submitted. Similarly, a survey was done to

study the nesting of terns and swifts. As part

of an EIA survey of Poshir Dam area, a survey

was conducted for plants, butterflies and

birds and similar survey was done in Parsik

Hill area in Thane district for NOCIL.

The second phase of the status survey of the

flora and fauna of Rajbhavan was undertaken

and the final report has been submitted.

A week long survey was carried out at

Kolhapur, Satara and Ratnagiri to determine the

distribution and natural habitat of genus

Ceropegia (Family: Asclepiadaceae) in Western

Ghats, Maharashtra.

As part of the EIA project, a 1 5 day floristic

survey of Neyveli Lignite Corporation, Tamil

Nadu was carried out. Report on the Vegetation

Analysis of the complete data with checklist of

24 1 plant species recorded in that area has been

submitted.

Seminars and Workshops

The Curator attended a workshop for

NGOs at NITIE and another on Management

and Promotional Policy for CEC and Volunteer

Management.

The Curator at the instance of the

University of Bombay gave a series of lectures

on Taxonomy of Insects (Paper I) for M.Sc.

(Final) for entomology students.

The collection staff also assisted in

conducting activities of the Salim Ali Centenary

Programme.

RESEARCH

During this year, BNHS had 7 major and

minor research programmes.

Bird Hazard Research Cell

Funded by Aeronautics Research and

Development Board, Ministry of Defence,

Government of India. The Cell continued to

provide consultancy service to aerodrome

officials and identification of bird strike remnants

received. Feather samples from the specimen in

the research collection were taken for making

slides for microscopic examination and

comparison. At the request of aviation

authorities, surveys were conducted at Bombay,

Calcutta and Delhi airports.

Developing Electrophoretic Technique for

Identification of Bird and Bat Aircraft

Strike Remnants

A Vertical Gel Apparatus was purchased.

The procedure for digestion of keratin in feathers

was standardised. Procedures for electrophoresis

and for staining the keratin proteins were

standardised. The banding pattern for Black Kite

Milvus migrans is being standardized.

Grassland Ecology Project

This project was funded by the U.S. Fish

and Wildlife Service through the Ministry of

Environment and Forests, Government of India.

Field work on this project was concluded. Draft

final technical report was prepared and sent to

experts for comments.

Elephant Ecology and Elephant Radio

Telemetry Studies

A combined final technical report of

Elephant Ecology Project (1987-1 992), and Radio

Telemetry Project (1991-1 994) was published.

Jerdon’s Courser Project

Funded by the Ministry of Environment

and Forests, Government of India, field work

on this project was concluded. A final draft of

the technical report has been prepared.

Ecology of Hill Streams of Western Ghats

with special reference to fish community

(Hill Stream Fish Project)

Funded by U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

through Ministry of Environment and Forests,

164

JOURNAL, BOMBA YNA TURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

Government of India, field sites were identified

and permission from the Forest Department

obtained. USFWS advisor to the project, Dr. Neil

Armantrout visited proposed work sites. Surveys

were carried out to collect fish specimen from

various rivers of Southern Western Ghats in

Kerala.

Development of Public Awareness at

Pt. Calimere

Funded by Asian Wetland Bureau,

Malaysia. The Project laid emphasis on baseline

survey of villages around Pt. Calimere Wildlife

and Bird Sanctuary on socio-economic status,

educational level, cattle holding, life styles,

dependence on natural resources and man-

wildlife conflict. Awareness programme was

targeted at villagers, school children, NGO’s and

tourists. Media of communication was through

public meetings, video/films, slide shows,

pamphlets and conducting essay, quiz and

oratorial competitions for school children. Data

collected over a 12 months period is compiled

into the draft report.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT CELL

The EIA Cell was set up two years ago at

the BNHS with the intention to carry out EIA

projects for project proponents. In India, EIA

studies are linked to statutory clearances and the

EIA Cell has, through meetings, correspondence

with Department of Environment, Maharashtra

Pollution Control Board, Industrial Associations

and other EIA Agencies thus far succeeded in

spreading the word to these and other peripheral

agencies that we have now entered into this field.

The EIA Cell in the current financial year

has been successful in acquiring five assignments

of which two have been major EIA projects. Also,

it may be necessary to add that we refused to

undertake a major EIA project for INDAL

(Project outlay: 10 lakhs) for their mines at

Radhanagari.

EIA Cell has acquired and conducted the

following studies:

1. Environmental Impact Assessment study

for proposed Pumped Storage Hydro-

electric Scheme at Hevale. Client:

Irrigation Department (GOM) with JICA,

Japan (1995-ongoing).

2. Rapid Ecological Assessment of Parsik

Hills afforested area with respect to

Avifauna and Butterflies, Client: NOCIL

Petrochemicals Division, Thane (1995).

3 . Rapid Environmental Assessment study of

proposed Cement Plant and Mining

Operations at Kutch District, Gujarat,

Client: M/s Sanghi Cements Ltd., Andhra

Pradesh, (1995).

4. Rapid Ecological assessment of proposed

Poshir Dam Area in Thane District. Client:

Center for Development Studies, Pune,

(1995).

5 . Rapid Survey of proposed Mining operations

at Radhanagari WLS, Kolhapur. Client:

INDAL, Kolhapur (1995).

Also, the laboratory has carried out

physico-chemical analytical studies for a couple

of clients, in addition to BNHS members/

students at the rates prepared by the EIA Scientist

and ratified by the Research Sub-Committee. The

ongoing EIA project awarded by the Irrigation

Department, Government of Maharashtra also

includes a physico-chemical analysis component.

Symposia, seminars and workshops attended

by the EIA Scientist

1. Training programme on EIA Practice,

organised by British Council Division,

Lonavala, April 1995.

2. Brainstorming Workshop on Action Plans

on EIA, sponsored by UNEP, MoEF,

organised by CESE, IIT, Bombay, May

1995.

A. G.M. 1995-96 - PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

165

3. Seminar on Recommendations of the WS 6.

Atkins study for a Comprehensive

Transportation Plan for BMR, organised

by BMRDA, Bombay, October 1995.

4. Workshop on “Utilisation of Coastal

Environmental Maps”, organised by

Maharashtra Remote Sensing Applications

Centre, VRCE, Nagpur, October 1995.

5. National Seminar on Environmental

Economics and Urban Policy organised by

IGIDR, Bombay, November, 1995.

International Conference on

“Technologies for Environment Protection

and Water Management”, organised

jointly by BCCI, ASSOCHEM,

IMC, Bombay, November 1995. Paper

contributed : Environmental Impact

Assessment — An Ecological Perspective.

7. International Conference on

Environmental Planning & Management,

organised by VRCE, Nagpur, February,

1996.

SALIM ALI NATURE CONSERVATION FUND SUB-COMMITTEE

Chairman Dr. P.R. Saraiya (Vice President)

Members Mrs. D.S. Variava (Vice President)

Mr. J.C. Daniel

Convenor Mr. S. Asad Akhtar (Conservation Officer)

This year the conservation of Powai lake

was prioritised. A public meeting was organised

at IIT Powai to address the numerous problems

confronting the lake. Following meetings at the

BMC headquarters to take stock of the

environmental problems facing the lake and

suggest to corrective measures, the lake has

now been brought under the National Lake

Conservation Plan.

A survey was carried out in the Ghansoli

Hills, Thane-Belapur Road, with a view to

strengthen a proposal for a wildlife sanctuary in

the area.

A field survey was undertaken of the

Sharavathy valley Tail race Hydro Electric

Project, Kamatakawas undertaken, to assess the

impact of the dam on the valley. A meeting was

organised at the BNHS in support of Sunderlal

Bahuguna, who is leading an agitation against

the Tehri dam project.

A follow up was also maintained vis a vis

the conservation of the Narayan Sarovar

Chinkara Sanctuary. BNHS members based in

Gujarat were approached to suggest ways to

tackle the issue. Report regarding Marine

chemical industries in the Great Rann of Kutch

was also investigated and a field survey carried

out.

As part of the Tiger crisis cell at the BNHS,

letters were addressed to the Chief Minister of

Maharashtra, strongly advising the Govt, of

Maharashtra to reconsider its decision to denotify

the Melghat Tiger reserve. Contacts were also

maintained with BNHS members and other

NGOs, like the Ranthambore Foundation of Tiger

Link to coordinate measures to save the Tiger.

The spate of Tiger poaching reported from

Madhya Pradesh was also brought to the notice

of the MoEF. Regular meetings of the ‘Tiger

Link’ were also organised at the BNHS.

Members were also advised to write to

appropriate authorities regarding the

denotification threats to the Bhimashankar and

Koyna sanctuaries. Besides the proposal to

denotify the Harishchandragad - Kalsubai

Wildlife Sanctuary and the Bhigwan Sanctuary

was also investigated.

A meeting was of the Armed Forces Cell

was organised, in which serving officers from

different wings of the armed forces took part.

Environmental awareness workshops were

planned and the necessary syllabus worked out.

166

JOURNAL, BOMBA YNA TURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

Conservation issues in Orissa viz.

denotification of the Bhitarkanika wildlife

sanctuary and mining activities in the Upper

Indravathy catchment area were addressed

and a survey of these areas was also planned.

The local NGOs and BNHS members were

also approached to get a proper feedback.

Controversial mining projects in the North

Karanpura valley, Bihar were also investigated.

The issue of Elephant conservation in

Meghalaya was investigated and followed up with

letters to the Principal CCF and other officials in

the Ministry of Environment and Forests, to

reconsider the decision to locate a cement plant

and mines on the periphery of the Balpakram

National Park, which will disrupt the migratory

route of the Elephants in the area. Letters were

also written to the Chief Minister of Assam and

the Environment minister to check the

encroachments in the Laokhowa Sanctuary,

Assam.

A policy paper on conservation issues was

prepared and circulated to BNHS members and

PUBLIC

Traditionally, BNHS has always

maintained a low profile regarding publicity of

its activities. However, with the changing times

it was found essential to project the Society’s

image in the best possible manner so as provide

information on the Society’s activities. This was

very useful for establishing our brand name,

especially for marketing our products and

approaching potential donors.

This year the BNHS received an

exceptionally good press coverage of almost all

activities, especially for those events held under

the Salim Ali Birth Centenary Programme and

also for other activities like Public Meetings on

Tiger Link, Powai Lake, Chipko and Armed

Forces Cell besides the regular members’

programmes held at Hombill House. From time

to time, press interviews were arranged for the

Director, Curator, other scientists and members

other concerned citizens. A meeting was

subsequently organised to assess the general

opinion of BNHS members vis a vis these

issues. As an outcome of this meeting it was

decided to hold monthly meetings with BNHS

members on conservation issues. During one

such interaction it was decided to survey the

Pune-Lonavla Lake district area to assess the

impact of urbanisation in the catchment areas

of Pune’s lakes. The survey was carried out

in collaboration with BEAG and a BNHS

member.

The Conservation Officer attended a

workshop in Pune, organised by ECONET, to

take stock of the Amendments to the Wildlife

Protection Act (1972) and the proposed Bio

Diversity Conservation Act.

A campaign to put Environmental issues

on the agenda of National political parties was

initiated. Efforts were made to set up an Enviro

Legal cell at the BNHS and discussions were held

with experts to work out the details of such a

cell.

RELATIONS

regarding projects, Salim Ali Centenary

programmes and other activities of the

Society.

Both radio and television too gave adequate

coverage for BNHS activities. BNHS

Memorandum of Understanding with ZEE

Television was extended for the display of BNHS

products during their environmental programme

Hum Zameen.

The much needed coloured brochure giving

information at a glance on the BNHS was

designed in-house and 10,000 copies were

printed.

As part of the goodwill products

programme, new designs for BNHS T-shirts and

caps were developed. To market these products,

direct mail order catalogue was advertised in the

Hornbill. The response being very encouraging,

repeat purchase orders were placed.

A. G.M. 1995-96 - PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

167

REPORT OF ACTIVITIES OF DR SALIM ALI BIRTH CENTENARY YEAR

The Centenary Celebration activities

started in October 1994 when the Director,

Dr Jay S. Samant asked the Curator to submit

the tentative programme which could be arranged

during the Birth Centenary Year of Dr Salim Ali.

Accordingly the Curator submitted a list of

activities to be carried out during the year which

was discussed in the Office Bearers Meeting and

finalised. A small Working Group including

Director, Dr Jay S Samant, Curator, Mr N

Chaturvedi and PRO, Mr Isaac Kehimkar was

formed to initiate various activities.

Subsequently in August 1995 it was decided that

the whole Executive Committee (EC) would

function as the Salim Ali Birth Centenary

Committee. Under the overall guidance of the

President and the members of the EC following

programmes were arranged :

1 . On 1 1 th November 1 995 the Salim Ali Birth

Centenary Year was officially launched by

the Mayor of Mumbai, Shri R T Kadam. On

this occasion the updated 2nd edition of a

Pictorial Guide to the Birds of Indian

Subcontinent was released by the Mayor.

2. On 12th November 1995 the Salim Ali

National Bird Count was arranged all over

India. In Mumbai the Bird Count was

conducted at the Sanjay Gandhi National

Park when the Principal Chief Conservator

of Forests, Shri A R Raddi was the Chief

Guest and Mr David Elcome from the RSPB,

UK was the Guest of Honour. Several forest

officers including Conservator of Forests,

Shri A K Nigam, Park Manager, Shri A R

Bharati and members of the EC, i.e. Mr

Humayun Abdulali, Dr R Reuben, Mr M R

Almeida, Mr Sunjoy Monga, Dr A M

Bhagwat and Dr Jay S Samant, students and

reporters from various Newspapers had

participated. The programme was covered

by the Zee TV in ‘Hum Zameen’. This

activity was coordinated by the Conservation

Officer, Mr Asad Akhtar.

3. The Rare Book Exhibition was organised

from 15-24 December 1995. The Exhibition

was inaugurated by the Maharao Shri

Pragmulji Sawai Bahadur of Kutch on 15

December at 3.30 p.m. On this occasion a

set of 4 bird prints were released by the

Maharani Preetidevi. There was excellent

response to the Exhibition. Besides the

rare books, photographs of Dr Salim Ali in

action were also displayed. The Exhibition

was organised under the overall guidance

of Drs Ashok Kothari, Chairman, Library

Sub-Committee and B F Chhapgar, EC

Member.

4. The Rangoli of Birds, an Exhibition was

organised from 22-30 January 1996. It was

inaugurated by Shri Govind Swaroop on 22

January 5.00 PM. This was possible because

of the members of the Rangavali Kala

Darshan. Being a unique medium to exhibit

birds, the Exhibition had excellent response

from the members, public and press.

5. The Salim Ali International Seminar on

Conservation of Avifauna of Wetlands and

Grasslands was organised from 12-15

February 1996 at the Indira Gandhi Institute

of Developmental Research (IGIDR). The

Seminar was attended by several

international and national scientists,

ornithologists and naturalists. 90 papers

were presented during the Seminar and

many resolutions were passed on the

concluding day. The Seminar was followed

by a post-seminar tour to the Jayakwadi, one

of the Ramsar sites. The Seminar was

inaugurated by Shri Mohan Dharia, Ex-

Deputy Chairman, Planning Commission

and Dr M S Swaminathan delivered the key-

note address on “Building a National

Ecological Security System”. During the

Seminar a special issue of “HORNBILL”

dedicated to Dr Salim Ali, a book on

“CRANES” by Mr Prakash Gole and the

168

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

book on “ORNITHO-BOTANY OF BAYA”

by Mr Satish Kumar Sharma, Range Forest

Officer, Rajasthan were released. A Week

with Elephants — Proceedings of the BNHS

Seminar on Asian Elephant was also

released. Considering the limited resources

the Seminar was a grand success. The work

of bringing out Proceedings of the Seminar

is in progress.

6. Dr Salim Ali Birth Centenary National

Painting Competition was organised on 25

February 1996 for the children of various

age groups. The programme was conducted

at various centres all over India with active

participation of our members. Prizes were

given to the winners on 5 June 1996, World

Environment Day, by the Chief Guest, Mr S

P Godrej. On this occasion an Exhibition,

“Himalayan Vision” was also arranged with

the assistance of the British Council

Division.

7. The Salim Ali Centenary Nature

Photography Exhibition/Competition was

held during May- June 1996. On 20 June the

Prize Distribution Function and the

Exhibition of selected Nature Photographs

was organised. The prizes were given by the

Chief Guest, Vice Adm. Vishnu Bhagwat,

FOC In-Chief, Western Naval Command.

The prizes were sponsored by Shri Ajit

Kerkar, Chairman, Indian Hotels Co Ltd.

The Exhibition and Competition were

arranged under the Chairmanship of Mr

Adhik Shirodkar and with assistance of Mr

Bodhe and other members. Mr Isaac

Kehimkar, PRO was the Convenor.

8. The revised and enlarged centenary edition

of the Book of Indian Birds was released

on 8 July 1996 at New Delhi by the Minister

of Environment and Forests, Capt. J N P

Nishad, where Mr S C Dey, Additional

Inspector General of Forests was also

present. The function was also organised at

the Hombill House, Mumbai to release this

book, which was released by Mr S P Godrej.

9. An Exhibition of Birds in Paper

Sculptures by Mr Hemkant Gupte was

organised at the Hornbill House from 2

September onwards. The Exhibition was

inaugurated by Mr Jaywant Pathare, a

renowned Cinematographer. The exhibition

got a wide coverage and was appreciated by

all.

10. Salim Ali Centenary Bird Stamp

Exhibition was organised from 17

September onwards. The Exhibition was

inaugurated by Mr R Narasimhan, Chief

Post Master General, Maharashtra. Many

members exhibited their stamp collection

during the Exhibition.

11. A Tribute to Nature, a mimesis in sand

stone in honour of late Dr Salim Ali was

presented by Ms Varashree Narayan. The

Exhibition was inaugurated by Mr J W

Edmundson, First Secretary (Cultural

Affairs), British Council Division, on 24

October, 1996.

1 3 . Release of Commemorative Postal Stamp

in honour of Dr Salim Ali on 12 November

1996. A set of stamps alongwith First Day

Cover with special post cancellation was

released by the Governor of Maharashtra,

Dr P C Alexander when Mrs Ackamma

Alexander was also present. The Chief Post

Master General, Maharashtra Circle, Mr

Aggarwal presented the stamps to the Chief

Guest. The Chief Guest also visited the

Collections.

14. A special Book, Salim Ali’s India, was

brought out as a part of the Centenary

Programme and released on 2.12.1996 by

Mr S P Godrej. The function was held at

the Godrej Bhawan. The book is edited by

Drs Ashok Kothari and B F Chhapger. The

book got wide publicity through Newspapers

and is a collector’s item.

The programmes proposed for the

Centenary Year and on which final action has to

be taken are as follows :

A.G.M. 1995-96 -PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

169

(A) Salim Ali Centenary Intemaional Award and

Salim Ali Memorial Lecture: The name of

the Awardee has been finalised and approved

by the EC. Accordingly the recipient of the

Award for the year 1996-97 is Mr Zafar

Futehally. We have yet to inform him and

also to request him to deliver the Salim Ali

Memorial Lecture at Mumbai. It is proposed

to have this activity either in January/

February 1997.

(B) Salim Ali Naturalist/Young Biologist

Award: While thresponse to the Salim Ali

Young Biologist Award was disappointing,

there was a good response to the Salim Ali

Naturalist Award. A meeting constituted for

these awards will meet in first/second week

of January 1997.

(C) A special issue of the Journal: September-

December 1997 issue of the Journal will be

brought out as a special issue of Journal,

dedicated to Dr Salim Ali and will have

invited articles.

Acknowledgement

I am thankful to the overall guidance and

encouragement received from the President, Shri

B G Deshmukh. I am also thankful to the Office

Bearers and members of the EC under whose

aegis these programmes were conducted

successfully. The Centenary Photographic

Exhibition was possible due to active support

from the members, especially Mr Adhik

Shirodkar. The Rare Book Exhibition and the

book, “Salim Ali’s India” were possible due to

active work of Drs Ashok Kothari and B F

Chhapgar. The successful completion of all these

activities were possible due to active support of

the BNHS staff, especially the PRO, Mr Isaac

Kehimkar who worked in coordination with the

Organising Secretary.

VISITORS

Shri R T Kadarn, Mayor of Mumbai, Shri

Govind Swaroop, IAS, Secretary, Cultural

Affairs, Government of Maharashtra, Mr. M.F.

Ahemed, IG Forests, Ministry of Environment

and Forests, Government of India, Mr. A.K.

Ghosh, Director, Zoological Survey of India, Mr.

Ratho, IAS, Raj Bhavan, Mumbai, Members of

the University Panel for the Post-Graduate studies

in Botany and family members of the British

High Commissioner.

From the international community of

scientists, Dr. John Burton, UK, Dr. Simon

Poucton,UK, Dr. Charles Woods, USA, Dr. Eric

Finley, Australia, Mr. Gunnar Steidel, Germany

and several others who had come during the

international seminar visited the Collections.

170

JOURNAL, BOMBA YNA TURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

DONATIONS AND GRANTS

ACC 100,000.00

Ms Thrity Badami 1 ,001 .00

Mr Ruchir Bansal 1 ,000.00

Mr T R Bhagwat & Associates 1 ,001 .00

Mr T R Bhagwat 1 ,001 .00

Brihan Mumbai Municipal Corporation(BMC) 5,00,000.00

Essan Investments Ltd 25,000.00

Mr Kamlesh Gandhi 1,000.00

Mr S S Kamat 1,000.00

Ms Meeta (Ex IMS) 2585.00

Ms Rati Mehenti 1,000.00

Ms Devyani J Mehta 2,000.00

Mr Indravan Rambai Mehta 2,000.00

Mehta Scientific Education & Research Trust 25,000.00

National Plastic Industries 3,000.00

Network India Ltd 4,000.00

Seth P Thakurdas & Divaliba Charitable Trust 1,20,000.00

Shree Kami Enterprises 5,000.00

Mr D I Solanki, Maharaja of Vansda 10,000.00

Tata Hydro Electric Power Supply Co. Ltd./

Tata Power Co. Ltd./

Andhra Valley Power Supply Co. Ltd 500,000.00

M/s Vijay Sales 2,000.00

Dr J A Woolcock 1,422.00

Mr Kantilal C Zaveri 2,000.00

Mr Sunil Zaveri 10,000.00

DONATIONS FOR PUBLICATION OF SALIM ALPS INDIA

M/s. B Arunkumar & Co., 20,000

M/s. Bhansali & Co 5,000

Shri Brijnand Ch. Trust 10,000

M/s. Diwaliben Mohanlal Ch. Trust 20,000

M/s. Everest Gems 20,000

M/s. The Gokak Mills Ch. Trust 2,000

M/s. Industrial Manufacturers 10,000

M/s. P D Kothari & Co 20,000

M/s. Lakhi Trust 20,000

M/s. Mahamaya Investment Ltd 800

M/s. Mangalaya Trading Investment 1 ,000

M/s. D Navinchandra & Co 20,000

M/s. F K S Nicholson 20,000

M/s. Omega Shipping Pvt Ltd 20,000

M/s. Sayaji Industries Ltd 5,000

M/s. Shipla Shah 20,000

M/s. W W Shipping Ag. Pvt Ltd 20,000

M/s. Su-raj Diamond Ind 20,000

M/s. Vijay Star 40,000

M/s. Zandu Pharmaceuticals 3,000

A.G.M. 1995-96 -PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

171

WELL-WISHERS

M/s Walker Packaging

Mr Ashish Vashisht

Mr De Preozel, France

Mr Orhant Georges, France

Hirdwani Trust

Mrs. Akila Vaidyanathan

Ms Shalini Susheel

Mr S B Motivala

Mr V K Suresh

M/s. Piramal Trust

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are grateful to the following persons for their assistance in various activities of the Society:

Mr Sudheer Agashe

Dr Sanjay Bhagwat

Mr M R Almeida

Dr B F Chhapgar

Mr J C Daniel

Dr B Dasgupta

Mrs V B Deshmukh

Capt. Subhash Deshpande

Mr Mihir Deware

Ms Mehera Dubhash

Mr Shyam Ghate

Mr Arun Joshi

Mr Manoj Karkhanis

The Executive Committee acknowledges

with thanks the assistance given to the BNHS by

the Ministry of Environment, Forests and

Wildlife of the Government of India, Ministry

of Defence of the Government of India, the

United States Fish & Wildlife Service, Overseas

Development Administration, UK, British

Council Division, Mumbai, the Government of

Mr K V Kini

Mr Ashok Kothari

Dr C S Lattoo

Maj. M Maskar

Mr Atul Mathur

Mr Sunjoy Monga

Mr A K Nigam

Mr V K Paralkar

Mr Ulhas Rane

Dr Rajendra Shinde

Mr Vilas Shingre

Ms Neeta Sukhtankar

Maharashtra, and the Charity Commissioner,

Mumbai. It also thanks the members and staff of

the BNHS for their unstinted support in the

various activities of the Society.

Dr Ashok Bhagwat

Honorary Secretary

HONORARY TREASURER’S REPORT ON THE

ACCOUNTS FOR THE YEAR ENDED ON 31st MARCH 1996

I have the pleasure to report on the accounts for the year ended 31st March 1996.

Income

The income of the Society witnessed a significant growth over the previous year except in the area

of Grants.

Income

20

The contributions from Products and the EIA cell are creditable.

Grants

The Society received a total of Rs.72.49 lakhs as grants this year. Rs.51.81 lakhs was spent on

respective projects and Rs.45.23 on creation of fixed assets. The most significant among these was

the Conservation Education Centre funded by the ODA. The overdue grants from the Government

of India for airconditioning of the reference collection is still outstanding, although some amount

was received during this year. Intensive efforts are currently being made to recover the same. An

amount of Rs.l .82 lakhs was written off to bring the books of account in line with the actual claims

made. No progress could be made in recovery of Rs. 1 lakh from the Government of India in respect

of the grant for Nature Conservation Course for Indian Army.

Surplus

The surplus of income over expenditure for the year is Rs.0.09 lakhs.

Investments

The long term Funds of the Society of Rs.278 lakhs are grossly under covered by the investments

and fixed assets of Rs.224 lakhs. The situation needs to be corrected to secure long term solvency of

the Society.

Funds and Endowments

The income of the Funds and endowments of the Society remained unspent. Efforts need to be made

to spend these resources for the objects of the Funds and endowments.

11th January, 1997

Vinod Haritwal

Honorary Treasurer

A.G.M. 1995-96 - PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

173

AUDITORS’ REPORT

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

(REGISTERED NO.F-244-BOM.)

We have audited the attached Balance

Sheet of the Society as at March 3 1 , 1996 and

also the annexed Income and Expenditure

account for the year ended on that date and report

that in our opinion and to the best of our

information and according to the explanation

given to us:

(a) the accounts are maintained regularly

and in accordance with the provisions of the

Bombay Public Trust Act, 1950. subject to the

observations that as per past practice separate

Receipts & Payment account has been drawn for

the Nature Education Scheme and the same has

not been incorporated in the accounts of the

Society. We observe that as per the accounts so

drawn up a sum of Rs. 30, 954.75 is considered

to be due to the Society as at the date of the

Balance Sheet. We have been given to understand

that on settlement of the claim for arrears of grant

from the Government the account would be

adjusted.

(b) the receipts and disbursements have

been properly and correctly shown in the

accounts, subject to the observations that as per

the accounting practice adopted grants from State

Government and other sponsoring organisations

are being accounted in anticipation of actual

receipt of sanction letters based on the claims

preferred/to be preferred. We observe that

following amounts so accounted in the earlier

years had remained unrealised till the date of

the Balance Sheet,

(i) Central Government

(Ministry of Environment

and Forest)

Grant for Air conditioning

of Reference Collection

Room & Library 7,35,482.95

(ii) Government of India

(Ministry of Environment

& Forests)

Grant for Nature

Conservation Courses for

Army 1,00,000.00

(iii) Central Govt.

(Dept, of space)

Ecological Investigation of

Avian Community of

Sriharikota. 50,655.00

We understand that since then the

aforesaid amount of Rs.l lac has been realised.

In the context of the grant for central

airconditioning system, we observe that during

the year under report a sum of Rs. 2, 76,1 15 has

been received by the Society against the claim of

Rs.4,84,439.80 for the period upto 01-07-1993.

On review of the position of the claim accounted

in the earlier years in the wake of the amount of

the grant realised a sum of Rs.l, 82, 373.42 has

been written back considering it to be not

admissible. The Society has made representation

for claiming the balance amount. We further

observe that of the expenditure incurred during

the year towards airconditioning of collection

room and library Rs. 3, 64, 7 12.35 has been

considered to be recoverable by way of grant from

the Government. Thus the total amount

considered recoverable from the Government on

this account as at the date of Balance Sheet

amounts to Rs.l 1,00,195.30.

We are not in a position to offer any

comments about the realisability of the aforesaid

outstanding dues. We reiterate our views that the

income of such nature should be recognised as

income when there is no uncertainty about its

realisation,

174

JOURNAL, BOMBA YNA TURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 95 (1998)

c) the cash balance and the vouchers in

the custody of the accountant on the date of audit

were in agreement with the books of account

(d) the books, deed, accounts, vouchers

and/or other documents or records required by

us were produced to us,

(e) the register of movables and immovable

properties has been maintained; however the

change reports have remained to be

communicated to the Regional Office. In the

context of equipments and other such items of

capital nature acquired out of various grants and

other project funds, we observe that initially the

cost of such equipments etc. is charged to the

relevant project accounts and on completion of

the projects, the Society generally seeks the

permission of the concerned sponsoring

authorities to retain such assets, as are found to

be useful for other projects and/or other purposes

and on obtaining such approvals the necessary

entries are passed in the books of amount of the

Society to record the residual value of such items.

While referring to the observations made in our

report accompanying the statement of accounts

for the year ended 3 1st March, 1994, we observe

that the value of a jeep so retained has still not

been brought into accounts. In the absence of

adequate information it has not been possible for

us to verify if the value of all the items allowed

to be retained has been brought into accounts.

We have however been given to understand that

the property in the assets acquired and the

construction work of the Conservation Education

Centre being carried out vests in the Society and

with a view to conform to the accounting

treatment as laid down in the Accounting

Standard AS 12 issued by the Institute of

Chartered Accountants of India the

disbursements in the nature of capital

expenditure made from the amount of the grant

received from the Government for the purpose

since its inception has been brought into

accounts. The corresponding amount has been

shown as “deferred grant” in accordance with

the guidelines laid down in the said AS 12 and

on depreciation being reckoned on the relevant

assets ever since the date of acquisition thereof

the corresponding amount of Rs.9, 77, 308.70 has

been transferred to the said deferred grant. We

suggest that the change in the accounting treatment

and the entries as recorded in the books of account

in this respect may kindly be confirmed in the next

meeting of the Executive Committee.

We also understand that the Society is

holding a number of “medals” of different

precious and semi-precious metallic contents

which were awarded to late Dr. Salim Ali and

which under his Will have been obtained by the

Society. The same we are informed are being held

as commemorative souvenirs. The value thereof

has not been brought into accounts as it is

contended that the said souveirs being of aesthetic

and sentimental value and commemorative in

nature cannot be reduced to monetary value,

f) the Hon.Treasurer and the accountant

appeared before us and furnished the information

required by us,

(g) we are not aware of any property or

funds of the Society having been applied for any

objects or purposes other than the objects or

purposes of the Society,

(h) the following amounts were

outstanding for more than one year:

dues towards supplies

& services Rs. 68,703.45

loans to staff Rs. 14,550.00

advances for expenses

(for projects & other expenses:

to employees

(including ex employees)

to others,

other dues

grants receivable

suspense account

income tax refundable

Rs. 54,935.35

Rs. 48,873.45

Rs. 8,86,137.95

Rs. 1,570.25

Rs. 79,181.00

In the context of the aforesaid outstanding

of Rs.54, 935.35 representing advances to the

employees, we understand that it includes

Rs. 16,460/- from employees who are no longer

A.G.M. 1 995-96 - PROCEEDINGS AND A CCOUNTS

175

in the employment of the Society. The same it is

however stated is proposed to be adjusted against

their retirement dues payable to them. The

liability whereof has not been brought into

accounts. Other dues include Rs.36, 589.45 dues

from various parties against the expenses

incurred for and on their account. Some of these

amounts are outstanding for more than three

years. We are not in a position to comment on

the realisability of the said dues. In the context

of income tax refundable we observe that the

assessment has been completed upto A.Y. 1994-

95 & the above amount of Rs. 79, 181/- includes

the amount of claim of Rs.7,560/- which could

not be realised for want of the TDS Certificate.

The said shortfall in the realisation of the claim

has not been adjusted in the books of accounts.

Subject to the observation in para (b) hereinabove

no amount has been written off during the year.

We have been assured that the outstanding

balances are considered good and recoverable.

(i) during the year under report a sum of

Rs.35,955/- has been spent on repairs to drive

way of the Car park yard at Hombill House. We

have been informed that limited enquiries were

floated for the purpose and based on the estimates

obtained the work was awarded to one of the

contractors. Besides we observe that during the

year under report a sum of Rs.23,98,936.34 has

been spent towards the construction of

Conservation Education Centre at Goregaon (E)

bringing the total outlay on the said construction

work to Rs. 56,34,9 18.34 till the date of the

Balance Sheet. We are informed that a specific

grant has been received for the purpose of the

construction of the said Centre and other

expenses relating thereto accordingly as referred

to in para (e) herein above the amount spent on

the construction work has been adjusted from

the grant so received.

(j) we are not aware of any money of the

Society having been invested in contravention

of Sec. 35 of the Bombay Public Trust Act, 1950.

(k) no alienation of the immovable property

contrary to the provisions of Sec. 36 of the

Bombay Public Trust Act, 1950 have come to our

notice,

(1) we observe that expenses of

Rs. 60, 56, 077. 83 in the aggregate having been

considered to have been met out of the various

funds and the grants corresponding amount has

been transferred from the relevant accounts of the

grants and the respective funds. We have relied on

the information given to us and the authorisation

of the Hon. Secretary and the Hon. Treasurer in

regard to the said expenditure having been incurred

for the specific objects for which the said grants

and/or the funds have been received by the Society.

While checking the statement of accounts in regard

to the expenses incurred at various camps, we have

relied on the authorisation by the Hon. Secretary

and Hon. Treasurer as to the reasonableness of the

expenses,

(ii) pending the final determination of the

liability towards the claim of some of the

local field workers, (whose services were

engaged for one of the projects at Bharatpur)

for reinstatement and other service benefits,

which is being disputed by the Society. We

are informed that the matter is pending

before the Labour Court at Bharatpur and

the Provident Fund authorities. An adhoc

provision of Rs. 194,060.70 made in the

accounts in the earlier years for this purpose

has been retained in the accounts,

(iii) the income from membership fee is being

accounted on realisation basis. Hitherto the

amount of entrance fees received from the

members was being accounted as revenue

income. Effective from the year under

report the same has been treated as capital

receipt and has been accordingly credited

to Life Membership and Entrance Fees

Fund account. Due to the said change in

the accounting policy the surplus for the

year is under stated by Rs.44,860. The bye-

law of the Society does not specifically

provide for such treatment in the accounts.

(iv) we have been given to understand that on

physical verification of the fixed assets

176

JOURNAL, BOMBA YNA TURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 95 (1998)

certain items were found to be lying with

some members for research/study

purpose. We suggest that proper records in

this respect may be maintained and the year

end confirmation be obtained from the

borrowing members,

v) we observe that the Society is celebrating

Dr. Salim Ali Centenary and in this

connection seminars and other functions

are being organised and certain special

publications are also in the process of

being released. Since the centenary year is

extending to the current financial year, the

amount of donations and contributions

received in connection with the celebration

of the centenary and the expenses incurred

have been carried forward to the next year.

The net balance representing the excess of

the collection over the expenses incurred

till the date of the Balance Sheet amounting

to Rs.5,39, 166.40 has been accordingly

carried forward to the next year.

(vi) we suggest that the following items of

disbursements effected, appropriations

made and administrative charges levied be

confirmed and ratified at the next meeting

of the Executive Committee.

A. Disbursement from:

Grants from United States Department of

Interior, Fish & Wildlife Service for (Revenue

Expenditures)

1 . Ecology of

Dry Grasslands

2. Ministry of Defence ARDB

for Project in Development

of Electro-phorensis Tech,

for identifying birds & bats,

aircrafts strike remains

3 . Study of Conservation of

Birds of Prey

Rs.

8,35,499.30

1,18,108.80

40,038.18

Particulars emphasis upon Restoration of

Endangered species.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

Rs.

Hawk & Owl Trust

Grassland Roosting Harriers 70,854.07

Endangered Turtles of

Pondichery 4,074.25

Grant for Chilka Lake Project 12,688.89

Neyveli Lignite Project 38,840.80

Conservation Education

Project 35,81,452.59

Aeronautics Research

& Development Board Grants 80,822.50

Hill Stream Fish 1,95,552.60

Asian Wetland Bureau

Narayan Sarovar Project

For Capital Expenditure :

1 . Ministry of Defence ARDB

for Project in Development of

Electrophorensis Tech, for

identifying birds and bats

aircrafts strike remains

2. Conservation Education

Project

3. Hill Stream Fish

69,867.50

54,545.55

Rs.

53,200.00

B. Appropriations:

Staff Gratuity Fund

Staff Welfare Fund

41,64,363.90

3,05,179.82

2,912.19

50,000.00

A.G.M. 1995-96 - PROCEEDINGS AND A CCOUNTS

177

C. Amount met out of funds for Expenses:

1. For Nature Conservation 1,82,893.28

2. For Gratuity Payment 98,112.00

3. For Beautification of

Dr. Salim Ali Chowk 1 3,3 1 0.00

4. For Staff Welfare Fund 13,398.80

5. ICICI Environment Research

& Education Fund 1 ,87,500.06

6. TISCO Conservation

Education Research &

Awareness Fund 2,80,000.00

While on the subject, we observe that as at

the end of the year the accounts relating to the

following projects, which stand completed reflect

the over run position as under:

Unadjusted Deficit on Project:

Rs.

a. Ministry of Defence (ARDB)

for BHRC 37,278.54

b. Smithsonian Institute,

Washington, for Revision of the

Handbook of the Birds of India

& Pakistan 284.08

c. Asian Wetland Bureau 6,286.50

d. Hawk & Owl Trust 5,002.32

The above balances may be appropriately

adjusted if the same be not likely to be

recouped from further grant/donation. We

are not in a position to. comment on its

readability,

vii) we observe that contribution to employees 4

provident fund (both the employees and the

management contribution ) continues to be

deposited with the Trustees of a recognised

provident fund established by the Society

and governed by the rules framed for the

purpose. There seems to have been certain

amendments to the Employees Provident

Fund and Miscellaneous Provisions Act,

1952 whereunder the Society may not only

be liable to transfer the accumulated

balance in the Employees’ Provident fund

account to the Provident Fund

Commissioner Govt. Scheme, but also for

the difference in the amount of

contribution. The liability in this regard

has not been determined.We suggest that

proper legal opinion may be sought in this

behalf and the needful may be done in the

matter. We further observe that no

provision has been made for the accrued

liability for the leave encashment. As

regards the liability for the further payment

of gratuity to the employees, we observe

that the society has obtained a policy from

LIC under the Group Gratuity Scheme.

The additional liability arising in the wake

of the amendment to the payment of

Gratuity Act enhancing the limit remains

to be covered under the said policy, for

which no provision has been considered

in the accounts.

(viii) in the context of the foreign contribution

by way of grant/donations etc. being

received by the Society, we observe that

the requisite return has been filed with the

concerned authority in respect of certain

specific grant that had been received by

the Society. We suggest that the position

in regard to the other amounts being

received by the Society may be examined

and necessary action may be taken to

comply with the requirements of the

provisions of the Foreign Contribution

(Regulation) Act, 1976 and the rules framed

thereunder,

(m) so far as it is ascertainable from the

books of account and according to the

information and explanation given to us by the

Hon. Treasurer and the Hon. Secretary, there were

no cases of irregular, illegal or improper

expenditure or failure to recover the money or

other properties belonging to the Society or loss

or waste of money or other property of the Society

subject to the observations made in para (h)

hereinabove,

178

JOURNAL, BOMBA YNA TURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 95 (1998)

(n) provisions of Sec. 3 1 -A of the Bombay

Public Trust Act, 1950 and Rule 16-A of the rules

framed thereunder have not been compiled with,

(o) the maximum and minimum number of

Executive Committee members is maintained

having regard to the provisions in the Rules and

Regulations of the Society.

(p) there are no specific provisions in the

Rules and Regulations of the Society regarding the

holding of the meetings of the Executive

Committee.

(q) the minute book recording the

proceedings of the meetings is maintained,

(r) no member of the Executive Committee

has any interest in the investment of the Society,

(s) no member of the Executive Committee

is a debtor or creditor of the Society subject to the

observations that a sum of Rs.27,697.50 given as

an advance to one of the members for expenses

has been outstanding as at the date of the Balance

sheet.

(t) there were no irregularities pointed out

in our last report dt.30th Sept. 1995, accompanying

the statement of accounts for the year ended 3 1 st

March, 1995 except the observations made in paras

(b), (e), (h), (L) (v) and (1) (vii) the observations

whereof have been reiterated hereinabove to the

extent the issues still remain outstanding.

PLACE : MUMBAI

DATED: 31-01-1997

HABIB & COMPANY

CHARTERED ACCOUNTANTS

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BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING HELD ON 13TH MARCH 1997

The Annual General Meeting (AGM)

of the Society for the year 1995-96 was

held on 13.3.1997 at the Hombill House at

6.30 PM when the following members were

present:

Mr D V Shanbhag, Mr Roshan R

Panthakee, Maj. B G Padbidri, Mr D C Balsara,

Mr Nitin Adhikari, Mr S K Panigrah, Mr Ravi

Mahimkar, Mr Anish Kapadia, Mrs V

Deshmukh, Dr S Unnithan, Mr K K Vajifdar,

Mr T R Munsiff, Mrs M Kirloskar, Mr S Asad

Akhtar, Mr Sunil R Zaveri, Mr Suresh Pradhan,

Mr Ulhas Paralkar, Mr Shahid Ali, Mr Atul

Mathur, Mr B S Swami, Mr Rokad Zubair,

Mr Ulhas Rane, Ms Neelam Patil, Dr A S

Kothari, Mr J C Daniel, Dr A R Rahmani, Dr

B F Chhapgar, GVK Unnithan, Mr N P

Behramfram, Mr R D Dighe, Mrs V R Dighe,

Mr R S Moral, Mr Amit Srivasatava, Mr N

Chaturvedi, Dr A M Bhagwat, Col. J C Sawhney,

Mr C D Singh, Ms Ronita Torcato, Mr D V

Golatkar, Dr C V Lattoo, Mrs M S Deshpande,

Mr Sunjoy Monga, Mr K P Karamchandani,

Mrs S K Vajifdar, Mr R H Kumavat, Maj.

Madhav Mhaskar, Mr Leon Lobo, Mr K K

Trivedi, Mr Rudi Rego, Mr Shashank Ranjit,

Mr V R Khambatta, Mr G M Bodhe, Mr T V

Jose, Mr N D Mulla, Mr Rohit Agarwal, Mr

Nitin Jamdar, Mr Subhash Bijlani, Lt Gen. V B

Jetley, Mr D Bannerjee, Mr Anil Kunte, Mr

Manish Vedak, Ms Dina Guha, Dr Vinod Joshi,

Mr Govind Swarup, Ms Neelim Gohil,

Ms Jayashree Sethna, Mr M M Khan, Mr K N

Naoroji, Mr Manoj Karkhanis, Ms Nargis

Madiman, Ms Nita Mehta, Mr Mihir Devare,

Ms Doreen D’Sa, Mr Parvez Cama, Mr S D

Bhaumik, Mr Rishad Naoroji, Mr Shyam

Ghate, Mr Joslin Rodrigues, Ms Neeta

Sukhtankar, Mr S B Chandak, Dr Rachel

Reuben.

FELICITATION TO DONORS

Before the commencement of the AGM,

Mrs D S Variava, Vice President thanked those

who had donated more than Rs 1 lakh to the

Society during the year 1995-96 and since they

were not represented, their mementos were sent:

1 . Associated Cement Companies Ltd.

2. Seth Purshotamdas Thakurdas and Divaliba

Charitable Trust

3. Tata Power Companies

Mrs Variava extended thanks to Mr B G

Deshmukh and Dr P R Saraiya for the donations

that had been received, and all members for

making the Salim Ali Centenary Year a great

success.

This programme was followed by Tea.

The AGM then started at 6.30 PM with

Mrs Variava in the Chair.

The Chairperson introduced all Executive

Committee (EC) members and informed the

members of Mr Deshmukh* s inability to attend

the AGM as he was attending a meeting in Delhi

of the Indian Board for Wildlife on behalf of

BNHS.

AGENDA ITEM NO. Is

CONFIRMATION OF THE MINUTES OF

THE AGM HELD ON 12.12.1995

i. On page 5 of the minutes second last

paragraph

To delete : “ but he has had problems with

the EC”.

ii. On page 7 Agenda Item no. 6 (A) second

paragraph following should be added after

“ Society or otherwise”.

“Mr Rane read out the Charity

Commissioner’s order”.

iii. On page 8, before President’s resignation,

the following should be added :

Mr Mulla proposed a vote of thanks but

immediately thereafter stated that the House had

not considered the question of requesting the

A.G.M. 1995-96 -PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

189

President to withdraw his resignation.

The Chairman then called the meeting to order

and the following resolution was passed nem con :

“Mr N D Mulla proposed and Mr M R

Almeida seconded the resolution requesting the

President, Mr B G Deshmukh to withdraw his

resignation from the Presidency of the Society.

The resolution was approved unanimously by the

General Body”.

AGENDA ITEM NO. 2:

CONSIDERATION AND ADOPTION OF

THE ANNUAL REPORT OF THE

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE FOR THE

YEAR ENDED 31ST MARCH 1996.

i. Mr Zaveri pointed out that on page 4 - ‘New

Titles’ - “Salim Ali’s India” name was

missing which should come under ‘Under

Production’. He was advised that in the

year under report, “Salim Ali’s India” was

planned to be produced as a Souvenir, and

not as a book, hence its ommission from

the Publications Sub-Committee’s report.

The Chairperson stated that it should now

be included.

ii. There should be sufficient information on

Projects under specific heads. The

Chairperson was of the opinion that

successful completion of major projects

should be mentioned in the President’s

Message.

iii. It was agreed that the name of new

projects sanctioned but grants not

yet received should be mentioned in the

report.

iv. Dr Kothari pointed out that L & T’s

donation of Rs 40,000/- has not been

mentioned in the list of donations for

“Salim Ali’s India”. The Chairperson

clarified that the actual sums received upto

31st March 1996 were only mentioned in

the list.

Dr B F Chhapgar proposed and Mr Sunil

Zaveri seconded the adoption of the Annual

Report. It was so adopted.

AGENDA ITEM NO. 3:

CONSIDERATION AND ADOPTION OF

THE BALANCE SHEET AND STATEMENT

OF ACCOUNTS FOR THE YEAR ENDED

31ST MARCH 1996.

i . Mr Sunil Zaveri pointed out some donations

had been missed out and the Chairperson

stated that the same should be recorded with

apologies. It was also decided that where

commitments had been received in writing

but cash was to be received the same should

be mentioned as such.

Mr Zaveri stated that he was not in

agreement with the accounts as presented

and wishes to be absolved from

responsibility for the same.

ii. Points raised by Mr Zaveri and Mr Anish

Kapadia regarding discrepancies in the

balance sheet and accounts were noted and

the Honorary Treasurer replied that he

would do the needful.

iii. While answering Mr Manoj Karkhanis’s

query about how Mr Zaveri was questioning

the accounts when his name has come as

Honorary Treasurer in the Annual Report,

the Chaiperson explained that Mr Zaveri

was handling all accounts of the Society but

unfortunately he had to resign as his work

required him to go out of Bombay, and Mr

Haritwal had taken over as Honorary

Treasurer and finalised the accounts with

the Auditors.

iv. Regarding points raised by Mr Zaveri, the

Chairperson stated that the accounts were

finalised in consultation with the auditors

who had been auditing our accounts for the

last several years. The Chairperson

suggested that Mr Kapadia could sit with

Mr Zaveri and discuss the points.

v. Mr Sunil Zaveri answered to Mr Atul

Mathur that since he had not received a

reply either from the present Honorary

Treasurer or from the Auditors with whom

he had meetings, he had raised some points

but since the Chairperson had assured that

190

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

they will be dealt with, he did not wish to

pursue the matter at the AGM.

vi. There was considerable discussion on the

question of accepting the accounts in view

of the queries raised by Mr Sunil Zaveri.

Mr Nitin Jamdar, Dr R Reuben, Mr C D

Singh, Mr Ulhas Rane gave their opinion

on the advisability of accepting the accounts

as presented or requesting the Honorary

Treasurer to reconsider the presentation of

accounts. Finally after Mr Zaveri had

assured that there was no question of

misappropriation and that his disagreement

with the Honorary Treasurer and Auditors

was only on a matter of interpretation of

provisions relating to the presentation of

the accounts of a Charitable Trust, the

Chairperson requested the members of the

House to propose adoption of accounts. Col.

Sahani proposed and Mr Rane seconded

that the balance sheet and accounts be

adopted. The matter was put to vote and was

passed with 33 votes for and 1 1 votes against.

AGENDA ITME NO. 4:

APPOINTMENT OF AUDITORS FOR THE

YEAR 1.4.1996 TO 31.3.1997 AND FIXING

OF THEIR REMUNERATION.

It was proposed by Mr Sunil Zaveri and

seconded by Dr A M Bhagwat that M/s Habib &

Co., Chartered Accountants, Mumbai 400023,

be reappointed as the Auditors for the Society

for the year 1.4.1996 to 31.3.1997 on a total

remuneration of Rs 5000/- (Rupees five thousand

only).

It was so resolved.

AGENDA ITEM NO. 5:

TO CONSIDER REVISION/ ADDITIONS

TO THE RULES OF THE SOCIETY.

The Chairperson briefed the members

about the revision/additions to the rules and

informed that it would not be possible to take up

this issue in this meeting as the ED had decided

that it should go for referendum.

The Honorary Secretary gave a brief

resume of the status of Publications, Nature

Education, Conservation Education Project &

Centre, University Studies, Library, Research &

Collections (Projects), Salim Ali Birth Centenary

Celebrations and other activities of the Society.

The Honorary Treasurer gave a report on

the financial status of the Society and the need

to assure that the long term funds of the Society

of Rs 278 lakhs which are grossly under covered

by the investments and fixed assets of Rs 224

lakhs to be corrected speedily to secure long term

solvency of the Society. The Chairperson

appreciated the work done by the Honorary

Secretary and Honorary Treasurer.

On a query from Mr Parvez Cama, the

Chairperson advised the memebrs about the

change of Honorary Secretary.

Members appreciated the work done by Mr

B G Deshmukh as the President and also by the

outgoing office bearers, namely, Dr P R Saraiya

as the Vice President and Dr A M Bhagwat as

the Honorary Secretary.

AGENDA ITEM NO. 6:

ANY OTHER BUSINESS WITH THE

PERMISSION OF THE CHAIR.

Resolutions received:

i. from Mr Bittu Sahgal :

“Resolved that the BNHS should henceforth

be more pro-active on the conservation

front. If necessary, the Society should

examine the possibility of using legal

options to demand that the provisions of

the Wildlife (Protection) Act and the Forest

(Conservation) Act be enforced by various

States and the Centre”.

— Mrs Meera Deshpande was of the opinion

that once in two months we should have a

meeting between BNHS experts and Forest

Department, Policy makers, Jomalists and

thrash out the problems.

— The Chairperson gave the EC’s view and

read out the modified resolution as proposed

by the EC:

A.G.M. 1995-96 -PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

191

“Resolved that the BNHS should continue

to be active on the conservation front. If

necesssary, the Society should examine the

possibility of using or supporting legal

action to demand that the provisions of the

Wildlife (Protection) Act and the Forest

(Conservation) Act be enforced by various

States and Centre”.

Mrs Vijaya Deshmukh was of the opinion

that we should accept this resolution as the

Society’s collective thinking.

Maj. Madhav Mhaskar was of the opinion

that since we had scientists, active members

and volunteers, we should take matters to

court. He also expressed concern about the

Arunachal Pradesh deforestation and

encroachment at the Sanjay Gandhi

National Park.

Mr Suresh Sawant enquired about the

possibility of having a Sociologist at the

Society to measure the social impacts on

protected areas. The Chairperson stated

that the Society’ management is conscious

about this particular aspect and would do

so whenever funds permitted.

Amended resolution of the EC was

proposed for adoption and adopted nem con.

Resolution received from Mr Parvez Cama:

“Resolved that rules and procedures in the

Library that are discriminatory or derogatory

towards members or create unnecessary

difficulties for them should be abolished

immediately. All rules and procedures, old

and new, and for members and staff should

be written down and displayed on the Library

Notice Board. New rules, additions,

amendments or changes to any of the rules,

shuld be also written down and displayed on

the Notice Board with the signature of the

person or body making these above

mentioned rules, changes, amendments or

additions”.

(Proposed by Mr Parvez Cama & seconded

by Mr Phiroze Cama)

— The Chairperson read out the amended

resolution as proposed by the EC as follows:

“Resolved that all current rules and

procedures for library users should be

written down and displayed on the Library

Notice Board indicating the authority

making the rules/amendments to the rules”.

— Maj Mhaskar was of the opinion that this

kind of thing is a part of library

administration and there is no need to put

a resolution to which the Chairperson

answered that every member is entitled to

put up a resolution and it is to be dealt with

as per Society’s Byelaws.

— After considerable discussions about the

bag checking counter at the reception, the

Honorary Secretary clarified that it is an

administrative matter and for welfare of the

Society.

— While answering Mr Cama’s query

regarding filling up the form before

referring to books, the Chairperson

explained that this is just to get to know

how many people are referring to the

valuable books.

— Dr Reuben briefed the meeting about the

discussions they had with members

regarding library matters and informed the

idea behind starting slip system and bag

counter at the reception.

The Resolution as amended by the EC was

then adopted nem con.

The meeting terminated with a vote of

thanks to the Chair.

.

'

THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS

The Book of Indian Animals, by S.H. Prater, 4th edition (Reprint)

The Book of Indian Birds, by Salim Ali, 12th edition

A Pictorial Guide to the Birds of the Indian Subcontinent,

by Salim Ali & S. Dillon Ripley. (Reprint with corrections)

Checklist of the Birds of Maharashtra, by Humayun Abdulali, 2nd edition

The Book of Indian Reptiles, by J.C. Daniel

Some Beautiful Indian Trees, by E.Blatter and W. Millard

Conservation in Developing Countries: Problems and Prospects,

Edited by J.C. Daniel and J.S. Serrao

A Week with Elephants - Proceedings of the International Seminar on Asian Elephants,

Edited by J.C. Daniel and Hemant Datye

A Guide to the Cranes of India, by Prakash Gole

Salim Ali’s India, Edited by A. Kothari and B.F. Chhapgar

Illustrated Flora of Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan,

by V.P. Prasad, Daniel Mason, Joy E. Marburger & C.R. Ajith Kumar

The Book of Indian Trees, by K.C. Sahni

(Price to members Rs. 210)

(Price to members Rs. 296)

(Price to members Rs. 278)

Rs. 2

(Price to membersRs.162)

(Price to members Rs. 225)

(Price to members Rs. 300)

(Price to members Rs. 338)

(Price to members Rs. 67)

(Price to members Rs. 900)

(Price to members Rs. 525)

(Price to members Rs. 210)

Types of membership, fees and subscription for publications (As on April 1996)

Registered with the Registrar of Newspapers under RN 5685/57 ISSN 0006-6982

CONTENTS

ON A RESIDENT POPULATION OF THE GANGES RIVER DOLPHIN PLA TANISTA

GANGETICA IN THE KULSI RIVER (ASSAM) A TRIBUTARY OF

BRAHMAPUTRA {With two text-figures )

By R.S. Lai Mohan, S.C. Dey and S.P. Bairagi 1

BEHAVIOUR OF THE WHITEHEADED BABBLER TURDOJDES AFFINIS

JERDON ( With two text-figures)

By V.J. Zacharias and D.N. Mathew 8

POPULATION DYNAMICS OF A FEW DOMINANT PLANT SPECIES AROUND

INDUSTRIAL COMPLEXES IN WEST BENGAL, INDIA

By Amal Kumar Sahu and Sauris Panda 15

SIGNIFICANCE OF BIOMETRIC RATIOS AND BIOACOUSTIC ANALYSIS IN

AMPHIBIAN SYSTEMATICS {With one text-figure and one plate)

By Debjani Roy, Amarendra Sarma, Bijoylakshmi Borah and Bakordor W. Bannet .... 19

THE LIFE EXPECTANCY OF THE WILD PIG SUS SCROFA L. IN RUHUNA

NATIONAL PARK, SRI LANKA {With five text-figures and one plate)

By Kenneth R. Ashby ^nd Charles Santiapillai 33

BREEDING ECOLOGY OF COMMON MYNA ACRIDOTHERES TRISTIS WITH

SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE EFFECT OF SEASON AND HABITAT ON

REPRODUCTIVE VARIABLES {With three text-figures)

By Satwant K. Dhanda and Manjit S. Dhindsa 43

TAXONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE OF EPIPHALLUS IN SOME INDIAN

GRASSHOPPERS (ORTHOPTERA:ACRIDIDAE) (With five text-figures)

By Kharibam Meinodas and Shaikh Adam Shafee 57

LARGE HERONRIES IN KUTCH AND THE NESTING OF GLOSSY IBIS

PLEGADIS FALCINELLUS AT LUNA JHEEL, KUTCH, GUJARAT, INDIA

( With two text-figures)

By J.K. Tiwari and Asad R. Rahmani 67

HOST PLANT RANGE OF ARBOREAL NESTING RED ANTS IN

KANYAKUMARI DISTRICT OF TAMIL NADU (INDIA)

By V. Kumaresan 71

INTERSPECIFIC ASSOCIATION OF JACANAS {HYDROPHASIANUS

CHIRURGUS AND METOPIDIUS INDICUS) AND THE ROLE OF HABITAT

{With five text-figures)

By N.K. Ramachandran 76

NEW DESCRIPTIONS 87

REVIEWS 105

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 108

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 1 52

STATEMENT OF ACCOUNTS OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY ... 1 79

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING 188

Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Mumbai 400 103 and

published by J.C. Daniel for Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House,

Dr. Salim Ali Chowk, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023.

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY

NATURAL

HISTORY

Vol. 95, No. 2

August 1998

r

v

N

BOARD OF EDITORS

Editor

J.C. DANIEL

M.R. ALMEIDA

P.V. BOLE

M.K. CHANDRASHEKARAN

B.F. CHHAPGAR

B.V. DAVID

R. GADAGKAR

ANIL GORE

A.J.T. JOHNSINGH

AJITH KUMAR

A.R. RAHMANI

J.S. SAMANT

E.G. SILAS

J.S. SINGH

R. WHITAKER

Assistant Editor

GAYATRI WATTAL UGRA

J

INSTRUCTIONS TO CONTRIBUTORS

1 . Papers which have been published or have been offered for publication elsewhere

should not be submitted.

2. Papers should be submitted in duplicate, typed double space. Preferably an additional

copy should be submitted on a floppy diskette (3.5") using Word Star.

3. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where identification has

been authentically established by comparison of specimens actually collected.

4. Photographs for reproduction must be clear, with good contrast. Prints should be at

least 9 x 12 cm and on glossy glazed paper. Text-figures, line drawings and maps

should be in Indian ink, preferably on tracing paper. Maps and figures will not be

acceptable if labelled free hand.

5. References to literature should be placed at the end of the paper, alphabetically

arranged under author’s name, with the abridged titles of journals or periodicals in

italics and titles of books or papers in roman type, thus:

Aluri, Raju J.S. & C. Subha Reddi (1995): Ecology of the pollination in two cat-mint

species. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92(1): 63-66.

Prater, S.H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay Natural History Society,

Mumbai, pp. 35-48.

6. Each paper should be accompanied by an abstract, normally not exceeding 200

words, and 6-8 key words. Key Words should include the scientific names of important

species discussed.

7. 25 reprints will be supplied free of cost to authors of main articles. In the case of

new descriptions, reviews and miscellaneous notes, authors will be sent a fre<*

copy of the Journal.

8. The editors reserve the right, other things being equal, to publish a r mb6 -

contribution earlier than a non-member’s. )V;r

Hornbill House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Mumbai-400 023.

Editors,

Journal of the Bombay

Natural History Society

VOLUME 95 (2): AUGUST 1998

1

ite of Publication: 1-8-1998

CONTENTS

AVIFAUNA OF THE ANAIMALAI HILLS (WESTERN GHATS) OF SOUTHERN INDIA

( With thirty-two text-figures )

By Ragupathy Kannan 193

HABITAT, HUNTING AND CONSERVATION OF RUPICAPRINES IN MIZORAM,

NORTHEAST INDIA ( With one text-figure)

By Charudutt Mishra, T.R. Shankar Raman and A.J.T. Johnsingh 215

DIVERSITY IN THE FUNCTIONAL ORGANISATION OF THE MANDIBULAR

STYLETS OF ASSASSIN BUGS (HETEROPTERA: REDUVIIDAE)

( With eight plates)

By David Livingstone, C. Murugan and G. Ravichandran 221

NEW RECORD OF SIX MARINE FISHES FROM ST. MARTIN’S CORAL ISLAND,

BAY OF BENGAL, IN BANGLADESH

By Mohammad Ali Reza Khan 228

ACTIVITY PATTERNS AND TIME BUDGETS OF THE PHEASANT-TAILED

(HYDR OPHA SI A NUS CHIRURGUS) AND BRONZEWINGED (METOPIDIUS

INDICUS) JACANAS ( With four text-figures)

By Ramachandran, N.K. 234

POSTNATAL GROWTH OF CAPTIVE RHESUS MACAQUES (. MACACA MULATTA)

DURING THE FIRST MONTH OF LIFE (With ten text-figures)

By B. Maity and D.S. Rathore 246

FIRST RECORD OF CYPRINID FISH CHAGUNIUS NICHOLSI (MYERS) FROM INDIA

By W. Vishwanath, W. Manojkumar and K. Selim 255

MACROBENTHOS FROM THE MUDFLATS OF THANE CREEK, MAHARASHTRA,

INDIA ( With five text-figures)

By R.P. Athalye and K.S. Gokhale 258

TWELVE NEW SPECIES OF GENUS PACHYPROTASIS HARTIG (HYMENOPTERA,

TENTHREDINIDAE: TENTHREDININAE) FROM INDIA

( With fifty-eight text-figures)

By Malkiat S. Saini and V. Vasu 267

POPULATION ECOLOGY OF MIGRATORY WATERFOWL IN KEOLADEO

NATIONAL PARK, BHARATPUR ( With three text-figures)

By S. Bhupathy, V.S. Vijayan and R. Mathur 287

THE GENUS MACROCHELES LATREILLE (ACARINA: MACROCHELIDAE) IN INDIA 7

MORPHOLOGICAL VARIATIONS AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION j

(V. ’ five text-figures and one plate)

B ,vanjk Tvumar Roy 295

A TAXOi DM C ACCOUNT OF LUIS I A GAUD. (ORCHIDACEAE) FROM

BANGLADESH ( With four text-figures)

By Mokter Ahmed and M.K. Pasha 301

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW SPECIES OF MACROCENTRUS CURTIS (HYMENOPTERA: BRACONIDAE)

FROM INDIA ( With three text-figures)

By S.M. Kurhade and P.K. Nikam 307

A NEW GENUS OF ALLANTINAE FROM INDIA (HYMENOPTERA: SYMPHYTA:

TENTHREDINIDAE) ( With eighteen text-figures)

By Malkiat S. Saini and V. Vasu.... 310

A NEW SPECIES OF OPHIORRHIZA L. (RUBIACEAE) FROM KERALA, INDIA

( With six text-figures)

By A.E. Shanavas Khan, E.S. Santhosh Kumar and P. Pushpangadan 317

A NEW SPECIES OF CALANTHEK. BR (ORCHID ACEAE) FROM SIKKIM HIMALAYA

( With eight text-figures)

By S.Z. Lucksom 319

A NEW SPECIES OF SID A FROM AGRA, INDIA ( With six text-figures)

By S.C. Pandeya 322

REVIEWS

1 . ADVANCES IN FISH AND WILDLIFE ECOLOGY AND BIOLOGY

Reviewed by V.V. Singh 324

2. VERMICOLOGY

Reviewed by Naresh Chaturvedi x 324

3. IMPACT OF DISEASES AND INSECT PESTS IN TROPICAL FORESTS

Reviewed by Naresh Chaturvedi 325

4. FLORA OF MAHARASHTRA

Reviewed by S.K. Jain 325

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

MAMMALS

1 . Wolves in Panna in National Park

By T.R.K. Yoganand 327

2. Occurrence of the wolf Canis lupus pallipes

Linn, in Sidhi District, Madhya Pradesh

By M.K. Ranjitsinh 328

3 . The role of administration in extermination:

Fresh evidence on the cheetah (Acinonyx

jubatus) in India

By Mahesh Rangarajan 328

4. Anti-predatory response of the Indian giant

squirrel Ratufa indica to predation attempts

by the crested hawk-eagle Spizaetus cirrhatus

limnaetus

By Aparajita Datta 332

BIRDS

5. A record number of blacknecked grebe

Podiceps nigricollis from Gujarat

By B.M. Parasharya and Aeshita Mukherjee 335

6. On the occurrence of the lesser frigate bird

( Fregata minor) in Mumbai, India

By Kiran Srivastava and Nitin Jamdar 336

7. Cannibalism in woollynecked stork Ciconia

episcopus

By Farah Ishtiaq 337

8 . Indian shikra preying on short-nosed fruit bats

By Manoj Muni and Vithoba Hegde 338

9 . Sighting of red kite Milvus milvus at Ranikhet

By Rishad Naoroji and Carl D’Silva 339

1 0 . Attempted breeding of the blacknecked crane

Grus nigricollis Przevalski in North Sikkim

By Usha Ganguli-Lachungpa 341

11. The Bengal florican Eupodotis bengalensis

Gmelin 1789 in Dibang Valley District of

Arunachal Pradesh

By Anwaruddin Choudhury 342

1 2 . Sight record of the oriental bay owl ( Phodilus

badius ripleyi) in the Anaimalai hills,

Southern Western Ghats, India

By Divya C. Mudappa v 343

1 3 . Uneven sex ratio of the long-eared owl Asio

otus in Northern India

By Robert S.R. Williams

14. Nest usurpation in woodpeckers

By V. Santharam

1 5 . Speckled piculet Picumnus innominatus and

golden spectacled flycatcher-warbler

Seicercus burkii from Margalla Hills,

Pakistan

By Dave Gandy, Durwyn Liley and

Guy Thompson

16. Breeding of southern jungle myna

Acridotheres fuscus mahrattensis (Sykes) at

Karanja

By Saraswathy Unnithan and

G.V.K. Unnithan

1 7. Geckos as food of magpie robin

By Rajiv Saxena

1 8. Range extension of white wagtail Motacilla

alba leucopsis at Pocharam lake, Medak

district, Andhra Pradesh

By Aasheesh Pittie, M.S. Kulkami and

Rajeev Mathew

1 9 . White-eye ( Zosterops palpebrosa ) feeding the

chicks of paradise flycatcher ( Terpsiphone

paradisi)

By Raza H. Tehsin and Himalay Tehsin

REPTILES

20. Short tailed agama in southeast Rajasthan

By Rakesh Vyas and Himmat Singh

21. The breeding of the Indian rock python

{Python molurus ) in Mudumalai Wildlife

Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu

By N. Baskaran and K.S. Devadass

FISHES

22. Rainbow trout ( Salmo gairdnerii ) in

Anaimalai Hills, Western Ghats

By Raju Thomas K., Biju C.R. and

Ajithkumar C.R

23 . Sicyopterus griseus (Day) from Periyar River,

Kerala

By Biju C.R., Raju Thomas K. and

Ajithkumar C.R

24. A new record of Homaloptera modesta

(Vinciguerra): Cyprinidae from Manipur

By Keishing Selim and Waikhom Vishwanath

INSECTS

25 . Final instar larva of Ischnura aurora aurora

(Brauer) (Zygoptera: Coenagriidae)

By B. Suri Babu

26. Occurrence of beehole borer Xyleutes

leuconotus {Duomitus leuconotus) Walker,

Family Cossidae

By N aresh Chaturvedi 357

27. Nidification of three species of Scarabaeinae

(Coleoptera : Scarabaeidae) in Bangalore

By K. Veenakumari and G.K. Veeresh 358

28. Some comments on accuracy and clarity in

recording natural history observations

By Krushnamegh Kunte 360

29. Roosting habits of the Tailed Jay butterfly

Graphium agamemnon (Linnaeus) during the

rains

By Anish P. Andheria 362

OTHER INVERTEBRATES

30. Biological control of disease transmitting

freshwater leeches Hemiclepsis marginata

marginata (Muller) Annelida : Glossi-

phoniidae)

By S.K. Raut and T.C. Saha 363

31. On Chydorus faviformis Birge, 1893 from

West Bengal (Crustacea : Cladocera :

Chydoridae)

By K. Venkataraman and S.R. Das 364

3 2 . Incidence of isopod parasitism on gobiid fishes

By M.B. Raghunathan and K. Rema Devi ... 367

33. Occurrence of Alonella nana (Baird) and

Bosmina longirostris (O.F. Muller)

(Crustacea: Cladocera) in Sikkim Lakes

By K. Venkataraman 368

BOTANY

34. Alligator apple Annona glabra in the Andamans

By D.B. Singh, P. V. Sreekumar and

T.V.R.S. Sharma 370

35. Notes on two lesser known Aglaia (Meliaceae)

in Andaman Islands

By Marcel Tigga and P. V. Sreekumar 371

36. Crotalaria burhia Buch.-Ham (Fabaceae) —

A new record for Maharashtra

ByD.A. Patil 372

37. On the colours of the flowers of

Bauhinia variegata L. (Leguminosae :

Caesalpinioideae)

By S. Bandy opadhy ay 373

38. A new variety of Trichosanthes tricuspidata

Lour. (Cucurbitaceae) from India

By S. Mitra and S. Bandy opadhyay 374

39. A new record of Thrixspermum merguense

(Hook.f.) Kuntze (Orchidaceae) from Nicobar

Islands)

By Vinod Maina, P.S.N. Rao and B.K. Sinha 375

343

344

345

346

347

348

349

350

351

352

354

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are grateful to the Ministry of Science and Technology,

Govt, of India,

FOR FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE JOURNAL.

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY

August 1998 Voi 95 No. 2

AVIFAUNA OF THE ANAIMALAI HILLS (WESTERN GHATS) OF

SOUTHERN INDIA1

Ragupathy Kannan2

( With thirty-two text-figures)

Key words: Anaimalai Hills, Western Ghats, India, evergreen forest, birds, conservation.

Ornithological records obtained in the Anaimalai Hills during a 2-year period between 1991 and

1993 are presented. Information concerning nidification, seasonal occurrence and relative

abundance are furnished wherever possible. Historical comparisons are made and conservation

concerns raised for some species that are typical of the evergreen forest habitat. A total of 218

species were recorded, including 12 Western Ghats endemics. Some significant species not

noted in this period are also discussed. The quantitative information on relative abundance

presented herein will facilitate objective comparison with population trends in the future. It is

hoped that this account would: a. serve as a bedrock for the development of a more comprehensive

database of the avifauna of this unique, threatened physiographic area, and b. stimulate the

development of census programmes here and elsewhere in the Western Ghats for long-term

monitoring of forest bird populations.

Introduction and Study Area

The Anaimalais (Tamil: Anai=e lephant;

malai= hills) is a range of lofty mountains in the

southern Western Ghats of India, extending from

Coimbatore dist., western Tamil Nadu in the east,

to the southeastern fringes of the Nelliampathy

Hills of Kerala in the northwest. Southwards,

the Anaimalais are contiguous with and part of

the High Range and Kanan Devan mountains,

wherein lies Anaimudi, the tallest peak in

southern India (2695m) (Fig. 1). Ornithological

information from the Anaimalais is scarce,

largely because of the absence of any established

hill station resort in these hills. In contrast, the

'Accepted July, 1996.

department of Biology, Westark College,

P. O. Box 3649, Fort Smith, Arkansas 72913, U.S.A.

adjacent ranges of Palnis and Nilgiris have

historically been well covered by various

ornithologists and birdwatchers due to the

accessibility afforded by two major hill stations,

Kodaikanal and Uthagamandalam respectively.

Burg et al. ( 1 994), in their extensive bibliography

of Indian ornithology, cite more than ten articles

concerning the avifauna of Palnis and Nilgiris

which appeared in the Society’s Journal between

1877 and 1958. Even the adjacent Nelliampathy

Hills have been well surveyed, the bulk of the

work being that of Kinloch (1921, 1 923a and b),

who presented detailed accounts on the birds

recorded here over a 10-year period. Ali and

Ripley (1987) make numerous references to the

Palnis and Nilgiris, but mention the Anaimalais

scantily. Just one paper on the birds of

Anaimalais is cited in the bibliography of Burg

et al. (1994).

194

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

Fig. 1 : Southwestern section of the Indian peninsula showing the study area and its approximate

extent (shaded gray).

The little that is known specifically on the

avifauna of Anaimalai Hills stems mainly from

the collection expeditions of Ali (1935-37) arid

anecdotal notes made by Stonor (1946). Salim

Ali spent a few days in 1933 collecting birds in

three localities in the Anaimalais, during a

survey of the erstwhile princely states of

Travancore and Cochin. Stonor presented

observations based on a month-long stay in the

Parambikulam area in 1944. More recently,

Vijayan (1978) appended a short list of the birds

recorded in his general survey report of the

Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary, and Sugathan

(1981) surveyed the same area for the habitat of

Ceylon Frogmouth (Batrachostomus moniliger).

My own recent publications are cited where

relevant in this account.

This paper presents the first detailed and

systematic account of the avifauna of Anaimalai

hills, based on the analysis of bird records and

census data collected during a 2-year study, between

August 1991 and July 1993, in these hills. The

study area (Fig. 1) included the following localities,

which covered the entire altitudinal range in this

area — from foothills to high elevations.

(i) Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary,

Coimbatore dist., Tamil Nadu: The study was

based in Top Slip, a settlement 35 km by road

from Pollachi (Fig. 1). Top Slip, named so

because lumber was traditionally slipped from

the hilltops down to the plains during the colonial

era, has had a history of logging. However, some

of the evergreen forests in the area have been

protected from clear felling. Karian Shola, a

AVIFAUNA OF THE ANAIMALAI HILLS

195

patch of Southern Tropical Wet Evergreen

Forests (Champion and Seth 1968), that extends

right up to the settlement, has recently been

elevated to the status of National Park. Rainfall

varies heavily with altitude in the sanctuary. Top

Slip, located at an elevation of 750 m,

experienced a precipitation of 1464 and 1402 mm

for the years 1991 and 1992 respectively. The

current work focused on the evergreen forests

near Top Slip (Karian Shola, Anaigundi Shola,

Umayamalai and Varagaliar forests, which lie

between 750 and 1000 m).

Periodic bird surveys were carried out at

various elevations of the 1250 sq. km sanctuary.

The habitats and altitudes covered were: the scrub

vegetation at the foothills ( c 300 m), the

deciduous and bamboo forests of the lower slopes

(300-750 m), tea and coffee plantations and

scattered fragmented sholas (Puthuthottam and

Kadambarai) of the Valparai Plateau (1000-

1700m) (c 10°19’ N;76°58' E), and the montane,

elfin forests and grassy hills of the highlands

(Grass Hills, c. 1700-2200m).

(ii) Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary (235

km2) ( c 10°25' N;76°43' E), Kerala: Bird surveys

were carried out periodically in the lush

evergreen forests of Karimala Gopuram (peak

elevation: 1440 m), the Tunakadavu and Param-

bikulam Reservoirs and the mixed deciduous

forests that surround them, and in the southern

section of Karian Shola, which is part of the

Sungam Range of the sanctuary. For a detailed

description of Parambikulam, see Vijayan (1978)

and Sugathan (1981).

Surveys were also done sporadically in

two areas on the fringes of the Anaimalai hills:

the Sholayar forests (banks of the Sholayar

river), south of and contiguous with Parambi-

kulam; and the Chalakudy forests west of

Parambikulam, by the old and derelict Chala-

kudy-Parambikulam Forest Tramline (also

called the Cochin Forest Tramline — see Ali

(1935) and Vijayan (1978).

Wherever possible, quantitative informa-

tion is given on seasonal relative abundance

based on census data, which is important in the

face of the continuing destruction of mature

forests all over the Western Ghats, because it

provides an objective means with which future

trends in population and relative abundance can

be compared. A bird list is appended, with status

information for each species and the area(s)

where they were recorded. Some species that

are conspicuously absent from this list are also

discussed in a separate section. Because much

of the work focused around Top Slip, equal

coverage could not be extended to all the

elevations. However, it is hoped that this work

will serve as a foundation for the development

of a more comprehensive database for the

avifauna of this unique area.

Methods

Bird records were maintained in detail

during the daily field trips in the area.

Parameters noted included plumage details,

elevation, habitat, feeding, behaviour and

evidence of nesting (if any). Quantitative

information was gathered by conducting

censuses of forest birds along a 1 km line-

transect inside Karian Shola. Censuses were

done once a week in most months, with up to 10

counts in some months (average: 6.1 counts/

month; N=22 months). The transect started at

the edge of the evergreen forest behind Top Slip,

where there was a considerable amount of

secondary growth. Birds seen and/or heard

farther than approximately 100 m from the

transect were discounted, but this does not

necessarily imply that coverage of the transect

was thorough. Censuses were conducted in the

early morning hours, the exact time of study

varying with weather conditions. When inclement

weather conditions precluded a morning census,

the work was done in the evening.

The following three criteria were used to

determine relative abundance. Assignment of a

species to any of these criteria was made

exclusively by the number of records for that

species over a period of time.

196

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

common = Encountered daily in relatively

large numbers, more than 10 individuals/day.

Examples: Yellowbrowed bulbul, Hill Myna.

uncommon = Observed on most days in

relatively low numbers, 1-10 individuals/day,

although may be sporadically seen in larger

numbers. Examples: Great Pied Hornbill,

Crested Serpent Eagle.

rare = Encountered 1 5 times or less a year.

Infrequently encountered and usually found in

small numbers. Examples: Black Crested Baza,

Bay Owl.

Results and Discussion

A total of 218 species was recorded, 12 of

which are endemic to the Western Ghats (see

Appendix). Amongst the more significant

records was the rediscovery of the Bay Owl,

which constituted the second report of this

enigmatic species in the Western Ghats (see

species account). The census data yielded a

numerical idea of the seasonal relative abundance

of many forest birds — a visual display of the

patterns obtained is provided (Figs. 2-31), and

the patterns are discussed below in the species

accounts.

Selected species accounts

Most of the species covered in this section

are typical of the highly human-encroached

evergreen forest biotope and hence need careful

long-term monitoring into the future. For

scientific names, see Appendix. Dates are

provided wherever they may be significant.

Malay or Tiger Bittern: Rare. One record

of a solitary bird seen on 13.V.93 in the evergreen

forests of Karian Shola, by the Kerala-Tamil

Nadu border.

Black-crested Baza: Rare. Summary of

sight records: 10.i.92 single, Karian Shola;

20.xii.92, 2 1 .xii.92, 4 or 5 individuals and a pair,

respectively, Karian Shola; 6.i.93, reliably

reported from Varagaliar Shola; 6.i.93-9.i.93 a

pair seen everyday in Karian Shola; 22.i.93, one

seen at Karian Shola - This bird had chestnut

coloration on breast band and back, suggesting

that it belonged to the Kerala race A. 1. leuphotes.

(No inferences could be made on racial identity

of the birds seen earlier).

Crested Goshawk: Rare. A pair seen

24.i.93 in a fluttering circular display flight over

the forests of Akkamalai (1727 m) en route to

Grass Hills, past the Valparai plateau. Upper

tail coverts very white, and this helped in its

identification (see King et al 1983). One bird

seen from within 5 m, perched on ground in

Karian Shola 5.iii.93.

Besra Sparrow-Hawk: Rare. Four sight

records: 5.xi.92 and 22.i.93, Karian Shola;

26. xii.92 Chalakudy; 27.i.93, Anaigundi Shola.

Crested Hawk-Eagle: Uncommon. Noted

regularly all year. Usually seen perched on

roadside trees by the Pollachi-Top Sliu hill road.

Observed on ground devouring a freshly

killed Grey Jungle-fowl in October 92.

Rufousbellied Hawk-Eagle: Rare. Seen

4 times: 25.X.91, 7.x. 92, and 13.ii.93 over Karian

Shola; 20.xii.92 over deciduous forests near Top

Slip. Constantly harried by crows, more so than

other raptors, which was sometimes a clue to its

identity from afar.

Greyheaded Fishing Eagle: Rare. Seen

across the state border by Tunakadavu lake (c.

1 1 km by road SW of Top Slip) 19.X.91. Adult

seen carrying nest material (twigs) at

Manampalli 23.i.93.

Osprey: Rare. Winter visitor. Seen at

Tunakadavu lake October and December 92.

Also, one seen on 20.i.93 over foothills scrub.

Shaheen Falcon: Rare. Possibly breeds on

the steep cliffs by Pollachi-Top Slip road. One

bird seen there 7.xii.92; A pair seen indulging

in spectacular midair courtship over foothills

scrub 16.xii.92.

Jungle Bush Quail: Rare. Possibly

commoner than they appear. Seen once in

December 91 on ground in open deciduous forest

mixed with bamboo.

Red Spurfowl: Uncommon. Usually seen

A VI FA UNA OF THE ANAIMALAI HILLS

197

Figs. 2-5: Monthly mean relative abundances of four species of forest birds along a 1-km transect

through the evergreen forests of Karian Shola, Top Slip, between October 1991 and July 1993. X-axis

(abscissa) represents months; Y-axis (ordinate) represents mean number of encounters per kilometre.

in forest clearings. A precocial chick (with a

conspicuous yellow mid-dorsal stripe) was seen

with a parent on 9.iii.93.

Grey Junglefowl: Common. Breeding

resident. Usually 1-2 (x^= 1.3/km; N=136 counts)

birds encountered in Karian Shola in the census

trail (see Fig. 2).

Greyfronted Green Pigeon: Common

(x=2.08/km;N=136 counts). Two nests found in

January 93. Local movements dictated largely

by fruiting of fig trees, hence the spurt in

abundance in certain months (Fig. 3).

Nilgiri Woodpigeon: Rare. Seen twice,

single birds on both occasions: 7.xi.91, Karian

Shola; and January 93 in mixed bamboo jungle

near Top Slip settlement. Ali and Ripley (1987)

report it from the Anaimalais, and indicate its

presence at all elevations. Judging subjectively

from their account, it appears that this species has

declined in numbers. Certainly a species that needs

close scrutiny of conservation biologists.

Imperial Pigeon: Common. A year-round

resident with fairly stable, albeit thin local

numbers (x=l.l/km;N=136 counts) (Fig. 4). The

big peak evidenced in September 92 was due to

the fruiting of a large fig tree by the census trail.

Emerald Dove: Status varies with season

(see Fig. 5). Uncommon from monsoon through

the winter season (June-December); Rare or

absent in the drier months of spring and summer

(January to May). Nest with 2 pale brown eggs

incubated by female seen in evergreen forest

27.X.92. Possibly migrates altitudinally to wetter

regions after breeding. Returns at the onset of

pre-monsoon showers in late May (sighted

immediately after pre-monsoon showers on

21.V.93 after a long absence).

Blossom-headed Parakeet: Status varies

198

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

Figs. 6-7: Monthly mean relative abundances of two species of parakeets along a 1-km transect

through the evergreen forests of Karian Shola, Top Slip, between October 1991 and July 1993. X-axis

(abscissa) represents months; Y-axis (ordinate) represents mean number of encounters per kilometre.

seasonally. Common at all times except

immediately before and during the southwest

monsoon (April-September), during which it is

rare or absent (see Fig. 6). It may be an

altitudinal migrant with local movements

obviously influenced by the monsoon.

Blue- winged Parakeet: Common. Usually

4-5 individuals encountered in the census trail

all year (x=4.8/km;N=136 counts), but occasional

peaks of up to 14 individuals evident due to

flowering of Bombax and other forest flowering

trees (Fig. 7).

Malabar Lorikeet: Common (x=2. 08/km;

N= 1 36 counts). Local movements influenced by

flowering of trees, and hence the fluctuation in

local abundance (Fig. 8).

Pied Crested Cuckoo: Rare. Two records:

June 92, foothills scrub; 12.V.93, Top Slip.

Evidently a southwest monsoon visitor as in

many other parts of India (Ali and Ripley 1987,

Khachar 1989).

Large Hawk-Cuckoo: Rare. Single adult

seen 26.X.91 Karian Shola. Coloration pattern

was distinctive enough for identification. Hence,

the doubt expressed by Ali and Ripley (1987) on

reliability of winter sight records is probably

unwarranted, at least for adult birds.

Bay Banded Cuckoo: Status unclear.

Recorded mostly aurally between February and

May 92 and 93. Song often heard during this

time. Evidence supports Ali and Ripley’s (1987)

contention that the status is difficult to ascertain

because of the bird’s unobtrusiveness in the

nonbreeding season.

Sirkeer Cuckoo: Rare. Noted twice:

1 6.i.93 in the scrubby, rocky slopes downhill from

Top Slip; 20.i.93 in foothills scrub. Ali (1935)

and Kinloch (1921, 1923) did not record this

species in their surveys of the Anaimalais and

Nelliampathies respectively. There is no record

of its occurrence in the Palni Hills either.

Bay Owl: Rare. Recorded twice in Karian

Fig. 8: Monthly mean relative abundance of

Malabar lorikeet along a 1-km transect through

the evergreen forests of Karian Shola, Top Slip,

between October 1991 and July 1993. X-axis

(abscissa) represents months; Y-axis (ordinate)

represents mean number of encounters per

kilometre.

AVIFAUNA OF THE ANAIMALAI HILLS

199

Shola, on Kerala and Tamil Nadu sides of the

border, on 14.ii.92 and 6.iv.92 respectively. The

bird was photographed at daytime as it perched

asleep on a low branch in deep evergreen forest.

This was a re-discovery of the species in southern

India, following the first report by Hussain and

Khan (1978) in the Nelliampathies. See Kannan

(1993a) for more details and discussion.

Scops Owl: Status unclear. The familiar,

monotonous, uk-ruku calls heard often at nights

around Top Slip. One bird seen calling too,

confirming its identification. This suggests that

the call of the peninsular Indian race may be the

same as that described for the north Indian race

(see Ali and Ripley 1987).

Forest Eagle Owl: Rare. Perhaps

commoner and overlooked due to nocturnal

habits and deep forest habitat. Seen occasionally

in Karian Shola in daytime, perched high up in

the canopy and often mobbed by grey hombills

and drongos. Once seen feeding on a giant

squirrel (Kannan 1994c).

Brown Fish Owl: Rare. May be commoner

than it appears for reasons cited above. Seen

often (same pair/individual?) by the water hole

opposite Karian Shola watch tower.

Brown Hawk-Owl: Uncommon. The

repetitive, soft oo-uk calls heard almost every

night around Top Slip, more so from late

December through May, hence probably also

breeds in the area. Also, heard at Sholayar.

Ceylon Frogmouth: Rare. Seven records

from evergreen and open bamboo forests. These

constitute the first record of this species from

Tamil Nadu. For details see Kannan (1993c,

1994b). Vijayan (1978) included this species in

his Parambikulam list; Sugathan (1981) noted

it in Parambikulam during his overall survey of

its habitat.

Great Eared Nightjar: Rare, but perhaps

commoner. The distinctive whistling vee-veeeu

calls heard often on moonlit nights January

through April inside deep evergreen forests.

Flushed occasionally from ground at daytime in

several evergreen forest patches (Karian Shola,

Varagaliar, Karimala Gopuram, Vengoli). Heard

also by the Sholayar river.

Indian Jungle Nightjar: Presumably rare.

The unmistakable chuckoo-chuckoo-chuckoo call

heard near Top Slip twice: 13.ii.93 and 29.V.93,

both at dusk from bamboo-clad forested valleys.

Long-tailed Nightjar: Uncommon. Heard

almost everyday from dusk through moonlit

nights in November-January. Two calls recorded:

the commonest call was a loud, shrill Chowk!

(or Chaunk) repeated often through the night.

A bird that was seen making this call at Top Slip

had typical nightjar features: white on throat,

tail and wings (the last seen flashing at flight).

The second call was a soft druk-druk, druk-druk

etc, of the quality of a frog’s, usually followed by

the commoner call.

Indian Edible-nest Swiftlet: Uncommon.

Seen in small parties flying around cliffs and

above shola forests at Top Slip and at higher

elevations (Grass Hills). Nowhere was there

evidence of the huge colonies reported by Ali

and Ripley (1987).

Large Brownthroated Spinetail Swift:

Common. Seen every evening as hordes of

individuals fly at top speed in a southwesterly

direction over Top Slip towards some roosting

site. A few individuals occasionally seen flying

in the opposite direction early in the mornings,

suggesting that the birds probably have a

circuitous route.

Whiterumped Spinetail: Rare. Small

numbers observed flying in mixed flocks off cliffs

and over evergreen forest clearings. Ali (1935)

recorded it in Parambikulam, and indicated that

the species is uncommon overall in the southern

Western Ghats.

Alpine Swift: Rare. One seen on 4.X.91,

6 seen on 6.viii.92 and 2 seen on 23.X.92 near

Top Slip.

Malabar Trogon: Uncommon. Most days

recorded aurally. Individuals or in loose pairs,

widely dispersed in the evergreen forest (x= 0.2/

km; N=136 counts), often difficult to find

(Fig. 9). Occasionally seen in mixed hunting

200

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

Figs. 9: Monthly mean relative abundance of

Malabar trogon along a 1-km transect through the

evergreen forests of Karian Shola, Top Slip,

between October 1991 and July 1993. X-axis

(abscissa) represents months; Y-axis (ordinate)

represents mean number of encounters per

kilometre.

parties. Signs of nesting detected in February 92

when a male was flushed from a hole in a dead

stump in deep evergreen forest. Noted also at

Kadambarai Shola (Valparai Plateau) and

Chalakudy forests.

Bluebearded Bee-Eater: Rare. Nests in

steep earthern banks flanking hill roads.

Excavating parents were often flushed by passing

vehicles in December 92. Nests are active by

January. Four nests discovered. Seen rarely

outside of breeding season, perhaps owing to its

sluggishness. Most sightings in open bamboo

and deciduous forests. Sometimes seen in

evergreen forest edges and clearings.

Broadbilled Roller: Uncommon. Singly

or in pairs seen sporadically, in clearings amidst

evergreen forest. Curiously no records between

December 91 and March 92, and also during the

southwest monsoon (June- August) of both years,

suggesting some local movements.

Malabar Grey Hornbill: Common.

Breeding resident of evergreen and moist

deciduous forests. Average of 4.1 birds

encountered per km in Karian Shola (N=136

counts), with occasional peaks caused by the

influx of individuals attracted to fruiting fig trees

(Fig. 10). For its nesting habitat ecology in

the Anaimalais, see Mudappa and Kannan

(1996).

Great Pied Hornbill: Uncommon.

Breeding resident and locally nomadic. Noted

erratically in census trail (Fig. 11). Population

in the Top Slip area estimated around 35 birds

for most of the year. For details on local status,

ecology and conservation issues, see Kannan

(1993b, 1994a, 1997). Recorded nesting also at

Chalakudy and Sholayar. Nest predation by

Kadar tribals widespread in Kerala, especially

in Chalakudy forests.

Small Green Barbet: Common. As in

Figs. 10-11: Monthly mean relative abundances of two species of hombills along a 1-km transect

through the evergreen forests of Karian Shola, Top Slip, between October 1991 and July 1993. X-axis

(abscissa) represents months; Y-axis (ordinate) represents mean number of encounters per kilometre.

AVIFAUNA OF THE ANAIMALAl HILLS

201

Figs. 12-15: Monthly mean relative abundances of four species of forest birds along a 1-km transect

through the evergreen forests of Karian Shola, Top Slip, between October 1991 and July 1993. X-axis

(abscissa) represents months; Y-axis (ordinate) represents mean number of encounters per kilometre.

many frugivores, local abundance fluctuates

widely with respect to the fruiting of figs and

other forest fruits (Fig. 12). More vocalisation

in summer may partly account for increased

frequency of encounters.

Crimsonthroated Barbet: Common

(x=4.3/km; N=136 counts). As in the previous

case, wide variations evident in local numbers

(Fig. 13), but again, summer census figures may

be at least partially biased and inflated by the

increased vocalisation.

Rufous Woodpecker: Rare. Seen once,

27.iv.92, in mixed bamboo forests near Top

Slip.

Speckled Piculet: Status unknown. Two

records, both at high elevations: 29.x. 92,

Puthuthottam Estate near Valparai town; 12.V.92,

evergreen forests of Akkamalai (1700 m) enroute

to Grass Hills.

Indian Great Black Woodpecker:

Uncommon. Breeding resident. Found in both

evergreen and moist deciduous forests. Active

nest discovered February 93 in Karian Shola.

Heartspotted Woodpecker: Uncommon.

Occurs in low numbers in evergreen forests (Fig.

14). Adult seen feeding fledged chick 21. v. 92.

Indian Pitta: Rare in Top Slip. Winter

visitor. Maybe commoner in lowlands. Heard

once each in October 91 and October 92 in Top

Slip, presumably on autumn migration; also

heard several evenings in January 93 around Top

Slip; recorded roosting amongst tea gardens in

Valparai; one sighting in the foothills scrub,

January 93.

House Swallow: Rare(?) Seen only in

Grass Hills. Breeds by the Konalar river.

Blacknaped Oriole: Rare. Winter visitor.

Seen in evergreen and mixed forests a few times

between January and March 93.

Haircrested Drongo: Rare. Maybe

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

1.4

1.2

1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0

19. GREYHEADED BULBUL

/

ONDJ FMAMJ JASONDJ FMAMJ J

Figs. 16-19: Monthly mean relative abundances of four species of forest birds along a 1-km transect

through the evergreen forests of Karian Shola, Top Slip, between October 1991 and July 1993. X-axis

(abscissa) represents months; Y-axis (ordinate) represents mean number of encounters per kilometre.

commoner. Seen a few times in January 93 on

flowering Aero carpus trees in Karian Shola.

Greater Racket-tailed Drongo: Common.

Densities remain more or less steady throughout

the year (x= 1.8 8/km; N=136 counts, Fig. 15) in

evergreen forest. Apparently very territorial.

Pugnacious, often seen mobbing hombills and

other birds larger than its size.

Jungle Myna: Common. Occurs above

c 900m. Absent in Top Slip and in foothills.

Common in Valparai plateau past Attakatti. Not

seen in Akkamalai (1700 m) or Grass Hills.

Hill Myna. Common. Recorded in good

numbers in census trail (x=6.8/km; N=136

counts, Fig. 16). Absent at times, suggesting

some wandering. Despite its commonality, may

warrant monitoring in the wake of its growing

popularity as a cage bird in Coimbatore dist.

Whitebellied Treepie: Common. Between

1-2 (x=1.5/km; N=136 counts) individuals

counted regularly in the census trail (Fig. 17).

Adult observed feeding fledged chick in summer

92. Observed in moist deciduous and evergreen

forests from about 600 to 800m.

Fairy Bluebird: Common. Usually a pair

seen per km (x=l. 25/km; N=136 counts) in

appropriate habitat (Fig. 18), but numbers vary

in accordance with fruiting of figs and other trees.

Greyheaded Bulbul: Rare. This Western

Ghats endemic was recorded in small numbers

only during the rainy season between late May

and November (Fig. 19). More often heard than

seen. The harsh chrweet call is somewhat

reminiscent of that of the Bluethroat ( Erithacus

svecicus), and is often the only cue to its presence.

Difficult to observe owing to seclusive habits and

thick undergrowth habitat. This data suggests

that the species could be a local migrant with

AVIFAUNA OF THE AN AIM ALAI HILLS

203

regular routes mediated by the monsoons, as in

Emerald Dove (Fig. 5). At least 10 birds noted

in a riverine patch of forest by the old tramline

in Chalakudy forests, 26.xii.92.

Yellowthroated Bulbul: Rare. A pair seen

once by the Pollachi-Valparai road, 28 kms from

Pollachi, 12.V.92 (Kannan 1992). The spot is

just above Aliyar Dam. The birds were seen on

small trees by a roadside waterfall. Not seen

there in subsequent searches. Ali and Ripley

(1987) mention an 1886 record of Davison’s

from the Anaimalais. The status of this species

is of interest considering its restricted distribution

in peninsular India. The extensive removal of

hill scrub (its prime habitat) due to quarrying

and fuel wood collection elsewhere in its range,

I have observed, is cause for concern.

Rubythroated Bulbul: Uncommon.

Partial to forest edge habitat. In very small

numbers at forest edges, more or less all year

(Fig. 20). Has a particular preference for Lantana

berries, which attract adjoining populations of

this species.

Yellowbrowed Bulbul: Common.

Between 5-14 birds seen regularly on census trail

(x= 10.4/km; N=136 counts, Fig. 21). The

relatively steady seasonal abundance curve is

suggestive of the sedentary nature of the species.

Nests from January-May. Stonor (1946) too

Fig. 22: Monthly mean relative abundance of

Scimitar babbler along a 1-km transect through the

evergreen forests of Karian Shola, Top Slip,

between October 1991 and July 1993. X-axis

(abscissa) represents months;

Y-axis (ordinate) represents mean number of

encounters per kilometre.

found it common in the area.

Black Bulbul: Common in the highlands

beyond c 1000 m. Uncommon in Top Slip area,

and rare in the foothills. Below 1000 m, the

birds were seen mainly at Eucalyptus blooms

(November-December), to which they show

a particular preference. Altitudinal move-

ments obviously governed by flowering of

trees.

Slatyheaded Scimitar Babbler:

Figs. 20-21: Monthly mean relative abundances of two species of bulbuls along a 1-km transect

through the evergreen forests of Karian Shola, Top Slip, between October 1991 and July 1993. X-axis

(abscissa) represents months; Y-axis (ordinate) represents mean number of encounters per kilometre

204

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

23. WHITEBELLIED BLUE FLYCATCHER

/w

zA

ONOJ FMAMJ JASONDJ FMAMJ J

Figs. 23-24: Monthly mean relative abundances of two species of forest birds along a 1-km transect through

the evergreen forests of Karian Shola, Top Slip, between October 1991 and July 1993. X-axis (abscissa)

represents months; Y-axis (ordinate) represents mean number of encounters per kilometre.

Common. Difficult to see owing to dense habitat

and shy habits, but often heard. Sporadically

recorded at the census trail, mostly in the

secondary growth at the edge (Fig. 22). Recorded

around Top Slip and at higher elevations (Grass

Hills). Rare or absent in the foothills.

Rufousbellied Babbler: Rare, but perhaps

more common than they appear, in the foothills

scrub and deciduous forests. A flock once seen

near Top Slip on 21.V.93.

Wynaad Laughing Thrush: Uncommon.

Large parties of 1 5-30 individuals seen erratically

in the secondary growth and bamboo forests

around Top Slip. Disappears for a few months

only to reappear in big flocks for a few days before

vanishing again. Apparently nomadic, with no

clear seasonal movement patterns. Parent seen

feeding a begging, fledged chick on 8.iii.93.

Replaced by the Whitebreasted Laughing Thrush

in higher elevations.

Whitebreasted Laughing Thrush:

Uncommon above 1400m. Absent at lower

elevations. Seen from about Kavarakkal, 14kms

from Valparai upwards through Grass Hills.

Brownbreasted Flycatcher: Rare. Seen

thrice, in winter: 2.xi.91, 12.xii.92 and 18.ii.93,

all in Karian Shola.

Black-and-Orange Flycatcher: Rare.

One male seen in Kadamparai Shola (altitude:

1355m, off 36th hair-pin bend in the Pollachi-

Valparai road, 11 kms from Valparai). Not

recorded elsewhere despite careful searches.

Whitebellied Blue Flycatcher: Un-

common. Occurs all year in low densities in

evergreen forests (Fig. 23). Easier heard than

seen. ^

Broadtailed Grass Warbler: Rare. Two

pairs seen and heard singing continuously in

Grass Hills, 1 l.v.92. The mouth, which can be

seen while singing, is distinctly black , as

mentioned under museum diagnosis by Ali afid

Ripley (1987). Not recorded in the same area in

February 93 despite intensive search, suggesting

that the species can be detected easily only while

it sings. Song is similar to that described by

Nichols (1937). Ali and Ripley (1987) indicate

that the species is “on the whole rather scarce”.

Requires monitoring.

Thickbilled Warbler: Rare. Two records:

Two seen in brush by Parambikulam lake on

13.iv.92; one near Top Slip on 13.xii.92. On

both occasions, the bright orange mouth was

conspicuous.

Tickell’s Leaf Warbler: Common.

Regular member of mixed hunting flocks in

winter at Kadambarai Shola (1355m). Not

recorded at Top Slip.

Largebilled Warbler: Common. Winter

visitor. Heard more often than seen, in evergreen

forest undergrowth. 2-5 individuals usually

A VIFAUNA OF THE ANAIMALAI HILLS

205

Fig. 25: Monthly mean relative abundance of Dull

green leaf-warbler along a 1 -km transect through

the evergreen forests of Karian Shola, Top Slip,

between October 1991 and July 1993. X-axis

(abscissa) represents months; Y-axis (ordinate)

represents mean number of encounters per

kilometre.

recorded in a 1-km walk through appropriate

habitat (Fig. 24). The average number of birds

encountered between September and April of 92-

93 was 2.3/km (N=33 counts). The distinctive,

5 -noted song heard occasionally in October and

April, i.e., immediately after autumn migration,

and before spring migration.

Dull Green Leaf Warbler: Common.

Occurs at relatively high densities in winter in

evergreen forest (Fig. 25). Between 5-10

individuals recorded per km (average for

October- April 92-93 was 5.5 birds/km, N=29

counts). Wintering densities estimated at 2-3

birds/hectare elsewhere in the Western Ghats

(Madhusudan Katti, pers. comm.)

Large Crowned Leaf Warbler: Common

winter visitor to the higher altitudes (Valparai

Plateau). 10-15 birds seen invariably foraging

with mixed hunting flocks. Recorded in

Kadambarai Shola and Akkamalai forests.

Uncommon in Top Slip forests, where it was seen

a few times in January-February 93.

Blue Chat: Rare. A pair seen in mixed

bamboo forests near Top Slip on 8.iii.93.

Curiously, not recorded at higher altitudes

despite intensive searches for this species,

possibly overlooked.

Blueheaded Rock Thrush: Rare. Winter

visitor. Two records, both female, near Top Slip:

27.i.93 and 28.iii.93.

Malabar Whistling Thrush: Common.

Very vocal, thus easily detectable during the onset

of southwest monsoon (June), which probably

accounts for the peaks in relative abundance

(Fig. 26).

Whitethroated Ground Thrush:

Common. Not easily recorded during the

breeding season in May-September, when the

birds are seclusive (Fig. 27). Courtship display

Figs. 26-27: Monthly mean relative abundances of two species of thrushes along a 1-km transect through

the evergreen forests of Karian Shola, Top Slip, between October 1991 and July 1993. X-axis (abscissa)

represents months; Y-axis (ordinate) represents mean number of encounters per kilometre.

206

JOURNAL, BOMBA Y NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

MAMJ JASONDJ FMAMJJ ONDJ FMAMJ JASONDJFMAMJ J

Figs. 28-31 : Monthly mean relative abundances of four species of forest birds along a 1-km transect through

the evergreen forests of Karian Shola, Top Slip, between October 1991 and July 1993. X-axis (abscissa)

represents months; Y-axis (ordinate) represents mean number of encounters per kilometre.

observed on 2.iii.92: “Male sits bolt upright near

female, head bowed, bill pointing directly down,

wings drooping, uttering an endless delightful

series of warbling chirruping notes... same display

and vocalisations in progress at same site 1.25

hours later” (Author’s field notes). This is almost

the same sequence described by Betts, as cited

in Ali and Ripley (1987).

Nilgiri, or Smallbilled, Thrush; Rare.

Seen once, 23 .x. 1 99 1 in Karian Shola. Seen here

in January 1988 by some competent birders

(J.N.Prasad and S. Karthik, pers. comm.). Ali

and Ripley (1987) state that this species is

uncommon, and place its altitudinal range at 600-

2 100 m in these hills. The fact that it was noted

just once despite specific and careful scrutiny at

various elevations in the appropriate habitat is

intriguing and a cause for concern.

Blackbird: Rare. Maybe commoner at

higher elevations, but seen only in the first

(1 l.v.92) of the two Grass Hills surveys. Noted

twice in the Top Slip area, November 91 and

December 92, both sightings in evergreen and

mixed deciduous forests.

Nilgiri Pipit: Common. Only in Grass

Hills. Call: a distinctive, soft sink.... sink, hitherto

unrecorded in the literature (see Ali and Ripley

1987). Commonly heard in May 92, in the

middle of the breeding season.

Forest Wagtail: Uncommon. Winter

visitor (September-March). Seen in very small

numbers inside evergreen forests (Fig. 28) around

Top Slip.

Nilgiri, or Plaincoloured, Flowerpecker:

Common. Encountered regularly (Fig. 29) in

evergreen forests (x=1.6; N=136 counts) and in

mixed forests. Almost always noted in large

trees with clumps of mistletoe. Nests discovered

AVIFAUNA OF THE ANAIMALAI HILLS

207

September 91 and February 92 in Top Slip.

Small Sunbird: Common (x=2. 07/km;

N=136 counts). Fluctuation in local abundance

probably synchronised with flower-ing of forest

vegetation (Fig. 30). Nests discovered in Karian

Shola and in Kadambarai January 93.

Little Spiderhunter: Common. Year-

round denizen of evergreen forests (Fig. 31), with

local movements probably governed by flowering

phenologies. Many signs of nesting evident in

the summer months (February-May).

White-eye: Common above c 1000 m; Rare

in Top Slip, where a flock was seen once, 20.ix.92.

Rufousbellied Munia: Uncommon. Seen

in evergreen forest clearings off and on,

suggesting local movements. Occurs from about

750 m up to 1350 m (Kadambarai). Not recorded

in Grass Hills.

Common Rosefinch: Rare. Winter visitor.

Flock of 4-5 birds, mostly brown, one pink-

plumaged, seen in Karian Shola from 7-9 January

93.

Significant species that were not recorded

DESPITE CAREFUL SEARCHES

Legge’s Baza Aviceda jerdoni : This forest

raptor has always been considered a rare resident

of evergreen forests soutn of c 12° N latitude,

between 150 and 900 m altitude (Ali and Ripley

1987). The fact that it was unrecorded in these

two years, highlights its rare status. With much

of its optimal habitat having been destroyed in

the past two decades, the species may be

threatened. A comprehensive survey for this

forest raptor is necessary throughout the Ghats

to ascertain its current status and conservation

issues.

Malabar Pied Hornbill Anthracoceros

coronatus : Kinloch (1921) recorded this species

as “very common” in the Nelliampathies.

Sivaprasad (pers. comm.) reported seeing it in

the Nelliampathies in the 1990’s. Sugathan

(pers. comm.) netted and banded an individual

in Parambikulam. The undoubted scarcity of the

species in the Anaimalais can only be explained

by its preference to moister facies than those

available in the rainshadow areas of the east.

Nevertheless, the species should be monitored

carefully owing to its seemingly increasing

scarcity.

Fantail Warbler Cisticola exilis : Ali and

Ripley (1987) record this species as a “common

resident” in the southern hills “above 900 m”.

Intensive hunts in several localities with

appropriate grassy habitat above 900 m

(Pandaravarai, Umayamalai, Vengoli, Pamban

Malai, Kozhumbu Malai, Karimala Gopuram)

proved futile. Grass Hills (c. 2200 m), with its

vast expanse of grassy undulating terrain seems

its ideal habitat. Also, Perunkundru (c 1500 m),

a grass covered peak known for its Nilgiri Tahr,

should provide excellent haunts for this warbler.

Whitebellied Shortwing Brachypteryx

major. Ali and Ripley (1987) indicate that there

are two races of this shortwing in south India,

separated by the Palghat Gap. The Grass Hills

area, with its abundant dense sholas, should offer

optimal habitat for the whitebellied race ( B . m.

albiventris). Presumably, this bird was

overlooked during this project owing to its shy

and secretive habits. All the surveys to the

Valparai Plateau and Grass Hills failed to yield

a sighting. There are two specimens in the BNHS

collection, both obtained above 1800 m in the

Palni Hills (Abdulali 1987).

Woodcock Scolopax rusticola : The

absence of any sighting of this species in two

consecutive winters in ostensibly appropriate

country should be considered noteworthy in the

light of the statement of Ali and Ripley (1987)

more than 20 years ago that “the clearing away

of forests for potato and tea cultivation in the

last forty years has. progressively reduced its

abundance in many of its best known habitats”.

With the continuing destruction of forests in the

south Indian hills, it is possible that the situation,

of concern as it may have been then, has only

deteriorated since. The phasing out of woodcock

hunting as a sport, which was popular during

the colonial era, has deprived us of an important

208

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

source of anecdotal information regarding

population trends. This calls for an increased

surveillance of wintering populations of this and

other species of birds in peninsular India.

Conclusions

Ever since colonial pioneers like Carver Marsh

opened up the Anaimalais for tea plantations and

lumbering operations in the 1800s, vast areas

have been denuded or selectively logged. The

findings in this study suggest that despite this

severe encroachment, avifaunal species

composition was not affected drastically in the

Anaimalais. No clear case of local bird extinction

could be alleged by comparison with the sketchy

historical records. This type of avian resilience

has been reported by earlier studies from

elsewhere in the Western Ghats (Daniels et al.

1990). However, the situation is unstable because

destruction continues unabated in the face of

increasing need for tea and timber revenue. Over

500 mature rainforest trees were felled in 1992

in Valparai Plateau (Puthuthottam Estate) despite

strong protests from environmental groups, and

plans are afoot to increase the tea area by 3,350

ha. The lack of quantitative historical data on

bird abundance precluded an assessment of the

impact of human activities on bird numbers.

Since continual human encroachment seems

inevitable, there is an urgent need to monitor

forest bird populations. It is hoped that this

report would instigate the establishment of bird

census programmes specifically to monitor forest

birds in the Anaimalai Hills and elsewhere in

the Western Ghats.

Acknowledgements

This work was an offshoot of my doctoral

project on the ecology of the Great Hombill in

the Western Ghats, under the aegis of the

University of Arkansas. My gratitude goes to

J. C. Daniel, who inspired me to take up a

conservation project in the Western Ghats; the

New York Zoological Society and the Oriental

Bird Club (U.K.) for invaluable financial

assistance; the Tamil Nadu Forest Department,

which extended its fullest cooperation; Thomas

Mathibalan of Valparai tea estates for his warm

hospitality and for sharing his knowledge of local

natural history; V. Santharam and J.N. Prasad,

for the many informative exchanges on the

ornithology of the ghats; the Kadar tribals living

in the hills, especially Natarajan and Ganesh,

for their indispensable field help - some of the

birds featuring herein would not have been

recorded but for the keen eyes of Natarajan;

my wife, Radha, for help in data compilation and

graphics; and Westark College, for encourag-

ing me to pursue my passion for Indian

ornithology.

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125.

Sugathan, R. (1981): A survey of the Ceylon Frogmouth

{Batrachostomus moniliger) habitat in the Western

Ghats of India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 78(3): 309-

315.

Vijayan, V.S. (1978): Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary

and its adjacent areas. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75(3):

888-900.

APPENDIX

Systematic list of the birds recorded in the Anaimalai Hills between August 1991 and July 1993.

Distribution codes: F=Foothills; T=Top Slip area; P=Parambikulam area; V=Valparai Plateau (includes Akkamalai forests);

G=Grass Hills. Sholayar and Chalakudy are not included here (see text).

Status codes: C=Common; U=Uncommon; R=Rare; W=Winter visitor; B=Evidence of breeding in the area (nests or

newly fledged chick(s) recorded). For a further explanation of the status codes, see “Methods” section. Asterisk (*)by species

name indicates more details furnished in text. An “e” superscripted by species name indicates endemic to Western Ghats.

No. Species

Status

Dist.

1 Little Grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis

2 Large Cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo

3 Little Cormorant P. niger

4 Darter Anhinga rufa

5 Grey Heron Ardea cinerea

6 Pond Heron Ardeola grayi

7 Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis

8 Large Egret Ardea alba

9 Smaller Egret Egretta intermedia

1 0 Little Egret E. garzetta

1 1 Malay Bittern* Gorsachius melanolophus

1 2 Whitenecked Stork Ciconia epis copus

1 3 Shoveller Anas clypeata

1 4 Blackwinged Kite Elanus caeruleus

1 5 Blackcrested Baza * Aviceda leuphotes

R

U

u

R

R,W

U

R

F

P

F

F,P

F,V

F

P

T,P

F

T(flt)

T,G

T

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

AVIFAUNA OF THE AN AIM ALAI HILLS

211

212

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

APPENDIX 0 contd .)

A VI FA UNA OF THE ANAIMALAI HILLS

213

APPENDIX ( contd .)

214

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

APPENDIX (contd.)

HABITAT, HUNTING AND CONSERVATION OF RUPICAPRINES IN MIZORAM,

NORTHEAST INDIA1

Charudutt Mishra, T.R. Shankar Raman2 and A . J.T. Johnsingh3

( With one text-figure)

Key words: Serow, goral, slash-and-bum shifting cultivation, habitat ecology,

wildlife management

A conservation status survey of serow Nemorhaedus sumatraensis and Himalayan goral N.

goral was conducted in three protected areas and nearby villages in Mizoram state. Serow

occurred in all three areas (Dampa Tiger Reserve, Murlen National Park, Phawngpui

Wildlife Sanctuary) but there was no evidence of goral in Dampa. Goral mainly used steep

grassland areas adjoining cliffs. The serow used areas where primary or secondary forests

bordered steep slope vegetation along cliffs. The ratio of serow to goral skulls among

trophies accumulated by local hunters was 4.2:1, reflecting greater relative abundance of

serow in the recent past. While both species are hunted, serow are also likely to suffer

from habitat loss due to shifting cultivation. Protection of key habitats such as cliffs with

adjoining forests and grasslands and strengthening vigilance and monitoring efforts are

suggested.

Introduction

Three species of rupicaprines, serow

Nemorhaedus sumatraensis, Himalayan goral N.

goral, and red goral N. baileyi, occur along the

Himalayan mountain chain and the northeastern

hills in India (Groves and Grubb 1985).

Information pertaining to their status and

distribution is nevertheless scarce, particularly

in northeast India. This region, identified as one

of the most biogeographically important

conservation areas in the country (Rodgers and

Panwar 1988), is also among the top 18

biodiversity ‘hotspots’ in the world (Myers 1988,

1990). Currently, the diverse flora and fauna of

this region are threatened by logging, shifting

cultivation or jhum, and illegal hunting by local

communities (Johnsingh 1985, Choudhury 1987,

Myers 1988, Rodgers and Panwar 1988, Katti

'Accepted February, 1 997

2 Present address:

Centre for Ecological Research & Conservation,

3076/5 IV Cross Gokulam Park, Mysore 570002, India.

3Wildlife Institute of India, P.O. Box 18, Chandrabani,

Dehradun-248 001 , India.

1992). This survey was undertaken to assess

the conservation status of rupicaprines in the

state of Mizoram in northeast India, one of

the least surveyed and documented wildlife

areas in the country (Rodgers and Panwar 1 988).

Even reliable information on presence or absence

of species, including birds and large mammals,

was lacking from Mizoram until recent surveys

and studies (Rai and Johnsingh 1993, Mishra et

al. 1994, Raman 1995, Raman et al. 1995a,

1995b).

Study area

Survey sites: The survey was conducted

in three protected areas of Mizoram: Dampa

Tiger Reserve in western Mizoram, Murlen

National Park, and Phawngpui Wildlife

Sanctuary, both in eastern Mizoram. Dampa

Tiger Reserve (23° 20'-23° 47 N, 92° 15'-92°

30' E) has an area of 500 km2 and ranges

altitudinally between 250 and 1 , 100 m above msl

level. The vegetation consists of tropical wet

evergreen forest in the valleys and semi-

evergreen forest close to the ridges. Large areas

216

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

Fig. 1: Vegetation maps of Dampa and Phawngpui Wildlife Sanctuaries, Mizoram, North-East India.

occur under bamboo (mainly Melocanna

bambusoides ), which is secondary vegetation in

areas previously cleared for shifting cultivation

or jhum. Murlen National Park (c. 23° 64' N and

93° 29' E; 200 km2) and Phawngpui Wildlife

Sanctuary (c. 22° 62' N and 93° 02' E; 50 km2)

which are at higher altitudes ( c . 1,200 to 2,100

m), are covered with sub-tropical broadleaved

hill forests with oaks ( Quercus spp.) as

characteristic species (Champion and Seth 1968).

All three areas have long (> 3 km) chains of cliffs.

A narrow belt of vegetation occurs along these

cliffs (steep-slope vegetation; Fig. 1) which is

richer in grass cover and has a lower tree density

than surrounding areas. Steep, open grasslands

occur along the cliffs in Phawngpui, with tree

cover along the nullahs and gullies. The areas

below the cliffs are generally covered with well-

wooded broad-leaved forests within the protected

areas, but mostly by bamboo outside.

People and land-use: The human

population of Mizoram is predominantly tribal,

and over 60% of the people are dependent on

jhum for subsistence (Singh 1995). The Mizos

(the name covers several tribal communities such

as the Ralte, Pachuau, Lushai, and Lai) have a

long tradition of hunting similar to many other

hill communities in south and south-east Asian

forests. We have observed houses of several

hunters in villages adorned with trophies of

serow, goral, macaque, bear, wild pig, deer, and

hombill.

The State has seen dramatic changes

related to its human population over the last

century. The population had reached almost

700,000 by 1991, an 850% increase since the

beginning of the century. The current population

density is over 33 per km2 (Singh 1995). During

this period, the literacy rate increased to 82.3%

and most of the people, originally animists,

HABITA T, HUNTING AND CONSERVA TION OF RUPICAPRINES

217

became Christian due to missionary activities.

Rapid changes follow modernisation and

development activities and, as a result, over 46%

of the population lives in towns and cities today.

Nevertheless, in remote rural areas, traditional

lifestyles persist more or less intact and largely

revolve around activities pertaining to jhum,

hunting, and the village community.

Jhum is the primary occupation of the

majority of people in Mizoram. Much of the

surveyed protected area has undergone jhum in

the past, as indicated by the large areas with

secondary bamboo vegetation (Fig. la and b).

Description of jhum activities and vegetation

succession are available in Ramakrishnan (1992),

Raman (1995), and Raman et al. (in press). With

the loss of habitat associated with jhum and

increasing population, hunting is not sustamable

any more. In the vicinity of towns and villages,

even the usually common birds and mammals

are very scarce.

Methods i

The, survey was conducted between 24th

December 1993 and 18th January 1994. Different

forest types were traversed on foot, and evidence

(faecal pellets, dung piles, tracks) and direct

sightings of rupicaprines were recorded. Rough

vegetation maps of Dampa and Phawngpui were

sketched on 1:50,000 contour maps with the aid

of a compass to get an idea of the potential habitat

for goral and serow. This could not be done at

Murlen National Park due to the short time spent

there. Forest Department officials were

interviewed and houses in the villages

surrounding the surveyed areas were visited in

order to collect information on hunting. We

enumerated rupicaprine trophies in the villages

and measured their horn lengths.

Results

Dampa Tiger Reserve: Neither goral nor

serow were seen in Dampa. However, during a

2.5 km walk (Table 1) along cliffs (associated

with steep slope vegetation; Fig. la) we found 7

dung piles of serow, 6 of which were fresh. No

faecal pellets or dung piles of goral were found

(Table 1). Skull trophies of hunters in Lallen, a

village at the boundary of Dampa, also revealed

an absence of goral skulls (Table 2).

Table 1

ENCOUNTER RATE OF GORAL AND SEROW PELLET

GROUPS AND DUNG PILES IN THE SURVEYED

PROTECTED AREAS

Murlen National Park: A walk along the

cliffs in Murlen yielded 4 sightings of goral

totalling 5 animals (3.3 goral/km; Table 3). The

subspecies N. goral hodgsoni occurs in Mizoram.

Encounter rate of goral faecal pellet groups was

highest in Murlen (Table 1). We saw only 4 old

faecal pellet groups of serow, and no dung piles

in Murlen (Table 1). Vapar, a village at the

boundary of Murlen yielded 9 goral and 4 1 serow

skulls (Table 2).

Table 2

COMPARISON OF GORAL AND SEROW SKULLS

COUNTED IN VILLAGES ADJOINING THE

SURVEYED PROTECTED AREAS

218

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

Phawngpui Wildlife Sanctuary:

Phawngpui had relatively large patches of steep

grasslands (Fig. lb) which could be scanned from

vantage points. During such scans, we saw 10

goral, although a few of these were possibly the

same animals resighted. While scanning a steep

grassy slope, a maximum of 4 goral within a

200 m x 50 m area were seen. Cliff walks yielded

an encounter rate of 5.8 goral/km, which was

highest among all the three protected areas

surveyed (Table 3). One house in Thaltlang, a

village at the boundary of Phawngpui, and

another in Darzo, a few kilometres away, together

had 39 serow and 12 goral skulls (Table 2).

Although no live serow were seen in Phawngpui,

the area had the highest encounter rates for serow

faecal pellet groups as well as dung piles (Table

1). All the dung piles appeared fresh.

Table 3

ENCOUNTER RATE OF GORAL IN THE SURVEYED

PROTECTED AREAS

All evidences and sightings of goral and

serow were restricted to steep slopes (> 30°) —

serow occurring only in steep-slope vegetation

and adjoining forest (Fig. 1), and goral also in

the steep grasslands in Phawngpui. The only

exception was a single faecal pellet group of

serow (out of 9 pellet groups and 13 dung piles)

in Dampa which was recorded in secondary forest

vegetation approximately 200 m away from

steep-slope vegetation.

The seven hunters’ houses that we visited

yielded 88 serow and 21 goral skulls (Table 2, 4).

The average hom lengths of goral and serow were

1 1.6 cm and 18.8 cm respectively (Table 4).

Table 4

HORN LENGTHS OF GORAL AND SEROW

Discussion

Populations of the congeneric south Asian

rupicaprines, serow and goral, have declined due

to unregulated hunting and habitat changes over

most of their range. The Formosan serow N. ~

swinhoei population, for instance, has declined

due to a combination of illegal hunting and

conversion of its virgin forest habitat into

agricultural lands (Lue 1987). In central and

eastern China, the distribution and abundance

of the Chinese goral N. caudatus is reported to

be changing rapidly (Mead 1989), while in the

Amur and Ussuri region of Russia, their number

is estimated to have fallen by 75% since the end

of the 19th century (Zhiwotschenko 1990). In

contrast, the Japanese serow N. crispus has

benefited from strict control over hunting, and

the conversion of natural forests into conifer

plantations. Its population increased 25-fold

between 1955 and 1979 (from 3,000 to 75,000),

and the resulting damage to commercial tree

plantations necessitated culling of large numbers

(Horino 1990, Soma 1990, Johnsingh 1992).

In Mizoram, and much of northeast India,

jhum is one of the major reasons for habitat

change. The area under jhum is increasing every

year. Jhum cycles have decreased to 3-5 years in

some places, and large areas are covered by an

arrested successional vegetation of weeds and

bamboo (Ramakrishnan 1992). Jhum, however,

does not seem to have affected goral substantially.

Goral are grazers, graminoids forming the bulk

of their diet (Green 1985, Mishra 1993, Mishra

and Johnsingh 1996). They avoid areas where

dense understorey vegetation hampers visibility

or quick movement, and prefer steep, open grassy

HABITAT, HUNTING AND CONSERVATION OF RUPICAPRINES

219

slopes interspersed with forest cover and cliffs

(Mishra 1993, Mishra and Johnsingh 1996).

Since such areas are not arable, the cliffs and

steep grasslands that goral inhabit in northeast

India do not undergo jhum. The steep grasslands

in Phawngpui, for example, represent good

habitat for goral (Fig. lb). Although relatively

unaffected by jhum, the species is unlikely to be

very common over much of northeast India due

to naturally restricted availability of suitable

habitat. In Murlen, for instance, the habitat for

goral seemed to be restricted to a chain of cliffs

along the southern boundary of the Park.

In contrast to goral, no evidence of serow

was recorded from the steep grasslands in

Phawngpui (this habitat was almost absent in

Dampa and Murlen). Serow were found using

areas where primary and secondary forests

bordered the steep slope vegetation along cliffs.

These forested areas have relatively more tree

and shrub cover and less grass cover. Phawngpui,

in addition to steep grasslands, had such areas,

and, in fact, both the rupicaprines were found

using them - goral largely using the cliffs and

serow using cliffs as well as the adjoining forest.

In spite of their steepness, jhum is prevalent

in such forest areas. Some of the primary forest

areas below the cliffs in Dampa and virtually all

the areas outside the Park have been cleared for

jhum and are covered by dense bamboo stands

(Fig. la). The understorey vegetation in bamboo

forests is considerably altered, with much lower

tree and shrub species richness and abundance

than primary and late-successional secondary

forests (Raman 1995, Raman etal. in press). This

habitat conversion is detrimental for serow. It is

a browser, with bamboo and graminoids forming

a very small proportion of its diet (Green 1985).

Hunting and relative abundance: We

found people in villages around the sanctuaries

well-informed of the sanctuaries and the asso-

ciated restriction on hunting and jhum. Hunting,

however, is very widespread. Birds otherwise

common in human habitations are not seen in

the vicinity of Mizo villages. The sight of hunters

with shotguns are common on roads near forest

areas and serow and goral are often victims.

It is interesting to compare the number of

goral and serow skulls counted in some of the

villages adjoining the surveyed areas. All areas

showed a greater number of serow skulls, with

an overall ratio of 4.2:1 (Table 2). Information

obtained from a hunter in Murlen who had kept

a record of all the animals he shot, showed a

ratio of 30 serow to 3 goral. This predominance

of serow skulls is largely a reflection of their

greater abundance at least in the recent past. As

mentioned before, this is because of greater

availability of steep, dense areas in the northeast,

which are used by serow, as compared to the

steep, open grassy slopes used by goral. Almost

all birds and mammals are hunted and eaten,

suggesting that this difference in skull numbers

is not due to selective hunting of serow.

Conservation efforts: The Mizoram

Forest Department has taken some commendable

steps toward wildlife conservation in the state.

Of the total area of 2 1 ,087 km2 of the state, about

35.3% is protected State forest. In Dampa, eleven

villages were successfully shifted outside the

sanctuary in 1989-90, and jhum is now allowed

only along the village fringes. Similar efforts are

being made in Phawngpui and Murlen. Thus, a

basis for sound conservation strategies already

exists in Mizoram. Nevertheless, pressures on

land are substantial and are likely to increase in

future — in 1995 the Forest Department relented

to the demand of several villages to jhum within

Dampa Tiger Reserve. Hunting is an even more

immediate threat to wildlife in Mizoram.

Conservation efforts have to address the issue of

hunting, a part of the Mizo people’s psyche (Rai

and Johnsingh 1993). It is important to

strengthen the Forest Department staff by

providing equipment and communication

facilities to deal with poachers. Such steps,

coupled with special protection of key habitats

such as cliffs and primary forests at the base of

cliffs, are required to conserve populations of the

two rupicaprines in Mizoram.

220

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

Acknowledgements

We thank the Director, Wildlife Institute

of India, for infrastructural support and help. The

Refe

Champion, H.G. & S.K. Seth (1968): A revised survey of

the forest types of India. Manager of Publications,

Govt, of India, Delhi.

Choudhury, A. (1987): Notes on the distribution and

conservation of Phayre’s leaf monkey and hoolock

gibbon in India. Tiger Paper 14(2): 2-6.

Green, M.J.B. (1985): Aspects of the ecology of the

Himalayan musk deer. Ph.D. Thesis, University of

Cambridge, Cambridge.

Groves, C.P. & P. Grubb (1985): Reclassification of the

serows and gorals ( Nemorhaedus : Bovidae). pp.

45-50 In: The biology and management of mountain

ungulates. Lovari, S.(ed.), Croom Helm. U.S.A.

Horino, S. (1990): Serow damage and its prevention.

Trans. 19th IUGB Congress, Trondheim, 1989.

Johnsingh, A.J.T. (1985): Understand, assist, protect and

conserve: flora and fauna of Arunachal Pradesh.

The India Magazine January, 64-71 .

Johnsingh, A.J.T. (1992): The Japanese serow: Lessons

for Himalayan serow conservation. Hornbill

1992(4): 28-32.

Katti, M.V. (1992): Nightmare in dreamland. Hornbill

1992(4): 4-9.

Lue, K.Y. (1987): A preliminary study on the ecology of

Formosan serow Capricornis crispus swinhoei. In:

The biology and management of Capricornis and

related mountain antelopes. Soma, H. (ed.), Croom

Helm, U.S.A.

Mead, J.I. (1989): Nemorhaedus goral. Mammalian

species 335: 1-5.

Mishra, C. (1993): Habitat use by goral ( Nemorhaedus

goral bedfordi ) in Majhatal Harsang Wildlife

Sanctuary, Himachal Pradesh, India. M.S.

Dissertation, Saurashtra University, Rajkot, India.

Mishra, C. & A.J.T. Johnsingh (1 996): On habitat selection

by the goral Nemorhaedus goral bedfordi

(Bovidae, Artiodactyla). J. Zool., Lond. 240: 573-

580.

Mishra, C., T.R.S. Raman & A.J.T. Johnsingh (1994):

Survey of primates, serow, and goral in Mizoram.

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun.

Mizoram State Forest Department funded this

survey, and we are indebted to them, and to

Aparajita Datta and M.D. Madhusudan for their

comments on the paper.

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Myers, N. (1988): Threatened biotas: “Hot spots” in

tropical forests. Environmentalist 8: 1 87-208.

Myers, N. (1990): The biodiversity challenge: Expanded

hot-spots analysis. Environmentalist 10: 243-256.

Rai, N.D. & A.J.T. Johnsingh ( 1 993): A preliminary survey

of the clouded leopard ( Neofelis nebulosa) in

Mizoram and Sikkim, Wildlife Institute of India,

Dehradun.

Ramakrishnan, P.S. (1992): Shifting agriculture and

sustainable development: An inter-disciplinary

study from north-east India. MAB Series, Vol. 10,

UNESCO, Paris.

Raman, T.R.S. (1995) Shifting cultivation and conservation

of tropical forest bird communities in Mizoram,

north-east India, M.S. Dissertation, Saurashtra

University, Rajkot, India.

Raman, T.R.S., C. Mishra & A.J.T. Johnsingh (1995a):

Observation on Pallas’s squirrel Callosciurus

erythraeus and other squirrels in Mizoram,

northeast India, / Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92: 412-

415.

Raman, T.R.S., C. Mishra & A.J.T. Johnsingh (1995b):

Survey of primates in Mizoram, northeast India.

Primate Conservation 16: 59-62.

Raman, T.R.S., G.S. Rawat & A.J.T. Johnsingh (in press);

Recovery of tropical rainforest avifauna in relation

to vegetation succession following shifting

cultivation in Mizoram, Northeast India. J. Appl.

Ecol.

Rodgers, W.A. & H.S. Panwar (1988): Planning a

protected area network in India. Vol II. Wildlife

Institute of India, Dehradun.

Singh, D. (1995): The last frontier: People and Resources

in Mizoram. Report, Tata Energy Research Institute,

New Delhi.

Sona, H. (1990): Serows (genus Capricornis). In:

Grzimek’s Encyclopedia, Mammals. McGraw-Hill,

Inc. pp 505-506.

Zhiwotschenko, V. (1990): Gorals (genus Nemorhaedus)

In: Grzimek’s Encyclopedia, mammals. McGraw-

Hill, Inc. pp 506-507.

DIVERSITY IN THE FUNCTIONAL ORGANISATION OF THE MANDIBULAR

STYLETS OF ASSASSIN BUGS (HETEROPTERA: REDUVIIDAE)1

( With eight Plates )

David Livingstone, C. Murugan and G. Ravichandran2

Key words: Assassin bugs, non-tibiaroliate, tibiaroliate, Reduviidae, mandibular stylets,

mandibular lever, evolution.

Nine years of intensive survey of assassin bugs in southern India yielded 171 species belonging

to 65 genera and 1 1 subfamilies. Diversities in the functional organisation of the mandibular

stylets of 77 species of Reduviidae, representing 45 genera and 1 1 subfamilies of non-tibiaroliate

and tibiaroliate groups of Reduviidae viz., Harpactorinae, Stenopodainae, Emesinae, Saicinae,

Holoptilinae, Tribelocephalinae, Acanthaspidinae, Salyavatinae, Ectrichodiinae, Piratinae and

Triatominae, collected from all the four major ecosystems (Tropical Rain Forest, Scrub Jungles,

Semi-arid zones and Agroecosystem) have been critically assessed. The mandibular stylets of all

Reduviidae are isomorphous, with the exception of Holoptilinae. The spatulate mandibular stylets

of the myriophagous Ectrichodiinae appear to be specialised for sawing apart the septa between

the segments of their prey. Depending on the feeding strategy and nutritional ethology, the

organisation of the denticles present at the tip of the mandibles varies considerably. This is

considered here as the main criterion for the assessment of their evolutionary significance in the

various species of Reduviidae occupying diverse ecosystems. Careful observation of the shape of

the mandibular lever and its significance in the evolution of the functional organisation of the

stylets has been recorded.

Introduction

In Reduviids, the stylet fascicle is

composed of a pair of outer mandibular stylets

and a pair of inner maxillary stylets, all four of

them being collectively involved in piercing and

sucking operations. While the mandibular stylets

are primarily responsible for piercing and

anchoring, the maxillary stylets are responsible

for the ejection of the saliva into the substrate

through the dorsal salivary orifice and ingestion

of semidigested fluid through the ventral food

orifice.

The mandibular stylets, representing the

incisor of the mandibles of a generalised insect,

on’ either side of the maxillary stylets, embrace

the latter and function in a groove and ridge

'Accepted February, 1997

department of Zoology, Madras Christian College,

Tambaram, Chennai-600 059, Tamil Nadu, India.

sliding principle. Each mandibular stylet, at its

base inside the head capsule, is connected to the

mandibular plate of the head capsule by a highly

sclerotized triangular plate called the mandibular

lever. The detailed morphology of the mandibular

stylets and their lever in several families of

Heteroptera are known from the works of Parsons

(1959, 1962, 1968 and 1969), Livingstone (1968

and 1969) and Cobben (1978).

Depending on the feeding strategy, the

organisation of the denticles at the tip of the

mandibles varies considerably and that is

considered here as the main criterion for

assessing their evolutionary significance in the

various species of the Reduviidae, occupying

diverse ecosystems.

In the present study, mandibular stylets of

77 species, representing 45 genera and 1 1

subfamilies of both non-tibiaroliate and

tibiaroliate groups of Reduviidae from different

222

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

ecosystems of southern India have been critically

assessed.

Materials and Methods

Materials were obtained from dried and

preserved Reduvid specimens. The heads were

boiled in 5% potassium hydroxide solution for

upto 10 minutes, depending on the intensity of

pigmentation, washed in weak acetic acid and

again washed thoroughly in water and stored in

glycerine for better clarity. The dissected

materials were cleared in clove oil and mounted

in polyvinyl lactophenol. Photomicrographs

under light microscope were taken with Asahi

Pentax photomicrographic equipment.

Observations

I. Non-tibiaroliate group of Reduviidae

The mandibular stylets in 42 species

belonging to 26 genera and 6 subfamilies of non-

tibiaroliate reduviids examined show complete

isomorphism in all the subfamilies, except in the

Holoptilinae in which they are dimorphic and

asymmetrical. Each subfamily has certain

common characters for all the genera and species,

with regard to the number and disposition of

longitudinal striations and arrangement of

transverse denticulate serrations.

Apically, the mandibular stylets are acutely

drawn out in the form of a spike and the nature

and development of their denticulate serra-

tions vary considerably. In the Harpactorinae,

three longitudinal rows of such serrations are

found, in which the outer rows, as in Rhinocoris

kumarii , all Coranus species, both species of

Irantha and Polididus armatissimus (PI. 1,

figs. 4; PI. 2, figs. 14, 16, 17, 20, 21 & 22), are

provided with three sharp, backwardly directed

denticles which are not connected by transverse

ridges. In the case of Rhinocoris marginatus, R.

longifrons, R. fuscipes, EuagoraS plagiatus,

Endochus cingalensis, E. inornatus, both species

of Sycanus, Platerus bhavanii,

Neohaematrorrhophus therasii and

Macracanthopsis nigripes (PI. 1, figs. 1, 2, 3, 6,

7, 8, 9, 10; PI. 2, figs. 13, 18 & 19) all the three

rows are not interconnected by transverse

serrations. In the case of Polididus armatissimus

(PI, 2, fig. 22) however, the two outer rows are

distinctly connected by a transverse ridge without

a median longitudinal row of denticulate

serrations. In Lanca handy ensis (PI. 2, fig. 12)

these serrations are more prominently developed

upto the apex, whereas in other species the more

apical ones are not prominent.

In Lophocephala guerini (PI. 1, fig. 5) the

stylets are more membraneous except at the edges

that carry prominent denticulate serrations more

apically drawn into sharply pointed spikes. The

stylets of all Coranus species are relatively

narrow. In both Rhaphidosoma species (PI. 3,

figs. 25 & 26) the mandibular structures are

entirely different from the other harpactorine

species, and are more like those of the

Stenopodainae in having about five to six

longitudinal rows, with acutely pointed denticles

at the apex. The outer rows are very sharply

developed, pointing backwards. In both species

of Cydnocoris (PI. 2, fig. 23; PI. 3, fig. 24) the

mandibles have completely deviated from the

harpactorine type, being spatulate, apically

bearing three obscure rows of denticulate

serrations, not connected to each other by

transverse ridges.

In the Stenopodainae species like

Oncocephalus chamundaii, O. impudicus, O.

klugi, O. cingalensis, O. annulipes and O.

schioedtei (PI. 4, figs. 39, 40, 41, 43, 44 & 45),

the mandibular stylets are uniformly similar in

the arrangement of their denticulate processes.

More basally, there are about 10 longitudinal

rows of denticles and the number gradually

diminishes apically from 4 to 1 . It appears that

the denticulate processes abruptly end at the

posterior border of the serrated area, behind

which the serrations gradually vanish. In

Canthesancus picticollis (PI. 4, fig. 46) the

denticulate processes are much more

DIVERSITY IN THE MANDIBULAR STYLETS OF ASSASSIN BUGS

223

prominently developed and many more

transverse ridges are found.

In the case of Bardesanes sericenotatus,

Diaditus errabundus, Pygolampis foeda, Staccia

diluta, Caunus farinator and Oncocephalus

notatus, (PI. 3, figs. 33, 34, 35, 36; PI. 4, figs. 37

& 38), the longitudinal rows are less in number,

but the denticles are more powerfully developed.

In Emesinae, the mandibular stylets are

acutely pointed apically. In Stenolaemus

susainathani and Ischnobaenella naraikkadu

(PI. 4, figs. 47 & 48), the denticulate processes

are obscure and developed in the form of more

transverse ridges. About 18 to 24 such ridges

are found.*

The mandibular stylets of Saicinae

(Polytoxus maculatus) (PI. 3, fig. 31) are similar

to those of Emesinae in shape, having similar

rows of ridges.

The mandibular stylets of Holoptilinae (PI.

3, figs. 27 & 28) differ from all other species in

being dimorphic. Both stylets are spatulate. The

right one differs from the left one in being boat-

shaped with longitudinal striations. Apically, it

is acutely pointed, its surface forming a keel.

In Tribelocephalinae ( Tribelocephala

indica) (PL 3, fig. 30) interestingly, the

mandibular stylets do not have any serration but

they are boat-shaped and apically pointed.

The mandibular lever in non-tibiaroliate

reduviids is consistently present in all species

examined and it is roughly triangular with minor

variations in shape and size. While in

Harpactorinae ( Sycanus collaris and Cor anus

atricapillus) (PI. 1, fig. 11; PI. 2, fig. 15),

Holoptilinae ( Holoptilus melanospilus) (PI. 3,

fig. 29) and Saicinae {polytoxus maculatus) (PI.

3, fig. 32), one side of the lever is more elongated.

In the case of Stenopodainae {Oncocephalus

klugi) (PI. 4, fig. 42) the three sides are almost

of the same length. The size of the lever appears

to vary according to the size of the insect.

From the foregoing account it appears that

among the Harpactorinae, the Rhinocoris,

Irantha, Euagoras, Macracanthopsis,

Neohaematorrhophus , Platerus, Sycanus,

Endochus, Lanca and Coranus have a more or

less similar arrangement and development

pattern of denticulate serrations. In all these

genera all the three rows are not transversely

connected and there is gradation in the

development of denticulate processes of these

serrations.

Lophocephala guerini , Rhaphidosoma

atkinsoni, R. tuberculatum and the two species

of Cydnocoris are markedly different from all

other species of Harpactorinae examined. In

Stenopodainae, all the species of Oncocephalus

are virtually similar in their identity. The

mandibular stylets of Staccia, Oncocephalus

notatus, Diaditus, Pygolampis and Caunus have

closer affinity with one another. Canthesancus

and Bardesanes are also similar. The similarity

of the mandibular stylets of the Emesinae and

Saicinae {Polytoxus) is very significant.

Mandibular stylets of the Tribelo-

cephalinae, by their boat-shaped structure, appear

to be unique among Reduviidae and the

characteristic asymmetry of the mandibular

stylets of Holoptilinae could be also considered

as a unique feature among Reduviidae.

II. Tibiaroliate group of Reduviidae

Studies on 35 species representing 19

genera and 5 subfamilies of the tibiaroliate group

of Reduviidae of southern India confirmed that

both mandibular stylets in all these species are

perfectly symmetrical and isomorphic. The

denticles of the serration, however, vary in their

number and extent of development.

In Acanthaspidinae, all species examined

have three longitudinal rows of serrations, but

the development of the denticles in the transverse

rows varies considerably. The more slender and

acutely pointed the mandible is, the more sharply

defined are the denticles of the transverse rows,

as in Acanthaspis siva, A. quinquespinosa, A.

angularis, A. rugulosa and A. lineatipes (PI. 6,

figs. 63, 64, 65, 66 & 68). In Reduvius delicatula

(PI. 7, fig. 75) the mandibular stylets are more

224

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

sharply defined than in other species in which

mandibles are not very acutely pointed apically

and their denticles are not so sharply defined, as

in Acanthaspis pedestris and A. siruvanii (PI. 6,

figs. 62 & 67). In Apechtia mesopyrrha, Pasira

perpusilla and Neo acanthaspis maculatus (PI.

6, figs. 70, 71; PI. 7, fig. 77) the stylets are broad

and bluntly pointed and their apical transverse

denticles just moderately developed. In Apechtia

mesopyrrha and Pasira perpusilla they are

significantly poor in their formation. However,

in these two species the stylets carry certain

minute backwardly directed serrations, far

behind the apex and they are better pronounced

in Pasira perpusilla (PI. 6, fig. 72). In Edocla

slateri and Edocla maculatus (PI. 7, figs. 73 &

74) the mandibular stylets are similar in the

development of their denticles along with the

three longitudinal rows. In Platymeris laevicollis

(PI. 7, fig. 76) also, the serrations are arranged

in three longitudinal rows.

In Salyavatinae, the denticles are arranged

in three rows but unlike Acanthaspidinae, the

three rows are not transversely connected.

However, a slight indication of the same is seen

in Nudiscutella frontispina (PI. 5, fig. 59) and

Lisarda annulosa. (PI. 5, fig. 58). The posterior

edge of the stylets, far behind the apical rows of

the denticles, is sharply serrated. These serrations

are directed forward in Petalochirus brachialis

(PI. 5, fig. 60). In N. frontispina such serrations

are ill-defined. The denticles in all the three rows

are equally well formed, and better defined than

those of Acanthaspidinae.

In Ectrichodiinae all the four species of

Ectrychotes, namely, E. dispar, E. pilicornis, E.

bharathii and E. atripennis (PI. 5, figs. 49, 50,

51 & 52), have mandibular stylets almost

abruptly expanding beyond the middle, whereas

in Labidocoris elegans, Haematorrhophus

nigroviolaceous and Stegius pravus (PI. 5, figs.

53, 54, 55 & 56) such expansion is gradual. Such

a mandibular stylet in Ectrichodiinae is unique

in being spatulate without any trace of

denticulate serrations, unlike all other species

of tibiaroliate group of Reduviidae.

In Piratinae, each of the four genera

examined show significant variation. In general,

most of the Ectomocoris species, namely

E. tibialis, E. tuberculatum , E. quadriguttatus

and E. cordiger (PI. 7, figs. 80, 81, 82 & 83),

have six longitudinal rows of serrations at the

base of the denticulate areas of the stylet, of which

the denticles of the outermost rows are more

sharply defined. There are about eleven such

denticles on the two peripheral longitudinal rows.

In Catamiarus brevipennis and Sirthenea

flavipes (PI. 8, figs. 90 & 91) as well as in all

other Pirates species, there are about four distinct

longitudinal rows of serrations. In C. brevipennis

(PI. 8, fig. 90) they are better defined than in the

others. While all the four species of Pirates

namely P. affinis, P. quadrinotatus, P. lepturoides

and P. atromaculatus and in C. brevipennis (PI.

8, figs. 85, 86, 87, 88 & 90), the more apical

denticles are flattened and less conspicuous. In

Sirthenea flavipes (PI. 8, fig. 91) the more apical

ones are highly conspicuous and sharply

developed.

In Triatominae, the stylet tip is sharply

pointed, there is only one series of sharply defined

denticles and about eight such prominent

denticles could be recognised. Among all the

tibiaroliate reduviids examined, Triatoma

rubrofasciata (PI. 7, figs. 78 & 79) has the

maximum development of mandibular stylet.

It is the only haematophagous reduviid

examined.

Thus, among all the 36 species of

tibiaroliate reduviids examined, Triatoma

rubrofasciata has the most specialised

mandibular stylets and Pirates sp. have the least

developed stylets. Acutely pointed mandibular

stylets are met with in the alate group of

Acanthaspidinae. It is observed that Ectomocoris

has more specialised mandibular stylets

compared with other genera of Piratinae and the

genus Acanthaspis is considered to be most

specialised when compared with all other genera

of Acanthaspidinae. Interestingly, the alate

DIVERSITY IN THE MANDIBULAR STYLETS OF ASSASSIN BUGS

225

species of Acanthaspis have better developed

mandibular denticles than their apterous

counterparts. Members of the subfamily

Ectrichodiinae have attained a unique type of

specialization for myriophagy.

The mandibular lever, as revealed in a

number of species of tibiaroliate reduviids in the

present investigation, is roughly triangular with

perceptible variation in its size. The lever of

Acanthaspidinae ( Acanthaspis pedestris) (PI. 6,

fig. 69), Piratinae ( Ectomocoris cordiger and

Pirates atromaculates) (PI. 7, fig. 84; PI. 8, fig.

89) Ectrichodiinae ( Haematorrhophus

nigroviolaceus (PI. 5, fig. 57) is more or less

similar, but for minor variations in the

development of their angles. The lever of

Salyavatinae (Lisarda annulosa) (PI. 6, fig. 61)

is different from all others in being very tiny and

T-shaped. It is larger in Ectrichodiinae.

Discussion

The structure of the mandibular stylets of

Reduviidae manifests a wide range of variations

and provides sufficient evidence to trace the

course of evolution of camivory in these insects.

In the phylogenetic relationship within

subfamilies, however difficult it may be to

establish, each subfamily presents a wide range

of parallel evolution in stylet structures.

The fact that Holoptilinae alone, among

all other Heteroptera, present dimorphism in

mandibular stylets, as reported by Cobben (1978)

and confirmed by the present investigation,

suggests that Holoptilinae could be regarded as

an early offshoot from the Reduviid stem.

Emesinae and Saicinae closely resemble each

other in having more conspicuously tapered

needle-like mandibles. This tendency to taper is

indicated in the mandibular stylets of the

Stenopodainae as well. In Lophocephala guerini

(Phonolibinae) as well as in Rhaphidosominae,

the mandibles are more acutely pointed since both

of them have termites as their staple prey, and

probing for termites underneath dried faecal

material (Livingstone and Ambrose 1984) is

mainly achieved by the mandibular stylets.

A comparison of mandibular stylets of

species of the three major categories of camivory

in Reduviidae, namely myriophagy, haema-

tophagy and entomophagy, represented by

Ectrichodiinae, Triatominae and the rest

respectively, provides valuable information on

the nutritional strategies of these bugs in their

respective ecosystems in particular, and their

evolutionary significance in general. The

development of a single series of highly

denticulate serrations on an extremely slender

mandibular stylet of Triatominae could be

interpreted as an efficient piercing mechanism,

over a highly sensitive host skin. According to

Lavoispierre et al. (1959), in Triatoma, entry of

the stylets into the host skin is very rapid,

initiated by alternating movements of the

mandibular stylets which, after having penetrated

into the tissue of the host, remain still and the

maxillary stylets project far beyond the

mandibles, as a single bundle.

The blade-like, sharp edges of the spatulate

type of mandibles of Ectrichodiinae can easily

saw the septa between the segments of millipedes,

once the stylet fascicle has established entry

through the intersegmental membrane. A

spatulate mandibular stylet has the advantage of

advancing deeper inside the host’s body rather

than anchoring alone. According to Cobben

(1978), it might be the beginning of evolution of

a functional relationship in which the mandibles

control deviation of the maxillary bundle. A close

relationship with the mandibles of myriophagous

species of Ectrichodiinae is recognized only in

both species of Cydnocoris that exhibit a sharp

deviation from the normal condition of

mandibular stylets in all other entomophagous

species. However, both species of Cydnocoris

have been found to feed freely on houseflies in

the laboratory.

Harpactorinae, in general, have their

mandibular stylets neither acutely pointed as in

226

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

Emesinae nor spatulate as in Ectrichodiinae,

though Cobben (1978) has described the

mandibles of both Harpactorinae and

Ectrichodiinae as spatulate. In Tribelocephalinae,

which feed mainly on termites, the mandibular

stylets appear to be intermediate between

Emesinae and Harpactorinae. Most species of

Harpactorinae are polyphagous, whereas ant-

feeding Holoptilinae and termite-feeding

Phonolibinae ( Lophocephala ), Rhaphidosominae

and Tribelocephalinae tend to be monopha-

gous. Hence it was easy to rear Harpactorine

species on different hosts and it is difficult to

rear all other species that feed exclusively on

termites.

The development of serrations with

denticulate processes, at the tip of mandibular

stylets appears to be common in all the species

except Tribelocephala in which they are obscure

and rarely found, and it is apparently difficult to

attribute predatory efficiency based on the

manner of development of such serrations in the

mandibular stylets of Reduviidae. However, it is

evident that the shape of the mandibular stylets

and their armature in most cases are directly

related to the nature of predation of their natural

prey. The evolution of mandibular stylets,

therefore, could be correlated with the prey and

feeding strategies.

In the entomophagous group, the

development of a greater number of rows of

denticulate serrations was considered as a more

efficient predatory device, amply illustrated by

Ectomocoris, that could be considered as one

with a more efficient mechanism of predation.

Cobben (1978) is of the opinion that the

mandibles became increasingly flattened and

extensively sculptured with the evolution of

phytophagy from camivory. The mandibles in

phytophagous species serve initially as a piercing

device, and once penetration is achieved they

serve as an anchoring device. Since the

tibiarolium of Ectomocoris has reached the

maximum development among the tibiaroliate

group of Reduviidae (Livingstone and Ambrose,

1984) the mandibular armature may be

considered as an additional attribute towards

efficiency in predation. However, reduction of

armature of any form in an appendage, especially

the stylets, is an apomorphic feature and for that

reason the multiplicity of denticulate serrations

in Ectomocoris could be regarded as a

plesiomorphic feature among the tibiaroliate

Reduviidae. According to Cobben (1978), a

larger mandibular lever is correlated with the

curved base of the stylet, allowing greater force

and striking velocity during harpooning of the

prey. It allows torsion of the mandibular stylet

by the action of the sets of muscles. A

quadrangular mandibular lever, commonly

reported in Gerromorpha (Ekblom, 1926 &

1930; Elson, 1937; Spooner, 1938; Servadei,

1946; Parsons, 1962 and Cobben, 1978) has been

considered as an autogenic transformation from

a normal triangular lever in the nymphal instars,

and according to Cobben (1978) such a type is

the IVth type of lever that provides the

mandibular stylet with greater rapidity and force

in harpooning. A triangular type is the type II of

Ekblom ( 1 926) and in the present study the lever

could be rated as an intermediate one between

type II and type IV. The larger size of the

triangular lever in Ectrichodiinae could be

correlated with the unusual spatulate shape of

the stylet that aids in sawing the intersegmental

septa of the myriapod prey. Therefore, it is

suggested that myriapod feeding is a remarkable

line of specialization achieved by the

Ectrichodiinae alone.

According to Cobben (1978), the

mandibles become increasingly flattened and

extensively sculptured with the evolution of

phytophagy from camivory and the increased

capacity to protrude the mandibles arose

independently in Reduviidae, Nabidae and

Anthocoridae. It is suggested that the mandibular

stylets initially serve as the anchoring device,

enabling the maxillary stylets to perform

exploratory movements inside the host tissue,

preparatory to feeding.

8 9 10 11

Figs. 1-11: 1. Rhinocoris marginatus Laporte (200 x); 2. Rhinocoris longifrons Stal (400 x);

3. Rhinocoris fuscipes Fabricius (400 x); 4. Rhinocoris kumarii Ambrose & Livingstone (400 x);

5. Lophocephala querini Laporte (400 x); 6. Euagoras plagiatus Burmeister (400 x);

7. Endochus cingalensis Stal (400 x); 8. Endochus inornatus Stal (400 x);

9. Sycanus pyrrhomelas Walker (200 x); 10. Sycanus collaris Fabricius (200 x);

1 1 . Sycanus collaris Fabricius (mandibular lever) (200 x).

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 95

D. Livingstone et al.: Mandibular stylets of assassin bugs

Plate 1

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 95

D. Livingstone et al.\ Mandibular stylets of assassin bugs

Plate 2

Figs. 12-23: 12. Lanca kcmdyensis Distant (400 x); 13. Platerus bhavanii Livingstone & Ravichandran

(400 x); 14. Coranus atricapillus Distant (400 x); 15. Coranus atricapillus, Distant (mandibular lever)

(200 x); 16. Coranus vitellinus Distant (400 x); 1 7. Coranus spiniscutis Reuter (400 x); 1 8. Neohaematorrhophus

therasii Ambrose & Livingstone (400 x); 19. Macracanthopsis nigripes Distant (400 x); 20. Irantha pepparii

Livingstone & Ravichandran (200 x); 21. Irantha armipes Stal (400 x); 22. Polididus armatissimus Stal

(400 x); 23. Cydnocoris gilvus Burmeister (200 x).

Plate 3

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 95

D. Livingstone et al. : Mandibular stylets of assassin bugs

Figs. 24-36: 24. Cydonocoris crocatus Stal (100 x); 25. Rhaphidosoma atkinsoni Bergroth (200 x);

26. Rhaphidosoma tuberculatum Distant (200 x); 27. Holoptilus melanospilus Walker (Lt. Md. Stylet)

(400 x); 28. Holoptilus melanospilus Walker (Rt. Md. Stylet) (400 x); 29. Holoptilus melanospilus, Walker

(lever) (200 x); 30. Tribelocephala indica Walker (200 x); 31. Polytoxus maculatus Distant (400 x);

32. Polytoxus maculatus Distant (mandibular lever) (200 x); 33. Bardesanes sericenotatus Livingstone &

Ravichandran (400 x); 34. Diaditus errabundus Distant (400 x); 35. Pygolampis foeda Stal (400 x);

36. Staccia diluta Stal (400 x).

Plate 4

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 95

D. Livingstone et al. : Mandibular stylets of assassin bugs

37

38 39 40

41

Figs. 37-48: 37. Canus farinator Reuter (400 x); 38. Oncocephalus notatus Klug (400 x); 39. Oncocephalus

chamundaii Livingstone & Ravichandran (400 x); 40. Oncocephalus impudicus Reuter (400 x);

41. Oncocephalus klugi Distant (400 x); 42. Oncocephalus klugi Distant (mandibular lever) (200 x);

43. Oncocephalus cingalensis walker (400 x); 44. Oncocephalus annulipes Stal (400 x); 45. Oncocephalus

schioedtei Reuter (400 x); 46. Canthesancus picticollis Stal (400 x); 47. Stenolemus susainathani Wygodzinsky

(400 x); 48. Ischnobaenella naraikkadu Wygodzinsky (400 x).

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 95

D. Livingstone et al.: Mandibular stylets of assassin bugs

Plate 5

Figs. 49-60: 49. Ectrychotes dispar Reuter ( 1 00 x); 50. Ectrychotes pilicornis Fabricius ( 1 00 x); 5 1 . Ectrychotes

bharathii Murugan & Livingstone (100 x); 52. Ectrychotes atripennis Stal (200 x); 53. Labidocoris elegans

Mayr (100 x); 54 .Haematorrhophus nigroviolaceus Reuter (50 x); 55. Haematorrhophus nigroviolaceus

(magnified view) (200 x); 56. Stegius pravus Distant (100 x); 57. Haematorrhophus nigroviolaceus Reuter

(mandibular lever) (50 x); 58. Lisarda annulosa Stal (400 x); 59. Nudiscutella frontispina Murugan &

Livingstone (400 x); 60. Petalochirus brachialis Distant (400 x).

Plate 6

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 95

D. Livingstone et al : Mandibular stylets of assassin bugs

Figs. 61-72: 61. Lisarda annuiosa Stal (mandibular lever) (200 x); 62. Acanthaspis pedestris Stal (200 x);

63. Acanthaspis siva Distant (400 x); 64. Acanthaspis quinquespinosa Fabricius (200 x); 65. Acanthaspis

angularis Stal (400 x); 66. Acanthaspis rugulosa Stal (400 x); 67. Acanthaspis siruvanii Murugan & Livingstone

(400 x); 68. Acanthaspis lineatipes Reuter (400 x); 69. Acanthaspis pedestris Stal (mandibular lever) (100 x);

70. Apechtia mesopyrrha Reuter (200 x); IX.Pasira perpusilla Walker (400 x); 72. Pasira perpusilla Walker

(mandibular lever) (400 x).

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 95

D. Livingstone et al. : Mandibular stylets of assassin bugs

Plate 7

4 | - ,,,

4YV*

14'

w

82

83

Figs. 73-84: 73. Edocla slateri Distant (400 x); 74. Edocla maculatus Murugan & Livingstone (400 x);

75. Reduvius delicatula Distant (400 x); 76. Platymeris laevicollis Distant (100 x); 77. Neoacanthapis maculatus

Murugan & Livingstone (200 x); 78. Triatoma rubrofasciata de Geer (dorsal view) (400 x); 79. Triatoma

rubrofasciata de Geer (ventral view) (400 x); 80. Ectomocoris tibialis Distant (400 x); 81. Ectomocoris

tuberculatum Livingstone & Murugan (400 x); 82. Ectomocoris quadriguttatus Fabricius (400 x);

83. Ectomocoris cordiger Stal (400 x); 84. Ectomocoris cordiger Stal (mandibular lever) (100 x);

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 95

D. Livingstone et al.\ Mandibular stylets of assassin bugs

Plate 8

85. Pirates affinis Serville (200 x); 86. Pirates quadrinotatus Fabricius (400 x);

87. Pirates lepturoides Wolff (400 x); 88. Pirates atromaculates Stal (400 x);

89. Pirates atromaculates Stal (mandibular lever) (200 x); 90. Catamiarus brevipennis Serville (200 x);

91. Sirthenea flavipes Stal (400 x).

DIVERSITY IN THE MANDIBULAR STYLETS OF ASSASSIN BUGS

227

Acknowledgements

This work was initiated at the Division of

Entomology, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore

and pursued at the Fredrick Institute of Plant

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(Heteroptera: Belostomatidae) J. Lin. Soc. (Zool). 47:

349-406.

Parsons, M.C. (1969): The labium of Aphelocheirus

aestivalis F. as compared with that of typical

Naucoridae (Heteroptera) Can. J. Zool. 47: 295-306.

Servadei, A. (1946): Reperti sulla constituzione dell

apparato boccale delle specie appartementi alle famiglie

‘Gerridae’ ‘Veliidae’ e ‘Hydrometridae’ (Hemiptera-

Heteroptera). Boll. Ent. Bologna. 15: 217-228.

Spooner, C.S. (1938): The phylogeny of Hemiptera based

on a study of the head capsule Illinois Biol. Monogr.

16: 1-102.

NEW RECORD OF SIX MARINE FISHES FROM ST. MARTIN’S CORAL

ISLAND, BAY OF BENGAL, IN BANGLADESH1

Mohammad Ali Reza Khan2

Key words: Acanthus fuliginosus, Apogon endekataenia, Choreodon robustum,

Halichoeres javanicus, Sargocentron rubrum, Thalassoma lunar e, St. Martin’s

Coral Island, Bangladesh.

This paper deals with 10 species of marine, coral-associated bony fishes from the lone coral

island in the eastern part of the Bay of Bengal. Six of these are reported from the country for

the first time. Their ecology and utilisation have also been discussed.

Introduction

Bangladesh is a country of rivers, rivulets,

marshes, estuaries, islands and long coastal belts.

Nearly 250 species of freshwater and 475 species

of marine fishes, including some 50 species of

cartilaginous fishes (Hussain 1970, Rahman 1989

and Khan et al. 1995) have been recorded in its

waters. Bangladesh is heavily dependent on the

supply of marine fish to feed its own population

and the export industry of non- traditional items.

Ichthyologists of Bangladesh started studying its

fish resources in the early nineteen fifties (Ahmad

1953) when the country was known as East

Pakistan. These old records of the Pakistan era

and the work done during the current decade, for

some reason,* do not include most of the fishes

that live among the corals of Bangladesh. It is

apparent from the existing literature and from my

own field observations that nearly 200 species of

marine fish, including 12 cartilaginous species

are landed in the fish market of St. Martin’s Coral

Island. Most of these are traditionally commercial

fishes that are being used for human consumption

at home or abroad and for making fish meal. Even

this list does not include species such as Acanthus

fuliginosus, Apogon endekataenia, Choreodon

‘Accepted June, 1997.

2Nature Conservation Movement, GPO Box-3413, Dhaka-

1000, Bangladesh.

Present Address: Dubai Zoo, P.O. Box 67 Dubai, United Arab

Emirates.

robustum, Halichoeres javanicus, H. marginatus,

Kyphosus cinerascens, Lutjanus lutjanus,

Sargocentron rubrum and Thalassoma lunare.

The status of several other species also appears

to be uncertain.

In this paper I have attempted to provide

first hand information on the ecology of six

species of fishes that inhabit the coral reefs of

Bangladesh. However, it seems all these species

have already been reported from other parts of

the Bay of Bengal but Bangladesh (Chhapgar

1989, Day 1878, Misra 1959, Munro 1955).

Study Area and Methodology

Of the several hundred offshore and inshore

islands in Bangladesh, one alone is apparently

formed of boulders and ringed by corals (Khan

1964, Khan 1982). This is the St. Martin’s Coral

Island that is locally known as Narikel Jinjira.

Located beyond the southeasternmost tip of

Bangladesh and opposite the Myanmar coast of

Akyab, St. Martin’s Coral Island is tiny, 8 sq. km

in expanse. It is dominated by coconut trees and

lies between 20° 30’ - 20° 39' N and 92° 1 8’ - 92°

2 1' E. The Coral Island is formed of a large main

island and three separated islets. The main island

has three distinct human habitations under a

village system known as Uttar Para (northern

village), Maddhya Para (middle village) and

Dakshin Para (southern village). The three

southernmost islands are collectively known as

NEW RECORD OF SIX MARINE FISHES FROM BANGLADESH

229

Siradia (meaning separated islands), covering

another square kilometre or so (Khan 1985). The

latter is connected to the southeastemmost comer

of the main island only during ebb tide. Coral

Island is a sedimentary continental island and its

main portion is dumbbell-shaped because of two

saucer-like underground base rocks (Choudhury

1985).

A border river, called Naaf, runs through

the international boundary of Bangladesh and

Myanmar. It ends in the Bay of Bengal. At this

meeting point, on one side is the last landmass of

Bangladesh, the Badarmukam and Maungdu, the

last comer of the Akyab coast of Myanmar. A

12 km wide channel of the Bay of Bengal

separates Coral Island from both the countries.

The island has been inhabited since 1850

and at present there are about 600 families with

4000 people. Almost all the islanders are

fishermen. Their fishing activities are limited

from October to April, which is the period of fair

weather. The remaining period of the year is

usually too windy, rainy or cyclonic, so that the

islanders do not dare to venture out in the Bay.

All administrative, social and economic activities

of the islanders are restricted to Uttar Para (Khan,

1998).

During the SW monsoon, communication

with Coral Island and the nearest Bangladesh

border-town of Teknaf remains disrupted for an

appreciable period. Rarely do any outsiders visit

the island at such a period. Some islanders

practice agriculture following monsoon showers.

Others remain engaged in tending the coconut

gardens, making new fishing nets or repairing old

ones and catching fish from nearby areas during

the monsoon (Khan, 1998).

I started visiting Coral Island from 1980

and to date have paid over a dozen visits, each

lasting two to seven days. All my visits except

one to the island were during the season of fair

weather. In 1994 two nature lovers from Dhaka

(Bangladesh) and I visited the island in July

amidst bad weather conditions. We again went

to the island in December-January 1994-95 but

failed to visit it in August 1995 and July- August

1996 due to inclement weather conditions. My

last visit to the island was for three days in

November 1996.

During my sojourn on the island I normally

walked across the island, sometimes following

the coastline and occasionally criss-crossing the

main island. In the process I noted wildlife of the

island by visual observations, checking fish catch

of the islanders and taking note of the fishes that

land on the makeshift fish market of the island at

Uttar Para. I tried to keep photographic records

of both the plants and animals on the island.

At the time of our visit in July 1994, we

came across half a dozen teenaged anglers

returning from an angling trip from Siradia. Also

several villagers were engaged in fishing among

the boulders in Dakshin Para with their cast nests.

Their catch included several species of fish that

looked unfamiliar to me, so I photographed them.

Later on, we also tried watching the fishes in their

natural surroundings. The measurements of the

specimens were deduced from the photographs.

The species list was forwarded to several

ichthyologists in Bangladesh and only one replied

with definite suggestions (Kader, pers. comm.).

The species identification was aided by the

fisheries experts at the Marine Fisheries

Resources Center at Umm-al-Qawain, U.A.E.

Several guide books were used to identify the

fishes (Anon. 1977, 1982, 1986; Carasson 1977,

Chhapgar 1989, Day 1878, Grant 1985, Madsen

1975, Masuda et al. 1984, Munro 1955, Randal

et al, 1978, Sirimontapom 1984). Names of the

fishes mostly follow those given in Carasson

(1977) and Munro (1955).

Results and Discussion

We took nearly 25 photographs, covering

10 species of the marine fishes of St. Martin’s

Coral Island. Six species had not been reported

from the coastal waters of Bangladesh part of the

Bay of Bengal (Gafur 1976, Hussain 1970, Khan

et al. 1995, Rahman 1989, Quddus and Shafi

230

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

1983). At least four other species that had been

considered earlier as rare or uncommon were also

found in Coral Island. Descriptions and ecological

notes on all 10 species of fishes are given below:

1. Red Soldier or Crimson Squirrel Fish:

Sargocentron rubrum (Forskal) (= Holocentrum

rubrum Bleeker 1877), Fam. Holocentridae: A

red fish with 8 silvery white longitudinal bands

and three white vertical bands behind the eye,

covering both the preopercle and opercle. All fins

and head are also reddish. The short snout is

pointed while the eyes are very large. The tail is

forked with two lighter portions bordered

marginally and centrally by darker lines. The

specimen was about 14 cm, while the maximum

recorded length is 20 cm (Day 1878). It was

caught by cast net from the rocky intertidal zone

in Dakshin Para. Not a common species.

2. Eleven-banded Cardinal Fish: Apogon

endekataenia Bleeker. Fam. Apogonidae: A

small, colourful coastal fish with pronounced

eyes, appreciably long peduncle and a black

blotch at the base of the tail. There are at least 10

longitudinal bands, half of which are reddish-

brown and others are lightly coloured. One dark

and broad band starts at the snout, passes over

the eyes and the body, ending at the notch of the

forked tail. Lateral line is prominent. Ventral fin

short and does not reach the anal fin. All fins are

reddish-brown. Two specimens measured 8 cm

and 9 cm. Rather uncommon among the coral

and other boulders. Caught by cast net from the

intertidal region of Dakshin Para.

3. Sword-Lipped Wrasse: Choerodon

robustum (Gunther) (= Xiphocheilus robustus).

Fam. Labridae: This fish attracted my attention

as it resembled the parrot fish we see regularly in

Dubai market. Both the upper and lower jaws are

equipped with tusk-like teeth, hence the other

name Red Tusk Fish. The fish when dead was

red and faded red with white jaws and tusks, and

reddish fins. The eyes were also red, with yellow

iris. The tusked teeth are meant to cut out corals

for eating. The specimen measured c. 24 cm. It

lives along the rocky shore of Coral Island.

Uncommon. Caught by the villagers using a cast

net from the boulder strewn areas of western side

of Dakshin Para.

4. Moon or Green Wrasse: Thalassoma

lunare (Linnaeus). Fam. Labridae: Quite a

colourful fish. The body is lanceolate and laterally

compressed, with continuous dorsal and anal fins

that are longitudinally banded black, red and blue.

The greenish-yellow body, reddish head and

operculum traversed by blue stripes and blue, red

and yellow tail look vivid. The tail is forked, both

ends of which extend so far backwards that the

centre takes the shape of a U or half-crescent,

that is yellowish. The name ‘moon’ wrasse has

been derived from this shape of the tail. It lives

among sand or coral stones and base rocks. Some

are also present in the live corals. The fish was

about 1 8 cm long. Caught by anglers from the

rocky intertidal zone in Siradia.

5. Javan Wrasse or Rainbow Fish:

Halichoeres javanicus (Bleeker). Fam. Labridae:

Less colourful than the sword-lipped wrasse but

looks reddish brown from snout to tail with lots

of green, while the chin, throat and abdomen are

white. Teeth more or less similar to the sword-

lipped wrasse, but much smaller. There is a

prominent black spot at the base of the orangish

pectoral fin and orangish markings over the head,

nape and cheek (opercles) are prominent. Both

the dorsal and anal fins are variously marked over

the basic green colour. There is a distinct black

spot or ocellus between the base of the 5th and

7th (out of 9) dorsal spines. Eyes red with bluish

rings. Tail rounded. The specimen measured

c. 12 cm and was caught by anglers from Siradia.

6. White-tailed or Red-tailed Surgeon

Fish: Acanthurus fuliginosus Lesson {-Acanthus

matoides, A. xanthopternus). Fam. Acanthuridae:

A grey-brown oval shaped coastal fish with a

short but tubular mouth. The pectoral fin is partly

yellow and the forked tail base is marked by a

broad white band. Both the dorsal and anal fins

have longitudinal, dark, bluish bands. From

behind the pectoral fin to the peduncle the body

is marked with bluish striations. An oblique

NEW RECORD OF SIX MARINE FISHES FROM BANGLADESH

231

yellow band in front of the eye and a slight

depression over it are clearly visible. There is a

single spine over the peduncle. It was caught by

cast net from the rocky areas and measured 21

cm. Not a common fish.

The following species (7-10.) are rather

uncommon in our waters. They are not

traditionally caught in the fishing gear but by cast

nets or caught by anglers. They are apparently

more common in the rocky near-shore and coral

bearing areas of Coral Island than in the open

sea.

7. Rosy Snapper: Lutjanus lutjanus Bloch,

Fam. Lutjanidae: It is the nominate race for the

genus and was founded by Bloch in 1790. The

name seems appropriate as the sides of the body

of the fish have rosy to reddish lines each of which

is separated from the next by a lighter one. Red

lines also criss-cross the area ahead of, behind

and under the prominently white eyes and extend

up to the opercles. Those over the lateral line are

rather oblique, almost up to the base of the soft

portion of the dorsal fin, and then become straight

till the end of the soft fin. Back olivaceous. The

forked tail is dark with light red border. Upper

canine teeth are prominent and the fish had no

ocellus or black spot over the body. The specimen

measured about 13 cm and was caught by cast

net. An uncommon species. Khan et al. (1995)

have reported it for the first time from

Bangladesh.

8. Ashen Drummer Kyphosus cinerascens

(Forskal). Fam. Kyphosidae (Sparidae): A silvery

grey, perch-like, rock-dwelling coastal fish with

an elongated caudal peduncle, dark eyes and fins,

whitish bands over the preopercle and opercle.

The snout is short and dark. Interorbital area,

opercle and preopercle covered by smaller scales.

The specimen was caught by anglers from the

rocky intertidal zone. It was c. 22 cm long and

Hussain (1970) reported the species for the first

time from Bangladesh.

9. Two-eyed Wrasse or Speckled

Rainbow Fish: Halichoeres marginatus. Fam.

Labridae: This is another colourful marine fish

that abounds in the rocky shores of St. Martin’s

Coral Island. It is laterally compressed and rather

pear-shaped. The colour of the specimen on my

palm was dominated by black and blue. The most

distinctive feature seemed to be the yellow patch

on the blue-black pectoral fin. Each scale on the

body had a dark patch, which over the back,

shoulder and head formed continuous and

organised lines or streaks. The continuous dorsal

and anal fins had blue-edged marks. The tail was

rather rounded and variously coloured. Eyes

greenish-blue. The specimen caught by the

anglers resembled the description of the type

specimen more than the one collected from the

Andamans and illustrated by Day (1878). It

measured c. 16 cm. Hussain (1970) is possibly

the first to report it from Bangladesh.

10. Zebra or Blue Angelfish:

Pomacanthodes semicirculatus (Cuvier). Fam:

Pomacanthidae. The specimen is a juvenile

caught from the tiny pools formed in the rocky

intertidal region of Siradia. It is bluish-black with

prominent white, broad bands alternating with

blue ones, peduncle banded but tail bandless and

almost whitish. The posterior white bands end in

the anal and dorsal fins. Body shape deep as in

other angelfish and measured 4.7 cm. A second

specimen was 2.4 cm. They were caught by

children with the help of a cloth net. This species

is uncommon, but a second species Ringed

Emperor Angelfish (P. annularis) is common

around the island. Hussain (1970) at first

considered the former as uncommon but later as

common. Adults of these fishes may be present

in deeper water while the fingerlings seem to

prefer the rocky intertidal region.

In addition to the above, I had also noted a

couple of species of Blenny in the rocky and coral

pools at Uttar Para, Dakshin Para and Siradia. I

do not think that this has yet been reported from

the country.

Some of the people of Coral island are

traditionally not fishermen but farmers or farm

labourers. They generally fish with cast nets and

other smaller fishing gear. Their daily fish catch

232

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

rarely exceeds 2 kg, barely sufficient for the daily

requirement of a family of five or six. Teenagers

also go fishing with rod and line to bring in

sustenance level food for their families. To reach

Siradia they walk nearly 16 km to and fro. These

two groups of islanders generally do not sell their

catch in the market but keep it for home

consumption. Such fishing is more prevalent

during the monsoon when inclement weather

compels the people to remain indoors, making

them jobless. The fish usually caught through

these non-traditional methods and on non-

commercial basis provide subsistence to the

poorer section of the population of Coral Island.

Therefore, to better the economic conditions of

the local people, this non-traditional fishing is

quite important and needs to be encouraged.

As far as the marine fishes of Bangladesh are

concerned, there is only one paper by Hussain

(1970) that provides a complete list. This even

includes certain genera without mention-

ing species that are likely to be present in

Bangladesh. Six species of fish recorded here find

no mention in his work or those of Khan et al.

(1995), Rahman (1989) and Quddus and Shafi

(1983).

I believe that, in the past, both earlier and

recent fish experts in Bangladesh depended

almost entirely on the fish samples caught in their

research vessels or on the samples collected from

the market for preparing their lists of fishes of

the country. So species that abound in the rocky

shores and live in coral beds of Coral Island were

possibly missed, simply because these did not

appear in the fish markets.

Further investigations are needed to get an

overview of the marine fishes of St. Martin’s

Coral Island of Bangladesh. Scuba diving may

also reveal new records of fish and inver-

tebrate species. It may also highlight the

abundance of fish species preferring the rocky

and coral areas. This is a new avenue for fishery

experts of Bangladesh, which they may venture

into in the immediate future.

Acknowledgements

I thank to Messrs. Shigeysu Tamaei,

Japanese International Cooperation Agency’s fish

expert, Mohammad Abdul Razzak (former

Director) and Mohammad Abdel Rahim Hassan

al Zarouni, Director, Marine Resources Research

Centre, UAQ, UAE, for helping me in identifying

the fishes from photographs and allowing me to

use their reference books. I thank Prof. Mohd.

Abdul Kader, Institute of Marine Fisheries and

Dr. Mohammad Farid Ahsan, Associate Professor

of Zoology, Chittagong University, Chittagong

for identifications; Messrs. M. M. Hussain,

former Chairman, Fisheries Development

Corporation and A.K. Ataur Rahman, former

Director General, Directorate of Fisheries,

Government of Bangladesh, Dhaka for literature;

Mohammad Anisuzzaman Khan, Director,

Nature Conservation Movement, Dhaka, for

accompanying me on my field trips to the Coral

Island, and Abul Kasem Master of St. Martin’s

Coral Island for his hospitality and guidance. My

gratitude to my wife Nurum Nahar needs special

mention as she had not only led a “widowed life”

during my sojourn at the island but also

generously financed my trips.

References

Ahmad, N. (1953): Fish fauna of East Pakistan. Pak.

Journ. Science, Lahore. 5(1): 18-24.

Anonymous (1977): Simon & Schuster’s Guide to

Freshwater and Marine Aquarium Fishes. A Fireside

Book: Simon and Schuster Inc., New York.

Anonymous (1982): A Colour Guide to the Fishes of the

South China Sea and the Andaman Sea. Primary

Production Department, SEAFDEC, Singapore.

Anonymous (1986): Fishes of the Sultanate of Oman.

Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries Resources,

Muscat, Oman.

Carasson, R.H. (1977): Field Guide to the Coral Reef

Fishes of the Indian and West Pacific Oceans. William

Collins Sons Co. Ltd., U.K.

NEW RECORD OF SIX MARINE FISHES FROM BANGLADESH

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Chhapgar, B.F. (1989): Common Fishes of India. World

Wide Fund for Nature-India, Bombay.

Choudhury, M.I. (1985): Probal Deep (in Bengali

meaning coral island). Bangla Academy, Dhaka,

Bangladesh.

Day, F. (1878): The Fishes of India: being a Natural

History of Fishes known to inhabit the Seas and

Freshwaters of India, Burma and Ceylon. Vol 1 & 2.

Reprint Edition, 1 994 Jagmander Book Agency, New

Delhi.

Gofur, A. (1976): The Ichthyofauna of the Kamaphully

Estuary (Chittagong, Bangladesh). M.Sc. Thesis

(unpubl.), Institute of Marine Sciences, Chittagong

University, Bangladesh.

Grant, E.M. (1985): Guide to Fishes. Department of

Harbours and Marine, Australia.

Hussain, M.M. (1970): Marine and estuarine fishes of

the northeast part of Bay of Bengal. Scientific

Researches 7 (1): 26-55.

Khan, F.H. (1964): Geology of St. Martin’s Island. GSB,

Vol-10, Part 2-B of the Geological Survey of Pakistan.

Khan, Mohammad A.R. (1982): Wildlife of Bangladesh-

a checklist. Dhaka University, Bangladesh.

Khan, Mohammad A.R. (1985): St. Martin’s - a vanish-

ing coral Island of Bangladesh. Tigerpaper 12(4):

6-12.

Khan, Mohammad A.R. (1998): Probal Deep St. Martin’s

(In Bengali). National Conservation Strategy

Implementation Project- 1, Ministry of Environment

and Forests, Govt, of Bangladesh, Dhaka.

Khan, Ataur R., Gyasuddin Khan, Zubeir Ahmed, Golam

Mustafa, & M. Nasiruddin (1995): Economically

Important Marine Fishes and Shell Fishes of

Bangladesh. Marine Branch, Directorate of Fisheries,

Govt, of Bangladesh, Dhaka.

Madsen, J.M. (1975): Aquarium Fishes in Color.

Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., New York.

Masuda, Hajime, Kunio Amaoka, Chuichi Araga, Teruya

Uyeno & Tetsuo Yoshino (1984): The Fishes of the

Japanese Archipelago. Tokai University Press, Tokyo,

Japan.

Misra, K.S. (1959): An aid to the identification of

common commercial fishes of India and Pakistan. Rec.

Indian Mus. 57: 1-320.

Munro, I.S.R. (1955): The Marine and Freshwater Fishes

of Ceylon. 1982 Reprint Edition by Sony Reprints

Agency, New Delhi, India.

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Rahman, Ataur A.R. (1989): Freshwater Fishes of

Bangladesh (including estuarine species). Zoological

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(Thailand). Japan International Cooperation Agency,

Tokyo, Japan.

ACTIVITY PATTERNS AND TIME BUDGETS OF THE PHEASANT-TAILED

( HYDROPHASIANUS CHIRURGUS) AND BRONZEWINGED

{ME T OPIDIUS INDICUS) JACANAS1

Ramachandran, N.K.2

( With four text-figures)

Key words: Metopidius indicus, Hydrophasianus chirurgus, activity pattern,

time budget, ethogram.

The activity patterns and time budgeting of both the pheasant-tailed {Hydrophasianus

chirurgus) and bronzewinged {Metopidius indicus) jacanas were studied in different

seasons. Ethograms for these two species were compiled. These species employed two

types of feeding methods: ‘feeding while ducking’ and ‘feeding while walking’. The time

allotment in all seasons for feeding was high, followed by maintenance, except in the case

of the breeding pheasant-tailed jacana. A consistent feature of the diurnal activity pattern

of the pheasant-tailed jacana was a slight increase in feeding activities corresponding to

the low maintenance activity during the evening. The bronzewinged jacana had a consistent

diurnal activity pattern: two feeding bouts, between 0700 and 1 100 hrs and between 1300

and 1500 hrs, punctuated by a maintenance bout. Statistically significant difference and

similarities among seasons in the feeding and maintenance were noted in both species.

Introduction

The behavioural patterns of animals are

the product of their interaction to external biotic

and abiotic stimuli. Time or activity budget is a

quantitative description of how animals

apportion their time for feeding and other

activities (Baldassarre and Bolen 1994).

Although some types of behaviour require more

time and energy than others, the optimizing

paradigm predicts that the individual performs

at the most opportune time (Smith 1976).

Because of the chance component, the underlying

rhythm of any behaviour repertoire can be

modified in most cases and, therefore, the

behavioural pattern is probabilistic.

'Accepted January, 1996

2Bombay Natural History Society,

Hombill House, S.B. Singh Road, Salim Ali Chowk,

Mumbai- 400 023.

Present Address:

Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History,

Anaikatti P.O. Coimbatore 641 108, Tamil Nadu.

Examining the influences of temporal and

environmental factors on a species’ time budget

will enable us to understand the ecological

significance of behavioural pattern (Boettcher

and Haig 1 994). Time-activity budgets have been

reported in many species of water birds,

especially ducks (Baldassarre and Bolen 1994),

geese (Raveling et al. 1972: Burton and Hudson

1978; Eberhardt et al. 1989; Marquiss and

Duncan 1994) and waders (Boettcher and Haig

1994, Eguchi 1988). There are a few studies from

India on ducks (Sridharan 1989) and other taxa

of water birds, namely purple moorhen

(Bhupathy 1985) and coot (Jayaraman 1985).

The time activity budget has not been studied in

any jacana species so far. This paper presents

the results of a study on the activity patterns and

time budget of the pheasant-tailed

Hydrophasianus chirurgus and the bronzewinged

Metopidius indicus jacanas occurring in the

Indian subcontinent and a comparison of patterns

with those of other water birds. An attempt was

A CHVITYPA TTERNS AND TIME BUDGETS OFJA CAN AS

235

also made to find out the adaptive significance

of the activity pattern followed by the jacanas.

Study Area

The study was conducted in a wetland,

Keoladeo National Park situated in the

Indogangetic plains (27° 7.6' to 27° 12.2’ N lat,

77° 29.5' to 77° 33.9' E long.). The total area of

the Park is 29 sq. km with a waterspread area of

8.5 sq. km. The aquatic portion of the Park has

been divided into various unequal compartments

or blocks by means of dykes.

Methodology

The pheasant-tailed and bronzewinged

jacanas were studied from 1986 to 1987 covering

three major seasons, namely monsoon, winter

and summer. The focal animal method (Altman

1974) was used, sampling at predetermined

intervals of 15 minutes. In one hour, two such

samples were taken. All observations were made

from dykes, using binoculars ( lOx) and telescope

(20x). The duration or the bout of activities was

measured with an electronic stopwatch. The

average length of prolonged activities such as

‘feeding while walking’ and ‘feeding while

ducking’ could not be calculated from the data,

as the activities flowed over the sampling

duration. Short duration activities comprised

calling, flying, chasing, head scratching, wing

flapping, running, preening, alert and attack.

Some of these activities occurred in a combined

form. For instance, chasing mostly consisted of

flying and calling, and could not be separated.

Where separation of activities was practically

difficult, such activities are reported in combined

form.

One full-day observation was taken either

at a stretch or in two or three days. The

observations on second or third day were started

from the time they were called off on the previous

day. The identity of the bird on the second day

was ascertained by its parochial nature. At times,

it was very difficult and the identification was

doubtful. However, in a day-long observation, the

same individual was followed and only when it

disappeared from sight was another spotted for

observation. This happened frequently in the case

of the pheasant-tailed jacana, as it often moved

away from sight.

Usually, observation started at 0700 hrs

and terminatod at 1800 hrs. But it varied,

depending on the variation in the time of sunrise

and sunset, from season to season. Hourly data

on each activity was converted into percentages

for month-wise comparison.

The activity pattern of the pheasant-tailed

jacana was studied over three years and data was

pooled into five seasons, whereas the

bronzewinged jacana was studied over four

different seasons. The seasons were defined with

respect to the weather, regardless of the year.

The activities of jacanas were classified

into three major groups for analysis, namely

feeding, maintenance and alert. Depending on

the methods used, feeding is further broken up

into ‘feeding while walking’ and ‘feeding while

ducking’. The ‘feeding while walking’ technique

was employed when the substrate was rather

hard, i.e. thick growth of grass or Eichhornia

eras sipes or Trapa natans and ‘feeding while

ducking’ was noted while on floating and

submerged vegetation. The maintenance

activities include mainly preening and bathing,

and ‘alert’ was when the bird called off an activity

abruptly and looked around keenly. The rest

comprised flying, walking, calling and agoni Stic

interactions. The last one included chasing by

running or by flying after the intruder. In most

cases, the birds uttered a shrill call on taking

wing.

Different samples of the same season were

pooled, and the activity pattern for that season

was plotted, using a locally weighted smoothing

procedure (Wilkinson 1988a). The paired ‘t’ tests

(Sokal and Rohlf, 1969) were employed for

seasonal comparison of activities using SYSTAT

(Wilkinson 1988b).

236

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

Table 1

FREQUENCY AND BOUT LENGTH IN THE PHEASANT-TAILED JACANA

Table 2

FREQUENCY AND BOUT LENGTH IN THE BRONZEWINGED JACANA

Bout length (in seconds)

A CTIVITY PA TTERNS AND TIME BUDGETS OF J A CAN AS

237

Results

Ethogram of jacanas

An ethogram is the set of behavioural

categories that is considered for describing the

behaviour of a given species (Haccou and Meelis

1992). Altogether 22 and 16 behavioural

categories were identified for the pheasant-tailed

and the bronze winged jacanas respectively. The

most frequent category was feeding while

walking, followed by preening, and alert for the

pheasant-tailed (Table 1) and feeding, preening,

and alert for the bronzewinged jacana (Table 2).

The major feeding strategy of the pheasant-

tailed jacana was feeding while ducking,

indicating its preference for submerged

vegetation. The shortest activity (total time spent:

0.03 minutes) of the pheasant-tailed was flying

+ calling + chasing and that of the bronze-

winged was wing stretching, followed by wing

flapping (Table 1 & 2). Although the

bronzewinged employed two strategies for

feeding, as did the pheasant-tailed, they are

reported here in a combined form. In the

bronze winged jacana the maximum duration of

preening was 1 800 seconds, occurring after the

bath which can be considered as “preening

proper” and the minimum duration of preening

was 5 sec.

PHEASANT-TAILED JACANA

In all seasons, the pheasant-tailed spent

Hours

□ Feeding 0 (Maintenance 0A,ert

□ Flying M Agonistic

□ Feeding

H Flying

Hours

□ Alert I Maintenance

0 Agonistic

Fig. la: Activity pattern of the Pheasant-tailed

jacana during monsoon 1986

Fig. la: Activity pattern of the Pheasant-tailed

jacana during winter 1986-87

238

JOURNAL, BOMBA YNA TURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 95 (1998)

0 Feeding 0 Maintenance 0 Alert

0 Flying ■ Walking

Fig. lc: Activity pattern of the Pheasant-tailed

jacana during summer 1987

most of the day time for feeding, followed by

maintenance. However, difference in their

rhythm of feeding as well as maintenance

activities was noticed (Figs, la, lb, lc, ld& le).

The only constant feature was a slight increase

in the feeding activities, with a correspondingly

low maintenance activity during the evening

from 1400 to 1600 hrs in all the seasons

(Fig. 2).

Seasonality in feeding and maintenance

activities

The pattern of feeding activity in the

monsoon of 1987 and winters of 1987 and 1988

was similar, and the pattern in the monsoon of

Hours

0 Feeding Q Maintenance 0 Alert

B NyN CD Walking D Agonistic

H Nest building

Fig. Id: Activity pattern of the Pheasant-tailed

jacana during monsoon 1987

1986 and summer of 1988 was similar. The

pattern of maintenance activity in general was

inversely proportional to that of feeding, except

in the winter of 1987 (Fig. 2). They began

roosting at about 1 800 hrs in the winter. Prior to

this, they indulged in preening, and flew about

for a short duration. The roosting behaviour of

the pheasant-tailed jacana could be studied only

in one winter, and it was noted that they roost in

closed groups in Eichhomia patches.

The allocation of time for feeding did not

vary between different pairs of seasons except

for the monsoon of 1987 (Table 3). This was

because during this season observation was made

on an individual of a breeding population outside

A CT1VITY PA TTERNS AND TIME BUDGETS OF J A CAN AS

239

Hours

0 Feeding B Maintenance □ Alert

0 Flying ||] Calling □ Walking

| Agonistic

Fig. le: Activity pattern of the Pheasant-tailed

Jacana during winter 1987-88

the Park. The pattern is entirely different while

breeding. They spent a great deal of time on

maintenance. Apart from this, the allocation of

time for feeding varied between the summer of

1988 and winter of 1986-87 (Table 3).

The time allotment for maintenance

activity during the monsoon of 1987 also differed

significantly from that of other seasons (Table

4). In addition to this, in all other seasons, except

between the monsoon of 1986 and the summer

of 1988 and, between the summer of 1988 and

winter of 1987-88, the time allocation for

maintenance activity varied (Table 4).

Monthly time budget

The pheasant-tailed jacana spent a major

portion of its time for feeding, followed by

FEEDING MAINTENANCE

Fig. 2: Diurnal feeding and maintenance patterns in

Pheasant-tailed Jacana in different seasons

maintenance in all months except in July

(TableS).

BRONZEWINGED JACANA

The major activity of the bronzewinged

jacana was feeding in all the seasons, followed

by maintenance activities (Fig. 3a). These two

activities together consumed the major share of

their total day time. In contrast to the pheasant-

tailed jacana, their activity showed a more or less

distinct and consistent pattern in feeding and a

corresponding diametrically opposite pattern in

maintenance in all seasons (Fig. 4). Feeding

peaked between 0700 and 1 100 hr s and between

1300 and 1500 hrs, whereas maintenance peaked

between 1100 and 1300 hrs. This pattern is

almost similar in all the seasons. Thus, there were

240

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

Table 3

SEASONAL VARIATION IN THE FEEDING TIME OF THE PHEASANT-TAILED JACANA

A CHVITYPA TTERNS AND TIME B UDGETS OF J A CAN AS

241

Hours

0 Feeding 0 Maintenance □ Alert

0 Agonistic □ Running □ Walking

Fig. 3a: Activity pattern of the Bronzewinged Jacana

during monsoon 1986

Hours

□ Feeding 0 Maintenance H Alert

□ Flying □Calling □ Agonistic

B Walking □ Running

Fig. 3b: Activity pattern of the Bronzewinged Jacana

during winter 1986-87

Tables

MONTHLY TIME BUDGETS OF THE PHEASANT-TAILED JACANA (IN %)

242

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

Table 6

SEASONAL VARIATIONS IN THE FEEDING TIME FOR

BRONZEWINGED JACANA

two feeding bouts punctuated by maintenance

bouts.

Seasonality in feeding and maintenance

The data when subjected to paired ‘t’ test

showed that daily time allocation for feeding

in the winter of 1986-87 varied significantly

from and was higher than in all other seasons

(Table 6).

The time allotted for maintenance in the

winter of 1986-87 varied significantly from all

other seasons but among the rest of the seasons

there was not much variation (Table 7).

Table 7

SEASONAL VARIATIONS IN THE

MAINTENANCE TIME FOR BRONZEWINGED

JACANA

Monthly time budget

Time budgeting of the bronzewinged

jacana was studied for nine months (Table 8).

Like the pheasant-tailed, it also spent a large

proportion of time on feeding, followed by

maintenance activities in all months. The time

spent for feeding during December was higher

than in any other month. Preening and bathing

were the major maintenance activities.

Agonistic interactions in the bronzewinged

jacana comprised intraspecific interactions and

the defence of its young from predators. These

Table 8

MONTHLY TIME BUDGETS OF THE BRONZEWINGED JACANA (in %)

ACTIVITY PA TTERNS AND TIME BUDGETS OFJACANAS

243

40%

20%

6-9 9-10 10-11 11-12 12-1 1-2 2-3 3-4 4-5 5-6

Hours

Q Feeding Qj] Maintenance I Alert

0 Flying □ Calling □ Agonistic

0 Walking □ Running

Fig. 3c: Activity pattern of the Bronzewinged Jacana

during winter 1987-88

were given more time in the breeding season and

after, till the juveniles dispersed. They chased

the intruders either by flying or running after

them. Usually they produced a chain of shrill

calls, like an electronic alarm clock, with

intermittent gaps. Each unit of the call is of very

short duration.

Discussion

Most organisms apportion their time for

different behavioural activities. The optimal

budgeting of time and energy between foraging

versus non-foraging activities is, evidently,

profoundly influenced by the circadian and

seasonal rhythms of physical conditions, as well

Hours

□ Feeding 0 Maintenance □Alert

□ Agonistic □Flying □ Walking

Fig. 3d: Activity pattern of the Bronzewinged Jacana

during summer 1988

as those of predators and prey.The pheasant-

tailed jacana showed no clear-cut consistent

pattern in feeding and maintenance activities in

any season. This may be due to the time spent

for contingencies having masked the patterns by

redistributing the temporal order of normal

activity. The activity rhythm, being a probabilistic

average, needs a larger number of samplings to

reveal its pattern; this might have played a role

in the inconsistency shown in our observations

on pheasant-tailed jacana. The bronzewinged

jacana showed a more or less consistent pattern.

It was observed that both the species set

aside a considerable amount of the day time for

feeding, followed by maintenance, with the two

activities being inversely related. Similar patterns

244

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

FEEDING MAINTENANCE

Fig. 4: Diurnal feeding and maintenance patterns in

Bronzewinged Jacana in different seasons

were reported in the purple moorhen Porphyrio

porphyrio (Bhupathy 1985) and coot Fulica atra

(Jayaraman 1985) from KNP. A review of activity

budget of water-fowl by Baldassarre and Bolen

( 1 994) revealed similar trends in waterfowl, with

the two activities (feeding and resting) being

inversely related. The time spent for feeding and

maintenance in the pheasant-tailed ranged from

47-89% and 7-40% respectively, whereas in the

bronzewinged it was 61-91% and 6-43%. These

values are comparable to those obtained for

ducks, geese and purple moorhens. The average

time spent for feeding is 20-60% and 30-90%

for ducks and geese respectively, and for both

resting averages 10-50% (Baldassarre and Bolen

1984). In the purple moorhen, feeding and

maintenance values were 59% and 33%

respectively (Bhupathy 1985).

Since I have not studied the pheasant-tailed

in the nest, other activities like incubation, chick

feeding and defence were not recorded. The

pheasant-tailed jacana, during the breeding

period, spent most of their time for maintenance

activities. This seems to be a behavioural

response to the productive territory it occupied,

in which it need not spend a lot of time searching

for nutritious food. The waterfowl selecting food

with low water and high energy content, and high

availability, spent the least amount of time on

feeding (Baldassarre and Bolen 1994). The

common teal Anas crecca feeding on readily

available, high energy waste corn in Texas,

expended only 15-20% of their day time budget

on feeding activities (Quinlan and Baldassarre

1994). Similar observations were also made on

lesser snow geese Anser caerulescens

caerulescens in Iowa (Fredrick and Klaas 1982).

The availability of nutritious food, suitable

habitat and environmental factors (temperature

and rainfall) explains the differences in seasonal

time allotment for feeding and maintenance in

both species of jacanas. The seasonal differences

in the time apportioned for feeding and

maintenance are not pronounced in the pheasant-

tailed jacana, as the time spent for contingencies

might have masked the patterns by redistributing

the temporal order of normal activity. Brady

(1982) states that the circadian control of the

daily, repeated, ongoing and normal behaviour

rhythm should only be represented as

probabilistic average, and does not prevent

animals from making instantaneous, ad hoc

responses when the need arises.

Nevertheless, the time budgets in jacana

species are influenced by habitat conditions, food

choice and availability, and environmental factors.

Acknowledgement

The study was conducted as part of

the BNHS project on the Ecology of Keoladeo

National Park, funded by the US Fish &

Wildlife Service, and sponsored by the Govt, of

India.

I am indebted to Mr. J.C. Daniel and Dr.

V.S. Vijayan of BNHS for encouragement. I thank

the Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural

ACTIVITY PA TTERNS AND TIME BUDGETS OFJA CANAS

245

History, Coimbatore for computer and library Department officials for their cooperation during

facilities. I am also grateful to Rajasthan Forest the period of study.

References

Altman, J. (1974): Observational study of behaviour:

sampling methods. Behaviour 49: 227-267 .

Baldassarre, G.A. & E.G. Bolen (1994): Waterfowl

ecology and management. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

New York, pp 224-28 1 .

Bhupathy, S. (1985): Ecology of Purple Moorhen

( Porphyrio porphyrio ) from January to March 1985

in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur. M.Sc.

dissertation, Bharathidasan University,

Thiruchirapalli, Tamil Nadu, India.

Boettcher, R. & S.M. Haig (1994): Behavioural pattern

and nearest neighbour distance among nonbreeding

American Avocets. Condor 96: 973-986.

Brady, J. ( 1 982): Circadian rhythm in animal physiology.

In: Biological Time Keeping (Ed. John Brady).

Society for Experimental Biology. Seminar series 14,

Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 1 2 1 - 1 42.

Burton, B.A. & J.R. Hudson (1978): Activity budgets of

Lesser Snow Geese wintering on the Fraser River

Estuary, British Columbia, Wildfowl 29: 1 1 1-1 17.

Eberhardt, L.E., G.G. Books, R.G. Anthony & W.H.

Rickard (1989): Activity budgets of Canada Geese

during brood rearing. Auk 106: 218-224.

Eguchi, K. (1988): The ecological significance of time

budgets of the Brown Dipper, Cinclus pallasi

Temminck. Ecology 38: 243-255.

Fredrick, R.B. & E.E. Klaas (1982): Resource use and

behaviour of migrating Snow Geese. J. Wildl.

Manage. 46: 601-614.

Haccou, P. & E. Meelis (1992): Statistical analysis of

behavioural data: An approach based on time

structured models. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

P 7.

Jayaraman, S. ( 1 985): Wintering ecology of Coots Fulica

atra in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur,

Rajasthan. M.Sc. dissertation, Bharathidasan

University, Thiruchirapalli, Tamil Nadu, India.

Marquiss, M. & K. Duncan (1994): Diurnal activity

patterns of Goosanders Mergus merganser on a

Scottish river system. Wildfowl 45: 209-221.

Quinlan, E.E. & G.E. Baldassarre (1984): Activity budget

of nonbreeding Green-winged Teal on playa lakes in

Texas. J. Wildl. Manage. 48: 838-845.

Raveling, D.G., W.E. Crews & W.D. Klimstra (1972):

Activity patterns of Canada Geese during winter.

Wilson Bull. 84: 278-295.

Smith, J.M. (1976): Evolution and theory of games.

American Sci. 64: 41-45.

Sokal, R.R. & F.J. Rohlf (1969): Biometry. W.H. Freman

& Co., San Francisco, USA.

Sridharan, U. (1989): Comparative ecology of resident

Ducks in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur,

Rajasthan. Ph.D. Thesis University of Bombay,

Bombay.

Wilkinson, L. (1988a): Sygraph: The system for graphics.

Evanston, IL: Systat Inc. p 923.

Wilkinson, L. (1988b): Systat: The system for statistical

analysis, Evanston, IL: Systat Inc. p 923.

POSTNATAL GROWTH OF CAPTIVE RHESUS MACAQUES ( MACACA

MULATTA) DURING THE FIRST MONTH OF LIFE1

B. Maity and D.S. Rathore2

( With ten text-figures)

Key words: Neonatal growth, body measurements, Macaca mulatta.

9

Environmental conditions affect the health and development of neonates. The growth rate

of 1 8 neonates of rhesus macaque ( Macaca mulatta) (7 males and 1 1 females) bom in

captivity was determined with weekly measurements of 13 different body dimensions

including weight and dental development from day 1 to day 30 of age.The study showed

that day 15 was the zenith period of neonatal growth and the growth rates of day 8 and day

30 were almost same in male and female neonates under captive conditions.

Introduction

Biomedical research demands sound health

and accurate age of laboratory animals. Data on

birth weight, growth rates, sex, feeding schedules,

ambient environment etc. are also essential for

biomedical research. Many scientists have

worked on the effects of laboratory conditions,

parental care and feeding schedule in neonatal

growth and development of macaques and

baboons. (Saxton and Lotz 1990, Sackett and

Ruppenthal 1992, Glassman and Coelho 1988).

Skeletal growth of specific anatomical structures

of rhesus and marmoset monkeys have been

studied to determine age in relation to growth rate

(Phillips 1976, Michejda 1986). Newell-Morris

et al. (1991) have also studied postnatal growth

and skeletal maturation in Macaca nemestrina.

Many scientists have developed and adopted

many techniques and methods to measure outer

body to establish growth rates in relation to age

of human fetuses and non-human primates

(Schultz 1929, Sirianni and Swindler 1985,

Saxton and Lotz 1990, Schneiderman 1993), but

no information is available on growth rates of

different body dimensions from day 1 to day 30

of age in rhesus macaques under optimum

laboratory conditions. We present detailed results

'Accepted February, 1 997

2 National Laboratory Animal Centre,

Central Drug Research Institute, P.O. Box 173,

Lucknow-226001, U.P. India.

of measurements of different body dimensions,

growth rates, body weight and dental

development from age day 1 to day 30 of rhesus

macaques, born and reared under optimum

laboratory conditions.

Material and methods

The subjects were 1 8 neonates (7 males and

1 1 females) of Macaca mulatta bom at the

National Laboratory Animal Centre, Central Dmg

Research Institute, Lucknow, India. All the

infants were born full term and normally

delivered from timed mated mothers housed in

individual steel cages, 65 x 76 cm in size, under

optimum and hygienic laboratory conditions : 1 2

hr. light cycle; 24°C ± 3°C temperature and 55 ±

5% relative humidity. All animals were provided

with 100 gm pellets (Lipton India Ltd.), 150 gm

vegetables, 125 gm bananas, 50 gm citrus fruits,

1 00 gm brown bread and water ad-lib. Each infant

monkey was housed with its mother during the

experiment under the same laboratory conditions

and evaluated as soon as possible after delivery.

Thirteen different body dimensions including

weight and dental development were measured

for each animal at weekly intervals from ages

day 1 to day 30. The infants were sedated using

(0.2 mg/infant) Ketamine during restraint

for measurements of the following parameters.

(Calipers, electric platform balance, measuring

board and tape were used for measurements):

POSTNA TAL GROWTH OF CAPTIVE RHESUS MACAQUES

247

Table 1

BODY MEASUREMENTS (MEAN ± SD) OF INFANT RHESUS MONKEY AT 7/8 DAYS INTERVALS.

1 . Bitrochanteric width (Hip) - Hip width was

measured with each end of the open calipers

on the trochanterion laterale and the

measurements were taken with the animal

in a crawling position.

2. Full length of arm - The distance between

the head of humerus and the tip of middle

finger. Calipers was used for this

measurement.

3. Full length of leg - The distance from the

top of the greater trochanter (axis of femur)

to the tip of middle toe. It was also measured

with calipers.

4. Full length of animal - It was measured in

the following two ways:

a) V ertex to tail - The distance between the

vertex and end of tail was measured

dorsally with calipers in a straight

position of legs, arms and head.

b) Nose to middle toe - The distance

between nose and the tip of the middle

toe was measured dorsally in two steps

with calipers in a straight position of

legs, arms and head.

248

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

Table 1 ( contd .)

BODY MEASUREMENTS (MEAN ± SD) OF INFANT RHESUS MONKEY AT 7/8 DAYS INTERVALS.

5 . Length of fingers - All fingers were measured

dorsally with calipers from metacarpo-

phalangeal joint to the finger tip.

6. Length of toes - Distance between the end

metatarsophalangeal joint to the tip of the toe.

7 . Length of palm - Distance between wrist and

the beginning of middle finger.

8. Length of foot - From heel to the beginning

of middle toe.

9. Chest - Measured using a measuring tape

around the whole body just above the

nipples.

10. Nipple distance - The distance between the

two nipples (paps)

1 1 . Length of shoulder - Distance between heads

of the two humeruses. It was measured

ventrally with straight position of arms.

12. Sitting height - The distance from head to

hip with the animal in a sitting position

against the measuring board.

1 3 . Tail length - Tail was measured with calipers

from ventral side of body.

14. Body weight - It was measured with an

electric platform balance. Growth rates were

calculated by Fisher’ s equation (Fisher 1921)

and compared by Mann Whitney U test (Zar

1974).

Results

Table 1 presents the mean ± SD of each

parameter measured in our study for male and

female neonates. Growth rates were calculated

POSTNA TAL GROWTH OF CAPTIVE RHESUS MA CA QUES

249

Table 2

GROWTH RATES (MEAN ± SD) OF DIFFERENT BODY DIMENSIONS OF INFANT MACAQUES AT

7/8 DAYS INTERVALS.

Age- Day 8th Day 15th Day 22nd Day 30th

for each individual animal using the following

equation (Fisher 1921), rate In (S2) - In (S^/time,

in which ‘S’ is the individual measurement and

the time is the time interval between

measurements Sj & Sr These individually

derived growth rates were then averaged. The

mean ± SD of growth rate for each parameter of

our study is also presented in Table 2.

Comparative graphs of mean growth rates for

body weight, sitting height, leg and arm length,

palm and foot length, total length of animal

(vertex to tail), fingers and toes length (thumb

and little) in male and female neonates are

presented (Figs. 1 to 10). It has been observed

that birth weight and the growth rates of different

body dimensions were the same in male and

female rhesus macaques from day 1 to day 30

(P> 0.05). The zenith period of infant growth in

250

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

Table 2 ( contd .)

GROWTH RATES (MEAN ± SD) OF DIFFERENT BODY DIMENSIONS OF INFANT MACAQUES AT

7/8 DAYS INTERVALS.

rate declined gradually; and the growth rate of

day 30 became almost equal to day 8. It has been

found that the growth rate of big toe was the same

from age day 8 to day 30. Two lower incisors

were developed on day 8, but budding started on

day 4. Four lower and four upper incisors were

found on day 30 in almost all infants.

Discussion

Laboratory conditions affect health and

development of animals, and biomedical research

demands healthy animals along with data on age,

growth rates, feeding schedule etc. Therefore the

development and measurement of growth rate to

evaluate age and health status of laboratory

animals are very essential. Radiographical

observations on skeletal development have

already been studied to determine age in

macaques and marmoset monkeys (Phillips 1976,

Michejda 1978, Newell-Morris et al. 1991).

Different techniques have been reported for outer

body measurements in non-human primates and

in humans (Schultz 1929, Van Wagenen and

Catchpole 1956, Gavan and Swindler 1966,

Sirianni and Swindler 1985). Seven different

body dimensions have already been measured in

growth rates (cm) _ ^ growth rates (cm)

, — — — — — — ■ — — — ■■ — ■ — i 0-0 1 I 1 ' 1

POSTNATAL GROWTH OF CAPTIVE RHESUS MACAQUES

251

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POSTNA TAL GROWTH OF CAPTIVE RHESUS MACAQUES

253

Growth rates (cm)

— • Thumb finger male

— + Little finger male

4- Thumb finger female

-□ — Little finger female

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Age (Days)

Fig. 9: Comparative growth rates of finger (thumb and little) in male and female monkeys;

0.025

0.02

0.015

0.01

0.005

r\

Growth rates (cm)

Age (Days)

Fig. 10: Comparative growth rates of toes (thumb and little) in male and female monkeys.

Macaca mulatta from 1 to 54 months of age

(Saxton and Lotz 1990). The techniques for

measurement of sitting height and hip width were

taken from those described previously (Saxton

and Lotz 1990); and some techniques modified

for other measurements in our study. Glassman

and Coelho (1988) have studied weight growth

from birth to adulthood in baboons under

controlled environment. Facial growth in rhesus

monkey has also been studied by longitudinal

cephalometric study (Schneiderman 1993). We

have measured 13 body dimensions, birth weight

and also observed dental development in rhesus

neonates from age day 1 to day 30. Growth rates

were also calculated in relation to age and

comparative studies of growth rates in male and

female monkeys were also performed. We have

used Fisher’s equation to derive growth rates,

(Saxton and Lotz 1 990). The data on growth rates

and measurements of different body dimensions

in rhesus neonates from age day 1 to day 30 were

not available in literature. Therefore we were

unable to make a comparison with other primate

growth data in our study. The basic contribution

of our study is to provide standard data on growth

rates, along with different dimensions, for quick

evaluation of health status and age of captive bom

macaques.

254

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

The results of our study on outer body

measurements and growth rates of a sizable number

of rhesus neonates indicate that the growth rates of

male and female neonates were same upto age day

30 and day 1 5 was the zenith period of infant growth

in captivity. This base line data is very important

for scientists in biomedical research.

Acknowledgements

We gratefully acknowledge Dr. K.R.

Bhardwaj for providing facilities and Prof. R.N.

Chakraborty for his excellent advice. We are also

thankful to Dr. S.K. Mandal for the statistical

analysis of the data.

References

Fisher, R.A. (1921): Some remarks on the method

formulated in a recent article on the quantitative

analysis of plant growth Ann. Appl. Bio. 7: 367-372.

Gavan, J.A. & D.R. Swindler (1966): Growth rates and

phytogeny in primates. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 24 :

181-190.

Glassman, D.M. & A.M. Coelho, Jr. (1988): Formula

fed and breast fed baboons: weight growth from birth

to adulthood. Am. J. Primatol. 16: 131-142.

Michejda, M. (1986): Radiological atlas of skeletal

development of hand and wrist in M. mulatto and man.

Basel. New York S. Karger.

Newell-Morris, L., B. Carrol, A. Convey, S. Meldley

& G.P. Sackett (1991): Postnatal growth and skeletal

maturation of experimental preterm macaques

( Macaca nemestrina). J. Med. Primatology 20: 17-

22.

Phillips, I.R. (1976): Skeletal development in the fetal

and neonatal marmoset ( Callithrix jacchus ). Lab.

Anim. 70:317-333.

Schultz, A.H. (1929): The technique of measuring the

outer body of human fetuses and of primates in

general. Contrib. Embryol. 117: 213-257.

Straus Jr., W.L. & C.G. Hartmen (1961): Eds: The

anatomy of rhesus monkey (M mulatto). Hofner

Publishing Company, New York.

Sirianni, J.E. & D.R. Swindler (1985): Growth and

development of the pig tailed macaque Boca Raton,

Florida C.R.C. Press Inc. 83-121.

Saxton, J.L. & W.G. Lotz (1990): Growth of Rhesus

monkey during the first 54 months of life. J. Med.

Primatology 19: 117-136.

Sackett, G.P. & G.C. Ruppenthal (1992): Growth of

nursery raised Macaca nemestrina infants: Effects of

feeding schedule, sex and birth weight. Am. J.

Primatol. 27: 189-204.

Schneiderman, E.D. (1993): Facial growth in rhesus

monkey. A longitudinal cephalometric study. J. Med.

Primatology 22: 330.

Van Wagenen, G. & H.R. Catchpole (1956): Physical

growth of the rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta). Am.

J. Phy. Anthropol. 14: 245-273.

Zar, H.J. (1974): Biostatistical analysis. Prentice-Hall,

Inc., N.J., pp. 109-114.

FIRST RECORD OF CYPRINID FISH CHAGUNIUS NICHOLS I (MYERS) FROM

INDIA1

W. VlSHWANATH, W. MANOJKUMAR AND K. SELIM2

Key words: Chagunius nicholsi (Myers), new record, India

A cyprinid fish, Chagunius nicholsi (Myers) originally known only from Myanmar has

been recorded for the first time from India. The species has been collected from the

Chatrickong and Maklang rivers of Ukhrul dist. Lokchao river of Chandel dist. and Manipur

river of Manipur State. The rivers form the waterheads of Chindwin drainage of Myanmar.

A detailed description of the species is given in this paper.

Introduction

The Manipur river draining the central

valley of Manipur, India and the Chatrikong

draining the eastern part of Ukhrul dist. of

Manipur flow out of Indian territory and then

join the Chindwin river in Myanmar. The

Maklang river draining the southern part of

Ukhrul dist. and the Lokchao draining Chandel

dist. flows out to join the Yu river in Myanmar,

which in turn flows into the Chindwin in

Myanmar. These rivers are the headwaters of the

Chindwin. As there are few reports on the fishes

of the streams and rivers of Manipur, India,

draining into the Chindwin river of Myanmar,

detailed surveys of the fishes in these rivers were

conducted in the period between January 1993

and February 1997.

Myer (1924) described Barbus nicholsi

based on the specimen collected from the

Chindwin river at Monywa, upper Myanmar.

Later Rainboth (1986) included the species under

the genus Chagunius Smith (1938). The fish is

so far known to be distributed only in the

Irrawady drainage of Myanmar. Our collection

included many samples of the species from the

Manipur river, the Lokchao river, the

Chatrickong river and the Maklang river.

Available literature does not provide a detailed

description of Chagunius nicholsi in respect of

'Accepted June, 1997.

department of Life Sciences, Manipur University,

Canchipur-795 003, Manipur, India.

morphometry and meristic counts and

measurements. This paper reports on the species

for the first time from India and attempts to

provide a detailed description of the species.

Material and Methods

Fishes were collected with the help of gill

nets, sidetracking of streams and dewatering and

stupefying with ichthyotoxic plants. The fishes

were preserved in 10% formaline. The type

specimens were deposited in Manipur University

MUMF. Counts and measurements follow

Rainboth (1986).

Chagunius nicholsi (Myers)

Barbus nicholsi Myers, 1924. Amer. Mus.

Novit., 150: 3-4 [type locality: Monywa, Sagaing,

Burma (Myanmar)].

Chagunius nicholsi Rainboth, 1986. Occ.

pap. Mus. Zooh, Univ. Michigan , 712:9-10

(Revision).

Material examined: MUMF 273/3, 194.2-

206.9 mm SL, Manipur river at Samolog, 105

km south of Imphal, 25.xii.1993 to 12.i. 1994

MUMF 240/4, 108.2-132.6 mm SL, Lokchao

river at Moreh, 110 km from Imphal 20.i.l995.

MUMF 1301/1, 204.5 mm SL, Maklang river,

130 km east of Imphal, 18.ix. 1995. MUMF 1302/

1 210.4 mm SL Chatrickong river, 150 km east

of Imphal, 2.ii.l997„

Description: D V, 8; P i, 14; V i, 8; A. 5-

6; C 1|9/ 8|1; L.l. 45-46; L. tr. 8/1/5; PDS. 15-

16. Body elongate, its depth more than head

256

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95(1998)

length. Mouth narrow and subterminal. Dorsal

fin nearer to the tip of the snout than to the caudal

fin base, two rows of scales ahead of the ventral

fin insertion, its last simple ray osseous and

serrated, its denticle weak and recurved. Pectoral

fin developed, pelvic fins do not reach the vent.

Anal fin almost in the middle of pelvic and caudal

fin base. Caudal fin deeply forked. Lower lobe

slightly longer than the upper. Barbels two pairs,

maxillary and rostral. Both the pairs are longer

than the eye diameter. Eyes large, situated nearer

to the tip of the snout than to the end of

operculum. Inter-orbital somewhat convex. Snout

somewhat broadly rounded and smooth. Scale

medium, diamond shaped, circumpeduncular

scales 19-20, circumferential scales 34-35. Scales

rows between vent and anal fin. Muscular

lobes are present on the ventral fin base,

rarely on the anal fin base. A detailed account of

the morphometric measurements and counts

and comparison with the data of the present

specimen with those of Rainboth (1986) is given

in Table 1.

Measurement and counts of Chagunius

nicholsi Myers [mean (range)] are as follows:

Body depth 29.55 (26.61-32.5); head length

25.18(23.47-26.9), caudal length 25.8 (23.30-

28.3), predorsal length 48.55 (47.51-49.6), dorsal

fin height 22.15 (19.9-24.4), dorsal fin length

16.00 (14.8-17.2), pectoral fin length 17.31

(17.30-17.33), pelvic fin length 15.73 (15.53-

15.93), anal fin height 17.68 (17.30-18.06)

all in percentage of standard length. Head

width 50.62 (46.5-54.74), head height at occiput

80.45 (74.5-86.4), eye diameter 23.35 (19.7-

27.0), inter orbital space 38.1 (36.9-39.3),

pectoral length 72.48 (71.25-73.72), snout length

43.1 (39.5-46.7), caudal peduncle length 70.00

(63.5-76.5), caudal peduncle height 45.3 (43.7-

46.9), gape of mouth 30.85 (28-33.7),

preoccipital length 87.00 (80.5-93.5), preopercle

length 72.95 (70.1-75.8), head depth at pupil

58.95 (55.3-62.6), maxillary barbels 25.2 (22.2-

28.2), rostral barbels 25.55 (24.2-26.9) all in

head length.

Table 1

COMPARISON OF CHARACTERS OF

CHAGUNIUS NICHOLSI MYERS OF MANIPUR

WITH THAT OF IRRAWADY, MYANMAR

Colour: In life, greyish on the back, silvery

below with a pinkish tinge, body black at scale

margins, a black band just at the margin of

opercle. Fins pinkish with dorsal fin grey and

black tinge. Upper and lower lobes of caudal fin

are red in colour.

Distribution: India: Manipur, Lokchao,

Charickong and Maklang. Myanmar: Monywa,

Sagaing and Irrawaddy drainage.

Remarks: The fish is found in warmer

months, ie., April to September. In winter

months, it does not occur in these rivers, probably

migrating upstream for breeding. It is a migratory

fish, most commonly found in the lower course

of the river system.

FIRST RECORD OF CYPRINID CHAGUNIUS NICHOLSI (MYERS)

257

The present specimens agree with the

original description of the specimen from

Monywa, upper Myanmar described by Myers

(1924). There are slight differences in the

morphometry, viz, snout length, interorbital

wide, gape width, length of barbel, head

width etc. of the present specimens and pre-

vious descriptions. However, these are small

and are probably due to environmental factors.

The variations fit within the range of Chagunius

nicholsi. The standard length of Manipur

specimens ranged from 108.2-206.9 mm. During

the breeding season, the colour of the

fins is brighter than in other seasons. The

Refe

Myers, G.S. (1924): On a small collection of fishes from

upper Burma. Amer. Mus. Novit. 150 : 1-7.

Rainboth, W J. (1986): Fishes of the Asian cyprinid genus

Chagunius. Occ. Paper. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan

fish is easily identified trom other species

because of its brightly coloured caudal fin. Three

species of chagunius Smith are so far known,

viz. C. nicholsi (Myers), C. chagunio (Ham.) and

C. baileyi (Rainboth). Chagunius baileyi

(Rainboth) is distributed in the Salween and

Sittang drainages of Thailand and Myanmar.

Chagunius chagunio (Ham.) is a species of

the Ganga-Brahmaputra drainage of India.

This paper extends the distribution of

Chagunius nicholsi (Myers) from itsori-

ginal Irrawady drainage in Myanmar

to the Chindwin headwaters in Manipur,

India.

E N C ES

(712): 1-17.

Smith, H.M. (1938): Chagunius, a new genus of Asiatic

cyprinoid fishes. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington. 51:

157-158.

MACROBENTHOS FROM THE MUDFLATS OF THANE CREEK, MAHARASHTRA, INDIA1

R.P. Athalye and K.S. Gokhale2

( With five text-figures)

Key words: Mangrove, Avicennia marina, Thane creek.

Thane creek, which extends 28 km northwards from Bombay Harbour joins the Ulhas

River near Thane city. It has mangrove mudflats which are mainly tide dominated, but they

receive large amounts of domestic and industrial effluents. This paper reports on the

invertebrate fauna including polychaetes, gastropods, bivalves and sea anemones, collected

over one year from the mudflats of the Thane creek upstream of Thane city.

Introduction

Thane Creek (19° to 19° 15' N lat. and 72°

55' to 73° 00* E long.) extends about 26 km

northwards from the south of Bombay (Mumbai)

Harbour Bay and joins Ulhas River by a minor

connection near Thane city. The influence of

riverine water is negligible in the creek (except

during the rainy season) and it is mainly tide

dominated. There are well-formed mangrove

(Avicennia marina) mudflats all along the creek.

Due to heavy urbanisation and industrialisation in

this region, the creek receives large amounts of

domestic and industrial effluents. The present study

reports observations on polychaetes, gastropods,

bivalves and sea anemones in the mudflats of the

upstream part of Thane creek near Thane city.

Material and Methods

Monthly samples were collected for one

year (1986-87) from two stations — one on the

west bank and the other on the east bank, the latter

being about 1000 m upstream from the earlier

one (Fig. 1). At each station, ten samples of

surface sediment (5 cm depth) were collected

during low tide, using a metal shovel of 0.01 sq.

m area. The samples were pooled and sieved

(using creek water for washing) through a 0.5

mm sieve to separate the macrobenthic

'Accepted July, 1996

2Zoology Department, B.N. Bandodkar College of Science,

Thane-400 601.

organisms, which were then fixed in 10%

formalin in filtered creek water. The organisms

were narcotised and extended prior to fixation.

Duplicate samples were used to determine

the density (number) per sq. m. and biomass (wet

wt.) per sq. m for each species.

Important water parameters were analysed

by the methods recommended in “Standard

Methods” (APHA, AWWA and WPCF, 1981)

while sediment texture was assessed using Beaker

method (Piper, 1947).

The polychaetes were identified by the

authors using the key provided by Fauvel (1953),

whereas the mollusc identification was done at

the British Museum, London. Sea anemones were

identified by Maj. K.W. England, University of

Reading, U.K.

Results

The two study sites experienced more or

less similar physico-chemical conditions. The

ranges of different parameters were: temperature

22° to 34° C, pH 6 to 7.8, salinity 0.4 ppt (during

monsoon) to 30 ppt (during summer) and

dissolved oxygen 2.2 to 6.4 mg/1. The sediment

was silt-clay with almost 65% clay and 22% silt.

The sand percentage increased up to 15% only

during the rainy season.

The macrobenthic community encountered

in this region included polychaetes, gastropods,

bivalves and sea anemones.

MACROBENTHOS FROM THE MUDFLA TS OF THANE CREEK

259

Annelida: polychaeta

Four species of polychaetes were recorded.

All belonged to the family Nereidae.

i) Lycastis indica (Southern) Fig. 2

The Genus Lycastis is characterised by

uniramous feet and proboscis without paragnaths.

Lycastis indica has been reported from

Chilka Lake (Southern, 1921) Indonesia (Siboga

Expedition, Horst, 1924) and Madras (Fauvel,

1930). It has also been reported from Salt Lake

(estuarine brackish waters near Calcutta;

Miragamari Creek, Bengal; Marmugao Bay;

Vishakhapatnam backwaters; Madras and Cochin

backwaters near Emakulum (Fauvel, 1953). The

species is a fresh and brackish water organism.

The specimens obtained from Thane creek

had a length of 30 to 50 mm, breadth 3 mm, red

brown pigmentation at the base of tentacular cirri,

eyes with lenses, outer pair of eyes bigger and

placed a little forward than the inner, median

groove on head ending in a pit and jaws with 9

teeth. Anal segment was conical with terminal

slit, conspicuous streaks of reddish brown

pigment and short anal cirri.

The first parapodial pair did not have dorsal

setae, whereas the other parapodia had one, two

or three setae in dorsal division. Ventral setae in

all the parapodia had two groups in which

heterogomph falcigerous setae were dominant.

Parapodia of posterior segments had enormous

dorsal cirri which, in some bigger specimens,

were broad at the base, with leaflike appearance.

In these parapodia, median ligule and ventral cirri

were small and inconspicuous.

Density of L. indica was 100 to 3000 per

sq. m (the highest being during monsoon) and

average biomass (wet wt.) 40 g per sq. m.

260

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

Fig. 2. a: Head; b: First foot; c: Posterior segments

of Lycastis indica

ii) Lycastis ouanaryensis (Gravier) Fig. 3.

The species has been reported from French

Guyana by Fauvel (1953). It occurs in marine as

well as fresh water. According to Fauvel (1932),

Lycastis indica, L. ouanaryensis and

L. meraukensis might be varieties of the same

species, and depending on the environmental

difference, the characters such as position of eyes,

number of teeth on the jaws, types of setae on

parapodia etc. may show wide variation.

Compared to L. indica, the specimens of

L. ouanaryensis were more slender (35 to 40 mm

long and less than 0.5 mm broad). They also

differed in having eyes without lenses, jaws with

6 teeth and the posterior parapodia with dorsal

cirri very elongated (Fig. 3d). Other characters

included head with distinct palps, small tentacles

and a median groove extending upto the first pair

of eyes; dorsal tentacular cirri long, reaching third

thoracic segment; proboscis without paragnaths;

anal segment button-shaped with long cirri and

yellowish brown pigment.

Parapodia showed uniramous structure,

characteristic of the genus Lycastis. The dorsal

cirrus was slender, dorsal setae either missing or

two hemigomph spinigerous setae were present.

Two groups of ventral setae could be

distinguished with hemigomph spinigerous,

heterogomph spinigerous and heterogomph

falcigerous setae commonly occurring. Posterior

parapodia had few setae and dorsal setae were

completely absent.

L. ouanaryensis had density ranging from

1,700 per sq. m (in summer) to 14,300 per sq. m

(during post-monsoon) and the average biomass

(wet wt.) was 25 g/ sq. m.

iii) Nereis glandicincta (Southern) Fig. 4.

Genus Nereis is characterised by biramous

parapodia and proboscis with homy paragnaths

arranged in distinct groups.

Nereis glandicincta has been found to occur

in marine, fresh water or brackish ecosystems. It

has been reported from Chilka Lake (Southern,

1921); ecosystems around Calcutta, salt lakes

near Garia, Vishakhapatnam, Taleh-Sap and Gulf

of Siam (Fauvel, 1932).

The specimens in the present study were

of average length and breadth 30 to 60 mm and 2

to 3 mm respectively, the head is narrow on the

anterior side and broad on the posterior side, short

palps and prominent tentacles on head, a small

notch on the head between the tentacles extending

as a line up to the first pair of eyes, posterior dorsal

tentacular cirri very long, two pairs of eyes with

lenses, the pharynx with paragnaths as described

by Southern (1921) and jaws with 15 to 16 teeth.

According to Southern (loc. cit.), the number of

teeth may vary, as he observed 10 teeth in the

jaws of the specimens from the salt lake at

Dhappa.

The anal segment was conical and had a

terminal slit and anal cirri shorter than tentacular

MA CROBENTHOS FROM THE MUDFLA TS OF THANE CREEK

261

Fig. 3. a: Head; b: First foot; c: Posterior foot; d: Posterior segments;

e: Anal segment of Lycastis ouanaryensis

cirri. A ring of reddish brown pigment was

present round the middle of the segment.

The first parapodium had only one aciculum

and the dorsal division of setae was absent. As

described by Southern (loc. cit.), falcate setae were

absent in the anterior and posterior parapodia and

hemigomph falcates with curved tip (Fig. 4d) were

observed on the 30th foot.

The most important feature of this species

is the presence of glands at the base of dorsal and

ventral cirri and girdle of glands around each

segment, which was distinct.

Density of N. glandicincta was minimum

in monsoon (50 per sq. m) and maximum post-

monsoon (3600 per sq. m), whereas the average

biomass (wet wt.) was 5 g. per sq. m.

iv) Dendronereides sp. (Southern) Fig. 5

Genus Dendronereides is characterised by

the absence of dorsal division of setae in first and

second feet, absence of ventral ligula in all

262

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

parapodia, dorsal ligule in anterior feet branched,

having 5 to 11 filament-like outgrowths (feet

branchiae) in which blood vessels are absent,

posterior parapodia with dorsal ligule simply

elongated (Fig. 5e). All these characters des-

cribed by Southern (loc. cit) were observed

in the specimens of Thane creek. However,

the characters of D. heteropoda viz. absence of

heterogomph setae and presence of a peculiar

gland at the base of dorsal cirrus (Southern 1921;

Fauvel (1932) were not observed. Hence, the

species could not be confirmed. Dendronereides

heteropoda has been reported in the vicinity of

Calcutta, Diamond Isles, Shat-el-Arab and Thane

(Mumbai).

The specimens in the present investigation

had an average length of 20 to 30 mm and breadth

2 mm, head with yellowish black pigment, tips

of palps and cirri white, eyes with lenses, anterior

pair of eyes smaller, proboscis with soft papillae

and jaws with 27 teeth.

Dendronereides sp. had density ranging

from 0 per sq. m. (in pre-monsoon) to 7020 per

sq. m. (in monsoon) and average biomass (wet

wt.) 5g per sq. m.

MOLLUSCA

Melvil (1893, 1896) first described the

marine Mollusca of Bombay (=Mumbai), from

the collection of Abercrombie during 1 888- 1 892,

in which littoral molluscs thrown ashore were

considered. Preston (1915) also studied molluscs

around Bombay (=Mumbai).

In the present investigation, 6 species of

Mollusca were identified, courtesy of the British

Museum, London, out of which 4 were

gastropods and 2 bivalves. Three species

remained unidentified.

GASTROPODA

1 . Dostia violacea (Gmelin)

This species is known since 1822 by

various names:

Fig. 4. a: Head; b: First foot; c: Tenth foot;

d: Hemigomph falcigerous seta on thirtieth foot of

Nereis glandicincta.

Neritina crepidularia, Lamark, 1822.

Neritina crepidularia, Van Mortens, 1897.

Neritina (Dostia) crepidularia, Prasad, 1921.

Neritina violacea Van benthem Jutting, 1956.

Neritina violacea, Gmelin, 1971.

Prasad (1921) described Dostia as a

subgenus of Neritina and has reported D.

crepidularia in the freshwaters of lower

Mesopotamia. Annandale and Prasad (1919)

reported it from the Gangetic delta. D. violacea

has been reported in many estuarine and coastal

areas in India such as Mahanadi estuary, Orissa,

Gangetic delta, Godavari and Krishna estuaries,

backwaters of Cochin and Marmugao Bay in Goa.

It has a wide distribution extending to Myanmar,

Malaya, Bali and Timor, the Philippines, southern

MACROBENTHOS FROM THE MUDFLA TS OF THANE CREEK

263

a

5. a: Head; b: First foot; c: Tenth foot; d: Twentieth foot; e: Thirtieth foot of

Dendronereides sp.

264

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

Japan and New Caledonia (Subba Rao and

MookherjeeMedian ligule 1975). According to

Govindan and Nataraj an ( 1 972) who studied Dostia

crepidularia in Coleroon estuary, this marine

species is well adapted to freshwater. They

described the females as bigger (22 x 15 x 1 1 mm)

than males and breeding from March to November

with peak activity in June, July and August.

In the present study, this gastropod was more

common at sewage polluted sites and was noticed

grazing on the algal growth on rocks and mud.

Size: Length 9 to 20 mm, breadth 7 to 1 3 mm.

Density: 50 per sq. m (post-monsoon) to 450/

sq. m (late post-monsoon).

Average Biomass (shell-free wet wt.):

30 g/sq. m.

2. Cerithideopsilla djadjaviensis (Martin)

Genus Cerithideopsilla is essentially a

brackish water form. Subba Rao and Mookherjee

(loc. cit.) have reported it in brackish and

saltwater ponds near Khira Gachha Madeli,

Mahanadi estuary. It is a widely distributed genus

and is common in all the estuaries and backwaters

of India, Myanmar, Singapore and Hongkong. It

occurs widely in the Indian Ocean and Western

Pacific (Subba Rao and Mookherji, loc. cit). In

Java, it is a serious pest in freshwater ponds

(Schuster, 1949).

Though Cerithideopsilla djadjaviensis has

not been reported from India, other species of

this genus have been described by many workers.

The most widely reported species is

Cerithideopsilla cingulata from estuarine

mudflats of Krishna River (Rao and Sukumar,

1982) and mangrove swamps (Price etal. 1987).

Homell (1951) has reported Potamides cingulata

and other species of families Certhididae and

Cerithideopsidae in Mumbai waters, but did not

record this species.

Cerithideopsilla burrows in soft sediment

(Rao and Sukumar, loc. cit.) as it is sensitive to

desiccation (Yipp, 1982). For this reason, C.

djadjaviensis was never found at sites where

mud-flats were polluted by sewage and therefore

anoxic.

Size: Length 6 to 20 mm.

Density: minimum 300/sq. m (pre-

monsoon) to 600/sq. m (monsoon).

Average Biomass (shell free wet wt.):

25 g/sq. m.

3. Paludomus sp.

Many species of Paludomus are commonly

found in fresh water (Annandale 1918; Preston,

1915; Tonapi and Mulherkar, 1963). Paludomus

obessa (Philippi) has been reported in the

freshwaters of Bombay (=Mumbai) by Preston

(1915). The present specimens could not be

identified upto the species level.

Size: Length 4 mm, breadth 3 mm.

Density: 00/sq. m (monsoon) to 10000/sq. m

(post-monsoon).

Biomass (shell-free wet wt.): negligible.

4. Stenothyra sp.

This genus is characterised by a small shell,

rarely exceeding 5 mm in length, but relatively

thick, ovate or subcylindrical. Annandale and

Prasad (1919, 1921) described the subfamily

Stenothyrinae as estuarine (Gangetic delta) and

gave a key for identification of this genus.

Stenothyra minima ( -Namatura minima) was

reported from Rann of Kutch, Saurashtra, Sri

Lanka and Chilka lake. S. minima (Sowerby) was

reported in Bombay waters by Homell (1951).

Size: Length 4 mm, breadth 3 mm.

Density: 00/sq. m (post-monsoon) to

2000/sq. m (late post monsoon)

Biomass (shell-free wet wt.): negligible.

BIVALVES

*

Five species of bivalves were collected

throughout the year, of which only two viz.

Sphenia sowerbyi (Smith), (length 15 mm,

breadth 9 mm and thickness 5.5 mm) and

Laternula navicula (length 7 mm, breadth 4 mm

thickness 3 mm) were identified. These may

MACROBENTHOS FROM THE MUDFLA TS OF THANE CREEK

265

probably be reported for the first time

from India. Both bivalves occurred in small

numbers.

Hanks and Packer (1985) have described

Sphenia sincera in the subtidal region of Gulf

of Maine. It was found to prefer soft silt-clay

sediment and formed the major food item

for bottom feeding fish. Hornell (loc. cit.)

reported Laternula labiata in Bombay

(=Mumbai) waters.

The other three bivalves, which were very

small in size, could not be identified.

COELENTERATA

SEA-ANEMONES

Two new species of burrowing sea anemones

were obtained. They were absent from the sewage

polluted mud-flats, probably due to anoxic

conditions. The sea anemones occurred during

December to June, when salinity was more than

20 ppt. England (1989) has published detailed

descriptions of the two species given below.

Refer

Annandale, N. (1 91 8): Aquatic molluscs of the Inle Lake

and connected waters. Rec. Indian Mus. XIV, 103.

Annandale, N. & B. Prasad (1919): Some Gastropod

Molluscs from the Gangetic delta. Rec. Indian Mus.

XVI, 241-258.

Annandale, N. & B. PRASAd (1921): The Indian molluscs

from the Gangetic delta. Rec. Indian Mus. XII, 121.

Apha, Awwa & Wpcf. (1981): International Standard

Methods for the examination of water and waste water,

15th edn. American Public Health Association,

American Water Works Association and Water

Pollution Control Federation, Washington D.C.

England, K.W. (1989): Description of two new mud

dwelling actiniids from Maharashtra, India:

Edwardsia athalyei sp. nov. and Acontiactis gen. nov.

gokhaleae. sp. nov. and a note on Edwarsioides

mammillata (Bourne, 1916) Cnidaria: Actinaria).

Indo-Malayan Zoology (6), 141-158.

Fauvel, P. (1930): Polychaeta of Madras Govt. Museum

Bull. Madras Govt. Mus. I (2), 1-72.

Fauvel, P. (1932): Annelida polychaeta of the" Indian

Museum, Calcutta. Memoirs of the Indian Museum,

XII, 82-93.

1 . Edwardsia athalyei England

This species is different from E. tintrix

reported by Parulekar (1968).

Description: Size of largest specimen: 1 3

mm high and 3 mm in diameter. Tentacles

slender, tapered, conical, numbering upto 16.

2. Acontiactis England.

Acontiactis gokhaleae England.

Genus Acontiactis differs from

Acontiophorum in having more mesenteries

distally than proximally, and 5 pairs of

macronemes or less, compared with 1 2 pairs in

Acontiophorum. Acontiophorum bombayensis

has been described by Parulekar (loc. cit).

Description: Maximum height 10 mm,

column diameter 4 mm (contracted). Tentacles

short, tapered, hexamerously arranged, numbering

upto 48 or more, a definite base present.

The sea anemone Acontiactis gokhaleae

was more common. Highest density (400/sq. m)

was recorded in pre-monsoon and average

biomass (wet wt.) was 3 g/sq. m.

ENCES

Fauvel, P. (1953): The Fauna of India. Annelida:

Polychaeta. The Indian Press Ltd. pp 163.

♦ Gmelin, (1971): Syst. Nat. ed. 13, 3686.

Govindan, K. & R. Natarajan ( 1 972): Studies on Neritidae

(Neritacea: Prosobranchia) from Peninsular India. Proc.

Indian National Acad. Sc. 38(1-6): 225-39.

Hanks, R.W. & D.B. Packer (1985): A new species of

Sphenia (Bivalvia: Myidae) from the Gulf of Maine,

Veliager, 27 (3): 320-330.

Hornell, J. (1951): Indian Molluscs. Bombay Natural

History Society, Bombay.

♦Horst, R. (1924): Polychaeta Errantia of the “Siboga”

Expedition. Part III. Nereidae and Hesionidae. Siboga-

Expedite, Leyden XXIV C, 145-198.

♦Jutting, V.B. (1956): Trenbia, 23 (2): 330.

Lamark (1822): Hist. Nat. Anim. Sans. Vert. 6 (2): 186.

Melvill, J.C. (1893): Description of 25 new species of

marine shells from Bombay. Mem. and Proc.

Manchester Lit. and Phil. Soc. Ser. 1 (4): 17-51.

Melvill, J.C. (1896): Description of new species of

minute marine shells from Bombay. Mem. and Proc.

Manchester Lit. and Phil. Soc. Ser. 2 (8): 108-1 16.

♦Mortens, V. (1897): In Weber’s Zool. Ergeb. Neider

266

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

Ost. Ind., 4: 218.

Parulekar, A. (1968): On a new species of sea anemone

from Maharashtra, India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

65 (3): 590-595.

Piper, C.S. (1947): Mechanical analysis by Beaker

method. In: Soil and Plant Analysis, Hans Publisher,

Bombay, 75 pp.

Prasad, B. (1921): Rec. Indian Mus. 22: 498.

Prasad, B. (1921): Rec. Indian Mus. XVIII: 215-227.

Preston, H.B. (1915): Fauna of British India includ-

ing Ceylon and Burma, IV. The Indian Press Ltd. pp

134.

Price, A.R.G., P.A.H. Medley & R.J. McDowell (1987):

Aspects of mangrove ecology along the Red Sea coast

of Saudi Arabia. J. Nat. Hist. 21(2): 449-464.

Rao, M.B. & R.V. Sukumar (1982): Distribution, zonation

and habits of a tropical mud snail, Cerithidea

cingulata (Gmelin), Malacologia, 22: 1-2.

♦Schuster, (1949): De visculture in de visvizvers of Java,

Dep. land and Visseiji Dienst van de Landbouw, Publ.

nv, 2: 197-198.

Southern, R. (1921): Fauna of Chilka Lake. Memoirs of

Indian Museum, V: 576-607.

Subba Rao, N.V. & H.P. Mookherjee (1975): On a

collection of Molluscs from the Mahanadi Estuary,

Orissa, In: Recent Researches in Estuarine Biology.

R. Natarajan (ed.) Hindustan Publishing Corporation,

Delhi, 165-176.

Tonapi, G.T. & L. Mulherkar (1963): On the Fresh

Water Molluscs of Poona. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

60:103-120.

Vipp, M.W. (1982): The distribution of ground dwelling

gastropods in a small mangrove stand in Hongkong,

Proc. Int. Mar. Biol. Workshop No. 1.

* not seen in original.

TWELVE NEW SPECIES OF GENUS PACHYPROTASISKAKTIG

(HYMENOPTERA, TENTHREDINIDAE: TENTHREDININAE) FROM INDIA1

2Malkiat S. Saini and V. Vasu

( With fifty-eight text-figures)

Key words: New species, Pachyprotasis Hartig, new synonymy, revised key,

Hymenoptera, India.

Twelve species new to the genus Pachyprotasis Hartig are added to Indian fauna.

Described and illustrated as new are: P. maculiventris , P. kulwantae, P. cephalopunctata

P. politus, P. cuneativentris, P. nigricans, P. salebrousa, P. hargurmeeti, P.foveatus, P.

pleuricingulata, P. punamae and P. frontatus. Seven subspecies viz. P. birmanica tristis

Malaise, P. birmanica ebumipes Malaise, P. opacifrons subpunctata Malaise, P. albicincta

nigripleuris Malaise, P. albicincta albitarsis Malaise, P. albicincta sinobrimanica

Malaise and P. caerulescens kashmirica Malaise have been merged into their respective

species. A key for identification of all the Indian species is provided.

Introduction

After Malaise’s (1945) revisionary work

on Tenthredinoidea of southeast Asia, Saini and

Kalia (1989) attempted to update Indian fauna

of the genus Pachyprotasis Hartig by recording

9 species for the first time from this region and

describing 9 species as new to science. The major

contributors to Indian fauna of this genus are:

Malaise (1934, 1945) with 9 species and 2

subspecies, Singh et al. (1987) with 4 species,

Forsius (1933) with 4 species, Cameron (1876,

1881, 1889, 1902) with 4 species, Saini and

Kalia (1989) with 9 species, Rohwer (1916) and

Linnaeus (1767) each with one species. Seven

subspecies have been merged into their

respective species. Since the name P. malaisei

Singh et al. was preoccupied, Saini and Vasu

(1995) renamed it as P. punctulatis. In the

present text twelve species have been illustrated

and described. A workable key for identification

of all Indian species is provided. Type materials

of new species are housed at Division of

Entomology, Pusa National Collection, Indian

'Accepted May, 1997

department of Zoology, Punjabi University,

Patiala - 147002, India.

Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi.

Abbreviations used in text are: EL = eye length;

LATS = inner apical tibial spur; ICD = inter

cenchri distance; IDMO = interocular distance

at level of median ocellus; ITD = inter tegular

distance; LID = lower interocular distance; MB

= metabasitarsus; OATS - outer apical tibial

spur; OCL = oculo-occipital line; OOL = oculo-

ocellar line; POL = postocellar line.

Key to Indian species of Pachyprotasis Hartig

1 . Antenna ringed (two or three middle joints of

different colour than apical and basal joints) .

2

Antenna not ringed 6

2. Head almost impunctate 3

Head with large, distinct punctures and

surface between them microsculptured

sikkimensis Saini & Kalia

3. Antennal segment 3 shorter than 4 4

Antennal segment 3 longer than 4

birmanica Forsius

birmanica tristis Malaise syn. nov.

birmanica ebumipes Malaise syn. nov.

4. Supraantennal tubercles insignificant or low.

5

Supraantennal tubercles raised, quite prominent

and abruptly cut off from frontal ridges

versicolor Cameron

268

JOURNAL, BOMBA YNA TURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

5. All coxae sanguineous, almost without black

(in male pro- and mesocoxae straminous,

without black); antennal joints 6 and 7 white;

postocellar furrow wanting; stigma fulvous ...

multilineata elineata Malaise

All legs pale with black markings, without

reddish; antennal joints 5 and 6 yellowish;

postocellar furrow present; stigma black with

pale anterior margin .... alboannulata Forsius

6. Antenna unicoloured or with narrow pale stripe

along underside 7

Apical 3 antennal joints black, rest reddish...

indica (Forsius)

7. Antenna black 8

Antenna fulvous .. kalatopensis Saini & Kalia

8. Abdomen with reddish spots 9

Abdomen without reddish spots 10

9. Abdomen reddish brown except central

longitudinal streak on tergite 2, infuscated

lateral spots more prominent on tergites 3-6

indica (Forsius)

Abdomen mainly black, tergites 2-5 with large,

medial triangular spots, all medially connected

to each other maculiventris sp.nov.

1 0. Body except legs pale with few black markings

11

Body except legs black with some whitish or

pale markings 13

1 1 . Postocellar area distinctly wider than long ....

12

Postocellar area as long as broad

vittata Forsius

12. Appendage carinate; head and mesonotum

micropunctured with minute and dense

punctures; supraantennal pit distinct; antennal

segments 3 and 4 as 4:5; inter- and postocellar

furrows absent; area posterior to eye pale

entirely; pronotum entirely pale; abdomen

almost pale pallens Malaise

Appendage not carinate; head and mesonotum

impunctate; supraantennal pit indistinct;

antennal segments 3 and 4 as 4:3; inter- and

postocellar furrows present; black spot posterior

to eyes; narrow upper margins of pronotum

black; black lining along anterior border of

tergites 1-6 lachenensis Saini & Kalia

1 3 . Hind legs reddish with few black or pale yellow

markings 14

Hind legs black or pale yellow without reddish

25

14. Antennal segment 3 longer than or subequal to

4 15

Antennal segment 3 distinctly shorter than 4

manaliensis Singh et al.

15. Mesoscutellum pyramidal (Fig.44) 16

Mesoscutellum flat (Fig.46) 18

1 6. Body black with pale lower 1/2 of frontal area;

pale orbit around eyes except spot on upper

comer of each eye black; pronotum pale except

its black posterior margin; pale lateral margins

of mesonotal middle lobe meeting at apex; basal

2/3 of metafemur reddish, apical 1/3 pale;

postocellar area convex, with median

longitudinal furrow; head with few

insignificant, scattered punctures

subtilissima Malaise

Body black with frontal area entirely black;

whitish yellow lower 1/2 of inner orbit

continued with lower 1/4 of hind orbit;

pronotum entirely black; sagittated apex of

mesonotal middle lobe pale; basal 1/2 of meta

femur pale, apical 1/2 reddish; postocellar area

flat, without medial longitudinal furrow; head

with dense, minute punctures 17

17. Supraantennal tubercles distinctly raised;

median fovea ditch-like in its anterior 1/2 and

posteriorly shallowly reaching median ocellus;

mesostemum yellowish in both sexes

kulwantae sp.nov.

Supraantennal tubercles just indicated; median

fovea shallow in its anterior 1/2 and posteriorly

not reaching median ocellus; mesosternum

black in female only subtilis Malaise

1 8. Hind legs reddish or fulvous without pale, with

black markings 19

Hind legs reddish with black as well as pale

markings 20

1 9. Body black, yellowish white are: labrum, lateral

spots on clypeus, supraclypeal area, 2 dots

above bases of antennae, lower 2/3 of hind orbit,

inner orbit narrowly connected with elongated

temple spot, spot on posterolateral margin of

pronotum, anterior half of tegula, small spot

on anterolateral margin of mesonotal middle

lobe, longitudinal middle band on

mesoscutellum, appendage, metascutellum,

posterolateral margin of mesepimeron, irregular

small spot on anterior slope of mesepistemum,

3/4 of metapleura posteriorly, lateral elongated

spot not meeting on anterior margin of tergite

TWEE VE NEW SPECIES OF GENUS PA CHYPROTASIS HARTIG

269

2, triangular medial spot on hind margin of

tergite 5, tergite 9 entirely, broad hind margin

of deflexed sides of all tergites and of all

sternites; clypeus roundly incised with

somewhat truncate basis, median fovea in form

of pit in middle of frontal area

maesta Malaise *

Body black, yellowish are: labrum except large

medial spot, temple, narrow hind and lateral 25.

margins of deflexed sides of all tergites; clypeus

subsquarely incised, median fovea indicated by

shallow groove in its anterior half

mandalensis Saini & Kalia 26.

20. Antennal segment 3 distinctly longer than 4;

supraantennal pit and median fovea absent ...

citrinipictus Malaise

Antennal segments 3 and 4 subequal; 27.

supraantennal pit present; median fovea distinct

or shallow 21 28.

2 1 . Head impunctate; clypeus rectangularly incised

punctulatis Saini & Vasu

Head punctate; clypeus roundly incised 22

22. Head strongly punctured 23

Head not strongly punctured

cephalopunctata sp.nov.

23. Punctures of mesonotum and mesoscutellum

dense and confluent; mesopleuron rugose;

frontal area at level of eyes; supraantennal

tubercles low

ramgarhensis Saini & Kalia

Mesonotum, mesoscutellum and mesopleuron

with minute, even and isolated punctures;

frontal area below level of eyes; supraantennal

tubercles raised 24

24. Body black, pale markings are: large temple

spot narrowly connected with complete inner

orbit, posterolateral margin of pronotum, spot

before mesoscutellum, extreme posterior

margin of mesepimeron, spot on anterior slope

of mesepistemum, hind margins of all sternites; 29 .

metafemur reddish except black apex; stigma

black; supraantennal pit shallow; postocellar

area subconvex with longitudinal middle

furrow; median fovea shallow

subulicornis Malaise

Body black with above said pale markings

missing, instead other pale markings which are 30.

absent in previous species here are present: a

spot on tegula, sagittated apex of mesonotal

middle lobe, stripe along pleurostemal suture,

lower 1/3 of mesopleuron continuous with

entirely fulvous mesostemum, hind margin of

stemite 7; basal 1/3 of metafemur yellowish,

rest is reddish; stigma dark brown with pale

anterior half; supraantennal pit deep and

punctiform; postocellar area convex, without

longitudinal middle furrow; median fovea deep

flavipes (Cameron)

Antennal segment 3 equal to or longer than 4

, 26

Antennal segment 3 subequal to or shorter than

4 38

Forewings clear 27

Forewings distinctly infuscated towards apex

without sharp limits

parapeniata Singh et al.

Supraantennal tubercles distinctly raised .. 28

Supraantennal tubercles insignificant 29

Mesoscutellar appendage carinate; postocellar

area without longitudinal middle furrow, twice

as wide as long; head opaque owing to large,

isolated punctures and surface between them

micropunctured; mesonotum with distinct and

dense punctures, mesopleura with large,

isolated punctures on anterior slope; median

fovea absent; labrum with rounded anterior

margin; apical tooth of claw longer than

subapical one opacifrons Malaise

opacifrons alpestris Malaise syn.nov.

opacifrons subpunctata Malaise syn. nov.

Mesoscutellar appendage ecarinate; postocellar

area with longitudinal middle furrow, broader

than long as 5:2; head shining with minute,

scattered punctures; mesonotum with minute,

isolated punctures; mesopleura almost

impunctate; median fovea depressed, ditch-like;

labrum with roundly pointed anterior margin;

apical tooth of claw equal to subapical one ...

icari Saini & Kalia

Stigma pale (mesoscutellum roundly raised

with hind apex somewhat incised; frontal area

below level of eyes; mesopleura with indistinct,

shallow punctures; median fovea absent; apical

tooth of claw subequal to subapical one)

subcoreaceous Malaise

Stigma dark brown to black 30

Punctures on mesopleura minute, shallow and

isolated 31

Punctures on mesopleura large, distinct and

confluent 32

270

JOURNAL, BOMBA YNA TURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 95 (1998)

31. Yellowish are: broad posterior margin of

propodeum and posterior margin of tergites 2-

6; POL:OOL:OCL = 2:3:3; postocellar area

broader than long as 3:2 politus sp.nov.

Yellowish are: extreme posterior angle of

propodeum and tergites 2-7 with triangular

medial spots; POL:OOL:OCL = 4:5:5;

postocellar area broader than long as 5:4;

cuneativentris sp.nov.

32. Mesonotum, mesoscutellum, appendage and

abdomen entirely black nigricans sp.nov.

Mesonotum, mesoscutellum, appendage and

abdomen with some yellowish markings ... 33

33 . Mesoscutellum flat; frontal area at level of eyes;

apical tooth of tarsal claw distinctly longer than

subapical one 34

Mesocutellum subconvex; frontal area below

level of eyes; apical tooth of tarsal claw equal

to subapical one 37

34. Head subrugose with dense, minute, shallow

punctures; abdomen black above

salebrousa sp.nov.

Head smooth with few, scattered, irregular,

distinct punctures; abdomen not entirely black

above 35

35. Mesonotal middle lobe entirely black

hargurmeeti sp.nov.

Mesonotal middle lobe with pale markings ...

36

36. Pale lateral sides of mesonotal middle lobe

meeting at apex; median fovea shallow in its

anterior half and evenly depressed in its

posterior half in form of horse-shoe with raised

frontal sides foveatus sp.nov.

Pale lateral sides of mesonotal middle lobe not

meeting at apex; median fovea shallowly

indicated in its anterior half only

albicincta Cameron

albicincta nigripleuris Malaise syn.nov.

albicincta sinobirmanica Malaise syn.nov.

albicincta albitarsis Malaise syn. nov.

37. Broad anterior aspect of mesopleura yellowish

white and extends as a transverse band in its

lower 1/2 upto coxal rim, circumocellar furrow

shallow, postocellar area broader than long as

5:4 pleuricingulata sp.nov.

Broad anterior aspect of mesopleura yellowish

white only, circumocellar furrow indistinct,

postocellar area broader than long as 3:2

punamae sp.nov.

38. Mesocutellum flat (Fig.46) 39

Mesoscutellum raised (Fig. 45) 42

39. Mesopleura subrugose; apical tooth of claw

shorter than subapical one (median fovea

reaching median ocellus) brunetti Rohwer

Mesopleura not subrugose; apical tooth of claw

at least as long as subapical one 40

40. Median fovea reaching median ocellus; apical

tooth of claw as long as subapical one

frontatus sp.nov.

Median fovea not reaching median ocellus;

apical tooth of claw longer than subapical one

41

4 1 . Supraantennal tubercles low, supraantennal pit

deep, median fovea obsolete

longomalari Singh et al.

Supraantennal tubercles raised, supraantennal

pit obscure, median fovea grooved and not

reaching median ocellus

bengalensis Saini & Kalia

42. Postocellar area without median longitudinal

furrow 43

Postocellar area with median longitudinal

furrow rapae (Linneaus)

43 . Head punctured and surface between punctures

microsculptured 44

Head with scattered punctures and without

microsculpture 45

44. Malar space lx diameter of median ocellus,

circum- and interocellar furrows present,

postocellar furrow absent, mesoscutellum

strongly elevated with extreme apex mostly

divided by furrow caerulescens Malaise

caerulescens kashmirica Malaise syn. nov.

Malar space 2x diameter of median ocellus,

circum- and interocellar furrows absent,

postocellar furrow present, mesoscutellum

subconvex P. muelleri Saini & Kalia

45. Frontal area black entirely; lower half or more

of hind and inner orbits pale, sometimes inner

orbit narrowly connected with pale temple spot;

apex of mesonotal middle lobe pale; all tergites

black above. Legs pale, black are: four front

tibiae and tarsi posteriorly; apex of metafemur

above and metatibia and tarsi entirely;

postocellar area flat

violaceidorsata Cameron

Frontal area with large pale spot above

antennae; broad hind orbit around eyes pale

except area posterior to eyes; lateral comer of

TWEL VE NEW SPECIES OF GENUS PA CHYPROTASIS HARTIG

271

Figs.(l-24) Clypeus & labrum: 1. Pachyprotasis maculiventris , 2. P. kulwantae , 3. P. nigricans ,

4. P. pleuricingulata, 5. P. punamae, 6. P. frontatus , 7. P. cephalopunctata , 8. P politus ;

Tarsal claw: 9. P maculiventris, 10. P. kulwantae , 1 1. P. nigricans , 12. P. punamae , 13. P. frontatus,

14. P. foveatus, 15. P. salebrousa;

Penis valve: 16. P. maculiventris , 17. P. kulwantae , 18. P. salebrousa , 19. P. hargurmeeti , 20. P

pleuricingulata , 21. P. frontatus, 22. P. foveatus, 23. P. politus, 24. P cuneativentris.

272 JOURNAL, BOMBA YNA TURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

Figs. (25-35) Gonoforceps: 25. Pachyprotasis maculiventris, 26. P. kulwantae, 27. P. salebrousa ,

28. P. hargurmeeti, 29. P. pleuricingulata, 30. P. frontatus, 31. P. foveatus, 32. P. politus,

33. P. cuneativentris ; Lancet: 34. P. kulwantae , 35. P. cephalopunctata.

TWEE VE NEW SPECIES OF GENUS PACHYPROTASIS HARTIG

273

Figs. (36-40) Lancet: 36. Pachyprotasis nigricans , 37. P. salebrousa , 38. P. hargurmeeti, 39. P.foveatus,

40. P. pleuricingulata.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

Figs. (41-46) Lancet: 41. Pachyprotasis punamae, 42. P. politus, 43. P. cuneativentris ,

Lateral view of Thorax: 44. Pachyprotasis kulwantae, 45. P. cuneativentris ,

46. P. cephalopunctata.

TWEL VE NEW SPECIES OF GENUS PA CHYPROTASIS HARTIG

275

Figs. (47-58) Colour pattern of Head: 47. Pachyprotasis maculiventris , 48. P. kulwantae ,

49. P. cephalopunctata , 50. P. politus, 51. P. cuneativentris, 52. P. nigricans , 53. P. salebrousa

54. P. hargurmeeti , 55. P.foveatus , 56. P. pleuricingulata, 57. P. punamae, 58. P. frontatus.

276

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95(1998)

mesonotal middle lobe reaching apex pale;

tergites black above with pale are: irregular

lateral spots along posterior border of

propodeum, posterior border in middle of

tergites 2-6, tergite 9 entirely. Legs pale, black

are: outer stripe from base of femur to apex of

claw joint in front four legs, spot on metacoxa,

outer and inner stripe on apical half of

metafemur, rest of metaleg except narrow

anterior stripe on tibia; postocellar area convex

manganensis Saini & Kalia

Pachyprotasis maculiventris sp.nov.

(Figs. 1,9,16,25,47)

Male: Colour: Body black, yellowish

white are: underside of scape, clypeus except a

basal medial stripe, labrum, mandible, a spot

on supraclypeal area extending beyond base of

antennae, broad inner and hind orbits except

upper 1/4 (Fig. 47); broad posterolateral and

streak-like posterodorsal margin of pronotum,

tegula except extreme apex, anterolateral oval

spot on mesonotal middle lobe, a spot on

mesoscutellum, a transverse stripe on lower half

of mesepistemum extending to anterior border,

posterior border of mesepimeron; metastemum;

anterolateral and lateral parts of all tergites

stemites entirely; front four legs except outer

stripe on femora, tibiae and tarsi, apical 1/2 of

metacoxa, metatrochanter entirely, extreme base

and dorsal stripe on metafemur, metatarsi 2-4

and adjoining part of metabasitarsus and of tarsal

joint 5. Fuscoferruginous are: broad triangular

spot on tergites 2-5, outer side of metafemur,

metatibia except apical 1/5. Wings hyaline,

venation including costa, subcosta and stigma

dark brown.

Structure: Average length 6.5mm.

Antenna 3 .4x head width, segments 3 and 4 as

6:5; clypeus (Fig. 1 ) subsquare ly incised upto 1/

3 of its medial length, labrum broader than long

as 4:3 with roundly pointed anterior margin,

malar space 2x diameter of median ocellus;

LID:IDMO:EL = 7:6:5, OOL:POL:OCL = 3:2:2;

frontal area below level of eyes; supraantennal

tubercles moderately raised and confluent with

low lying frontal ridges, supraantennal pit

prominent, median fovea deep in its anterior 1/

2 and posteriorly only shallowly reaching

median ocellus; post- and interocellar furrows

just indicated, circumocellar furrow indistinct,

lateral furrows indicated and ending well before

hypothetical hind margin of head; postocellar

area subconvex, broader than long as 2:1;

mesoscutellum convex, with a medial

longitudinal carina on its posterior slope,

appendage carinate, ICD:ITD = 1:4; metafemur

longer than tibia as 7:6, metabasitarsus longer

than following 3 joints combined as 8:7,

IATS:MB:OATS = 3:4:2, apical tooth of claw

subequal to subapical one (Fig. 9). Genitalia:

Penis valve (Fig. 16), gonoforceps (Fig. 25).

Sculpture and pubescence: Head with few,

scattered, irregular, inconspicuous punctures,

surface opaque; thorax almost impunctate except

mesonotum which is punctured like head, surface

shining with general oily lustre; abdomen

impunctate, shining. Body covered with silvery

pubescence except for coloured parts where it

appears to be golden.

Female: Not found.

Material examined: Holotype: Male,

Uttar Pradesh, Kalamunitop, 2700m, 18.vi.1993.

Paratypes: 3 males with same data as holotype.

Individual variations: Triangular spot on

tergites 2 & 5 may be faint or missing, a

yellowish spot on inner side of apex of metatibia

present, black colour on metatibia extends upto

1/3 of its apical part.

Distribution: India: Uttar Pradesh.

Etymology: Species name pertains to

triangularly spotted abdomen.

Pachyprotasis kulwantae sp.nov.

(Figs. 2,10,17,26,34,44,48)

Female: Colour: Body black, yellowish

white are: underside of scape, clypeus, mandible

barring apex, spot on supraclypeal area, lower

1/2 of inner and hind orbits (Fig. 4 8); sagittated

apex of mesonotal middle lobe, tegula, spot

TWEL VE NEW SPECIES OF GENUS PA CHYPROTASIS HARTIG

277

before mesoscutellum, mesoscutellum except

lateral slopes, a spot each on appendage and

metascutellum; lower haves of meso- and

metapleura; extreme posterior margins of

tergites 3-7 triangularly widened in middle,

posterolateral deflexed sides of stergites 3-8

more or less, posterior margins of stemites 3-7;

all coxae and trochanters; femora, tibiae and

tarsi of front four legs except posterior stripe;

basal 1/3 of metatibia. Fuscoferruginous are:

apical 2/3 of metafemur except an apical black

dot, basal 2/3 of metatibia, all metatarsi. Wings

hyaline; costa and basal 1/3 of stigma fulvous,

rest of venation piceous.

Structure: Length 7.5mm. Antenna 3.2x

head width, segment 3 equal to 4; clypeus (Fig.2)

subrectangularly incised upto 1/3 of its medial

length, labrum broader than long as 3:2 with

rounded anterior margin, malar space 0.5x

diameter of median ocellus; LID:IDMO:EL =

1:1:1, OOL:POL:OCL = 3:2:2; frontal area

below level of eyes; supraantennal tubercles

raised and confluent with slightly indicated

frontal ridges, supraantennal pit shallow, median

fovea ditch-like in its anterior 1/2 and posteriorly

shallowly reaching median ocellus; postocellar

furrow shallow, interocellar furrow just

indicated, circumocellar furrow absent, lateral

furrows distinct and ending just before

hypothetical hind margin of head; postocellar

area subconvex and as wide as long;

mesoscutellum pyramidally raised (Fig. 44),

appendage carinate, ICD:ITD = 2:5; metafemur

longer than tibia as 9:7, metabasitarsus longer

than following 3 joints combined as 5:4,

IATS:MB:OATS = 3:5:2, apical tooth of tarsal

claw longer than subapical one (Fig. 10). Lancet

(Fig. 34) with 20 serrulae.

Sculpture and pubescence: Head covered

with dense, minute, conspicuous punctures,

surface opaque; thorax with fine, inconspicuous,

scattered punctures, surface subshining. Body

covered with mixed blackish and silvery

pubescence except for coloured parts where it

appears golden.

Male: Average length 6.5mm. Similar to

female except: underside of antenna yellowish

white, metabasitarsus apically ringed with black.

Genitalia: Penis valve (Fig. 26), gonoforceps

(Fig. 34).

Material examined: Holotype: Female,

Uttar Pradesh, Kalamunitop, 2700m, 18.vi.1993.

Patatypes: 2 males with same data as holotype.

Individual variations: Triangular spots

on tergites missing.

Distribution: india: Uttar Pradesh.

Etymology: Species name is in honour of

Dr. Kulwant Kaur, wife of the first author, who

has given a lot of moral support to run the project

under which this work has been completed.

Pachyprotasis cephalopunctata sp.nov.

(Figs. 7,35,46,49)

Female: Colour: Body black, yellowish

are: underside of scape, clypeus except a medial

basal spot, labrum, mandible barring apex, spot

on supraclypeal area, paired spot above bases of

antennae, broad inner orbit narrowly continues

with a spot on temple (Fig.49), lower 2/3 of hind

orbit; anterior and posterolateral margins of

pronotum, tegula, lateral side and sagittated apex

of mesonotal middle lobe, spot before

mesoscutellum, top of mesoscutellum,

appendage, spot on metascutellum; a broad

transverse band on lower half of mesepistemum,

a broad spot on metastemum, posterior margin

of mesepimeron, lower 1/2 of metapleuron; a

spot each on posteromesal margins of

propodeum, narrow posterior borders of tergites

2-4 and entire 9, posterior margin of deflexed

lateral sides of all tergites, posterior borders of

stemites 4-7; coxae, trochanters and adjoining

parts of femora of front four legs; a medial broad

spot more or less covering apical 1/2 of

metacoxa, metatrochanter and adjoining part of

metafemur, anterior aspect of profemur, extreme

bases of meso- and metafemora; inner side of

pro- and mesotibiae, inner aspects of tarsi of

front four legs. Fuscoferruginous are: posterior

278

JOURNAL, BOMBA YNA TURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

aspect of profemur except extreme bases and

apices, metatibia except apical 1/3 and a black

dot on dorsal aspect of extreme base. Wings

hyaline; venation including costa, subcosta and

stigma piceous.

Structure: Average length 8mm. Antenna

3. lx head width, segments 3 and 4 as 4:5;

clypeus (Fig.5) roundly incised upto 1/2 of its

medial length, labrum broader than long as 3:2

with rounded anterior margin, malar space 0.5x

diameter of median ocellus; LID:IDMO:EL =

6:7:6, OOL:POL:UCL = 3:2:3; frontal area

below level of eyes; supraantennal tubercles and

frontal area below level of eyes; supraantennal

tubercles and frontal ridges insignificant;

supraantennal pit deep, crescent-shaped in

outline; median fovea shallowly indicated in its

anterior half; post-, inter- and circumocellar

furrows distinct; lateral furrows deep, distinct

and ending just before hypothetical hind margin

of head; postocellar area subconvex, broader

than long as 3:2; mesoscutellum flat (Fig.46),

appendage carinate, ICD:ITD = 2:7; metafemur

longer than tibia as 7:6, metabasitarsus longer

than following 3 joints combined as 5:4;

IATS:MB:OATS = 3:5:2, apical tooth of tarsal

claw equal to subapical one (Fig. 12). Lancet

(Fig. 35) with 23 serrulae.

Sculpture and pubescence: Head with

scattered, inconspicuous punctures, surface

shining; mesonotum with dense, minute,

shallow punctures, surface shining with general

oily lustre; mesoscutellum bears few, isolated

punctures on its posterolateral slope, surface

polished, appendage polished; mesepistemum

with dense, deep and confluent punctures,

surface shining; mesostema with dense, fine,

shallow punctures, surface shining with general

oily lusture; abdomen impunctate, cross-striated,

subshining. Body covered with silvery

pubescence except yellowish parts where it

seems to be golden.

Male: Not found.

Material examined: Holotype: Female,

Manipur, Ukhrul, 1700m, 24.V.1993. Paratype:

Nagaland, Zunheboto, 1874m, 1 female

14.V.1993.

Individual variations: Both specimens

alike.

Distribution: india: Manipur, Nagaland.

Etymology: Species name pertains to

minutely punctured head.

Pachyprotasis politus sp.nov.

(Figs. 8,23,32,42,50)

Female: Colour: Body black, yellowish

are: underside of scape, clypeus, labrum,

mandible barring apex, spot on supraclypeal area

extending beyond base of antenna, inner orbits

continues with broad spot on temple, lower 3/4

of hind orbit (Fig.50); pronotum except upper

1/3, tegula, lateral margins of mesonotal middle

lobe meeting at apex, spot before

mesoscutellum, spot on posterolateral margin of

mesonotal lateral lobe, mesocutellum except

lateral sides, appendage, metascutellum,

parapterum, mesepistemum and mesostemum

except a dot at their borders, broad posterolateral

margin of mesepimeron; metapleuron except a

proximal dot on metepimeron, a broad spot on

posteromesal margin of propodeum, narrow

posterior margins of tergites 2-6 and 8, broad

posterior margin of tergite 9, deflexed lateral

sides of all tergites, all stemites entirely; all

coxae and trochanters except a black medial

stripe on outer ventrolateral aspect of metacoxa;

femora, tibiae and tarsi of front four legs

except a posterior stripe; metafemur except a

stripe on outer side and another one on inner

apical 1/3; a faint spot on inner side of meta-

tibia just before apex. Wings hyaline; vena-

tion including costa, subcosta and stigma

piceous.

Structure: Average length 9mm. Antenna

3.2x head width, segments 3 and 4 equal;

clypeus (Fig. 8) roundly incised upto 1/4 of its

medial length, labrum broader than long as 4:3

with rounded anterior margin having a median

notch, malar space 0.5x diameter of median

TWEL VE NEW SPECIES OF GENUS PA CHYPROTASIS HARTJG

279

ocellus; LID:IDMO:EL =1:1:1, OOL:POL:OCL

= 3:2:3; frontal area below level of eyes,

supraantennal tubercles and frontal ridges

insignificant, median fovea shallowly indicated

in its anterior 1/2; post-, inter- and circumocellar

furrows insignificant, lateral furrows absent;

postocellar area almost flat, broader than long

as 3:2; mesoscutellum pyramidal, appendage

carinate, ICD:ITD = 2:7; metafemur longer than

tibia as 8:7, metabasitarsus longer than 3

following joints combined 4:3, IATS:MB:OATS

= 4:8:3, apical tooth of claw subequal to

subapical one (Fig. 15). Lancet (Fig.42) with 24

serrulae.

Sculpture and pubescence: Head with

scattered, irregular punctures, surface

subshining; mesonotum finely, densely, minutely

punctured; mesoscutellum and appendage

impunctate; mesopleuron and mesostemum with

dense, shallow punctures, surface shining with

general oily lustre; abdomen impunctate,

subshining. Body covered with silvery

pubescence except for yellowish parts where it

appears golden.

Male: Length 7mm. Similar to female

excepting underside of antenna, orbit narrowly

meeting at posterior end, and metatibia

except outer side and extreme tip which are

yellowish white; posterior margins of all

tergites broadly striped; dot on mesostemum

missing; yellow colour more extensive.

Genitalia: Penis valve (Fig. 23), gonoforceps

(Fig. 32).

Material examined: Holotype: Female,

Arunachal Pradesh, Sessa, 1200m, 23 .v. 1993.

Paratypes: West Bengal, Mirik, 1700m, 1 male,

ll.v.1993. Sikkim, Namchi, 1600m, 3 females,

18.V.1993. Arunachal Pradesh, Sessa, 1200m,

1 female, 23.V.1993.

Individual variations: All specimens

alike.

Distribution: india: West Bengal, Sikkim,

Arunachal Pradesh.

Etymology: Species name is based on the

smooth and shining surface of body.

Pachyprotasis cuneativentris sp.nov.

(Figs. 24,33,43,45,51)

Female: Colour: Body black, yellowish

are: underside of scape and pedicel, clypeus,

labrum, mandible barring apex, spot on

supraclypeal area extending beyond base of

antenna, broad lower 1/2 of inner orbit narrowly

continuous with the spot on temple (Fig. 51),

hind orbit except upper 1/3; broad ventral part

of pronotum, tegula except a dot on apical

margin, lateral sides of mesonotal middle lobe

meeting at apex, spot before mesoscutellum,

mesoscutellum except lateral slopes and

posterior broader, spot on appendage,

metascutellum; mesepisternum except

anterodorsal spot, broad posterior border of

mesepimeron, mesostemum entirely,

metapleuron except upper 1/2 of metepimeron,

metasternum, extreme posterior margin of

propodeum, medial triangular spot on tergites

2-7, tergite 9 entirely, deflexed lateral sides of

all tergites, all stemites entirely; all coxae and

trochanters, pro- and mesofemora except a stripe

on apical posterodorsal aspect, metafemur except

a stripe each on outer and inner aspects of apical

1/2, extreme base of metabasitarsus, tibiae and

tarsi of front four legs except a stripe on outer

aspect. Wings hyaline; venation including costa,

subcosta and stigma black.

Structure: Average length 7.5 mm.

Antenna 3.4x head width, segments 3 and

4 as 9:8; clypeus (Fig. 4) arcuately incised

upto 1/3 of its medial length, labrum broader

than long as 3:2 with rounded anterior margin

having a broad medial notch, malar space 0.5x

diameter of median ocellus; LID:IDMO:EL =

1:1:1, OOL:POL:OCL = 5:4:5; frontal area

below level of eyes; supraantennal tubercles

and frontal ridges insignificant, median fovea

absent, supraantennal pit deep; post-, inter-

and circumocellar furrows absent, lateral

furrows distinct and reaching hypothetical

hind margin of head; postocellar area sub-

convex, broader than long as 5:4; mesoscutellum

280

JOURNAL, BOMBA YNA TURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

convex (Fig. 45), appendage carinate, ICD:ITD

= 2:7; metafemur longer than tibia as 8:7,

metabasitarsus longer than following 3 joints

combined as 5:4, IATS:MB:OATS = 5:8:4;

apical tooth of tarsal claw equal to subapical one

(Fig. 12). Lancet (Fig. 43) with 23 serrulae.

Sculpture and pubescence: Head almost

impunctate except few, scattered, shallow punc-

tures on and around frontal area, surface shining;

mesoscutellum with dense, shallow punctures

on its posterior and lateral slopes, appendage

impunctate, polished; mesepister-num with

dense, shallow, irregular punctures, surface shin-

ing; mesostemum with dense, minute, shallow

punctures, surface shining with general oily

lustre; abdomen cross-striated, surface shining.

Body covered with silvery pubescence except for

yellowish parts where it seems to be golden.

Male: Average length 5.5mm. Similar to

female except black stripe on outer aspects of

metacoxa and metatibia. Genitalia: Penis valve

(Fig. 24), gonoforceps (Fig. 33).

Material examined: Holotype: Female,

Nagaland, Pfutsero, 2100m, 20. v. 1993.

Paratypes: Nagaland, Vizho-Razho, 1600m, 2

females, 3 males, 1 l.v.1993; Zunheboto, 1874m,

1 female, 16.V.1993; Pfutsero, 2 1 00m, 4 females,

1 male, 20. v. 1993, 2 females 3 males, 14.v. 1994;

Akuiuto, 1500m, 3 females, 4 males, lO.v.1994.

Manipur, Ukhrul, 1700m, 2 females, 23. v. 1993.

Meghalaya, Ladmawphlang, 1600m, 1 female,

1 male, 29.iv.1994.

Individual variations: Spot on inner orbit

broadly continuous with temple in some males.

• Mesostemum with black spot on upper 1/2.

Distribution: india: Nagaland, Manipur,

Meghalaya.

Etymology: Species name pertains to

abdomen having coloured triangularly elongated

band.

Pachyprotasis nigricans sp.nov.

(Figs. 3,11,36,52)

Female: Colour: Body black, pale

yellowish are: clypeus except extreme base and

anterior margin, labrum except medial spot,

mandibles barring apex, spot on supraclypeal

area, narrow inner orbit confluenting with

streak-like spot on temple (Fig. 52), basal 2/3 of

hind orbit; extreme anterior and posterolateral

angles of pronotum, droplet-like spot on anterior

aspect of mesepisternum, posterolateral angle

of mesepimeron; deflexed lateral sides of all

tergites faintly, posterior border of stemites 2-

7; anterior aspect of proleg, anterior aspect of

mesocoxa except a medial longitudinal band,

anterior aspect of metatrochanter, dorsal aspect

of mesofemur, inner aspects of mesotibia and

tarsi; a broad medial apical spot on anterior

aspect and a longitudinal stripe on anterolateral

aspect of metacoxa, innerside of metatrochanter,

extreme base of metabasitarsus, metatarsi 3 and

4 more or less. Wings hyaline; venation

including costa, subcosta and stigma piceous.

Structure: Average length 7.5mm.

Antenna 2.7x head width, segments 3 and 4 as

5:4; clypeus (Fig. 3) arcuately incised upto 1/3

of its medial length, labmm broader than long

as 3:2 with rounded anterior margin, malar

space 0.5x diameter of median ocellus;

LID:IDMO:EL = 3:3. 5:3, OOL:POL:OCL =

3:2:2; frontal area almost at level of eyes;

supraantennal tubercles and frontal ridges

insignificant, supranntennal pit shallow, median

fovea shallow and broadly indicated; post-, inter-

and circumocellar furrows absent; lateral

furrows shallow and ending at hypothetical hind

margin of head; postocellar area flat, as wide as

long, with median longitudinal furrow;

mesoscutellum convex, appendage carinate,

ICD:ITD =1:3; metafemur longer than tibia as

7:6, metabasitarsus longer than following 3

joints combined as 5:4, IATS:MB:OATS = 3:5:2,

apical tooth of tarsal claw longer than subapical

one (Fig. 11). Lancet (Fig. 36) with 16 serrulae.

Sculpture and pubescence: Head with

dense, minute and shallow punctures, surface

between punctures micropunctured, surface

opaque; thorax punctured like head, surface

TWEL VE NEW SPECIES OF GENUS PA CHYPROTASIS HARTIG

281

opaque; abdomen cross-striated, surface dull.

Body covered with blackish pubescence.

Male: Not found.

Material examined: Holotype: Female,

Uttar Pradesh, Flower valley, 3200m,

27.vii.1993. Paratype: Uttar Pradesh, Gobind

Dham, 3000m, 1 female, 28.vii.1993.

Individual variations: Both specimens

alike.

Distribution: india: Uttar Pradesh.

Etymology: Species name alludes to

general black colour of body.

Pachyprotasis salebrousa sp.nov.

(Figs. 15,18,27,37,53)

Female: Colour: Body black, yellowish

white are: clypeus except a basal medial spot

and extreme anterior margin, labrum, mandible

barring apex, inner orbit narrowly continues

with temple spot (Fig. 53), lower 2/3 of hind

orbit; anterior and posterolateral margins of

pronotum, basal 1/2 of tegula, spot on

anterolateral margins of pronotum, basal 1/2 of

tegula, spot on anterolateral margin of mesonotal

middle lobe not meeting at apex, top of

mesoscutellum, appendage, spot on metas-

cutellum; an irregular broad spot on anterodorsal

and another irregular droplet-like spot on

posteroventral margin of mesepistemum, a broad

stripe along posterolateral margin of

mesepimeron, narrow posterior margin of

metasternum continues with broad spot on

posterior margin of metepimeron; narrow

posterior margin of tergite 9; spot on

anterolateral, posterolateral and underturned

sides of all tergites, posterior margins of stemites

3-7; anterior aspect of procoxa except a median

fuscous spot, extreme apical tips of meso- and

metacoxae; all trochanters except paired dot,

one each on anterior and posterior aspects;

femur, tibia and tarsi of proleg anteriorly; basal

1/3 of femur, tibia and tarsi of mesoleg

anteriorly; basal 1/2 of metafemur; metatarsal

joint 2 anteriorly; metatarsal joints 3 and 4

entirely; basal and anterior aspects of metatarsal

joint 5. Wings hyaline; costa except apical

swollen part fuscoferruginous, rest of venation

piceous.

Structure: Average length 7mm. Antenna

3x head width, segments 3 and 4 as 8:7; clypeus

(Fig. 5) subsquarely to roundly incised upto 1/2

of its medial length, labrum broader than long

as 5:4 with rounded anterior margin, malar

space 0.5x diameter of median ocellus;

LID:IDMO:EL = 4:5:3. 5, OOL:POL:OCL =

3:2:2; frontal area raised upto level of eyes;

supraantennal tubercles and frontal ridges

insignificant, supraantennal pit shallow, median

fovea insignificantly shallowly indicated; post-,

inter- and circumocellar furrows shallow, lateral

furrows distinct; postocellar area broader than

long as 2:1; mesoscutellum flat with a carina

on its posterior slope, appendage carinate,

ICD:ITD = 1:4; metafemur longer than tibia as

8:7; metabasitarsus longer than following 3

joints combined as 5:4, IATS:MB:OATS =

9:12:7, apical tooth of tarsal claw longer than

subapical one (Fig. 15). Lancet (Fig. 37) with 18

serrulae.

Sculpture and pubescence: Head with

dense, minute and shallow punctures, surface

between punctures microsculptured, surface

opaque; thorax punctured like head, surface

opaque; abdomen cross-striated, surface dull.

Body covered with mixed blackish and silvery

pubescence except yellowish parts where it is

golden.

Male: Average length 5.5mm. Similar to

female except: lower 1/2 including broad

posterolateral margins of pronotum yellowish

white, all yellowish white spot on mesopleuron

of female comparatively broader in male, pro-

and mesocoxae yellowish entirely, metacoxa

with inner and outer ventrolateral stripes.

Genitalia: Penis valve (Fig. 18), gonoforceps

(Fig. 27).

Material examined: Holotype: Female,

Arunachal Pradesh, Bomdila, 2550m, 6.V.1992.

Paratypes: 4 females, 41 males with same data

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

as holotype, 7 males, 9.V.1992, 2 females, 1

male, 26.V.1993.

Individual variations: All specimens

alike.

Distribution: India: Arunachal Pradesh.

Etymology: Species name pertains to

subrugose head.

Pachyprotasis hargurmeeti sp.nov.

(Figs. 19,28,38,54)

Female: Colour: Body black; yellowish

pale are: under side of scape, clypeus, labrum,

mandible barring apex, spot on supraclypeal area

extending beyond base of antenna; lower 1/2 of

inner orbit not confluenting with temple spot

(Fig. 54), lower 2/3 of hind orbit; narrow

anterolateral and broad posterolateral margins

of pronotum; basal 1/3 of tegula, medial oblong

spot on mesoscutellum, spot each on appendage

and metascutellum; most of anterior aspect and

transverse stripe on posteroventral 1/2 of

mesepistemum, mesostemum, posterolateral

margins of mesepimeron; lower 1/2 of

metapleuron, metastemum; extreme posterior

border of tergites 2-4, tergite 9 except

anterolateral margins, deflexed lateral sides of

all tergites, all stemites; front four coxae and

trochanters; femur, tibiae and tarsi of front four

legs except a stripe on outer aspect; metacoxa

except a stripe on outer ventral aspect,

metatrochanter, metafemur except a longitudinal

stripe on its outer aspect widened apically to

cover almost 1/2 of its inner aspect. Wings

hyaline; venation including costa, subcosta and

stigma piceous.

Structure: Length 8mm. Antenna 3x head

width, segments 3 and 4 as 8:7; clypeus (Fig.2)

subrectangularly incised upto 1/3 of its medial

length, labrum broader than long as 3:2 with

rounded anterior margin, malar space 0.75x

diameter of median ocellus; LID:IDMO:EL =

3:3.5 :3, OOL:POL:OCL = 3:2:2; frontal area at

level of eyes; supraantennal pit shallow, median

fovea absent; post-, inter- and circumocellar

furrows absent, lateral furrows shallow;

postocellar area as long as wide; mesoscutellum

subconvex, appendage carinate, ICD:ITD = 2:7;

metafemur equal to tibia, metabasitarsus longer

than following 3 joints combined as 7:6,

LATS:MB:OATS = 4: 10:3, apical tooth of tarsal

claw almost equal to subapical one (Fig. 12).

Lancet (Fig.38) with 22 serrulae.

Sculpture and pubescence: Head almost

impunctate except shallow, scattered punctures

on and around frontal area, surface shining;

thorax except polished, impunctate appendage,

with dense, minute, shallow punctures more

conspicuous and confluenting on posterior slope

of mesoscutellum and on convexity of

mesepistemum, surface shining with general

oily lustre; abdomen impunctate, shining. Body

covered with silvery pubescence.

Male: Average length 7mm. Similar to

female. Genitalia: Penis valve (Fig. 19),

gonoforceps (Fig.28).

Material examined: Holotype: Female,

Uttar Pradesh, Kalamunitop, 2700m,

21.vi.1991. Paratypes: 3 males with same data

as holotype. Uttar Pradesh, Mandal, 2300m,

females, 7 males 16.vi.1994. Himachal Pradesh,

Kufri, 2500m, 2 males, 28.vi.1994.

Individual variation: All specimens alike.

Distribution: india: Uttar Pradesh,

Himachal Pradesh.

Etymology: Species is named after its

collector, Mr. Hargurmeet Singh.

Pachyprotasis foveatus sp.nov.

(Figs. 14,22,31,39,55)

Female: Colour: Body black, yellowish

are: underside of scape, clypeus, labrum,

mandible barring apex, spot on supraclypeal area

extending triangularly well above base of

antenna, lower 1/2 of inner orbit narrowly

continuous with a prominent spot on temple

(Fig. 55), lower 2/3 of hind orbit; broad ventral

part of pronotum, basal 1/2 of inner margin of

tegula, lateral margins of mesonotal middle lobe

TWELVE NEW SPECIES OF GENUS PACHYPROTASIS HARTIG

283

meeting at apex, spot before mesoscutellum; a

spot each on mesoscutellum, appendage and

metascutellum; mesepisternum except a

rectangular spot on lower 1/2 covering posterior

1/2 upto coxal rim, mesepimeron except a stripe

along pleural suture, mesostemum, metapleuron

except irregular stripe along pleural suture,

posteromesal margins of propodeum, posterior

margins of tergites 2-7, tergite 9 entirely,

deflexed lateral margin of all tergites, all

stemites entirely; coxae and trochanters of front

four legs, metacoxa except a stripe on apical 1/

2 of outer ventral aspect, metatrochanter except

a spot on ventral aspect; femora, tibiae and first

four tarsal joints of front four legs except a stripe

on outer side; claw joint except apices of front

four legs; metafemur except a spot on outer side

of its base and another broad irregular spot

covering apical 1/2 of anterodorsal aspect. Wings

hyaline; venation including costa, subcosta and

stigma piceous.

Structure: Average length 9mm. Antenna

2.6x head width, segments 3 and 4 as 8:7;

clypeus (Fig.2) subrectangularly incised upto 1/

3 of its medial length, labrum broader than long

as 3:2 with rounded anterior margin, malar

space Q.5x diameter of median ocellus;

LID:IDMO:EL = 1.5:1:1.25, OOL:POL:OCL =

3:2:2, frontal area slightly below level of eyes;

supraantennal tubercles and frontal ridges

insignificant, median fovea shallow ditch-like

in its anterior 1/2; post-, inter- and circumocellar

furrows just indicated; lateral furrows distinct

and ending well before hypothetical hind margin

of head; postocellar area broader than long as

5:4; mesoscutellum flat, appendage carinate,

ICD:ITD = 1:4; metafemur longer than

metatibia as 8:7, metabasitarsus longer than

following 3 joints combined as 8:7,

IATS:MB:OATS = 2:6:1 .5, apical tooth of tarsal

claw longer than subapical one (Fig. 14). Lancet

(Fig.39) with 23 serrulae.

Sculpture and pubescence: Head with

dense, minute, shallow punctures more

conspicuous on and around frontal area, surface

shining; thorax with dense, minute, distinct

punctures except posterior slope of

mesoscutellum that bears large, shallow,

irregular punctures, surface shining with general

oily lustre; abdomen impunctate, subshining.

Body covered with silvery pubescence except for

yellowish parts where it is golden.

Male: Average length 6mm. Similar to

female. Genitalia: Penis valve (Fig. 22),

gonoforceps (Fig.31).

Material examined: Holotype: Female,

Uttar Pradesh, Rana, 2000m, 20.vi.1992.

Paratypes: Himachal Pradesh, Sojha, 3000m, 1

female, 23. vi. 1990. Uttar Pradesh, Kalamunitop,

2700m, 2 females 26.vi.1991; Auli, 2450m, 2

females, 7.vi.l992; Chopta, 3000m, 1 female,

25. vi. 1992, 8 females, 15.V.1994; Munsyari,

2300m, 1 female, 2.vi.l993; Mandal, 2400m, 4

males, 16.V.1994. Sikkim, Gangtok, 1600m, 2

females, 14.V.1993.

Individual variations: All specimens

alike.

Distribution: India: Himachal Pradesh,

Uttar Pradesh.

Etymology: Species name pertains to

characteristic shape of median fovea.

Pachyprotasis pleuricingulata sp.nov.

(Figs. 41,20,29,40,56)

Female: Colour: Body black, yellowish

pale are: underside of scape, clypeus, labrum,

mandible barring apex, a spot on supraclypeal

area extending beyond base of antenna, lower

1/2 of inner and hind orbits, temple spot

(Fig. 5 6), posterolateral margin of mesonotal

middle lobe meeting at apex, mesoscutellum

except lateral and posterior border, appendage,

metascutellum, transverse band on lower 1/2 of

mesepisternum broadened anteriorly to continue

with spot on mesostemum, posterolateral margin

of mesepimeron, spot on posterodorsal margin

of metasternum confluenting with spot on

posterior 1/2 of metepimeron; medial spots on

extreme posterior margins of tergites 2-8, tergite

284

JOURNAL, BOMBA Y NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

9 entirely, deflexed posterolateral sides of tergites

2-4, deflexed lateral sides of tergites 5-9,

posterior margin of stemites 3-7; all coxae and

trochanters, pro- and mesofemora except black

dorsal dot on extreme proximal margin,

metafemur except apical 2/5, broad inner sides

of all tibiae and tarsi of front four legs. Wings

hyaline; venation including costa, subcosta and

stigma piceous.

Structure: Length 8 mm. Antenna 3x

head width, segments 3 and 4 as 9:8; clypeus

(Fig. 4) arcuately incised upto 1/3 of its medial

length, labrum broader than long as 3:2 with

rounded anterior margin having medial notch,

malar space 0.5x diameter of median ocellus;

LID:IDMO:EL = 3:3. 5:3, OOL:POL:OCL =

2:1:1; frontal area slightly below level of eyes;

supraantennal tubercles and frontal ridges

insignificant, supraantennal pit just indicated,

median fovea absent; post-, inter- and

circumocellar furrows shallow, lateral furrows

shallow; postocellar area broader than long as

5:4; mesoscutellum subconvex, appendage

carinate, ICD:ITD = 2:7; metafemur longer than

metatibia as 8:7, metabasitarsus longer than

following 3 joints combined as 4:3,

IATS:MB:OATS = 2:5:1.25, apical tooth of

tarsal claw as long as subapical one (Fig. 12).

Lancet (Fig. 40) with 21 serrulae.

Sculpture and pubescence: Head with

scattered, shallow punctures more conspicuous

on frontal area, surface shining; mesonotum

punctured like head, surface smooth and shining

with general oily lustre; mesoscutellum and

appendage impunctate and polished;

mesepisternum with dense, prominent,

confluenting punctures; mesostemum almost

impunctate; abdomen cross-striated, subshining.

Body covered with silvery pubescence except

auratus parts where it appears golden.

Male: Average length 5.5mm. Similar to

female except: underside of antenna yellowish

white, black stripe on outer ventrolateral side of

metacoxa present. Genitalia: Penis valve

(Fig.20), gonoforceps (Fig. 29).

Material examined: Holotype: Female,

Nagaland, Pfutsero, 2100m, 19. v. 1993.

Paratypes: 4 females with same data as holotype,

1 female, 2 males, 14.V.1994; Akuiuto, 1500m,

10 males, 10. v. 1994. Meghalaya,

Ledmawphlang, 1600m, 1 female, 1 male,

29.iv.1994.

Individual variations: A stripe on

outerside of metatibia present, posterior angles

in middle of all or some tergites black, yellow

lateral margin of mesonotal middle lobe not

meeting at apex in some males only.

Distribution: india: Nagaland,

Meghalaya.

Etymology: Species name pertains to

coloured band of mesopleura on its lower half.

Pachyprotasis punamae sp.nov.

(Figs. 5,12,41,57)

Female: Colour: Body black, yellowish

are: underside of scape, clypeus, labrum,

mandible barring apex, spot on supraaclypeal

area extending above base of antenna, broad

lower 1/2 of inner orbit extremely narrowly

continuous with spot on temple (Fig. 57), lower

2/3 of hind orbit; anterior and posterolateral

margins of pronotum, basal 3/4 of tegula, lateral

margins of mesonotal middle lobe meeting at

apex, mesoscutellum and spot anterior to it,

appendage, metascutellum, anterior broad aspect

of mesepisternum continous with a spot on

mesostemum, posterior margin of mesepimeron,

lower 1/2 of metapleuron continuous with

metastemum; posterior margins of tergites 2-8

triangularly widened in middle, tergite 9 entirely,

posterior margins of deflexed lateral sides of

tergites 2 and 3, deflexed lateral sides of tergites

4-9 more or less, posterior borders of stemites

3-7; front four legs except outer stripe on tibiae

and tarsi; coxa, trochanter and basal 3/4 of femur

of metaleg. Wings hyaline; venation including

costa, subcosta and stigma piceous.

Structure: Average length 8.5mm.

Antenna 3.2x head width; segments 3 and 4 as

TWEL VE NEW SPECIES OF GENUS PA CHYPROTASIS HARTIG

285

8:7; clypeus (Fig. 5) subsquarely to roundly

incised upto 1/2 of its medial length, labram

broader than long as 3:2 with rounded anterior

margin, malar space 0.5x diameter of median

ocellus; LID:IDMO:EL =1:1:1, OOL:POL:OCL

= 3:2:3; frontal area at level of eyes;

supraantennal tubercles and frontal area at level

of eyes; supraantennal tubercles and frontal

ridges insignificant, supraantennal pit shallow,

median fovea absent, postocellar furrow shallow,

interocellar furrow indicated, circumocellar

furrow indistinct, lateral furrows shallow;

postocellar area broader than long as 3:2;

mesoscutellum convex, appendage carinate,

ICD.ITD = 1:3.5; metafemur longer than tibia

as 9:8, metabasitarsus longer than following 3

joints combined as 5:4, IATS:MB:OATS = 3:6:2,

apical tooth of tarsal claw equal to subapical one

(Fig. 12). Lancet (Fig.41) with 22 serrulae.

Sculpture and pubescence: Head almost

impunctate except shallow, scattered punctures,

surface shining; mesonotum with dense, shallow,

irregular punctures, surface shining;

mesoscutellum with distinct, irregular punctures

on its posterior slope, surface polished,

appendage impunctate, polished; mesepistemum

with distinct, large, deep, irregular punctures,

surface shining with general oily lusture;

mesosternum with fine, dense, shallow

punctures, surface shining; abdomen cross-

striated, subshining. Body covered with silvery

pubescence except yellowish parts where it is

golden.

Male: Not found.

Material examined: Holotype: Female,

Manipur, Ukhrul, 1700m, 22. v. 1993. Paratypes:

West Bengal, Mirik, 1700m, 1 female,

lO.v.1993. Sikkim, Namchi, 1600m, 1 female,

16. v. 1993. Manipur, Ukhrul, 1700m, 1 female,

22. v. 1993. Nagaland, Pfutsero, 2100m, 2

females, 19. v. 1993, 2 females, 14. v. 1994;

Akuiuto, 1500m, 4 females, lO.v.1994.

Individual variations: Yellowish are:

lower 2/3 of inner orbit, lower 1/2 of

mesepistemum, posteromesal margins of

propodeum, posterior margins of tergites 2 and

8, deflexed lateral sides of all tergites, stemites

6 and 7 entirely, inner median spot on tibia and

extreme base of basitarsus of metaleg. Black are:

apical 1/2 of tegula, lateral and posterior border

of mesoscutellum, outer aspect of mesofemur.

Distribution: india: Manipur, Sikkim,

West Bengal, Nagaland.

Etymology: Species is named after Dr.

Punam, wife of co-author, who has helped a lot

to collect sawflies from various localities while

collecting her elaterid beetles.

Pachyprotasis frontatus sp.nov.

(Figs. 6,13,21,30,58)

Male: Colour: Body black, yellowish

white are: underside of antenna, clypeus, labram,

mandible barring apex, spot on supraclypeal area

extending well above base of antenna, broad

inner orbit continuous with prominent spot on

temple (Fig. 58), lower 3/4 of hind orbit; broad

ventral half of pronotum, tegula, streak on lateral

margins of mesonotal middle lobe not meeting

apex, spot before mesoscutellum, top of

mesoscutellum, spot each on appendage and

metascutellum; mesepistemum, broad posterior

margin of mesepimeron, mesosternum,

metapleuron except spot on its upper 1/2,

metastemum, medial triangular spot on tergites

3 and 4, deflexed lateral sides of all tergites, all

stemites more or less; all coxae and trochanters,

pro- and mesofemora except outer dorsolateral

stripe on apical 1/3, metafemur except outer and

inner aspects of apical half, tibiae and tarsi of

front four legs except outer stripe, stripe on inner

aspect of metatibia broadening just before its

apex, extreme bases and apices of basal two

metatarsal joints, metatarsi 3 and 4 entirely,

extreme bases of claw joints. Wings hyaline;

venation including costa, subcosta and stigma

piceous.

Structure: Average length 5.5 mm.

Antenna 4x head width, segments 3 and 4 as

4:5; clypeus (Fig. 6) shallowly, semicircularly

286

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95(1998)

incised, labrum broader than long as 3:2 with

truncate anterior margin, malar space lx

diameter of median ocellus; LID:IDMO:EL =

4:4:3, OOL:POL:OCL = 3:2:2; frontal ridges

insignificant, supraantennal pit shallow, median

fovea in form of semicircular pit in its anterior

half and shallowly reaching broad shallowly

depressed posterior half anterior to median

ocellus; post- and interocellar furrows shallow,

circumocellar furrow absent; lateral furrows

deep, distinct and ending abruptly well before

hypothetical hind margin of head; postocellar

area subconvex, broader than long as 2:1;

mesoscutellum subconvex, appendage faintly

carinate, ICD:ITD = 1:4; metafemur longer than

tibia as 8:7, metabasitarsus longer than

following 3 joints combined as 4:3,

IATS:MB:OATS = 3:5:2, apical tooth of claw

equal to subapical one (Fig. 13). Genitalia: Penis

valve (Fig.21), gonoforceps (Fig. 30).

Sculpture and pubescence: Head covered

with dense micropunctures, more so on its frontal

area, surface shining; thorax with fine, dense and

shallow punctures, surface shining with general

oily lustre; abdomen impunctate, subshining. Body

Refe

Cameron, P. (1876): Descriptions of new genera and

species of Tenthredinidae and Siricidae, chiefly from

the East Indies, in the Collection of the British

Museum. - Trans. Ent. Soc. London 1876, Part III:

459-471.

Cameron, P. (1881): Notes on Hymenoptera, with

descriptions of new species. -Trans. Ent. Soc. London,

Part IV: 555-577.

Cameron, P. (1899): Hymenoptera Orientalia, or

contribution to a knowledge of the Hymenoptera of

the Oriental Zoological region Part XVII. The

Hymenoptera of Khasia hills, First Paper. - Mem. Proc.

Manch. Lit. Phil. Soc., 43(3): 1-220.

Cameron, P. (1902): Description of new genera and

species of Hymenoptera collected by Maj. C.S. Nurse

at Deesa, Frozepur, Simla. Part I. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc., 4: 419-449.

Forsius, R. ( 1 993): Uber einige neue oder wenig bekannte

orientalische Tenthredinoiden (Hym .)Ann. Nat. Hist.

Mus. Wien, 46: 29-48.

Hartig, T. (1837): Familien der Blattwespen and

covered with silvery pubescence except for

yellowish parts where it is golden.

Female: Not found.

Material examined:- Holotype: Male,

West Bengal, Darjeeling, 2280m, 9.V.1993.

Paratype: 1 male with same data as holotype.

Individual variations: Both specimens

alike.

Distribution: India: West Bengal.

Etymology: Species name pertains to

characteristic shape of frontal area.

Acknowledgements

The authors are deeply thankful to Dr.

D.R. Smith (USNM, Washington), Prof. (Dr.)

H.J. Muller and Dr. A. Taeger (IPAL,

Eberswalde, Germany), late Dr. P.I. Persson

(NR, Stockholm) and Dr. N.D. Springate (NHM,

London) for lending some rare specimens

housed at these museums under their respective

charges. The financial assistance rendered by

USDA, Washington in collaboration with ICAR,

New Delhi is also acknowledged with

thankfulness.

ENCES

Holzwespen nebst einer allgemeinen Einleitung. Zur

Naturgeschichte der Hymenopteren: 4 1 6pp.

Linnaeus, C. (1767): Systema Naturae, 12: 926 pp.

Malaise, R. (1934): On some sawflies (Hymenoptera:

Tenthredinidae) from Indian Museum, Calcutta. Rec.

Ind. Mus. Calcutta, 36: 453-474.

Malaise, R. (1945): Tenthredinoidea of South-Eastern

Asia with general zoogeographic al review. Opusc.

Ent., 4: 288 pp.

Rohwer, S.A. (1916): Description of new species of

Hymenoptera. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. Washington, 49:

205-249.

Saini, M.S. & V. Vasu (1995): Replacement name and

present position for Pachyprotasis malaisei Singh

et al. (Hymenoptera, Symphyta, Tenthredinidae:

Tenthredininae)./ ent. Res., 19(3): 197-200.

Singh, B., S. S. Dhillon, T. Singh & M.S. Saini (1987):

Six new species of the genus Pachyprotasis Hartig

(Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae: Tenthredininae) from

North-West Himalaya, India. Colemania, 4:

29-38.

POPULATION ECOLOGY OF MIGRATORY WATERFOWL

IN KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK, BHARATPUR1

( With three text-figures)

S. Bhupathy, V.S. Vijayan2 and R. Mathur3

Key words: Migratory waterfowl, ducks, population, sex ratio, Lower Critical

Temperature (LCT).

Arrival, departure, sex ratio and wetland utilization by migratory waterfowl was studied

in Keoladeo National Park (KNP), Bharatpur from August through May between 1987

and 1 989. Direct observation method was used for data collection. Waterfowl started arriving

in the KNP in the first fortnight of August and were seen till May. They extended their

stay in KNP during the year of normal rainfall. Imbalance in sex ratio was observed in

pintail, shoveller (male biased) and common teal (female biased). Gadwall, wigeon and

mallard showed balanced sex ratio (1:1). Reasons for the disparity in sex ratio are discussed.

Introduction

Migratory waterfowl spend around eight

months in a year in their wintering grounds.

Knowledge of the arrival, departure, use pattern

and sex ratio of the populations is a prerequisite

for planning conservation strategy, especially for

wintering grounds. Information on the arrival

and departure of waterfowl overwintering in

India is scanty (Mathew 1971, McClure 1974,

Shah 1984, Ambedkar and Daniel 1990). The

imbalance in sex ratio of waterfowl has been a

subject of research since the mid forties in the

West (Petridges 1944, Johnsgard and Buss 1956,

Alford and Bolen 1977, Alexander 1983, Owen

and Dix 1986). However, apart from a study on

the common teal by Ambedkar and Daniel

( 1 990), information on waterfowl sex ratio is not

available for the Indian subcontinent or elsewhere

in the tropics, though basic information can be

found (Ali and Ripley 1983). The present study

reports some aspects of population ecology of

'Accepted March, 1997

2Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology & Natural History,

Anaikatti P.O. Coimbatore-641 108.

Assistant Professor, Department of Zoology,

University of Rajasthan, Jaipur.

waterfowl such as arrival, departure, use of

Keoladeo National Park (KNP), Bharatpur by

waterfowl in terms of duck days and sex ratio. A

description of the population parameters of

waterfowl is given by Bhupathy (1991).

Study Area

The Keoladeo National Park (KNP),

Bharatpur is located between 27° 7.6' to 27° 12.2'

N and 77° 29.5' to IT 33.9' E and lies 50 km

west of Agra and 180 km south of New Delhi.

KNP is listed in the Convention on Wetlands of

International Importance, especially as

Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) and also

in the IUCN World Heritage Sites. Its total area

is about 29 sq. km and about 8.5 sq. km is wetland

during the years of normal rainfall. The wetland

portion is compartmentalised by dykes and roads

running across it. A total of 360 species of birds

have been recorded from KNP by Saxena (1975)

and Abdulali and Pandey (1978). However, in

recent times only 317 species could be recorded

(Vijayan 1987), of which about 37% (115) are

water dependent. Forty- two species of anatids

have been recorded from the Subcontinent (Ali

and Ripley 1983) of which 24 are reported from

288

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

KNP. Among them only four species, namely the

lesser whistling teal ( Dendrocygna javanica ),

spotbill duck (. Anas poicilorhynca ), comb duck

(Sarkidiornis melanotus) and cotton teal

( Nettapus coromandelianus) are resident in KNP.

Methods

This study was conducted during the

migratory season (from August through May) in

1987-88 and 1988-89; the former was a drought

year having an estimated water input of 6.77

million cu. m and the latter (1988-89) a normal

year with 13.73 million cu. m. Direct or visual

count method was used to study the waterfowl.

Such a method has widely been used for counting

aquatic birds, especially ducks (Eltringham and

Atkinson-Willes 1961, Roux 1973, Zewarts

1976, Alford and Bolen 1977, Amat 1984,

Sridharan 1989). Regular rapid surveys were

made once in three days to note the arrival and

departure of migrants in September, October and

November, and March and April respectively.

The day an individual of a species was sighted

for the first time, was considered as the arrival

date of the particular species (Oring and Lank

1982). Similarly, the last date when an individual

of a species was sighted in a particular year was

considered as its departure date. Reappearance

of less than 10 individuals of a departed bird

species was not taken into account.

Waterfowl were counted from vantage

points using a telescope (29 x) and by walking

along untarred roads and dykes intersecting the

aquatic area. Counts were carried out fortnightly

(except in March: 3 counts) from September to

May in all the years. Counts were done from half

an hour after sunrise to 1100 hrs and from 1500

hrs to half an hour prior to sunset. During mid-

winter when the population was very high, the

counts could not be completed within a day and

were extended to the next day. The movement of

birds was not striking within a few days during

winter and hence did not pose a serious change

in overall population.

Most of the ducks developed breeding

plumage from January and some of them even

from December, which facilitated sex

identification. Hence, from January, till the

departure of all birds, sexes of sexually dimorphic

species were identified and counted separately.

Birds which were more than 600 m away from

the observer and seen against the sun were

excluded from sex ratio records. For convenience,

the months before December and after January

were considered as pre-winter and post-winter

respectively, whereas December and January

were designated as mid-winter.

Data analyses

1) Overall use of KNP by waterfowl was

estimated by calculating duck days following

Wilds (1975) and Thomas (1976). The

population of each fortnight was taken as

representative and used in the calculation as

given below:

Dd = Z nl x pl+ n2 x p2 ... + ny x py

where,

Dd = Duck days

nl = number of days of a month (or fortnight)

pi = population of a given species

ny = number of days in the last month (fortnight)

py = population of a given species in the last

month

2) Lower Critical Temperature (LCT) for some

common species was calculated using Aschoff-

Pohl equation (Owen and Dix 1986).

LCT = Tb - (4.73 x Wt °274)

where, Tb= 40° C for non-passerine bird

0.274 is constant.

Results

Arrival

The migratory waterfowl started arriving

in KNP from the middle of August approximately

in three batches. The first batch consisted of four

POPULATION ECOLOGY OF MIGRATORY WATERFOWL

289

Table 1

ARRIVAL AND DEPARTURE OF WATERFOWL IN

KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK, BHARATPUR DURING

1987-88 AND 1988-89

species, namely garganey teal, pintail, shoveller

and coot. They arrived in the first half of

September. The second batch had common teal,

wigeon and gadwall, arriving from end

September to early October. The third batch of

birds arrived from the end of October to early

November, and included greylag goose and

barheaded goose (Table 1).

Species that arrived in September spent

almost a month outside KNP, using the shallow

rain-fed pools and fields in the year of normal

rainfall i.e. 1988-89. However, in the drought

year 1987-88, when these waterbodies were dry,

they arrived directly at KNP. Even though both

the species of goose arrived as early as October,

their numbers increased only by the end of

November or early December. Garganey teal built

up their number and reached § peak in the early

part of the migratory season (ie. before mid

October), declined sharply in the end of

November; virtually none but a hundred birds

remained in KNP.

Departure

The return migration of the waterfowl

population started in mid February and most of

them left KNP by the end of March. The first

species to leave KNP was the greylag goose

followed by the barheaded goose (Table 1). The

dabblers were the last to leave and were seen till

the end of April or early May in the year of

normal rainfall (1988-89). The migratory

waterfowl extended their stay that same year, and

each species, at least in small numbers, stayed

20-40 days more than they did during the drought

year (Table 1).

Use of KNP by waterfowl (duck or bird days)

The use of KNP by waterfowl is expressed

in terms of duck or bird days (Wilds 1975,

Thomas 1976). The use of KNP during 1988-89

was 18,95,197 bird days, whereas it was only

9,44,196 during 1987-88 (Table 2). This was

because, in 1988-89, the population of species

such as greylag goose, pintail and coot was 5,

3.5 and 2.5 times higher respectively than in

1987-88, the drought year. Also, most of the

species extended their stay further (Table 2).

Table 2

GENERAL USE OF KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK BY

SOME WATERFOWL SPECIES DURING 1987-88.

Excepting the barheaded goose, brahminy

duck, mallard and wigeon, all the other species

showed an overall increase in the usage of KNP

in the normal year. Out of 1 1 species of common

waterfowl recorded in KNP, seven species spent

290

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

No. of maies/female

Fig. 3

Fig. 1-3: Sex ratio of 1. Pintail; 2. Common Teal and 3. Shoveller in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur

during 1987-88 and 1988-89

POPULATION ECOLOGY OF MIGRATORY WATERFOWL

291

more than seven months in a year. The barheaded

goose and common teal had a shorter stay in the

year of normal rainfall (Table 2), compared to

other species.

Sex ratio of some migratory waterfowl

Six species of dabbling ducks; pintail,

common teal, gadwall, mallard, wigeon and

shoveller, in which sexual dimorphism was

distinct, were seen in large numbers (>100) and

were taken for this study. The garganey teal was

left out of the analysis as they were in eclipse

plumage till March, which would have led to

bias in sexing (Eltringham 1973).

Preponderance of males in the population

was observed in all species except the common

teal, in which the females outnumbered the males

(Table 3). The maximum disparity in the sex ratio

over the years was recorded in pintail, followed

by shoveller. In shoveller, the ratio was balanced

in 1988-89 (ie. close to 1:1) but it was 1.5 : 1

(male per female) in 1987-88. The gadwall,

wigeon and mallard showed a similar sex ratio

during the study period (1:1; Table 3).

Tables

OVERALL SEX RATIO (MALES:FEMALE) OF SOME

WATERFOWL DURING 1987-88 AND 1988-89.

- not included (sample size <50 birds).

Fortnightly variation

The gadwall, mallard and wigeon showed

no change in sex ratio in different fortnights, but

it varied in pintail, common teal and shoveller.

The preponderance of males was seen in mid-

winter (December-January) and to some extent

in early post-winter (February) in pintail and

common teal (Fig. 1). In the shoveller also, males

dominated the population till February during

1987-88, but afterwards the sex ratio became

balanced (Fig. 1).

Discussion

The arrival and departure schedules of

most of the migrant waterfowl are generally

known (Ali and Ripley 1983, McClure 1974). A

study on the migratory waterfowl at Hokarsar by

Shah (1984) shows that the arrival in Kashmir

Valley was August-September. This shows that

the arrival and dispersal of migratory waterfowl

takes place more or less at the same time in North

India.

During the normal rainfall year, in

September and October the inundated areas of

KNP have a water depth between 1 and 2.5 m.

As the area was freshly inundated, no submerged

vegetation was observed during this period.

Water was also available in the wetlands outside

KNP. On the other hand, in the drought period

water was available only inside KNP. This could

be the reason for the early arrival of waterfowl

in KNP during the drought years (1987-88, Table

1). As in the present study, the early arrival and

staging of garganey teal in KNP was reported by

McClure (1974) and Ali and Ripley (1983).

The extended use of KNP by waterfowl in

a normal year was either due to the arrival of

birds in larger numbers on transit from the

wintering areas possibly south of Bharatpur, or

on their return to the breeding ground. Early

departure (Table 1) of most of the waterfowl in

1987-88 was due to the early drying up of

marshes consequent to drought. Apart from water

conditions and climate (Flickinger 1981,

Schladweiler 1986), the breeding strategy of

individual species also determines the departure

chronology of species. However, in KNP, water

level appears to play a major role in the arrival

and departure of waterfowl.

The variation in use of KNP between 1 987-

88 and 1988-89 was mainly due to the difference

292

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

in the availability of waterspread area. The

barheaded goose and wigeon need partly dry

marsh with grass for feeding and resting

(Bhupathy 1991), which was abundant during

the drought year 1987-88 and hence, they were

inside KNP for more days i.e. 9,5 1 ,00 1 duck days

(Table 2). Also, the higher water level in the

normal . year affected adversely the usage of KNP

by barheaded goose and wigeon. It may also be

noted that encroachment by Acacia nilotica and

Prosopis juliflora in the traditional goose grazing

and resting areas might also have reduced the

duck days. As these migratory birds spend more

than half or two thirds of their life annually in

the wintering area, KNP plays a vital role in

their conservation when they build up energy

during this period, for a successful return

migration.

Disparity in the sex ratio of waterfowl is a

worldwide phenomenon (Johnsgard and Buss

1956, Alford and Bolen 1977, Bennet and Bolen

1978, Alexander 1983). Alford and Bolen (1977)

suggested that winter temperature was

responsible for this disparity in the sex ratio of

the pintail in North America. In this study, the

case of the common teal supports the ring

recovery data gathered between 1965 and 1974

in KNP, Bharatpur (1:1.7, male: female, n =

10,555) by Ambedkar and Daniel (1990).

The change in the ratio in favour of one

sex within a season indicated differential or

independent movement, or differential habitat

use of sexes in the pintail, common teal and to

some extent in shoveller. Early departure of males

to the breeding ground, and influx of females

which wintered further south, on their return

journey, might have caused this reversal. Early

migration of males to the breeding ground has

been reported in canvasback (Welling and Sladen

1979) and common teal (Ambedkar and Daniel

1990). Also, differential migration of sexes was

reported in mallard (Salomonsen 1968, Ogilvie

and Cook 1971). Ambedkar and Daniel (1990)

compared two methods, namely catching

(trapping) and hunting records for assessing sex

ratio and reported almost similar results ie. 1:1 .7

in trapping, 1 : 1 .2 in shooting. The direct count

method used in the present study also yielded an

almost similar figure, 1:1.5.

Theories which discuss the imbalance in

the sex ratio of birds, especially waterfowl, are:

(1) behaviour dominance (2) breeding strategy

and (3) cold hardiness or stress theory.

(1) The behaviour dominance theory

discussed by Hepp and Hair (1984) and Oring

and Lank (1982), suggests that male displaces

female by aggression. In the present study, among

shovellers, when the waterspread area was less

in the drought year, the male population was

higher (Table 3). Perhaps the displacement of

females by male aggression resulted in a disparate

sex ratio. Alternatively, differential habitat

requirement of each sex (Rappole and Warner

1980) which could not be tested in the present

case may be responsible. Male dominance in

intersexual competition has been established in

canvasback and ringnecked duck (Alexander

1983).

(2) The pairing chronology theory

proposed by Hepp and Hair (1984) suggests that

birds pairing early would have less disparity in

the sex ratio and in their study on waterfowl they

indicated that gadwall, wigeon and mallard are

early pairing species. The balanced sex ratio in

these species in the present study (Table 3)

complements the above view. Soon after their

arrival in KNP in October, gadwall, wigeon and

mallard began pair formation and most of them

had paired by the end of November. Pintail,

common teal and shoveller were noted to be late

pairing birds by Hepp and Hair (1984). The

higher disparity in the sex ratio in these birds in

KNP also supports their findings.

(3) Cold hardiness/stress theory by

Alexander (1983) and Owen and Dix (1986)

states that to avoid the cold, smaller sized females

migrate to warmer localities (further south). The

authors consider this to be the reason for the

imbalance in the sex ratio in the wintering

grounds.

POPULATION ECOLOGY OF MIGRATORY WATERFOWL

293

Table 4

LOWER CRITICAL TEMPERATURE OF

FIVE WATERFOWL AT KNP

LCT = Tb - (4.73 *Wt° 274), Tb = 40 for non-passerine birds

Wt = weight of the bird, constant = 0.274

To test the above hypothesis, Lower

Critical Temperature (LCT) was calculated for

five common waterfowl species (Table 4). LCT

is the minimum temperature which an animal

can withstand without the loss of metabolic

energy (Owen and Dix 1986). The range of LCT

for five common species varied from 9.5°C to

17.7°C (Table 4). The minimum LCT obtained

for the pintail was 9.5°C for male and 11.4°C

for female, showing the ability of both sexes of

this species to withstand an atmospheric

temperature as low as 9.5°- 1 1 .4°C without losing

metabolic energy. The common teal had the

highest LCT among all the species studied

(17.1°C and 17.7°C for the male and female

respectively). This shows that under prolonged

low atmospheric temperature (17°C), this species

would need to utilize metabolic energy to keep

the body warm. In this situation the common teal

might migrate to warmer places. Even though

the mean maximum atmospheric temperature

during December- April did not get lower than

the LCT of any of the common species studied,

the minimum temperature was well below the

LCT of all the species during December-February

(Table 5). Hence, winter temperature might also

affect the sex ratio of waterfowl. Whether the

duration of minimum temperature was sufficient

to force the common teal to move is not known.

The behaviour dominance and pairing

chronology theory are applicable to some extent

in the present study. Hence, one or more of the

factors such as behaviour among sexes, breeding

strategy of species, differential habitat

requirement of sexes and winter temperature

Table 5

MEAN MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM ATMOSPHERIC

TEMPERATURE RECORDED BETWEEN JANUARY

AND APRIL

might influence the sex ratio of waterfowl in

KNP. Differential habitat requirement by each

sex in various waterfowl needs to be further

studied, especially species such as common teal

where the LCT of male and female, i.e 17.1° and

17.9°C does not vary much.

Acknowledgements

This paper resulted from the Bombay

Natural History Society and U.S. Fish and

Wildlife Service collaborative project on the

Ecology of Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur,

sponsored through the Ministry of Environment

and Forests, Government of India. We thank the

Rajasthan State Forest Department for

permission to work and co-operation. We also

thank Mr. Raj an Mathur, then Divisional Forest

Officer in-charge of the Park and his colleagues

for their help in the field, Mr. J. C. Daniel, BNHS

for his critical comments and encouragement and

Dr. Lalitha Vijayan, Salim Ali Centre for

Ornithology and Natural History, Coimbatore

and Mr. Melvin Bolton, FAO Consultant,

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehra Dun for their

comments.

294

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

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THE GENUS MACROCHELES LATREILLE (ACARINA: MACROCHELIDAE) IN INDIA*

MORPHOLOGICAL VARIATIONS AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION1

Ranjit Kumar Roy2

( With five text-figures and one plate)

Key words: Acarina, Macrocheles sp., habitat, morphological variation, distribution

Data pertaining to habitats and geographical distribution of five species of Macrocheles

Latreille, viz. peniculatus Berlese, penicilliger (Berlese), krantzi Evans and Hyatt,

merdarius (Berlese) and muscaedomesticae (Scopoli) are presented. Morphological

variations observed in the first two species are discussed with illustrations.

Introduction

This part of the series documents the data

pertaining to habitats and geographical

distribution of five species of Macrocheles

Latreille, viz. peniculatus Berlese, penicilliger

(Berlese), krantzi Evans and Hyatt, merdarius

(Berlese) and muscaedomesticae (Scopoli) from

India. Morphological variations observed in

peniculatus and penicilliger are discussed and

illustrated. Of the five aforenamed species,

peniculatus was earlier reported in Part 2 of the

series (Roy 1991 a). The remaining are known

through the works of Evans and Hyatt (1963),

Pramanik and Raychaudhuri (1968), Pramanik

(1977), Sharma and Sharma (1973) and Singh

and Kapoor (1976). This paper incorporates

additional information on habitats.

Unless otherwise indicated, the collector

was this author. The material has been deposited

in the Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. The

altitudes given are approximate.

1. Macrocheles peniculatus Berlese, 1918

(Figs. 1-2; PI. 1: Fig. 1)

Macrocodes ( Coprholaspis ) peniculatus

Berlese, 1918, Redia 13: 166.

Macrocheles vicarius Berlese, 1918,

Redia, 13: 167

'Accepted February, 1996.

department of Zoology,

Dibrugarh Hanumanbox Surajmal Kanoi College,

Dibrugarh-786 00 1 , Assam, India.

Macrocheles caelatus : Ramsay, 1970, N.

Z. Entomologist, 1: 91;

Emberson, 1973, N.Z. Entomologist, 5: 119

(not Berlese, 1918) misidentification.

Macrocheles peniculatus : Ghilyarov and

Bregetova, 1977 (Nauka, Leningrad): Wallace,

1986, Acarologia, 27 (1): 11.

Material examined: 5 females, Tamil

Nadu: Palni Hills: Kodaikanal - 2450 m, 12.iii.

1980, ex dung heap; 1 female, Kodaikanal lake

area, 12.iii. 1980, ex decaying grasses; 2 females,

Nilgiri Hills: Ootacamund, Botanical Garden,

16.iii. 1980 ex dung heap; 1 female, Ootacamund,

16.iii.1980, ex pine leaf litter; 1 female, Nilgiri

Hills: Aruvankadu - 2000 m, 18.iii. 1980, ex pine

leaf litter; 2 females, Nilgiri Hills; Pykara -2290

m, Royal valley, lO.iii. 1980, ex pine leaf litter.

Distribution: Originally described as an

ant nest associate from La Plata, Argentina in

South America (Berlese, 1918). Krantz (1970)

recorded the species from Natal (South Africa).

Wallace (1986) collected the species from a

number of dung beetles in Australia. Krantz and

Filipponi (1964) reported a female of M.

peniculatus from Australia. According to

Wallace {op. cit.), the record was an error and

the actual locality of that specimen is Otaki, north

of Wellington, New Zealand. Previous records

of M. caelatus Berlese, 1918 from New Zealand

by Ramsay (1970) and Emberson (1973) are

misidentifications of M. peniculatus (Emberson,

* This paper is ninth in the series on “Studies on Indian

Macrocheles”.

296

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

Figs. 1-5: 1. Dorsal shield, Macrocheles peniculatus Berl., female;

2. Chelicera, Macrocheles peniculatus Berl., female; 3. Coxa II, Macrocheles penicilliger Berl., male;

4. Femur, genu and tibia of leg II, Macrocheles penicilliger Berl., male;

5. Trochanter, femur, genu and tibia of leg IV, Macrocheles penicilliger Berl., male.

1980). European records are from USSR

(Bregetova and Koroleva I960), Ghilyarov and

Bregetova 1977) and Hungary (Eross and

Mahunka 1971). Costa (1966) recorded it from

Israel. In India, it is confined to the southern

region. Records indicate that the species is well

represented in the southern hemisphere.

Remarks: The species has been described

and illustrated by Bregetova and Koroleva

(1960). The material at hand conforms to the

description and illustration given by Bregetova

and Koroleva (op. cit .) except for the presence

of a procurved medial line and dorsal seta (s4)

being simple (Fig. 1). In addition, the movable

digit of chelicera (Fig. 2) is tridentate in contrast

to the bidentate nature of the digit in the

European counterpart, as depicted by Bregetova

and Koroleva (1960). It was reported earlier from

Kodaikanal by Roy (1991a, b).

2. Macrocheles penicilliger (Berlese, 1904)

(Figs. 3-5; PI. l;Figs. 2-3)

Holostaspis penicilliger Berlese, 1904,

Redia, 1: 264 Macrocheles ( Coprholaspis )

penicilliger Berlese, 1918, Redia, 13: 146.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 95

Ranjit Kumar Roy: Macrocheles

Plate 1

Fig. 1. Ventral shields of Macrocheles peniculatus Berl., Female (82 X);

Fig. 2. Ventral shields of Macrocheles penicilliger (Berl.,), Female (136 X);

Fig. 3. Ventral Shields of Macrocheles penicilliger (Berl.), Male (94 X)

MORPHOLOGICAL VARIA TIONSAND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF GENUS MA CROCHELES 297

Macrocheles penicilliger : Bregetova and

Koroleva, I960, Mag. Parasit. Sbornik. Zool Inst.

19: 86.

Macrocheles ( Macrocheles ) penicilliger

Krauss, 1970 , Acarologie Sch. vergl. Milbenk, 14:

18.

Material examined: 7 females, Manipur:

Imphal -780 m, War Cemetery, 31.xi.1973, ex

decaying leaf litter; 8 females, Meghalaya: Khasi

Hills: Shillong -1300 m, lake area, 8.vi.l974, ex

soil litter; 6 females, Shillong, Trevors Lane,

13.vi.1974, ex soil litter; 1 female, Shillong,

Umpling, 8.vi.l974, ex grassy soil; 2 females,

Shillong, lake area, ll.vi.1974, ex leaf litter; 4

females, Shillong, Umpling, 8. vi. 1974, ex pine

leaf litter; 1 female, Meghalaya: Garo Hills: Tura-

370 m, 1 5 .iii. 1 974, ex decaying grasses; 1

female, Bonsomgiri, 14.iii.1977, ex decaying

wood; 2 females, Sikkim: Gangtok- 1500 m,

10.xi.1973, ex decaying litter of Bambusa sp.;

123 females, Gangtok, Sundarigaon, 1 1 .xi. 1973,

ex soil mixed with dung; 1 female, Gangtok, near

White Memorial Hall, 9.xi.l973, ex decaying

heap of grasses; 17 females, Gangtok, 12.xi.1973,

ex cultivated soil mixed with dung; 2 females,

Tamil Nadu; Nilgiri Hills: Coonoor - 2090 m,

ex pine leaf litter; 1 female, Pykara -2290 m,

10. 111. 1980, ex pine leaf litter; 2 females,

Ootacamund -2218 m, Botanical Garden,

16. 111. 1980, ex humus soil; 1 female, Pykara,

Royal Valley, lO.ii. 1980, ex soil litter; 1 female,

Palni Hills; Kodaikanal-2450 m, lake area,

10. 111. 1980, ex dung mixed with straw; 3 females

and 2 males, Uttar Pradesh: Garhwal Hills:

Pauri -775 m, Stn. No. 10, 25. xi. 1977, ex leaf

litter. S.K. Gupta and Y.N. Gupta coll.; 3 females,

Kumaon Hills: Nainital -1985 m, 1 1 .xi. 1977, ex

leaf litter, S.K. Gupta and Y.N. Gupta coll.; 9

females, Nainital, near Nainital Lake,

16.xi.1977, ex rotten grasses, Y.N. Gupta coll.;

23 females, Almora -1645 m, 9.X.1976, ex leaf

litter; 5 females, Kumaon Hills: Kausani

-1800 m, 13.x. 1976, ex pine litter; 1 female,

Almora, Chitoli Reserve Forest, 9.x. 1976, ex

decaying heap of grasses; 2 females, Kathgodam

-500 m, 8.x. 1976, ex decaying grasses; 1 female

Ranikhet -1805 m, Mall Road, 12.x. 1976, ex

moss; 2 females, Ranikhet -1805 m, Chaubatia

Apple Garden, 10.x. 1976, ex leaf litter; 3

females, Almora, 9.x. 1976, ex leaf litter; 17

females. Eastern Himalaya: West Bengal:

Darjeeling -2800 m, Hill Cart Road, 14.xi.1973,

ex soil litter; 13 females, Darjeeling, Labong,

College Road, 13.xi.1973, ex garbage heap; 22

females, Darjeeling, Botanical Garden,

13.xi.1973, ex decomposed grasses and leaves;

39 females Darjeeling, Mall area, 15.xi.1973, ex

rubbish heap; 2 females, Selimbong, 7.xii.l977,

ex soil with pine litter, R.K. Ghosh Sr. ZSI Coll.;

1 female, Dow Hills: Kurseong-2350 m,

13.V.1979, ex pine litter, M.S. Shishodia et al.

ZSI Coll.

Distribution: M. penicilliger is frequently

encountered in Europe: Italy (Berlese 1904),

England (Evans and Browning 1956), Austria

(Franz 1954), Hungary (Eross and Mahunka

1971), Iceland (Sellnick 1940), USSR (Bregetova

and Koroleva 1960), Germany (Krauss 1970).

Pramanik and Raychaudhuri (1978) first

recorded females of M. penicilliger from India:

The species is an exotic in India, away from its

Palearctic homeland and is widely represented.

India. Manipur, Meghalaya, Sikkim, Tamil

Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. This

species was first recorded from West Bengal

(Pramanik and Raychaudhuri 1978). Others are

new records.

Remarks: In recent years the species has

been redescribed by Evans and Browning (1956)

and by Bregetova and Koroleva (1960), based

on material collected in England and USSR.

Indian material conforms with the European

material. Pramanik (1977) provided collection

data from West Bengal, with measurements of

female. Males are recorded here for the first time.

Bregetova and Koroleva (op. cit.) illustrated both

the sexes. The nature of spurs and ridged setae

on legs II and IV in male in Indian material

differs from USSR specimens as illustrated by

these authors. Segments of legs II and IV in

298

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

male, bearing spurs and ridged setae, are

illustrated in Figs. 3-5. Coxa II bearing

sclerotised ridge (Fig. 3); femur, genu and tibia

of leg II spurred (Fig. 4). Segments of leg IV

provided with plumose and ridged setae (Fig. 5);

trochanter and femur IV with spurs (Fig. 5).

3. Macrocheles krantzi Evans and Hyatt, 1963.

Macrocheles krantzi Evans and Hyatt,

1963, Bull Brit. Mus. (Nat.) Hist., 9: 351.

Macrocheles krantzi (7) Krantz and

Filipponi, 1964, Riv. Parass., 25(1): 44

Not Macrocheles krantzi, Anwarullah and

Irshad, 1971, Sind Univ. Res. J. ( Sci . Ser.),: 145.

(misidentification).

Macrocheles krantzi: Wallace, 1986,

Acarologia, 27(1): 12.

Material examined: 1 female, Assam:

Nowgong dist. Lumding, 29.xii.1973 ex goat

dung; 1 female, Karnataka: Bangalore,

Entomology Museum, University of Agricultural

Sciences, coll, date and coll, not listed, ex

Scarabaeus brahminus Cast.

Distribution: Australia (Krantz and

Filipponi 1964, Wallace 1986), India and Ceylon

(Evans and Hyatt 1963). India: Assam (new

record), Karnataka (new record) and Tamil Nadu.

Remarks: This species was originally

described by Evans and Hyatt (1963) from

specimens collected from Scarabaeus brahminus

Cast, at Namakal, Salem (Tamil Nadu) and S.

erichsoni Harold at Colombo (Sri Lanka)

respectively, both the beetles are represented in

the British Museum collections. Subsequently

Krantz and Filipponi (1964) reported three

specimens from Townsville, Australia, collected

off Onthophagus laminatus Moll., and assigned

dubiously three Australian specimens to M.

krantzi. Wallace (1986) reported seven additional

collections (ex Onthophagus nodulifer and O.

laminatus) from Townsville and Ingham,

northeastern Queensland, Australia. Anwarullah

and Irshad (1971) described a new species of

Macrocheles by the name M. krantzi. The

description and illustrations of the species

provided by them are quite dissimilar to those of

M. krantzi of Evans and Hyatt and suggest a

different species.

4. Macrocheles merdarius (Berlese, 1889)

Holostaspis merdarius Berlese, 1889,

Acari Myriapoda et Scorpiones etc., 52 (1).

Macrocheles merdarius: Sellnick, 1940,

Goteborg, Vetensk. Samh. Handl., (5). 6(B)

(14): 86.

Macrocheles merdarius: Evans and

Browning, 1956, Bull. Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.)

Zool., (1): 21; Bregetova and Koroleva, 1960,

Parasit. Sbornik. Zool. Inst., 19: 145; Filipponi

and Pegazzan, 1963, Redia, 48: 83; Krauss,

1970. Acarologie Sch. vergl. Milbenk, 14: 17;

Wallace, 1986, Acarologia, 27(1): 9; not

Macrocheles merdarius Bhattacharya, 1971,

Orient. Insects, 5: 498 (misidentification);

Material examined: 2 females Arunachal

Pradesh: Tirap dist. Deban, Chakma Bastee

12.i. 198 1 ex poultry litter; 1 female, Assam:

Dibrugarh dist. Dibrugarh, Gosala, 7.vi.l979. ex

dung heap; 1 female, Assam: Dibrugarh dist.

Digboi, 4.iv.l976, ex dung heap, A.K. Dutta and

R.K. Roy coll.; 3 females, Karnataka: Bangalore,

Entomology Museum, University of Agricultural

Sciences, ex Copris sp., coll, date and coll,

unlisted; 1 female, Tamil Nadu: Chennai

(Madras) Zoo Garden, lake area, 5.iii. 1980, ex

leaf litter; 7 females, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu

Agricultural University Campus, Central Diary

Farm, 13.iii. 1980, ex dung heap; 1 female, Uttar

Pradesh: Allahabad dist. Mirapur, 13.xii.1977.

ex rotten leaf litter, Y.N. Gupta coll.

Distribution: M. merdarius is a nearly

cosmopolitan species. The following distribution

records are known so far. It occurs widely in

Europe: Italy (Berlese 1889, Filipponi and

Pegazzano 1963, Rota and Serini 1976): Great

Britain (Evans and Browning 1956, Hyatt 1956):

USSR (Bregetova and Koroleva 1960); Hungary

(Eross and Mahunka 1971); Bulgaria (Balogh

MORPHOLOGICAL VARIATIONS AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF GENUS MACROCHELES 299

1958); Central Europe (Leitner 1946, Franz

1954). Further records are from Australia

(Wallace 1986), New Zealand (Emberson 1973);

Kermadec Islands (Emberson 1980); North

America (Chant 1960, Axtell 1961, 1963); Japan

(Ishikawa 1968), Israel (Costa 1966) and India.

Record of M. merdarius by Bhattacharya (1971)

from Assam is a misidentification of M.

sikkimensis , a new species described in part V of

the series. Pramanik (1977) first recorded M.

merdarius from West Bengal and has provided

only measurements. The following are new

records from India: Arunachal Pradesh, Assam,

Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh.

Remarks: The Indian material conforms

to the descriptions and figures given by Evans

and Browning (1956), Filipponi and Pegazzano

(1963) and Bregetova and Koroleva (1960).

Lateral margins smooth or incised.

5. Macrocheles m uscaedom esticae (Scopoli)

Acarus muscaedomesticae Scopoli, 1772,

Annus V. Hist. Nat., 125: 157.

Acarus marginatus Hermann, 1804, Mem.

Apt.: 76.

Macrocheles muscaedomesticae Pereira

and Castro, 1945, Arq. Inst. Biol. S. Paulo, 16:

153 Evans and Browning, 1956. Bull.

Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.) Zool., 4 (1) 12:

Filipponi and Cervone, 1957, Riv. Parass., 18:

17; Bregetova and Koroleva, 1960, Parassit.

Sbornik, Zool. Inst., 19: 131; Singh and Kapoor,

1976, Ent. News., 87 (9-10): 292-294.

R E F E

Anwarullah, M. & M. Irshad (1971): A new species of

Macrocheles (Acarina: Macrochelidae) from Pakistan.

Sind. Univ. Res. J. 5 (2): 145-150.

Axtell, R.C. (1961): New records of North American

Macrochelidae (Acarina: Mesostigmata) and their

predation rates on the house fly. Ann. ent. Soc. Amer.

54 (5): 748.

Axtell, R.C. (1963): Acarina occurring in domestic animal

manure. Ann. ent. Soc. Amer. 56 (5): 628-633.

Balogh, J. (1958): Macrocheliden au Bulgarian (Acari:

Material examined: 1 female, Assam:

Nowgong dist. Lumding, 28.xii.1973, ex

cowdung; 2 females, Dibrugarh dist. Dibrugarh,

Gosala, 3.vi.l973, ex Musca domestica L.; 1

female, Orissa: Mayurbhanj dist. Katipada,

30.iii.1976, ex Cyanopterus sp. P.K. Das coll.; 1

female, Goa: Poinguinun, 26.xii.1979, ex

Cynopterus brachyotis ceylonensis (Gray), V.C.

Agarwal coll.

Distribution: M. muscaedomesticae is

cosmopolitan in distribution. India: Assam

(new record), Goa (new record), Jammu and

Kahsmir, Orissa (new record), Punjab and West

Bengal.

Remarks: In India, this species has been

recorded as an associate of Musca domestica L.

from Jammu and Kashmir (Sharma & Sharma

1973). Singh and Kapoor (1976) also reported

M. muscaedomesticae as a palm squirrel

(Funambulus pennanti Wroughton) associate in

northern India. We have collected it from Musca

domestica and from bats.

Acknowledgements

I thank Dr. S.K. Bhattacharya, Retired Joint

Director, ZSI, Calcutta for kindling my interest in

acarology. I am highly thankful to Dr. M.

Mohanasundaram for laboratory facilities at

Department of Agricultural Entomology, TNAU,

Coimbatore, and to Mr. A.K. Chatteijee, erstwhile

DFO, Namdapha National Park, Arunachal

Pradesh, for providing hospitality in a wild,

inhospitable forest.

E N C E S

Mesostigmata). Acta. ent. Mus. Nat. Prague 32: 247-

256.

Berlese, A. (1889): Acari, Myriapoda et Scorpiones

hucusque in Italia reperta. Fasc. 52 (1).

Berlese, A. (1904): Acari nuovi, Manipulus 2. Redia 1:

258-280.

Berlese, A. ( 1 9 1 8): Centuria quarta di Acari nuovi. Redia

73:155-192.

Bhattacharya, S.K. (1971): Studies on Indian mites

(Acarina: Mesostigmata) 10. One new species and five

300

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

records from Assam. Orient. Insects 5(4): 495-500.

Bregetova, N.G. & E.V. Koroleva (1960): The

macrochelid mites (Gamasoidea: Macrochelidae) in the

USSR. Mag. Parasit. Sbornik. Zool. Inst. 19: 32-154.

Chant, D.A. (1960): An unusual instance of phoresy in

acarina. Ent. News. 71(10): 270-271.

Costa, M. (1966): The present state of knowledge of

mesostigmatic mites in Israel (Acari: Mesostigmata).

Israel. J. Zool. 15: 69-82.

Emberson, R.M. (1973): Macrochelid mites in New

Zealand (Acarina: Mesostigmata: Macrochelidae). N.

Z. Ent. 5(2): 118-127.

Emberson, R.M. (1980): Macrochelidae from the

Kermadec Islands and a key to species of Macrocheles

Latreille from the New Zealand region (Acari:

Mesostigmata). N. Z. Ent. 7(2): 135-138.

ErOss, J. & S. Mahunka (1971): Data to the knowledge of

Macrochelidae (Acari: Gamasina) in Hungary. Parasit.

hung. 4: 201-214.

Evans, G.O. & E. Browning (1956): British mites of the

sub-family Macrochelinae TrSgardh (Gamasina:

Macrochelidae). Bull. Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.) Zool. 4(1):

3-55.

Evans, G.O. & K.H. Hyatt (1963): Mites of the genus

Macrocheles Latr. (Mesostigmata) associated with

coprid beetles in the collections of the British Museum

(Natural History). Bull. Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.) Zool. 9

(9) : 327-401.

Filipponi, A. & L. Cervone (1957): Isolamento sessuale

tra die specie di. Macrocheles , foretiche e predatrici di

Musca domestica. Riv. Parass. 18 (1): 17-20.

Filipponi, A. & P. Peggazano (1963): Specie Italiane del

gruppo - subbadius (Acarina: Mesostigmata:

Macrochelidae). Redia 48: 69-91.

Franz, H. ( 1 954): Die Nordost - Alpen, im Speigel, derland-

Tierwelt, 15 Ordnung Acarina. Innsbruck 1: 329-452.

Ghilyarov, M.S. & N.G. Bregetova (1977): A key to the

soil inhabiting mites. Mesostigmata. Zool. Inst. U.S.S.R.

Acad. Sci. Leningrad.

Herman, J.F. (1804): Memoire apterologique strassbourg:

1-44.

Hyatt, K.H. (1956): A collection of mites from stable

manure. Ent. mon. mag. 92: 36-38.

Ishikawa, K. (1968): Studies on the mesostigmatid mites

associated with the insects in Japan. (1). Rep. Res.

Matsuyama Shinonome Jr. Coll. 3 (2): 197-218.

Krantz, G.W. (1970): Acari (Mesostimata):

Macrochelidae. S. Afr. Anim. Life 14: 19-23.

Krantz, G.W. & A. Filipponi (1964): Acari della famiglia

Macrochelidae (Mesostigmata) nella collezione del

South Australian Museum. Riv. Parass. 25 (1): 35-54.

Krauss, W. (1970): Die europaischen Arten der Gattungen

Macrocheles Latreille, 1 829 and Geholaspis Berlese,

1918 . Acarologie Sch. Vergl. Milbenk. 74:2-43,59-60.

Leitner, E. (1946): Zur Kenntnis der Milben fauna auf

Dungerstaten. Zbl. Gesamtgeb. Ent. 1 (3) fasc. 3, pp.

75-95; fasc. 5-6, pp. 129-156.

Pereira, C. & M.P. De Castro (1945): Contribuicao O

conhecimento da especie tipo de Macrocheles Latr.,

(Acarina): M. muscae domestica (scopoli 1772)

Emend. Arq. Inst. Biol. S. Paulo 16: 153-186.

Pramanik, M.M. (1977): Faunistic survey of soil

mesostigmatid mites (Acari) of Calcutta and 24

Parganas, West Bengal. Ph.D. Thesis, University of

Calcutta.

Pramanik, M.M. & D.N. Raychaudhuri (1968): A new

species and a new record of soil mites (Acarina:

Mesostigmata) from West Bengal, India. Orient, Insects

2(3-4): 353-355.

Pramanik, M.M. & D.N. Raychaudhuri (1978): New

records of mesostigmatid mites (Acari) from West

Bengal, India. Acarol. Newsltr. No. 6: 5-6.

Ramsay, G.W. (1970): Mites with phoretic nematodes. N.Z.

Ent. 4: 91.

Rota, P. & G. Serini Bolchi (1 976): Segnalazioni di Acari

in colture di fungo prataiolo. Boll. Zool. Agr. Bachic.

(Sere) 12: 21 1-215.

Roy, R.K. (1991a): The genus Macrocheles Latreille, 1829

(Acari: Macrochelidae) in India. 2. Three new species

and two new records. In: Advances in management and

conservation of soil fauna, G.K. Veeresh, D. Rajagopal

and C.A. Viraktamath (eds.). Oxford and IBH Publ.

Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, pp. 707-715.

Roy, R.K. (1991b): A catalogue of the soil mesostigmatid

mites (Acari) collected from Palni Hills and Western

Ghats. In: Oxford and IBH Publ. Co. Pvt. Ltd., New

Delhi, pp. 749-753.

Scopoli, J. A. (1772): Annus V. Historico naturalis. Lipsiae

125: 157

Sellnick, M. (1940): Die Milben fauna Islands. Goteborg.

Vetensk. Samh. Handl. (5) 6 (B), (14): 1-29.

Sharma, B.D. & T. Sharma (1973): A new record of two

ectoparasitic mites of housefly from J & K State. Indian

J. Anim. Res. 6 (I): 42.

Singh, S.P. & V.C. Kapoor (1976): New record of acarine

ectoparasites on the northern squirrel Funambulus

pennanti Wroughton from India. Ent. News 87 (9-10):

292-294.

Wallace, M.M.H. (1986): Some macrochelid mites (Acari:

Macrochelidae) associated with Australian dung

beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae). Acarologia 27 (1):

3-15.

A TAXONOMIC ACCOUNT OF LUISIA GAUD. (ORCHIDACEAE)

FROM BANGLADESH1

Mokter Ahmed and M.K. Pasha2

(With four text-figures)

Key words: Taxonomy, Luisia, Orchidaceae, Bangladesh

The genus Luisia Gaud, of the family Orchidaceae is represented in Bangladesh by seven

species, out of which L. grovesii Hk. f., L. trichorhiza Bl. and L. zeylanica Lindl. are

recorded for the first time in Bangladesh. A key to the species has been given.

Introduction

The name Luisia was erected in honour of

Don Luis de Torres, a Spanish botanist of the

1 9th century. The genus is closely allied to genus

Vanda and the species are commonly known as

Bee Orchids. The genus consists of about 30

species, distributed in Tropical Asia, Japan and

Polynesia (Airy-Shaw 1973, Hunt and Grierson

1973). Hooker (1890) reported 13 species from

British India. Grant (1895), Prain (1903) and

Bruhl (1926) recorded five species each from

Burma (Myanmar), Bengal and Sikkim

respectively. Santapau and Kapadia (1966) and

Banerji (1982) reported only three species from

Bombay and Nepal respectively. On the other

hand, at least 12 species have been reported by

Bose and Bhattacharjee (1980) and seven species

by Pradhan (1979) from India. Within the

political boundaries of Bangladesh, four species

(L. teretifolia Gaud.; L. Brachystachys Bl.

Rumph.; L. filiformis Hk.f. and L. volucris

Lindl.) were reported by Hooker (1890) from

Sundarbans, Sylhet and Chittagong. Heinig

(1925) and Sinclair (1955) reported L. teretifolia

Gaud, and L. volucris Lindl. from Chittagong

Hill Tracts and Collectorate, and Cox’s Bazar,

respectively. This work aims at studying the

genus comprising seven species, including the

earlier reported four species, along with three

'Accepted May, 1 997

department of Botany,

University of Chittagong, Chittagong-433 1 , Bangladesh.

additional species viz. L. grovesii Hk. f., L.

trichorhiza Bl. and L. zeylanica Lindl., recorded

for the first time in Bangladesh.

The herbarium and live specimens are

housed at the Botany Department and

Orchidarium of Chittagong University,

Chittagong, Bangladesh.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF LUISIA

1 . Petals much longer than the sepals; lip usually

8-9 mm long 2

— Petals slightly longer than sepals; lip usually

6-7 mm long 3

2. Petals dilating to rounded tip L. volucris

— Petals not dilating to rounded tip .. L. grovesii

3. Dividing line between hypochile and epichile

indistinct, the epichile not suddenly widening

at base L. brachystachys

— Dividing line between hypochile and epichile

distinct, the epichile suddenly widening at base

4

4. Leaves secund, long and thin L. filiformis

— Leaves not so 5

5. Epichile reniform without any distinguishable

apex L. teretifolia

— Epichile triangular - cordate 6

6. Epichile less than 5 mm long L. zeylanica

— Epichile more than 5 mm long

L. trichorhiza

1. Luisia volucris Lindl. Fol. Orch. 1,

1853; in Hk. f., FI. Brit. Ind., 6: 25 (1890); Prain,

Beng. PL, 2: 765 (1903); Bruhl, Orch. Sikkim,

122 (1926); Pradhan, Ind. Orch., 2: 534 (1979).

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

Fig.l: Luisia grovesii Hk. f.: (a) habitat sketch (x 1); (b) flower from front (x 1);

(c) pedicellate ovary with column from side (x 2); (d) floral bract (x 2);

(e) sepals, petals and lip spread out, column from inside (x 2); (f) pollinia attached with strap (x 10);

(g) operculum from front (x 10); (h) operculum from inside (x 10); (i) capsule (x 1).

Diagram reduced by one-third

According to Hooker (1890) “the

flowerless specimens closely resemble L.

teretifolia, the drawing of the Chittagong plants.

The stem is slender, the intemodes are 3.0 cm

and leaves 14.0 - 18.0 cm instead of 6.0 - 10.0

cm, the petals not dilated at the tip instead of

dilating to the rounded tip, and the epichile of

the lip green and grooved”. On the other hand,

specimens from Khasi and Jaintia Hills reported

by Pradhan (1979) are linear, dilating to a

rounded tip of petals.

Geographical distribution; Sikkim

Himalaya, Khasi Hills., Sylhet and Chittagong.

Specimens examined; Sikkim,

Khasi Hills and Sylhet, Lobb., J.D.H. and T.T.;

Chittagong, Prain.

2. Luisia grovesii Hk. f., FI. Brit. Ind., 6;

25 (1890); Hooker, Cent. Ind. Orch., pt. 53, 35

(1895) (Fig. 1).

This species closely matches with Hooker’s

(1890) descriptions and Hooker’s (1895)

drawings. After critical study of the living

specimens we also conclude that it is closely

related to L.flliformis and L. volucris but at once

distinguishable by the long petals with the former

and having narrow linear-obtuse petals without

dilated tip as in the latter.

Flowering scape initiation: Late February;

TAXONOMY OF LUISIA GAUD. FROM BANGLADESH

303

Fig. 2: Luisia teretifolia Gaud.: (a) habit sketch (x 1); (b) flower from - front (x 2);

(c) pedicellate ovary with column from side (x 2); (d) floral bract (x 4);

(e) sepals, petals and lip spreadout, column from inside (x 2); (f) pollinia attached with strap x 1 0);

(g) operculum from front (x 10); (h) operculum from inside (x 10); (i) capsule (x 1).

Diagram reduced by one-third

Flowering: Mid March - mid June; Fruiting :

June onwards.

Geographical distribution: Eastern

Bengal and Bangladesh.

Specimen examined: Cox’s Bazar district:

Ramu, Panerchara, 13.x. 1986, Mokter 39.

3. Luisia brachystachys Bl., Rumphia, 4:

50, 1848; Hk. f., FI. Brit. Ind., 6: 23(1890); Prain,

Beng. PI. 2: 765 (1903). Syn. Lindl., Fol. Orch.

3, 1853, Mesoclastes brachystachys Lindl., in

Wall Cat., 1994.

Leaves 5.0-15.0 cm long, slender; sepals

and petals as in L. teretifolia as the species

observed by Hooker ( 1 890). He also noted that it

was a more slender plant than L. teretifolia,

perhaps a variety.

Geographical distribution: Tropical

Western Himalaya; Tenasserim; Khasi Hills;

Northeastern Bangladesh.

Specimen examined: Garhwal, Falconeri;

Kumaon, Stewart; Sylhet and Khasi Hills,

Wallich; Bengal, Clark; Sundribuns, Prain.

4. Luisia filiformis Hk.f., FI. Brit. Ind., 6:

23 (1890); Pradhan, Ind. Orch., 2: 537(1979);

Bose and Bhattacharjee, Orch. Ind., 364 (1980).

According to Hooker ( 1 890), the petals of

this species are hardly longer than the sepal,

except the short linear petals. This species

304

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

a

Fig. 3: Luisia zeylanica Lindl.: (a) habit sketch (x 1); (b) flower from + front (x 2);

(c) pedicellate ovary with column from side (x 2); (d) floral bract (x 50);

(e) sepals, petals and lip spreadout, column from inside (x 2); (f) pollinia attached with strap (x 10);

(g) operculum from front (x 1 0); (h) operculum from inside (x 1 0).

Diagram reduced by one-third

resembles L. grovesii. On the other hand Pradhan

(1979) showed that the petals are equalling sepals

at first but turn shorter and spathulate later on.

Geographical disribution; India, Sikkim,

Myanmar, Thailand, Laos and Bangladesh.

Specimen examined: Sylhet, at Terrya

Ghat, Mann.

5. Luisia teretifolia Gaud., Bot. Freye.

Voy. 427, t. 37(1826); Hk. f., FI. Brit. Ind., 6:

22(1890); Grant, Orch. Burma, 236 (1895);

Prain, Beng. PL, 2: 765 (1903); Heinig, FI. Ctg.

Hill Tracts and Coll., 1261 (1925); Bruhl, Orch.

Sikkim, 123 (1926); Sinclair, FI. Cox’s Bazar,

108 (1955); Santapau and Kapadia, Orch.

Bomb., 213 (1966) Bose and Bhattacharjee,

Orch. of Ind. 366 (1980) Baneiji, Orch. Nepal,

119 (1982). Syn. Cymbidium triste Roxb., Hort.

Beng., 63 (1814), nom. nud.; C. tenuifolium

Wight, Icon., 5: t. 1645 (1851); Luisia truncata

Blatt. and McC JBNHS 35: t. 9, 491 (1932)

(Fig. 2).

Hooker ( 1 890) observed that the petals vary

in length and form, but never much exceed the

sepals. He noted that in five Indian drawings the

lip is purple and in Griffith’s figures it is shown

as green with black purple blotches. On the other

hand, Bruhl (1926) and Prain (1903) mentioned

in their descriptions that the lip is purple,

TAXONOMY OF LUISIA GAUD. FROM BANGLADESH

305

Fig. 4: Luisia trichorhiza Bl.: (a) habit sketch (x 1); (b) flower from + front (x 2);

(c) pedicellate ovary, column and lip attached (x 3); (d) floral bract (x 3);

(e) sepals, petals and lip spreadout, column from inside (x 2); (f) pollinia attached with strap (x 10);

(g) operculum from front (x 10); (h) operculum from inside (x 10).

Diagram reduced by one-third

rhomboid; sepals and petals green. Our

specimens closely match with the latter. This

species is very common and abundant, especially

in the eastern part of Bangladesh.

Flowering scape initiation: Mid March;

Flowering: Early April - mid May; Fruiting:

May onwards.

Geographical distribution: Sri Lanka,

India, Sikkim, Myanmar, Java, China and

Bangladesh.

Specimens examined: Cox’s Bazar

district: Ukhia, Maricha Bazar, 11.x. 1986

(Fruiting), Mokter 1(a); Ramu, Panerchara,

13.x. 1986, Mokter 38; Tangail dist.: Baderbaith,

Madhupur, 8.iii. 1990, Mokter 171; Khulna dist.:

Sunderbans, 22.vii.1990, Mokter 197.

6. Luisia zeylanica Lind!., Fol. Orch. 3,

1853; Pradhan, In: Ind. Orch., 2: 537 (1979).

(Fig. 3)

This species is allied to L. teretifolia, but

differs in having the lip deep purple; epichile ±

dentate, deflexed, cordate-triangular and having

larger flowers. Our specimen closely resembles

Pradhan’ s description. It was found fruitless in

the natural habitat as well as in the Orchidarium,

whereas fruiting was commonly observed in L.

teretifolia.

Flowering scape initiation: Late February;

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

Flowering: Mid March-mid June; Fruiting:

Unknown.

Geographical distribution: Southeast

Asia.

Specimen examined: Cox’s Bazar district:

Maricha Bazar, 11.x. 1986, Mokter 1(b).

7. L. trichorhiza Bl., Rhumphia, 4: 50

(1848); Hk. f., FI. Brit. Ind., 6: 23 (1890); Duthie,

FI. Upp. Gang. PL, 3: 206 (1920); Pradhan, Ind.

Orch., 2: 538 (1979); Bose and Bhattachaijee,

Orch. Ind., 368 (1980); Baneiji, Orch. Nepal,

119(1982) (Fig. 4).

According to Hooker (1890) the flowers

of this species are twice as large as in L.

teretifolia. Our living specimen closely resembles

the description and drawings of Pradhan (1979).

Bruhl (1926) noted that the species is epiphytic

on sal trees in Dehradun (Gamble, Mackinnon).

Our specimen was found to grow on the trunk of

a rain tree (Samanea saman) in Lama Bazar of

Sylhet dist.

Flowering scape initiation: Early March;

Flowering: Late March - mid May; Fruiting:

Unknown.

Geographical distribution: India, Sikkim,

Myanmar, Thailand and Bangladesh.

Specimen examined: Sylhet district: Lama

Bazar, 2 1 .iii. 1986 (Flowering), Mokter 102.

References

Airy-Shaw, H.K. (ed.) 1973 (reprint 1980): J.C. Willis, A

Dictionary of Flowering Plants and Ferns.

Cambridge Univ. Press, London, p. 692.

Banerji, M.L. (1982): Orchids of Nepal. Bisen

Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun, India,

p. 119.

Bose T. K. & S.K. Bhattacharjee (1980): Orchids of India.

Naya Prakash, Calcutta, India, p. 363.

Bruhl, P. (1926): A Guide to the Orchids of Sikkim.

Thackers Spink & Co., Calcutta and Simla, p. 121 .

Grant, C.B. (1895): The Orchids of Burma (including the

Andaman Island). Hanthawaddy Press, Rangoon,

p. 234.

Heinig, R.I. (1925): Flora of Chittagong Hill Tracts and

Collectorate. Darjeeling, pp 1261.

Hooker, J.D. (1890): Flora of British India. Reeve and

Co., Kent, England. 6: 22.

Hooker, J.D. (1895): A Century of Indian Orchids In: Ann.

Roy. Bot. Gard., Calcutta. 5: pt. 53, pp. 35.

Hunt, P.F. & M.A. Grierson (1973): Orchidaceae. The

Bourton Press, London, p. 24.

Pradhan, Udai C.' (1979): Indian Orchids: Guide To—

Identification and Culture. Vol. 2. Udai C. Pradhan.

Kalimpong, India, p. 532.

Prain, D. (1903): Bengal Plants. Govt. Press, Calcutta,

India. Vol. 2: 764-765.

Santapau, H. & Z. Kapadia (1966): The Orchids of

Bombay. Govt of India Press, Calcutta, p. 212.

Sinclair, J. (1955): The Flora of Cox’s Bazar. Bull. Bot.

Soc. Beng., 9(2): 108.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW SPECIES OF MACROCENTRUS CURTIS

(HYMENOPTERA: BRACONIDAE) FROM INDIA1

S.M. Kurhade2 and P.K. Nikam3

( With three text-figures)

Macrocentrus nixoni sp. nov. is described and illustrated. A key to the Indian species of

Macrocentrus Curtis is provided.

Introduction

Macrocentrus Curtis is a small genus

erected with a type species, Macrocentrus bicolor

Curtis. Muesebeck (1932) and Eady and Clark

(1964) revised the genus. Shenefelt (1969)

contributed on the taxonomy of Macrocentrus.

In India, only three species of Macrocentrus

Curtis are known so far, viz., M. crassinervis

Nixon (1950), M. persephone Nixon (1950) and

M. trimaculatus (Cameron) Nixon (1939).

In the present work Macrocentrus nixoni sp.

nov. is described from the material collected in

India: Maharashtra: Ahmednagar and a key to the

Indian species of Macrocentrus Curtis is provided.

Types* have been deposited in the

Entomological collection of Department of

Zoology, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada

University, Aurangabad.

Key to the Indian species of Macrocentrus Curtis

1 . Body ivory white 4

— Body yellowish-red, brownish to dark brown;

face punctate 2

2. Propodeum evenly rugose all over; first tergite

finely, transversely striate; tergite 3 without

sculpture

trimaculatus (Cameron) Nixon, 1939

— Propodeum differently sculptured; tergite not

'Accepted 24th May, 1 996

department of Zoology,

New Arts, Commerce and Science College,

Ahmednagar-414 001 (Maharashtra), India.

3Department of Zoology,

Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University,

Aurangabad-431 004 (Maharashtra), India.

transversely striate; tergite 3 sculptured 3

3. Propodeum reticulately rugose; mesopleurum

finely punctate; tergite 1 and (2+3) finely,

longitudinally striate all over; ovipositor as long

as body persephone Nixon, 1950

— Propodeum with mid transverse carina, basal ly

longitudinally strigose; tergite 1 reticulately

strigose, shallowly punctate; tergites (2+3)

striate throughout; ovipositor slightly longer

than body nixoni sp. nov.

4. Face smooth; propodeum with faint scaly

reticulation and traces of transverse striations;

mesopleurum shining, punctures indistinct;

tergite 1 shining, with faint traces of

longitudinal aciculation; ovipositor sheath as

long has abdomen plus the propodeum

crassinervis Nixon, 1950

Macrocentrus nixoni sp. nov.

(Figs. 1-3)

Female: Length 4.9 mm. (Fig. 1). Head

(Fig. 2) transverse, 2.4 times as wide as long;

vertex smooth, with pubescence; interorbital

space 0.2 times the width of head; frons

moderately punctate, pubescent; face 1 .45 times

as wide as long, convex, with sparse punctures,

pubescent; mandible 2.2 times as long as wide

at base, bidentate, with tuft of bristles from outer

side; antenna 2+45 segmented, finely pubescent

throughout the length; scape 2.4 times as long

as wide, finely pubescent; pedicel as long as wide;

post pedicel 7.3 times as long as wide; penultimate

segment 0.6 times the length of terminal segment;

malar space as long as basal width of mandible;

♦Serial No. of the type specimens deposited at Dr. B.A.

Marathwada University, Aurangabad is BR MCR1/MUZ/

SMK2.

308

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

Fig. 1-3: Macrocentrus nixoni sp. Nov. (Female). 1. Adult lateral view; 2. Head, frontal view;

3. Propodeum, with first abdominal tergite.

eye bare, 1.8 times as long as wide; maxillary palp

very long; occipital carina absent.

Thorax: 2.5 times as long as wide;

pronotum shiny, pubescent, its posterior margin

carinated; mesoscutum smooth, sparsely,

shallowly punctate, sparsely pubescent; notauli

distinct, complete; scutellum shiny, weakly,

shallowly punctate, finely pubescent, without any

carina; postscutellum small, shiny; mesopleurum

not polished, weakly punctate, pubescent;

prepectal carina distinct; mesopleural furrow

distinct, extending to the length of mesopleurum;

mesopleural fovea distinct; metapleurum rugose,

punctate, pubescent; submetapleural carina

distinct; propodeum (Fig. 3) with mid transverse

carina, basally longitudinally strigose, basal

longitudinal carina extending to the tip,

pubescent; propodeal spiracle round. Hind leg

coxa long, 4 times as long as wide, moderately

punctate on outer side, striate on inner side,

pubescent; trochanter long; first trochanter 3.3

times as long as wide, moderately, shallowly

punctate, pubescent; femur 8 times as long as

wide, 1.5 times as long as coxa, weakly striate,

moderately, shallowly punctate, pubescent; tibial

spur 0.4 times the length of basitarsus; tibia 0.35

times the length of femur, 16.5 times as long as

its own apical width, aciculate, moderately

punctate, pubescent; basitarsus 0.35 times the

length of tibia; second tarsomere 0.4 times the

length of basitarsus; claw simple, bifid. Forewing

3.15 times as long as broad; stigma 4.1 times as

long as wide; metacarpus 1.45 times as long as

stigma; first abscissa of radius 0.5 times the

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

309

length of second abscissa; second abscissa of

radius 1.9 times as long as first abscissa; third

abscissa of radius 4.2 times as long as first

abscissa; three cubital cells present; second

cubital cell with four unequal sides; cubitus 2.25

times as long as stigma, not sclerotised

throughout the length; medius 0.6 times the

length of costa; basal 0.6 times the length of

medius; nervulus slightly reclivous, distad, 0.6

times the width of stigma; subdiscoideus 1.9

times as long as stigma; anal cell 23.7 times as

long as wide, with four marginal bristles. Hind

wing 4.4 times as long as broad; nervellus

inclivous, basal 0.45 times the length of

submediella; basella 0.15 times the length of

mediella, sclerotized; subcostella 1.4 times as long

as mediella; post-nervellus absent.

Abdomen: 3.5 times as long as wide —

long, wide medially; first tergite 2 times as wide

apically as basally, 3.5 times as long as basal

width, strigoso-reticulate, shallowly punctate,

pubescent; suture between first and second

tergites distinct; second tergite fused with third;

tergite (2 + 3) 1.8 times as long as wide apically,

striate throughout the length, weakly punctate,

pubescent; fourth tergite 0.3 times the basal

width, moderately punctate, pubescent; fifth

tergite 0.4 times the basal width, moderately

punctate, pubescent; sixth tergite 0.3 times its

own width, conical, moderately punctate,

pubescent; seventh tergite slightly visible;

ovipositor slightly longer than the body length;

ovipositor sheath as long as ovipositor, with

bristles throughout the length.

Colour: yellowish-red. Antenna, ovipositor

Refe

Eady, R.D. & J. A. J. Clark ( 1 964): A revision of the genus

Macrocentrus Curtis (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) in

Europe with description of four new species. Ent. Gaz.

15(3): 96-127.

*Muesebeck, C.F.W. (1932): U.S. Natl. Mus. Proc. 80 (23):

1-55.

Nixon, G.E.J. (1939): New species of Braconidae

sheath brownish-black; stigma, veins and

ovipositor reddish-brown; tip of mandibles and

oblong spot on frons blackish.

Male: Unknown.

Holotype: Female: india: Maharashtra:

Ahmednagar, 20. x. 1990, on wing, coll. S.M.

Kurhade; Antenna, wings and legs mounted on

slides and labelled as above.

Paratypes: 4 females, data same as

holotype.

Etymology: The species has been named

nixoni in honour of Dr. G.E.J. Nixon, a well

known taxonomist on Braconidae.

Comments: In the key to the Indian species

of Macrocentrus Curtis cited above, the new

species Macrocentrus nixoni resembles

Macrocentrus persephone Nixon (1950) in the

key characters. However, it differs from the same

in the following characters: (i) antenna 2+45

segmented, (ii) propodeum with mid transverse

carina, basally longitudinally strigose, (iii)

mesopleurum weakly punctate, (iv) first tergite

strigoso-reticulate, shallowly punctate and (v)

ovipositor slightly longer than body.

Acknowledgements

We thank the Head, Department of

Zoology, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada

University, Aurangabad for providing laboratory

facilities. The senior author wishes to thank the

Principal, New Arts, Commerce and Science

College, Ahmednagar for permission to work at

Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada

University, Aurangabad.

ENCES

(Hymenoptera). Bull. Entomol. Res. 30: 119-128.

Nixon, G.E.J. (1950): New Indian Braconidae bred from

Lepidopterous defoliators (Hymenoptera). Annals and

Mag. Natl. Hist. 30: 453-475.

Shenefelt, R.D. (1969): Braconidae 1, Hymenopterorum

Catalogus, Part IV, Dr. W. Junk, The Hague.

* Original not referred to.

A NEW GENUS OF ALLANTINAE FROM INDIA

(HYMENOPTERA: SYMPHYTA: TENTHREDINID AE) 1

Malkiat S. Saini and V. Vasu2

( With eighteen text-figures)

Key words: Anisotaxonus gen. nov., Allantinae, Hymcnoptera, India.

Described as a new genus belonging to subfamily Allantinae from India, Anisotaxonus is

based on three new species. This genus is closely allied to the genus Taxonus Hartig

(1837), from which it differs in several significant characters.

Introduction

All three new species described under the

new genus Anisotaxonus , run smoothly in

Malaise’s (1963) key upto couplets 92 and 132,

where these can be wrongly associated with

the genus Taxonus Hartig or Parasiobla

Ashmead. However, when seen in detail they

clearly differ from Parasiobla and Taxonus, on

the basis of some stable and reliable characters

such as: extent and shape of clypeal incision;

ratio of antennal segments 3 and 4; overall

shape of antenna; presence or absence of

postgenal as well as postorbital carinae; presence

or absence of punctures on mesopleura;

presence or absence of closed middle cell in

hind wing; general direction and angle of anal

cross vein in forewing. These three species

can be grouped under the new genus

Anisotaxonus .

Type material is deposited at Indian

Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa National

Collections, Division of Entomology, New Delhi,

India.

Abbreviations used in text are: I ATS =

Inner apical tibial spur, ICD = Intercenchri

distance, IDMO = Interocular distance at level

of median ocellus, ITD = Intertegular distance,

'Accepted February, 1997.

department of Zoology, Punjabi University, Patiala- 147 002,

India.

LID = Lower interocular distance, MB =

Metabasitarsus, OATS = Outer apical tibial spur,

OCL = Ocello-occipital line, OOL = Oculo-

ocellar line, POL = Postocellar line.

Anisotaxonus gen. nov.

(Figs. 1, 2, 6, 7)

Adult: Antenna (Figs. 6-7) 9 segmented;

scape longer than pedicel; segment 3 shorter than

4; some apical segments may be compressed.

Circular clypeal incision at the most upto half of

its medial length. Labrum broader than long with

rounded anterior margin. Postgenal carina

absent; hind orbits not carinated. Mesopleuron

smooth, shining and impunctate. Metabasitarsus

shorter than following joints combined. Claw

with a subapical tooth and with or without basal

lobe. Forewing (Fig. 1) with veins M and Rs+M

meeting Sc+R at or near the same point, but the

distance is less than the length of first cubital

cross vein; anal cross vein oblique. Hindwing

(Fig. 2) with one closed middle cell; anellan cell

petiolate.

Type species: Anisotaxonus brunneus sp. nov.

Distribution: india.

Discussion: Anisotaxonus gen. nov. is

allied to Taxonus Hartig on the basis of some

characters such as: circular incision of clypeus;

scape longer than pedicel; mesopleura smooth,

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

311

shining and impunctate; anal cross vein oblique

and hindwing with closed middle cell. However,

the new genus differs from Taxonus on the basis

of some other significant characters, such as:

some apical antennal segments compressed;

segment 3 shorter than 4; clypeal incision at the

most upto half of its medial length; postgenal

carina absent; hind orbits not carinated.

Otherwise all the species of the new genus can

be wrongly keyed under Parasiobla, a genus

that was erected by Ashmead (1898) with

Taxonus rufocinctus Norton as its type species,

but suppressed into synonymy of Taxonus by

Konow (1905) and again revived by Malaise

(1963) on the basis of the absence of closed

middle cells in the hindwing, a character which

is especially variable in rufocinctus, its type

species. We agree with Smith’s (1979) arguments

that the criteria used by Malaise (1963) to divide

Taxonus Hartig into four genera: Taxonus,

Strongylogastroidea, Hypotaxonus, and

Parasiobla (= Polytaxonus) on the basis of

variable, unstable and very weak characters, such

as the comparative length of hind basitarsus and

presence or absence of closed middle cell in the

hind wing, are completely unreliable and thus

unacceptable. Thus, we consider all of them as

synonyms of Taxonus Hartig (1837). Because of

the differences enumerated above, a new generic

name is proposed to accomodate the new

species.

Etymology: The generic name is based on

its remarkable distinction from the genus

Taxonus Hartig (Aniso= dissimilar or not same),

and feminine form is used.

Key to the species of Anisotaxonus from India

1 . Abdomen auratus with black markings; antenna

unicolour, uniformly black; tarsal claw without

basal lobe; malar space at the most lx diameter

of median ocellus 2

— Abdomen entirely fuscoferruginous; antenna

bicoloured, tip auratus; tarsal claw with distinct

basal lobe; malar space distinctly longer than

diameter of median ocellus

A. brunneus sp. nov.

2. Malar space lx diameter of median ocellus;

postocellar area as long as broad; antennal

segments 3 and 4 as 2:3; OOL:POL:OCL = 5:4:5

A. sessaensis sp. nov.

— Malar space 0.75 x diameter of median ocellus;

postocellar area broader than long as 4:3;

antennal segments 3 and 4 as 3:4;

OOL:POL:OCL = 6:4:5

A. assamensis sp. nov.

Anisotaxonus brunneus sp. nov.

(Figs. 3,6,8, 11, 14)

Female: Colour: Head fuscoferruginous,

whitish yellow are: extreme apical tip of antennal

segment 6; segments 7-9 entirely; clypeus;

labrum; supraclypeal area; broad inner orbit;

lower 1/3 of hind orbit. Black are: antenna except

whitish yellow segments; supraclypeal pit; a

broad spot on frontal area limited between frontal

ridges and posteriorly covering ocellar region and

extending upto hypothetical hind margin of head

in the form of a narrow streak along lateral

furrows. Thorax black, whitish yellow are: broad

posterodorsal and narrow posterolateral margins

of pronotum; tegula; sagittated apex of mesonotal

middle lobe; mesoscutellum except its

fuscoferruginous posterior margin; appendage;

parapterum; a broad transverse spot on

mesopleuron; a transverse stripe in lower half of

mesepistemum extending upto coxal rim; most

of metepistemum. Abdomen fuscoferruginous.

Legs fuscoferruginous except coxae, trochanters

and basal 1/3 of femora of all legs which are

whitish yellow. Wings hyaline; extreme apices

of costa and subcosta, basal 1/3 of stigma fulvous;

rest of venation piceous.

Structure: Length 5.5 mm. Antenna (Fig.

6) long, 3.4 x head width, three apical segments

distinctly compressed; scape 2x its apical width,

pedicel 2x its apical width; segment 3 shorter

than 4 as 6:7; clypeus (Fig. 8) circularly incised

upto 1/2 of its length; labrum (Fig. 8) broader

than long as 3:2, with slightly deflexed rounded

312

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

Figs. 1-2. Anisotaxonus brunneus Wings: 1. Forewing, 2. Hindwing; Figs. 3-5. Tarsal claw: 3. A. brunneus,

4. A. sessaensis 5. A. assamensis ; Figs. 6-7. Antenna: 6. A. brunneus; 1. A. sessaensis;

Figs. 8-10. Clypeus & Labrum: 8. A. brunneus; 9. A. sessaensis, 10. A. assamensis;

Figs. 11-13. Hypopygium: 11. A. brunneus; 12. A. sessaensis; 13. A. assamensis

anterior margin; malar space 1.7x diameter of

median ocellus; lower margin of eye below level

of antennal socket; LID:IDMO:EL = 12:7:13;

supraclypeal and supraantennal pits well marked;

frontal area above level of eyes; supraantennal

tubercles and frontal ridges insignificant; median

fovea shallow with a distinct ditch in its anterior

half only; post-, inter- and circumocellar furrows

distinct; lateral furrows shallow, excurved

(bulging) and abruptly ending well before

hypothetical hind margin of head; postocellar

area almost subconvex, broader than long as 3:2;

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

313

Figs. 14-16. Lancet: 14. Anisotaxonus brunneus, 15. A. sessaensis , 16. A. assamensis;

Figs. 17-18. Male genitalia: 17. Gonoforceps of A. sessaensis, 18. Penis valve of A. sessaensis.

314

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

head parallel behind eyes; OOL:POL:OCL =

5:4:5; mesoscutellum almost flat, appendage not

carinate; ICD:ITD = 2:7; tarsal claw (Fig. 6) with

a subapical tooth shorter than apical one and a

distinct basal lobe, the distance between the two

tips shorter than the length of subapical tooth;

metabasitarsus shorter than following joints

combined as 8:9; IATS:MB:OATS = 1:4:2.

Lancet (Fig. 14) having 15 serrulae. Hypopygium

as in Fig. 11.

Sculpture and pubescence: Head with

dense, minute, fine punctures on frontal area,

surface shining; mesonotum punctured like head,

surface shining; mesoscutellum with dense

minute, fine, irregular punctures on its posterior

slope, surface shining; appendage shining;

mesopleuron smooth, shining and impunctate

with general oily lustre; abdomen impunctate,

shining. Body covered with reddish to dark

brown pubescence.

Male: Unknown.

Material examined: Holotype : Female,

Manipur, Ukhrul, 1700 m, 24.V.1993, Coll. V.

Vasu.

Distribution: india: Manipur.

Diagnosis: A. brunneus is unique in having

a combination of some significant characters

such as: bicoloured antenna; fuscoferruginous

abdomen; lateral furrows excurved; clypeus

circularly incised upto 1/2 of its medial length;

head parallel behind eyes and metabasitarsus

shorter than following joints combined, which

sets this species far apart from the rest of the

species under this genus.

Etymology: Species name pertains to

general colour of body.

Anisotaxonus sessaensis sp. nov.

(Figs. 4, 7, 9, 12, 15, 17, 18)

Female: Colour: Body black, auratus are:

clypeus; labrum; mandible barring apex; broad

inner orbit; lower hind orbit; tegula; spot on

mesoscutellum; minute spots on the inner sides

of mesonotal lateral lobes meeting in the centre;

paraptemm; a broad transverse spot on lower half

of mesepistemum; spot on metapleuron; tergite

2 more or less; tergites 3-5 entirely; deflexed

lateral sides of tergites 4-8; all stemites; all legs

except apical 3 tarsi which are fuscoferruginous.

Wings hyaline, venation including costa,

subcosta and stigma piceous.

Structure: Average length 5 mm. Antenna

(Fig. 7) long, 3.4 x head width, apical segments

not compressed; scape 2x its apical width; pedicel

1.3x its apical width; segment 3 shorter than 4

as 2:3; clypeus (Fig. 9) with triangularly incised

anterior margin upto 1/2 of its medial length;

labrum (Fig. 9) broader than long as 2:1, with

deflexed rounded anterior margin; malar space

lx diameter of median ocellus; lower margin of

eye below level of antennal socket;

LID:IDMO:EL = 2:2:1; supraclypeal and

supraantennal pits well marked; frontal area

slightly above level of eyes; supraantennal

tubercles and frontal ridges insignificant; median

fovea with a deep ditch in its anterior half and

posteriorly only shallowly reaching median

ocellus; post-, inter- and circumocellar furrows

distinct; lateral furrows deep, distinct, parallel

and abruptly ending just before hypothetical hind

margin of head; postocellar area subconvex,

broader than long as 4:3; head slightly narrowing

behind eyes; OOL:POL:OCL = 5:4:5;

mesoscutellum almost flat, appendage not

carinate; ICD:ITD = 1 :4; tarsal claw (Fig. 4) with

a subapical tooth shorter than apical one and

without basal lobe, the distance between the two

tips equal to the length of subapical tooth;

metabasitarsus shorter than following joints

combined as 8:9; IATS:MB:OATS = 5:14:6.

Lancet (Fig. 15) having 14 serrulae. Hypopygium

as in Fig. 12.

Sculpture and pubescence: Head with a

few fine, scattered punctures on frontal area,

surface shining; thorax impunctate, shining with

general oily lustre abdomen impunctate, shining.

Body covered with mixed brownish and silvery

pubescence except for the auratus part where it

appears to be golden.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

315

Male: Length 4 mm. Similar to female.

Genitalia: Penis valve (Fig. 18), gonoforceps

(Fig. 17).

Material examined: Holotype : Female,

Arunachal Pradesh, Sessa, 1100 m, 23.V.1993,

Coll. M.S. Saini. Paratypes : 1 Female,

Arunachal Pradesh, Lazu, 1800 m, 5.V.1994,

Coll. V. Vasu. 1 Female, 1 Male, Nagaland,

Pfutsero, 2100 m, 14.V.1994, Coll. V. Vasu.

Distribution: india: Arunachal Pradesh.

Diagnosis: A. sessaensis differs from all

other known species of this genus in the

following combined characters: antenna

unicolour; abdomen partly black; incision of

clypeus extending to 1/3 of its medial length;

lateral furrows parallel; head narrowing behind

eyes and presence of minute indistinct basal

lobe.

Etymology: Species name is after its type

locality.

Anisotaxonus assamensis sp. nov.

(Figs. 5, 10, 13, 16)

Female: Colour: Body black, whitish

yellow are: clypeus except extreme base; labrum;

mandible barring apex; a squarish spot on

supraclypeal area; narrow inner orbit, tegula;

inner margins of mesonotal lateral lobes meeting

in the centre in front of mesoscutellum; top of

mesoscutellum; parapterum; a broad spot on

posteroventral margin of mesepistemum; most

of metapleuron; all coxae, trochanters and the

adjoining parts of all femora. Auratus are: scape;

tergites 2-5; tergite 6 more or less; deflexed

lateral sides of tergite 7; stemites 2-6; all femora;

tibiae of front four legs; tarsi of proleg; rest of

parts of all legs fiiscoferruginous. Wings hyaline;

venation including costa; subcosta and stigma

piceous.

Structure: Length 5 mm. Antenna long,

3x head width, apical segments not compressed;

scape 1.3x its apical width; pedicel as long as its

apical width; segment 3 shorter than 4 as 3:4;

clypeus (Fig. 10) circularly incised upto 1/3 of

its medial length; labrum (Fig. 10) broader than

long as 3:2, with deflexed rounded anterior

margin; malar space 0.75x diameter of median

ocellus; lower margin or eye below level of

antennal socket; LID:IDMO:EL = 6:7:4;

supraclypeal and supraantenal pits well marked;

frontal area almost at level of eyes, supraantennal

tubercles and frontal ridges insignificant; median

fovea in the form of a ditch in its anterior half

and posteriorly only shallowly reaching median

ocellus; post-, inter- and circumocellar furrows

shallow; lateral furrows deep, distinct, parallel

and abmptly ending just before hypothetical hind

margin of head; postocellar area subconvex,

broader than long as 4:3; head narrowing behind

eyes; OOL:POL:OCL = 6:4:5; mesoscutellum

almost flat, appendage not carinate; ICD:ITD =

1:4; tarsal claw (Fig. 5) with a subapical tooth

shorter than apical one and without basal lobe,

the distance between the two tips is greater than

the length of subapical tooth; metabasitarsus

shorter than following joints combined as 8:9;

LA IS : MB : OATS = 4:8:3. Lancet (Fig . 1 6) having

16 serrulae. Hypopygium as in Fig. 13.

Sculpture and pubescence: Head, thorax

and abdomen impunctate, smooth and shining

with general oily lustre. Body covered with

silvery pubescence except for auratus parts where

it appears to be golden.

Male: Unknown.

Material examined: Holotype : Female,

Assam, Jatinga, 800 m, 7.V.1993, Coll. V. Vasu.

Paratype : 1 Female, Arunachal Pradesh, Tissa,

700 m, 7.V.1994, Coll. V. Vasu.

Distribution: india: Assam.

Diagnostic combination: A. assamensis is

closely allied to A. sessaensis but can be sepa-

rated from it and other species of this genus

on the basis of some remarkable characters

such as colour pattern of body; length of

malar space; clypeal incision; absence of basal

lobe; ratio of antennal segments and postocellar

area.

Etymology: Species name pertains to

Assam state in which its type locality is situated.

316

JOURNAL, BOMBA YNA TURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

Acknowledgements

We are deeply grateful to Dr. D.R. Smith

of Systematic Entomology Laboratory, USNM,

Refe

Ashmead, W.H. (1898): Classification of the homtails and

sawfly, or the suborder Phytophaga, Canad. Ent. 30:

308-311.

Hartig, T. (1837): Die Familien der Blattwespen und

Holzwespen, nebst einer allegemeinen einleitung zur

naturgeschichte derhymenopteran. Berlin, pp 416.

Konow, F.W. (1905): Hymenoptera, Fam. Tenthredinidae.

USA, for his valuable suggestions. Financial

assistance rendered by US, PL - 480 in

collaboration with ICAR is also gratefully

acknowledged.

ENCES

In Wytsman, P., ed., Genera Insectorum 29: 1-108.

Malaise, R. (1963): Hymenoptera, Tenthredinoidea,

subfamily Selandriinae. Key to the genera of the

World. Ent. Tidskr.Arg. 84 { 3-4): 159-215.

Smith, D.R. (1979): Nearctic Sawflies IV. Allantinae:

Adults and Larvae (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae).

USDA Tech. Bull. 1595: 1-172.

A NEW SPECIES OF OPHIORRHIZA L. (RUBIACEAE) FROM KERALA, INDIA1

A.E. Shanavas Khan, E.S. Santhosh Kumar and P. Pushpangadan2

( With six text-figures)

A new species of Ophiorrhiza L. viz. O. shendurunii is described and illustrated.

During recent floristic studies conducted

along the southern Western Ghats, we collected

specimens of an interesting species of

Ophiorrhiza L. On critical study it was found to

be a new species. Hence it is described and

illustrated here.

Ophiorrhiza shendurunii sp. nov.

(Figs. 1-6)

Peraffinis O. eriantha Wt. a qua differt

neris lateralia in folia pauca, inflorescentes

pubescentes, bracta et bracteola glabra, corolla

pubescentes ad super basim, papillata sursum

inferiora et capsula pilosa.

Typus: India: Kerala, Kollam dist.,

Pandimotta c 1180 m, 27. i. 1995 Coll. E.S.

Santhosh Kumar 23271 (holo. tbgt; iso. mh,

CALI, K).

Allied to Ophiorrhiza eriantha Wt. but

differs in having fewer lateral nerves in the

leaves, pubescent inflorescence, glabrous bracts

and bracteoles, corolla hairy above the base and

then papillate upwards within, and pilose

capsules.

Undershrubs; stem erect, branched, terete

and glabrous; intemodes 7-10 cm long. Leaves

8-12 x 3-5 cm, ovate to elliptic lanceolate,

membraneous, glabrous, acuminate at the apex,

attenuate at the base, with lateral nerves upto 10

pairs; petioles 1-3 cm long, glabrous; stipules

interpetiolar, to c. 2 cm long, linear, broadened

'Accepted 13th February, 1997

2Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute, Palode,

Karimankode P.O.,

Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India-695 562.

at the base and entire; inflorescence terminal,

corymbose of helicoid cymes; peduncles

pubescent; pedicels 0.1 -0.2 cm long, pubescent;

bracts and bracteoles many, linear, glabrous.

Calyx tube terete, pubescent, lobes 5, triangular,

glabrous. Corolla white, tube 1.1 -1.5 cm. long,

funnel shaped, ribbed, on the outside along the

middle of the petals, and ribs hairy, glabrous at

the base, hairy below the middle, and then

papillate upwards within, distinctly veined; lobes

5, c. 0.3 x 0.2 cm. Stamens 5, inserted on the

corolla tube above the base; anthers oblong,

glabrous, basifixed, introrse, and longitudinally

dehiscent. Disc epigynous, glandular, of 2 large

lobes. Ovary 2-loculed, ovules many on basal

ascending placenta; style filiform, glabrous;

stigma 2-lobed with linear-lanceolate lobes.

Capsules 0.4-0. 5 x 0.7-0. 8 cm, obovoid,

compressed, pilose, girt by calyx limb. Seeds

minute, angled, reticulate.

Flowering and Fruiting: Throughout the

year.

Habitat: Evergreen forest.

Etymology: The specific epithet

shendurunii is after the renowned Wildlife

Sanctuary Shenduruni, the type locality of the

taxon.

Acknowledgements

We are thankful to Dr Dianae M. Bridson,

Kew for her critical comments on the taxon and

Prof. N. Ravi, Emeritus scientist, TBGRI for

going through the manuscript. Our gratitude to

Dr. V.B. Hosagoudar, Scientist, TBGRI for the

Latin diagnosis.

318

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

Fig. 1-6. Ophiorrhiza shendurunii sp. nov.

1. Habit; 2. A flower and flower bud; 3. Corolla exposed; 4. Stamens; 5. Gynaecium;

6. Capsule.

A NEW SPECIES OF CALANTHE R.BR (ORCHID ACEAE) FROM

SIKKIM HIMALAYA1

S.Z. Lucksom2

( With eight text-figures )

While carrying out floristic survey of West

Sikkim during May 1996, the author came across

one interesting plant belonging to family

Orchidaceae. On critical study, this was found

to be a new species of Calanthe R.Br which is

being described here with an illustration.

Calanthe yuksomnensis S.Z. Lucksom sp. nov.

Calanthe herbacea Lindl affinis sed differt

Folia 3, 50-60 cm longa, petiolata; lamina 20-

30 x 6-12.10 cm, elliptico-lanceolata, acuta;

petiolus 20-30 cm longus, canaliculatus.

Inflorescentia 20-30 cm longa, teres, puberula;

Pedunculus 15-26 cm longus, erectus, teres, cum

bractea una, lanceolata 1 cm longa; Racemus 5-

7 cm longus, teres, puberulus cum 2-10 floribus

pedicellatis. Flores 3. 3-4. 2 cm diametro, albido-

brunnei, parum fragrantes. Sepala sub-equalia,

patentia, extus puberula, 5-nervia, brunneo-

purpurea, apices basique viridia; Sepalum dorsale

1.85-1.95 x 0.76-0.82 cm, ellipticum, acutum;

Sepala lateralia 2-2.1 x 0.58-0.61 cm, Oblonga

Vel parum falcata, acuta, 5-7 nervia. Petala 1.7-

1.75 x 0.4-0. 5 cm, rhomboidea, parum

acuminata, 3-nervia, utrinque glabra, ejusdem

coloris quam sepala, sed pallidiores. Labium

2.35-2.40 x 1.8- 1.9 cm, cremeus; lobus lateralis

oblongo-ovatus, parallelus lobum apicalem, lobus

apicalis sub-reniformis, ad picem cum lobulis

duobus, sub-obovatis, obtusis, parum fimbriatis,

'Accepted 25th January, 1997

2DFO LU & E (Wildlife) Forest Department,

Gyalzing, West Sikkim.

Present address:

Joint Director, Environment & Eco-tourism,

Forest Department, Govt, of Sikkim,

Deorali, Gangtok, Sikkim-737 102.

parum divergentibusque, separatis a sino

triangulari, discus inter lobus laterales cum callis

tribus vadosis elongatisque, crescentibuse basi

et convergentibus versus sinum apicalem.

Description

Pseudobulb 2-3 x 1.5-2 cm, ovoid, with 2

to 3 annular rings, new pseudobulb develops from

the side of the old one carrying new leaves and

an inflorescence enclosed in 3, tubular sheathing

bracts 3.8-8 cm long. Leaves 3, 50-60 cm long,

petiolate; lamina 20-30 x 6-12.1 cm, elliptic-

lanceolate, acute; petiole 20-30 cm long

channelled.

Inflorescence 20-30 cm long, tere,

puberulous; peduncle 1 5-26 cm long, erect, terete

with one 1 cm long lanceolate bract; Raceme 5-

7 cm long, terete, puberulous, with 2-10

pedicellate flowers. Flowers 3. 3-4. 2 cm across,

whitish-brown, with mild fragrance; sepals sub-

equal, spreading, puberulous outside, 5 -nerved,

brownish-purple with green tips and base; dorsal

sepal 1.85-1.95 x 0.76-0.82 cm elliptic, acute,

5-7 nerved. Petals 1.7-1.75 x 0.4-0. 5 cm,

rhomboid, slightly acuminate, 3-nerved, both

side glabrous, colour shade same as sepals but

lighter in shade, spreading lip 2.35-2.40 x 1.8-

1.9 cm, oblong in general, creamish white, its

lower ca 7.5 mm part adnate to the column

throughout; lateral lobes oblong-ovate, obtuse,

it inner line parallel to apical lobe; apical lobe

sub-reniform, its apex with two sub-obovate,

blunt, slightly fringed, slightly diverging lobules

separated by a triangular sinus; the disc with

three shallow elongated calli starting from base

and converging towards apical sinus. Spur ca

320

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

Figs. 1-8: Calanthe yuksomnensis sp. nov.

1. Whole plant; 2. A single flower; 3. Dorsal sepal; 4. Lateral sepal; 5. Petals; 6. Flowering parts showing

pedicellate ovary, spur, column and lip; 7. Anther; 8. Pollinia.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

321

Table 1

COMPARISON BETWEEN CALANTHE YUKSOMNENSIS AND CALANTHE HERBACEA

Calanthe yuksomnensis sp.nov.

Calcinthe herbacea Lindl.

1 . Leaves:

2, lamina 20-30 x 6-12.1 cm elliptic-lanceolate, 5-7, lamina 14.5-30 x 5-9.7 cm, elliptic, caudate-

acute, petiole 20-30 cm long, channelled. acuminate; petiole 9-24 cm long.

2. Inflorescence: 20-30 cm tall, puberulous; Raceme 5-7 cm

long, with 2-10 flowers.

60-94 cm, smooth; Raceme 1 5-27 cm long, with many

flowers.

3. Flowers: 3. 3-4.2 cm across.

2-2.7 cm across.

4. Sepals:

5. Petals:

6. Lip:

brownish-purple with green tips and bases;

dorsal sepals 1 .85-1 .95 x 0.76-0.82 cm;

Lateral sepals 2-2.1 x 0.58-0.61 cm.

1 .7-1 .75 x 0.4-0. 5 cm, rhomboid.

2.35-2.40 x 1 .8-1 .9 cm, creamish-white;

disc with 3 shallow longitudinal calli running

from base to apex; lateral lobes not diverging

but lie side by side (parallel) to apical lobe;

apical lobe broad with shallow bilobulate tips,

bilobulate tips slightly diverging with obscurely

fimbriate margin.

pale-green; dorsal sepal 1 .3-1.7 x 0.5-0. 7 cm, lateral

sepals 0.8-1 .0 x 0.5 - 0.69 cm

2.5-2. 8 cm long, pure white, yellowing on maturity, with

a warty triangular yellow callus at its base; lateral lobes

diverging; apical lobe considerably bilobulate, narrower;

diverging; with smooth margin.

1 .3-1 .6 x 0.3-0. 5 cm, sub-spathulate.

2.3 cm long, straight, cylindric, with slight cleft

at basal end. Column ca 7.5 mm long. Anther

ovate. Pollinia 8, ca 3-3.2 mm long, obovate or

clavate, sub-equal, yellow; disc ca 9.5 mm long,

oblong-ovate, translucent white.

Typus: india: Sikkim, Yuksom; 20.V.1996,

Coll. Lucksom 311a (Holotypus ca cal)

Isotypus: b,c,d Gangtok, Forest

Department, Herb.

Flowers: May and June.

Grows on forest floor at 1400-1800 m.

The fresh flowering plants collected dur-

ing the survey were examined and found

to be entirely different from other Calanthe

species.

Terrestrial, pseudobulbous plants, with

large plicate leaves. Inflorescence a tall spike

arising from leafy axis; lip adnate to the short

column throughout its whole length, and 8

pollinia, are some of the characteristic features

which justify the placement of this taxon under

the genus Calanthe of subtribe Blentinae.

The new taxon is closely allied to Calanthe

herbacea Lindl from Sikkim Himalaya, but

differs in some characters (Table 1).

Etymology: The new species is named

after the place from where it was collected.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to PCCF-cum-Secretary,

Forest Department, Government of Sikkim for

permission to carry out a survey of orchids.

I thank Mrs Kalyani Thapa, Curator, Forest

Department, for preparation of herbarium sheets

and Dr N.C. Majumdar, Scientist, SE, (Rtd.)

Botanical Survey of India for rendering the Latin

translation.

References

Hooker, J.D. (1880); The Flora of British India, Vol 6 Himalaya. Ann. Roy Bot. Gard. Calcutta.

Joseph, J. (1987): Orchids of Nilgiris. Pradhan,U.C. (1979); Indian Orchids, Guide to

King & Plantling (1898): The Orchids of Sikkim identification and culture, Vol I. Rishi Road, Kalimpong.

A NEW SPECIES OF SIDA FROM AGRA, INDIA1

S.C. Pandeya2

( With six text-figures)

Sida hemitropousa from Agra, India, has been described as a new species.

Examination of plant collection made at

Agra, India, from 1992 to 1995 revealed the

existence of a new species of Sida , which is

confused with S. acuta Burm.f. The holotype is

in the Kew Herbarium (vide ours 1508),

identified by them as S. acuta (December 3,

1993).

Genus Sida Linn. Sp. PI. 2:683, 1753; Gen.

PI. ed. 5, 306, 1754

Sida hemitropousa Pandeya sp. nov.

Perennial erect shrub upto 1.5 m; leaves

simple, lanceolate, 2-4.5 x 1-1.3 cm, margins

serrate, apex acute; stem brown, both stem and

leaves minutely hairy; lamina bluish green;

petiole 2-4.5 mm long; stipules linear, hairy, 0.8-

1 .2 cm; flowers 2-4 in axil of leaves; pedicel 2-4

mm, reddish brown; bracteole 0; sepals 5,

valvate, lower half connate, lobes 5, central vein

purple, deltoid, caudate-acuminate, ciliate; petals

5, 5-8 mm across, 2-lobed, free above and connate

below, adnate to the tube of stamens pale yellow;

staminal tube divided at the summit into 20-32

anthers bearing filaments; carpels 5, styles 5,

connate at lower half, stigma 5, longer than

anther tube, capitate, 4 carpels abortive, only one

develops one pendulous seed; seed dark brown,

smooth; carpels with 2 small awns; anthers do

not dehisce in many cases; after 4-5 hours

(around 1300 hrs) petals curl in to close the

flower.

Fruit: hemitropous, roundish; 50% flowers

abortive.

Flowering: September to April (Fig. 1).

Local name not known.

Habitat: roadside and edges of gardens.

MAIN DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SIDA ACUTA AND S. HEMITROPOUSA

'Accepted 13th May, 1 997

2 Professor Emeritus

13/14 Pragatipuram, P.O. Dayalbagh

Agra-282 005, India

Distribution: Agra and its environs.

Characters which make it different from the

allied species, viz., Sida acuta :

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

323

1

mm

Figs. 1-6. Sida hemitropousa : 1. A flowering shoot, 2. Flower bud,

3. Open flower in axil of leaf (2 and 3 of same magnification),

4. Styles longer than filaments, hence stigma protruding out of bunch of anthers,

5. Fruit hemitropous, roundish, 6. Carpels 5, (4, 5 and 6 of same magnification)

Sida hemitropousa Pandeya sp. nov. affinis

S. acuta Burm. f. Frutex caulibus 1.5 m alta;

Cortice basi arbor; folia lanceolatus, serrato-

pubescentibus, floris petala flavi-pubescentibus;

stamina 20-32; Stigma 5, longa, stigma quam

stamina longier; Ovule 5, 4 abortive; fructo

hemitropous, uno seminibus; 50% floris abortive;

Floris September - April.

Etymology: The species has been named

after hemitropous shape of the fruit.

REVIEWS

1 . ADVANCES IN FISH AND WILDLIFE ECOLOGY AND BIOLOGY Vol.

1 Bsansi Lai Kaul, Daya Publishing House, Delhi, 1996. pp i-xiii+332

(24.5 x 16 cm) ISBN 81 - 7035-156-1 Price Rs. 700/-

The book deals with the areas of

Limnology, Fish and Wildlife ecology, as well

as Biology. It marks the beginning of a series of

such volumes that shall attempt to reflect the

latest as well as original research work related

to environmental issues which are gaining a lot

of importance because of increased pressure on

water and land resources due to proliferation of

human population.

As an inaugural volume, the book has been

dedicated to Prof. Y.R. Malhotra on his

completion of 40 yrs. of teaching and research.

This book includes articles from experts in

different fields, many of whom have been

students of Prof. Malhotra. The present volume,

which is edited by Prof. Bansi Lai Kaul, contains

an appreciation of Prof. Malhotra from Prof. P.L.

Dua and is a compendium of original research

articles contributed by 20 authors.

The book has two sections: Section I

contains 21 articles under the heading “Fish

and Limnology” and pertains to various topics

like fish structure, fish food organisms, aquatic

insects, feeding habits, reproduction,

development and many other related topics on

fish ecology and biology. Section II contains

8 contributions under the heading Wildlife. This

section includes chapters on habitat studies,

behaviour, management of wildlife, threat to

wildlife and shrinking wetlands. Finally there is

an Index of six pages.

The volume is an exhaustive collection of

information in the fields specified. However, it

is oriented towards specialised research findings

and is more useful to researchers in pursuit of

excellence. Most of the chapters, deal with

specific observations in the Jammu and Kashmir

area.

With the recent advances in printing

technology, coloured photos and sketches could

have been included in a few selected chapters,

and such plates would have made the book more

interesting and attractive visually, and useful

even for general readers.

This is a sincere attempt to compile the

recent knowledge in emerging fields which

assume more importance because the very

survival of mankind will be threatened if there

is an indiscriminate pressure upon water and land

resources.

V.V. SINGH

2. VERMICOLOGY - The Biology of Earthworms by Sultana A Ismail.

92 pp (21.5 x 13.7 cm) with 12 colour photos and many illustrations, Orient

Longman Ltd. Hyderabad, 1997. Price: Rs. 75/-

With vermiculture being popular

everywhere several books have come out in the

market on this subject, vermicology - the biology

of earthworms is one of them.

Out of 92 pages, 17 pages are devoted to

the bibliography and 2 pages to a glossary. The

book has nine chapters dealing with Ecological

types of earthworms, their structure and life

cycles. The chapter “earthworm for culture”

provides information on species used for

vermiculture, their breeding and vermicompost.

The chapter “vermiculture and vermitech”

will be of interest to the beginner, as it provides

information on how to start vermiculture,

preparation of vermibeds and effective time table

for proper harvesting of vermicompost through

the twin unit system of vermitech.

Subjects like the effect of earthworms on

REVIEWS

325

plant growth, their use in vegetable growing and

impact of chemicals on earthworms are dealt with

in the chapter “Experiments from the field”. The

role of earthworms in agriculture is evident by

some experiments mentioned in the chapter

“Earthworms: Their application in organic

Agriculture.” The book will be useful to all those

who are interested in vermiculture.

NARESH CHATURVEDI

3. IMPACT OF DISEASES AND INSECT PESTS IN TROPICAL FORESTS

Edited by K.S.S. Nair, J.K. Sharma and R.V. Varma 1996. Kerala Forest Research

Institute (KFRI) and Forestry Research Support Programme for Asia and the

Pacific, pp 521 (24 x 17 cm). Price not stated.

The book is a compendium of papers

presented at the symposium Impact of Diseases

and Insect Pests in Tropical Forests organised

by KFRI jointly with (IUFRO) International

Union of Forestry Research Organisations and

Forestry Research Support Programme for Asia

and the Pacific.

The book is divided into two parts, each

having 4 sections. Section I of the first part of

the book deals with Impact of Diseases &

Parasites on Productivity of Forest Trees and

Bamboo Stands. A chapter provides information

on impact of seed microflora on seed germination

and seedling vigour of some important

indigenous tree species of Kerala.

The management of disease is dealt under

Section II. Information on Disease Epidemiology

is given under Section III and Section IV is entitled

Symbiotic Microbes in Relation to Disease.

Section I under Part 2 highlights the impact

of Insect Pests on forest trees like teak, mahogany

and Ailanthus. A chapter each deals with Borer

pests, the threat to coastal forests of Bangladesh

and Threat to Mangrove Vegetation from Marine

Wood boring and Fouling Organisms along the

Indian Coast. In all there are 13 chapters in this

Section. Information on Pest Management is

given in Section II. The Biology, Ecology &

Control of Insect Pests are given under Section

III, having 14 chapters. Section IV on Problem

Statements has nine chapters followed by

Recommendations of the Symposium.

The papers published in this compendium

include contributions from various countries i.e.

Australia, Bangladesh, Canada, Cameroon, Fiji,

Indonesia, Italy, Malaysia, Nepal, Norway,

Pakistan, South Africa, Sri Lanka, United

Kingdom, Vietnam and India. The book does not

have an index which is a major shortcoming.

The book provides information not only

on disease and insect pests of forestry but also

their impact on productivity of the trees.

A valuable publication for all researchers

associated with forest management.

NARESH CHATURVEDI

4. FLORA OF MAHARASHTRA Vol I, M.R. Almeida. St. Xavier’s College,

Bombay -400 001. 1996. pp. i-lxxix, 1-294, i-xciv: (22 x 29 cm). Hard back Rs. 1000.00

The state of Maharashtra comprises a large

part of the earlier Bombay state. This region is

fortunate is having a variety of vegetation types,

and consequently very rich flora. Some spots in

the Western Ghats are centres of speciation, and

many new taxa have been discovered from the

region of Mahabaleshwar, Khandala and other

areas. The region also attracted good field

botanists and taxonomists right from the

nineteenth century. Among the main workers of

this century at the Blatter Herbarium, the names

of Fr. E. Blatter, Fr. H. Santapau, Prof. P.V. Bole

326

JOURNAL, BOMBA YNA TURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 95 (1998)

and more recently, Dr. S.M. Almeida are the

foremost. These persons made a tradition of

training dozens of men and women in

painstaking field work and critical taxonomic

studies. This training resulted also in building

up of an excellent herbarium now called Blatter

Herbarium in St. Xavier’s College.

The present flora of Maharashtra and its

author are both products of this institution and

its tradition. Vol. I of Flora of Maharashtra deals

with families Ranunculaceae to (actually)

Staphyleaceae. Somehow on the cover page it

reads Ranunculaceae to Connaraceae. Though

the book can, in one sense, be said to be a revision

of Cooke’s flora of Bombay presidency, in reality

it is much more. Many additional plants,

localities, and other updated information make

it a new work altogether.

The initial 80 pages deal with the area, its

physiography, drainage, rainfall, climate, soil,

vegetation, detailed history of botanising,

floristics and methodology.

A critical analysis is given of genera

not included in Cooke’s Flora, nor in

Santapau and Henry’s dictionary of plant genera

IN INDIA.

Many new taxa found by the author and

his well known taxonomist wife Dr. S.M.

Almeida are listed.

In the main text, the family accounts have

indented keys to genera, and species, citations,

synonymy, occasionally local names, brief

description, flowering time and distribution.

Nomenclature is good.

The descriptions are quite precise. The

distribution has several new localities not recorded

in Cooke’s Flora or later works on district floras.

There are many line drawings or photo-

graphs to illustrate species and vegetation types.

There is, however, inconsistency in providing

scales to figures. Some have scale marking (plate

19, p. 2), many do not (foil. p. 4). Numbers on a

few plates seem to have been added inadvertantly,

as most other plates have no numbers.

There is considerable anomaly in numbers

of plates and photos, e.g. towards end of the book.

Nos. 88-89 after p. 293 appear after 94-96 (p.

270). Some colour plates have no numbers

( Cissus , Eriolaena). Others have a curious no.

TP. ( Salacia , Sapindus, etc.).

The quality of line drawings is good, but

colour pictures vary from very good (No. 26,32-

35) to ordinary ( Cissus , No. 17).

The book ends with a bibliography, and

indices to scientific and local names and a one

page Errata.

The use of Roman numbers for 79 pp. (i-

lxxix) in the beginning and again 94 pp. (i-xciv)

at the end is a little confusing.

The size of the book is rather , large for

frequent handling by students, but this will

be compensated by a lesser total number of

volumes.

The author and his wife deserve

congratulations for this long awaited Flora of a

botanically important state of India.

S.K. JAIN

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1 . WOLVES IN PANNA NATIONAL PARK

On a hot afternoon at the end of February

1996, while studying the ecology of sloth bears

in Panna National Park, my supervisor Dr. A. J.T.

Johnsingh saw two handsome wolves, at a place

about two km from my camp at Talgaon village,

close to the southern boundary of the Park.

Unfortunately I was not with him. Since then, I

had been longing to see a wolf in Panna, as I

had never seen one before.

The next winter, during mid December

1996. 1 sighted a pack of four wolves about one

km from my camp, about two o’clock in the

afternoon closer to the southern boundary of

Talgaon village crossing the road towards the

village. They ran on seeing me. I followed them

through the Lantana bushes for about 100 m till

they disappeared- Two of them were slightly

smaller than the other two, and their sex could

not be identified. After looking out for them

for a while, I returned to radio tracking sloth

bears. That evening, when I returned to my camp

I was told by a field assistant that the wolves had

gone to the outskirts of the village and killed a

cattle calf in broad daylight. The calf had been

grazing in a fallow field along with several other

calves.

During that winter, until mid February

1997. 1 continued to find evidence of the wolves’

presence — tracks, scats — and once heard a

howl. I came across 8 scats of wolves along

roads and cattle trails. I conducted on the spot

analyses to identify the major prey remains in

the scats. I found thick locks of hair of black

goats in 6 scats, and two possibly contained cattle

hair. The scats were very similar to those of

dholes, which were also found in Panna.

However, the accompanying tracks (wolves have

proportionately larger pads) helped in distin-

guishing them as wolf scats.

All the scats were collected within a radius

of 4 km around Talgaon village. This area falls

in my intensive study area, and sampling could

have been disproportionate due to that. However,

based on the sightings of others and my

occasional visits to other areas of the Park, which

have abundant potential prey, I formed the idea

that they occur only along the periphery of the

forests or occupy the areas around Human

settlements. Other places from where they have

been reported are near the village of Jhalar, inside

the park and Hinota, which is on the periphery.

The villages inside Panna have a large population

of livestock, as the villagers are traditionally

dependent upon them for their livelihood. The

landscape of Panna and the forests around it is

basically a mosaic of forest, open scrub and

villages.

Such a landscape must have provided

adequate resources for long ranging species like

the wolf to survive over the years. Jhala (1993)

states that scrubland and grassland of the semi-

arid parts of peninsular India are the preferred

habitats of the Indian wolf. They do not occur in

closed forests, but sometimes inhabit the

periphery of such forests.

During the last year I was in Panna, I could

find evidence of wolf only during the winter

(post monsoon) season. An interesting event

here is the presence of a large number of

immigrant cattle inside the Park during the

postmonsoon season, when forage is abundant.

This seasonal movement of livestock might

have been a traditional practice over several

centuries, though recently this has been

controlled to a great extent by the Park

authorities. I interviewed the local cattle grazers

and shepherds who said that the wolves were seen

frequently only during the winter, mostly preying

upon goats and cattle calves, and were a menace

to their livestock. This supported my observation

that these wolves used areas around Talgaon only

seasonally.

The two sightings we have had were of a

group of two and four. Local people also said

that they had mostly seen them in groups of not

more than four. Jhala (1993) observes that wolves

328

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

that subsist on domestic livestock in other parts

of India form smaller packs (1-4 invididuals) in

contrast to the ones that subsist on wild prey (6-

14 individuals). In Panna, interestingly, the

wolves occur along with dhole in the same area.

However, I sighted dholes only infrequently and

only in less disturbed, denser parts of Panna.

Thus, the preferred habitats of these two species

seem to vary. Generally, it is believed that these

large, similar sized canids segregate their habitats

due to interspecific competition. But in places

like Panna, where the landscape is a mosaic of

habitats providing niches for both the species,

they are found to occur together.

November 17, 1997 T.R.K. YOGANAND

Wildlife Institute of India,

P.O. Box 18, Dehradun-248 001, India.

Reference

Jhala, Y.V. (1993): An update on the status, distribution and ecology of the Indian wolf ( Canis lupus pallipes).

International Wolf Symposium, Leon, Spain.

2. OCCURRENCE OF THE WOLF CANIS L UPUS PALLIPES LINN. IN

SIDHI DISTRICT, MADHYA PRADESH

In JBNHS 93 (1): 81, 1 read an article by

Shri A.M.K. Bharos mentioning the sighting of

a solitary wolf in March, 1993 while travelling

in Chhuhiyaghat on the border of Rewa and Sidhi

districts.

I have also sighted a solitary wolf, which

in all probability was a large male, on the

outskirts of the Dhubri Sanctuary situated in the

western part of Sidhi district in Madhya Pradesh,

in February, 1981.

I have also seen a female wolf, in rather

poor condition, on the road to Chiklod in Raisen

district of Madhya Pradesh, in the monsoon of

1982.

March 3, 1998 M.K. RANJITSINH

WWF -India

172-B, Lodi Estate, New Delhi-1 10 003.

3. THE ROLE OF ADMINISTRATION IN EXTERMINATION:

FRESH EVIDENCE ON THE CHEETAH (ACINONYX JUBATUS) IN INDIA

The chronology and sequence of the

extermination of the Asiatic cheetah provided

in the only full length work on the subject relies

on books and journal records. However, as the

author admits it is often not possible ‘to ascribe

a definite date’ as these are not given in the texts.

Secondly, the giving out of rewards for killing

adult cheetahs and cubs was widely practised

from at least 1871 onwards, but this information

is mainly in the archival records. By consulting

such records, it is possible to fill gaps in the

chronology of extinction. The fact that

government money was given out meant that

skins had to be shown as proof. Unfortunately,

‘leopards and cheetahs’ are often listed together.

But by eliminating all such instances and

selecting only figures from files where ‘cheetahs’

and ‘leopards’ are listed separately, it is possible

to revise the estimated number of cheetahs killed

in India. Divyabhanusinh (1995: 197-205) gives

us a total of 127 cheetahs that were captured,

killed, painted or photographed between 1800-

1950. This thoroughly researched list does not

include those killed for rewards. The total as

shown in Tables 1 and 2 comes to not less than

70 cheetahs in addition to his figure. It is possible

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

329

Table 1

ARCHIVAL RECORDS OF KILLING OF CHEETAH FOR REWARDS

330

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

Table 2

FURTHER RECORDS OF CHEETAH

the actual figure was higher.

It is not easy to estimate how killing for

rewards might have affected the wild population.

Unlike in case of mature animals captured for

coursing, the specimens killed for rewards

included cheetah cubs. For instance, in Sindh,

Rs. 6 were given for a cub as against Rs. 12 for

an adult (National Archives of India, Home

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

331

(Public), September, 1871, A, 43-72, pp. 6,9:

Circular to local govt., 29 January 1870).

Secondly, the substantial rewards may have

induced tribals or caste Hindu peasants with

knowledge of the habits and the habitat of the

cheetah to exert fresh pressures on it. Third, the

rewards almost all refer to British India. There

were exceptions, with bounties being given in

1842 for both cheetahs and leopards in parts of

Kathiawar. (Le Grand Jacob, 1843: 57, 37-38).

This may, in general, explain why the species

survived longer in some princely states in central

India and the Deccan than in most of British

India. Fourth, given the increasing rarity of the

cheetah in India by 1900, it is possible that

bounty-hunting added to other pressures such as

the decline of the prey base, conversion of open

scrub or grassland to permanent cultivation or

shooting. The extent of killing for rewards was

obviously high. Fresh work is required to

ascertain how far it hastened the extinction of

the cheetah in India. The average number killed

for rewards in the period 1870-1925 is more than

1.2 per year. By contrast, in the entire period

1800-1950, a total of 127 (a statistical average

of less than one a year) were shot, speared or

trapped. This might suggest that bounty-hunting

led to a higher rate of killing of cheetah in the

last quarter of the 19th century.

In Divyabhanusinh’s chart, as many as 62

were shot or captured in the same period: about

half in the entire 150 year period. If the numbers

shot or caught for sport and those eliminated

for reward are totalled, (75+62=137), the average

comes to over 2.49 animals a year in 1870-1925.

This complements the view that this period

saw a sharp decline in numbers, but it adds a

new qualitative factor that may have exerted

even more of an adverse impact than sport-

hunting.

The mere killing of adult or juvenile

animals or even of cubs is in itself no indicator

of the human impact on predator populations.

Given an adequate prey base and sufficient living

space, there is no reason a carnivore should

vanish or even decline due to trapping, either

live or dead, or because of sport-hunting. But

there is little doubt, if the recorded number of

sightings of cheetahs in the wild is any indicator,

that it was never an abundant species in India,

or at least, this was not the case by the late

nineteenth century. Bounty-hunting, therefore,

may have hastened, if not caused, its decline in

many localities where it still survived, given the

relatively low density at which it existed, even

the removal of a small number of animals could

have had an adverse impact on the ability of wild

populations to reproduce even at the minimal

level essential for survival. In Mirzapur district

in the North-West Provinces, eight cheetahs were

killed by bounty-hunters for rewards in 1 872-73

(NAI, H (P), Jan. 1875, A, nos. 286-296, no.

296, no pagination). Then, between 1894 and

1919, 5 were shot or killed (Allen, 1920:1041).

Even this level of pressure helped exterminate

the cheetah in the district. There are records of

cheetah in Mirzapur after the mid- 1920s. This

one case illustrates how the process of

extermination may have occurred at the local level.

But the habitat of the cheetah was not

confined to the grass-covered plains of north

India, the semi-arid tracts of Rajasthan and

Gujarat or to the low, rocky outcrops of the central

Indian highlands. Archival evidence and hunting

records both point to its range having been much

further south. The District Manual of Coimbatore

district in Madras Presidency is especially

valuable. It records how five cheetah skins, as

distinct from panther skins, were stored in the

government office. The Manual also describes

the forests of the Satyamangalam forest division

and the Bhavani taluka. The vegetation of

northern Coimbatore in 1887 was not unlike the

thorn forests of the Deccan; it still had over 300

blackbuck, wolf, bustard, florican and even a few

nilgai. The distribution of the cheetah on both

332

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

sides of the river Bhavani was ‘sparse’ but there

is no doubt that the species had been present in

the recent past (Nicholson 1887, vol. II: 12).

The archival evidence on the killing of

cheetah for bounties is backed by references

in printed records such as district manuals,

gazetteers and memoirs. But the former are far

more detailed on the number of animals killed,

the amount of rewards paid and the year in

which bounties were given. What is crucial is

that administrative policy played a major role

in its extermination in British India. Much more

work is required on the princely states to establish

if this was, or was not, the case in these terri-

tories. But the level of the ‘drain’ on wild cheetah

populations was substantially higher than has

Refes

National Archives of India, New Delhi, India: Home

(Public) Department. India Office Library and Records,

London, UK: Agriculture and Forests (P 9912):

Allen, G.O. (1920): Caracal (Felis caracal) and Hunting

Leopard ( Cynaelurus jubatus ) in Mirzapur district, UP,

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc, 26 (4): 1041.

Burton, R.G. (1920): The hunting leopard ( Cynaelurus

jubatus) J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc 27 (3): 397-8.

Divyabhanusinh (1995): The End of a Trail, The cheetah

in India, Banyan Books.

Ghorpade, Y.R. (1955): Wildlife Preservation in India-

Annual Report for 1953, Southern Region, / Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 53 (l)\ 103-109.

Hewett, J.P. (1938): Jungle trails in Northern India,

Reminiscences of hunting in India, Methuen,

London.

King Martin, D. (1988): Ways of Man and Beast in India,

been supposed. Further, the species often

disappeared before, its prey base declined or

its habitat was taken over for cultivation. It is,

of course, possible, that bounty-killing exacted a

heavier toll because of a relative decline, if not

extinction, of wild prey species like the

blackbuck. But the tracks on the trail do point to

a larger role for direct extermination as opposed

to indirect causes for the decline and eventual

extinction of the cheetah in India.

In all there are 9 more instances of cheetahs

seen or shot.

January 12,1998 MAHESH RANGARA JAN

Nehru Memorial Museum & Library,

New Delhi.

ENCES

Wright and Brown, London.

Manakadan, R. (1988): Shikaris ofNandikotkur, Hombill,

v. 2, 18-20.

Morris, R.C. (1936): Further Records of the distribution

of the cheetah ( Acinonyx jubatus Exl.) in Southern

India, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 38 (3): 610.

Le Grand Jacob ( 1 843): Report upon the general condition

of the province of Kateewar in 1 842, Bombay.

Lowrie, A.D. (1910): Central Provincess, District Gazetters

(CPs DGs), Drug district, Volume A, Descriptive,

Calcutta, BMS Press.

Nelson, A.E. (1909): CPs, DGs, Raipur district, Volume

A, Descriptive, Byculla Press, Bombay.

Nelson, A.E. (1910): CPs DGs, Buldana District, Volume

A, Description, BM Press, Calcutta.

Nicholson, F.A. (1887): Ed. by Rev. H A Stuart, Madras

District Manuals, Coimbatore, Madras, Volume II.

4. ANTI-PREDATORY RESPONSE OF THE INDIAN GIANT SQUIRREL

RATUFA INDICA TO PREDATION ATTEMPTS BY THE

CRESTED HAWK EAGLE SPIZAETUS CIRRHATUS LIMNAETUS

Since most mammalian carnivores are

nocturnal, birds of prey are likely to be the most

important predators of diumally active squirrels

(Emmons 1980, Hall 1981). Most studies on

temperate and tropical squirrel species have

documented the importance of diumally active

raptors as predators over mammalian ones

(Emmons 1980, Hall 1981, Borges 1993, Joshua

1992).

Ramachandran (1991), Joshua (1992),

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

333

Joshua and Johnsingh ( 1 994) and Borges (1993)

observed predation attempts by the black eagle

(Ictinaetus malayensis perniger) and crested

serpent eagle ( Spilornis cheela) on the Indian

giant squirrel and grizzled giant squirrel ( Ratufa

macroura).

I observed three unsuccessful predation

attempts by the crested hawk-eagle (or

changeable hawk-eagle) ( Spizaetus cirrhatus

limnaetus) on the Indian giant squirrel (Ratufa

indica) during field work for a study on the

Indian giant squirrel in Bori Wildlife Sanctuary

(WLS), area (486 km2) which lies in the Satpura

hill ranges, (22° 19' to 22°30' N and 77° 56' to

78° 20' E), Madhya Pradesh. Though the crested

serpent eagle was also seen frequently in the study

area and elicited alarm calls from squirrels, I did

not see any predation attempts by this species.

Both the raptor species were usually sighted in

the riparian area at mid-morning and frequently

in the afternoons.

The major forest types in Bori WLS are

dry to moist teak (Tectona grandis) forests and

mixed forests (Champion and Seth 1968).

The study was conducted in two riverine

patches surrounded by deciduous forests. One of

these, along Bhainsa nala, suffered disturbance

due to the presence of two villages, cattle grazing,

a teak nursery and buildings of the Forest

Corporation set up in 1975. Gaps exist in the

forest canopy due to the felling of trees in the

past. The other study site was a relatively

undisturbed riparian habitat along Chumagundi

nala, which flows into Bhainsa nala. Though

cattle were seen here, the study area was largely

free from human disturbance.

Five individually identified squirrels were

observed from dawn to dusk using focal animal

sampling (Altmann 1974). Focal animals were

followed twice a month during the study period

from December 1992 to April 1993. Two other

individuals were also observed for 2 days each

in December.

All predation attempts were observed in

Bhainsa nala. In March, out of 6 observation

days, raptors were sighted on 4 days. Two

predation attempts were recorded at mid-

morning, while one was observed in the

afternoon.

One of the attempts occurred around 1000

hrs while observing a squirrel feeding on

Terminalia arjuna fruits. Two other squirrels

were feeding on the same tree. On a nearby

Bombax ceiba, two more individuals were

feeding on the red flowers. A crested hawk-eagle

Spizaetus cirrhatus limnaetus flew in and

perched on the tree. It did not seem to be hunting

actively. Two squirrels immediately mobbed it,

approaching close and giving loud alarm calls

repeatedly. The hawk-eagle responded with

wings outstretched, but seemed unperturbedand

did not attempt to catch them. After a while, one

of the squirrels left the B. ceiba tree and was

moving along the branches of a Terminalia

tomentosa tree when the eagle swooped down in

an attempt to catch it. The squirrels, instead of

fleeing, immediately turned and faced the

predator with alarm calls. In the meantime, the

other squirrel on the Bombax ceiba tree had also

moved onto this tree and mobbed the predator.

The three other squirrels on the adjacent T.

arjuna tree also started calling in alarm. The

hawk-eagle made a half-hearted attempt to catch

one of the squirrels and then flew away through

the canopy.

The second predation attempt was observed

one afternoon in March while following a focal

animal, which was resting inside its nest. At 141 1

hrs, I observed another focal squirrel (a sub-adult

male) on a T. arjuna tree across the nala. It had

come out of its nest and was resting on a broad

shady branch. A crested hawk-eagle flew in and

made an unsuccessful attempt to catch it. The

squirrel reacted with loud repeated alarm calls

and ‘mobbing’ the hawk-eagle, approaching as

close as 1-2 m. The crested hawk-eagle spread

its wings six times in response to the mobbing

and made another attempt to catch it with wings

outspread. The squirrel called, moved down 3

m, but again approached the hawk-eagle. The

334

JOURNAL, BOMBA YNA TURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

crested hawk-eagle watched the squirrel, but

appeared disinterested and even started preening

its wing feathers. The squirrel kept the predator

in sight and then at 1426 hrs it retreated to a

lower branch 6-7 m away, continually giving

alarm calls. At around 1428 hrs the squirrel was

not visible anymore, since it had moved behind

the trunk of the Terminalia arjuna tree. The

crested hawk-eagle was still perched on the tree.

At around 1437 hrs, another squirrel was seen

moving onto the tree, but it did not notice the

predator till it was very close. The hawk-eagle

spread its wings and flew away. This squirrel

gave alarm calls and then rested on the same

branch.

I observed a third predation attempt by an

immature crested hawk-eagle on the sub-adult

male squirrel in the morning. The squirrel

immediately emitted loud alarm calls, faced the

eagle and approached it close instead of trying

to hide or escape. The hawk-eagle seemed to have

given up. It perched on a T. arjuna branch and

started preening its wing feathers (displacement

behaviour?), when the squirrel approached too

close, it responded with outstretched wings but

did not attempt to catch it.

On all these occasions, a prolonged

predator-prey interaction was observed — the

squirrel which was attacked responded by

‘mobbing’ the predator. In a manner which

seemed suicidal, they approached the predator

close (within 1 m) and gave repeated loud

staccato calls in full view of the predator. This

behaviour was seen only when a predator made

an attack, or when the squirrel was sure that the

predator had seen it. But on occasions when

raptors flew overhead, squirrels refrained from

giving any alarm call and remained quiet, either

becoming alert or flattening their bodies against

a branch. Squirrels gave loud alarm calls mostly

on occasions when the predator came very close.

This behaviour seems to lend anecdotal evidence

for Zahavi’s hypothesis that the function of the

alarm call is not to warn conspecifics, neighbours

or kin, but as a signal to the predator that it had

been noticed. This is supported by the fact that

during the 3 different predation attempts

observed, the raptor seemed to be startled by the

prey’s response and did not attempt to catch the

prey after the repeated mobbing. In social

animals, it is likely that the function of the alarm

call is to warn conspecifics or kin, but in a solitary

territorial species like the giant squirrel this may

be unlikely.

It is also possible that the predator was an

immature eagle, and therefore the squirrels

approached close and ‘mobbed’ it, or that it was

not hunting actively. Emmons (1980) reports that

African squirrels mob inactive predators. She has

defined “mobbing” as an event where one or more

squirrels of the same or different species give

alarm calls and display in the neighbourhood of

predators. Hall (1981) also describes incidents

of unsuccessful predation attempts by immature

red- tailed hawks where the squirrels did not seem

to be frightened, and gave repeated alarm calls

even when the predator was perched just 3 m

above them.

The crested hawk-eagle has not been

reported earlier as a predator of giant squirrels.

In addition, this is the first reported instance of

‘mobbing’ of a predator by giant squirrels.

Acknowledgements

I thank the Madhya Pradesh Forest

Department for permission to work and Mr. M.

Chacko, ACF, Bori WLS for help during the

study. I thank Mr. Chet Ram for assistance in

data collection and Manoj V. Nair for his

comments on the draft.

September 10, 1997 APARAJITA DATTA

c/o Dr. G.S. Rawat,

Wildlife Institute of India,

Post bag #18,

Chandrabani,

Dehradun-248 001

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

335

References

Altmann, J. (1974): Observational study of behaviour:

sampling methods Behaviour 49: 227-266.

Borges, R.M. (1993): Resource heterogeneity and the

foraging ecology of the Malabar Giant Squirrel

( Ratufa indica). Ph.D. dissertation, University of

Miami, Florida.

Champion, H.G. & S.K. Seth (1968): A revised survey of

the forest types of India. Govt, of India Publications,

New Delhi.

Datta, A. (1993): Space-use patterns of the Indian giant

squirrel {Ratufa indica centralis) in relation to food

availability in Bori Wildlife Sanctuary, Madhya

Pradesh, India. Unpubl. M.Sc. thesis, Saurashtra

University, Rajkot, Gujarat.

Emmons, L.H. (1980): Ecology and resource partitioning

among nine species of African rain forest squirrels.

Ecological Monogr. 50(1): 31-54.

Hall, J.G. (1981): A field study of the Kaibab squirrel in

the Grand Canyon National Park. Wildlife Monogr.

75: 1-54.

Joshua, J. ( 1 992): Ecology of the endangered grizzled giant

squirrel {Ratufa macroura) in Tamil Nadu, South

India. Ph.D. dissertation, Bharatidasan University,

Tiruchirapalli, Tamil Nadu.

Joshua, J. & A.J.T Johnsingh (1994): Impact of biotic

disturbances on the habitat and population of the

endangered grizzled giant squirrel {Ratufa

macroura ) in south India. Biol. Cons. 68(1): 29-

34.

Ramachandran, K.K. (1991): Ecology and Behaviour of

Malabar Giant Squirrel {Ratufa indica maxima)

Schreber. K.F.R.I. Research Report: 55 (Summary).

5. A RECORD NUMBER OF BLACKNECKED GREBE PODICEPS NIGRICOLLIS

FROM GUJARAT

We visited Okha (22° 15’ N, 69° 01' E) in

Jamnagar dist., Gujarat on December 28, 1996.

On getting information of blacknecked grebe

Podiceps nigricollis at the nearby Charakla salt

farm (40 km. east of Okha), we reached there at

1720 hrs. We observed two salt water ponds

measuring 2 sq. km and about 2 m deep, where

the grebes had concentrated. Two neighbouring

ponds of similar dimensions did not have any

grebe. Since the grebes dive frequently and come

to the surface at a short distance, we found it a

little difficult to make an accurate count. A total

count of 201 blacknecked grebe is a minimum

estimated number but we believe the actual

number to be a little higher. The other birds worth

We also recorded 9 blacknecked grebe in a

bird sanctuary at Porbander (21° 37' N, 69° 49'

E) on December 31, 1996. 3 grebes previously

sighted at the same site on April 1, 1996 indi-

cate that they might be regular visitors to the

area.

One of us (BMP) has also recorded the

species in central Gujarat — one bird at

Nalsarovar, 25.i.l996; one bird on Vadadhla

irrigation tank in Vadodara dist. 17.i. 1993; and

one bird on Kanewal reservoir, in Kheda dist.,

12.U988.

Though the blacknecked grebe is recorded

breeding in Baluchistan, it is an uncommon

winter visitor to Nepal, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab,

Gujarat and Maharashtra (Ali and Ripley 1983).

In Gujarat, the species has been recorded

from sewage canals in Bhavnagar

(Dharmakumarsinhji 1952) and salt pans of

Jamnagar dist. (Naik et al. 1991). Ali (1945,

1954) had not recorded this species during his

survey of the birds of Kutch and Gujarat.

However, since 1987, a few birds are being

reported from Gujarat every year during the

Midwinter Waterfowl Census. Our present record

of its number and distribution supports Ali and

Ripley’s (1983) presumption that the species

336

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

possibly occurs more generally in northern India

than is believed. Occurrence of 201 grebes at

Charakla salt pans is the largest number recorded

from Indian territory.

We are obliged to Shri Fatehsingh Jasol,

I.A.S., of Gujarat, for information regarding the

presence of the grebes. We also thank the Indian

Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi,

for financial support.

June 9, 1 997 B.M. PARASHARYA

AESHITA MUKHERJEE

Project on Wetland Birds

Biocontrol Laboratory

Gujarat Agricultural University

Anand-388 110.

References

Ali, S. (1945): The Birds of Kutch, Oxford University

Press, Delhi.

Ali, S. (1954): The Birds of Gujarat, Part-I. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 52 (2 & 3): 374-458.

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of

India and Pakistan (Compact Ed.) Oxford

University Press, Delhi, pp 737.

Dharmakumarsinhji, K.S. (1952): Blacknecked Grebe

Podiceps nigricollis Brehm in Bhavnagar. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 50 (3) : 664.

Naik, R. M., M.S. Murthy, A.P. Mansury, Y.N. Rao, R.

Pravez, T. Mundkar, S. Krishnan, P.J. Faldu &

T.S.V.R. Krishna (1991): Coastal marine

ecosystems and anthropogenic pressure in the Gulf

of Kachchh. Final report submitted to WWF-India.

Dept. Biosciences, Saurashtra Univ., Rajkot.

Ripley, S.D. (1982): A synopsis of the birds of India

and Pakistan (Second Ed.). Bombay Natural

History Society. Oxford University Press,

Mumbai.

6. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF THE LESSER FRIGATE BIRD

(. FREGATA MINOR) IN MUMBAI, INDIA

On the evening of 1 8th June 1996, a strong

wind started blowing from the sea, stirring up

high waves. The storm continued throughout the

night, with the wind blowing upto 80 km per hr.

In the night several big ships drifted towards the

shore and were stranded. The storm skirted

Mumbai and went on towards Gujarat. The next

morning it was cloudy, with the wind still

blowing, but not as strong as it had been in the

night.

In the morning two frigate birds were

noticed from the 13th floor of a building

overlooking Mumbai harbour. The birds were

flying around quite high, with considerable ease

on long wings. They looked completely dark

brown, with longish forked tail and pale brown

band on the underwing. They were about the size

of a kite but a lot slimmer. Thrice the birds came

very close to the building and could be examined

quite closely. They were identified as lesser

frigate birds ( Fregata minor). We looked out for

white patches under the wing but there were

none. Comparing a published description and the

birds seen, we concluded that the birds appeared

to be males.

The only Indian specimen of lesser frigate

bird is that of a storm blown one found entangled

in a fishing net near Quilon, Kerala. The last

sight records from the west coast are from

Mumbai 43 years ago (Taylor 1953). Two recent

sight records are from the eastern coast, both

storm blown birds. Balachandran et al. (1984)

sighted a straggler at Point Calimere on 23rd

Dec. 1983 and Rao and Mohapatra (1992) at

Sriharikota on 29th July, 1991.

November 1 8, 1 996 KIRAN SRIVASTAVA

13, Meherdad, Cujfe Parade,

Mumbai-400 021.

NITIN JAMDAR

5-A, Samata, near Mantralaya,

Gen. J. Bhosale Road, Mumbai-400 021.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

337

References

Balachandran, S., S. Alagar Rajan, P.

Balasubramanian, V. Natarajan & Shahid Q. Ali

(1986): StormT31own Pelagic birds in Point Calimere.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83 92): 436.

Rao, P. & K.K. Mohapatra ( 1 992): Occurence of the Lesser

Frigate Bird Fregata minor in Andhra Pradesh, J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 90 (2): 284.

Taylor, R.M.S. (1953): Lesser Frigate Birds {Fregata

minor) in Bombay. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 51(4):

939.

7. CANNIBALISM IN WOOLLYNECKED STORK CICONIA EPISCOPUS

Cannibalism has been observed in the

family Ciconiidae, but this behaviour has never

been reported for the woollynecked stork Ciconia

episcopus. I observed this strange behaviour

while studying the breeding biology of the

woollynecked stork in Keoladeo National Park,

Bharatpur, India.

In India, the woollynecked stork starts

breeding with the onset of monsoon. I observed

breeding from 1994 to 1996, In 1996, the nest

under observation was at a height of 3 m from

the ground on a kadamb tree {Mitragyna

parvifolia ) and observations were taken from a

hide 10 m away. I could identify the sexes by

their behaviour and facial markings. The male

had a dark face with dark black lines around the

eyes, while the female was lighter in colour. Both

parents shared incubation and collection of

nesting material. On 1 August 1996, the eggs

began to hatch after 30 days of incubation. There

were three nestlings in the nest with three days

interval from first to last hatching. The eldest

nestling was dominant in picking up the food

regurgitated by the adults on the nest floor. On

24 August 1996, the nest was observed for 11

hours but the youngest nestling could not be seen

for the whole day, even when the adults came to

feed them. In order to determine whether the

smallest chick was missing, I climbed the tree

and observed the nest from a high branch. The

youngest chick was lying dead on the nest floor,

while the two elder chicks sat quietly.

I could not go to the nest the next day due

to continuous rain. A day later, I reached the

hide at 0620 hrs and saw the dead nestling’s body,

which had started decomposing, dangling on the

rim of the nest. A few minutes later, the male

fed the two nestlings on what appeared to be dead

bird material and was clearly not the usual food

such as earthworms, amphibians or fish.

The adult male stood on the nest. When

two house crows {Corvus splendens) tried to take

the dead nestling, the adult successfully

threatened them by raising the feathers of the

head and foreneck, thus appearing very large.

At 0645 hrs the adult male started pulling

at the head of the dead nestling, which was

covered with a thick swarm of flies. Whenever

the adult tried to pull it, hundreds of flies flew

off with a buzzing sound. As the dead body of

the nestling was entangled in the long sticks of

the nest, it could not be pulled out. After some

time, the female came with leaves of jamun

{Syzigium cumini) and arranged them on the nest

floor. In the meanwhile, the male flew away. The

female also tried to remove the dead nestling and

at 0759 hrs succeeded. The female immediately

ate the head of the nestling. This confirmed that

the dead bird fed earlier to the nestlings had been

the dead chick. Soon the female left the nest.

The male arrived at 0805 hrs with nesting

material. At 0844 hrs the female again brought

jamun leaves to the nest and arranged them on

the nest, while the two nestlings begged for food.

Almost immediately, she regurgitated the whole

head on the nest floor, and it was immediately

swallowed up by the elder nestling.

This may be a case of induced cannibalism

and several factors could be responsible. For

instance, if the adults had discarded the entangled

dead nestling , it would have attracted predators

such as crows and raptors. To avoid the chances

338

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

of predation on other nestlings, the adult could

have eaten it.

It is interesting that when the body was

decomposing, the female began lining the nest

with Syzigium cumini leaves which are strongly

aromatic.

In the light of this case of cannibalism,

previous observations are noteworthy. In July

1995, while monitoring the reproductive success

of colonial breeders, I observed an openbill stork

( Anastomus oscitans) throwing a less than one

month old dead nestling out of the nest.

In January 1997, one juvenile woolly-

necked stork and one juvenile of blacknecked

stork ( Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus) died in the

nest at ages of 40 and 50 days respectively. In

both instances the adults did not eat the dead

juvenile. The bodies of the two juveniles

decomposed in the nests.

Acknowledgement

I thank the authorities of Keoladeo

National Park, who allowed me to work inside

the Park and US Fish & Wildlife Service for

providing financial support to the Stork Ecology

Project. I am thankful to Dr. A.R. Rahmani,

Principal Investigator, Dr. Malcolm C. Coulter,

technical advisor and Dr. Salim Javed, the Co-

investigator of the Stork Ecology Project for

valuable comments.

May 8, 1 997 FARAH ISHTIAQ

Centre of Wildlife & Ornithology

Aligarh Muslim University

Aligarh-202 002, India.

8. INDIAN SHIKRA PREYING ON SHORT-NOSED FRUIT BATS

While conducting a survey of small

mammals as part of our EIA studies at the lignite

mines ofNeyveli, Madras during May- June 1996,

we recorded an interesting observation on the

Indian shikra, Accipiter badius feeding on short-

nosed fruit bats, Cynopterus sphinx.

On the evening of 3rd June, we set six mist

nets on the edge of the pond in the afforestation

area of Mine I to collect the bats. At 1915 hrs we

saw several bats emerging out of their roosts from

the nearby forest and flying around the pond.

The size of the bats prompted us to classify them

as fruit bats, though the exact identification of

the bats was not possible. The bats kept flying

above the water for about half an hour, diving

intermittently to sip some water, and finally they

flew away. We did not succeed in catching any

bats then. At about 2230 hrs. we saw bats coming

to the pond once again and flying around. Again,

there was no score in the nets. We left the nets

overnight and returned to our camp.

The next day, at about 0630 hrs we saw

eight fruit bats in the nets. We released them in

the nearby bushes after identifying them as short-

nosed fruit bats Cynopterus sphinx. As we were

winding out the mist nets we saw one of the fruit

bats rushing out of the bush and flying across

the pond.

A crow was chasing the bat. As the chase

was on, we saw a pair of shikra Accipiter badius

emerging from another tree nearby, chasing the

crow. While one of the shikras was chasing the

crow, the other followed the bat which was flying

above the pond in a zig-zag fashion. After a

struggle of about 10 minutes, the shikra

succeeded in capturing the bat. The pair returned

to the tree and started feeding on the bat.

As we were winding out the last mist-net,

we saw yet another bat coming out of the bush

and flying above the pond. This time the second

shikra of the same pair followed the bat and

captured it within no time.

Shikra are known to feed on a variety

of insects, lizards, small birds and mammals

such as field rats, mice and striped squirrels

(Ali and Ripley 1969). However, they have

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

339

not been reported feeding on bats. This is

the first instance of shikra feeding on the fruit

bats.

The other birds of prey known to feed on

bats are Indian black-crested baza, East

Himalayan besra or sparrow-hawk, laggar falcon,

shaheen falcon, Central Asian hobby, Indian

hobby, red-headed merlin, Indian bam owl (Ali

and Ripley 1969), brown hawk-owl (McCann

1933) and brahminy kite (Manakadan and

Natarajan 1992).

Refe

Ali, Salim & S. D. Ripley ( 1 969): Handbook of the Birds

of India and Pakistan. Vol. 1 & 3. Oxford University

Press, Mumbai.

Manakadan, R. & V. Natarajan (1992): Brahminy kite

Haliastur Indus (Boddaert) preying on bats. J. Bombay

December 13, 1996 MANOJ MUNI

Scientist B, Mammal Section,

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road,

Mumbai-400 023.

VITHOBA HEGDE

Field Assistant,

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House, S B. Singh Road,

Mumbai-400 023.

ENCES

nat. Hist. Soc. 89 (3): 367.

McCann, C. (1933): The brown hawk-owl (Ninox

scutulata Raffles) feeding on bats. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 36 (4): 1002-1003.

9. SIGHTING OF RED KITE MIL VUS MIL VUS AT RANIKHET

While surveying raptors at Ranikhet (29°

40’ N and 79° 33' E) in the Kumaon Himalayas

in Uttar Pradesh, we observed a solitary red kite

Milvus milvus on 1 1th June 1 994 soaring at about

200 m above ground level with black kites Milvus

migrans over Chaubattia (2000 m). Even with

the naked eye, it immediately appeared different

and stood out clearly from the flock of black kites.

On further scmtiny through binoculars and a

telescope, we were able to confirm the diagnostic

characters, especially with several black kites

present for comparison. The slimmer outline, the

more graceful, easy, agile flight (the twists and

turns almost tern-like) and deep elastic

wing-beats separated it from the Black Kites. It

also appeared larger with longer and more

angular wings in comparison with the black kite.

Further, the longer, deeply forked rusty tail with

blackish outer tips, appeared prominently

translucent orange against the light. Its overall

plumage was paler, brighter and more contrasting

— a mixture of red-browns instead of dull browns

as in the black kite. The whitish chin and throat,

deeper chestnut body, and contrasting underwing

(dark chestnut-brown underwing-coverts,

prominent extensive white patch at base of

primaries, black primary tips together with pale

chestnut undertail with blackish outer tips) were

clearly visible.

There are six published sight records of

the red kite in India, mainly between January

and March. Two from Gujarat in March — Lit-

tle Rann of Kutch (Ali, 1954), and Jasdan

(Shivrajkumar, 1 964); two from Orissa — Chilka

Lake and environs of Puri in January (Jayakar

and Spurway, 1965); one each from Rajasthan

— Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur (Prakash,

1988); and Kashmir-Ladakh in July (Fily and

Perennou, 1990). It has also been recorded from

west-central Nepal in March (Rogers 1987, un-

published) where it was presumed a vagrant. The

red kite does not differ significantly in habits

from the black kite, being inclined to social

aggregations in winter, and in most parts of its

range, migratory during winter. Ripley (1982)

describes it as a rare winter visitor to India. How-

ever, some authorities such as del Hoyo et al.

(1994) dispute the occurence of the red kite in

340

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

the Indian subcontinent and the entire Oriental

Region. This note reviews the status of the red

kite in Northern India, in view of the many scat-

tered sight records by competent birdwatchers

and ornithologists.

The distribution of red kite given by del

Hoyo et al. (1994) is from south Sweden east to

Ukraine and south through central Europe to west

and central Mediterranean basin; Wales and the

Caucasus. Its known or main wintering range

appears to be well to the west of the Indian

subcontinent. Russian authorities (Dementiev

et al. 1966) have plotted its winter movements

as far east as the Caspian in northern Iran.

Vagrants do travel huge distances south, as

shown by a ringed red kite from E. Germany

recovered in South Afiica (Brown et al., 1982),

though it generally winters north of the Sahara

in northwest parts of Africa. However, many

experienced ornithologists are sceptical,

especially of Ali’s (1954) record of a large flock

of 50 red kites in Kutch. Shivrajkumar (1964)

observed both kite species perched on the

ground close by for comparison, and his

observation sounds convincing. The Orissa,

Ladakh and Nepal records were confirmed by

Dr. Bernhard Rensch, Christian Perennou and

Mike Roger respectively, all of whom are

well-known ornithologists, who are familiar with

Re fe

Ali, S. (1954): The Birds of Gujarat - Part I, J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc., 52 (2&3): 374-457.

Brown, L.H., E.K. Urban & K. Newman (1982): The Birds

of Africa, Vol. 1 , Academic Press, London.

del Hoyo, J., A. Elliott & J. Sargatal (eds.) (1994):

Handbook of the Birds of the World Vol. 2, New

World Vultures to Guineafowl, Lynx Edicions,

Barcelona .

Dementiev, G.P., N.A. Gladkov, E.S. Ptushenko, E.P.

Spangenberg & E.M. Sudilovskaya (1966): Birds of

the Soviet Union, Vol. 1 , Israel Program for Scientific

Translations, Jerusalem.

Fily, M. & C. Perennou (1990): Red Kite Milvus milvus

in Ladakh, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 87(2): 29 L

the species in Europe and the U.K. The

verification of these various sight records has not

of been done by this author, but successive

records, by a range of experienced and skilled

ornithologists adds credence to their reliability

in most cases. It would be appropriate to presently

treat the species as an irregular vagrant to the

Subcontinent.

Acknowledgements

I thank Colonel Rakeshwar Singh,

commanding officer of 23rd Punjab Regiment

Chaubattia, Ranikhet, Uttar Pradesh for help and

permission to conduct the survey within the

cantonment. T. J. Robert’s views on the status of

the red kite in India were most useful. Tim and

Carol Inskipp provided the verified sight record

for Nepal. Shahid Ali and Asad R. Rahmani

commented on an earlier draft.

May 26,1997 RISHAD NAOROJI

Godrej & Boyce Mfg. Co. Ltd.

Godrej Bhavan,

4A, Home Street,

Mumbai-400 001, India.

CARL D'SILVA

A-2 Ashiyana Apts, Coranzalem Ilhas,

Goa-403 002

ENCES

Jayakar, S.D. & H. Spur way ( 1 965): The Red Kite Milvus

milvus (Linn.) in Orissa, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.,

62(2): 301-302.

Prakash, V. (1988): The General Ecology of Raptors in

Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur. Ph. D. Thesis,

Bombay University, Mumbai

Ripley, S.D. (1982): A Synopsis of the Birds of India and

Pakistan together with those of Nepal, Bhutan,

Bangladesh and Sri Lanka, Second Edition, Bombay

Natural History Society, Bombay.

Rogers, M.J. (1987): Record of Red Kite Milvus milvus

from Nepal, March 1987. Unpublished.

Shivrajkumar, Y.S. (1964): New bird records for

Saurashtra, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 61(2): 446.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

341

10. ATTEMPTED BREEDING OF THE BLACKNECKED CRANE

GRUS NIGRICOLLIS PRZEVALSKI IN NORTH SIKKIM

A small population of less than 10

blacknecked cranes Grus nigricollis Przevalski

has been regularly visiting Lhonak valley in north

Sikkim as far back as the local dokpas or Tibetan

graziers can remember. Their numbers dropped

down to less than five and the frequency of arrival

decreased drastically with the occupation of the

area by the Indian Army in the 1980s.

This information was first received during

a trip to Green Lake via Lhonak valley in July

1990. The teacher at the only school in the valley

at Muguthang village (4500 m) Mr. Lama

Tsewang spoke of the ‘tung-tung’ and identified

the species in the pictorial guide.

In July- August 1991, a pair of cranes was

reported to have nested in Thepley Tso, a boggy

marsh near Muguthang estimated to be c. 2-4

sq. km. This area is used intensively for livestock

grazing by the dokpas. There is also one army

unit and one local police unit permanently posted

in the area. After several days, due to biotic

interference, the pair abandoned the nest.

I visited Muguthang in July 1992, follow-

ing news of the arrival of the cranes and sur-

veyed the whole area for four days where cranes

were reported circling but not landing. They

had left by the time I arrived. On December 6,

1992 a pair of cranes with one juvenile was

reported from Muguthang, but as it takes three

days to reach the area, I could not get there on

time.

Upto August 1996, I have extensively

explored the trans-Himalayan region in Sikkim

but found evidence of breeding of the

blacknecked crane only in Muguthang.

Three cranes arrived once again on May

29, 1996. The village Pipon or headman sent

me a letter which took 1 6 days to reach Gangtok

from north Sikkim. A wireless message was

immediately sent to the army and police units to

keep track of the birds. A reply was received from

the Sikkim Police that the birds had left after 10

days and did not return. Yet another chance to

see the rare birds was lost.

Lhonak valley is perhaps one of the richest

areas in Sikkim as far as trans-Himalayan

avifauna, mammals and medicinal parts are

concerned. The whole area is cut off from the

outside world during winter when the Lungnak

La, the only entrance to the valley gets snowed

in. The entire area was explored from Lungnak

La upto the north and souther Lhonak glaciers,

the base of Chorten Nyima La, Khora area, Naku

La and right down to the Zemu Glacier and Green

Lake.

There is a good breeding population of

the ruddy shelduck Tadorna ferruginea and

the common redshank Tringa totanus. Four

avocets Recurvirostra avosetta were also seen at

Tso Chik at the base of the Chorten Nyima La.

Himalayan marmot Marmota bobak, woolly hare

Lepus oiostolus and Ochotona tibetica (?) are

the most easily seen mammals. Jatamansi

Nardostachys grandiflora, and juniper Juniperus

prostata are the most intensively collected

medicinal plants. The entire area is a rich

storehouse of wild genetic material as well as an

important flyway for migratory waterfowl (Ali,

1962).

Lhonak Valley in north Sikkim has the

potential of a good breeding ground for

blacknecked cranes, one of the rarest cranes in

the world ,with the most restricted area and the

prestige of being the only area in India other than

Ladakh to support the species.

December 28, 1996

USHA GANGULI-LACHUNGPA

Project Officer (Wildlife)

Sikkim Forest Department

Deorali, Gangtok-73 7101.

342

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

1 1 . THE BENGAL FLORICAN EUPODOTIS BENGALENSIS GMELIN 1789

IN DIBANG VALLEY DISTRICT OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH

( With one text figure)

On 3 March, 1993, 1 observed a male and

two widely separated females of the rare Bengal

florican Eupodotis bengalensis near Bomjir, in

Dibang Valley dist., Arunachal Pradesh (28° 07'

N, 95° 42' E). The habitat type was short

grassland with thatch grass (Saccharum sp.,

Imperata cylindrica) on a chapori (riverine tract

and islets) of the Dibang river. The male was

flushed at 1605 hrs from near a cattle camp and

flew to about 200-250 metres to a fairly tall patch

of grass (c. 2 m high). While looking for this

male in the tall patch of grass, we flushed two

females about 100 m apart. They flew to about

300 m and settled in different areas of the

grassland.

In Dibang Valley dist., the floricans

are found mostly in Dibang Reserve Forest

(RF), especially in the eastern and southern

areas where grassland is the dominant vegetation.

They are also found in the southern areas of

Sirkee (proposed) RF. Stray floricans are repor-

ted from the grassland in the western areas

of Kerim RF, adjacent to Dibang RF. A few

occasionally wander north upto Nizam-

ghat, following the grassy chaporis of the

Dibang river-bed. Nizamghat is near the spot

where the Dibang river debouches onto the

plains.

Dibang Valley was not covered by other

recent surveys (Rahmani et al. 1991). Hume and

Marshall (1880) confirmed the occurrence of

the species in this area. The hilly areas of

Dibang Valley are known as Mishmi Hills.

Dibang RF is threatened by encroachment

Fig. 1 . Map of Arunachal Pradesh showing location

of Dibang Valley District and the locality of

florican sighting (•).

and subsequent regularisation of such

encroachments through de-reservation. Already

about 100 sq. km have been de-reserved out of a

total area of 303 sq. km. Considering its

importance for the Bengal florican, white-

winged wood duck Cairina scutulata, and a final

staging area of the migrating common cranes

Grus grus, an area of 202 sq. km including parts

of Dibang RF, Kerim RF and Sirkee proposed

RF have been recommended for a National Park

(Choudhury 1996).

I thank Leto Mili, Nur Hussain and Dilip

Handique for their help in the field.

Nov. 20, 1996 ANWARUDDIN CHOUDHURY

The Rhino Foundation for Nature in NE India,

C/o The Assam Co. Ltd.

Bamunimaidan,

Guwahati-781 021, Assam.

References

Choudhury, A.U. (1996): Survey of the White-winged Burmah and Ceylon, 3. Calcutta.

wood duck and the Bengal florican in Tinsukia Rahmani, A.R., G. Narayan, L. Rosalind, R. Sankaran

district and adjacent areas. The Rhino Foundation & U. Ganguli (1991): Status of the Bengal florican

for Nature in NE India, Guwahati. 82 pp. Houbaropsis bengalensis in India. J. Bombay nat.

Hume, A. & C.H.T. Marshall (1880): Game-birds of India, Hist. Soc. 88 (3): 349-375.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

343

12. SIGHT RECORD OF THE ORIENTAL BAY OWL (PHODIL US BADIUS

RIPLEYI) IN THE ANAIMALAI HILLS, SOUTHERN WESTERN GHATS, INDIA

The Oriental Bay Owl is a rare and little

known inhabitant of the wet evergreen forests of

south and southeast Asia (Ali and Ripley 1983).

Three subspecies are known from Indian limits:

(i) the Sikkim Bay Owl P. b. saturates, (ii) the

Peninsular Bay Owl P. b. ripleyi, and (iii) the

Ceylon Bay Owl P. b. assimilis (Ali and Ripley

1983). The peninsular race of the owl was

discovered and described by a single specimen

from Periasolai in the Nelliampathy hills of

Kerala, south of the Palghat gap in wet evergreen

forest (Hussain and Khan 1978). It was

rediscovered in 1992 in the Indira Gandhi

Wildlife Sanctuary, Anaimalai (Kannan 1993).

Another recent report of the bird was from rubber

estates near Kannur in Kerala (R. Kannan, pers.

comm.).

Here, I report a sighting of the Oriental

Bay Owl in the Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary,

Anaimalais. A single bird was sighted on May

1 1 1996, in Karian Shola National Park. It was

seen at 1515 hrs and could be clearly observed

for about 15 min, while it perched in a large

gaping hollow of an Elaeodendron glaucum tree

about 9 m above the ground. The bird was

observed by Natarajan, a local tracker, and myself

in an area close to where the bird was earlier

located by Kannan (1993). Careful

documentation of the distribution of this rare bird

is imperative in the face of threats to its remnant

rainforest habitats in south and south-east Asia.

1 Oth March, 1 997 DIVYA C. MUDAPPA

Researcher, Wildlife Institute of India.

Sengaltheri Field Station,

P.O. Kalakad-62 7 501,

Thirunelveli District,

India.

References

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): A Handbook of the birds of

India and Pakistan. Compact edn., Oxford University

Press, Mumbai.

Hussain, S.A. & M.A.R. Khan (1978): A new subspecies

of Bay Owl ( Phodilus badius) from Peninsular India.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 74: 334-336.

Kannan, R. (1993): Rediscovery of the Oriental Bay Owl

{Phodilus badius) in Peninsular India. Forktail 8:

148-149.

13. UNEVEN SEX RATIO OF THE LONG-EARED OWL ASIO OTUS

IN NORTHERN INDIA

The long-eared owl Asio otus is a holarctic

species breeding north to the boreal zone. In the

Indian subcontinent, it winters south to Sind,

Lahore and central Nepal, breeding in north

Baluchistan and Kashmir, and summering in

Gilgit (Ripley 1982). Ali and Ripley (1983)

report it upto Delhi, Kutch and Nepal.

In Europe, unequal sex ratios of migrant

long-eared owls have been reported from Great

Britain and Sweden. In Great Britain, female bias

exists among migrants on Fair Isle (Harvey and

Riddiford 1990) and wintering birds throughout

Britain (Wyllie et al. 1996, Williams 1996). In

Sweden, male bias exists among wintering birds

in the mainland (Overskraug and Kristensen

1994), although a non-significant female bias exists

in a small sample of birds wintering on the island

of Skane (Williams 1996).

Long-eared owl skins from the Indian

subcontinent (mostly from Punjab) in the British

Museum of Natural History (Tring) were

examined. Only those sexed by internal

examination when collected and labelled were

analysed. The criteria for sexing long-eared owls

344

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95(1998)

on plumage characters exist (Williams 1996), but

were designed for birds in western Europe.

Geographical plumage variation can be greater

than that between the sexes, invalidating its use

for birds from the Indian subcontinent. The

collection contained 44 birds sexed through

internal examination, 10 males and 34 females,

a skewed sex ratio which differs significantly

from unity (Log-likelihood test: G=13.83, 1 df,

P<0.001). This ratio, in favour of females,

parallels the situation in Great Britain and is the

result of different migration between the sexes

from northern breeding areas. Whether the

migrant long-eared owls wintering in the Punjab

are from the Himalayan foothill population, long

Refer

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983); A handbook of the Birds of

India & Pakistan (Compact Edition). Oxford University

Press, Mumbai, pp. 737.

Harvey, P.V. & N.Riddiford (1990): An uneven sex ratio

of migrant Long-eared Owls. Ringing and Migration

IT. 131-135.

Overskraug, K. & E. Kristensen (1994): Sex ratio of

accidentally killed Long-eared Owls in Norway.

Ringing and Migration 15: 1 04- 1 06.

distance migrants from north of the Himalayas,

or a combination of both, is unknown.

Acknowledgements

Guy Kirwan helped examine skins of long-

eared owls and commented on a draft of this

paper. Dr Robert Prys-Jones of the British

Museum of Natural History (Tring) permitted

access to the collection.

February 2, 1 997 ROBERT S.R. WILLIAMS

School of Biological Sciences,

University of East Anglia,

Norwich, NR47TJ, UK.

ENCES

Ripley, S.D. (1982): A Synopsis of the Birds of India and

Pakistan. Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai,

pp 652.

Wyllie, I., L. Lane & I. Newton (1 996): Unequal sex ratio,

mortality and pollutant residues in Long-eared Owls

in Britain. British Birds 89 (10): 429-436.

Williams, R.S.R. (1996): The ecology and population

dynamics of the Long-eared Owl Asio otus. Ph.D.

thesis, University of East Anglia, Norwich.

14. NEST USURPATION IN WOODPECKERS

Short (1979) has discussed in detail about

the competition for nest cavities in woodpeckers

which lose their nest cavities to secondary cavity

nesters or even to woodpecker species larger than

themselves. He also discusses the strategies

adopted by them to avoid the loss of nest

cavities.

During my study of woodpeckers at the

Peechi-Vazhani Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala, I

came across an instance of nest usurpation. The

loser was the Mahratta woodpecker ( Picoides

mahrattensis). the female bird was first noticed

on 23 January 1992, excavating the trunk of a

live Eucalyptus tree, 3.35 m from the ground.

The trunk measured 22.9 cm in diameter at nest

height. The male bird was also noticed

excavating the same site later the same morning.

I had earlier seen this pair excavating, and later

abandoning, two other holes on Eucalyptus trees.

Excavation continued until the second week of

February. In the last week of February, as there

was no activity at the nest, I took a closer look

and found a broken egg shell being removed by

ants. Three days later, I saw lesser goldenbacked

woodpecker ( Dinopium benghalense) flying from

the nest tree. Over the next month, the

goldenbacked woodpecker pair enlarged and

excavated the nest cavity. The bird must have

laid eggs, as I found the bird inside the cavity

quite a few times, as I went past the tree. I was

not able to follow the outcome as I had to follow

up other nests.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

345

It is possible that the Mahratta woodpecker

lost its eggs due to the usurpation of its nest

cavity by the pair of lesser goldenbacked

woodpeckers. I had seen the latter species close

to the nest even when the Mahratta woodpecker

nest was active. The goldenbacked were tempted

to usurp the nest because the nest site was on the

trunk of a tree with adequate girth to meet their

requirements. Smaller woodpeckers normally

nest in smaller substrates (trunk/branch), thereby

reducing the possibility of a take-over by their

larger counterparts. The mean DNH (diameter

at nest height) size of the Mahratta woodpecker

nests is 17.5 (± 3.91) cm while it is 28.3 (± 9.66)

cm for the larger species (Santharam 1995). But

in this case, as the nest was on a larger substrate,

it was successfully taken over by the lesser

golden-backed woodpeckers.

This study was funded by the Wildlife

Conservation Society, New York, U.S.A.

February 26, 1997 V. SANTHARAM

68, 1 floor, Santhome High Road,

Chennai 600 028.

References

Santharam, V. (1995): Ecology of sympatric woodpecker species of Western Ghats, India. Ph.D. Thesis, Pondicherry

University (unpubl).

Short, L.L. (1979): Burdens of the picid hole excavating habit. Wilson Bull. 91: 16-28.

15. SPECKLED PICULET PICUMNUS INNOMINA TUS AND GOLDEN

SPECTACLED FLYCATCHER- WARBLER SEICERCUS BURKII

FROM MARGALLA HILLS, PAKISTAN

Between January and March 1995, we

made a series of visits to the Margalla Hills on

the outskirts of Islamabad, Pakistan. On the

morning of 27th February two species noted by

Roberts (1991, 1992) as being “extremely rare

and local” in Pakistan were observed.

Speckled Piculet Picumnus innominatus

This species is found mainly in the foothills

from Afghanistan, through India, Bangladesh,

Malaysia, and southwestern China (Roberts

1991). The species is extremely rare in the

northwestern-most part of its range (Winkler et

al. 1995). Roberts (1991) states that the species

is very local in Pakistan, citing just a few records.

Roberts (1991) reports that despite

intensive fieldwork in the Margalla Hills for the

past 20 years the species has only been recorded

twice, with records in July 1977 and April 1982.

Since then, there has been one additional record

of a single male on 1 1th May 1994 (Benstead et

al. in press).

We located a single female speckled piculet

at c. 600 m on the edge of a clearing in deciduous

secondary woodland. The bird, first located by

its agitated chattering call, was observed for ten

minutes at a range of 10-20 metres. The bird

was watched foraging on slim branches and the

trunks of saplings, allowing close approach.

Although Roberts (1991) and Winkler et al

(1995) note that outside the breeding season

speckled piculets often join mixed flocks, this

bird was entirely alone.

This sighting, together with previously

documented records, suggests that the Margalla

Hills may support a small population of speckled

piculets at low density. Winkler et al. (1995)

suggest that the species is often overlooked due

to its unobtrusive behaviour.

Golden Spectacled Flycatcher Warbler

Seicircus burkii

This species occurs widely in south-

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

east Asia (Roberts 1991), being found from

south China, through Cambodia, Laos,

Myanmar, Thailand and across the Himalayas,

but is on the western extremity of its range in

Pakistan.

Roberts (1992) states that the species is

extremely rare in Pakistan, citing just five

records, two of which come from the Margalla

Hills in winter and spring. We located an

individual in dense woodland at c. 650 m,

foraging in dense undergrowth close to the

ground.

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank Phil Benstead for

his comments on a draft of this note.

March 1, 1997 DAVE GANDY,

6 Longbrook Terrace, Exeter, Devon, England.

DURWYN LILEY,

259 Dereham Road, Norwich, Norfolk, England.

GUY THOMPSON,

1 Abbey Hill Road,

Winchester, Hampshire, England.

16. BREEDING OF SOUTHERN JUNGLE MYNNACRIDOTHERESFUSCUS

MAHRA TTENSIS (SYKES) AT KARANJA

On 20th April 1996, a group of southern

jungle mynas Acridotheres fuscus mahrattensis

was seen at Karanja near Uran, Raigad dist.,

Maharashtra, on and around a huge 800 year

old baobab tree Adansonia digitata. By the first

week of May, many of them began nesting in

holes at different heights, ranging from 5-10 m

in the same tree. In June, when we visited the

site, males (probably) were bringing food to the

females and to the chicks sitting inside the nests.

We did not want to disturb the birds by probing

their nests, but noticed a long ribbon of audio

cassette tape hanging from one of the holes,

presumably used inside the nest. Salim Ali and

Humayun Abdulali (1941) reported them using

onion peel, snake-slough or tissue paper, may be

tapes were not available those days! In the 3rd

week of September all the holes except one were

appropriated by nesting roseringed parakeets. In

one hole, a Myna was still feeding the inmates.

On 5th October, when we visited the place, jungle

mynas were quite absent and there was an over-

abundance of common mynas. On 29th March

1997, jungle mynas (10-12) were examining the

holes in the same baobab tree and were singing.

Salim Ali and Humayun Abdulali (1941)

in their book “The Birds of Bombay and Salsette”

term the status and distribution of this myna as

curious and inexplicable. The jungle myna has a

patchy distribution, even though it is as common

as the common myna at Kihim and Thane.

Except for one or two stray records they are not

sighted in Mumbai. Salim Ali (1935) reported a

similar peculiarity in the local and patchy

distribution of the jungle myna in Kerala. Nayan

Khanolkar and Adesh Shivkar (pers. comm.)

reported that jungle mynas were common at

Dombivli, Thane dist. from Aug-Jan and only

occasionally seen during the breeding period.

They seem to be local migrants and at

Karanja they come only to breed, and leave

thereafter.

April 10, 1997 SARAS WATHY UNNITHAN

G.VKUNNITHAN

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Mumbai 400 023.

References

Ali, S. (1935): The Ornithology of Travancore and Cochin, Ali,S. & H. Abdulali (1941): The Birds of Bombay and

Part IV, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 38: 503-504. Salsette, p. 41 . Prince of Walace Museum, Bombay.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

347

17. GECKOS AS FOOD OF MAGPIE ROBIN

On 2 August 1995, 1 was watching birds

in the courtyard of my bungalow in Morena,

north Madhya Pradesh, when my attention was

caught by a wriggling gecko in the mouth of a

magpie robin ( Copsychus saularis). The rain had

stopped half an hour earlier after a very heavy

downpour. The gecko that was probably weak

after enduring the rain, was caught by the bird,

that ripped open its stomach. The sub-adult gecko

died soon. The bird jerked it to take out the softer

inner parts.

Soon a fledgling magpie robin descended

from a tree on to the wet ground, and the male

parent began to feed it with the softer inner

organs of the gecko. From the skin, the gecko

was identified as Brook’s gecko (Hemidactylus

brooki).

Earlier, in a similar incident on 26 July

1995, a magpie robin was seen to feed on a dead

northern house gecko ( H flaviviridis).

The magpie robin normally feeds on

insects picked off the ground and flower nectar.

These two species of gecko are recorded here as

the food of this bird.

February 27, 1997 RAJIV SAXENA

MIG-853, Darpan Colony,

Thatipur, Gwalior-474 Oil (M.P.)

18. RANGE EXTENSION OF WHITE WAGTAIL MOTACILLA ALBA LEUCOPSIS AT

POCHARAM LAKE, MEDAK DISTRICT, ANDHRA PRADESH

On 12th January 1997, we visited

Pocharam Lake, 18° 8' N, 78° 10' E (part of

Pocharam Wildlife Sanctuary, Medak dist.

Andhra Pradesh), to count waterfowl for the

Asian Waterfowl Census. For this purpose, we

sat on the eastern shore of the lake, approximately

15 m from the edge of the water. The shore was

covered with grass stubble, a few Prosopis

bushes, and littered with small stones and broken

boulders. Among the various species of birds

present on this narrow strip of land between the

water’s edge and us, we noticed what seemed

like two different races of the white wagtail

Motacilla alba.

On closer examination through binoculars

and telescope, we confirmed that there were

indeed two races of the white wagtail, quite

clearly distinguishable from each other by the

differences in their plumage. One was identified

as either Motacilla alba dukhunensis or M.a.

baicalensis. Two specimens of the former race

have been collected in Andhra Pradesh earlier

(Ali and Whistler 1932, Majumdar 1984), and

so it is possible that these birds were dukhunensis.

though there is nothing to prevent from being

baicalensis, as both are indistinguishable from

each other in winter. However, there is no record

(specimen) of baicalensis from South India (S.

Unnithan 1997, Bombay Natural History Society,

in lift).

The other race in question could be

identified with more conviction and accuracy.

There were two birds with a black back, black

cap, white forehead, white sides of head and neck

(including the lores region) and a black bib. The

only two races which have a black back are M.

a. alboides and M. a. leucopsis (Ali and Ripley

1987). The former has black ear-coverts, and the

latter white ear-coverts. The birds we saw

certainly did not have black ear-coverts (a sketch

was made in the field). This is, therefore, an

extension of the known range of this race, which

is reported from N.E. India, with the western

most record from eastern Uttar Pradesh and also

Andaman Islands (Ali and Ripley 1987). The

possibility also remains that they are spread over

348

JOURNAL, BOMBA Y NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

a much larger area all the time, but have been

overlooked as just another “White Wagtail”!

Acknowledgement

We would like to thank Mr. Humayun

Abdulali and Dr. S. Unnithan, of the Bombay

Natural History Society, for their comments on

the above note.

Refe

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987) Compact Handbook of the

Birds of India and Pakistan. 2nd edition. O.U.P.

Delhi.

Ali, S. & H. Whistler (1933): The Hyderabad State

Ornithological Survey. Part 3. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

May 27, 1997 AASHEESH PITTIE

8-2-545 Road No 7, Banjara Hills,

Hyderabad-500 034.

M.S. KULKARNI

Srinidhi Apt, # 207 2nd Floor,

Street 8, Habshiguda, Hyderabad-500 007.

RAJEEV MATHEW

6-3-912/1 Kapadia Lane,

Somajiguda, Hyderabad-500 482.

ENCES

Soc. 36(4): 898-919.

Majumdar, N. ( 1 984): Records of the ZSI. Miscellaneous

Publication Occasional Paper No. 65. On a

collection of birds from Adilabad District, Andhra

Pradesh. Zoological Survey of India, pp. 1-63.

19. WHITE-EYE {ZOSTEROPS PALPEBROSA) FEEDING THE CHICKS OF

PARADISE FLYCATCHER {TERPSIPHONE PARADIS!)

We were birdwatching near Udaipur on

13th July, 1996. At 0930 hrs we found a nest of

paradise flycatcher ( Terpsiphone paradisi) on a

bare branch of a mango tree ( Mangifera indica).

We observed the birds from a distance of about

15 m from the nest, behind some bushes. There

were four chicks in the nest and both the male

and female were feeding their nestlings. Soon

we saw that on a leafy part of the same branch,

two white-eyes ( Zosterops palpebrosa) were

darting in and out of the leaves. We found the

nest of the white-eyes about 2 m from the nest of

the paradise flycatcher on the same branch.

At 1 0 1 5 hrs, the frequency of feeding by the

paradise flycatcher slowed down. Both the birds

flew away, out of the vicinity of their nest. At this

juncture, one of the white-eyes came and perched

on top of the nest of the paradise flycatcher. The

chicks raised their necks with wide open beaks

and begged for food. The white-eye fed the chicks,

or at least was seen to put its beak into the mouths

of two nestlings. When the chicks calmed down,

the white-eye started feeding on the nest material

of the paradise flycatcher’s nest. The rocking of

the nest agitated the chicks and the white-eye once

again calmed them down by putting its beak in

the mouth of the chicks.

It remained on the nest for three minutes

and then flew away.

22nd October, 1996 RAZA H. TEHSIN

38, Panchwati, Udaipur-313001.

HIMALAY TEHSIN

41, Panchwati, Udaipur-313001.

20. SHORT TAILED AG AM A IN SOUTHEAST RAJASTHAN

A small lizard was caught on 25 December

1994 from Sorsan Bustard closed area in Baran

dist. in southeast Rajasthan. On a warm

afternoon in winter, it was scurrying from one

jujube bush to another. The lizard was caught

and measured. Its total length was 85 mm, of

which 37 mm was tail and 48 mm snout to vent

length. It had a triangular head, a well defined

neck and upper body varigated with dark brown

irregular lines and circular spots along the spine.

The ventral surface was pale with faint brown

lines on the lower jaw and belly. Front and hind

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

349

legs had five digits each. The lizard was collected

and photographed (BNHS Regn. No. 1434). It

was identified as short tailed agama Agama

minor Hardwicke & Gray by Mr. J.C. Daniel.

The specimen has been deposited in the BNHS

Collection, Reptile section, Regn. No. 1434.

the book of Indian reptiles (Daniel 1983)

mentions the short tailed agama as a widely

distributed species in the Gangetic plains and

central and western India. Yet Agama minor does

not find a place in the reptilian fauna of

Rajasthan (Sharma 1995). Sharma also informed

the authors that he has not found it during

21. THE BREEDING OF THE INDIAN

IN MUDUMALAI WILDLIFE

The Indian rock python (. Python molurus)

is widely distributed in India, although little

information is available on its breeding habits

(Acharjyo and Mishra 1976; Daniel 1983;

Dattatri 1990; Bhupathy 1993). This note

describes my observations on the breeding habits

of the Indian rock python in Mudumalai Wildlife

Sanctuary (MWS).

There are remnants of several abandoned

buildings which were constructed by the British

Army during World War II near Kargudy Guest

house in MWS. On 10 April 1996, an adult

python was entering one such construction: a

damaged underground septic tank. The tank was

very shallow (around 0.5 m depth) and there was

a small cavity on the side wall of the tank into

which the python entered and coiled itself. The

python was visible only partially from outside.

The next day, on closer observation, we saw some

eggs around which the python was coiled. Since

the cavity was small, we were unable to count

the number of eggs. We visited the place regularly

and recorded the presence of the python. The

python was observed incubating the eggs till 2

June. On 3 June, when we inspected the place,

we saw nine python hatchlings moving around

the egg mass which was inside the cavity, but

his surveys in Rajasthan (pers. comm.). Thus

our finding of Agama minor in a dry grassland

in southeast Rajasthan is extremely important

and it is probably the first report from this

region.

We thank Mr. J.C. Daniel and Dr. S.K.

Sharma for their help in identification and

literature.

Apri 6, 1998 RAKESH VYAS

HIMMAT SINGH

2 P 22, Vigyan nagar, Kota.

Rajasthan.

ROCK PYTHON {PYTHON MOL UR US)

SANCTUARY, TAMIL NADU

the adult python was not to be seen. A day later,

one of the hatchlings, which measured 65 cm in

length, was found dead. The cause of death could

not be ascertained. The remaining eight

hatchlings moved away from the tank within the

next four days. Later, when all the hatchlings

moved off from the place, we removed the egg

mass from the cavity and counted 46 eggs. Out

of 46 eggs, only nine had slit-like openings

indicating hatching.

The egg laying season we recorded (April)

is slightly earlier than that reported in Keoladeo

National Park, Bharatpur, Central India

(Bhupathy and Vijayan 1989, Bhupathy 1993)

and North India (Smith 1945). This could be due

to environmental reasons. The incubation period

estimated by us was fifty-three days (from 1 2 May

to 3 June). This is similar to that reported earlier,

58 days (Daniel 1983) in the natural condition

and 55 to 60 days (D attar i 1990) in captivity.

Our observation further confirms the statement

of Daniel (1987) that the mother leaves the eggs

soon after hatchlings emerge.

We thank the Forest Department of Tamil

Nadu for permission to work in the Mudumalai

Wildlife Sanctuary. We also thank Dr. S. Bhupathy,

Salim All Centre for Ornithology and Natural

350

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

History, Coimbatore and Dr. Justus Joshua,

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun for their help.

December 30, 1997 N. BASKARAN

Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology &

Natural History,

Anaikatti P.O., Coimbatore-641 108.

Refer

Acharjyo, L.N. & R. Mishra (1976): Aspects of

reproduction and growth of the Indian Python {Python

m. molurus ) in captivity. British J. Herpetology 5: 562-

565.

Bhupathy, S. (1989): Status, distribution and general

ecology of the Indian python {Python molurus molurus )

in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86 (3): 381-387.

Bhupathy, S. ( 1 993): A note on the breeding of the Indian

python {Python molurus ) in the wild. Cobra 13: 6-7.

K.S. DEVADASS

Range Forest Officer

Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary,

Mudumalai Range,

Kargudy-643 211,

Nilgiris,

Tamil Nadu.

NCES

Daniel, J.C. ( 1 983): The Book of Indian Reptiles. Bombay

Natural History Society, Mumbai.

Dattatri, S. ( 1 990): Breeding in the Indian python {Python

m. molurus) under captive conditions in India. In:

Conservation in developing countries: Problem and

Prospects (Eds. J.C. Daniel and J.S. Serrao), Bombay

Natural History Society, pp 488-495.

Smith, M.A. (1945): The fauna of British India, including

Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia and Amphibia. Vol. Ill

Serpentes, Taylor and Francis, London.

22. RAINBOW TROUT ( SALMO GAIRDNERII) IN

ANAIMALAI HILLS, WESTERN GHATS

The rainbow trout Salmo gairdnerii is an

anadromous fish like Salmon. It was introduced

in India from United Kingdom, New Zealand

and Sri Lanka in 1869 (Talwar and Jhingran

1991). The first attempt to import trout eggs and

fry from abroad was made in 1863 by Francis

Day (Jhingran and Sehgal 1978).

Introduction of trout into Kerala and its

present status

Introduction of trout into Kerala dates back

to 1909 when eyed-eggs of Salmo trutta fario

were brought from the United Kingdom. A

hatchery was made at Kanniamallay estate for

brown trout. But these efforts met with little

success, hence efforts to introduce brown trout

were given up in Kerala in favour of rainbow

trout. A rainbow trout hatchery was established

in 1941 at Eraviculam. Another hatchery at

Rajamalai was established to meet the demand

for the' Maddupatty and Kundally reservoirs,

Elephant and Devikulam lakes, Kadallar,

Pettimudi and Rajamalai streams. The

management of trout fishery through hatcheries

and its introduction in reservoirs and hillstreams

was controlled by the High Range Angling

Association, Munnar. In 1943, Dr. Freeman

transplanted rainbow trout fingerlings in the

Konalar streams, near Valparai, Tamil Nadu from

Munnar High Range zone, Kerala (Jhingran and

Sehgal, 1978). In 1939, trout hatchery

management and stocking of the streams with

trout achieved great success in Munnar.

Molesworth and Bryant (1921) and Mackay

(1945) reported their findings on trout in

Travancore and the Nilgiris. After that there is

no literature on the culture or natural occurrence

of trout in Anaimalai.

The Rainbow trout Salmo gairdnerii is now

well established in streams and rivers of Munnar

and Valparai. Last year, a survey was conducted

in the Anaimalai hills which confirmed the

occurrence of S. gairdnerii in the wild. During

our survey we were able to collect three

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

351

specimens of average SL 20 cm. from Konalar

stream, in the sholas (hilly grassland) of

Anaimalai hills near Valparai; two specimens

each from Eravikulamar and streams flowing

through Kannandevan tea estate (SL 12 cm).

From the Konalar stream, the only species

recorded was Salmo gairdnerii. According to

W.S.W. Mackay, all our streams including th$

Eravikulam were, before the advent of the

rainbow trout, full of an indigenous fish

Glyptothorax madraspatenus. This species was

not obtained in our collections. But from Munnar

we have recorded a few fry of genus Garra and

Puntius melanampyx along with trout. Our

collection sites were located at an altitude

between 1300 and 1950 m above msl and the

temperature ranged from 12°-20° C.

January 29, 1988 RAJU THOMAS, K.

BIJU, C.R.

AJITHKUMAR, C.R.

BNHS Research Station

Okkal P.O., Ernakulam 683 550,

Kerala.

References

Molesworth, Colonel & J.F. Bryant (1921): Trout culture

on the Nilgiris. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 27 898-

910.

Jhingran, V.G. & K.L. Sehgal ( 1 978): Coldwater fisheries

of India. Inland Fisheries Society of India,

Barrackpore, West Bengal, India.

Mackay, W.S.S. (1945): Trout of Travancore.J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 45: 352-373.

Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland fishes of

India and adjacent countries. Oxford and IBH

Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.

Ed: In addition to the references given above, other useful

references are comments by Francis Day in “Fishes

of India”; also “History of transplantation and

introduction of fishes in India”, by S. Jones & K.K.

Sarojini (1952) JBNHS 50(3): 594-609; and Day,

F. (1876) On the introduction of trout and tench

into India. J. Linn. Soc. 1876: 562-565.

23. SICYOPTERUS GRISEUS (DAY) FROM PERIYAR RIVER, KERALA

The fish Sicyopterus griseus (Day) inhabits

torrential streams, and its general body form

and structure of lips, rostral fold and pelvic fins

are well adapted for combating strong currents.

It is stoutly built, with the head and the anterior

part of the body slightly depressed, while the

tail is compressed. The eyes are situated

dorsolaterally in the anterior part of the head.

The inter-orbital space is broad and slightly

concave. Mouth nearly horizontal; lower margin

of upper lip with short papillae. The anterior

lip is covered by the rostral fold which is broadly

fimbriated. Scales of head and nape are cycloid,

smaller than those in the middle of the body,

about 80 scales in longitudinal series.

This fish is fairly common in the

Madras backwaters (Talwar and Jhingran, 1991).

Hora (1941) reported its range extension to

Travancore. He redescribed the species from

the collection taken by Dr. S. Jones on 8th

June 1941, from the Kallar stream, 48 km

northeast of Trivandrum. Since 1941, there

was no report on this fish from any river in

Kerala.

On 12th June 1997, we collected a single

specimen of this species from Kalady, Periyar

river, Kerala. Its habitat was characterised by the

presence of pebbles and boulders along with sand

at the bottom, 50 m above msl. The importance

of this report is that it was the first time after ah

interval of 56 years that this fish has been re-

discovered but from a different river system in

Kerala. During these intervening years several

surveys have been conducted in various river

systems in Kerala, it was not reported. Jones

obtained only 5 specimens from the Kallar

stream, while we too could collect only a single

specimen from the collection site. This suggests

352

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

the rarity of the species in the fresh waters of

Kerala. Moreover, as per the standard followed

by IUCN for determining the status of the fish,

this species can be considered as Rare as it is

located within a very restricted geographical

range in Kerala. It can also be considered as

Endangered because of the drastic reduction in

its number from wherever it had been captured.

This species was not familiar even to the local

fishermen. Based on our study, we feel that

special efforts should be made to save this species

from extinction.

Acknowledgements

We are thankful to Dr. K. Rema Devi,

Scientist, ZSI, Southern Regional Station,

Chennai, for assistance and for confirming our

identification.

February 14, 1998 BIJUR.

RAJU THOMAS K.

AJITHKUMAR C.R.

BNHS Research Station, P. O. Okkal,

Ernakulam, Kerala, 683 550.

References

Hora, S.L. & N.C. Law (1941): The fresh water fish of

Travancore. Rec. Indian Mus. 43 (2): 233-256.

Hora, S.L. & K.K. Nair (1941): New records of

fresh water fishes from Travancore. ibid 43: 387-

393.

Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Indian fishes of

India and adjacent countries. Oxford and IBH

Publishing Co. New Delhi.

24. A NEW RECORD OF HOMALOPTERA MODESTA (VINCIGUERRA):

CYPRINIDAE FROM MANIPUR

During our study on the fresh water

ichthyofauna of Ukhrul dist. Manipur, two

specimens of Homaloptera were collected from

Namyak, a small stream originating in the

foothill of Kongkanthana, which flows for about

3 kms in the Indian region and then into

Myanmar and directly joins the Chindwin

drainage. Homalopterine loaches inhabit quick

flowing waters of the Oriental region and are

characterised by a flattened head and body,

horizontally oriented enlarged paired fins bearing

adhesive pads covered with urculi on the ventral

surface, that help them to live in mountain

streams and rivulets (Kottelat, 1988).

The genus Homaloptera Van Hasselt is

represented by four species, viz., H. rupicola

Prasad and Mukherji, H. modesta Vinciguerra,

H. montana Harre and H. bilineata Blyth. Only

Homaloptera montana Harre was recorded in

India, the other three are found in Myanmar and

Thailand. The present specimen agrees with the

original description (Vinciguerra 1890) in

morphological appearance and meristic counts.

This note reports the species for the first time

from India and a detailed account of morpho-

metric characters of the fish based on two

specimens is presented here.

The fish was collected by poisoning and

side-tracking of streams. Specimens were

preserved in 10% formaline. The type specimen

is deposited in Manipur University. Meristic

counts and morphometric measurement follow

the standard key of Jayaram (1981). The body

proportions are expressed as a percentage of

standard length (SL) and head length (HL).

Homaloptera modesta Vinciguerra

Hegia modesta Vinciguerra, 1890, Annali.

Mus. Civ. Stor. Nat. Giacoma doria, (2) 9: 330,

pi. 2, fig. 12 (Type locality: Meekalan and

Meetan, Lower Myanmar)

Homaloptera modesta : Silas, 1953, Rec.

Indian Mus. 50 (2): 194.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

353

Table 1

COMPARISON OF HOMALOPTERA MODESTA

(VINCIGUERRA) OF NAMYAK STREAM, MANIPUR

WITH THAT OF MEEKALAN AND MEETAN,

LOWER MYANMAR (MENON 1 987)

Homaloptera modesta Menon, 1987,

Fauna of India, Pisces, 4: 223.

Material examined: MUMF/1090, 41.1

mm standard length. MUMF/1091, 37.3 mm SL.

Namya stream, coll. Selim Keishing 25. iv. 1995.

Description: D ii, 7; P v, 8; V ii, 6; A ii, 7;

C 18; L. 1. 47-48. Body subcylindrical, ventral

surface flattened. Head depressed, but not

flattened, snout long and pointed. Mouth small,

inferior, slightly arched, fringed by thick plain

lips, continuous at angle. Labial groove widely

interrupted; barbels short and stout. Eyes

moderately large, dorso-lateral, situated in the

posterior half of the head, not visible from the

ventral side. Dorsal fin short, commencing

behind pelvic fin; its origin nearer tip of snout

than base of caudal fin. Pectoral fin separated

from pelvic by a short distance. Pelvic shorter

than pectoral, extends half way to anal. Scales

small, absent on the head and chest. Caudal fin

deeply emarginate.

Proportional measurements of H. modesta

Vinciguerra are as follows (in percentage): Body

depth 15.08-15.71; Caudal length 24.12-26.54;

Head length 25.54-26.80; Predorsal length

50.93-53.77; Dorsal fin height 19.70-23.71;

Pectoral fin length 27.3 1-30.65; Pelvic fin length

17.15-21.89; Anal fin height 16.62-17.42; Pre-

pelvic distance 45.84-49.84; Pre-anal distance

74.79-79.42 in standard length. Head width

75.00- 76.92; Head height at occiput 48.00-5 1 .64;

Eye diameter 22.85-24.17; Inter-orbital space

28.00- 32.38; Pectoral length 100.13-100.30;

Snout length 45.00-50.54 in head length.

Colour: Back and sides with numerous

irregularly disposed black and brown spots of

various sizes and shapes. Fins barred with black.

Distribution: India: Namyak stream at

Ukhrul dist. Manipur. Myanmar: Meekalan and

Meetan, lower Myanmar.

Discussion: The present specimens agree

with the original description of the species from

Meekalan and Meetan, Lower Myanmar

described by Vinciguerra (1890). It is a small

Homalopterine loach which is well adapted to

torrential hill streams. The total length of H.

modesta in our collection ranges from 37.3-41.1

mm in SL. The species has five well developed

adhesive undivided pectoral fin rays. It differs

from H. rupicola in its dorsal insertion being

nearer the tip of the snout than the base of the

caudal fin and lateral line with 47-48 scales.

Though slight differences can be seen from

meristic counts and morphometric measurements

viz: head width, caudal length, eye diameter,

snout length etc, these differences are too small

to create a new species. The differences may be

due to changed ecological condition. The counts

of the present specimen fall within the range for

the species and we thus identify the present

specimen as H. modesta.

The species is mostly found in torrential

354

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

fresh water bodies of the Oriental region. Four

species of the genus Homaloptera are found in

India, Myanmar and Thailand. The present

species was originally known from Myanmar and

Thailand. The occurence of H. modesta in

Namyak stream might be due to its connection

with Chindwin Irrawady system of drainage. This

report extends its distribution to the Chindwin

river system of Manipur, India.

March 3 1, 1998 KEISHING SELIM

WAIKHOM VISHWANATH

Department of Life Sciences,

Manipur University,

Canchipur-795 003,

Manipur, India.

References

Jayaram, K.C. (1981): The freshwater fishes of India,

Bangladesh, Burma and Sri Lanka, Zoological

Survey of India, Calcutta 475 pp.

Kottelat, M. (1988): Indian and Indochinese species of

Balitora (Osteichthyes: Cypriniformes) with

description of two new species and comments on

the family-group names Balitoridae and

Homalopteridae. Rev. Suisse de Zool. T95: 487-

504.

Menon, A.G.K. ( 1 987): The fauna of India and the adjacent

countries Vol. IV: 1-252.

Silas, E.G. (1953): Classification, zoogeography and

evolution of fishes of the cyprinoid families

Homalopteridae and Gastromyzonidae. Rec. Indian

Mus. 50(2): 173-263.

Vinciguerra, D. (1890): Viaggio di Leonardo Fae in

Burmania e regioni vicini XXIV. Pesci. Annali Mus. ’

Civ. Stor. nat. Giocoma Doha, (2): 129-360.

Van Hasselt (1823): Alg. Konst. Letterbode. 2: 1 33. (Type

species: Homaloptera ocellata Vander Hoevan).

25 . FINAL INSTAR LARVA OF ISCHNURA A URORA A URORA (BRAUER)

(ZYGOPTERA: COENAGRIIDAE)

( With seven text-figures)

The final instar larvae of two species

of Genus Ischnura Charpentier, 1840 are

already described from India (Kumar 1973).

Literature on Indian dragonflies (Kumar 1973,

1985; Kumar and Prasad 1985) revealed lack

of information on the larva of Ischnura

aurora aurora (Brauer, 1865). Therefore I

studied the morphology of larva of I. aurora

aurora.

Material: India: M.P., Sagar, at 23° 52' N

and 78° 45' E, Gwalla mohalla village,

10.ix.1982 (15 males, 6 females) from a narrow

hill stream, Dharmashri village, 18. ix. 1982 (6

males, 3 females) from a narrow stream. All

larvae were reared in the laboratory.

Description: Total length (antenna

excluded) 13.50- 15.50 mm; X 14.42 mm; width

of head 2. 80-3. 05 X 2. 88 mm; all measurements

are the mean of 30 larvae. Colouration: Males

greenish yellow and females yellow mottled with

black granules. Ventral surface brown in male

and female. Caudal lamellae pale brown.

Head: (Fig. 1) Triangular with round

anterior margin and deeply concave posterior

margin. Lateral sides bulging out and provided

with dark brown setae.

Antenna: (Fig. 2) filiform; measurements

(in mm) of segments being 0.17, 0.28, 0.42, 0.26,

0.18, 0.15 and 0.10, total length 1.56 mm.

Eyes steel grey, 1.0 mm x 0.62 mm. Ocelli not

visible.

Labium: (Fig. 3) extending posteriorly up

to the fore coxae. Prementum as long as wide.

Lateral margins of prementum with a few

spiniform setae. Distal margin of prementum

convex and provided with a few small claviform

setae. Premental setae formula 5j & l5, palpal

setae 5 & 5, distal margin of palpus divided into

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

355

Figs. 1-7: Ischnura aurora aurora (Brauer) structural features of the final instar larva:

1. Final instar larva; 2. Antenna; 3. Labium; 4. Male gonapophyses; 5. Female gonapophyses;

6. Median caudal lamella; 7. Lateral caudal lamella.

356

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

two lobes, outer lobe bearing 4 distinct teeth,

while the inner terminates in a sharp end-hook.

Movable hook stout and half the length of

palpus.

Thorax: Collarshaped. Each wing bud

measures 3.40 mm in length; hind- wing buds

extending posteriorly to the middle of the 4th

abdominal segment. Legs with two dark brown

bands each on femur and tibial region; the fore,

mid and hind legs measuring 3.59 mm, 4.86 mm

and 6.00 mm respectively. Tibial comb mainly

comprised of scattered tridentate setae and some

long setae. Tarsi three segmented, with double

row of pectinate setae.

Abdomen: Cylindrical with middorsal

strip pale brown, extending through the length

of abdomen.

Gonapophyses: (Fig. 4 & 5) in male a pair

of conical processes present ventrally on the

posterior region of 9th abdominal segment; in

female comprising two pairs of long valvular

processes arising ventrally from posterior margin

of 8th abdominal segment. Outer and inner

valves of the same length.

Caudal lamellae: Leaf-like, duplex and

sub-nodate type in which nodi indistinct and

indicated by termination point of antenodal

spines, with apices ending in narrow process.

Tracheation uniformly rich in median and lateral

lamellae. Axial tracheal trunk prominent, a

number of secondary and tertiary branches arise

from this trunk.

Median lamella: (Fig. 6) 5.25 mm long

and 1.50 mm wide, narrow proximally but broad

in the middle. Dorsal antenodal region 1.75 mm

long with 16-20 setae; Ventral antenodal region

0.75 mm long, bearing 10-13 setae. Median

tracheal setae number 13-17.

Lateral lamella: (Fig. 7) 4.75 mm long,

1.50 mm wide. Dorsal antenodal region 0.85

mm, having 12-14 spines; Ventral antenodal

region 1.90 mm long, with 17-23 spines. Median

tracheal setae 17-20 in number.

Biology: The larvae which are found in

narrow slow running streams remain attached

to submerged vegetation. These streams have

larval populations of Pseudagrion rubricips

Selys, Ceriagrion coromandelianum (Fabricius)

and Coper a marginipes (Rambur).

Oviposition and early instars were

observed in July, September and October. The

March, April and September larval population

mainly consists of final instar larvae. Emergence

occurs twice a year; once in early summer (April)

and again towards the decline of the monsoon

(September, October). The larval biotopes,

narrow streams, dry up in May and June. Adults

were observed on wing during this period near

the streams. This species is bivoltine with one

monsoon brood (July to September) and one

winter brood (October to March, April) at Sagar,

(M.P).

Diagnosis: Kumar (1973) described the

final instar larva of Ischnura delicata (Hagen)

and Ischnura senegalensis (Rambur) from

Dun Valley, Dehradun, India. The final instar

larva of I. aurora aurora can easily be

differentiated from that of /. delicata and

I. senegalensis by the body length, head width,

palpal setae and premental setae. The body

length, head width, palpal setae and premental

setae of final instar larva of I. delicata and

I. senegalensis are 12.20 mm, 2.10 mm, 4 & 4,

4 & 4, and 13.30 mm, 2.15 mm, 5 & 5, 3, & '3

respectively. In the present study the body length,

head width, palpal and premental setae of final

instar larva of /. aurora aurora were found to be

14.42 mm, 2.88 mm, 5 & 5 and 5, & '5

respectively. The larvae of /. senegalensis which

are also found in Sagar lake, Sagar (Suri Babu

1986) are similar to the description of Kumar

(1973).

Kumar (1973) found larvae of I. delicata

in slow running streams, weedy banks of large

rivers and in temporary monsoon ponds. He

found larvae of I. senegalensis in slow running

streams, but larvae of I. aurora aurora were never

observed in still water bodies in Sagar (M.P)

However, Lieftinck etal. (1984) observed these

larve in ponds in Taiwan.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

357

Acknowledgements

I thank Dr. B.K. Srivastava, Department

of Zoology, Dr. H.S. Gour University, Sagar

(M.P) for guidance, the late M.A. Lieftinck,

Holland for identification of adult dragonflies,

Dr. P.S. Corbet, University of Edinburgh, U.K.

and Dr. Arun Kumar, Zoological Survey of India,

Dehra Dun, for help and encouragement.

February 23, 1996 B. SURI BABU

Forensic Science Laboratory,

Police Control Room,

Jagdalpur-494 001 (M.P) India.

References

Kumar, A. (1973): Description of the last instar larvae of

Odonata from the Dehra Dun Valley (India), with notes

on Biology-I. (Sub order Zygoptera). Oriental Ins 7

(1): 83-118.

Kumar, A. (1985): A review on the bio-ecology of Indian

dragonflies. Proc. First Indian Symp. Odonatol: 73-92.

Kumar, A. & M. Prasad (1981): Field ecology,

Zoogeography and taxonomy of the Odonata of

Western Himalaya, India. Rec. Zool. Surv. Occ. Publ.

20: 1-118.

Lieftinck, M.A., J.C. Lien & T.C. Maa (1986): Catalogue

of Taiwanese Dragonflies (Insecta: Odonata), Asian

Ecological Society, Taichung, Taiwan: 1-81 .

Suri Babu, B. (1986): Ecological studies on Odonata larvae

and their role in biological control. Ph.D thesis, Dr.

H.S. Gour University, Sagar.

26. OCCURRENCE OF BEEHOLE BORER XYLEUTES LEUCONOTUS

(. DUOMITUS LEUCONOTUS) WALKER, FAMILY COSSIDAE

Beeson (1941) has described Xyleutes

leuconotus as a pest of ornamental Cassia and

has given its distribution as Ceylon, India, Burma

and China. However, very little is known about

its status in India. Hampson (1892) noted its

distribution in Simla, Sikkim, Calcutta and

Ceylon.

On 6th September, 1 997 Mr Naik, a BNHS

member, brought a female of this moth, which

was attracted to light in a residential area

near Thane creek. The female laid several

thousand tiny creamish eggs, but none of them

hatched.

From the data it appears that the moths

emerge in August/September. Mostly they are

pests of Cassia plants and besides Mumbai

(Maharashtra) they are also found in Gujarat

(Ahwa Dang, Surat).

According to Barlow (1982), the

distribution of Xyleutes leuconotus moth is

northern India to Malaysia and Indonesia.

Table 1

COLLECTION DATA OF THE MOTH SPECIMENS

PRESENT IN THE BNHS COLLECTION

November 17, 1997 NARESH CHATURVEDI

Curator, Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road,

Mumbai- 400 023.

358

JOURNAL, BOMBA Y NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

References

Beeson, C.F.C. (1941): The Ecology and control of the

Forest insects of India and the neighbouring countries

- Vasant Press, Dehradun.

Hampson, G.F. (1892): Fauna of British India including

Ceylon and Burma, Moths Vol. 1 .

Barlow, H.S. (1982): An Introduction to the moths of

South East Asia with plates by Bernard D’Abrera,

published by Malayan Nature Society, Kuala Lumpur.

27. NIDIFICATION OF THREE SPECIES OF SCARAB AEINAE

(COLEOPTERA: SCARAB AEIDAE) IN BANGALORE

The nesting and feeding behaviour of three

species of dung beetles, Heliocopris bucephalus

(Fabricius) , Oniticellus cinctus (Fabricius) and

Sisyphus hirtus Weidemann, were observed at

different sites in Bangalore, Karnataka. Little

work has been done on this aspect of the

behaviour of these species in India since the

pioneering work by Hingston (1923) and Arrow

(1931). We therefore give observations on nest

construction, food and brood ball making and

provisioning for the young in three species of

dung beetles.

Heliocopris bucephalus (Fabricius)

Among the largest of the Indian

Scarabaeinae, these beetles, which emerge soon

after the onset of the monsoon, are attracted to

cow and elephant dung. They initially make

shallow food burrows which they stock with less

dung than their deeper, more complicated brood

burrows.

Every beetle constructs an independent

burrow, from within which it feeds. Each time

the food is exhausted, the beetle makes a fresh

burrow, which is an ongoing process. The mean

diameter of the burrow entrance was 4.9 cm

(4. 5-5.0 cm, S.D. + 2.2), with the burrow going

down to an average depth of 28 cm (15-45 cm.

S.D. + 12.88). The average amount of dung in a

food burrow was 186.5 (173-2000)g.

As opposed to the above, males and females

cooperated in the construction of brood burrows.

The male always occupied the upper portion

while the female remained lower in the burrow.

Initially, the tunnel was straight, to a distance of

about 20 cm, after which it took an angular turn

to terminate in a brood chamber. The average

amount-of soil excavated for this purpose was

1014 (958-1070) g. The depth of the burrow was

about 0.9 m and about 2029 g of dung was carried

down the burrow.

In about 7 instances, 2 to 3 adults of

Onthophagus turbatus were found in the dung

collected by H. bucephalus for food or brood

purposes.

Oniticellus cinctus (Fabricius)

Unlike H. bucephalus, O. cinctus

constructs a circular chamber (about 5.7 x 4.0 x

1.0 cm3) within the dung pat, with the ground

forming the floor and a crust of dung the roof of

the chamber. An average of 12 (2-24) brood balls,

each with a mean diameter of 1.04 (0.7- 1.5) cm

and a mean weight of 47.73 (27-62) mg. were

present in each brood chamber

Both large and small brood balls were

present in each brood chamber, the smaller ones

having eggs and the larger ones larvae. Brood

balls were spherical and rough, with fibres

projecting from all sides and arranged in one, or

occasionally two layers. The eggs were creamy

white and increased in size with age. The eggs

measured 2.15 (2-2.5) mm in length and 1.35

(1. 0-2.0) mm in breadth. The incubation period

lasted for bout 3.5 (3-4) days (Table 1).

The larvae and pupae are creamy white in

colour and take 17 (16-20) days and 8.5 (8- 9)

days respectively, to complete their

developmental periods. The adults cut an opening

in the brood balls to emerge after about 26 (22-2 8)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

359

Table 1

DIMENSIONS OF BROOD BALLS OF ONITICELLUS

CINCTUS

days to complete their life cycle. These beetles

took marginally less time to complete their life

cycle in Bangalore than in the temperate

conditions under which Klemperer (1983)

reported.

Sisyphus hirtus Weidemann

This dung roller is attracted to cow,

elephant and sheep droppings. Following Fabre’s

( 1 897) classic studies not many others (Hingston,

1923; Honda, 1927 and Prasse, 1957) have

worked on the genus. We give more details on

the ball making, rolling and burial behaviour of

this species.

Having alighted and selected a suitable

area on the dung mass, the beetle cuts a piece of

dung with its forelegs and clypeus and fashions

it into a spheroid by compacting it against its

body. The ‘diameter’ of the ball is 0.95 cm (0.7 -

1.1 cm, S.D. + 0.15) with a mean weight of 136

mg (50 - 190 mg, S.D. + 0.06). The ball is then

rolled away by one or two beetles. If the ball is

rolled by a single beetle, it uses its hind legs to

push it by taking a head stand position behind

the ball. When the ball is rolled by a pair, always

a male and a female, then the female takes the

head stand position behind the ball and pushes

it while the male stands on its hind legs in front

of the ball and pulls it. Sometimes the male pulls

the ball so vigorously that the female is carried

along with the ball. The ball is rolled along

irrespective of the nature of the substrate or the

presence of obstacles. Once an adult was

observed pushing a ball up a slope having a

gradient greater than 70°, with its last two pairs

of legs. During this process, the beetle along with

the ball repeatedly tumbled down the slope, but

it did not give up. On another occasion a pair

took 3 minutes and 5 seconds to roll the ball

across a distance of 2.5 m.

In one instance, a pair of Sisyphus were

found rolling a dung ball, which they suddenly

abandoned after having rolled it for a distance

of 2. 1 m from the food source. The male returned

to the original mass of sheep dung and examined

the dung mass once again. The female joined

the male and together they fashioned a fresh dung

ball that was larger than the previous one^ which

they began to roll. After rolling for a considerable

distance the beetles finally selected a burial site

after having inspected many places. The female

sat on the ball, guarding it, while the male made

a pit by loosening the soil, using its fore tibiae

and clypeus. Later the male came back and

pushed the ball into the pit and disappeared under

it to continue excavation. The ball gradually

disappeared into the soil. After this, the female

also entered the soil.

Checking these balls after a few days

revealed that some had been used for feeding. In

such cases only ff ass and the remains of the dung

ball were found. Other dung balls were converted

into pear shaped brood balls with an egg housed

in an egg chamber situated at the top of the

ball.

April 13, 1998 K. VEENAKUMARI

Central Agricultural Research Institute,

Port Blair-744 101,

Andamans.

G.K. VEERFSH

Vice Chancellor,

G.K. V.K., University of Agricultural Sciences,

Bangalore-560 065.

360

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

References

Arrow, GJ. (1931): Tha fauna of British India including

Ceylon and Burma, Coleoptera: Lamellicomia. Ill

(Coprinae). Taylor and Francis, London, 428 p.

Fabre, J.H. (1897): Souvenirs Entomologiques. Paris.

Translated by de Mattos, A.T, London.

Hingston, R.W.G. (1923): A naturalist in Hindustan. H.F.

and G. Witherby, London. 292 p.

Honda, H. (1927): Interesting instincts of Gymnopleurus

sinuatus Oliver. Proc. Imp. Acad. Japan., 16: 684-

686.

Klemperer, H.G. (1983): Subsocial behaviour in

Oniticellus cinctus (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae)

effect of the brood on parental care and oviposition.

Physiol, ent. 8: 392-402.

Prasse, J. (1957): Das Brutfursorgegerhalten der

Pillenwalzer Sisyphus schaefferi L. and

Gymnopleurus geoffroyi Fuessl. (Col. Scarab) Wiss.

Z. Martin-Luther Univ. Halle Wittenb, 6: 589-614.

28. SOME COMMENTS ON ACCURACY AND CLARITY IN RECORDING

NATURAL HISTORY OBSERVATIONS

This refers to the article “Habitat and

nectar resource utilisation by butterflies found

in Siruvattukadu Kombei, Palni hills, Western

Ghats” by Ghazala Shahabuddin (JBNHS 94 (2):

423-428).

I congratulate Ms. Shahabuddin for a very

useful short communication. So far, the

importance of lepidopteran larval food-plants

and their utilisation has attracted attention.

However, natural history accounts of the food

resources, resource use by adult butterflies or any

scientific studies on these aspects were rare.

Especially in India, quality literature on these

aspects is practically non-existent. Thus, any data

on adult food resources is welcome and will

definitely prove useful in further studies regarding

movements, activity patterns and daily activity

budgets of the butterflies. Ms. Shahabuddin’s

article is an important step in this regard.

As a butterfly watcher, I feel that certain

points have unfortunately been overlooked. Some

minor errors that have crept into the article might

mislead an amateur butterfly watcher and these

should be brought to the notice of the general

reader.

Most of the errors are regarding the

author’s comments upon habitat preferences of

particular butterfly species. The mistakes are as

follows:

1. On page 427, the author writes, “It was

found that Siruvattukadu Kombei harbours

several species of butterflies that are rare and

reportedly confined to good quality deciduous

and evergreen forest, such as the Spot Swordtail,

Redspot Duke, Common Banded Peacock, Water-

Snow Flat, Chestnut Bob and the Common

Nawab.” Contrary to the author’s assertion, many

of these butterflies are in fact more common in

scrub and disturbed or open forests. The

Common Banded Peacock (I am using common

names in this letter as given in Wynter-Blyth

1957), for example, is more common in scrub

forests (Harish Gaonkar pers. comm., Larsen

(1987). I also found the Chestnut Bob very

commonly in arecanut and rubber plantations

during the sampling efforts in the Western Ghats

under the “Western Ghats Biodiversity Network”

project. In fact, this species was much more

common in disturbed areas surrounding the

forests than in the undisturbed parts. Other

species mentioned above are also found

occasionally in various open and dry habitats.

These species, therefore, cannot be considered

as confined to “good quality” forests.

Furthermore, all these species are either

seasonally or locally common in many parts of

the Western Ghats. So they are not rare in any

sense; maybe some of them are rare in

Siruvattukadu Kombei. However, local status can

not be assigned as a regional or overall status

for the species. The author says that these species

are “reportedly confined”, but she has not given

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

361

a supporting reference.

2. In the same paragraph on page 427, the

author writes, “Endemics constitute nearly 25%

of the fauna (of Siruvattukadu Kombei)

discovered so far. In “endemics” the author

includes butterflies that are found throughout the

Indian subcontinent, surely a vast area when

small insects such as butterflies are considered.

The large geographical area about which the

author is talking clearly reduces attractiveness

of endemicity in butterflies, especially when we

have very narrow endemics such as the Red-disc

Bushbrown, Palni Fourring, Nilgiri Grass

Yellow, Malabar Banded Swallowtail and

Malabar Banded Peacock, etc. These species are

either confined to a small geographical area such

as the southern Western Ghats or only in Nilgiris

and Palnis, etc. (Wynter-Blyth 1957, Evans 1932)

or are found in a narrow range of habitats (pers.

unpubl. data). The author goes on, “... and most

of these were found to avoid man-modified

habitats.” This statement is doubtful and the

observation may be faulty. It is also completely

untested at the species level. I am not aware of

the trends in the author’s study area. Harish

Gaonkar’s observations (pers. comm.) and mine,

and the habitats mentioned in Larsen (1987) for

the species discussed by the author in this regard

are contradictory. The Baron, for example, is very

common in human habitations, the Southern

Birdwing uses agricultural fields for breeding,

the Glad-eyed Bushbrown is found in dense

Lantana and Eupatorium infested forest edges,

and so on. I do not, therefore, agree with the

author’s statements.

3. On page 423 the author mentions, “The

common butterfly species are those.... and

numerous Pierids such as Emigrants (Common,

Mottled and African)”, and on page 425

“Emigrants (all three species)”. This is a serious

mistake. To the best of my knowledge, there are

only two species of Emigrant in India - Common

and Mottled. As early as Wynter-Blyth (1957),

the books mention only these two species and

make clear that Common and Lemon Emigrant

have been found to be the same species. The same

is the case with the African and Mottled

Emigrant. Larsen (1987), Haribal (1992) and

Gaonkar (unpublished data) also confirm this.

However, in Ms Shahabuddin’s article, there are

three species of Emigrant. Accordingly, the table

contains an additional and outdated species of

Catopsilia.

The following are some suggestions meant

for the article in question but have wide

applicability:

1 . The author does not mention how and

when the observations were taken. Was the

observation time uniformly spread throughout

the day and various months during the study

period, in all the habitats and for all the species?

2. The author uses common names

throughout the text, while scientific names are

used in the table. There is no way to con elate

common and scientific names. It would be a good

idea to mention from which source the scientific

names are taken. This will avoid taxonomic

confusion in the text.

3. Reference to current taxonomic work

should be made for scientific names. This

information may be acquired from experts

directly or through the Bombay Natural History

Society, Zoological Survey of India, etc.

4. Common names should be used for

animal groups such as mammals, birds and

butterflies. Such group names have always been

popular and all the species in these groups have

common names, which are mentioned even in

old taxonomic books (Evans 1932). Recently,

there have been major changes in the common

names of birds (Inskipp 1995). Fortunately,

butterflies have not suffered such changes,

though it may be necessary to standardise

common names at least in some species,

particularly where the common names overlap

with other species outside Indian limits or for

species whose taxonomic status has changed.

However, such changes will very soon be

absorbed among amateur and professional

researchers. Using common names has a major

362

JOURNAL, BOMBA YNA TURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

advantage in communicating to wider, less

specialised readers also. Amateur butterfly

watchers probably use short communications in

the Journal more often than professionals. The

use of scientific names may create a special aura

around the author, but utility of the article is

greatly reduced.

To conclude, I would say that the article

by Ms. Shahabuddin was very useful but its value

could have- been greatly augmented by keeping

the abovementioned points in mind.

May 1 9, 1 998 KRUSHNAMEGH KUNTE

“Sarwamangal” 4024,

Survey No. 14/4,

Pune-411 029. Maharashtra, India.

References

Evans, W.H. (1932): The Identification of Indian

Butterflies. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

Haribal, M. (1992): The Butterflies of Sikkim Himalaya

and their Natural History. Sikkim Nature Conservation

Foundation, Gangtok. '

Inskipp, C. & Tim Inskipp (1995): Bird Classification.

Sanctuary Asia. Vol. 15(5),pp. 84-105.

Larsen, T.B. (1987): The Butterflies of the Nilgiri

Mountains of Southern India (Lepidoptera:

Rhopalocera). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84.

Wynter-Blyth, M.A. (1957): Butterflies of the Indian

Region. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

29. ROOSTING HABITS OF THE TAILED JAY BUTTERFLY GRAPHIUM

A GAMEMNON (LINNAEUS) DURING THE RAINS

The Tailed jay butterfly, Graphium

agamemnon, shows a wide range of distribution

from S. India to Saurashtra, Kumaon to Assam,

Ceylon and Burma (Wynter-Blyth, 1957:

BUTTERFLIES OF THE INDIAN REGION). It is Commonly

found amidst human settlements on account of

its preferred host plants, the mast tree ( Polyalthia

longifolia) and the custard apple ( Annona

squamosa). Unlike many other butterflies, the

Tailed jay is active even during the hot hours of

the day and may be seen fluttering restlessly over

flowers. However, very little information is

available on the resting locations of this butterfly

during the monsoon and also the manner in

which it rests.

In the monsoon of 1997, several indivi-

duals were observed roosting regularly in a

densely wooded patch in a garden in Mumbai.

The aggregation of butterflies in this shaded

portion began as soon as it started to rain, where

they continued to remain even after sunset. On

drier days, however, they were found to be

scattered in a wider area, even in places with

scanty tree cover. However, a little shower was

found to be enough to make them converge back

into the densely foliated region.

Another interesting aspect was the distance

of the roosting sites from the ground which was

on most occasions less than 2 m. This practice

not only helps them to avoid direct exposure to

rain, but also keeps them away from nocturnal

winged predators like bats and owls.

There is a clear preference for plants with

small, dark leaves. There is also a liking for thin

drooping branches on which they are generally

seen perched along the upper side, close to the

tip. It may be that the thinner branches transmit

stronger vibrations as they are more sensitive to

the movement of tree dwelling predators like a

lizard or a spider. Also, by sitting along the

branch they look like extensions of the branch

itself. This helps them to escape predators.

Moreover, if disturbed, they immediately take off

and settle on another branch after fluttering

suspiciously for some time.

The Tailed jay always rests on the upper

side of a leaf with the head pointing upwards,

irrespective of the rains. The direction of the head

probably depends on the likely approach route

of a predator, and the ease with which they can

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

363

alight during an emergency. Moreover, the

butterfly’s camouflaging capability decides

whether it needs to perch above or below a leaf.

The selection of a roosting site thus seems

to be governed by a combination of defence

strategies against nocturnal predators and

instinctive behaviour to cope with harsh weather.

April 6, 1 998 ANISH P. ANDHERIA

2, Sagar Building,

V.P. Road, Andheri (West),

Mumbai-400 058.

30. BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF DISEASE TRANSMITTING FRESHWATER

LEECHES HEMICLEPSIS MARGINATA MARGINATA (MULLER)

ANNELIDA: GLOS SIPHONIID AE

Because of their habit of sucking blood

from man and economically important animals,

and participation in spreading protozoan and

helminth diseases in the concerned hosts,

sanguivorous leeches have drawn the attention

of a number of workers, Davies and Everett 1975,

Mandal 1984. In India, the sanguivorous leech

Hemiclepsis marginata marginata poses a serious

threat to pisciculture, froggery and turtle fisheries

in so far as occurence and spread of haematozoan

diseases are concerned. During the course of

rearing H. marginata in the laboratory,

destruction of eggs of this leech by a fungal strain

(Anguillospora sp.: Moniliaceae) has been noted

repeatedly and an account of the same is given

below.

Of the 10 egg-bearing H. marginata, an

unusual colouration of the body colour of five

leeches and the eggs of these individuals was

noted on January 15, 1990. On January 18, 1990

the colour of these eggs changed from white

(original, normal colour of the eggs) to green.

On January 21 and 22, 1990 all the eggs from

the body of the five leeches dropped to the bottom

of the container. These eggs were left undisturbed

but the water of the container was regularly

replaced by fresh pond water. The mother leeches

gradually became sluggish and greenish. They

did not even move to attack fishes to suck blood.

Of the five, one died on January 27, three on

January 28, and the last one died on January 29,

1990. The eggs did not hatch during the 16 days

following detachment from the mother leeches

and finally became denatured and decomposed.

Five other leeches thrived in the same container,

their eggs hatched in due course and the

hatchlings were normal and healthy.

Subsequently, in other containers, a similar

type of fungal infection was seen in eggs and

egg-bearing leeches. Experiments were initiated

to find out whether the leeches, irrespective of

age and life stages, are susceptible to attack by

fungal parasites, or whether the attack is confined

to egg-bearing leeches. Ten individuals in the

categories of three age-groups, viz. 7-10 days,

30-33 days and 90-93 days from the laboratory

stock were used. All the 90-93 day-old leeches

had an elongated white patch on the ventral side

of the body where the eggs remain attached until

they hatch and the hatchlings are detached. The

individuals in the three age-groups were released

separately in three museum jars, each holding

one litre of pond water. Five egg-bearing, fungus

infected leeches were released in each jar.

The leeches belonging to 7-10 and 30-33

day age-groups were free from fungal infection

for nine days during which, however, all the

fungus infected leeches died. But six individuals

out of 10 belonging to the 90-93 day age-group

became infected by the fungal parasites. In all

cases, the initial site of infection was either the

eggs or the outer covering of the cocoon.

Subsequently, this spread towards the anterior

sucker. The infected leeches then became inactive

and were seen hanging somehow on to the wall

of the jar with the help of their posterior sucker.

364

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

All the eggs became detached from the mother’s

body between the 4th and 6th days after the day

on which the leeches became infected. All the

six individuals died within a fortnight. The

remaining four leeches were free from fungal

attack. The hatchlings produced from their eggs

were also free from any disease. They grew well

and reproduced in due course of time.

Egg-bearing H. marginata are thus

susceptible to attack by the fungal parasite

Anguillospora sp. It appears that these fungi find

the material surrounding the egg or cocoon a

suitable medium for growth and multiplication.

With the progress of infection, the eggs and the

tissues keeping the eggs in contact with the body

of the leech succumbed to the fungus. The fungi

perhaps make their way into the body of the

leeches through these tissues and finally kill

them. Whatever be the mode of attack and nature

of spreading, it is evident that these microbes

are effective in reducing the numbers of leech

H. marginata to a considerable degree. Spelling

and Young (1986) have also noted mortality in

older leeches Erpobdella octoculata due to

infestation by the trematode parasites Apatemon

gracilis in Europe. It appears that survival of

many leeches is threatend by some parasites and

the fungal strain Anguillospora sp. can be utilised

in the biological control of Hemiclepsis

marginata marginata.

We thank the Head of the Department of

Zoology, Calcutta University, Calcutta for

facilities provided and Prof. N. Samajpati,

Department of Botany, Calcutta University for

identification of the fungus.

March 28, 1997 S.K. RAUT

T.C. SAHA

Ecology and Ethology Laboratory,

Depatment of Zoology,

University of Calcutta,

35, B.C. Road, Calcutta-700 019.

References

Davies, R.W. & R.P. Everett (1975): The feeding of

four species of freshwater Hirudinoidea in

Southern Alberta. Verh. Int. Verein. Limnol. 19:

2816-2827.

Mandal, A.K. (1984): A study of the haematozoa of fishes

of commercial importance from India. Technical

Monograph, No. 9, 51 pp. Zoological Survey of

India, Calcutta.

Raut, S.K. & T.C. Saha (1987): Life history of the

sanguivorous leech Hemiclepsis marginata

marginata (Muller) (Annelida: Glossiphoniidae)

Ind. J. Anim. Sci. 57: 970-972.

Spelling, S.M. & J.O. Young (1986): The population

dynamics of metacercariae of Apatemon gracilis

(Trematoda: Digenea) in three species of lake

dwelling leeches. Parasitology 93: 51 7-530.

3 1 . ON CHYDOR US FA VIFORMIS BIRGE, 1 893 FROM WEST BENGAL

(CRUSTACEA: CLADOCERA: CHYDORIDAE)

( With six text-figures )

During the course of a wetland survey during

1992-93, we came across several specimens of a

cladoceran, Chydorus Javiformis Birge in the

Kashipur Hoogla Jhill, Howrah District, West

Bengal (22°N, 88° E). In India it was first

reported from Kashmir (Khan et al. 1978).

Michael and Sharma (1988) subsequently

reported this species from Shillong. It also occurs

in Argentina, U.S.A., China and Malaysia.

Family CHYDORIDAE

Subfamily Chydorinae

Genus Chydorus

Chydorus faviformis Birge, 1893 (Figs. 1-6)

Female: Body length 0.43 to 0.47 mm;

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

365

Figs. 1-2: Chydorus faviformis female, Scanning

electron micrographs: 1 . lateral view;

2. enlarged view of a hexagonal cell.

body width 0.36 to 0.39 mm. Body shape usually

rounded but sometimes oval (Figs. 1, 3). Postero-

dorsal and posteroventral comers of valves not

distinct. Valves and shield covered with deep

hexagonal cells. Inner surfaces of each hexagonal

cell covered with polygonal reticulations

(Figs. 1, 2). Antennules not reaching apex of

rostrum. Ocellus smaller than eye, situated much

closer to the eye than to the apex of rostrum.

Labral plate with convex anterior margin and

blunt at the apex (Fig. 4). Rostrum pointed and

ventrally directed. Head shield with rounded

posterior margin covered with polygonal cells.

Head pores typical of genus, minor pores situated

slightly closer to the anterior pore than to

posterior pore (Fig. 5). Postabdomen wide, with

rounded apex, slightly broad with distinct pre

anal and postanal comers, preanal margin greater

than postanal margin. Anal spines 8-10. Groups

of lateral setae of equal size present. Claw

setulated on the concave surface and with two

basal spines (Fig. 6).

The material collected in the present study

agrees with the description of the species given

by Smirnov ( 1 974), Idris ( 1 983) and Michael and

Sharma (1988) except for a few differences. The

labral plate described by Michael and Sharma

(1988) has a slightly pointed apex which appears

to be blunt in the present study. The body size of

C. faviformis also shows some variation. The

material collected from USA (Brooks, 1963) is

0.6 mm, from China (Siah-chih and Nan-shan,

1979) it is 0.50-0. 60mm and from Malaysia

(Idris, 1983) and Kashmir (Khan et al. 1978) it

is 0.36-0.45 mm and 0.46 mm respectively. SEM

studies show reticulations inside the surface of

the hexagonal cells ( Fig. 2). Each hexagonal

cell having a highly raised wall attached

throughout the body and head is characteristic

of this chydorid cladoceran.

We thank the Director, ZSI, Calcutta and

Dr. S.K. Tandon, Dr. N.C. Nandi and the Officer-

in-charge of MBS, ZSI for facilities and

encouragement.

July 14, 1997 K. VENKATARAMAN

S.R. DAS

Zoological Survey of India,

100, Santhome High Road,

Chennai-600 028.

References

Brooks, J.C. ( 1 963): Cladocera - In Freshwater Biology, Idris, B. A.G. ( 1 983): Freshwater Zooplankton of Malaysia

Edited by W.T. Grandson 3rd ed. 1963: John Wiley (Crustacea.Cladocera), Penerbit Universiti Pertanian/

and Sons, New York, 587-656. Malaysia, 1983, p. 153.

366

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

Figs. 3-6: Chydorus faviformis female 3. lateral view; 4. labral plate; 5. head shield; 6. postabdomen

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

367

Khan, M.A., B.A. Su La & D.P. Zutshi (1978): A new

crustacean for India, Geobios, 5:81.

Michael, R.G. & B.K. Sharma (1988): Fauna of India:

Cladocera, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, p. 262.

Sieh-Chih, C. & Du Nan-Shan (1979): Fauna Sinica,

Crustacea, Freshwater Cladocera, Science Press,

Academia Sinica, Peking, China, 1979r p.297.

Smirnov, N.N. (1974): Fauna of the U.S.S R., Crustacea,

Chydoridae, Israel Program for Scientific Translations,

Jerusalem, 1974, p.644.

32. INCIDENCE OF ISOPOD PARASITISM ON GOBIID FISHES

During examination of a large number of

Gobiid fishes from Ennore estuary, Chennai, of

the species Glossogobius giuris (Ham.) G.

biocellatus (Val.) and Oligolepis acutipinnis

(Val.), the presence of isopod parasites inside the

mouth was commonly observed. Among these

fishes the parasites were more frequently

observed in Glossogobius giuris. Further, G.

giuris collected from Ashtamudi lake in Kerala

were also observed to harbour these isopod

parasites in the buccal region. In all these gobiids,

the isopods were found on the tongue. On

examination, most of the parasites were intact,

some with fully developed eggs in a brood pouch.

These isopods resemble Agarna sp. Similar

observations have also been made in the buccal

cavity of Hyporhamphus limbatus (Val.), where

the isopod was observed in a depression in the

lower jaw.

Cymothoid isopods are reported to occur

on the external surface, buccal cavity and gills

of fishes (Hutchinson 1967). Their occurrence

in the mouth region has been recorded earlier by

Anato et al. ( 1 99 1 ) in Boops boops from the Gulf

of Tunis. The following species of isopods,

namely Meinertia oestroides and M. parallela

were observed in this fish.

Earlier reports on isopod parasitism on

fishes in Indian waters refer to their occurrence

only in the branchial chamber. To cite a few,

Tiwari (1953) reported a new species of the rare

cymothoid genus Agarna, parasitic on the

clupeoid fish Nematalosa nasus in the Bay

of Bengal. A number of parasitised fishes

examined by him revealed that each fish had

only one parasite, either in the right or the

left branchial chamber. Those parasites which

inhabited the right branchial chamber were

dextrally asymmetrical, while those which were

obtained from the left branchial cavity were

sinistrally asymmetrical. Except for the

depression formed on the upper part of the

branchial cavity, there did not appear to be any

visible effect of the presence of the parasite on

the host. The operculum did not show any

bulging and the legs, though prehensile, seemed

to play no part in the attachment of the parasite

to the host. Once the parasite entered the

branchial cavity of the host and grew, it

could not possibly escape, as it was too big

to wriggle out through the narrow gill slit.

Seshagiri Rao (1974) repoited the incidence of

isopod parasite Nerocila sp. on Ilisha melastoma,

the site of infection being the gill chamber, and

he observed that this parasite is host specific.

He (Rao, 1981) further analysed the incidence

of Cymothoan parasites on white sardine,

Escualosa thoracata from the east and west

coasts of India. The site of infection was usually

under the gill covers and rarely in the pharynx.

Contrary to the observation of Tiwari (1953),

Seshagiri Rao {op. cit.) observed that the

presence of the parasite results in shrinkage of

the single functional gonad which adversely

affects the fecundity. The infected fishes were

thin compared to the normal specimens of the

same length, indicating that the parasite has an

adverse effect on the growth of the host.

All these observations report isopod

parasitism in the gill region of clupeoid fishes

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 95 (1998)

only. Their occurrence on gobiid fishes has

not been reported earlier. Hence, this is the first

such report. Incidentally, these isopods

are always found on the tongue and they are

positioned in such a way inside the host’s

mouth that their head faces the opening of the

mouth.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the Director, Zoological

Survey of India (ZSI) and to the Officer-in-

Charge, Southern Regional Station, for provid-

ing research facilities. We thank Dr. A.G.K.

Menon, Emeritus Scientist and Dr. P.T. Cherian,

Officer-in-Charge for critically reviewing the

manuscript.

July 6, 1 996 M.B. RAGHUNATHAN

K. REMA DEVI

Zoological Survey of India,

Southern Regional Station, Chennai.

References

Anato, V.B., M.H. Ktari & C.H. Dossou (1991): La

parasitofaune Metazoire de Boops boops (Linne,

1758), poisson Teleosteen Sparidae des cotes

Tunisiennes. Oebalia, 1 7: 259-266.

Hutchinson, G.E. (1967): A Treatise on Limnology. Vol.

II. John Wiley & Sons, USA.

Seshagiri Rao, B.V. (1974): Observations on the host

specificity of isopod parasite Nerocila sp. from

Andhra coast. Curr. Sci., 43 (13): 428.

Seshagiri Rao, B.V. (1981): Incidence of a Cymathoan

parasite on white sardine. Geobios, 8: 228-229.

Tiwari, K.K. (1953): On a new species of the

rare Cymothoid genus Agarna Schi. & Mein.,

parasitic on the clupeid fish Nematalosa nasus

(Bl.) in the Bay of Bengal. Rec. Ind. Mus. 50: 295-

300.

33. OCCURRENCE OF ALONELLA NANA (BAIRD) AND BOSMINA

LONGIROSTRIS (O.F. MULLER,) (CRUSTACEA: CLADOCERA)

IN SIKKIM LAKES

( With two text-figures)

While studying the zooplankton of Sikkim

lakes Alonella nana (Baird 1834) a chydorid

cladoceran and a male of Bosmina longirostris

(O.F. Muller 1776) hitherto unrecorded in

northeast India were collected from Sumdung

lake and Nagi upper dam respectively. Brief

descriptions of both the species are given below.

Order : Cladocera

Family : Chydoridae

Subfamily : Chydorinae

Alonella nana (Baird, 1834)

Material Examined: Seven females

collected from Sumdung lake, Sikkim on

29.xi.1995, coll. B.N. Roy.

Female: Body size 0.289 mm, height 0. 1 87

mm. Shape oval in outline. Dorsal margin

smoothly convex. Posteroventral comer of valve

with one or two denticles. Carapace with

prominent lines directed anteroventrally and

posterodorsally. Plate of labrum with pointed

apex. Ocellus half the size of the eye situated

nearer to the eye than to the apex of rostrum.

Postabdomen with 5-6 anal spines. Claw with

two basal spines.

Remarks: Brehm ( 1 936) first recorded this

species from Kashmir. After him Dr. S.

Bhattacharya collected this species in Shillong

(Michael and Sharma 1988). Other than India,

this species was also recorded from the Holarctic

region, European USSR to lake Baikal area. The

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

369

Figs. 1-2: Bosmina longirostris, male 1. Lateral view; 2. Postabdomen

present species was collected along with other

chydorid cladoceran Eurycercus lamellatus from

the lake mentioned above at Sikkim.

Bosmina longirostris (O.F. Muller, 1776)

(Figs. 1-2)

Material Examined: Several males were

collected from Nagi upper dam, Sikkim.

Male: Body size 0.249 mm; height 0.168

mm. Shape oval. Dorsal side convex,

posterodorsal corner of valve angular,

posteroventral comer with a spine. Head large,

eye large and ocellus present. Antennules long

and straight, reaching half the length of the

ventral carapace. Anterior side of the ventral

valve with long hairs. Hook in leg I not well

developed. Postabdomen rectangular in shape,

distal dorsal region with small spines. Claw with

a few spines and vas deferens opening (Fig. 2).

Remarks: Even though Michael and

Sharma (1988) reported that this species is

cosmopolitan, males were not reported from

India. In India, only females are recorded from

Kashmir, Meghalaya, West Bengal and Tripura

(Venkataraman and Das 1993).

I thank the Director, ZSI, Calcutta and

Officer-in-Charge, Marine Biological Station,

ZSI, Chennai for the facilities provided.

September 27, 1 997 K. VENKATARAMAN

Zoological Survey of India,

100, Santhome High Road,

ChennaU600 028, India .

References

Michael, R.G. & B.K. Sharma (1988): Fauna of India: Venkataraman, K. & S. R. Das (1993): Freshwater

Indian Cladocera (Crustacea: Branchiopoda: Cladocera (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) of Southern West

Cladocera) ZSI, Calcutta pp. 262. Bengal J. Andaman Sci. Assoc. 9: 1 9-24.

370

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

34. ALLIGATOR APPLE ANNONA GLABRA IN THE ANDAMANS

The Alligator apple is a wild relative of

the edible custard apple. This salt-tolerant

SPECIES has been spotted by us recently in the

Andaman Islands.

The popular and delicious fruit custard

apple and its allies belonging to the genus

Annona L., occur in over 120 species in the

tropical and warmer regions of the world, of

which about 5 species grow in India and 4 in the

Andaman and Nioobar Islands. A.cherimola

(cherimoya), A.muricata (sour sop), A. reticulata

(bullock’s heart or West Indies custard apple)

and A. squamosa (custard apple, sweet sop and

sugar apple) are well-known in India over

several decades and have earned a reputation as

deli-cacies. But A glabra (alligator apple, pond

apple, cork tree or pith wood) is perhaps a new

entrant, at least to these islands. This hand-

some, swamp-loving tree was first recorded in

India from the Vembanad backwaters of

Kerala.

The alligator apple is a native of tropical

America, distributed along the mangrove belts

of coastal America, from Florida to Brazil and

across the Atlantic in West Africa, from Senegal

to Congo, West Indies, Sri Lanka and India. The

occurrence of this associate mangrove in

Andamans is being reported by the authors in

the forthcoming issue of the Malayan Nature

Journal. Spotting of this salt-tolerant plant in the

Andamans is of great photogeographic as well

as agronomic interest, as it is a long way from

the Atlantic to Sri Lanka and southwest India

where the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea

unite with the Indian Ocean. This probable

migratory route of A. glabra now makes a

phytogeographic bridge between Andaman

Islands in the Bay of Bengal with the Atlantic

ocean and the Arabian Sea across the Indian

ocean. This hypothesis may be supported by its

peculiar buoyant fruits, beset with a good

number of salt-tolerant seeds, which are

reportedly viable for 6-7 years.

The alligator apple is a small, spreading,

handsome tree 3-8 m high, with greenish yellow

fragrant flowers 2-4 cm across and

creamy-yellow, conical, pulpy fruits upto 1 0 cm

long, smelling like pineapple and resembling ripe

mangoes. Although the fruits are not so popular

here birds, squirrels and alligators do eat and

relish them. The pithy wood and roots are used

for making floats and corks. The appealing

flavour and aroma of this pulpy fruit, as well as

its choice by birds and squirrels clearly indicate

its possibility as an edible fruit. The

sweet-scented quality of the fruits and the

salt-tolerant habit of the plant could be exploited

for crop improvement programmers. As it thrives

very well in swampy situations and along the

backwaters, it could be developed into a

promising genetic crop stock, which could be

cultivated on a large scale as a salt-tolerant

species in inundated fallow fields, salt marshes

and brackish wetlands of India. At present, we*

are trying to evaluate the economic potential and

nutritional value of this fruit-bearing tree. Since

all the four known species of this genus from

India have already found a suitable place in the

field of pomology and in the fruit markets, we

hope this species will turn out to be a delicious

fruit crop.

December 23, 1997 D.B. SINGH

Central Agricultural Research Institute,

Andaman-Nicobar & Lakshadweep

P.O. Box-181, Port Blair-744 1 01.

P.V. SREEKUMAR

T.V.R.S. SHARMA

Botanical Survey of India,

Andaman & Nicobar Circle,

P.O. Box-692, Haldo,

Port Blair-744 102.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

371

35. NOTES ON TWO LESSER KNOWN A GLAIA (MELIACEAE) IN ANDAMAN ISLANDS

( With two text-figures)

The genus Aglaia Lour, containing over 300

species (Airy Shaw, 1966), extends from China to

Indo-Malesian, tropical Australian and Pacific

regions of the world. Of these, over 23 species occur

in India (Santapau & Henry, 1973) and 9 in the

Andaman Nicobar Archipelago (Vasudeva Rao,

1986; Pannell, 1995). While Parkinson (1923)

records 4 species of this genus and speaks of A.

argentea Blume with some uncertainty, Vasudeva

Rao (1986) lists 9 species from these Islands,

including A. argentea Blume and A. oligophylla

Miq. (A. fusca King), merely based on literature.

Pannell (1995) emphasizes the occurrence of 9

species in the Andaman Nicobar Islands, out of

13 species, according to him, from India and over

105 species from the Malesian region.

While annotating the herbarium materials

at PBL on Meliaceae, the authors noticed two

unidentified Aglaia Lour., and subsequently Dr.

C.M. Pannell of Oxford University confirmed

them as A. argentea Blume and A. oligophylla

Miq. As these species are insufficiently known

from the archipelago and also poorly represented

in the regional herbarium, PBL, brief botanical

descriptions along with line drawings are

provided to facilitate their identification and

conservation.

Aglaia argentea Bl. Bijdr. 170: 1825;

C.M. Pannell in FI. Malesiana 12(1): 237. 1995

(Fig. 1).

Trees up to 30 m high. Leaves 10-20 x 4-6

cm. Leaflets 8-16, each 4-20 x 2-10 cm, silvery

white beneath, lateral nerves 12-24 pairs, raised

beneath. Flowers 2-4 x 1.5-2. 5 mm. Fruits 3.0-

3.5 x 2-3 cm, with 2-3 one seeded locules.

FI. & Fr. April - June

Specimen examined: North Nicobar, Katchal,

4.V.1975 P. Chakraborty 2515 (PBL).

Distribution: Australia, Borneo, Java, Malesia,

Nicobar Islands, Philippines, Solomon Island,

Sumatra.

Uses: The timber is hard, heavy and durable, used

for cabinets, furniture and construction.

Notes: This rare species could be easily identified

by the silvery white undersurface of the leaflets.

Aglaia oligophylla Miq. FI. Ind. Bot.

Suppl. 507. 1861, A. fusca King J. Asiat. Soc.

Beng. 64(2): 62. 1895; Parkinson/7/. Andaman

Islands, 121. 1923 (Fig. 2).

Trees up to 20 m high with small

buttresses. Leaves imparipinnate. Leaflets 3-11,

each 4.5-22 x 2-9 cm. Inflorescence 10-20 cm

long, 9-15 cm wide. Flowers 2.0 x 2.5 mm. Fruits

1-3 cm in diameter, subglobose; the pericarp

brown or yellow, densely covered with pale,

yellowish brown, stellate hairs on the outside.

Locules 1 or 2, each contains 1 seed with a

translucent white or brown aril.

FI. & Fr. June - October.

Distribution: Andaman Islands, Borneo,

Malesia, Peninsular Malaysia, Philippines,

Sumatra, Thailand.

Uses: The sweet pulpy aril of the fruit is edible.

Notes: This species is similar to some

Reinwardtiodendron sp., but differs by the

features on the fruits and indumentum.

Acknowledgements

We thank Dr. C.M. Pannell, Oxford

University, for identifying the specimens.

Thanks are also due to Dr. P.K. Hajra, Director,

Botanical Survey of India (BSI), Calcutta and

Dr. P.S.N. Rao, Scientist-in-Charge, BSI, Port

Blair for encouragement and facilities, and to

Mr. L.N. Ray, Botanist, BSI, Port Blair for kindly

sparing some of his material.

February 13, 1997 MARCEL TIGGA

P.V. SREEKUMAR

Botanical Survey of India,

Andaman & Nicobar Circle,

Port Blair-744 102.

372

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

Fig. 2: Aglaia oligophylla Miq.

A. Habit B. Fruit C. Seed (dorsal view) D. Seed

(ventral view)

References

Aery Shaw, H.K. (1966 ):In: Willis Dictionary of Flowering

Plants & Ferns. Cambridge University Press,

Cambridge.

Pannell, C.M. ( 1 995): Flora Malesiana 12(1): Aglaia Lour.

194-314.

Parkinson, C.E. (1923): A Forest Flora of the Andaman

Islands. Simla.

Santapau, H. & A.N. Henry (1973): A Dictionary of

the Flowering Plants in India, C.S.I.R.,

New Delhi.

Vasudeva Rao, M.K. ( 1 986): A Preliminary Report on the

Angiosperms of Andaman-Nicobar Islands. J. Econ.

Tax. Bot. 8(1): 107-189.

36. CROTALARIA BURMA BUCH.-HAM. (FABACEAE) — A NEW RECORD

FOR MAHARASHTRA

While botanizing in Wade, Jalgaon dist.,

Maharashtra, a curious undershrub caught my

attention. On closer examination, it turned out

to be Crotalaria burhia Buch.-Ham., a fabaceous

taxon. It has not been reported from Maharashtra,

and is being reported here for the first time. The

taxon being a denizen of desert regions, occurs

in Baluchistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan (Sind) and

part of India (Cooke, 1958). In India, it is

distributed criss-crossing state boundaries like

Punjab, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat

and Madhya Pradesh (Bhandari, 1978). The

present locality lies in the northwestern part of

the Deccan Plateau of Maharashtra and is

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

373

adjacent to Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh. This

represents an extended distribution into

Maharashtra, wherein more or less isoclimatic

conditions prevail. Voucher specimens are

housed in the Herbarium, P.G. Department of

Botany, L.K. Dr. P.R. Ghogrey Science College,

Dhule, Maharashtra.

Crotalaria burhia Buch.-Ham. (in Wall.

Cat. 5386. 1831-32 (nom.nud.)) ex Benth. in

Hook. Lond. Joum. 2:474. 1834 (cum descript.);

Dalz. & Gibs. Bombay FI. 54. 1861; Hook. f. FI.

Brit. India 2:66. 1876; Cooke, FI. Pres. Bombay

1:311. 1958 (Repr. ed.); Shah, FI. Gujarat 1:193.

1978; Bhandari, FI. Indian Desert 1:111. 1978;

Shetty & Singh, FI. Rajasthan 1:216. 1987.

Rigid, profusely branched undershrub,

branches interlacing, hoary, striate. Leaves

deciduous, simple, exstipulate, subsessile,

oblong, 1.4-3. 5 x 0.3-0. 8 cm, obtuse, rarely

mucronate, silky, adpressed hairy, pale green.

Flowers in terminal, 5-8 cm long racemes,

pedicel short, bibracteolate; calyx hairy, 0.6-0.8

cm long, calyx-teeth lanceolate, acute; corolla

yellow, streaked red, standard ovate, 0.6 x 0.5

cm, clawed, woolly, wings oblong, 0.5 x 0.2 cm,

keel incurved, free towards £pex, 0.7 x 0.5 cm,

stamens 10, monadelphous, anthers heteromor-

phic; pistil unicarpellate, style hairy on one

side, curved, stigma oblique; pods pilose,

beaked, ovoid, seed 1-2, brown, bean shaped,

compressed.

Flowers and Fruits: December- April.

Distribution: along the banks and sandy bed of

river Gima at Wade and its vicinity.

Specimens examined: Wade (dist. Jalgaon):

1935, 1938.

I am grateful to Professor Dr. R.M. Pai,

Ex-Head, Department of Botany, Dr. B.A.

Marathwada University, Aurangabad, for going

through the manuscript and for constant

encouragement. I thank the Principal Mr. B.M.

Patil, for facilities and Dr. S.G. Pradhan, B.S.I.

(WC) Pune, for vital information.

May 5, 1997 D. A. PATIL

P. G. Department of Botany,

L.K. Dr. P.R. Ghogrey Scince College,

Dhule-424 005. (Maharashtra.)

References

Bhandari, M.M. (1978): Flora of the Indian Desert. Cooke, T. (1958): The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay

Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur, India. Vol. I. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, India, (repr.)

37. ON THE COLOURS OF THE FLOWERS OF BAUHINIA VARIEGATA L.

(LEGUMINOSAE: CAESALPINIOIDEAE)

During a visit to the Ajodhya hills in

Purulia dist. of West Bengal in the second week

of February 1987, 1 came across a few cultivated

trees of Bauhinia variegata L. near the Ajodhya

Forest Rest House. They were flowering, with

either the usual reddish purple flowers or only

the pure white ones. On one of the trees with

pure white flowers, I observed that in most of

the flowers the uppermost petal was completely

reddish purple on one side of the median line,

while in others a small portion of the uppermost

petal was longitudinally striped with reddish

purple. I had not come across this kind of

colouration in any published literature so far.

December 23, 1 997 S. BANDYOPADHYAY

Botanical Survey of India,

P.O. Botanic Garden,

Howrah 711 103.

On revisiting the same locality in February

1998, the interesting colouration in the

uppermost petal of the flowers was found

not to be present in the particular tree.

Furthermore, all the petals were more reddish

purple than white and a deep blotch of reddish

purple colour was also present in the middle of

the uppermost petal, as found in the reddish

purple flowers.

374

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 95 (1998)

38. A NEW VARIETY OF TRICHOSANTHES TRICUSPID AT A LOUR.

(CUCURBITACEAE) FROM INDIA

Trichosanthes tricuspidata Lour., (Family

Cucurbitaceae), is distributed almost throughout

India (including the Andaman Islands),

Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar and

Sri Lanka (Chakravarty, Rec. Bot. Surv. India

17:44. 1959 & Fasc. FI India 11:109. 1983).

The lower surface of the lamina in this species

has been described by earlier taxonomists as

glabrous or tomentose. In T. tricuspidata var.

tricuspidata the lower surface of the lamina is

glabrous, whereas in T. tricuspidata var.

tomentosa (Heyne ex Clarke) Kumari, the lower

surface of the lamina bears tomentose hairs. In

both these taxa, the upper surface of the lamina,

however, bears strigose hairs which grow

sparsely or densely.

While examining a large number of

specimens of T. tricuspidata var. tricuspidata and

var. tomentosa deposited in Central National

Herbarium (CAL), together with our present

collections from the districts of Coochbehar, and

North Dinajpur (West Bengal) we observed the

following features:

i) Upper surface of the lamina is always with

strigose hairs in all the specimens examined.

ii) Lower surface of the lamina is glabrous in

var. tricuspidata.

iii) Lower surface of the lamina is tomentose in

var. tomentosa.

iv) Lower surface of the lamina is strigose all over

or only on the nerves in some of the specimens.

No other deviation has been observed in

the floral morphology or other vegetative

characters of these taxa.

In our opinion the presence of “strigose”

hairs on the lower laminar surface densely or

sparsely on the nerves is of taxonomic

importance. Based on this character, we are

describing here a new variety.

Trichosanthes tricuspidata Lour. var.

strigosa Mitra & Bandyop. var. nov.

Foliis subter nervi et superficies constanter

vetalus cum scabris strigosus; differt

Trichosanthes tricuspidata Lour. var.

tricuspidata et T. tricuspidata Lour. var.

tomentosa (Heyne ex Clarke) Kumari

Holotype: West Bengal; Coochbehar

(Jamalda), 22.viii.1995, coll. S. Bandyopadhyay

2904 (CAL)

Paratypus: Andhra Pradesh: Rampa

district, 3.x. 1920, Narayanswami 434 (CAL).

Arunachal Pradesh: 1961, Rao 24670

(CAL).

Bihar: 9.L1903, Hains 587 (CAL);

Champaran dist. 17.ix. 1965, Baneijee 590 (CAL).

Karnataka: Mysore dist. Spet. 1910,

Meebold 11301 (CAL); Agumbe dist. (Ghat

Road), 13.x. 1962, Raghaban 83179 (CAL);

Hassan dist. 27.vii. Saldanha 8507 (CAL).

Kerala: 1981, Mohan 72172 (CAL);

Trichur district, 5.ii. 1984, Ram Murthy 72792

(CAL).

Madhya Pradesh: Bustar dist. l.ix.1964,

Aroh 5694 (CAL).

Maharashtra: Poona dist. 28.ix.1964

Venkata Reddi 98788 (CAL).

Manipur: Sengmoi (3000 ft.), 20.V.1882,

Watt 7162 (CAL); on the way to Keithenwbi

(3000 ft),4.ii.l881 Watt 5831 (CAL); Naga hills

(5000 ft), 7.vii.l948, Mukherjee 3169 (CAL);

Nungba,?. .xi.1907, Meebold 5875 (CAL).

Meghalaya: Khasia & Jaintia hills,

13.x. 1910, Hoopa 34686 (CAL); Khasia hills

(5500 ft.), 29.viii.1885, Clarke 40292 (CAL);

Khasia hills, Griffith 2539 (CAL); Shillong,

3.vi.l963, Deka 33 14 (CAL).

NEFA: 1961, Deb 26051 (CAL);

19.x. 1959, Rao 20045 (CAL); 22.viii.1958,

Panigrahi 14568. (CAL).

Orissa: Mayurbhanj district, 23.iii.79,

Biswas, (CAL); 1983, Safui 13500 (CAL).

Tamil Nadu: Tinnevelly (200 m),

23. iii. 1958, Subramanyam 5634 (CAL).

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

375

West Bengal: Birbhum, 28 Aug. 1966,

Basak 594 (CAL); Darjeeling (6500 ft),

5.vii.l956, Chatterjee 24 (CAL); Darjeeling

(4000 ft) 28.vii.1870, Clarke 12243 (CAL);

Howrah 26.viii. 1964, Bennet 969 (CAL); Malda,

1966, Dutta 350 (CAL).

Purulia, 20.iv.1968, Malik 546 (CAL);

West Dinajpur (Chopra), 22.viii.1995, Mitra

2449 (CAL).

Bangladesh: Jessore, 1874, Clarke 21811

(CAL).

Myanmar: Upper Burma, ?.vii. 1 888, Khan

130 (CAL).

Nepal: 1951, Williams 5202 (CAL).

Trichosanthes tricuspidata Lour. var.

4

strigosa var. nov. differs from the related taxa T.

tricuspidata Lour. var. tricuspidata and T.

tricuspidata Lour. var. tomentosa (Heyne ex

Clarke) Kumari by the presence of strigose hairs

on the lower laminar surface all over, densely or

only on the nerve sparsely.

Distribution: Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal

Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya

Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur, Meghalaya,

NEFA, Orissa, Tamil Nadu & West Bengal,

India; Bangladesh, Myanmar, Nepal.

Acknowledgement

We are indebted to Dr. G.G. Maiti of

Kalyani University for the Latin diagnosis and

also to Dr. Subir Bandyopadhyay for his help

and suggestions.

December 23, 1997 S. MITRA

S. BANDYOPADHYAY

Dept, of Botany,

University of Kalyani, Nadia.

39. A NEW RECORD OF THRIXSPERMUM MERGUENSE (HOOK.F.) KUNTZE

(ORCHID ACEAE) FROM NICOBAR ISLANDS

The genus Thrixspermum Lour, with an

estimated number of species between 1 00 to 1 50

(Seidenfaden, 1 992) in the world is represented

by only eight species in India (Karthikeyan et

al, 1989; Sathish Kumar and Manilal, 1994;

Seidenfaden, 1992) after T. album is considered

conspecific with T. trichoglottis by Holttum and

with the relationship of this taxon to a series of

taxa, especially the classical T. hystrix, remaining

unresolved.

T. merquense (Hook.f.) Kuntze, hitherto

known to be distributed from Myanmar

(Tenasserim) eastwards to Taiwan and the

Philippines, as well as Sumatra, Java and

Krakatau, is being reported here from Nicobar

Is. after the identification of the specimen is

confirmed on the basis of the illustrations and

literature (Seidenfaden, 1992). With this new

report, the total number of species so far known

to occur in Andaman and Nicobar Is. is three,

the other two being T. trichoglottis and T.

amplexicaule. A brief description of the orchid

species is provided below to facilitate easy

collection and identification in the field.

Thrixspermum merguense (Hook.f.)

Kuntze, Rev. Gen 2: 682, 1891.

Sarcochilus merguense Hook.f. t FI. Brit.

India 6: 401 1890.

Small epiphytic plants; stem up to 1 cm

long, clothed with the imbricating bases of the

distichous leaves. Roots wiry. Leaves up to 3.5 x

1 .0 cm, retuse. Inflorescence almost as long as

leaves; rachis 1 cm long. Bracts closely arranged,

triangular, acute, up to 1 mm long. Dorsal sepal

up to 2.5 mm long. Petals slightly smaller. Lip

with tufts of hairs at the distal end, and one tuft

centrally located; the side lobes broadly

triangular. Column up to 1 mm long, narrowing

towards the base. Fruit not seen.

Specimens examined: Andaman-Nicobar

Islands: Great Nicobar island, 41 km from

Campbell Bay on north-south road along the

Galathea river, 7.iv.l995, Coll. V. Maina and B.

K. Sinha 20599 (PBL).

376

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 95 (1998)

Distribution: India (Gt. Nicobar Island),

Myanmar, Taiwan, Philippines, Sumatra, Java

and Malaya.

Conservation: As the species is very rare in India

and restricted to Gt. Nicobar, steps should be

taken for its conservation in view of various

developmental activities taking place in the

island territory of late.

We are thankful to Dr. P. K. Hajra, Director,

Refe

Karthikeyan, S., S.K. Jain, M. P. Nayar & M. Sanjappa

(1984): Florae Indicae Enumeratio:

Monocotyledonae. Flora of India Series

4:1 73-1 74.Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta.

Sathish Kumar, C. & K.S. Manilal (1994): A Catalogue

Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta for

encouragement.

January 25, 1997 VINOD MAINA

P.S.N. RAO

B. K. SINHA

Botanical Survey of India,

Andaman & Nicobar Circle,

P.O. Box No. 692, Haddo, Port Blair-744 102.

ENCES

of Indian Orchids. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal

Singh, Dehra Dun.

Seidenfaden, G. & J.J. Wood (1 992): Orchids of Peninsular

Malaysia and Singapore Olsen & Olsen,

Fredensborg.

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R. GADAGKAR

ANIL GORE

A.J.T. JOHNSINGH

AJITH KUMAR

A.R. RAHMANI

J.S. SAMANT

E.G. SILAS

J.S. SINGH

R. WHITAKER

Assistant Editor

GAYATRI WATTAL UGRA

V J

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Aluri, Raju J.S. & C. Subha Reddi (1995): Ecology of the pollination in two cat-mint

species. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92(1): 63-66.

Prater, S.H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay Nati""^' ' '

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6. Each paper should be accompanied by an abstract, normally not exceeding 200

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Hornbill House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Mumbai-400 023.

Editors,

Journal of the Bombay

Natural History Society

VOLUME 95 (3): DECEMBER 1998

Date of Publication: 1-12-1998

CONTENTS / *g

ANTLER CYCLES AND BREEDING SEASONALITY OF THE CHITA l\AXIS^XIS

ERXLEBEN IN SOUTHERN INDIA

( With six text-figures )

By T.R. Shankar Raman V^L

SPECIES COMPOSITION, STATUS AND FEEDING ECOLOGY OF AVIFAUNA lijLHIGIT

ALTITUDE FORESTS OF SRI LANKA

( With four text-figures)

By K.B. Ranawana and C.N.B. Bambaradeniya

CROP DAMAGE BY BLACKBUCK ANTILOPE CERVICAPRA AT ROLLAPADU

WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, ANDHRA PRADESH

( With one text-figure)

By Ranjit Manakadan and Asad R. Rahmani

FOOD HABITS OF WILD UNGULATES AND THEIR COMPETITION WITH LIVESTOCK

IN PENCH WILDLIFE RESERVE, CENTRAL INDIA

By Rakesh Shukla and P.K. Khare

TEMPORARY GROUP SPLITTING IN THE LION-TAILED MACAQUE MAC AC A

SILENUS IN A FOREST FRAGMENT IN INDIRA GANDHI WILDLIFE

SANCTUARY, TAMIL NADU

By G. Sakthivelou and Ajith Kumar

POPULATION, MOULT, BIOMETRICS AND SUBSPECIES OF LARGE SAND PLOVER

CHARADRIUS LESCHENAULTII WINTERING IN SOUTHEAST INDIA

( With two text-figures)

By S. Balachandran

THE FISHES OF MUDUMALAI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, TAMIL NADU, SOUTH INDIA

(With one text-figure)

By Manimekalan, A

ATONAL ASPECT OF THE INTROMITTENT ORGANS OF NON-TIBIAROLIATE

^ BUGS, HETEROPTERA: REDUVIIDAE

nnd one plate)

m-j »viianuidn, L»., ^ - ingstone and Muthukrishnan, J

BEE VISITATION AND POD SETTING IN BRASSICA CAMPESTRIS L.

( With two text-figures)

By Naresh Mahindru, Gurdip Singh and G.S. Grewal

POLLINATION ECOLOGY OF CASSIA ALATA L. (CAESALPINIACEAE)

( With one text-figure)

By C. Bhaskara Rao, C. Subba Reddi, Raju J.S. Aluri and J.B. Atluri

NE W DESCRIPTIONS

NEW SPECIES OF SILESIS CANDEZE (COLEOPTERA, ELATERIDAE: ADRASTINAE)

FROM INDIA

(With four text-figures)

By Punam Garg, M.S. Saini and V. Vasu

392

408

418

422

426

431

444

451

454

460

A NEW SPECIES OF IPHIAULAX FOERSTER (HYMENOPTERA: BRACONIDAE)

FROM INDIA

( With three text-figures )

By S.M. Kurhade and P.K. Nikam 465

A NEW SALTICID SPIDER FROM INDIA

( With nine text-figures)

By G.L. Sadana and Aarti Gupta 469

A NEW SPECIES OF PERODERMA HELLER (LERNAEOCERIFORMES : COPEPODA)

FROM SARDINES OFF THE PORTO NOVO COAST, INDIA

( With fourteen text-figures)

By A.J.A. Ranjit Singh and P. Bensam 473

BIOS Y STEMATIC STUDY OF TWO NEW SPECIES OF CHENOPODIUM FROM THE

NORTH INDIAN PLAINS

( With four text-figures)

By S.C. Pandeya, Geeta Singhal and Anil K. Bhatnagar . All

A NEW SPECIES OF GONIOTHALAMUS BLUME (ANNONACEAE)

( With six text-figures)

By Suchandra R. Dutta and S.M. Almeida .' 488

REVIEWS

1 . BATS OF THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT

Reviewed by T. J. Roberts 491

2 . THE FLORA OF TROMB A Y

Reviewed by Sanjay Deshmukh and M.R. Almeida 492

3 . BUILDING BRIDGES FOR CONSERVATION

Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani 492

4. BIRDS OF HILL REGION OF KARNATAKA: AN INTRODUCTION

Reviewed by Shahid Ali 493

5 . WATERFOWL POPULATION ESTIMATES

Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani 494

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

BIRDS

MAMMALS

1 . On the scales of the scaly anteater Manis

crassicaudata

By Sangita Mitra 495

2. Evidence of clouded leopard Neofelis

nebulosa in Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary,

Arunachal Pradesh

By Aparajita Datta 498

3 . Dugong dugong in the Gulf of Kachchh

By Lavkumar Khacher 499

4. White bison in Chinnar

By Ajith V.P., Mohan Alenbath and

Francis V.K 499

5. Five striped squirrel Funambulus pennanti

observed eating honey

By Sattyasheel N. Naik 500

6. Use of cattle egret Bubulcus ibis organs as

medicine

By A.M.K. Bharos 503

7. Sightings of lesser florican Sypheotides indica

(J.F. Miller) from Medak, Andhra Pradesh

By Aasheesh Pittie, C. Tom Hash, Siraj Taher,

M.S. Kulkami and Vinay Totawar 503

8 . Occurrence of redbreasted parakeet Psittacula

•< alexandri in Mumbai, Maharashtra

By Anish P. Andheria 504

9. Sighting of Hodgson's frogmouth

Batrachostomus hodgsoni hodgsoni (G.R.

Gray) from Sikkim

By Usha Ganguli-Lachungpa

and Sudhizong Lucksom, SFS 505

1 0. Woodpeckers feeding on Cassia pods

By V. Santharam

1 1 . Drumming frequency in woodpeckers

By V. Santharam

1 2. Range extension of the green shrike-babbler

Pteruthius xanthochloris in Pakistan

By Dave Gandy, Durwyn Liley and

Guy Thompson

13. Western greyheaded thrush Turdus

rubrocanus rubrocanus G.R. Gray in Sikkim

By Usha Ganguli-Lachungpa

14. Nesting sites of house sparrow Passer

domesticus

By Aeshita Mukheijee and B.M. Parasharya

15. Southern blackheaded munia Lonchura

malacca malacca in Keoladeo National Park,

Bharatpur, Rajasthan

By Nitin Jamdar

REPTILES

16. The brown roofed turtle Kachuga smithii

pallidipes Moll, in the Brahmaputra drainage

By N.K. Choudhury and S. Sengupta

1 7. Pyxidea mouhotii (Gray) in Southern Assam

and Mizoram

By Anwaruddin Choudhury

18. Breeding biology of common house lizard

Hemidactylus flaviviridis Rtipell in Mizoram,

India

By Daya Nand Harit

19. Rediscovery of Calotes andamanensis

Boulenger 1891 and a reassessment of the

type locality

By N.M. Ishwar and Indraneil Das

FISHES

20. Sexual dimorphism in a marine perch

Pomadasys maculatus (Bloch)

By Tessy J. Mandy and Inasu N.D

2 1 . Aggressive behaviour of Channa striatus

By Subhamoy Das, Sonali Bhaumik and

S.K. Raut

22. First record of Clarias batrachus (Linn.)

(Siluriformes: Clariidae) from lake Surinsar

(Jammu and Kashmir) India

By Surendra Nath

23. Glyptothorax lonah (Sykes) — an addition

to the ichthyofauna of Kerala

By Biju, C.R., Raju Thomas, K. and

Ajith Kumar, C.R

24. First report of Barilius bendelisis (Ham.-

Buch.) from a west flowing river Chalakudy

in Kerala

By Raju Thomas, K, Biju, C.R. and

Ajith Kumar, C.R

25. New record of a rare loach Noemacheilus

monilis from Anaimalai Hills, Western Ghats,

Tamil Nadu

By T.J. Indra, K. Rema Devi and

M . B . Raghunathan 521

INSECTS

26. The occurrence of Spot Puffin in Kalakad-

Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, Southern

Western Ghats

By M. Soubadra Devy 522

27. Ficus hispida (L.F.): A new food plant of the

Common Mime Chilasa clytia dissimilis and

Chi las a clytia clytia

By Deepak Apte 523

OTHER INVERTEBRATES

28. Freshwater Rotifera: Eurotatoria from Assam,

Northeast India

By B.K. Sharma 524

29. Record of Homalocantha secunda (Lamarck)

fromOkha in Gulf of Kutch

By Deepak Apte 526

30. Three new records of Cladocera (Crustacea)

from India

By K. Venkataraman 527

BOTANY

3 1 . Additions to the floristic history of Orissa

By Sauris Panda and A.P. Das 531

32. Microgonium sublimbatum (C. Mull.) v.d. B:

Hymenophyllaceae — a new record for South

India

By C. Abdul Hameed and

P.V. Madhusoodanan 534

33. Phenology of Naregamia alata (Meliaceae)

from Western Maharashtra

By Anuradha S. Upadhye and

M.S. Kumbhojkar 535

34. Desmodium Desv. (Faboideae) in Eastern

Ghats, India — a systematic survey

By K. Sri Rama Murthy, S. Sandhya Rani

and T. Pullaiah 536

35. Eupatorium adenophorum Spreng. — a new

record for Madhya Pradesh

By S.P. Jain, S.C. Singh, G.N. Srivastava,

Vinay Ranjan and J. Singh 542

36. Jasminum caudatum Wall, ex Lindl.

(Oleaceae) — a new record for

West Bengal

By S. Saha and R.N. Kayal 543

37. Brachiaria eruciformis (J.E. Sm) Griseb. —

a new record for Kerala

By Manoj Chandran 543

505

506

507

508

509

510

511

512

513

514

517

518

519

520

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are grateful to the Ministry of Science and Technology,

Govt, of India,

FOR FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE JOURNAL.

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

December 1998 Vol. 95 No. 3

ANTLER CYCLES AND BREEDING SEASONALITY OF THE CHITAL

{AXIS AXIS ERXLEBEN) IN SOUTHERN INDIA1

T. R. Shankar Raman2

{With six text-figures)

Key words: Antler development, fawning, circannual rhythms, age-specific

reproduction, tropical dry evergreen forest, axis deer, Axis axis.

Annual cycles of antler renewal and casting, and births in a free-ranging, high-density population

of chital or axis deer were studied for 2.5 years in Guindy National Park in southern India. In all

the three age-classes (yearling, juvenile, and adult males), seasonality was pronounced and birth

seasonality was evident. Occurrence of most births (49%) between December and March, at the

onset of the dry season, probably enabled the energetically expensive late- lactation period of females

to coincide with the first flush in food availability after the rains. Only adult males attained peak

hard antler during the months when most conceptions occurred; the monthly percentage in hard

antler, was significantly correlated with fawning 8-9 months later. Time-lag correlations and patterns

of antler development showed that the peak in hard antler of juvenile and yearling males occurred

2.5 and 5 months later than in the adult males. Such staggered rutting cycles may reduce inter-

male conflict and increase the chances of subordinate age-classes achieving copulation.

Introduction

Breeding cycles of deer are known to be

closely linked to annual environmental rhythms

in the temperate regions. In the tropics, where

environmental rhythms are relatively diffuse and

unpredictable, breeding is often considered to be

markedly less seasonal or aseasonal (Lincoln

1992 a,b). There is evidence, however, that many

mammal species in the tropics and equatorial

regions also show distinct seasonality which is

influenced by factors such as photoperiod,

rainfall, food availability, and genetics (Bronson

1989).

Deer offer a unique opportunity to study

breeding seasonality due to their habit of sporting

'Accepted March, 1 998

3Centre for Ecological Research and Conservation,

3076/5, 4th Cross, Gokulam Park,

Mysore-570 002, India.

antlers. These bony outgrowths of the cranial

frontal bones occur in 36 of the 40 extant deer

species, and are grown and cast at roughly annual

intervals in consonance with seasonal sexual

cycles (Goss 1983, Lincoln 1985, 1992b). In all

species that possess antlers, excluding the

reindeer {Rangifer tarandus ), only males carry

antlers (Lincoln 1992b). Yearling males in most

species produce their first set of antlers on

reaching puberty, and successive sets of antlers

in ensuing years increase in size and complexity

parallel to the increase in body size. Rutting

males can be distinguished easily by the exposed,

bony, hard antlers they carry, in addition to

characteristic sexual behaviour (deVos et al.

1967, Goss 1983, Lincoln 1992b, Mishra and

Wemmer 1987, Schaller 1967). In addition to

antler size and body condition, the reproductive

success of males in polygynous species also

changes according to the age of the individual

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC. 1998

377

BREEDING SEASONALITY OF THE CHITAL IN SOUTHERN INDIA

(Clutton-Brock 1982, 1987). Prime-aged adult

males can be expected to rut during the annual

peak in female oestrus. If male-male competi-

tion for females is high, younger or subordinate

males may then be forced to rut at different

times of the year when adults are in velvet or

exhausted after their rutting activities (Dunbar

etal. 1990, Hirotani 1994). Monitoring monthly

changes in the proportion of males of different

age classes in hard antler, along with fawning

peaks, can be used to examine breeding

seasonality and age-related reproductive strate-

gies of deer.

The chital or axis deer, Axis axis Erxleben,

is an endemic cervid of south Asia occurring

between c. 8°N and 30°N in India, Sri Lanka,

Nepal, and Bangladesh (Schaller 1967). This,

coupled with the fact that it is common and

widespread within its range, makes it a suitable

representative for research on the ecology of

tropical cervids, which have been poorly studied

as compared to temperate zone cervids (Lincoln

1985, 1992a,b, Loudon and Brinklow 1992).

There have been several studies on the natural

history and ecology of chital in India and

Sri Lanka where it is native (Barrette 1985, 1987,

Berwick 1974, Eisenberg and Lockhart 1972,

Johnsingh 1983, Krishnan 1972, Mishra 1982,

Mishra and Wemmer 1987, Miura 1981, Schaller

1967, Sharatchandra and Gadgil 1975, Tak and

Lamba 1984), and in other countries where it

was introduced (Abies 1977, Graf and Nichols

1966). Quantitative information on antler cycles

and breeding seasonality is, however,

available in only a few studies (Fuchs 1977,

Graf and Nichols 1966, Johnsingh 1983, Mishra

and Wemmer 1987, Schaller 1967, Sharat-

chandra and Gadgil 1975). Among these, Fuchs

(1977) also examined antler cycles within

different age classes of males for a single

year.

Reports from studies of captive herds of

seasonal synchrony in annual antler and birth

cycles have been conflicting (Bubenik etal 1992,

Loudon and Curlewis 1988). In the wild,

however, studies have generally documented

some seasonality (Johnsingh 1983, Mishra and

Wemmer 1987, Schaller 1967, Sharatchandra

and Gadgil 1975). The pulse of seasonality is

seen to be weak, at least some males being in

hard antler throughout the year (Fuchs 1977,

Mishra and Wemmer 1987, Schaller 1967). It is

not clear, however, whether the males rutting

outside the peak rut are adults or younger males

whose rut is staggered relative to adults — an

important aspect of age-related reproductive

strategies. This paper presents a comparative

account of antler development in different age

classes of males, and birth seasonality over 2.5

years in a free-ranging, high density popula-

tion of chital in southern India. The existence of

age-related differences in antler cycles of males

is examined in relation to female breeding

seasonality and births and compared with those

from previous studies on chital and other

cervids.

Study Area

Guindy National Park (GNP) is a 2.7 km2

park located in the southwest corner of

Chennai (Madras) city (13°N, 80°E) in south

India. The vegetation, appearing as patches of

scrub jungle, thickets, and wooded areas,

corresponds to the Tropical Dry Evergreen Forest

of Champion and Seth (1968), reclassified as the

Albizia amara Boiv. community (Puri et al.

1989). A detailed description of the park is

available elsewhere (Raman et al. 1996). The

mean annual rainfall is 1215 mm, most of

which falls during the northeast monsoon in

October-November, though the park receives rain

during the pre-monsoon (April-May) and the

southwest monsoon (June-September) as well

(Fig. 1). The park is home to a small native

population of about 50 blackbuck (. Antilope

cervicapra L.) and a high-density population

of about 550 chital (212.3 chital/km2 during

1991-92, line transect estimate in Raman et al

1996).

378

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC. 1998

BREEDING SEASONALITY CF THE CHITAL IN SOUTHERN INDIA

Rainfall in mm Temperature (Degrees C)

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

0

J FMAMJ JASOND

Months

— e— Mean Daily Maximum — e— Mean Daily Minimum

40

30

20

10

0

Fig. 1: Rainfall (vertical bars) mean monthly maximum and minimum temperatures for GNP. Data averages

for 1931-1960 from the Climatological Table for Chennai (Minambakkam). Rainfall and temperature

regimes were similar during the study period 1991-93.

(see Raman et al. 1 996).

Methods

Six months (July-December 1990) of

preliminary observations were made on over 500

free-ranging individuals in GNP, concurrent to

observations of captive chita! in the adjacent

Children’s Park zoo. Based on these observations,

the age-sex and antler-stage classification of

chital by Schaller (1967) was substantially

refined (see below). A total of 12,866 individual

chital were classified into different age-sex and

antler categories between January 1 99 1 and May

1993 (sampling with replacement). An average

of 444 (range 1 2 1 -920) chital were classified each

month, which comprised, on an average, of 232

adult females (76-488), 35 yearling females (2-

67), 35 fawns (2-80), 82 adult males (29-170),

31 juvenile males (6-73), and 32 yearling males

(2-74). Around eight field visits were made each

month, with 3-5 trips each in the morning

(0600 to 1000 h) and evening (1600 to 1900 h),

the times of day when animals were most active.

Observations were made along established

transects, forest trails, and roads using a pair of

7 x 50 binoculars. Accurate classification of

individuals was possible because the chital in

GNP are generally not very shy of humans and

can be approached easily to within 30-50 m, often

to less than 20 m. Animals more than 100 m

away, and those not seen clearly, were not

classified. Bellows (rutting call given by adult

males usually consisting of 3-5 loud notes) heard

in the field were also recorded.

Age-sex and antler classification

Females could be classified only as adult

or yearling females in the field (Schaller 1967).

Fawns were classified as small fawns

(<2 months) and big fawns (>2 months), based

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC. 1998

379

BREEDING SEASONALITY OF THE CHITAL IN SOUTHERN INDIA

on their height in relation to that of adult

females whom they almost invariably accom-

panied. Fawns could not be sexed in the field.

Males were classified into 16 categories (see

below) representing different stages of maturity

and antler condition within three age groups —

yearlings, juveniles and adults. Having these

broad groups facilitated distinguishing the age

class of individual males irrespective of antler

condition, by looking at antler pedicel height

(which declines with age), pedicel width, and

head and body sizes (which increase with age).

The detailed classification of antler develop-

ment stages within each age class allows

the monitoring of seasonal changes at a

finer level and identifying the rutting period

clearly.

(A) Yearling Males or Spikers, age 10 months

- 2 yr) were classified as follows:

(i) Button Male: Only a stub-like

developing pedicel (c. 2 cm), com-

pletely covered by hair, is visible on

the head.

(ii) Velvet: A blunt, spike-like growing

antler covered in fawn-coloured

‘velvet’ and mounted on a tall ( c . 4-5

cm) pedicel.

(lii) Dry Velvet: A pointed spike-like

antler, 10-12 cm long, with a thin grey

covering of velvet.

(iv) Hard Spiker: Hard bony antler with

no trace of velvet. This includes an

intermediate stage, namely, yearlings

with the velvet peeling off before the

hard antler stage. Such individuals

are rarely seen, presumably because

this process occurs in just a few days.

(B) Juvenile Males (age 2-3 yr) were classified

as follows:

(i) Cast Yearling: Only the tall pedicel

of the yearling is present, with signs

of the wound at the burr where the

antler was cast.

(ii) Growing Velvet: Bulbous-tipped

antler usually with a small brow

tine.

(iii) Mature Velvet: Antler reaches nearly

full length of 20-30 cm and has a

rounded ( not bulbous) tip and a fawn

colour.

(iv) Dry Velvet: Antler is mature, pointed,

and covered by a thin but entire

covering of dark, greyish velvet.

(v) Peeling: Strips of velvet usually hang

loose from the antler and portions of

the bone are visible underneath.

(vi) Hard: Hard bony antler with no trace

of velvet left.

(C) Adult Males (age > 3 yr) — Six adult male

classes were considered:

Cast Adult, Growing Velvet, Mature

Velvet, Dry Velvet, Peeling, and Hard antler

adults were distinguished as in the case of

Juvenile Males. Antler beam, pedicel, and body

size were larger than for Juvenile Males and

enabled unambiguous classification in the vast

majority of cases.

Analyses

The percentage of males within each age

class in the different stages of antler condition

was computed for each month between March

1991 and May 1993. Initially (January-March

1991), adult and juvenile males were not

distinguished, hence the data were not included

in the age-specific analyses.

For each month, the number of small fawns

(age < 2 months) was expressed per 100 adult

females to examine seasonality in births. The

number of bellows heard during 0600-0900 h

and 1600-1900 h was divided by the number of

hours spent in the field in those time blocks to

get an index of bellowing rate (bellows/hour).

Sinusoidal curves were chosen to fit the

data on the annual antler cycles (Batschelet

1981).

380

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC. 1998

BREEDING SEASONALITY OF THE CHITAL IN SOUTHERN INDIA

The curves were of the form:

y — A cos -5- (t - 1 ) + H

y O max7

where: y — percentage of males (of a given age

class) in hard antler.

t — month number (ranging from

January = 1 to December = 12).

A — amplitude (a measure of the extent

or magnitude of the seasonality

pulse).

t — the month which is the peak in

the annual cycle,

H — annual mean of the monthly

percentage of males (of that age

class) in hard antler (a constant

estimated from the data).

The parameters of the curve have biological

relevance (Batschelet 1981: 159). The parameter

t estimates the month (Jan. = 1 to Dec. = 12)

max x 7

when the peak in antler cycles is reached.

Similarly, the estimated value of the peak

percentage of males in hard antler during the

annual cycle is given by A + H (when t = t ,

y = A cos (0) + H = A + H). Initial estimates of

A and t were derived iteratively and these were

used to perform non-linear regression using

SPSS/PC + software (Norusis 1990).

Table 1

BREEDING SEASONALITY OF ALL CHITAL

MALES CONSIDERED TOGETHER

AND AS SEPARATE AGE CLASSES*

*Parameter estimates from non-linear sinusoidal curve fitting

data in Figure 2. For explanation of parameters see text

(Analyses).

To examine temporal differences between

antler cycles of different age classes of males,

time-lag correlations were used as explained

below. This was also used to correlate male peaks

in hard antler with births 8-9 months later (this

corresponds to the gestation period in chital:

English 1992, Rao 1984; see Discussion). In

these analyses, a lag of one unit corresponded to

one month, and a range of 0-12 lag units was

employed. Pearson’s product-moment correlation

coefficients were computed in each case. The lag

at which the maximum significant positive

correlation existed between the antler cycles of

two age classes of males represented the number

of months separating their peaks in hard antler.

Similarly, a significant positive correlation

between the percentage of males of a given

age class in hard antler in a given month and

the number of small fawns observed 8-9

months later indicated whether the peaks in

hard antler coincided with incidents of mating

and conception.

Results

Age-specific antler cycles

Males in hard antlers were seen throughout

the year, with 50% (40%) or more males being

in hard antler during 8(10) out of the 12 months

of the year (Fig. 2a). When considered by age-

class, however, more distinctly seasonal patterns

are evident (Fig. 2b-d). The amplitude or extent

of the seasonality pulse of all males combined in

the analysis was lower (A = 18.56), compared to

the seasonality of adult or juvenile males coming

into hard antler (A = 28.31 and 34.24,

respectively, Table 1). The extent of seasonality

appeared to be low for yearling males (A = 1 8.35),

but the curve fit was poor in this case ( R 2 = 0.40)

and the data also suggests a more distinct

seasonality than for all males considered together

(Fig. 2b vs 2a).

A majority (73-91%) of the adult males

came into rut and hard antler between March

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC. 1998

381

(a) All Ma!es (b) Yearling Males

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BREEDING SEASONALITY OF THE CHITAL IN SOUTHERN INDIA

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382

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC. 1998

Fig. 2: Seasonality of antler cycles modelled as sinusoidal curves as monthly percentage of (a) All Males, (b) Yearling Males,

(c) Juvenile Males, and (d) Adult Males, in hard antler.

BREEDING SEASONALITY OF THE CHITAL IN SOUTHERN INDIA

and July, with the peak in hard antler being in

July ( tmax = 6.3, Fig. 2d). Most of their rutting

activity appeared concentrated between April and

July, the period when the number of bellows per

hour was highest. Thus, available data for April-

December 1991 showed that the percentage of

adult males in hard antler during a given month

was positively correlated with the number of

bellows per hour that month (r = 0.85, df = 7,

2-tailed P = 0.004).

Juvenile males, in contrast to adult males,

came into hard antler much later, reaching a peak

around late September (tmax = 8.7, Fig. 2c) when

most adult males began to cast antlers (August-

October). Juveniles cast antlers mostly during

November- January as was evident from the fall

in the hard antler curves for the two age classes

(see Fig. 2, and Antler development). Yearling

males (spikers) were out of phase with both adult

and juvenile males. Thus, the percentage of

yearling males in hard antler peaked around

December (January in 1991 and December in

1992, tmm= 1 1.3, Fig. 2b). Thus adult and juvenile

male peaks were separated by about 2.4 months,

while juvenile and yearling male peaks were

separated by 2.7 months. This was confirmed by

time-lag correlation analyses. Comparisons were

made between the antler cycles (monthly

percentage in hard antler) of juveniles and adults

and between juveniles and yearlings. In each

case, they were each out of phase by about 2-3

months as shown by the higher and significant

positive correlations at the corresponding lag

(Fig. 3). Thus, yearling and adult males were

out of phase by about 5.1 months.

These distinctly age-specific seasonal

patterns were evident in 1991 and 1992, and even

in the data for the first five months of 1993. Only

Lag (Months)

Fig. 3: Time-lag correlations between different age classes of male chital in the monthly percentage in hard

antler. Pearson product-moment correlation values falling outside the range encompassed by the horizontal

dotted lines are significant (2-tailed P < 0.05).

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC. 1998

383

Percentage

BREEDING SEASONALITY OF THE CHITAL IN SOUTHERN INDIA

(a)

Button I I Ve I vet K\1 Pry Velvet [ZD Hard

0D) Hi Oast I 1 Growing

1 OO

Velvet 1\D Velvet I I Velvet d ry □ Peeling I I Hard

80

60

■40

20

J

\

Ml

\

II..

\

1

wlFMAMJ JASONDJ FMAMJ JASONDJ FMAM

(c) Hi Cast I I Growing Velvet Z3 Velvet I Velvet dry LID Peeling LID Hard

ry

'9

1 OO

80

60

40 -

20

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J L

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v

-

-J

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Month

Fig. 4: Antler development in (a) Yearling Males, (b) Juvenile Males, and (c) Adult Males during 1991-93

as monthly percentage of individuals in different stages of antler development.

384

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC 1998

BREEDING SEASONALITY OF THE CHITAL IN SOUTHERN INDIA

if males of all age classes are pooled, is an overall

flatter curve obtained, indicating milder

seasonality. It is clear, however, that even the

pulse of age-specific seasonality is not absolute,

as about 20% of the adult males were in hard

antler even during the lowest month (December,

but see Discussion).

Antler development

according to age class

Consideration of different stages of antler

development reinforces the above patterns.

Yearling males in the ‘Button Male’ stage were

observed as early as November-December, when

they were 10-12 months old (assuming that they

were born during the birth peak in January-

February). A few button males were seen till

about May-June the following year (Fig. 4a).

During the following months, yearling males

were mostly in velvet and dry velvet till about

August-October, when many of them started

turning from dry velvet into hard spikers over

the winter. Most yearlings cast their antlers the

following January-February, and the approxi-

mately 2-year old males now entered the juvenile

age class.

The juvenile males were in growing and

mature velvet till April-May; they cleaned their

antlers of velvet, achieving their peak in hard

antler between June and September (Fig. 4b).

Interestingly, these were the months when

most adult males had just cast their antlers

(Fig. 4c). A majority of juveniles cast their

hard antlers after December and entered the

adult male age category as 3 -year olds. These

individuals then came into hard antler earlier

than in the previous year, more or less in

phase with the other adult males in the

population. Between September and December,

most adult males had growing antlers. By

the following April, 60-75% of the adults

had passed through the dry velvet and

peeling phases to attain hard antlers and begin

to rut.

Fawning seasonality

Births of fawns also clearly indicated

seasonality (Fig. 5). The proportion of small

fawns per 100 females peaked in February in

1992 and 1993. In 1991, a peak in births is also

apparent in April, the reason for which is

unknown. During 1991-92, most small fawns

(49.2%) were noticed between December and

March. Fawns two weeks to one month old could

be seen moving with females. Based on the sizes

of fawns in the field, my observations indicated

that most births in GNP occurred between mid-

December and mid-February. Very few births

occurred between July and November. Only adult

males showed a significant correlation between

rutting (monthly percentage in hard antler) and

fawning after a lag of 8-9 months, corresponding

to the gestation period (Fig. 6).

Discussion

The antler cycle of chital in Guindy

National Park appears, at first glance, to indicate

a very diffuse seasonality as at least 50% of the

males are in hard antler for 8 out of 1 2 months

of the year. This has prompted observers in the

past to conclude that chital breed aseasonally,

even though each male may have its own yearly

seasonal cycle (Inverarity 1895, Krishnan 1972,

Lincoln 1992a,b, Loudon and Curlewis 1988).

The present study shows, however, that the antler

cycle of individual age classes of males reveals

distinct seasonal patterns. Most of the adult males

(73-91%) are in hard antler between March and

July, with a peak in May-June. In contrast,

juvenile and yearling males peak about 2.5 and

5 months later.

Such staggered antler cycles of different

age classes of deer have been reported even in

temperate cervids exhibiting greater seasonality

of breeding such as the Sika deer Cervus nippon

(Miura 1984a) and reindeer (Leader- Williams

1988). In red deer Cervus elaphus, dominant

males tend to cast antlers (and come into hard

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC. 1998

385

BREEDING SEASONALITY OF THE CHITAL IN SOUTHERN INDIA

Month

Fig. 5: Seasonality of fawning in chital in Guindy National Park from 1991-93.

antler) earlier and produce larger antlers than

subordinate ones (Bartos 1990). Yearling male

chital have also been reported to come into hard

antler several months after the peak in the adult

rut (Fuchs 1977, Schaller 1967, Schaller and De

1971). Age-related differences in antler cycles

and rutting have been noted in other Indian deer

species: the swamp deer or barasingha ( Cervus

duvauceli duvauceli — young stags cast antlers

later in the year, Singh 1984, and my personal

observation), the hardground barasingha (C. d.

branderi — young stags rut later than adults,

Martin 1975), and the sambar (C. unicolor —

young males cast antlers later than adults,

Richardson 1972). In spite of the occasional

description of these patterns, the processes

underlying them remain poorly understood. Here

I discuss the factors influencing the breeding

seasonality patterns in male and female chital,

and compare these with other cervids.

Age-related antler cycles

and reproduction in males

It is well established that the hard antler

stage in tropical and temperate cervids is

associated with high testosterone levels, enlarged

testes, and heightened sexual activity in males

(Goss 1983, Lincoln 1985, 1992b, Axis axis :

Loudon and Curlewis 1988). The rut is an

energetically expensive period for males of

different species due to the demands of territorial

defence, mate searching, bellowing, sparring and

fighting activities (Clutton-Brock et al. 1979,

386

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC 1998

BREEDING SEASONALITY OF THE CHITAL IN SOUTHERN INDIA

Fig. 6: Time-lag correlations between the monthly percentage of hard antlered males of different age classes

and fawning. Pearson product-moment correlation values falling outside the range encompassed by the

horizontal dotted lines are significant (2-tailed P < 0.05)

1982, Barrette 1987, de Vos etal 1967, Schaller

1967) resulting in weight loss (Mitchell et al

1976, Loudon and Curlewis 1988), stress

(Bronson 1989), and injuries including mortal

wounds (Clutton-Brock 1982, Clutton-Brock et

al 1979, 1982, Miura 1984b). In chital, bodily

injury to males in vicious fights was observed in

18 of 74 instances in Texas (Fuchs 1977) and a

high frequency of antler breakage was also noted

(Barrette 1985, Fuchs 1977). Also, older hard-

antlered male chital are more susceptible to

predation than younger males (Johnsingh 1983,

Patel 1992).

These observations are important when

considering age-related differences in antler

cycles. In GNP, by the end of May, nearly 70-

80% of the adult males have been rutting for two

months, and a further 5-10% have been rutting

for a month. Thus in June, when most juvenile

males attain hard antler, a majority of adult males

are relatively exhausted from their rutting

activities. If any females are in oestrus at this

time or later, the chances for juvenile males to

succeed in courtship may be higher. In fact, chital

females are known to have a series of oestrus

cycles throughout the year in captivity (Asdell

1964). Females that fail to conceive during the

main rut of adult males, cycle again at intervals

of about 19 days (English 1992), and may mate

with juvenile or yearling males later in the year,

when most adults are in velvet. Similarly, in red

deer and reindeer, sub-adult stags achieve little

success in obtaining and copulating with oestrus

hinds during the mating peak of adult stags

(Gibson and Guinness 1980, Hirotani 1994), but

young stags that hold hinds later, when most

adults are exhausted, achieve copulation

(Clutton-Brock et al. 1982, Hirotani 1994). This

is also analogous to musth in African elephants

Loxodonta africana, where younger males often

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC. 1998

387

BREEDING SEASONALITY OF THE CHITAL IN SOUTHERN INDIA

stagger their musth from large bulls, and are then

able to dominate them in fights over oestrus

females or access to resources (Poole 1989).

Thus, the staggered age-specific patterns

of antler cycles can be a strategy to avoid

intrasexual conflict among males. This may

apply particularly in areas which have a high

density of chital such as GNP (212.3 individuals/

km2, Raman et al. 1996). Another explanation

given for such age-specific patterns of rutting is

that the timing of antler development may be

determined ontogenetically, so as to enable

individual males to come into hard antler at the

time of the main rut, when they attain adulthood

(Dunbar-Brander 1931, Schaller 1967). This,

however, does not appear to hold true, since in

the lower-density (18.9 chital/km2) free-ranging

population of chital in Texas, Fuchs (1977) found

that only yearling males differed in antler cycles

from other males, whereas juvenile males were

more or less synchronous with adult males. It is

speculated that there may be flexible variation

in antler cycles of males in different populations

depending on the intensity of male-male conflict.

Younger males may stagger their antler

cycles only if they are able to derive the benefits

of conflict avoidance and attaining copulation.

It was not within the scope of the present study

to examine copulatory success of males of

different age classes. Earlier studies have,

however, shown that juvenile male chital do

achieve copulation under free-ranging conditions

(Barrette 1987). About 90% (61 of 68) of the

copulations documented in the literature were

achieved by the big male class (antler length >

60 cm), 6% (4) by medium males (antler length

30-60 cm), 4% (3) by juvenile males (antler

length < 30 cm), and none by yearling males

(Barrette 1987). From the female’s point of view,

mating with a younger male may be better than

not mating at all in a given year. Conversely,

younger males too could be of high quality and

females could mate with young males which

possess attributes that are relatively high-quality

for their age (Clutton-Brock et al. 1982). Further

studies are, however, required to produce direct

behavioural evidence that can support or reject

the contention that staggering of antler cycles

by younger males, in chital is a strategy to offset

male-male conflict and attain higher reproductive

success.

An offshoot of the age-specific patterns of

rutting may be the slightly diffuse nature of the

fawn birth pulse. Another reason for this is

probably that seasonality in the tropics is less

sharp than in temperate regions. Male fawns bom

outside the birth peak may contribute to the small

proportion of ‘floating’ males which have their

antler cycles out of phase with other males of

their age class. The time of the year when males

of different age classes rut is probably constrained

by female breeding seasonality.

Female breeding seasonality

Given a gestation period of about 8 months

in chital (English .1992: 235 days, SD = 3.0, Rao

1984: 236-247 days, N= 5), the results indicate

that most conceptions occurred in May- June,

corresponding to the peak in rutting of adult

males (Fig. 2d). That adult males are responsible

for most of the conceptions is supported by the

significant correlation between the adult male

rut and fawning at a lag of 8-9 months. Weaning

of fawns occurs 3-4.5 months after birth (Graf

and Nichols 1966) and the mean time between

birth and the next conception has been estimated

to be 48 days in captivity (English 1992) and 4-

5 months in the wild (Graf and Nichols 1966).

Females with big fawns close to weaning age are

frequently observed being courted by chital males

(Barrette pers. comm, and my own observation).

Thus in GNP, weaning of most fawns and

conceptions occur around May- June during the

adult male rutting peak.

Female deer usually undergo parturition

during periods that are most favourable for fawn

survival, usually in terms of high food availability

(Delany and Happold 1979, Robbins etal. 1987;

Sempere 1990). In GNP, however, most births

388

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC. 1998

BREEDING SEASONALITY OF THE CHITAL IN SOUTHERN INDIA

occur between late December and early March,

which is the onset of the dry season, a period of

relative resource scarcity (Fig. 1). Observing

similar seasonality in Bandipur, Sharatchandra

and Gadgil (1975) suggested that females pursue

this strategy as it entails pregnancy during the

wet season, when food is abundant. In female

deer and other ruminants, however, the energy

needs of lactation are known to exceed those of

pregnancy (Bronson 1989, Loudon and Brinklow

1992, Loudon and Kay 1984, Robbins etal 1987,

Widdowson 1981). The late-lactation period is,

therefore, likely to be crucial both for maternal

survival and investment in offspring. While

quantitative data are lacking on chital feeding

ecology and nutritional energetics, it is suggested

that, in places such as GNP and Bandipur,

parturition by females at the onset of the dry

season enables them to coincide their period of

late-lactation with the flush of plant growth

following pre-monsoon showers. After wean-

ing, the fawns begin to feed on the grasses

from the southwest monsoon rains. Pregnant

females can then meet the needs of foetal

development through the wet season, and store

reserves for the needs of the dry season, birth,

and early lactation (Sharatchandra and Gadgil

1975).

The influence of rainfall and food

availability can be tested on different chital

populations. It can be predicted that in north

India, where the monsoon occurs about a month

later, breeding would be delayed. Available

reports as well as this study partially support this

conjecture. Thus chital in Bandipur and GNP at

13°N have a rutting peak in May- June (Johnsingh

1983, Sharatchandra and Gadgil 1975), while

in Corbett National Park at 29°N it is in June-

July (Tak and Lamba 1 984). In Chitwan National

Park at the same latitude, however, the peak rut

is in April-May (Mishra and Wemmer 1987),

which may be due to early pre-monsoon rains in

April-May or due to factors other than rainfall.

Interestingly, in Wilpattu National Park in Sri

Lanka where there are two distinct rainy seasons,

there are two corresponding fawning seasons in

the chital population (Eisenberg and Lockhart

1972, Barrette pers. comm.). Quantitative

description of such patterns in future studies

using sinusoidal curves as presented in this study

will enable comparison of biologically relevant

parameters across populations. Studies of

captive herds coupled with long-term field

studies can yield comprehensive insights into the

factors affecting the reproduction of tropical

cervids.

Acknowledgements

I thank Dr. R. Sukumar and R.K.G. Menon

for guidance, encouragement, and stimulating

discussions. I benefited much from discussions

with Drs. C. Barrette, N.V. Joshi, G. Cowlishaw,

A. Venkatraman and other friends: M.D.

Madhusudan, J.A. Santosh, K. Shanker and A.

Sumana Rao. I thank the Tamil Nadu Forest

Department for permission to work in Guindy

National Park, and institutions that aided the

research — Loyola College, Centre for

Ecological Sciences, and Wildlife Institute of

India, Dehradun. Divya Mudappa and Dr. N.V.

Joshi provided helpful comments.

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by cheetal deer. Cheetal 7(1): 15-17.

Sempere, A.J. (1990): The annual cycles of the European

roe deer ( Capreolus capreolus ) in relation to the

reproductive cycle. In: Bubenik, G.A. & A.B.

Bubenik (Eds.) Homs, pronghorns, and antlers.

Springer- Verlag, New York, pp 396-415.

Sharatchandra, H.C. & M. Gadgil (1975): A year of

Bandipur. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72: 623-647.

Singh, V.P. (1984): Bio-ecological studies on Cervus

duvauceli duvauceli, swamp deer (barasingha) in

Dudhwa forest near Indo-Nepal border. Ph.D.

thesis, Kanpur University.

Tak, P.C. & B.S. Lamba (1984): Ecology and ethology of

the spotted deer Axis axis axis (Erxleben)

(Artiodactyla: Cervidae). Rec. Zool. Surv. India.

Occ. Pap. 43: 1-100.

Widdowson, E.M. (1981): The role of nutrition in

mammalian reproduction. In: Gilmore, D. & B.

Cook (Eds.) Environmental factors in mammal

reproduction. Macmillan, London, pp 145-159.

JOURNAL, BOMBA YNA TURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC. 1998

391

SPECIES COMPOSITION, STATUS AND FEEDING ECOLOGY OF

AVIFAUNA IN HIGH ALTITUDE FORESTS OF SRI LANKA1

K.B. Ranawana and C.N.B. Bambaradeniya2

( With four text-figures)

Key words: Hakgala Strict Nature Reserve (HSNR), Horton Plains National Park

(HPNP), Peak Wilderness Sanctuary (PWS), avifauna, beta diversity, species

composition, feeding guilds.

A survey was carried out from May to October 1 995, to investigate the species composition,

status and feeding ecology of bird communities in three high altitude forests of Sri Lanka,

namely Hakgala Strict Nature Reserve (HSNR, 1142 ha), Horton Plains National Park

(HPNP, 3160 ha) and the Peak Wilderness Sanctuary (PWS, 22,380 ha). Altogether, 1 16

species of birds were recorded during this survey, including 13 species of winter migrants

and 23 species that are endemic to Sri Lanka. The number of bird species observed at

HSNR, HPNP and PWS were 61 , 47 and 98 respectively. Results indicate that the avifauna

at PWS has a high species richness. Beta diversity measurements also indicate that the

avifauna at PWS is more diverse, as compared to HSNR and HPNP, whose avifaunal

communities show a higher degree of similarity. Seventeen food defined guilds were

identified among the bird species. The fact that 21 species of birds (19.5%) observed

during this survey are nationally threatened today, points to the importance of conserving

these few remaining high altitude forest patches, thereby ensuring the survival of these

vulnerable species.

Introduction

Sri Lanka, with a varied landscape and a

diversity of habitats, harbours a rich bird life.

427 species of birds have been recorded to date

from the island, which include 169 winter

migrants (Phillips 1978), and 26 endemic species

(Wijesinghe 1994). A majority of the endemics

are confined to the wet southwestern areas of the

island (Wijesinghe et al. 1993). Some studies

have been carried out previously on the species

composition, ecology and status of avifauna

especially in the low country wet and dry zones

of Sri Lanka (Kotagama and Thambiah 1986,

Jansen et al. 1 986). However, information on the

montane zone avifauna of Sri Lanka is scarce.

Werner and Schwienfurth (1985) recorded many

'Accepted May, 1997

department of Zoology, University of Peradeniya,

Sri Lanka.

species of birds that are endemic to Sri Lanka

from two montane zone forests — the Peak

Wilderness Sanctuary and Horton Plains.

The present study was carried out in three

high elevation wet zone forests of Sri Lanka,

namely the Hakgala Strict Nature Reserve

(HSNR, 1 142 ha), Horton Plains National Park.

(HPNP, 3160 ha), and the Peak Wilderness

Sanctuary (PWS, 22,380 ha). The HSNR (1650

m - 2 178 m above msl) lies on the south bank of

Sita Eliya and consists of a botanically rich

montane cloud forest (IUCN 1990). It also

contains some patches of montane grasslands.

The HPNP (1 800 m - 2289 m above msl), which

adjoins the eastern edge of the PWS, comprises

of a gently undulating highland plateau which

supports wet montane grassland, fringed and

interspersed with patches of dense montane cloud

forest (IUCN 1990). The PWS (50 m - 2230 m

above msl) consists of three major forest

392

JOURNAL. BOMBA Y NA TURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 95 (3) DEC. 1998

ECOLOGY OF A VIFAUNA IN HIGH ALTITUDE FORESTS OF SRI LANKA

Fig. 1 : Map showing the protected areas studied for avian communities

Study trails

== Main Road

Forest Boundary

PWS Peak \Mlderncss

Sanctuary

HPNP Horton Plains National

Park

HSNR Hakgala Strict Nature

Reserve

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 95(3), DEC 1998

393

ECOLOGY OF A VIFA UNA IN HIGH ALTITUDE FORESTS OF SRI LANKA

formations which are contiguous and altitu-

dinally graded; the lowland rainforest (50 m -700

m), the sub-montane rainforest (700 m - 1700 m)

and the montane cloud forest (>1700 m). All three

forests lie within the montane wet zone of Sri

Lanka. Details of topography, vegetation and

climate of these areas is given in the IUCN

Directory of South Asian Protected Areas (1990).

The main objective of the study was to

compare the species composition and diversity

of bird communities in these three high elevation

forests of Sri Lanka, and to study the habitats

and feeding ecology of the bird communities in

the same three forests.

Methodology

The study was conducted from May to

October 1995. Bird communities in each of the

three forests were investigated along seven pre-

determined trails respectively (Fig. 1), covering

all major habitat types (forests, scrublands,

grasslands and aquatic habitats). The length of

a single trail varied between 1-8 km (App. I).

Birds were observed from early morning

(0600 h) till late evening (1830 h) and

approximately 350 man hours were spent at each

forest. Identification of the birds was based on

Henry (1978) and Kotagama and Fernando

(1994). Species nomenclature follows Phillips

(1978).

Using the presence/absence data

(qualitative data), the degree of change

(variation) in species composition between the

forests was calculated for each forest, using

Whittaker’s measure:

13 w = S/alpha - 1

where S = the total number of species recorded

in a forest, and

alpha = mean species richness or mean

number of species per

trail (Magurran 1988).

The degree of similarity of two forests

HSNR HPNP PWS

V//\ Residents l=lEndemics Migrants

Fig. 2: Status comparison of avifauna at the study

areas

(where bird species are concerned), was

investigated using Jaccard’s measure of

estimating B diversity:

j/(a + b-j)

where j = the number of species found at both

sites

a = the number of species in forest A

b = the number of species in forest B

(Magurran 1988)

The different species of birds observed in

the forests were divided according to their main

feeding categories, under which food defined

guilds were also recognized and separated. The

proportion of birds in each feeding category and

the proportion of birds in the main habitat types

were calculated separately for each study area.

Results

A total of 116 species belonging to 37

families were recorded from the three forests

(App. II). These included 13 species of winter

migrants and 23 species that are endemic to Sri

Lanka. Fig. 2 shows a comparison of the status

of the avifauna at the above forests. The total

number of bird species observed at HSNR, HPNP

and PWS were 61, 47 and 98 respectively. The

proportions of endemic bird species recorded as

a percentage of the total number of endemic bird

species in Sri Lanka were as follows: HSNR 30%

394

JOURNAL, BOMBA Y NA TURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95 (3) DEC. 1998

ECOLOGY OF AVIFAUNA IN HIGH ALTITUDE FORESTS OF SRI LANKA

80

60

40

20

0

Fig. 3; Percentage habitat occupation of birds in the

study areas

(8 species), HPNP 27% (7 species) and PWS 77%

(20 species). The winter migrants arrived in late

September.

Each study area consisted of four main

habitat types — forests, scrublands, grasslands

and aquatic habitats such as marshes, streams

and ponds. Fig. 3 shows the percentage habitat

occupation of birds in the three study areas. The

habitat occupation of birds at HSNR and HPNP

appears to be similar.

The mean number of species per trail at

each study area included: HSNR 25.84 ± 4.81

(SD), HPNP 2 1 .85 ± 5. 1 1 and PWS 39.71 ± 12.89

(App. I). Table 1 shows the beta diversity

measurements (Whittaker’s index/Jaccard’s

index) for the three study areas. The higher

values of Whittaker’s index indicate a greater

variation in species composition in a community,

Table 1

BETA DIVERSITY MEASUREMENTS

Forest Scrubland Grassland Aquatic

SSI HSNR a HPNP ES3 PWS

while higher values of Jaccard’s index indicate

greater similarity between bird communities in

the two forests.

The species composition in the three study

areas is clearly shown in Fig. 4. Forty nine

(42.2%) bird species observed were exclusive to

PWS, seven species (6.0%) were exclusive to

HSNR and four species (3.4%) were exclusive

to HPNP. Seven species were recorded only at

HSNR and HPNP, two species were recorded only

at HPNP and PWS, 13 species were recorded only

at HSNR and PWS while 34 (29.3%) species were

common to all three forests. Of the 49 species of

birds exclusive to Peak Wilderness Sanctuary,

40 species occurred below 1500 m altitude.

Fig. 4: Species composition of avifauna at the study

areas. Showing the no. of exclusive and

common species

Many species of birds were observed

feeding in social groups (single species flocks

and mixed species flocks). Mixed species

foraging bird flocks was a common observation

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC. 1998

395

ECOLOGY OF A VI FA UNA IN HIGH ALTITUDE FORESTS OF SRI LANKA

Table 2

PROPORTION OF BIRD SPECIES OBSERVED

ACCORDING TO THEIR FEEDING GUILDS

* Refer Appendix II for feeding guilds

at all three forests. Altogether, 35 species were

observed participating in mixed flocks (App. II).

Here, a single flock consisted of 4 to 20 different

species with 10 to 60 individual birds. The

lowland rainforest area of the Peak Wilderness

Sanctuary harboured a higher number of flocks

with mixed species as compared to the other

areas. The different species of birds comprising

the mixed flocks were distributed according to

the vertical stratification of the vegetation.

The proportion of bird species according

to four major feeding categories and the number

of feeding guilds recognized under each feeding

category is given in Table 2.

The insectivorous birds can be divided into

six feeding guilds, based on their profitable/

preferable feeding sites/niches. Similarly,

carnivorous birds can be divided into three

feeding guilds. The table shows that both HPNP

and HSNR harbours a higher proportion of birds

which feed on animal matter (approximately 70%

insectivorous + carnivorous), compared to those

at PWS (approximately 56%). Birds at the PWS

occupy a considerable proportion of the

phytophagous category (25%) (divided into four

guilds) compared to those of the other two forests.

However, the majority of the species from this

category were found only in the lowland and sub-

montane rain forest areas of the Peak Wilderness

Sanctuary. A similar trend is seen in the omni-

vorous category (four guilds) where 19% of the

birds at PWS belong to this category.

Appendix II provides a checklist of birds

for the three study areas along with their feeding

guilds, habitats, habits (solitary, pairs, flocks, and

mixed flocks) and feeding strategies.

Discussion

With respect to the degree of change in

species composition between the forests

(B diversity - Whittaker’s Index), the avifauna

at PWS shows greater diversity and variation in

comparison to the avifauna of the other two

forests.

The main reason for this is likely to be the

contiguous tracts of altitudinally graded forest,

ranging from lowland rainforest to high altitude

cloud forest. This is further evident when

considering the percentage habitat occupation of

birds in the three study areas. The percentage of

birds occupying the forest habitats is highest at

PWS (57%). The majority of bird species

observed here were in the lowland rain forest

area (50 m-700 m), which consists of a

continuous 30-40 m high canopy, interspersed

by taller individual emergents rising to about

60 m. The rich flora in the lowland rainforest

creates additional habitats and food resources,

and thereby harbours a diverse avifauna with

many phytophagous species. The number of bird

species observed gradually decreased along with

increasing altitude. This may be due to the

change in vegetation, food resources and cold

climate at higher altitudes. The Jaccard’s

measure indicates that the avifaunal communities

at HSNR and HPNP have a higher degree of

similarity, compared to those at PWS and HPNP,

and PWS and HSNR. Both HPNP and HSNR

consist of montane cloud forest and montane

grassland situated above 1650 m, and this may

be the reason for the higher degree of similarity

of avifauna in these two forests.

The food defined guild structure of the

birds observed (Table 1, App. II) highlights the

efficient distribution of food resources among

different species in a community. It was evident

that the different species of birds occupying a

396

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3) DEC 1998

ECOLOGY OF A VIFAUNA IN HIGH ALTITUDE FORESTS OF SRI LANKA

particular feeding guild and space had evolved

specialized feeding strategies to explore and

obtain food resources efficiently and thereby

reduce competition within a guild (App. II). For

instance, of the arboreal insectivores occupying

the canopy and sub-canopy, some were fast-

flying, hawking (ie. Grey-headed flycatcher)

while others were slow-flying, hawking (Azure

blue flycatcher, Dusky blue flycatcher). Of the

bark-gleaning insectivores in tree trunks, some

chisel and drill into bark (woodpeckers), while

others probe into lichens and mosses on tree

trunks and into crevices (i.e. scimitar babbler,

grey tit). These different feeding strategies are

directly related to the structural adaptations of

each species (i.e. structure of bill, legs and feet,

wings etc.) Bird species which feed in flocks may

have the advantage of finding food with ease and

also protection. It was observed that birds which

fed in social groups exploited food resources that

were patchily distributed in both space and time

(insects, seeds, fruit etc.), while most solitary

feeders consumed well dispersed animal prey

(amphibians, reptiles, mammals, snails, etc.).

The majority of species in mixed flocks were

insectivorous.

Refer

Henry, G.M. (1978): A Guide to the Birds ofCeylon. KVG

de Silva & Sons, Kandy, Sri Lanka, pp 457.

IUCN (1990): IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected

Areas. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, pp 294.

Jansen, M.A.B., S.W. Kotagama, R.P. Subasinghe & P.B.

Karunaratne (1986): Species composition and

diversity of bird communities in two dry zone habitats.

Abs. 42nd Ann. Sess. of the Sri Lanka Association for

the Advancement of Science (SLA AS), Section D. pp

135.

Kotagama, S.W. & P. Fernando (1994): A field guide to

the birds of Sri Lanka. Wildlife Heritage Trust of Sri

Lanka, Colombo 8. pp 224.

Kotagama, S.W. & C.R. Thambiah(1986): Ecology, status

and biology of avifauna at Sinharaja Rainforest. Sess.

of the Sri Lanka Association for the Advancement of

Science (SLAAS), Section D. pp. 1 36.

Of the total number of bird species

observed in these three forests, 21 (19.5%) are

considered as threatened in Sri Lanka

(Wijesinghe et al. 1993). The Peak Wilderness

Sanctuary, in particular, harbours the majo-

rity of the endemic and threatened bird species

of Sri Lanka. These facts underline the

importance of protecting these three forests in

order to ensure the survival of these vulnerable

bird species.

Finally, an aspect that was not examined

during this survey was quantitative data on

numbers of different species in a community,

which would lead to the estimation of avifaunal

diversity and relative abundance within each

forest. We intend doing so in a future survey.

Acknowledgements

We thank Mrs. D.N. De Silva of the

Department of Zoology, University of Peradeniya,

for reviewing the manuscript, Mr. C.

Jayewardena and Mr. J.H.B. Tennekoon for

assisting in field observations, Mr. M.

Chandrasekara for drawing the figures, and Miss

C. Gregory for assistance.

ENCES

Magurran, A.E. (1988): Ecological diversity and

its measurement. Croom Helm Ltd. London,

pp 179.

Phillips, W.W. A. ( 1 978): Annotated checklist of the birds

of Ceylon. Wildlife and Nature Protection Society of

Ceylon, pp 92.

Werner, W.L. & U. Schweinfurth (1985): Naturreservate

im Hochland der insel Ceylon (Sri Lanka): Peak

Wilderness und Horton Plains. Natur und Museum.

1 1 5(3). Frankfurt.

Wijesinghe, D.P. (1994): Checklist of the birds of Sri

Lanka. Ceylon Bird Club, Colombo 1 : 30.

Wijesinghe., L.C.A de S. J.A.U.N. Gunatilleke, S.D.G.

Jayawardena, S. Kotagama & C.V.S. Gunatilleke

(1993): Biological Conservation in Sri Lanka - A

National Status Report. IUCN, Colombo 5, Sri Lanka.

pp 100.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC. 1998

397

ECOLOGY OF AVIFAUNA IN HIGH ALTITUDE FORESTS OF SRI LANKA

Appendix 1

NUMBER OF BIRD SPECIES RECORDED IN DIFFERENT TRAILS

Mean no. of species per trail 2 1 .85 ± 5. 1 1

Mean no. of species per trail 39.71 ± 12.89

Appendix II

BIRD SPECIES OBSERVED AT THE HAKGALA SNR, HORTON PLAINS NP & PEAK WILDERNESS SANCTUARY

AND THEIR HABITATS AND FEEDING ECOLOGY

398 JOURNAL, BOMBA Y NA TURAL HISTOR Y SOCIETY, 95 (3) DEC 1 998

ECOLOGY OF A VI FAUNA IN HIGH ALTITUDE FORESTS OF SRI LANKA

Appendix II (contd.)

BIRD SPECIES OBSERVED AT THE HAKGALA SNR, HORTON PLAINS NP & PEAK WILDERNESS SANCTUARY

AND THEIR HABITATS AND FEEDING ECOLOGY

(Common names as provided by author - Ed.)

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 95(3). DEC. 1998

399

ECOLOGY OF A VIFAUNA IN HIGH ALTITUDE FORESTS OF SRI LANKA

Appendix II (contd.)

BIRD SPECIES OBSERVED AT THE HAKGALA SNR, HORTON PLAINS NP & PEAK WILDERNESS SANCTUARY

AND THEIR HABITATS AND FEEDING ECOLOGY

(Common names as provided by author - Ed.)

400 JOURNAL, BOMBA Y NA TURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95 (3) DEC. 1998

ECOLOGY OF A VIFAUNA IN HIGH ALTITUDE FORESTS OF SRI LANKA

Appendix II (contd.)

BIRD SPECIES OBSERVED AT THE HAKGALA SNR, HORTON PLAINS NP & PEAK WILDERNESS SANCTUARY

AND THEIR HABITATS AND FEEDING ECOLOGY

(Common names as provided by author - Ed.)

ECOLOGY OF A VIFAUNA IN HIGH ALTITUDE FORESTS OF SRI LANKA

Appendix II (contd.)

BIRD SPECIES OBSERVED AT THE HAKGALA SNR, HORTON PLAINS NP & PEAK WILDERNESS SANCTUARY

AND THEIR HABITATS AND FEEDING ECOLOGY

(Common names as provided by author - Ed.)

402 JOURNAL, BOMBA Y NA TURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95 (3) DEC 1998

ECOLOGY OF A VIFAUNA IN HIGH ALTITUDE FORESTS OF SRI LANKA

Appendix II (contd.)

BIRD SPECIES OBSERVED AT THE HAKGALA SNR, HORTON PLAINS NP & PEAK WILDERNESS SANCTUARY

AND THEIR HABITATS AND FEEDING ECOLOGY

(Common names as provided by author - Ed.)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 95(3), DEC 1998 403

ECOLOGY OF A VIFAUNA IN HIGH ALTITUDE FORESTS OF SRI LANKA

Appendix II (contd.)

BIRD SPECIES OBSERVED AT THE HAKGALA SNR, HORTON PLAINS NP & PEAK WILDERNESS SANCTUARY

AND THEIR HABITATS AND FEEDING ECOLOGY

(Common names as provided by author - Ed.)

404 JOURNAL, BOMBA Y NA TURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95 (3) DEC. 1998

ECOLOGY OF A VIFAUNA IN HIGH ALTITUDE FORESTS OF SRI LANKA

Appendix II (contd.)

BIRD SPECIES OBSERVED AT THE HAKGALA SNR, HORTON PLAINS NP & PEAK WILDERNESS SANCTUARY

AND THEIR HABITATS AND FEEDING ECOLOGY

(Common names as provided by author - Ed.)

ECOLOGY OF A VI FA UNA IN HIGH ALTITUDE FORESTS OF SRJ LANKA

Appendix II (contd.)

BIRD SPECIES OBSERVED AT THE HAKGALA SNR, HORTON PLAINS NP & PEAK WILDERNESS SANCTUARY

AND THEIR HABITATS AND FEEDING ECOLOGY

(Common names as provided by author - Ed.)

406 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3) DEC 1998

ECOLOGY OF AVIFAUNA IN HIGH ALTITUDE FORESTS OF SRI LANKA

Appendix II (contd.)

BIRD SPECIES OBSERVED AT THE HAKGALA SNR, HORTON PLAINS NP & PEAK WILDERNESS SANCTUARY

AND THEIR HABITATS AND FEEDING ECOLOGY

(Common names as provided by author - Ed.)

HSNR - Hakgala Strict Nature Reserve

HPNP - Horton Plains National Park

PWS = Peak Wilderness Sanctuary

Feeding guild: ABI - Arboreal Insectivore, AI - Aerial Insec tivore, FGI - Foliage Gleaning Insectivore, BGI - Bark-Gleaning Insectivore,

TI - Terrestrial Insectivore, GI - Grassland Insectivore, AC - Aerial Carnivore, ATC - Arboreal-Terrestrial Carnivore, WC - Wading

Carnivore, AN - Arboreal Nectarivore, AF - Arboreal Frugivore, AFNGS - Arboreal Frugivore, Nectarivore, Granivore, Seed-eater,

GS - Grani vore, Seed-eater, AFI - Arboreal Frugivore, Insectivore, FGIFN - Foliage Gleaning Insectivore, Frugivore, Nectarivore,

ATO - Arboreal-Terrestrial Omnivore, TO - Terrestrial Omnivore.

Habitats: F - Forest; S - Scrub; G - Grassland;

Aq - Aquatic habitats (streams/ponds/marshes)

Status: * endemic species, + nationally threatened species WM - winter migrants.

Habit: S - solitary, P - pairs, F - flocks, MF - mixed species flocks.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC. 1998

407

CROP DAMAGE BY BLACKBUCK ANTILOPE CERVICAPRA AT

ROLLAPADU WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, ANDHRA PRADESH1

Ranjit Manakadan and Asad R. Rahmani2

( With one text-figure )

Keywords: Crop damage, blackbuck Antilope cervicapra , Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary,

Kumool district, Andhra Pradesh.

The paper discusses crop damage by blackbuck Antilope cervicapra at Rollapadu Wildlife

Sanctuary (RWS), Andhra Pradesh, based on studies carried out during 1993-1994. Damage

was recorded in 8 of the 20 crop species studied in the vicinity of the Sanctuary. Damage was

high in foxtail millet, sorghum, and in the irrigated summer greengram and blackgram crops,

moderate in redgram, groundnut and greengram (monsoon crop), low in cotton and minimal in

sesamum. The extent of damage depended on many factors, which are discussed. Damage was

negatively correlated to distance from the blackbuck area for five of the six species (except for

cotton) studied. Except for sesamum, which is thrashed to the ground by male blackbuck, the

other species are eaten. The damage recorded in cotton is likely to be due to livestock, and

probably some of the damage recorded for the other crops could also have been contributed by

livestock. Thus, it is advised that claims for crop damage compensation by farmers should be

scrutinised carefully before approval. Measures to stop or reduce crop damage are suggested.

Introduction During a U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

The blackbuck Antilope cervicapra is a

major component of the semi-arid grassland

ecosystem of the plains of the Indian

subcontinent. It is known to take to crop-raiding

(Ranjitsinh 1989, Chauhan and Sawarkar 1989,

Prakash 1990, Prasad and Ramana Rao 1990).

In some areas, crop raiding by blackbuck is a

recent problem due to the increase in blackbuck

numbers after recent conservation steps for the

animal and/or the habitat (Rahmani 1985,

Schultz 1986, Chauhan and Sawarkar 1989,

Chauhan and Singh 1990, Manakadan and

Rahmani 1993, Chandra 1997). These crop

depredations antagonise farmers, resulting in a

negative attitude towards blackbuck conserva-

tion, and conservation of wildlife in general.

'Accepted July, 1998

:Bombay Natural History Society

Dr. Salim Ali Chowk, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road

Mumbai 400 023.

sponsored study by the BNHS and the Centre for

Wildlife and Ornithology, Aligarh Muslim

University, on the ecology of the grasslands of

RWS, we undertook a study on the crop damage

by blackbuck to know which species were being

affected, the nature of the damage, and to some

extent, attempted to quantify the extent of the

damage. Special efforts were made to check if

the damage was by blackbuck, as we realised that

some farmers were exaggerating or wrongly

attributing livestock-caused crop damage to

blackbuck. This was either due to ignorance, to

get monetary compensation for crop damage, or

to give a bad name to the Sanctuary so as to

demand grazing rights within the protected

enclosures or to get back the land lost by farmers

and graziers when the Sanctuary was established.

It is hoped that the results and recom-

mendations of this study will be used as a

management strategy to decrease the problem of

crop damage by blackbuck at Rollapadu and in

other sanctuaries which have the same problem.

408

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 95(3) DEC. 1998

CROP DAMAGE BY BLACKBUCK AT ROLLAPADU

Study Area

Rollapadu is situated 18 km southeast of

Nandikotkur (15°58' N & 78°18' E), Kumool

dist., Andhra Pradesh. It lies in the plains

between the Nallamalai and Yerramalai hills, at

an altitude of about 200 m. The terrain is gently

undulating with predominantly poor red soils.

The region is semi-arid with an average annual

rainfall of 668 mm, received from both the

Southwest and Northeast monsoons. Summer

peaks at 42°C (April and May) and winters are

mild (17°C).

Rollapadu (area: 6.14 km2) had its origin

in 1982, after the ‘rediscovery’ of the great

Indian bustard Ardeotis nigriceps, and was

declared a Sanctuary in 1988. The Sanctuary

proper consists primarily of three grassland

plots or enclosures: Enclosure-I: 320 ha,

Enclosure-II: 40 ha and Enclosure-Ill: 120 ha

(Fig. 1). These enclosures are demarcated by

trench-cum-mound (TCM) walls to exclude

livestock and people. However, Enclosure-Ill

was opened to grazing after protests by the

locals about the lack of sufficient grazing land

for their livestock. The extent of protection to

Enclosure-II varied from year to year. The three

enclosures are separated from each other by

grazing land and crop fields. The other major

fauna of the Sanctuary include the lesser florican

Sypheotides indicci , harriers (largely Circus

pygargus and C. macrourus), blackbuck

Antilope cervicapra, wolf Canis lupus , jackal

Canis aureus , Indian fox Vulpes bengalensis and

common Indian monitor Varanus bengalensis.

For more details of the Sanctuary, see

Manakadan and Rahmani (1989, 1993 & 1997).

BLACKBUCK

Population: The blackbuck is one of the

many grassland species that has benefited from

the conservation measures intended for the great

Indian bustard. According to the locals, the

area always harboured blackbuck, which were

hunted by locals and outsiders. The population

in 1985 was 17 individuals, which rose to around

35 by 1987, and was about 300 animals during

the present study (Manakadan and Rahmani

1989, 1993, 1997).

Movements: The onset of the southwest

monsoon in June/July heralds the movement of

blackbuck into Enclosure-I, and this

congregation is seen till about January. This

is due to a combination of rich grazing grounds,

lack of human and associated disturbances inside

the enclosure, coupled with the overgrazed

conditions in the surrounding grazing land and

heavy disturbance there. However, blackbuck

move into crop fields late in the evening and

return to the enclosure early in the morning. By

the middle of January, the grasslands dry up, the

harvest in the surrounding crop fields is almost

over and most of the livestock (especially sheep)

migrate to other areas. The blackbuck then

disperse over a wide area, moving into the

surrounding grazing land and harvested or fallow

fields. Thus the density of blackbuck is low in

the enclosure from February till the onset of

the monsoon.

While in the grazing land, the blackbuck

mainly frequent areas to the east and northeast

of Enclosure-I and to a lesser extent south-

west of Enclosure-Ill (Fig. 1). This is due to the

presence of extensive grazing land and less

human and associated disturbances in these

areas compared to other parts of the grazing

land. In general, blackbuck tend to avoid

areas in the vicinity of villages, intensive

agriculture zones and where there is a regular

movement of humans or vehicles.

CROPS AND CROPPING PATTERN

The sowing of redgram, groundnut, foxtail

millet, sesamum, greengram, blackgram,

cowpea, Deccan hemp, cotton and paddy

commences with the onset of the Southwest

monsoon. The harvest depends on the duration

of the crop (Table 1). Sorghum and Bengal gram

are sown in October/November, the latter is

generally sown in harvested and re-ploughed

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 95(3), DEC. 1998

409

CROP DAMAGE BY BLACKBUCK AT ROLLAPADU

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JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3) DEC. 1998

CROP DAMAGE BY BLACKBUCK AT ROLLAPADU

Table 1

CROPS AND CROPPING PATTERN AROUND ROLLAPADU WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

* Grown in winter also if irrigation is available. ** Grown in summer also if irrigation is available

# Generally irrigated by wells. (-) Forming rest of the 10%.

paddy fields. Where irrigation from wells is

available, a second crop of groundnut may be

sown in November, along with some short

duration grams. However, irrigation is mainly

intended for growing vegetables like brinjal,

tomato arid chillies. Most of the fields are bare

after February and most of the wells dry up by

April, hence there are hardly any crop fields from

April till the onset of the monsoon in June/July.

Sorghum, foxtail millet, Bengal gram,

sunflower, groundnut, cotton and paddy are

grown in pure stands. Redgram, sesamum,

greengram, blackgram, cowpea, cucumber and

Deccan hemp are generally grown in rows in

the fields of cotton and groundnut. Sorghum

may also be sown in the fields of groundnut after

the harvest, and thus would be growing in

between the rows of the existing redgram.

The soil characteristics and soil depth

determine the intensity of cultivation, viz.,

intensive, marginal or isolated fields (see Fig. 1 ).

During the crop season, there is a regular stream

of workers into crop fields — for weeding,

tilling, applying fertiliser or pesticide, and

harvesting of early crops. Due to this, intensively

cultivated patches would have more human

disturbance (for blackbuck) than marginal or

isolated crop fields.

In Table 1, the crop and cropping pattern

around RWS are given. Only the approximate

percentage acreages of the crop species

(according to our estimates) are given, as the

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC. 1998

411

CROP DAMAGE BY BLACKBUCK AT ROLLAPADU

information obtained from the local records was

found to be incorrect when checked in the field.

It was not possible to map the crop fields as the

area was large, the work would be time

consuming, and was further hampered by the

mixed cropping in many fields and crop rotation

within a growing season.

Methodology

Estimation of crop damage by wildlife is

difficult to quantify, may involve measures of

numerous variables and different methods of

sampling, and the estimation can be based on

parts of the plant, whole plants, or whole plots

(Mower et. al. 1997). Crop damage estimation

at RWS was more problematic as we were dealing

with as many as 20 crop species, many with

different growing seasons. We defined damage

as the percentage of damage recorded in the

samplings, based either on the number of

quadrats laid or number of plants assessed for

damage. The extent of damage to each plant or

parts of the plant was not quantified, instead we

qualitati vely recorded which part of the plant was

affected. The methodology adopted for our study

was as follows:

In each sampling, we recorded the number

of plants in the field or quadrat, numbers

damaged, parts damaged and the height and stage

of the crop. The sampling was in a straight

line, radiating at many points away from

Enclosure-I, and stopping after a few quadrats

when damage was not being recorded. During

subsequent visits to the fields at different stages

of the crops, new areas of the fields were sampled,

and not where damage had been recorded during

earlier sampling (earlier damaged plants could

generally be recognised by their pruned

appearance and shorter heights). Three types of

sampling methods were adopted due to the

varying acreages of the different crop species.

1 . In crop species where the number of

fields were abundant, sampling by quadrats

(1 m2) was adopted, and damage was assessed

for the total number of quadrats laid out, the

number of quadrats in which damage occurred

and the number of plants damaged in these

quadrats.

2. For species where only a few plants

were present (e.g. sesamum, Deccan hemp,

greengram) in a field (as in the case of mixed

cropping), quadrats were not used. Instead, all

the plants or a fixed number in the crop field

were assessed for damage.

3. When there were only a few fields of a

crop species, then all the available fields (and

the plants in the field) were checked for damage.

Thus the sample sizes for the different

crops were as follows:

Quadrats: Groundnut - 96: 2267;

Redgram-205: 2515; Foxtail millet- 75: 5093;

Cotton - 106: 1557; and Sorghum - 159: 1694

(0-30 cm height); 192: 2256 (31-75 cm height)

and 273: 3040 (>76 cm height). (Note: The

values indicate the number of quadrats laid and

the total number of plants assessed for damage).

Plants: Where all the plants in a field or a

fixed number were assessed for damage:

Sesamum - 3313, Greengram - 210 (monsoon),

627 (summer); and Blackgram - 40 (monsoon),

446 (summer). (Note: The values indicate the

number of plants sampled).

Fields: Where all the available fields (and

all the plants in the fields) were checked for

damage: Paddy - 7; Bengal gram - 2; Mulberry

-1; Mustard - 1; Cucumber spp. - 3; Sunflower

- 14; Deccan hemp - 9; Cowpea - 3; Chillies - 1 ;

Brinjal - 1; Tomato - 1 (Note: The values

indicate the number of fields sampled).

Distances of the fields from the blackbuck

area were noted. Preventive measures taken to

control crop damage were recorded either from

observations or enquiries from farmers. Presence

of blackbuck and livestock in crop fields, either

from sightings or signs (hoof prints and faeces)

were noted to know if the damage was by

blackbuck or livestock. The data presented is

based on one cropping season: 1993-1994.

Data Analysis: Except for jowar, where

412

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CROP DAMAGE BY BLACK BUCK AT ROLLAPADU

Table 2

DETAILS OF CROP DAMAGE A ROUND ROLLAPADU WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

Not damaged: Deccan Hemp, Bengalgram, Cowpea, Paddy, Mustard, Cucumber (two species), Mulberry , Sunflower,

Chillies, Brinjal, Tomato.

analysis was done for different height classes,

the other species were not broken into different

stage or height classes for damage assessment.

This was because the other species had already

passed the seedling stage when the studies

started. Further, the growing stages of these

species were not clearly defined and extended,

as in sorghum. However, general notes on these

species, to see at what stages the damage

occurred, were taken and are used non-

quantitatively in Table 2.

For correlation analysis of the extent of

damage with distance from the blackbuck

frequented area, only the fields where there were

no barriers (such as deep TCM walls, intervening

dense natural vegetation, buffers of other

extensive stands of preferred/non-preferred crop

species) and where crop protection measures were

not adopted, were used for analysis. Greengram,

blackgram and sesamum were not included, as

the first two species usually have buffers of

taller crops around them. In the case of

sesamum, it is not eaten, but thrashed down by

male blackbuck. Hence, the distance to

damage correlation was attempted only for

groundnut, redgram, foxtail millet, sorghum

and cotton.

Results

Of the 20 crops studied, damage was

recorded in 8 species, namely sorghum, foxtail

millet, jowar, groundnut, sesamum, greengram,

blackgram and cotton (Table 2). Of these, it is

doubtful whether the damage recorded in cotton

was caused by blackbuck. Though damage was

not recorded in two members of Cucur-

bitaceae, seedlings of one (or both?) of these

plants were recorded growing in blackbuck

middens. Of the 8 species of crops, 7 were used

as food. Sesamum was damaged by male

blackbuck thrashing plants to the ground with

their horns.

The stage of the crop and parts eaten/

damaged differed according to the species (Table

2). Damage was high in foxtail millet and

sorghum, irrigated summer crops of greengram

and blackgram, moderate in redgram,

groundnut and monsoon crop of greengram, low

in cotton and very low in sesamum (Table 3).

Frequency of damage (quadrat-wise damage)

showed higher values than intensity of damage

(plant-wise damage) for all crops, indicating

that the damage is spread out over the fields.

A good proportion of damage recorded in

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413

CROP DAMAGE BY BLACKBUCK AT ROLLAPADU

redgram was possibly due to cattle, as many cases

of damage were recorded in freshly tilled fields.

In sorghum, the only crop species for which

damage was quantified on a temporal scale,

damage was lowest when the crop was in the

range of 31-75 cm tall. Locals say sorghum

becomes toxic during this stage and livestock

feeding on it become sick or even die.

Though the paddy, sunflower and

mulberry fields adjoined the enclosure and the

blackbuck were not hindered by any barriers to

visit these crops, damage was not recorded. This

shows that blackbuck certainly do not eat these

crop species. The same cannot be said for the

other crop species where damage was also not

recorded (i.e., Deccan hemp, Bengal gram,

cowpea, mustard, chillies, brinjal and tomato),

as there were few fields of these crops and the

fields were in areas not very accessible to

blackbuck. Hence, the unpalatability of these

crop species to blackbuck cannot be completely

ruled out.

The intensity of damage in sorghum,

foxtail millet, groundnut and redgram was

reduced gradually as the distances from

Enclosure-I increased (negative correlation:

Pearson’s r= 0.434, P=0.001 for all species

combined). For cotton, there was a positive

correlation for the same (r=0.329, P=0.054), i.e.,

further the distance, the more the damage. This

again suggests that the damage to cotton was

caused by livestock, and not blackbuck.

Discussion

Many factors influence the nature and

extent of crop damage by blackbuck in a

particular area. One of the most obvious would

be the population size of blackbuck. Complaints

of crop damage hardly occurred earlier when the

blackbuck population at RWS was 17 animals in

1985 and 35 in 1987. In addition to blackbuck

densities, the distance of the crop fields from

the blackbuck area also determines the extent of

damage, i.e., the more the distance of the crop

fields from the blackbuck frequented areas, the

less would be the damage. In general, damage

was recorded within 200 m of the northern and

southern borders of Enclosure-I, (intensive

cropping areas) and one kilometre off the eastern

and western borders (marginal cropping areas,

interspersed with grazing lands). Blackbuck

stray less into intensive crop areas due to the

dense crop cover, relatively higher presence of

Table 3

EXTENT AND DISTRIBUTION OF CROP DAMAGE

Note: - = Not done: plants too few and/or scattered.

Quadrat-wise: Indicates frequency of damage

Plant-wise : Indicates intensity of damage

humans, and absence of safe open areas to wander

or retreat into, unlike in marginal cultivation.

Crop fields that are close to the enclosure, or

those situated near areas in grazing land

frequented by blackbuck are more prone to crop

damage.

The availability of a crop would also

determine the extent of crop damage. Highly

preferred species grown on a small scale would

record greater damage than if the crop was

grown on a large scale. The availability of

the preferred crop also plays a role in

determining the damage to less preferred species,

especially if grown in close proximity to each

other. This fact has applications in agriculture,

414

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3) DEC. 1998

CROP DAMAGE BY BLACKBUCK AT ROLLAPADU

where decoy crops are grown to prevent or

reduce damage to the intended crop. This may

explain why damage was not recorded in species

like Bengal gram, paddy, til and mustard at

Rollapadu, which are reported to be eaten by

blackbuck in other areas (Ranjitsinh 1989,

Prasad and Ramana Rao 1990, Chandra 1997).

Or it could be that the findings obtained by them

were erroneous as they were largely based on

enquiries from farmers.

The factors influencing crop damage

mentioned above could be offset by factors

like barriers, crop protection measures and the

presence of people. We found that broad and

deep trench-cum-mound walls, checkdams and

dense vegetation acted as barriers to blackbuck

movement. Though the blackbuck is known to

jump long distances, it was observed at RWS that

they do not jump across broad and deep TCM

walls, especially those that are buffered by dense

and tall vegetation. Tall non-palatable or non-

preferred crops also serve as barriers, especially

for smaller preferred crops. For example,

greengram and blackgram when grown scattered

in fields of redgram or sesamum were not

damaged, while exposed pure stands were

heavily or even totally damaged.

Many of the cases of crop damage recorded

could be partially or totally due to livestock,

rather than by blackbuck. Much of the damage

occurs due to straying of livestock into crop fields,

as many crop fields adjoin grazing land. In

fields that are tilled, damage by draught bulls

is likely if they are unmuzzled, or if the muzzles

are defective. Damage may also occur when

the bullocks graze in the adjoining fallow

fields or grazing land during rest and then

stray into the crop fields. In many cases, we were

sure that the damage was by livestock, from

actual sightings; by the presence of their hoof

marks in crop fields; and in case of cow and

buffalo damage, by the nature of the damage.

Humans too may be responsible for some of the

loss recorded. For example, in the case of

greengram grown in mixed fields, workers may

pull off some unripe pods to eat and the

blame may be attributed to blackbuck by the

farmers.

Adoption of crop protection measures at

RWS is rare and of recent occurrence. In

general, it was seen (i) in the crop fields of rich

farmers (by employing watchmen); (ii) in small

family holdings where the stakes are high

(especially where well-irrigation is done); (iii)

in good soil areas (yields would be more and

assured than in poor soils); and, (iv) in areas

close to villages (proximity and safety). In most

other cases, except for scarecrows, fields were

largely left unguarded.

Conclusion and Recommendations

The findings show that crop damage by

blackbuck at Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary is of

a serious nature and could worsen if measures

to combat this problem are not taken

immediately. Complaints from farmers are

frequent. Their ire has also been redirected to

the great Indian bustard (for which the

Sanctuary was established) and the Sanctuary

in general. After the problem of crop damage

started, villagers talk of not wanting the

Sanctuary, till recently a matter of pride for

them. The Forest Department has still not

taken measures to tackle the problem.

It is also evident from the study that some

of the crop damage blamed on blackbuck

(wantonly or due to ignorance) was actually

caused by livestock. Some crop species are most

likely not eaten at all by blackbuck (e.g. cotton).

Thus, the Forest Department official in charge

of RWS (and other such sanctuaries which have

crop damage problems by blackbuck) should have

an idea of crops that are palatable or non-

palatable to blackbuck, should make actual visits

to the crop fields to look for livestock signs in

damaged fields, before attending to claims for crop

damage compensation.

Based on the studies the following

recommendations are given:

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415

CROP DAMAGE BY BLACKBUCK AT ROLLAPADU

1. A crop damage compensation scheme

should be started without delay. This would,

to some extent, help to temporarily alleviate

the grievances of the farmers.

2. Restricting the population of blackbuck

to about 100 animals — either by culling or

translocation. It is likely that with a population

of 100 animals, the extent of crop damage would

be small, judging from the past and present

blackbuck populations and the history of crop

damage at RWS. The topic of culling is of course

a sensitive issue, and will be a major policy

decision, needing the approval of the Ministry

of Environment and Forests and changes in the

Wildlife (Protection) Act. Interestingly, culling

of blackbuck to reduce crop damage was practised

earlier in India. The Raja of Wankaner has fixed

a quota of blackbuck that had to be culled to

prevent excess damage to crops in his region

(Ranjitsinh 1982).

3. Fencing or hedging with Gliricidia

maculata at the southern and northern borders

of Enclosure-I. Gliricidia maculata is

recommended since (i) it was found to be very

successful in plantations at Nannaj, Solapur dist.

Maharashtra, which has similar soil and

climatic conditions; (ii) it would benefit farmers

as it is a legume and its leaves are reported to be

used as manure in some southern states of India.

The fence or hedge would act as a barrier for

blackbuck entering crop fields in these areas.

Additionally, or as an alternative, broadening

and deepening of the existing TCM walls could

be done in these two regions. These two zones

are intense agricultural areas, and the essential

movement of blackbuck in summer out of

Refer

Chandra, J. (1997): Crop damage caused by blackbucks

at Karera Great Indian Bustard Sanctuary, and

possible remedial solutions. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 94: 322-332.

Chauhan, N. P. S. & V. B. Sawarkar (1989): Problems

of over-abundant populations of nilgai and

blackbuck in Haryana and Madhya Pradesh. Indian

Forester 11 5(7): 488-493.

Enclosure-I is mainly through and beyond areas

in the eastern and western parts of Enclosure-I.

These steps would minimise crop damage in

fields to the north and south of Enclosure-I.

For the marginally cultivated eastern and western

areas, Gliricidia saplings may be given to

farmers to be planted around individual fields.

4. The following are the changes suggested

in cropping pattern to reduce crop damage:

a) Preferred species should be grown as

far away from the enclosures as possible.

b) Non-palatable species, such as cotton,

mulberry, paddy (where irrigation facilities are

available) should be grown closer to the

enclosures. Additionally, tall non-palatable

species such as sesamum and sunflower could

be grown closer to enclosures to serve as physical

barriers to prevent access of blackbuck to

preferred/palatable species grown further away.

c) Short and preferred crops like

greengram and blackgram should be grown either

in mixed fields of redgram or sesamum/ or

surrounded by a dense hedge of these two species.

Acknowledgements

This study is part of the Grassland

Ecology Project of the Bombay Natural History

Society, funded by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife

Service and sponsored by the Ministry of

Environment and Forests, Govt, of India. We

thank the Andhra Pradesh Forest Department for

their cooperation and permission to work in the

Sanctuary. Drafts of this manuscript were

commented on by Dr. Y.N. Rao and Dr. S.

Alagarajan, both of the BNHS.

E N C E S

Chauhan, N. P. S. & R. Singh (1990): Crop damage by

overabundant populations of nilgai and blackbuck in

Haryana (India) and its management. Proc. Nth

Verteb. Pest Conf. (Eds. L.R. Davis & R. E. Marsh),

University of California, Davis.

Manakadan, R. & A.R. Rahmani (1989): Rollapadu

Wildlife Sanctuary. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86: 368

-380.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3) DEC. 1998

CROP DAMAGE BY BLACKBUCK AT ROLLAPADU

Manakadan, R. & A.R. Rahmani (1993): A decade of

conservation of the great Indian bustard at Rollapadu

Wildlife Sanctuary. Proc. Changing Scenario of

Bird Ecology and Conservation (Eds. A. Verghese

et al.). Bangalore, Nov 1993. Ornithological

Society of India, Bangalore, pp. 1-3.

Manakadan, R. & A.R. Rahmani (1997): Rollapadu

Wildlife Sanctuary. In: A Study of the Ecology of

Grasslands of the Indian Plains with Particular

Reference to their Endangered Fauna. Final Report,

pp:549 (Ed: A. R. Rahmani). Bombay Natural

History Society, Mumbai, pp. 117-180.

Mower, K.J., T.W. Townsend & W.J. Tyznik (1997):

Sample sizes to measure young apple trees browsed

by deer in Ohio. Wildlife Society Bulletin 25: 344-

347.

Prakash, I. (1990): Dilemma of ungulate conservation in

Rajasthan Desert. Conservation in Developing

Countries: Problems and Prospects (Eds. J.C. Daniel

& J.S.Serrao), Bombay Natural History Society,

Bombay, pp. 402-410.

Prasad, N.L.N.S & J.V. Ramana Rao(1990): Blackbuck

conservation in Andhra Pradesh. In Proc.

Conservation in Developing Countries: Problems

and Prospects (Eds. J.C. Daniel & J.S. Serrao),

Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay, pp. 400-

406.

Rahmani, A. (1985): Threats to the Karera Bustard

Sanctuary: Recommendations for Conservation.

Technical Report No. 6. Bombay Natural History

Society, Bombay.

Ranjitsinh, M.K. (1989): The Indian Blackbuck. Natraj

Publishers, Dehra Dun.

Schultz, Bo (1986): The management of crop damage

by wild animals. Indian Forester 112 (10): 89 1 -

899.

■ ■ B

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC. 1998

417

FOOD HABITS OF WILD UNGULATES AND THEIR COMPETITION WITH

LIVESTOCK IN PENCH WILDLIFE RESERVE, CENTRAL INDIA1

Rakesh Shukla2 and P.K. Khare3

Key words: Wild ungulates, livestock, overlap, competition

Food habits of a few wild ungulate species and the competing domestic ungulates are

discussed. The selected species are chital (Axis axis), sambar ( Cervus unicolor), nilgai

(Boselaphus tragocamelus) and gaur (Bos gaurus). Grazing by livestock is allowed at the

study sites I and II, and there is overlap of the two classes of ungulates in their food habits.

This may lead to the degradation of wildlife habitat as the livestock outnumber the wild

ungulates considerably.

Introduction

Increasing competition for food between

livestock and wild ungulates in managed forests

and wildlife reserves is a serious threat to effective

wildlife management in India. Due to gradual

shrinkage in wildlife habitats and their increase

in numbers, domestic livestock compete with

wild ungulates by encroaching upon the habitats

previously utilized by wild ungulates only. When

this occurs in a wildlife reserve, managed

exclusively for wild animal populations, it leads

to over-exploitation of wildlife habitats.

Comparative studies of the food habits of

wild and domestic ungulates have been carried

out in different habitats by a number of workers

to assess the impact of competition (Mackie 1970,

Berwick 1974, Dusek 1975, Dinerstein 1979).

This paper deals with the seasonal food habits

of common wild ungulates and their competition

with domestic cattle in central Madhya Pradesh.

Study Area and Methods

The study area, comprising three adjoining

areas of different conservation status, the Rukhar

Reserved Forest, the Pench Wildlife Sanctuary

'Accepted June, 1 998

:Range Forest Officer, Subhash Ward, Mandla 48 1661 (M.P.)

3 Assistant Professor, Forest Ecology, Department of Botany

Dr. H.S.GourVishwavidyalaya,Sagar 470003 (M.P.)

and the Pench National Park, is situated in Seoni

dist., Madhya Pradesh. The study sites were

designated site I (15.8 km2), site II (10.5 km2)

and site III (12.7 km2). Grazing by livestock was

allowed ‘at site I, regulated at site II, and banned

at site III.

According to Champion and Seth (1968),

the forests of Pench area are of 3 types:

3B/Clc. South Indian Moist Deciduous

Slightly Moist Teak forests.

5A/Clb (IV). Southern Tropical Dry

Deciduous Teak forests

5A/C3. Southern Dry Mixed Deciduous

forests

However, we identified only two forest

types, i.e. teak deciduous and miscellaneous

deciduous.

Food habits of the wild and domestic

ungulates were observed. The multicolumn check

sheet (Duggan 1978) for data collection included

the broad categorisation of the vegetation and

food types. After observing the feeding ungulates

through binoculars (10 x 50), on-site inspections

of the food plants were made to identify the plant

species. A herbarium of the unidentifiable species

was prepared for later identification by botanists.

On the basis of the frequency of specific plants

being eaten by both classes of ungulates, they

were categorized into high, medium and low

preference. The study was conducted between

1987-1989.

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FOOD HABITS OF WILD UNGULATES IN PENCH WILDLIFE RESERVE

Results and Discussion

Food preference categories of wild and

domestic ungulates are presented in Table 1 . The

chital was a grazer under better forage conditions.

Dinerstein (1979) opined that chital was a willing

browser utilising a wide variety of tree and shrub

species, but the bulk of its diet was composed of

grasses and sedges. Schaller (1967) also found

chital to be a grazer. As the annual grasses

attained maturity and turned coarse, and the

forage conditions became poor in the study area,

the chital switched over to selective and

consistent browsing. The most preferred food

plants for chital during the rains were grass

species, Heteropogon contortus, Dichanthium

annulatum, Bothriochloa odorata, Iseilema

laxum and Themeda quadrivalvis . Among the

preferred forbs were A lysicarpus bupleurifolius,

Asparagus racemosus and Crotalaria

medicaginea. When the forage conditions

worsened during the late winter and summer, the

bulk of the diet consisted of Themeda

quadrivalvis, Bothriochloa odorata, Imperata

cylindrica and Eragrostis uniloides. Leaves and

flowers of Madhuca indica, Syzygium cumini,

Bridelia retusa, Bauhinia racemosa, Diospyros

melanoxylon, Emblica officinalis, Flemingia

semialata and shoots of Elephantopus scaber

and Urena lobata were also fed upon by the

chital. Schaller (1967) observed that due to

the diminished food value of the grass species,

they were utilized prior to the end of the

rains.

Sambar also fed on green grasses in

favourable habitat conditions. Schaller (1967)

recorded that they preferred grasses and sedges

from June through October. Unlike in mature sal

forest associations (Dinerstein 1979) when the

habitat conditions in the study area restricted the

preferred forage, sambar fed on a wider variety

of plants (Table 1). Forsyth (1889) mentioned

that during unfavourable forage conditions, it fed

on a variety of leaves, pods, flowers and fruit.

Sambar were frequently observed feeding on

aquatic plants in shoulder-high water in the

Dudhia tank at site I.

The gaur grazed and browsed on a much

wider variety of plants than any other ungulate

species in the study area. It fed on green grasses,

young leaves and soft shoots during favourable

forage conditions. Owing to its large body size,

a single food item is not likely to form a large

proportion of its daily intake. The gaur hardly

differentiated between the low and high quality

food during the pinch period in the hottest month,

as it also fed on coarse grasses and the bark of

young Tectona grandis trees. In general, the gaur

appeared to be the least selective feeder.

The nilgai in the study area were also

grazer/browser. They raided the agricultural

crops around the study area during the late

evenings or nights. Food habits of the nilgai were

considerably different from those of the chital

and sambar. Dinerstein (1979) mentioned that

apart from a shared attraction to agricultural

crops, nilgai and chital differ considerably in

their feeding habits. During the rains and the

early winter, when forage conditions were

favourable, the nilgai also fed on a variety of

browse plants. Being larger in size, more browse

was easily accessible to the nilgai and it frequently

browsed on trees such as Bauhinia racemosa,

Bauhinia vahlii, Zizyphus mauritiana, Zizyphus

xylopyra and Randia dumetorum (Table 1).

Domestic ungulates, regarded primarily

as grazers (Berwick 1974), also browsed on

several plant species in the study area (Table 1)

during the hot season. Grasses and sedges were

mainly eaten during favourable forage

conditions. With grasses turning coarse and dry,

livestock shifted to browsing to some extent until

the onset of the monsoon. The livestock of many

villages on the periphery of the study sites I and

II, which have a good wildlife potential,

outnumber the wild ungulates considerably. This

overlap of two classes of ungulates in food

habits may result in serious competition, leading

to the degradation of otherwise fine wildlife

habitats.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC. 1998

419

FOOD HABITS OF WILD UNGULATES IN PENCH WILDLIFE RESERVE

Table 1

USAGE OF PLANT SPECIES BY WILD AND DOMESTIC UNGULATES IN

DIFFERENT SEASONS IN PENCH WILDLIFE RESERVES

420

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3) DEC. 1998

FOOD HABITS OF WILD UNGULATES IN PENCH WILDLIFE RESERVE

Table 1 (contd.)

USAGE OF PLANT SPECIES BY WILD AND DOMESTIC UNGULATES IN

DIFFERENT SEASONS IN PENCH WILDLIFE RESERVES

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Dr. R.K. Pandey,

Forest Botanist and Dr. J.L. Shrivastava,

Scientist, of the S.F.R.I. Jabalpur for their

help in identifying plant species in the study

area.

References

Berwick, S. (1974): The community of wild ruminants in

the Gir forest ecosystem, India. Ph.D. Thesis, Yale

University.

Champion, H.G. & S.K. Seth ( 1 968): A Revised Survey of

Forest Types of India. Manager of Publications,

Govt, of India, Delhi, pp 1 1 6, 1 83, 1 86.

Dinerstein, E. (1979): An ecological survey of the Royal

Karnali-Bardia wildlife reserve. Part II: Habitat/

animal interactions. Biol. Conserv. 16: 265-300.

Duggan, E.S. (1978): Population structure, activity and

distribution of Grant’s gazelle in Nairobi National

Park. M.Sc. Thesis, University of Nairobi.

Dusek, G.L. ( 1 975): Range relations of mule deer and cattle

in prairie habitat. J. Wildl. Manag. 39 (3): 605-

616.

Forsyth, J. (1889): The Highlands of Central India:

Notes on their forests and Wild tribes, Natural

History and Sports. Chapman & Hall Ltd., London,

pp 475.

Mackie, R.J. (1970): Range ecology and relations of mule

deer, elk and cattle in the Missouri River Breaks,

Montana, Wildlife Monograph, 20: 1-79.

Schaller, G.B. ( 1 967): The Deer and the Tiger. University

of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp 60-6 1,139.

HUH

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC: 1998

421

TEMPORARY GROUP SPLITTING IN THE LION-TAILED MACAQUE

MAC AC A SILENUS IN A FOREST FRAGMENT IN

INDIRA GANDHI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, TAMIL NADU1

G. Sakthivelou and Ajith Kumar2

Key words: Lion-tailed macaque, Indira Gandhi WLS, Tamil Nadu, subgrouping

TJiis paper examines the incidence of temporary group splitting in the lion-tailed macaque,

in a small rain forest fragment in the Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary. The fragment

(65 ha) was highly degraded and was privately owned. The study was conducted from

January to March 1995, when 315 hours of observations were made, primarily through

group scan sampling of a group of 34 animals. The group spent about 42.22% of their time

as subgroups, which was significantly more likely to occur when the group was ranging

(64.2%) than while foraging (26%) or feeding (41.3%). Subgrouping was less likely in

areas with low canopy cover and was considerably greater in the fragments compared to

continuous forest (3%, Kumar 1987). It is likely that this increased subgrouping reflects

altered distribution of food plants and predation pressure.

Introduction

The lion-tailed macaque ( Macaca silenus),

one of the most endangered primates, is endemic

to the tropical wet evergreen forest of the Western

Ghats in South India (Green and Minkowski

1977, Kurup 1978, Kumar 1985). A large

proportion of its total population occurs in forest

fragments ranging in size from less than 10 ha

to 20 sq. km, with only about 30% of the

population in forests larger than 100 sq. km in

area (Kumar 1995). In many places in its

distribution range, small populations of the lion-

tailed macaque, consisting of one or two groups,

are confined to small forest fragments. Such

fragments are often surrounded by tea estates and

human settlements that are barriers to dispersal.

Due to this, groups in forest fragments are often

larger than in continuous forests.

In forest fragments, the groups are unable

to expand the home range as the group size

increases, as happens in continuous forests

(Kumar 1987). The resulting increase in

'Accepted March, 1997

:Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History

Anaikatti P.O., Coimbatore-641 108

competition for food is further enhanced by

habitat degradation that the forest fragments are

often subjected to due to logging, fuel wood

collection, and cardamom and coffee cultivation.

In this situation, the only option is to reduce the

group size, through temporary or permanent

fission of groups. When forest fragments are

small, permanent fission is not feasible because

smaller home ranges are probably not to the

benefit of both the groups. On the other hand,

opportunistic temporary group fission allows

reduced food competition when the food sources

are patchy, while fusion benefits the individuals

of a larger group in gaining protection from

predators, when the food sources are large

enough.

This short study on the lion-tailed macaque

examines the incidence of group splitting in a

forest fragment in relation to that reported from

a continuous forest (Kumar 1987), and identifies

associated activities and habitat features.

Study area

The study was conducted in Puthuthottam

Estate, a privately owned cardamom estate, about

422

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3) DEC. 1998

TEMPORARY GROUP SPLITTING IN THE LION-TAILED MACAQUE

1.5 km from Valparai town, on the Pollachi-

Valparai Road. Geographically, it falls within the

Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary (1000 sq. km),

but administratively it is not a part of the Sanctuary.

This forest fragment is situated at an altitude of

1085 m, at 10° 20' N and 96° 58’E. The average

annual rainfall in the area is about 2735 mm

(Menon 1993). The estate is 65 ha in area, and is

surrounded by tea and coffee plantations and a road

with heavy traffic passes through it.

This patch was formed in 1906 when the

surrounding wet evergreen forest was cleared for

tea plantation. Later, the undergrowth was

cleared for cardamom and coffee plantation. Most

of the emergent trees were felled for shade

management. In subsequent years, there has been

selective logging of trees, the last occasion in

1992. Lion-tailed macaques have been present here

for many years (Kumar 1987). The first study on

them was by Menon (1993) who examined

ecological changes in lion- tailed macaque in forest

fragments. Kumar etal. (1995) studied ecological

and demographic changes for two years.

Other arboreal mammals in the forest

fragment are the Malabar giant squirrel ( Ratufa

indica), large brown flying squirrel ( Petaurista

petaurista), and Travancore flying squirrel

(Petinomys fuscocapillus). Many terrestrial

larger mammals such as the tiger ( Panthera

tigris), leopard ( Panthera pavdus), elephant

( Elephas maximus), gaur ( Bos gaurus), sambar

(Cervus unicolor ), and barking deer ( Muntiacus

muntjac ), often use the fragment as a day time

refuge.

Methodology

The study was conducted from January to

March 1995, and about 3 12 hours of observations

were made, mostly from dawn to dusk. During

the study period, the fragment had a single group

of 34 animals, consisting of four adult males, 1 5

adult females and 1 5 juveniles. Time budget was

estimated using group scan (Altman 1974) at 15

minute intervals. At each scan, the activities of

all visible animals were recorded. These were

feeding, foraging, ranging and other activities

such as social interactions. Whether the group

was together or in subgroups was recorded at

two hour intervals, along with group size. The

group was considered split whenever the group

size was 27 or less, and no other members were

found within 100 m. The activity in which most

of the animals were engaged during a scan was

considered the group activity for examining its

association with group fission.

In order to test whether group fission was

more likely to occur in some parts of the fragment

than others, the study area was divided into five

zones. First four zones were in the fragment, the

fifth zone being an adjoining coffee plantation.

Canopy contiguity was visually estimated at

several points along transects in each zone. The

location of the group with reference to these

zones was also recorded at two hour intervals.

For Chi-square test, records at two hour intervals

were considered separate occurrences.

Results

During the study period of three months,

the group spent 33.03% of the daytime on

foraging, 32.95% on ranging, and 21.93% on

feeding. Considerably less time was spent on

resting (4.6%) and other activities, such as social

interactions (7.46%). Only 11.81% of the time

was spent on plant foods, the rest (10.1 2%) being

spent on animal foods. During the three months,

the group fed on fruits and seeds from nine

species ( Cullenia exarillata, Artocarpus

heterophyllus, Macaranga peltata, Syzygium

laetum, Maesopsis eminii, Maesa indica, Ficus

benghalensis, Lantana camara, and Coffea

arabicd). Leaf buds of Macaranga peltata were

eaten on a few occasions. Animal food consisted

mostly of invertebrates, primarily picked from

among dry leaves, the other sources being green

foliage and bark.

A total of 135 records were made at two

hour intervals on the occurrence of subgrouping,

and the associated major activity of the group.

Subgrouping occurred 57 times, or in 42.22% of

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC 1998

423

TEMPORARY GROUP SPLITTING IN THE LION-TAILED MACAQUE

observations. Subgrouping occurred much more

frequently when the group was ranging (64.1%)

than while foraging (26%) and feeding (41 .3%).

A chi-square test (%2 = 13.01, df=2, p<0.05)

showed that the observed incidence of

subgrouping while the group was ranging (25

times) was much more than expected ( 1 6 times)

if subgrouping had occurred randomly. In

comparison, subgrouping occurred much less (13

times) than the expected (21 times) when

foraging, and while feeding, observed was the

same as expected (19 times). The group was thus

more likely to form subgroups during ranging,

and remain together while foraging.

The occurrence of subgrouping in the five

zones varied from 33.33% to 55.00% but there

was no significant difference among them (x2 =

1.53, df=4, p>0.05). However, the percentage

occurrence of subgrouping increased with mean

canopy (contiguity in the five zones (rs=0.9; n=5;

P<0.05). Thus subgrouping was lowest (33.33%)

in the coffee estate which had a very low canopy

contiguity (<20%) and highest in zones I and II

(46.66% and 55.00% respectively) which had the

most contiguous forest in the fragment (64.9%

and 69.2% respectively). Subgrouping was

significantly more frequent in the forenoon

(54.2%) than in the afternoon (32.9%) (x2 = 6.18

df=l, p<0.05)

Discussion

Subgrouping occurred in the study group

on all days studied. The frequency of subgrouping

was also considerably high (42.22%). In contrast,

in a group studied by Kumar (1987) in a

continuous forest, the frequency of subgrouping

was much less (3%). The higher incidence of

subgrouping observed agrees with the prediction

that as group size increases or food abundance

decreases or both, a group should show greater

incidence of subgrouping. It is interesting,

however, that subgrouping while feeding

occurred randomly. It was significantly higher

while ranging and less while foraging. When the

group was feeding on coffee pods in the coffee

plantation, the group was often together. The

uniform dispersion of the coffee pods over a wide

area decreased food competition, while the larger

group size probably gave the group protection

against predation, especially by feral dogs. The

feral dogs in the area are major predators on

juveniles in the forest fragments. This also

accounts for lesser subgrouping when canopy

contiguity is low. Most of the feeding elsewhere

in the fragments was on trees randomly

distributed. Some of the trees, such as Ficus

benghalensis , were rare but large enough to

accommodate the entire group; some medium

sized trees (such as most of the Cullenia

exarillata trees) were common, hence the group

fed on two or three separate trees at the same

time, leading to subgrouping. Food was

uniformly dispersed, highly clumped or patchily

distributed, and subgrouping while feeding

reflected this. Most of the foraging was in an

area where the forest was most contiguous and

least disturbed, and was mostly for insects, which

were highly dispersed. Foraging was, therefore,

unlikely to benefit from subgrouping.

That the group was more likely to form

subgroups while ranging defies simple

explanation. Subgrouping was often initiated

when the group was moving away from major

food sources such as a coffee plantation or large

ficus trees. It was also noticed often that the

*

subgroups united at major food sources, moving

in from different directions. As a result, the entire

group rarely moved together for any great length

of time.

It is, however, worth noting that

subgrouping in the fragment was considerably

higher than in the continuous forest for all

activities. This reflects drastic reduction in food

abundance and change in the food distribution.

With most of the emergent trees removed along

with most of the understorey, shrubs and large

lianas, there was drastic reduction not only in

food abundance but also in the size of food

sources and their distribution. This has affected

424

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3) DEC 1998

TEMPORARY GROUP SPLITTING IN THE LION-TAILED MACAQUE

the social organisation of the lion-tailed macaque.

Acknowledgements

We thank Dr. V.S. Vijayan, Director,

SACON for facilities; Tamil Nadu Forest

Refer

Altman, J. (1974): Observational study of behaviour:

Sampling methods. Behaviour 49: 227-267.

Green. S.M. & K. Minkowski (1977): The lion-tailed

macaque and its South Indian rainforest habitat.

hr. Primate conservation (Eds) H.S.H. Rainier III

and G.H. Bourne). Academic Press, New York pp.

290-338.

Kumar, A. (1985): Patterns of extinction in India, Sri Lanka

and elsewhere in South East Asia: Implication for

lion-tailed macaque wildlife management and the

Indian conservation system. In: Lion-tailed

Macaque: Status and Conservation. (Ed) P.G.

Heltne; Alan R Liss, New York pp. 65-90.

Kumar, A. (1987): The Ecology and Population Dynamics

of the Lion-tailed Macaque ( Macaca silenus ) in

South India. Ph.D. Dissertation, Cambridge

University, U.K.

Department and Puthuthottam Estate Manage-

ment for permission to work and assistance;

Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govern-

ment of India for funding; and G. Umapathy and

A. Prabhakar for introducing the first author to

the study area and methods.

N C E S

Kumar, A. (1995): The life history, ecology, distribution

and conservation problems in the wild. In: The Lion-

tailed macaque: Population and Habitat Viability

Assessment Workshop. (Eds) Kumar, A., Molur, S

and Walker, S. Zoo Outreach, Coimbatore, India.

Kumar, A., G. Umapathy & A. Prabhakar ( 1 995): A study

on the management and conservation of the small

mammals in fragmented rain forests of the Western

Ghats, South India. Primate Conservation, 16: 53-

58.

Kurup, G.U. (1978): Distribution, habitat and status survey

of lion-tailed macaque {Macaca silenus). J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 75: 321-340.

Menon, S. (1993): Ecology and Conservation of the

Endangered Lion-tailed Macaque {Macaca silenus)

in the Landscape Mosaic of the Western Ghats.

Ph.D. Dissertation, Ohio State University, U.S.A.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC 1998

425

POPULATION, MOULT, BIOMETRICS AND SUBSPECIES OF

LARGE SAND PLOVER CHARADRJUS LESCHENA ULTII

WINTERING IN SOUTHEAST INDIA1

S. Balachandran2

(With two text-figures )

Key words: Charadrius leschenaultii crassirostris, Charadrius leschenaultii

leschenaultii, Australia, adult, first year bird, moult, weight, Gulf of Mannar.

Based on the results of the bird ringing studies conducted between 1985-1988, along with bird

count data, this study provides information on the population, moult, proportion of young birds,

measurements and subspecies of the large sand plover Charadrius leschenaultii wintering in the

Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park in southeast India About 300-500 birds winter and some

individuals spend the breeding season (summer) here. The proportion of “first year” birds was

< 30%. Adults complete the primary moult by October, one to two months earlier than in northwest

Australia. Birds weighed at departure weigh at least 30% less than in Australia. Two subspecies,

crassirostris and leschenaultii , have been recognised from the wintering population.

Introduction

This study presents the results of bird

migration studies carried out between 1985-1988

at the Gulf of Mannar (GOM) Marine National

Park, an important wader habitat in India.

xAlthough the large sand plover Charadrius

leschenaultii is known to winter all along the

seaboard of India, its distribution pattern is not

clearly known. However, it is seen in small

numbers on the entire seacoast of India (Ali and

Ripley 1983). Moreover, bird ringing carried out

at different sites along the east coast from

Orissa (Chilka Lake) to south Tamil Nadu

indicates that it is seen in several hundreds

only in GOM, which has extensive intertidal

sandflats, the most favoured habitat of this

species.

An eastern species, the large sand plover

occurs in greater numbers towards east Asia, and

'Accepted July, 1997

2Bombay Natural History Society,

Hombill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai-23.

Corresponding address :

1 1/1 00, Central Street, Agasteeswaram P.O.,

Kanyakumari District, Tamil Nadu-629701 .

in Australia where it is one of the four abundant

wintering species (Barter and Barter 1986). This

paper deals with the population fluctuation,

proportion of young birds, moult and

measurements, and subspecies recognition, based

on the bird count and ringing data for 160

individuals ringed in three migratory seasons

between 1985-1988. The weight and moult score

recorded during this study is compared with the

observation made at northwestern Australia by

Barter and Barter (1986).

Study Area

Two corals islands, namely Manali and

Hare Island and Pillaimadam lagoon in the

GOM near Mandapam, and the Dhanushkodi

lagoon in Rameswaram Island were the major

study areas selected for this study. For more

details see Balachandran (1995).

Methods

The birds were caught with mesh nets and

nooses, the traditional methods of professional

bird trappers of coastal regions. Birds caught

were ringed, aged, measured, weighed and

examined for moult before being released.

426

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3) DEC. 1998

POPULATION, MOULT, BIOMETRICS AND SUBSPECIES OF LARGE SAND PLOVER

450

400-

350

O

l-H

P3

to

O

0$

to

pa

%

to

£

Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jon Jut Aug

MONTH

Fig. 1: Population fluctuation of large sand plover Charadrius leschenaultii

Birds were age-classified as ‘adults’ and

‘first year’ based on the characters described in

the BTO Guide No. 17. ‘Adult’ refers to birds

older than first year and includes second year

birds from the first of August onwards. The term

‘first year’ refers to birds hatched in the same year.

Moult scoring was followed as in Snow

(1967), wing, bill and tarsus were measured to

the nearest millimetre (mm), and the birds

weighed to the nearest gram (gm).

Monthly bird counts were carried out to

determine the seasonal fluctuation in bird numbers.

Though a few migrants started arriving in late

August, the netting started from September

onwards. Hence, each season commenced from

September and ended in August. Thus, 1985-86,

1986-87, 1987-88 seasons are referred to as first,

second and third seasons respectively.

Results

Population fluctuation: The large sand

plover arrived in low hundreds in September and

October. The numbers were maximum in

September and early October (300-450) due to

the occurrence of transient individuals enroute

to the other wintering grounds. They were found

in lesser numbers (40-50) afterwards and till

December end. A slight increase in their numbers

was observed from the second half of January

and February, probably due to the reappearance

of transient individuals on their return journey

to the breeding ground (Fig. 1). The maximum

number of individuals counted for the three

seasons was 450 in 1985-86. Some individuals,

mostly first year birds, were found to spend the

summer in Manali and Hare Is.

Age composition: Adults outnumbered

first year birds in all the three seasons. The

adult proportion was >70%. There is no

significant variation in the adult/first year bird

ratio for the three seasons. However, a slight

decrease in the proportion of first year birds

was observed in the second season (1986-87)

(Table 1).

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC. 1998

427

POPULATION, MOULT, BIOMETRICS AND SUBSPECIES OF LARGE SAND PLOVER

1 2 12 13 17 21 26 1 4 0 7 14 16 10 17 19 2228 2930 14 17 18 20

SEPTEMBER OCTOBER NOVEMBER

Fig. 2: Moult score vs date in large sand plover

Table 1

PROPORTION OF ADULT/FIRST YEAR

BIRDS CAUGHT

Primary moult: The majority of the birds

caught in September were in advanced moult or

complete moult, which indicates that the moult

had already commenced either at breeding sites

or on passage. One bird caught with a moult score

of 14 in early September was the lowest to be

recorded. Most of them completed their moult

by late October (Fig. 2), which is earlier by one

month at least, than observed in northwestern

Australia by Barter and Barter (1986) where they

complete moulting between November and

December. The same authors also estimated the

duration of moult as 1 20 days. A second year bird,

ringed as first year bird in the previous season and

retrapped on October 1, had completed its moult.

Hence, it is evident that birds observed with a moult

score between 45-50 during September are second

year birds. First year birds commenced their moult

during the first week of April.

Site fidelity to wintering ground: Out of

the 9 1 birds ringed in the first season, three birds

each were recovered in the two subsequent seasons.

Table 2

BIOMETRICS OF LARGE SAND PLOVER CAUGHT AT

GULF OF MANNAR

428

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3 ) DEC. 1998

POPULATION, MOULT, BIOMETRICS AND SUBSPECIES OF LARGE SAND PLOVER

Table 3

MEASUREMENT RANGE OF LARGE SAND PLOVER

FROM OTHER SOURCES (in mm)

It is evident that site fidelity to the wintering ground

exists in this species as in other waders.

The measurements obtained at GQM

fall within the range given by the above mentioned

authors, except for the wing length of the two “first

year” birds, 5 mm shorter (127, 128 mm) than the

minimum range given by all authors.

Weight changes: The weight varies from

59-95 gm. A maximum weight of 95 gm was

recorded in March. However, the monthly

average weight did not fluctuate much, being

73-79 gm. The maximum average weight was

observed in January.

Subspecies: C. leschenaultii columbinus

(Turkey and Jordan east to Caspian) is the

shortest in bill length.

C. leschenaultii crassirostris (Caspian east

to above Lake Balkash) is the largest in wing,

bill and tarsus length.

C. leschenaultii leschenaultii (Mongolia,

W. China and adjacent USSR) intermediate in

bill length (Hayman et al., 1986).

The bill length ranges from 22-28 mm

for the birds caught at GOM. The absence of

birds with shortest bill (20 and 21 mm) and a

few birds with 22 mm bill length indicate that

the species wintering at GOM does not belong

to the race columbinus. However, the presence

of birds with 23 mm and 24 mm bill length

(intermediate bill length) and 25-26 mm (highest

bill length) shows that the population probably

includes both the races leschenaultii and

crassirostris.

Discussion

Individuals with maximum wing, bill and

tarsus lengths indicate the occurrence of C.l.

crassirostris. However, the average adult wing

length (145.7 mm) and bill length (24 mm)

obtained in the present study are much nearer to

those observed by Barter and Barter (1986) in

northwest Australia (143.8 and 23.8 mm

respectively), which also confirms the presence

of C.l. leschenaultii.

The moult duration (120 days) calculated,

based on the feather growth rate from individuals

retrapped in the same season by Balachandran

(1990), is consistent with the duration estimated

by Barter and Barter (1986) for the large sand

plover in Australia. The completion of moult in

second year birds observed at GOM was much

earlier than other adults, which is also consistent

with the findings of Cramp and Simmons ( 1986)

on the primary moult of second year birds. The

primary moult commenced elsewhere (probably

on the breeding sites) and was completed without

any suspension at GOM by the end of October.

This period is one to two months earlier than in

Australia, where these birds arrive with

suspended moult. Due to suspended moult, the

Australian wintering population completes the

primary moult one to two months later than south

Indian wintering birds. As GOM is much closer

to the breeding ground than is Australia, the

wintering population of India has to travel less

distance than the wintering population of

Australia. Hence, there is probably no need for

the Indian population to suspend the moult.

Similarly, wintering birds in Australia gain

more weight (120 gm in April) than in India

(maximum 95 gm), to undertake the long return

journey, as their wintering grounds are further

away from the breeding grounds than are Indian

wintering grounds. However, the average weight

73-79 gm observed during the non-migratory

period in GOM is consistent with that observed

in northwest Australia (73-76 gm) by Barter and

Barter (1986).

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC. 1998

429

POPULATION. MOULT. BIOMETRICS AND SUBSPECIES OF LARGE SAND PLOVER

Large sand plover wintering in GOM

are faithful to the wintering sites, a habit that was

also confirmed in the Australian wintering

grounds.

Acknowledgements

This study was carried out as a part of the

Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS) Bird

Migration Study supported by U.S. Fish and

Refer

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the birds of India

and Pakistan. Compact edition, Oxford Univ. Press, New

Delhi. pp 226-227.

Balachandran, S. (1990): Studies on the coastal birds of

Mandapam and the neighbouring islands (Peninsular

India). Ph.D Thesis. Annamalai University.

Balachandran, S. (1995): Shorebirds of the Gulf of Mannar

Marine National Park, Tamil Nadu. J. Bombay nat.

Hist.Soc. 92(3): 303-311.

Barter, L. & M. Barter (1986): Biometrics, moult and

migration of Large Sand Plover ( Charadrius

Wildlife Service under a grant from PL-480 funds

No. 14-16-0009-87-02 released through Depart-

ment of Environment, Wildlife and Forests, Govt,

of India. I gratefully acknowledge permission to

v/ork in the area from the Tamil Nadu Forest

Department, and the regional centre of Central

Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Mandapam

camp for facilities. I thank Mr. J.C. Daniel, the

then Director of BNHS, for guidance and for

going through this manuscript.

;NCES

leschenaultii ) spending the non-breeding season in

northwestern Australia. Stilt 8: 9-13.

Cramp. S. & K.E.L. Simmons (eds) (1983): The birds of the

western Palaeartic. Vol. 3. Oxford University Press, pp

166-170

Hayman, P., J. Marchant & T. Prater (1986): Shorebirds: an

Identification Guide to the Waders of the World. Croom

Helm, London.

Prater, A.J., J.H. Marchant & J. Vuorinen (1977):

Identification and ageing of Holarctic waders. BTO

Guide 1 7, Tring, England.

•u

430

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 95(3) DEC 1998

THE FISHES OF MUDUMALAI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY,

TAMIL NADU, SOUTH INDIA1

Manimekalan, A.2

( With one text-figure)

Key words: Western Ghats, Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (NBR), Tamil Nadu,

Mudumalai, hillstream fishes.

The paper describes 38 species of fishes belonging to 21 genera, 12 families and 8 orders

from Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu. Common names, vernacular names,

notes on morphological characters — range of distribution, status and relative abundance

have been discussed.

Introduction

Tamil Nadu with its 14 Wildlife Sanctuaries

and 5 National Parks has a vast network of

protected areas covering c. 2834 sq. km, i.e.

12.48% of the total forest area (Venkataraman

1995). Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary (MWS)

forms 11.32% of the total protected area in the

state. Increasingly, decisions affecting park

resources are made with limited biological

information especially for little known groups

such as fishes. Forest managers need accurate

assessments of the occurrence of species or

genotypes, and the status of their populations.

These assessments are essential to form natural

resource management policies, to manage the

natural diversity and to identify potential areas

of high conservation value.

This paper describes the fishes of

Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, with a note on

their distribution and morphological characters.

As in earlier studies (Hora 1941, Hora and Law

'Accepted May, 1997

2Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History

(SACON)

P.O. Anaikatti.

Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu 641 108.

Present Address :

Centre for Environmental Sciences, Manonmaniam Sundaranar

University, Alwarkurichi, Tamil Nadu 627 41 2.

1941, Hora 1 942, Rajan 1955,1963; Silas 1951a,

b; Rema Devi and Indra 1986) peninsular India,

especially the hill ranges lying in the Nilgiris,

has proved to be an ideal site for ichthyological

studies, as physiography has contributed to the

presence of diverse fish fauna.

Study Area

Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary is situated

in Nilgiri dist., Tamil Nadu ( 1 1 ° 30' to 1 1 ° 39' N

Lat, 76° 27 to 76° 43' E Long.), an area of 321

sq. km, which includes 103 sq. km of National

Park (Fig. 1). The sanctuary is bounded by

Bandipur Tiger Reserve (Karnataka) on the

north, by Wynaad Sanctuary (Kerala) on the

northwest, by vast stretches of Sigur reserve forest

(Tamil Nadu) towards the east and by private

coffee and tea estates to the south. The altitude

ranges between 1258 m (Morganbettea) and

625 m (Moyar Reserve Forest). The terrain is

gently undulating in the western portion, while

the eastern portion is almost flat. Annual rainfall

ranges from 800 to 1800 mm. The forest types

vary from open thorny scrub to hilltop evergreen

forest. Dry as well as moist deciduous forests

form a large portion of the sanctuary. Teak plan-

tations are also common. MWS has four major

administrative ranges: 1. Kargudi range (54.6

sq. km), 2. Theppakadu range (89.5 sq. km),

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95 (3), DEC. 1998

431

FISHES OF MUDUMALAI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, TAMIL NADU

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JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3) DEC. 1998

Fig. 1: Streams and Rivers of Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary

FISHES OF MU DO MALA I WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, TAMIL NADU

Mudumalai range (96.6 sq. km) and Masinagudi

range (80.4 sq. km).

Streams and river: Mudumalai is a

remarkably well watered sanctuary (Davidar

1985). Besides the Moyar and Sigur rivers, their

tributaries called halla, meaning water course,

run deep into the sanctuary. The flume channel

taking water from the Sinkara powerhouse to the

Moyar powerhouse lower down, with its

regulatory dam at Maravankandy and its seepage,

form yet another water complex. Moyar and its

tributaries, along with the perennial river and

streams via Sigur river, Bidar halla, Kakan halla,

Mavan halla, Mavin halla, Imbar halla, Mukkatti

hole and Avara halla are the major water sources

of the sanctuary and they provide suitable habitats

for fishes in the sanctuary.

Mukkatti hole originates from Mukkitti

reserve forest and joins Nul Puzha in Nul reserve

forest of Kerala. Benne hole starts near Kapur

and runs out to the sanctuary and joins Mukkatti

hole near Kaniyaram, outside the Sanctuary area

and finally joins Nul Puzha in Kerala. Mavin

halla forms the boundary between Kerala and

Tamil Nadu on the northwestern side.

Kakkanhalla forms a boundary between

Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Kakkan halla is fed

by its tributary Imbar halla. Bidar halla joins

Moyar 2 km from Abhayaranyam. Its tributary,

Ombatta Todu, forms the Ombatta swamp before

it joins Bidar halla.

Sigur river, with its tributaries Mavan

halla and Avara halla, enters MWS near

Vallatottam at the southeastern part of the

sanctuary. River Sigur joins Moyar at

Pathattipatti. It forms the sanctuary boundary on

the southeast.

Moyar river supported by 5 tributaries is

the only major river in the sanctuary. It enters

MWS near Thorapalli at the middle of the

southern end and runs through Abhayaranyam,

Kargudi, Teppakadu (where it forms MGR fall)

and then runs along the boundary between

Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. While Karimara

hole joins Moyar just outside the southern

boundary of the sanctuary, Bidar halla (near

Abhayaranyam), Hosheri halla (near Kargudi)

and Kal halla (near Theppakaau) feed the river

inside the sanctuary. Kakkan halla, that forms

the northern boundary of the sanctuary, joins

Moyar after MGR fall.

Methodology: Sampling was carried out

seasonally during 1995-96 using cast nets, gill

nets, scoop nets and drag nets. To minimise the

collection from the wild, one voucher specimen

of each species was collected and preserved in

10% formalin (Victor and Meye 1994) for

identification and laboratory work. Morpho-

logical features of each species were measured

following Moyle and Senanayake (1984).

Identification of the species was carried out

following Day (1865), Jayaram (1981), and

Talwar and Jhingran (1991). The recent

classification of Nelson (1984) was followed.

Results and Discussion: A total of 38

species belonging to 21 genera, 12 families and

8 orders have been collected and identified during

the study from the sanctuary. Common and

vernacular names (Kan-Kannada, Mal-

Malayalam, Tam-Tamil), diagnostic features,

range of distribution and general status of the

species are discussed.

Mudumalai sanctuary has the unique

distinction of having a large number of rare and

endemic fish species. Out of 38 species collected,

27 species belong to Cyprinidae. 36 species are

native and two are introduced species. 39% of

the total species are uncommon or rare and

endemic. The sanctuary harbours four species,

Puntius mudumalaiensis, Danoi neilgheriensis,

Puntius melanostigma and Mystus punctatus,

endemic to Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. While P.

mudumalaiensis is exclusive to MWS (Menon

and Rema Devi 1992), the other three species

were found elsewhere in the NBR. Only two

individuals of Tor khudree, an endangered

species, were collected during our study. All the

specimens were preserved in 10% formalin and

are deposited at the Salim Ali Centre of

Ornithology and Natural History (SACON).

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95 (3), DEC. 1998

433

FISHES OF MUDUMALAI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, TAMIL NADU

Description of the species

Order: Anguilliformes

Family: Anguillidae

1 . Anguilla bengalensis (Gray)

Salient features: D. 250-300; P. 18; A.

218-248; C. 10-12.

Common name: Indian long-fin eel

Vernacular name: Kan - Karimenu; Mai

- Vilangu, Mlanjil; Tam - Velangoo.

Diagnosis: Body elongate; mouth termi-

nal; angle of mouth behind posterior margin of

eye; dorsal fin inserted nearer anus than gill-

opening; colour yellowish, mottled with dark

brown.

Locality and range: Moyar near Kargudi;

throughout India.

Relative abundance: Not common.

Order: Cypriniformes

Family: Cyprinidae

2. Cirrhinus reba (Hamilton)

Salient features: D. 1/8; P. 1/6; V. 1/9; A.

1/6; C. 8/18.

Common name: Reba carp.

Vernacular name: Kan - Bathili, Thari

meenu, Arja; Mai - Reba; Tam - Arijan kendai,

Kull arinjan, Poorali, Pillarinjan.

Diagnosis: Body elongate; depth more

than head length; one pair of short rostral

barbels; pectoral fin as long as head; caudal

deeply forked; lateral line complete with 34-38

scales; lateral transverse 7/6; Colour silvery on

sides; greyish back, anal and pelvic fins orange

tipped.

Locality and range: Moyar; throughout

India.

Remarks: It is a planktivorous fish and

can be cultivated in ponds. Commonly available

in the Cauvery river.

Relative abundance: Not common.

3. Cyprinus carpio Linnaeus

Common name: Common carp.

Diagnosis: Body stout; head triangular;

mouth small and oblique; thick lips; 2 pairs of

barbels; dorsal fin inserted midway between

snout and base of caudal; dorsal spine serrated;

scales large; lateral line with 30-40 scales; colour

silvery to golden, fins yellowish to golden.

Locality and range: Moyar; throughout

India.

Remarks: The common carp has three

recognised varieties: C. carpio var. communis

(scale carp), C.c. var. nudus (leather carp) and

C.c. var. specularis (mirror carp). The mirror

carp was brought from Sri Lanka in 1939 and

stocked in the Ooty lake (Tamil Nadu). This fish

is an omnivorous bottom dweller.

Relative abundance: Not common.

4. Labeo bata (Hamilton)

Salient features: D. 2-3/9-10; P. 1/16-17;

V. 1/8; A. 3/5-6.

Common name: Bata.

Vernacular name: Tam - Kindameen,

Sinakannan meen.

Diagnosis: Body elongate, snout slightly

projecting, with pores; lower lip slightly fringed;

1 pair minute maxillary barbels; lateral line with

37-40 scales; predorsal scales 10-13; colour-

golden yellow on back, silvery on sides, irregular

black blotch present on 4th-6th lateral line scales,

pelvic and anal fins dark with orange red tips.

Locality and range: Confluence of Moyar

and Kakkan halla; Krishna, Cauvery and

Godavari river systems.

Remarks: It is a minor carp, having a

maximum length of 610 mm.

Relative abundance: Rare.

5. Puntius bimaculatus (Bleeker)

Salient features: D. 4/7-8; P. 1/14-15; V.

1/8; A. 3/5.

434

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3) DEC 1998

FISHES OF MUDUMALAI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, TAMIL NADU

Common name: Two-spot barb.

Diagnosis: Elongate body; one pair of

barbels; dorsal ray weak; lateral line complete

with 24-25 scales; predorsai scales 8 to 10; back

olive green, black spot at base of 3rd to 8th ray

of dorsal fin; black spot at end of lateral line on

23rd and 24th scale.

Locality and range: Moyar; Kalakkad.

Remarks: Grows upto 60 mm.

Relative abundance: Rare.

6. Puntius bovanicus (Day)

Salient features: D. 4/9-10; P. 1/18; V. 1/

8; A. 3/6.

Common name: Bhavani barb.

Vernacular name: Tam - Bhavani kendai

Diagnosis: Body elongate; no bands or

spots; four well developed barbels; dorsal ray

osseous, strong and smooth; lateral line complete

with 24-26 scales; greenish colour with a golden

tinge, darkest along the back.

Locality and range: Moyar; Bhavani

river, Cauvery river and its tributaries at the base

of the Nilgiri hills, Tamil Nadu.

Remarks: A rare barb with restricted

distribution.

Relative abundance: Rare.

7. Puntius carnaticus (Jerdon)

Salient features: D. 4/8; P. 2/15-16; V. 1/

8; A. 2/6; C.6/18.

Common name: Carnatic Carp.

Vernacular name: Kan - Gendai; Mai -

Kavery kenta; Tam - Pulli kendai, Poaree candee,

Saal kendai.

Diagnosis: Deep bodied; no bands or

spots; four barbels; dorsal ray osseous, strong

and smooth; lateral line curved, complete,

with 28-31 scales; predorsal scales 10-12; dark

olive green back, dull white on abdomen

and sides; fins dusky, outer margin of dorsal fin

black. ‘V’ shaped marking on the caudal.

Locality and range: Moyar; Krishna and

Cauvery river system - Nilgiris, Wynaad and

Canara.

Remarks: It grows to a fairly large size,

upto 1 2 kg in weight.

Relative abundance: Common.

8. Puntius chola (Hamilton)

Salient features: D. 3/7-8; P. 1/14; V. 1/8;

A. 2/5

Common name: Chola barb, swamp barb,

green barb.

Vernacular name: Kan - Dhoddakarse;

Mai - Poovali kendai, koroon; Tam - Korron,

Putti kendai, Macha kendai, Vannathi.

Diagnosis: Deep bodied; no bands;

one pair of barbels; dorsal fin ossified,

spine smooth; lateral line complete with 24 to

29 scales; black spot after gill opening and caudal

base.

Locality and range: Mavan halla and

Moyar; throughout India.

Remarks: Fairly common in coastal areas

of Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

Relative abundance: Not common.

9. Puntius dorsalis (Jerdon)

Salient features: D. 4/8; P. 1/13-14; V. 1/

8; A. 3/5-6.

Common name: Long-snouted barb.

Vernacular name: Kan - Markakka; Tam

- Kendai.

Diagnosis: Body elongate; one pair of

barbels; last unbranched dorsal ray osseous,

strong and smooth; lateral line complete with

22-28 scales; predorsal scales 8 to 10. Colour

olive dorsally, silvery sides, fins orange. A black

blotch on tail.

Locality and range: Mavin halla; Krishna

and Cauvery river systems.

Remarks: Grows upto 150 mm.

Relative abundance: Rare.

10. Puntius filamentosus (Valenciennes)

Salient features: D. 2/7; P. 1/14; V. 1/8;

A. 1/5; C. 6/16.

Common name: Tiger barb, black spot barb.

Vernacular name: Mai - Kachi parval;

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95 (3), DEC 1998

435

FISHES OF MUDUMALAI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, TAMIL NADU

Tam - Chevalle, Machakendai.

Diagnosis: Elongate body; one pair

rudimentary maxillary barbels; dorsal ray

prolonged upto caudal base; third ray longest;

lateral line complete with about 21 scales; black

spot on caudal peduncle.

Locality and range: Sinkaara; Krishna

and Cauvery drainages.

Remarks: It also breeds in ponds. Four

black vertical stripes on a pink body in juveniles.

As the fish matures, the stripes disappear and

only one remains as a horizontal oval spot on

the caudal peduncle.

Relative abundance: Not common.

1 1 . Puntius melanostigma (Day)

Salient features: D. 2/8; P. 1/14; V. 1/8;

A. 2/5.

Common name: Wynaad barb.

Vernacular name: Mai - Kudukunda; Tam

- Macha kendai.

Diagnosis: Elongate body; no vertical

colour bands; one pair of maxillary barbels;

dorsal ray weak and osseous; lateral line complete

with 23 to 26 scales; predorsal scales 8; silvery

colour; deep black blotch on base of caudal fin.

Locality and range: Moyar and Bidar

halla; Cauvery river system, Wynaad hills and

Bhavani river.

Remarks: Grows upto 100 mm.

Relative abundance: Rare.

12. Puntius m udum alaiensis

Menon and Rema Devi

Salient features: D. 4/8; P. 13; V. 1/8, A.

3/5; C. 1/17.

Diagnosis: A small Puntius with propor-

tionately big head with a deep body; one pair of

maxillary barbels; weak and articulated dorsal

spine; lateral line incomplete; 2 blotches, one

on dorsal base and the other on caudal peduncle.

Locality and range: Mudumalai-Kakkan

halla; Nilgiris.

Remarks: Attains a maximum length of

230 mm.

Relative abundance: Rare and endemic.

13. Puntius saruna sarana (Hamilton)

Salient features: D. 3/8; P. 1/15; V. 1/8;

A. 3/5.

Common name: Olive barb.

Vernacular name: Kan - Gid-pakka; Mai

- Kuruka; Tam - Pingella, Panjelai kendai, Pallu

kendai.

Diagnosis: Body elongate; four barbels;

dorsal ray osseous and serrated; lateral line

complete with 30-33 scales; each scale has long

black lines and dark border posteriorly.

Locality and range: Moyar; south of

Krishna river.

Remarks: It is found in ponds, lakes and

rivers. It grows to 600 mm length and breeds

during the monsoon.

Relative abundance: Common.

14. Puntius sarana subnasutus (Valenciennes)

Common name: Peninsular Olive barb

Diagnosis: Body oblong; four barbels;

dorsal ray osseous and fairly strong; lateral line

complete with 28-31 scales; predorsal scales 10;

colour silvery on back fading to white beneath;

a dark band behind opercular and a black blotch

on the 24th scale of the lateral line; fins orange.

Locality and range: Benne hole; Krishna

and Cauvery river systems and south of it.

Remarks: Common in Kerala backwaters.

Relative abundance: Not common.

15. Puntius ticto (Hamilton)

Salient features: D. 2/7; P. 1/9-10; V. 1/8;

A. 2/5; C. 6/16-18.

Common name: Ticto barb, Tic-tac-toe

Barb, fire fin barb.

Vernacular name: Mai - Kadum kali; Tam

- Palli kendai.

Diagnosis: Deep bodied; barbels absent;

dorsal ray short, osseous and serrated; lateral

436

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3) DEC 1998

FISHES OF MUDUMALAI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, TAMIL NADU

line complete or incomplete; a black blotch on

3rd, 4th or 5th lateral line scale and another

between scales 16-20.

Locality and range: Moyar, Ombatta and

Kakkan halla; widely distributed in India.

Remarks: A popular aquarium fish,

preferred for its iridescence and red edging on

the dorsal fin. The fish shows variable coloura-

tion, lateral line scales, etc.

Relative abundance: Rare.

16. Puntius wynaadensis (Day)

Salient features: D. 4/9; P. 1/16-17; V. 1/

8; A. 3/5-6.

Salient features: Wynaad barb.

Diagnosis: Deep bodied, dorsal spine weak

and articulated, two pairs of well developed

barbels; eight rows of sensory pores below eye;

cartilaginous pad on lower jaw; lateral line

complete, curved with 28-29 scales; predorsal

scales 10; mid-dorsal streak and faint line along

the sides above lateral line.

Locality and range: Kakkan halla and

Moyar; Wynaad and headwaters of the Cauvery

river.

Remarks: Grows upto 250 mm.

Relative abundance: Rare.

17. Tor khudree (Sykes)

Salient features: D. 4/9; P. 1/14; V. 1/8;

A. 2/7-8.

Common name: Deccan Mahseer, Yellow

Mahseer.

Vernacular name: Kan - Bili meen; Tam

- Biriga, Poomeen, Peruval.

Diagnosis: Body elongate; snout covered

with indistinct tubercles; eyes visible from

underside of head; four barbels; lower lip

protruding; pectoral fins short; large scales;

lateral line scales 25-27; colour silvery with

yellow below lateral line, belly bluish, eyes red,

fins bluish grey.

Locality and range: Moyar nearKargudi;

Deccan (Krishna and Godavari river systems of

Peninsular India).

Remarks: It grows to 450 mm and about

22 kg in weight.

Relative abundance: Critically

endangered.

Subfamily: Rasborinae

18. Barilius bendelisis (Hamilton)

Salient features: D. 2/7, P. 1/10, V. 1/8,

A. 2/8, C. 6/19.

Common name: Hill trout

Vernacular name: Mai - Pavakan; Tam -

Vennathi kendai.

Diagnosis: Body shallow; jaws long;

four short barbels; poorly developed tubercles

on snout and lower jaw; dorsal fin inserted

in advance of anal fin; lateral line scales

40-45; predorsal scales 18-20; colour greyish

black, sides silvery, with 8-10 dark vertical

bands.

Locality and range: Throughout the

sanctuary; India.

Remarks: It grows to about 150 mm and

is fairly common in the region.

Relative abundance: Very common.

19. Barilius gatensis (Valenciennes)

Salient features: D. 1/10; P. 1/10; V. 1/8;

A. 2/11; C. 6/18.

Common name: Hill trout, river carp.

Vernacular name: Mai - Pavakan.

Diagnosis: Active stream fish with a deep

body; two minute rostral barbels; dorsal fin

inserted in advance of anal fin; tubercles on head

well developed; lateral line with 40-41 scales;

predorsal scales 15; colour silvery grey with 13-

15 vertical bars.

Locality and range: Mavin halla; Western

Ghats - Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu

and Kerala.

Remarks: Grows to 150 mm.

Relative abundance: Rare.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95 (3), DEC 1998

437

FISHES OF MUDUMALAI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, TAMIL NADU

20. Danio aequipinnatus (McClelland)

Salient features: D. 2/10; P. 1/9; V. 1/5;

A. 2/13; C. 8/18.

Common name: Blue or Giant Danio.

Vernacular name: Tel - Vannathipodi;

Tam - Selai parvai, Vananthipodi.

Diagnosis: Body elongate and compressed;

pre-orbital spine present on the lachrymal bone;

mouth directed upwards; four short barbels; lateral

line complete with 35-37 scales; predorsal scales

15; colour brilliant blue with well developed lateral

dark blue bands, on the sides of which are thinner

golden bands, tins bright orange.

Locality and range: Throughout the

Sanctuary; throughout India.

Remarks: It is widely distributed

throughout India and is an attractive aquarium

fish. It grows to 1 50 mm and prefers hill streams.

Relative abundance: Very common.

2 1 . Danio neilgherriensis (Day)

Salient features: D. 1/11; P. 1/9; V. 1/6;

A. 1/10; C. 6/18.

Common name: Peninsular Danio.

Vernacular name: Tam - Kowlei.

Diagnosis: Body elongate and compressed;

mouth small and obliquely directed upwards;

four short barbels; dorsal fin inserted in advance

of anal fin; lateral line complete with 38 scales;

predorsal scales 16-18; colour silvery with

greenish back, a steel blue stripe along the sides.

Locality and range: Confluence of Moyar

and Ombatta; Tamil Nadu (Nilgiri hills).

Remarks: It grows to about 100 mm.

Relative abundance: Rare.

22. Esomus barbatus (Jerdon)

Salient features: D. 2/6; P. 1/14; V. 1/8;

A. 3/5

Common name: South Indian flying barb.

Vernacular name: Tam - Messai paravai

Diagnosis: Body elongate and strongly

compressed; mouth small; four barbels,

maxillary barbels extended upto middle of

pectoral fin; pectoral fins long but do not extend

upto pelvic fms; lateral line complete with 30-

32 scales; predorsal scales 17; colour silvery with

an indistinct streak on the side.

Locality and range: Confluence Ombatta

and Ombatta thodu; Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.

Remarks: It grows to 120 mm.

Relative abundance: Not common.

23. Parluciosoma daniconius (Hamilton)

Salient features: D. 3/13; P. 1/12-13; V.

1/8; A. 1/6; C. 8/18.

Common name: Blackline rasbora

Vernacular name: Kan - Neddean jubbu,

Kolkane, Kolainjan kendai, Mai - Kannanjan;

Tam - Jobidayee, Narangi

Diagnosis: Body oblong and compressed;

lips simple; pectoral fins short; lateral line

complete with 34 scales; colour silvery with dark

back, a distinct dark band on the sides flanked

with gold.

Remarks: Commonly found in almost all

aquatic habitats, it grows to 100 mm.

Locality and range: Throughout

Mudumalai; throughout India.

Relative abundance: Very common.

Subfamily Garrinae

24. Garra gotyla stenorhynchus (Jerdon)

Salient features: D. 3/8; P. 6/9; V. 2/7; A.

2/5; C. 6/17.

Common name: Stone sucker, Nilgiri

garra.

Vernacular name: Mai - Kallangkari:

Tam - Kal kaagan.

Diagnosis: Body elongate and

subcylindrical; depth of body 5 or more times in

standard length; snout with a proboscis; 4

barbels; lateral line scales 32-35; predorsal scales

8-10; colour greyish above and pale on the sides,

a black spot on operculum.

438

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3) DEC. 1998

FISHES OF MV DOM ALAI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY. TAMIL NADU

Locality and range: Throughout the

sanctuary; Western Ghats - Krishna and Cauvery

river systems.

Remarks: Grows to 150 mm. An ideal

example of morphological adaptation to stream

habitat.

Relative abundance: Common.

25. Garra mullya (Sykes)

Salient features: D. 2/8; P. 2/10-11; V. 1/

8; A. 1/5; C. 4/18.

Common name: Stone carp, Mullya garra.

Vernacular name: Kan - Pandi pakka;

Mai - Kamau, Kallu nakki; Tam - Kallu

koravai.

Diagnosis: Body depth four times in

standard length; snout rounded and marked by a

deep transverse groove; mouth small; four

barbels; caudal fin emarginate; lateral line scales

32-34; predorsal scales 9-11; dorsal side dark,

belly white, broad lateral band on the sides. A

distinct red spot on operculum.

Locality and range: Moyar and Kakkan

halla; India.

Remarks: Specimens from widely

separated river systems show morphological

variations in size of mental disc, shape,

colouration, etc.

Relative abundance: Not common.

Family: Cobitidae

Subfamily: Cobitinae

26. Lepidocephalus thermalis (Valenciennes)

Salient features: D. 3/6; P. 1/7; V. 1/6; A.

3/5.

Common name: Malabar loach.

Vernacular name: Mai - Ayira; Tam -

Assaree, Assari meen.

Diagnosis: Body elongate; mouth inferior;

six barbels; dorsal fin inserted anterior to pelvic

fin; caudal fin truncate; scales present on anterior

side of pectoral fin base; colour greyish green

with 8 to 10 irregular blotches on sides; dorsal

and anal fins with rows of spots.

Locality and range: Kakkan halla and

Mavin halla; Maharashtra, Karnataka and

Kerala.

Remarks: Grows upto 80 mm. This

species exhibits wide variation in colour pattern

in different river systems.

Relative abundance: Not common.

Family: Balitoridae

Subfamily: Noemacheilinae

27. Noemacheilus denisoni denisoni Day

Salient features: D. 3/8; P. 1/10; V. 1/6;

A. 3/5.

Diagnosis: Eight branched dorsal fin rays;

pelvic touching the anal opening; caudal deeply

emarginate with rounded lobes; lateral line

incomplete, ending in front of dorsal fin; body

with varying number of brown bands, more

distinct behind dorsal fin; predorsal distance

22.5-55.5% of SL.

Locality and range: Kakkan halla and

Mavin halla; Peninsular India, Bastar (M.P.),

Pamba and the Kollur drainages of Kerala and

Karnataka respectively.

Remarks: Grows to a maximum length

of 50 mm. Commonly caught by tribals using

traditional methods.

Relative abundance: Common.

28. Noemacheilus nilgiriensis Menon

Salient features: D. 3/8; P. 1/9-10; V. 1/6;

A. 2/6.

Diagnosis: Eight branched dorsal fin rays;

pelvic separated from anal opening by a

considerable distance; lateral line incomplete,

terminating above tip of pectoral fin; caudal

emarginate; body with 11-12 brownish vertical

bands.

Locality and range: Moyar; Pykara dam,

Nilgiri district, Tamil Nadu.

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439

FISHES OF MUDUMALAI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, TAMIL NADU

Remarks: Maximum length 51 mm.

Relative abundance: Rare. Endemic to

Nilgiris.

Order: Siluriformes

Family: Bagridae

29. Mystus cavasius (Hamilton)

Salient features: D. 1/7; P. 1/8; V. 1/5;

A. 4/9.

Common name: Gangetic mystus. Dwarf

catfish.

Vernacular name: Kan - Naii kirle; Tam

- Solai kelunthi.

Diagnosis: Body elongate and com-

pressed; head conical; occipital process extends

to dorsal fin base; branchiostegal rays six; eight

barbels, maxillary barbels extend beyond caudal

fin base; dorsal spine weak; colour greyish with

a longitudinal stripe.

Locality and range: Throughout the

Sanctuary; India.

Remarks: It grows to about 500 mm.

Relative abundance: Not common.

30. Mystus punctatus (Jerdon)

Salient features: D. 1/7; P. 1/8; V. 1/5; A.

4/8.

Common name: Nilgiri Mystus.

Vernacular name: Tam - Sholang kellete

Diagnosis: Body elongate and com-

pressed; head depressed; occipital process not

extending to dorsal fin base; eight barbels,

maxillary barbels extend to end of pelvic fins;

dorsal spine strong and serrated on upper

portion; branchiostegal rays 1 1 ; colour greyish

dorsally with yellowish sides, 10 black spots

along lateral line.

Locality and range: Ombatta swamp;

Western Ghats - Nilgiri hills.

Remarks: It grows to about 450 mm.

Relative abundance: Rare.

Family: Siluridae

3 1 . Ombak bimaculatus (Bloch)

Salient features: D. 4; P. 1/13-14; V. 1/8;

A. 3/58-59.

Common name: Indian butter-catfish.

Vernacular name: Mai - Manjivhala; Kan

- Godla; Tam - Silaivhalai; Chottavala.

Diagnosis: Body elongate and strongly

compressed; mouth large and oblique; four

barbels, maxillary barbels extend to anal fin; anal

fin long with 57-58 branched rays; colour silvery

with a large shoulder spot on the lateral line, a

small blotch on the caudal peduncle.

Locality and range: Ombatta swamp; India.

Remarks: Grows to about 450 mm; found

in rivers, tanks and ponds.

Relative abundance: Common in

Ombatta swamp.

Family: Sisoridae

32. Clarias dayi Hora

Salient features: D. 68-69; P. 1/11; V. 1/

5; A. 55-59.

Common name: Magur, Air-breathing

catfish.

Vernacular name: Mai - Muzhi; Tam -

Masarai; Kan - Hali meenu.

Diagnosis: Body elongate, head depressed;

mouth terminal; eight barbels, short, not extending

beyond eyes; nasal barbels shorter than half head

length, dorsal fm inserted behind pectoral fin tip;

pectoral spine strong and serrated on its outer edge

only; colour dark on back, lighter on sides.

Locality and range: Ombatta swamp;

Wynaad hills, Kerala.

Remarks: Day collected a single specimen

measuring 175 mm.

Relative abundance: Rare.

Order: Cyprinodontoformes

Family: Poecilidae

33. Gambusia affinis (Baird and Girard)

Salient features: D. 1/8; P. 14; V. 6;

A. 9-10.

440

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3) DEC. 1998

FISHES OF MUDUMALAI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, TAMIL NADU

Common name: Mosquito fish.

Diagnosis: Body elongate, depth 3.5 to 4

times the standard length; eyes large; in males

the dorsal fin is inserted in middle of body while

in females it is midway between front margin of

eye and tip of caudal fin; gonopodium as long as

head length; colour greyish with isolated black

spots on body.

Locality and range Ombatta; India.

Remarks: It was introduced into Indian

waters in 1928 from Italy under an antimalarial

programme. It grows to about 60 mm, is a very

hardy fish and can survive in diverse habitats.

Relative abundance: Not common.

Order: Channiformes

Family: Channidae

34. Channa marulius (Hamilton)

Salient features: D. 50-55; P. 17-18; V. 6;

A. 30-36.

Common name: Giant snakehead, murrel.

Vernacular name: Kan - Aviuu; Mai -

Curuva, Cherumeen;Tam - Puveral, Aviri,

Coaree veral.

Diagnosis: Body elongate; mouth large;

scales of moderate size; cluster of head scales

between the orbits, frontal head scales occupy-

ing centre of cluster; 10 rows of scales between

preopercular angle and posterior border of

orbit; lateral line scales 60-70; predorsal scales

16; colour greyish green above lateral line,

blotches of pale yellow below lateral line; distinct

white spots scattered on the body; dorsal and

anal fins also with white spots; caudal fin with

white spots arranged into vertical bands; distinct

ocellus at base of caudal fin, in the upper

portion.

Locality and range: Ombatta swamp,

Mavan halla and Kakkan halla; throughout India.

Remarks: A good sport fish, growing to

1220 mm. It prefers large lakes and rivers with

sandy to rocky bottom. It is a highly aggressive

carnivore in nature.

Relative abundance: Rare.

35. Channa orientalis Bloch and Schneider

Salient features: D. 34-37; P. 14-15; V. 6;

A. 22-23.

Common name: Brown snakehead.

Vernacular name: Kan - Mottu,

Mohkorava; Mai - Karayu, Bral, Vatton; Tam -

Para koravai, Manian koravai.

Diagnosis: Body elongate; mouth large;

pectoral fins extend to anal fin; dorsal fin rays

32-37; length of pelvic fin less than 50% of

pectoral fin length; scales on longitudinal series

40 to 50; colour dorsal side greenish, ventral side

pale with bluish tinge. Pectoral fins with a series

of vertical bands.

Locality and range: Mavan halla and

Kakkan halla, Ombatta swamp; India.

Remarks: Fairly common species in the

Western Ghats. It is of some fishery value in

Maharashtra.

Relative abundance: Not common.

Order: Perciformes

Family: Cichlidae

36. Oerochromis mossambica (Peters)

Salient features: D. 16/12; P. 15; V. 1/5;

A. 3/11.

Common name: Tilapia.

Vernacular name: Kan - Tilapia; Mai -

Tilapi;Tam - Thillappi, Jilabimeen.

Diagnosis: Body elongate and compressed;

mouth large and terminal; dorsal fin inserted above

base of pectoral fin with 15-16 spines; scales

cycloid; scales in lateral series 30-32; colour

greyish with 3-4 dark blotches on side; dorsal fin

with red margin, pectoral fin translucent.

Locality and range: Moyar near

Theppakadu; India.

Remarks: Introduced in 1952 and has now

spread at an alarming rate to almost all the major

river systems.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95 (3), DEC. 1998

441

FISHES OF MUDUMALAI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY. TAMIL NADU

Relative abundance: Very common.

Family: Gobidae

37. Glossogobius giuris (Hamilton)

Salient features: D. 4+1/9; P. 1/20;

A. 1/8.

Common name: Tank gobi.

Vernacular name: Tam - Vuluvai.

Diagnosis: Body elongate, anteriorly

cylindrical and compressed; head depressed; mouth

oblique; tongue bilobed; gill openings continued

far forward; colour yellowish brown without

longitudinal lines, iris without process in eye.

Locality and range: Ombatta swamp; India.

Remarks: It grows to about 250 mm and

is fairly common in the rivers of the Western

Ghats. It prefers deeper waters.

Relative abundance: Rare.

Order: Mastacembeliformes

Family: Mastacembelidae

38. Mastacembelus armatus (Lacepede)

Salient features: D. 36-38/88; P. 26;

A. 3/85.

Common name: Tyre-track spiny eel.

Vernacular name: Mai - Mookkan arakan,

Aaron; Tam - Kul aral.

Diagnosis: Body eel-like and slender;

dorsal fin with 32-40 spines and 64-92 soft rays;

dorsal and anal fins broadly joined to caudal fin;

colour brownish with wavy lines forming a

network, dorsal and anal fins banded.

Locality and range: Moyar; India.

Remarks: It grows to about 500 mm and

is one of the largest spiny eels in India.

Relative abundance: Rare.

Conservation measures

Various human activities such as

deforestation, construction of dams, discharging

industrial effluents into rivers, dynamiting, over

fishing and introduction of exotic fishes are

responsible for loss of fish diversity of the

region (Menon 1992). Considering the major

threat to fishes in MWS is mainly poisoning

and occasional dynamiting along the border area,

the following conservation measures are

suggested:

1. Mass poisoning of fishes using different

plant parts should be banned inside the

sanctuary.

2. Fishing should be restricted to angling.

3. Establishment of fish sanctuaries,

especially near large natural pools along

the course of the stream/river. Fishing

activities should be restricted in these

habitats.

4. Fishing during the breeding season

(March-July and October-December)

should be avoided.

5. Riparian vegetation can be established to

provide good food resources for fish.

6. Environmental awareness programmes

regarding importance of conserving fish

and fish habitats should be initiated in the

villages inside the Sanctuary. Poster

campaigns on rare and endemic species

will be very useful.

Acknowledgement

This paper is dedicated to the late

Dr. Davis Franck Singh, Senior Scientist,

SACON. It is a part of the study “Status and

conservation perspectives of rare and endemic

fishes of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve” sponsored

by the Ministry of Environment and forests.

Govt, of India. I thank Dr. Mathew K. Sebastian

and Dr. H. S. Das for encouragement. I also

thank the Tamil Nadu forest department for

granting permission for the field study;

Mr. Sanjay Srivastava, IFS, Wildlife Warden,

Mudumalai for his cooperation and Mr. Mathan

for assistance in the field.

442

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 95 (3) DEC 1998

FISHES OF MU DOM ALAI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, TAMIL NADU

References

Davidar, E.R.C. (1985): Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary,

The Tamilnadu forest department.

Day, F. (1865): The fishes of Malabar, London, pp 293.

Hora, S.L. (1941): Homalopterid fishes from Peninsular

India. Rec. Indian Mus., XIII: 21 1-232.

Hora, S.L. & N.C. Law (1941): The fresh water fishes of

Tranvancore. Rec. Indian Mus., XLIII: 233-256.

Hora, S.L. (1942): Fishes of the Mysore state and

neighbouring hill range ofNilgiris, Wynaad and Coorg.

Rec. Indian Mus., XLIII: 193-200.

Jayaram, K.C. (1981): The freshwater fishes of India,

Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma and Sri Lanka - a

handbook. Zool. Surv. India, Calcutta, pp 475 pis 13.

Menon, A.G.K. ( 1 992): Conservation of freshwater fishes

of peninsular India. Zoological Survey of India, Madras.

Menon, A.G.K. & K. Rema Devi (1992): Puntius

mudumalaiensis, a new cyprinid fish from Mudumalai,

Tamil Nadu. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 89(2): 229-

231.

Moyle, P.B. & F.R. Senanayake (1984): Resource

partitioning among the fishes of rainforest streams in

Sri Lanka. J. Zool. Lond. 202 : 195-223.

Nelson, J.S. (1984): Fishes of the world. John Wiley &

Sons. New York, pp 523.

Rajan, S. (1955): Notes on a collection of fish from the

headwaters of the Bhavani river. South India. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 53: 44-48.

Rajan, S. ( 1 963): Ecology of the fishes of the rivers Pykara

and Moyar (Nilgiri), South India. Proc. Indian Acad.

Sci. 58: 291-323.

Rema Devi, K. & T.J. Indra ( 1 986): Fishes of Silent Valley.

Special issue. Fauna of Silent Valley, Kerala, India. Rec.

Zool. Surv. India 84(1-4): 243-257.

Silas, E.G. (1951a): On a collection of fishes from the

Anamalai and Nelliampathi hill ranges, Western Ghats,

with notes on their zoogeographical significance. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 48(4): 670-681.

Silas, E.G. (1951b): On a new Cyprinid fish from Coorg,

South India. J. Zool. Soc. India., 3: 7-10.

Venkataraman, B. Arun, R. Arumugam & R. Sukumar

(1995): The foraging of dhole ( Cuon alpinus) in

Mudumalai Sanctuary, South India. J. Zool. Lond. 237:

543-561.

Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland Fishes, Vol.

I & II. Oxford-IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi,

India.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95 (3), DEC. 1998

443

FUNCTIONAL ASPECT OF THE INTROMITTENT ORGANS OF

NON-TIB IAROLIATE ASSASSIN BUGS, HETEROPTERA : REDU VIID AE 1

RAVICHANDRAN, G.2, D. LlVrNGSTONE3 AND MUTHUKRISHNAN, J.2

( With three text-figures and one plate)

Key words: Assassin bugs, non-tibiaroliate, intromittent organs, spermatophore,

male genitalia

The male intromittent organs of Harpactorinae, Stenopodainae, Emesinae, Saicinae and

Holoptilinae have been structurally and functionally analysed.

Introduction

In Reduviidae, the morphology of the male

genitalia has been so far studied merely to add

to taxonomic descriptions. The only description,

providing a limited understanding of the

functional morphology of male genitalia in

Reduviidae was given for Rhodnius prolixus by

Davey (1959), with special reference to

spermatophore production. He coined the term

“Spermatophore sac” for the first time to describe

a much folded membranous sac composed of the

aedeagus and endophallus. Such a sac has been

described as composed of two layers of cuticle

bounding a blood space, the inner wall being the

endophallus and outer wall the aedeagus. This

spermatophore sac, therefore, was described as

a sac composed of aedeagus on the exterior and

the endophallus lining the lumen. The external

opening of the spermatophore sac through which

the spermatophore is finally released was named

by Davey (1959) as the phallotreme meaning

gonopore (GP) corresponding to the secondary

gonophore of Lent and Jurberg (1978).

The taxonomic value of the phallus of

Reduviidae has been highlighted by Davis

(1966), Lent and Jurberg (1966, 1978 & 1980),

'Accepted February, 1997

department of Genetics, School of Biological Sciences,

Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai-625 021

department of Zoology, Madras Christian College,

Tambaram-600 059

Popov (1971) and Wygodzinsky and Lent( 1980).

While the male genitalia was considered useful

to taxonomy only at the suborder level by Popov

(1971), Cobben (1978) believes that they provide

the strongest evidence on macroevolution, when

examined at all levels within each group.

Material and Method

The male genitalia of various species of

assassin bugs have been studied from dried and

preserved specimens. The genital segments were

severed and boiled in 5% potassium hydroxide

solution for 5 minutes and then washed in dilute

acetic acid and stored in glycerine. These stored

materials were dissected, cleared in clove oil and

mounted in polyvinyl lactophenol. Complete

expansion of the invaginated endosomal

structures can be achieved by applying gentle

pressure to the abdomen of live, sexually active

males and the evaginated expanded endosoma

can be severed.

Results and Discussion

The aedeagus is a highly complicated,

extensible chitinous sac of the intromittent organ,

enclosed within the inner capsule of the

pygophore. The pygophore is heavily sclerotised,

both ventrally and mid-dorsally, but for a narrow

membranous strip at the anterior border. It is

444

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3) DEC. 1998

FUNCTIONAL ASPECT OF THE INTROMITTENT ORGANS OF NON-TIBI AROLIA TE ASSASSIN BUGS

Fig. 1: A-D. Intromittent organ in action; A: Bardensanes sericenotatus\ B: Oncocephalus klugii\

C: Diaditus errabundus.

AP: Apodemes, BF: Basal Plate Foramen, BPA: Basal Plate Arm, BPB: Basal Plate Bridge, DE: Ductus

ejaculatorius, Df: Ductifer, DPS: Dorsal Phallic Sclerite, En: Endosoma, GP: Gonopore,

ODE: Opening of Ductus ejaculatorius, SP: Spermatophore Pouch, St: Strut, VPS: Ventral Phallic Sclerite.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC. 1998

445

FUNCTIONAL ASPECT OF THE INTROMITTENT ORGANS OF NON- TIBIA ROLIA TE ASSASSIN BUGS

highly membranous, and is in turn covered by

the proctiger. Posteriorly, the membranous part

becomes sclerotised into a vertically hanging

suspensory plate on either side, leaving a narrow

longitudinal slit in the middle to allow the

enclosed aedeagus to emerge at the time of

copulation.

The intromittent organ in Reduviidae has

been described as the basal plate and the

aedeagus, since the former plays a crucial role

in conveying the sperm. It catapults the aedeagus

in the process of transmission of spermatophore,

to lodge the same in the bursa copulatrix.

Therefore, it is considered a part of the intro-

mittent organ. It is consistently provided with

two powerful arms, each arm terminating in the

form of a disk that supports the apodemes (AP)

bearing the tendons of all the extensor muscles

that are involved in the catapulting mechanism,

and a strut that hinges with the aedeagus dorsally.

The strut normally remains concealed by the

aedeagus. In the resting position both arms

(BPA) lie on either side of it, in close proximity.

Both arms may or may not be connected by a

cross bar — the bridge (BPB). When the bridge

is present, it establishes a fossa — the basal plate

foramen (BF). In the absence of a bridge, the

basal plate remains a Y-shaped structure. The

ductus ejaculatorius (DE) enters the intromittent

organ at the base of the strut (St) and then runs

through the groove, throughout its length, to open

into the spermatophore pouch (SP) that develops

at the junction of the aedeagus and the basal plate.

Recognition of various structures of the

reduviid phallus and description of their

variations are most complicated, according to

Kumar (1962). By his studies on the male

genitalia of many reduviids, he has recognised

three types of endosomal sclerites, corresponding

to the “Phannaries” of Villiers (1948). The dorsal

phallic sclerite has been described by him as the

basal plate strut. The bulbus ejaculatorius as the

stalk of the basal plate sac and the dorsal surface

of the phallotheca was recognised as the ventral

surface. While all the other workers, including

Villiers (1948), Kumar (1962), Matsuda (1976),

Cobben (1965, 1978), Giacchi (1969), Popov

(1971), Lent and Jurberg (1966, 1978, 1980),

Dupuis (1955, 1970) and Wygodzinsky and Lent

(1980) described the endosoma as a bipartite

structure, comprising of the conjunctiva and the

vesica, Davis (1966) emphasized that the

endosoma is an eversible, erectile tube, not

divisible into conjunctiva and vesica. In that

respect, Davis (1966) is more correct in

describing a generalised type of reduviid phallus

and his emphatic declaration is confirmed by the

present observation.

In the case of Harpactorinae, the endotheca

is highly extensive and the pressure required to

expel the endotheca in the act of copulation will

be much more than in other species, especially

of the subfamilies Emesinae and Stenopodainae

in which the foramen is narrow. Here, the

endotheca is less folded and more anteriorly

located due to the forward extension of the strut

of the basal plate, and the spermatophore pouch

is obviously located at the basidorsal area of the

endotheca.

In Stenopodainae and Saicinae, the

extension of the basal plate strut at the expense

of the ventral phallic sclerite (VPS) has caused

the shifting of the dorsal phallic sclerite (DPS)

far anterior to the basal plate foramen and

invariably hinged with the basal plate strut, a

little behind its apex. The ductus ejaculatorius,

in turn, is distended throughout the length of

the basal plate groove to open into the

spermatophore pouch, which is invariably located

in all species at the site where the dorsal phallic

sclerite is hinged to the strut. In all cases, the

endophallus remains considerably shorter, with

least foldings. Therefore, it is reasonable to

suggest that the extent of development of the

basal plate strut and its fusion with the conside-

rably abbreviated VPS could be correlated with

the simplication of the endophallus. In Stenopo-

dainae, in all the species examined, including

Bardesanes sericenotatus, Oncocephalus klugii,

and Diciditus errabundus (Fig. 1C), the bridge

446

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FUNCTIONAL ASPECT OF THE INTROMITTENT ORGANS OF NON-TIBIA ROLIA ? ' ASSASSIN BUGS

Ravichandran, G. et al. : Intromittent organs of assassin bugs

Plate 1

BPA

VPS

DPS

Intromittent organ of Reduviid assassin bugs.

BP: Basal Plate, BPA: Basal Plate Arm, DPS: Dorsal Phallic Sclerite, SP: Spermatophore Pouch, St: Strut,

VPS: Ventral Phallic Sclerite.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC. 1998

447

1

FUNCTIONAL ASPECT OF THE INTROMITTENT ORGANS OF NON- TIBIA ROLIA TE ASSASSIN BUGS

lies far behind the head and foramen. Therefore,

it is considerably abbreviated.

In Emesinae and Holoptilinae, the fusion

of the basal plate and intromittent organ has

reached the fullest extent, so that it is difficult to

disengage the various components even after

treating in KOH for a prolonged period.

Functionally, the aedeagus could be

divisible into the proximal cup-shaped phallo-

soma and a distal, highly elastic, distensible

denticulate endosoma (En), that is withdrawn

into the cup. The wall of the phallosoma cup has

characteristic sclerotisation that appears to be

species-specific and the dorsal wall of the cup is

invariably much sclerotised. The sclerotised

dorsal wall is termed as the dorsal phallic sclerite

(DPS) that articulates with the strut of the basal

plate. It is at this point of articulation that the

sperms from the ductus ejaculatorius enter the

pouch of the endotheca into which the

spermatophore capsule is moulded. At repose,

the aedeagus at its junction with the strut of the

basal plate turns back and lies on its dorsal side,

with the dorsal phallic sclerites closely

approximating the inner surface of the basal plate

strut. In this position the DPS and VPS remain

opposed to each other, like the beak of a bird,

the VPS lying dorsal to the DPS, often flanked

by the two wings of the latter. In this position,

the endosoma has its exterior opening directed

anteriorly closely shielded by both DPS and VPS.

The endosoma that develops from the rim

of the cup of the phallosoma remains highly

folded and variously sclerotised with extensive

denticulate armature. When it remains enclosed

within the cup, it has its basidorsal region folded

in the form of a pouch, into which the ductus

ejaculatorius conveys its spermatozoa and

accessory gland secretion, and the pouch provides

the mould for the formation of the spermatophore

capsule. Dorsally, the pouch presses against the

inner surface of the DPS, and ventrally against

the rest of the endothecal wall, while basally it

communicates with the lumen of the endotheca

itself.

At repose, the mouth of the pouch lies

opposed to the junction of the basal plate strut

and the DPS at which the ductus ejaculatorius

opens and spermatophore is formed within this

pouch. At the time of copulation, when the

protractor muscles of the basal plate contract,

the arms of the basal plate are pulled back,

causing the strut to exert a torsion that catapults

the aedeagus outward from its original reverse

position. This is followed by pushing of the

endotheca outward. Further, this tilting causes

the basidorsal pouch or spermathecal pouch of

the endotheca to rotate at an angle of 180°, so

that the mouth of the pouch lies in a straight

line with the lumen of the endotheca, and the

spermatophore is released to be trans-ported

further through the endosomal tube and lodged

inside the bursa copulatrix. Clearly, the initial

catapulting of the aedeagus results from the

tilting of the basal plate, brought about by its

extrinsic muscles and the extension of the

endotheca is further brought about by the

haemocoelomic fluid pressure, through the basal

plate foramen. The endotheca is guided into the

gonopore of the female by the pygophore spine

that assumes a more vertical position, consequent

to the tilting of the pygophore capsule.

Acknowledgement

This work was intiated at the Division of

Entomology, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore

and pursued at the Division of Entomology,

Department of Zoology, Madras Christian

College, Tambaram, and Department of

Genetics, School of Biological Sciences,

Madurai Kamaraj University. We are grateful to

the authorities for providing facilities and to the

Department of Science and Technology and

Council of Scientific and Industrial Research,

New Delhi for financial support.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC 1998

449

FUNCTIONAL ASPECT OF THE INTROMITTENT ORGANS OF NON- TIBIA ROLIA TE ASSASSIN BUGS

References

Cobben, R.H.(1965): The functional morphology of the

leptopodoid Phallus: a case of rectilinear evolution

in Saldidae (Heteroptera) Proc. XIII Int. Congr. Ent.

London 1964: 162-163.

Cobben, R.H. (1978): Evolutionary trends in Heteroptera:

II. Mouth part structures and feeding Strategies.

Meded land bou whoges school Wageningen 78(5):

5-407.

Davey, K.G. (1959): Spermatophore production in

Rhodnius prolixus. Quart. J. Micr. Sci. 100: 221-

230.

Davis, N.T. ( 1 966): Contributions to the morphology and

phylogeny of the Reduvioidea (Hemiptera :

Heteroptera) III. The male and female genitalia. Ann.

Entomol. Soc. Amer. 59 (5): 91 1-924.

Dupuis, C. (1955): Les genitalia des Hemipteres

Heteropteres (genitalia extemes des deux sexes; voies

ectodermiques femelles). Mem. Mus. Hist. Nat. Paris.

AO (n.s) 6: 183-278.

Dupuis, C. (1970): Heteroptera. In: Tuxen (Ed.)

Taxonomist’s glossary of Genitalia in Insects.

190-209.

Giacchi, J.C. (1969): Revision del genero Stenopoda

Laporte (Hemiptera: Reduviidae: Stenopodainae)

Physis. (Buenos Aires). C4J (101): 175-86.

Kumar, R. (1962): Morphotaxonomical studies on the

genitalia and salivary glands of some Cimicomorpha

(Rhynchota-Hemiptera). Tijdschrift voor Entomolgie

105(1): 1-28.

Lent, H. & J. Jurberg (1966): Revisao Dos Priatinae

Americanos II. O Genero “Phorastes’ Kirkaldy, 1900

Com um Estudo sobre A Genitalia das Especies

(Hemiptera-Reduviidae). Rev. Brasil. Biol. 26 (3):

297-314.

Lent, H. & J. Jurberg (1978): Estudo comparative

da genitalia externa masculina de seis especies

de Triatoma Laporte, 1832 que mais ffiquentemente

habitam O domicilio humano no Brasil (Hemiptera-

Reduviidae) Rev. Brasil. Biol. 38 (4): 93 1 -941 .

Lent, H. & J. Jurberg (1 980): Camentarios sobre a genitalia

externa masculina em Triatoma Laporte, 1832,

(Hemiptera-Reduviidae). Rev. Brasil. Biol. 40 (3):

611-617.

Matsuda, R. (1976): Morphology and evolution of the

Insect abdomen. Pergamon Press, pp 429.

Popov, Y. A. ( 1 97 1 ): Historical development of Hemiptera,

Infraorder Nepomorpha (Heteroptera) Inst. Acad.

Sc. USSR. 129: 1-12. (In Russian).

Villiers, A. (1948): Hemipteres Reduviides de 1’ Afrique

Noire Fauna Emp. Fr. 9: 1-448.

Wygodzinsky, P. & H. Lent (1980): Description of

one new monotypic genus of Reduviidae from

Panama and two from Southern India. (Heteroptera:

Reduviidae). Rev. Brasil. Biol. 40 (4): 733-742.

450

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3) DEC. 1998

BEE VISITATION AND POD SETTING IN BRASSICA CAMPESTRIS L.1

Naresh Mahindru, Gurdip Singh and G.S. Grewal2

( With two text-figures)

Key words: Bee visitation, Brassica campestris, pod setting.

Studies were conducted on visitation behaviour of Apis mellifera L., A. dorsata F. and A.

fiorea F. and number of A. mellifera visits on pod setting on BSH-1 variety of Brassica

campestris L. var. brown sarson at Ludhiana during 1989-90. A. dorsata had longer active

hours among the three bee species. A. fiorea, A. dorsata and A. mellifera visited 6.05,

12.89 and 17.06 flowers of this crop per minute, respectively. Single, double and multiple

visits by A. mellifera resulted in 45.7, 72.5 and 81.6% pod setting.

Introduction

Brassica crops were grown in an area of 5

x 106ha in India during 1989-90 with a

production of 4.1 x 106 tonnes (Anon., 1990-91).

Brassica campestris L. var. brown sarson is a

cross-pollinated crop. Mahindru ( 1 990) reported

four species of bees viz. Apis dorsata F., A. fiorea

F., A. mellifera L. and Andrena sp. associated

with this crop at Ludhiana. Intensive pollination

of this crop by A. mellifera resulted in the

increase of pod setting by 29.3%, number of pods

by 21.9%, seed germination by 2.85%, and oil

content by 1.28% over natural pollination. In

view of the benefits obtained by cross pollination

of this crop by A. mellifera, it was considered

desirable to study the visitation behaviour of

important pollinating bees associated with brown

sarson and number of A. mellifera visits on pod

setting, as there is considerable scope of increasing

the yield of this crop with the help of insect

pollinators. The results are reported in this paper.

Material and Methods

Studies on visitation behaviour of

important pollinating bees of B. campestris L.

var. brown sarson were carried out at the

'Accepted February, 1997

department of Entomology, Punjab Agricultural University,

Ludhiana-141 004, Punjab-India.

Entomological Research Farm, Punjab

Agricultural University, Ludhiana (30°-55° ‘N

Lat. 75°-51° E long. 247 metres above msl) and

other fields around Ludhiana during 1989-90 on

BSH-1 variety of brown sarson.

Population of A. mellifera, A. dorsata and

A. fiorea were counted at hourly intervals,

starting from 0900 to 1 700 hrs on five clear, calm

days by using the method of Linsley et al. (1952).

For this purpose 10 sq. m (3.16 x 3.16 m) area

was marked at random in the field with sticks.

The area was divided into four subplots.

Observations on all the sub-plots were made by

moving anticlock-wise. The number of bees

counted in all the four sub-plots were then added

to work out their total number. The total duration

for which these bees worked in the field was also

recorded separately for each species. To ascertain

the number of flowers visited per minute,

individual bees were followed in the field for the

maximum possible time. The number of flowers

visited in one minute was then worked out. The

average figures were calculated on the basis of

observations recorded for 10 different foragers

of the same species.

The relationship between bee visit and pod

setting was studied by bagging flowers when they

were yet to open and A. mellifera had not yet

started visiting them. Next day, the bags were

removed from the flowers and number of

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC. 1998

451

BEE VISITATION AND POD SETTING IN BRASSICA CAMPESTRIS L.

| | NO VISIT

Fig. 1: Mean bee visitation at different hours

of the day

A. mellifera visits were counted i.e. 1.2 and 5

per flower were allowed. Pod setting was

observed after one week. Pod setting in ‘control’

flowers was also noted where no bee visit was

allowed. These observations were repeated on

five different dates viz. Jan. 26 , Feb. 2, Feb. 11,

Feb. 21 and Feb. 28, 1989.

Results and Discussion

Bee visitation: It was observed that A.

dorsata visited the crop between 9-17 h, A.

mellifera between 10-17 h and A. florea between

11- 16 h. The data further revealed that the

number of all the three species of bees present in

the field increased between 12-14 h with peak

activity at 13 h (Fig. 1). Kakkar (1981) reported

that activity of honeybees was higher between

12- 14 h on cauliflower. Rahman (1940) found

that on sarson A. florea began their visits after

1 1 h and were mostly present in the field upto

16 h. The present study on sarson revealed that

all the three species of bees were present in higher

numbers between 12 and 14 h with a peak at

13 h. Their number was considerably lower

before 12 and after 15 h.

Fig. 2: Effect of number of A. mellifera visits

on pod setting

Number of flowers visited per minute:

The average number of flowers visited per minute

was observed, to assess the species’ potentiality

to affect cross-pollination. It was observed that

A. florea on an average visited 6.05 flowers per

minute, whereas A. dorsata and A mellifera visi-

ted 12.89 and 17.06 flowers per minute, respec-

tively. A. mellifera was found to be the most fast

moving. It visited a significantly greater number

of flowers per minute as compared to A. dorsata

and A. florea at mean temperature 12°C.

Benedeck et al. ( 1 972) reported honeybees

visiting 39 rape flowers during a period of 4.4

minutes. Bhalla et al (1983) noticed A. cerana

indica visiting 10.24 flowers per minute on B.

campestris var. sarson. Rahman (1940) reported

that A. florea visited an average of 6.09 flowers

of sarson in one minute. Our investigations

revealed that A. florea visited the least number

of flowers per minute, whereas A. mellifera was

found to be the most efficient and quick moving

pollinator.

Relationship between bee visit and pod

setting : Zero, one, two and five A. mellifera

visits per flower resulted in 24.80, 45.70, 72.50

and 81.60% pod setting, respectively (Fig. 2). It

452

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3) DEC 1998

BEE VISITATION AND POD SETTING IN BRASSICA CAMPESTRIS L.

was observed that with increase in the number

of bee visits per flower, there was significant

increase in pod setting. Grewal (1975) reported

that five bee visits per flower in Cucurbita pepo

L. and ten bee visits per flower in Cucumis melo

L. gave adequate fruit setting. Free (1970)

reported that more than one bee visit per flower

was necessary to transfer a sufficient number of

pollen grains to pollinate muskmelon satis-

factorily. Girish (1983) found that with the

increase in bee visits from 1 to 7 per flower, the

fruit setting increased significantly in C. pepo.

The present investigation also revealed that in

Refer

Anonymous (1990-91): Economic Survey Published by

Govt, oflndia.

Benedeck, P., J. Kombodi, J. Prenner & W. Erno ( 1 972):

Insect pollination of oilseed rape. Novenytermelas.

21 (3): 255-69.

Bhalla, O.P., A.K. Verma&H.S. Dhaliwal(1983): Insect

visitors of mustard bloom ( B . campestris var sarson)

their number and foraging behaviour under midhill

conditions. / ent. res. 7(1): 15-17.

Free, J.B. (1970): Insect pollination of crops. Academic

Press, London, pp 544.

Girish, P.P. (1983): Role of bees in the pollination of

summer squash ( Cucurbita pepo) with special

reference to A. cerana.V . Thesis Abstr. 9(43): 329-

30.

Grewal, G.S. ( 1 975): Role of insects in the pollination of

important cucurbits in the Punjab. Ph.D. Thesis

■ I

sarson, with increase in the bee visits of

A. melliferci from 1 to 5, higher pod setting

was achieved. The presence of an increased

number of honeybees was thus more useful in

sarson.

Acknowledgement

We thank the Head, Department of

Entomology, PAU for providing research

facilities. The senior author is also grateful to

Aspee Research Foundation, Mumbai for

providing financial assistance during the study.

ENCES

(unpublished), Punjab Agricultural University,

Ludhiana, pp 98.

Kakkar, K.L. (1981): Foraging behaviour of insect

pollinators of cauliflower bloom. Indian J. Ecol.

8(1): 126-30.

Linsley, E.G., J.W. MacS wain & R.F. Smith (1952):

Outlines for ecological life histories of solitary and

semi-social bees. Ecology. 33: 558-67.

M ahindru, N. ( 1 990): Assessment of gains through insect

pollination in sarson ( Brassica campestris L. var.

brown sarson) and raya ( Brassia juncea L.). M.Sc.

Thesis (Unpublished), Punjab Agricultural

University, Ludhiana.

Rahman, K.A. (1940): Insect pollinators of toria ( Brassica

napus L. var. dichotoma Prain) and sarson

(Brassica campestris L. var. sarson Prain) at

Lyallpur. Indian J. agric. Sci. 10: 422-47.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC. 1998

453

POLLINATION ECOLOGY OF CASSIA ALATA L. (CAESALPINIACEAE)1

C. Bhaskara Rao, C. Subba Reddi, Raju J.S. Aluri2, J.B. Atluri3

( With one text-figure )

Key words: Cassia alata, heteranthery, enantiostyly, carpenter bees, pollination.

Cassia alata blooms annually during October-February. The flowers are borne on typical

racemes, and are yellow and devoid of nectar. They exhibit enantiostyly and heteranthery

with feeding as well as pollinating anthers. In the biotope of the study area, the carpenter

bees consisting of Xylocopa latipes and X. pubescens are the exclusive visitors to C. alata.

They collect pollen by buzzing. During the vibratile movement of the visitor’s body, the

pollen grains are discharged from pollinating anthers on to the sides of the insect visitor’s

thorax and abdomen. Simultaneously, the pollen grains are also transferred to the stigmas

oriented to the right or to the left. Heteranthery and enantiostyly, complemented by the

buzzing behaviour of the pollinating carpenter bees, promote geitonogamy as well as

xenogamy in C. alata.

, I •'

Introduction

Buchmann (1983) gave a complete list of

anthecological work on Cassia species which

include C. fasciculata, C. fistula, C. glauca, C.

bacillaris, C. multijuga, C. didymobotrya, C.

auriculata, and C. alata. Those works not

mentioned by Buchmann (1983) have been

touched upon by Gottsberger and Gottsberger

(1988). These studies show that pollen discharge

by releaselbf a small cloud of pollen occurs from

apical pores of the anthers by vibratile behaviour

of the bees collecting pollen. The genus Cassia

is known to exhibit heteranthery and

enantiostyly. Heteranthery means that the

androecium of the same flower is functionally

differentiated into short stamens with feeding

anthers, which provide food for the pollinator,

and longer stamens with pollinating anthers

which provide pollen for pollinating the stigma.

Enantiostyly refers to the occurrence of right-

1 Accepted May, 1 997

department of Environmental Sciences, Andhra University,

Visakhapatnam 530 003.

department of Botany, Andhra University,

Visakhapatnam 530 003

styled and left-styled flowers on the same

inflorescence. This floral dimorphism has been

treated as a device for enhancing outbreeding

(Bahadur et al. 1990). However, Dulberger

(1981) cautions that it need not be connected with

outcrossing.

Carpenter bees are the only insects

pollinating Cassia sp. so far studied. The bees

collect pollen from feeding anthers by rapidly

contracting the indirect flight muscles, thus

producing strong vibrations that are trans-

mitted directly to the anthers and indicated by

audible buzzing of the bees. This vibration

rapidly produces a directed stream or pollen cloud

from the anther pores that primarily strikes the

venter of the bee, and sometimes the pleural and

dorsal areas also. During this act, the pollen from

pollinating anthers situated over the dorsal side

or lateral sides of the bee is discharged and

deposited on the head-thorax region of the

foraging bee, resulting in nototriby or pleurotriby.

The stigma of the flower simultaneously strikes

the pollen-laden head- thorax region of the bee.

Fiji (1954) has provided fragmentary

information on the floral biology of C. alata in

Java. He suggests that C. alata has a similar

454

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3) DEC 1998

POLLINATION ECOLOGY OF CASSIA ALATA L.

floral mechanism and is pollinated by carpenter

bees. The available information on this medici-

nally valuable plant is highly inadequate to

understand its unique form of pollination, and

the information is from Java, where meteo-

rological conditions may differ from those of

India. Complete details of the floral ecology of

C. alata are necessary for its commercial

cultivation.

Material and methods

Cassia alata L. is abundant in

Visakhapatnam (17° 42' N and 82° 18' E). The

studies were carried out in 1989 and 1990. To

determine flowering phenology, ten

inflorescences selected at random were tagged

before the initiation of blooming and observed

for the daily opening of flowers. The

inflorescences were then removed to avoid

recounting the next day. Tagged inflorescences

were observed until they ceased flowering to

obtain data on the duration of flower production

and also the daily rate of flowering. Flower

morphometries were observed in detail. Daily

anthesis rate was noted from ten randomly

selected inflorescences marked before anthesis.

Time of anther dehiscence was recorded by

observing the anthers with a 1 Ox hand lens before

and after the flowers opened. Undehisced mature

anthers, immersed separately in a drop of

lactophenol aniline-blue were observed under the

microscope, and the number of pollen grains per

anther was counted to determine pollen output.

Pollen production per anther was then multiplied

by the number of anthers to estimate total pollen

grains per flower. Structural characters of pollen

grains were observed and their size was measured

with a calibrated ocular micrometer. Pollen-ovule

ratio was determined by dividing the number of

pollen grains per flower by the number of ovules

per flower. Pollen viability was tested by hand-

pollination experiments using relatively fresh

stigmas, and stigma receptivity by hand-

pollination using relatively fresh pollen.

Breeding behaviour was studied through

controlled pollination. Fruit set, seed set and

fecundity rates in controlled pollination were

measured following the procedure described by

Aluri and Subba Reddi (1994). The flower and

fruit abortions were expressed in percentages.

Flower visitors were carpenter bees of two

species of Xylocopa only. Foraging activity of

these bees, their foraging behaviour, forage

resource sought, pollination potential, etc. was

investigated in detail. The pollen carrying

capacity of the bees was also determined by

counting the pollen grains obtained from body

washings in aniline-blue. The duration of flower

visit and flowers foraged in a unit time by the

flower- visitors were noted to assess the foraging

speed.

Results

Flowering phenology: The plants of C.

alata grow from new seeds every year following

the first rains of the monsoon and continue to

grow until late September. Then they start

producing inflorescence stalks and flower buds.

The mature flower buds begin to open from

October through February. A plant flowers for

an average period of 88 days (range 61-106).

Inflorescence phenology: The inflores-

cence is a typical terminal raceme. An

inflorescence produces a mean number of 88

flowers (range 40-1 17) anthesing over an average

period of 24 days (range 16-29). Each day the

number of newly opened flowers of an

inflorescence varies from 2-5. Flower production

ceases in February, then the plants start to dry

up and wither.

Flower morphology: The flowers are

bisexual, showy but lack fragrance. The calyx

consists of 5 sepals, each 1 .5 cm long. The yellow

corolla is ovate and divided into 5 petals. The

clawed and imbricated petals are first involute

and later become spread. Stamens are 10. The

uppermost (adaxial) three stamens have sterile

anthers. The remainder possess fertile anthers

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455

POLLINATION ECOLOGY OF CASSIA ALATA L.

Fig. 1 : Enantiostyly in Cassia alata L. a. Left-styled flower; b. Right-styled flower

which can be grouped into three categories. The

top central group of 4 stamens have filaments 3

mm long and anthers 4 mm long. The second

group composed of 2 large lateral stamens having

filaments 4 mm long and anthers 10 mm long,

are situated below the top central group. The

anthers of this group are thick, hard, curved,

tapering and slightly twisted. The third group

represents one lower-most (abaxial) median

stamen with a 7 mm long filament and a 5 mm

long anther. The ovary has 60 ovules (range 50-

63) arranged in a linear fashion. The upwardly

bending sickle-shaped pistil emerges between the

bases of the second group of stamens and above

the median stamen of the third group. The pistil

projects to the right or to the left in the flowers

of the same inflorescence (Fig. 1), but without

any regular pattern. The ratio of right-styled and

left- styled flowers in an inflorescence is nearly

1:1. The style is terminated with a simple stigma

having a cavity-like opening.

Anthesis and anther dehiscence: The

flowers open daily during 0300-0400 h. Anthers

dehisce by pores; a pore is formed at the apical

appendage of each anther lobe. Dehiscence takes

place about 3 h after anthesis. The corolla, together

with stamens, falls off in 36-48 h after anthesis.

Pollen characters: Pollen grains are

triangular, tricolporate, with a smooth exine. The

grains are 43-51 pm in diameter. Pollen

production per anther in the three categories of

fertile stamens is different. It averages 32,600

(range 29,000-37,000) in the top central group

of stamens. The corresponding figures for the

second and the third group of stamens is 2,47,000

(range 2,10,640-2,86,000) and 22,410 (range

18,550-25,460) respectively. A few grains are

sterile in all the three groups of stamens (3-5%).

The pollen-ovule ratio is 9,880:1.

Pollen viability and stigma receptivity:

C. alata pollen germinated well in 50% sugar

concentration. The germination percentage

obtained for fresh pollen is 90%, 24 h old pollen

68% and for 100 h old pollen 6%. The pollen

viability tested through fruiting ability showed

that the stigma pollinated with fresh pollen

produced 84% and those with 96 h old pollen

gave 20% fruiting.

The tests conducted for fruiting ability of

the stigmas of different maturing periods from

anthesis to the flower life up to 36 h showed that

the stigma favours pollen germination and later

gives fruit for 30 h. This condition of the stigma

is taken as stigma receptivity period. The fruiting

ability of the stigma, however, was not the same

throughout the receptivity period. The percentage

of fruiting obtained with fresh stigmas was 84%.

With advancement in the age of the stigma, there

was reduction in fruiting, it being 12% with

30 h old stigmas.

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JOURNAL, BOMBA YNA TURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3) DEC 1998

POLLINATION ECOLOGY OF CASSIA ALATA L.

Breeding behaviour: The results of

breeding tests show that the plant is not

apomictic, but reproduces through xenogamy and

geitonogamy. The xenogamic fruiting, seeding

and fecundity values obtained were 84,100 and

84%, respectively. The agreeing values for

geitonogamy were 68,100 and 68%.

Natural flower and fruit abortions: The

recorded natural flower and fruiting pattern show

that about half of the flowers fall off without any

signs of fruit development, in the remainder,

about 25% initiate fruit development and then

abort. The remaining flowers ranging from 19-

25% develop mature fruit. The mature fruits are

largely produced at the basal part of the

inflorescence.

Flower visitors: The flowers of C. alata

are foraged exclusively by Xylocopa pubescens

and X. latipes. The foraging visits of these bees

are, however, significantly disproportionate. X.

latipes made 64-70% of foraging visits while X.

pubescens only 30-36%. But the two species were

equally mobile. Both foraged 13 flowers (range

7-20) in one minute and spent 2-4 seconds at a

flower. The bees usually foraged on fresh flowers

and occasionally on day-old flowers. The

foraging speed of the two species was greater on

sunny days compared to cloudy days. On sunny

days, the bees started foraging at 0800 h and

stopped at 1 600 h. The activity was more brisk

around noon. The foraging schedule of the bees

was delayed by two hours and stopped early by

an hour on cloudy days.

Foraging behaviour: The yellow corolla

appears to attract and direct carpenter bees to

the pollen source in the flower. On approaching

the flower, the bee lands on the top central and

the third group of stamens situated in the middle

of the flower. While landing, it curls its body

over the anthers and produces a high-pitched

buzzing sound which is quite different from the

flight sound. The head and thorax of the buzzing

bee are now covered over by the upper involute

petals, while the lower petals are pressed

downward by the weight of the bee. The bee

vibrates its body and collects pollen from the top

central and third group of anthers. A buzzing

sound is heard and the pollen is deposited all

over the ventral side of the bee, where it is greatly

accessible for grooming and for subsequent

ingestion. Added to this, the stigma does not

make contact with the ventral side of the bee.

The four stamens of the top central group and

the single stamen of the third group constitute

the feeding anthers. The second group, with

larger stamens oriented laterally, discharge pollen

onto the sides of the thorax and abdomen of the

bee. Washings of the thorax revealed 180 to 325

pollen grains, while those of the abdomen area

showed 180-260 grains. The pollen deposited in

this area may be totally inaccessible for grooming

or for ingestion. The stigma of the right- and

left-styled flowers touches the dorsal side of the

thorax and the abdomen, where pollen from

lateral anthers is deposited. The second category

of stamens, the lateral ones, thus constitute the

pollinating anthers.

Discussion

As early as 1909, Burkill considered

Xylocopa sp. to be the most important flower-

visiting insects in the plains of tropical India,

and largely responsible for the pollination of

sunhemp, Indian pulses and Cassias. From other

tropical regions Xylocopa sp. have been reported

as pollinators of several Cassia species. Knuth

(1906) reported that in South Asia, the main

pollinators of Cassia spp. with large and medium

sized flowers are X. latipes and X. aestuans.

Fiji ( 1954) describes three large-flowered tropical

species of Cassia with typical Xylocopa flowers;

one of these species is Cassia alata. We observed

that the flowers of C. alata in Visakhapatnam

are visited and pollinated exclusively by X.

latipes and X. pubescens.

C. alata flowers are nectarless, and the

floral reward is only pollen. The male carpenter

bees do not forage for pollen (Buchmann, 1983).

Then successful pollination in C. alata should

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC. 1998

457

POLLINATION ECOLOGY OF CASSIA ALATA L.

result from the activity of female carpenter bees.

The captured pollinators in the present study

were female.

On the basis of P/O ratio (9880: 1), C. alata

may be treated as highly xenogamous (Cruden,

1977). However, breeding experiments revealed

that both xenogamy and geitonogamy operate

with equal success in seed formation. Cruden and

Jensen (1979) suggest that P/O ratios may reflect

pollination efficiency, and the lower P/O ratio

makes more efficient delivery of pollen. Thus,

in C. alata the high P/O ratio may indicate

inefficient delivery of pollen.

However, the 100% seed set and the

nototribic and/or pleurotribic transfer of pollen

suggest that the pollination mechanism in C.

alata is efficient. The high pollen production

which resulted in the high P/O ratio compensates

the pollen wastage/loss from pollinator feeding.

Further, the small size of the stigma, compared

to the area of pollen spread on the body of the

bee, may also necessitate the production of large

amounts of pollen. These interpretations agree

with those of Dulberger (1981) who also found

unusually high P/O in C. didymobotrya and C.

auriculata.

Flower function and bee behaviour suggest

that geitonogamy cannot be eliminated. When

the bee lands on an inflorescence, it visits all the

fresh flowers that range from 2-5. In every visit

of the bee, its dorsal thorax or abdomen,

powdered with pollen grains makes contact with

the stigma. Then, the pollen grains are trans-

ferred to the stigma. The pollen thus transferred

may be geitonogamous or xenogamous.

Contrary to the present observations, Pijl

(1954) observed in Java that isolated plants of

C. alata are sterile. He writes that the flowers of

an old specimen of C. alata have been setting

fruit to almost 100%. After clearing the

surrounding vegetation in the whole field no

fruit was formed. As soon as the neighbour-

ing young plant, which had also been spared,

started flowering, the inflorescence of the first

one produced fruits again. Perhaps, C. alata may

be having different races in different

geographical regions, with differing breeding

systems.

Heteranthery and enantiostyly in Cassia

species might be taken as a device for promoting

outcrossing (Bahadur et al. 1990). Efficacy of

this strategy in promoting outcrossing in C. alata

is poor. The flowers have their pollinating

anthers oriented on both sides of the flower and

the stigma, whether in R and L flowers, can

invariably receive pollen of the two pollinating

anthers. Since the flowers are compatible to both

geitonogamous and xenogamous pollen, and the

pollinator visits all the 2-5 flowers that open in

a day, the situation may enhance geitonogamous

pollination, irrespective of the presence of

enantiostyly. However, considering the flight

pattern of carpenter bees which involve interplant

and interpopulation flights, it is likely that

xenogamous pollination is also promoted, though

the incidence of such pollination relative to

geitonogamy can only be assessed through pollen

tagging tests. Dulberger (1981), while

interpreting the functions of various

morphological characters of C. auriculata and

C. didymobotrya, concluded that the main

function of enantiostyly need not be connected

with outcrossing. He says that its primary role

may be that of clearing access of the insect to the

feeding anthers, at the same time protecting the

female parts from injury by insect vibrations.

Possible injury may be prevented by the

presentation of stigma and style from the median

plane of symmetry, so that it comes into contact

with the back or side of the insect rather than its

ventral part. As revealed by the extensive studies

of vibratile pollination (Buchmann, 1983), the

intensity of buzzing increases with the size of

the insect. Carpenter bees are the giants of the

bee world (Meeuse 1961) and are to be treated

as powerful buzzers (Roubik, 1989). Therefore,

it is reasonable to assume that in flowers

exhibiting the buzz-pollination syndrome

discussed at length by Buchmann (1983), the

style deflections may have evolved together with

458

JOURNAL , BOMBA Y NA TURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3) DEC 1998

POLLINATION ECOLOGY OF CASSIA ALATA L.

changes in stamen orientation and a division of

androecium into upper and lower anthers. It may

be noted that the female part deflected away from

the flower centre is the whole carpel. Enantiostyly

might be a safeguarding device from the damage

that may result from the weight of the pollinator

and intensity of its vibrations.

Gottsberger and Gottsberger (1988) state

that in their study on the flower adaptation and

evolution of the Cassinae in relation to

pollination events, there was often no real contact

of the bee body with the stigma and/or anther

openings, but that there occurred close

approximation. Then, to explain the deposition

of pollen on the stigma, they relied on the concept

of Corbet et al. (1982) that electrostatic forces

play an important role in pollen transfer via

insects. Electrostatic potentials enable pollen to

jump from anther to bee and from bee to stigma.

Even if there is direct contact, as seen in the

present study of C. alata, electrostatic forces are

necessary to push or pull pollen into the hollow

style tip wherein the stigmatic surface is located.

As stated by Buchmann (1983) and Gottsberger

and Gottsberger (1988), there would be a lot of

pollen dispersal and loss into the air but for the

electrostatic field around a visiting bee. In the

absence of electrostatic field around the

pollination vector, the cloud of pollen released

during vibration should become airborne and

pollen trapping in the atmosphere should reveal

high concentrations. However, pollen trapping

in the ambient air has revealed low

concentrations of Cassia pollen. The probable

importance of electrostatic forces in buzz-

pollination has also been recognised by

Buchmann (1978) and Buchmann and Hurley

(1978).

References

Aluri, J.S.R. & C. Subba Reddi ( 1 994): Pollination ecology

and mating system of the weedy mint Leonotis

nepetaefolia R.Br. in India. Proc. Indian natn. Sci.

Acad. B60 : 255-268.

Bahadur, B., A. Chaturvedi & N. Ramaswamy (1990):

SEM studies on pollen in relation to enantiostyly and

heteranthery in Cassia (Caesalpiniaeeae). hr. Current

Perspectives in Palynological Research, pp. 7-22.

Silver Jubilee Commemoration Volume, J. Palynol.

(India).

Buchmann, S.L. (1978): Vibratile “buzz” pollination in

angiosperms with poricidally dehiscent anthers. Ph.D.

Dissertation, Entomology, University of California,

Davis.

Buchmann, S.L. (1983): Buzz-pollination in angiosperms.

In: Handbook of Experimental Pollination Biology.

r C.E. Jones and R.J. Little eds. Scientific and Academic

Editions (New York), pp. 72-1 13.

Buchmann, S.L. & P.V. Hurley (1978): A biophysical

model for buzz-pollination in angiosperms. J. Theor.

Biol. 72: 639-657.

Burkill, I.H. (1909): Insects and flowers in India. In:

Maxwell -Lefroy, Indian Insect Life, pp. 222-223.

Corbet, S.A., J. Beament & D. Eisikowitch (1982): Are

electrostatic forces involved in pollen transfer? Plant

Cell Environ. 5: 125-129.

Cruden, R.W. (1977): Pollen-ovule ratio: A Conservative

indicator of breeding systems in flowering plants.

Evolution 31: 32-46.

Cruden, R.W. & K.G. Jensen (1979): Viscin threads,

pollination efficiency and low pollen-ovule ratios. Am.

J. Bot. 66: 875-879.

Dulberger, R. (1981): The floral biology of Cassia

didymobotrya and C auriculata (Caesalpiniaeeae).

Am. J. Bot. 68: 1350-1360.

Gottsberger, G. & S.I. Gottsberger (1 988): Evolution of

flower structures and pollination in neotropical

Cassinae (Caesalpiniaeeae) species. Phyton (Austria)

28: 293-320.

Knuth, P. (1906): Handbook of Flower Pollination.

Transl. Ainsworth Davis, J.R. Clarendon Press.

(Oxford).

Meeuse, B.J.D. (1961): The Story of Pollination, Ronald

Press (New York).

Pul, L. Van Der (1954): Xylocopa and flowers in the

tropics I-III. Proc. Kon. Ned. Ak. Wet. Ser. C. 57: 413-

423,514-562.

Roubik, D.W. (1989): Ecology and natural history of

tropical bees. Cambridge University Press,

Cambridge, New York.

ill

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC. 1998

459

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

NEW SPECIES OF SILESIS CANDEZE (COLEOPTERA, ELATERIDAE:

ADRASTINAE) FROM INDIA1

Punam Garg, M.S. Saini and V. Vasu2

( With four text-figures)

Key words: New species, Silesis Candeze, Elateridae, India.

Four new species of Silesis Candeze have been described and illustrated: S. vatsi, S.

longicarinatus, S. brevicarinatus and S. ecarinatus. While running them through Platia

and SchiinmePs (1991) key, these species come close to S. lebischi. The characters

distinguishing S. vatsi from its allied species are given in the text. In the four new species,

antennal segment 2 is shorter than 3 (equal in S. lebischi ), which distinguishes them from

S. lebischi.

Introduction

Candeze (1863) erected genus Silesis

which now includes 52 species from India. The

Indian fauna of this genus have been studied by

Fleutiaux (1940, 1947), Ohira (1969), Ohira and

Becker (1971, 1 974), Platia and Schimmel (1991,

1993) and Vats and Chauhan (1993). We are

adding 4 new species from the Indian

subcontinent. The features separating them from

their closely related species are discussed. The

genus Silesis Candeze is characterised by: Supra-

antennary crest oblique, not united in middle;

frons truncate in front; tarsi with 4th segment

lamellate; aedeagus longer than parameres;

parameres simple, with or without subapical

processes. Instead of giving a revised key to the

species, a new section is inserted in Platia and

Schimmel’s (1991) key by replacing the couplet

61, as follows:

61. Antennal segments 2 & 3 equal 61a

— Antennal segments 2 & 3 not equal 61b

63 a. Pronotum broader than long, frons flat, with

hexagonal punctation S. vatsi sp. nov.

— Pronotum longer than broad, frons convex, with

umbilicate punctation

S. lebischi Platia & Schimmel

'Accepted June, 1 997

2 Department of Zoology,

Punjabi University, Patiala-147 002, India.

61b. Antennal segment 2 shorter than 3 61c

— Antennal segment 2 longer than 3 62

61c. Prosternal spine margined between

mesocoxae 6 1 d

— Prosternal spine margined entirely

. S. ecarinatus sp. nov.

6 Id. Carina of posterior pronotal angles reaching

middle of pronotum; metabasitarsus longer than

following 2 joints combined; elytra 3.2x

prothorax length; antennal segments 2-4 as

3:4:6 S. longicarinatus sp. nov.

— Carina of posterior pronotal angles not reaching

middle of pronotum; metabasitarsus equal to

following 2 joints combined; elytra 2.8x

prothorax length; antennal segments 2-4 as

1:2:3 S. brevicarinatus sp. nov.

The type material of the new species will

be deposited at Pusa National Collections, Indian

Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, after

completion of the project.

a

Silesis vatsi sp. nov

(Fig. 1)

Colour: Body black. Antennae and legs

ferruginous.

Measurements: Body: length 5 mm, width

1 .35 mm; head: length 0.62 mm, width 0.75 mm;

antenna 2 mm, 2nd segment 0.1 mm, 3rd

segment 0.1 mm, 4th segment 0.2 mm, last

460

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3) DEC. 1998

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Fig. 1: Male genitalia of Silesis vatsi

a. Phallobase; b. Furca; c. Aedeagus; d. Paramere

segment 0.25 mm; thorax: length 1.15 mm,

width 1 .35 mm; elytra 3 mm.

Structure: Body width more than 0.25

times its length. Head flat, broader than long as

6:5, antenna extending slightly beyond posterior

angle of pronotum, segment 3 equal to 2 but

shorter than 4 as 1:2. Mandible dentate.

Pronotum convex, broader than long as 9:8,

lateral sides parallel, posterior margin furrowed;

posterior angle pointed, carinate, carina reaching

middle of pronotum; prosternal spine pointed,

margin entire, gradually declined from its main

axis at 10°, gradually narrowing from base;

lateral carina entire. Metasternum ecarinate,

truncate between mesocoxae. Scutellum flat,

longer than broad as 6:4, anterior margin

truncate with central protuberance, posterior

margin subacute. Elytra convex, 2.6 times

prothorax length, each subacute at extremity;

striae distinct. Last sternite flat. Metabasitarsus

longer than following 2 joints combined as 3:2.

Sculpture: Head with simple, dense,

moderate, hexagonal punctation; pronotum

punctate like head; propleurae with simple,

sparse, elongated punctation; prosternum with

simple, moderate, rounded punctation; elytral

striae with deep, distinct, dense, rounded

punctation; interstriae with simple, dense,

rounded punctation.

Pubescence: Body covered with simple,

dense, slanting yellowish brown pubescence.

Male genitalia: (Fig. 1). Phallobase with

straight anterior margin; parameres without

subapical processes; aedeagus longer than

parameres, conical at apex; furcae not reaching

anterior margin of parameres.

Material examined: Holotype : Male,

Sikkim, Namchi, 1650 m, 16.v. 1993, under light,

Coll. Punam. Paratype : 1 male with same data

as holotype.

Distribution: india: Sikkim.

Diagnostic combinations: This species

can be separated from its allied species S. lebischi

as: pronotum broader than long (longer than

broad in lebischi), frons flat with hexagonal

punctation (convex with umbilicate punctation

in lebischi ).

Etymology: The species is named in

honour of Prof. L.K. Vats, Kurukshetra

University, Kurukshetra.

Silesis longicarinatus sp. nov.

(Fig. 2)

Fig. 2: Male genitalia of S. longicarinatus

a. Phallobase; b. Furca; c. Aedeagus; d. Paramere

Colour: Body black. Antenna and legs

ferruginous.

Measurements: Body: length 6 mm, width

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC. 1998

461

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

1.25 mm; head: length 0.5 mm, width 0.75 mm;

antenna 2.5 mm, 2nd segment 0.15 mm, 3rd

segment 0.2 mm, 4th segment 0.3 mm, last

segment 0.35 mm; thorax: length 1.25 mm,

width 1 .25 mm; elytra 4 mm.

Structure: Body width less than 0.25 times

its length. Head flat, broader than long as

3:2; antenna extending beyond posterior angle

of pronotum, segment 3 longer than 2 as 4:3

but shorter than 4 as 2:3. Mandible dentate.

Pronotum convex, as long as broad, lateral

sides parallel, posterior margin furrowed,

posterior angle pointed, carinate, carina reaching

middle of pronotum; prosternal spine pointed,

margined between mesocoxae, gradually

declined from its main axis at 30°, abruptly

narrowing from base; lateral carina entire.

Metasternum ecarinate, truncate between

mesocoxae. Scutellum flat, longer than broad as

4:3, anterior margin truncate with median

protuberance, posterior margin arcuate. Elytra

convex, 3.2 times prothorax length, each

subacute at extremity; striae distinct. Last stemite

flat. Metabasitarsus longer than following 2 joints

combined as 4:3.

Sculpture: Head with simple, dense, small,

hexagonal punctation; pronotum punctate like

head; propleurae with simple, sparse, rounded

punctation; prostemum punctate like propleurae;

elytral striae with deep, distinct, oval punctation;

interstriae with simple, sparse, fine, inconspi-

cuous punctation.

Pubescence: Body covered with simple,

dense, slanting yellowish brown pubescence.

Male genitalia: (Fig. 2). Phallobase broad

with straight anterior margin; parameres

without subapical processes; aedeagus longer

than parameres, tubular, posteriorly tapering to

nipple-like apex; furcae extending beyond

anterior margin of parameres.

Material examined: Holotype'. Male, West

Bengal, Mirik, 1700 m, ll.v.1993, on forest

vegetation, Coll. V. Vasu. Paratype : 1 female,

with same data as holotype.

Distribution: india: West Bengal.

Diagnostic combinations: On the basis of

the following significant characters, S.

longicarinatus can be separated from its allied

species S. brevicarinatus ; carina on posterior

angles of prothorax long, reaching middle of

pronotum (short, not reaching middle in

brevicarinatus) metabasitarsus longer than

following joints combined (equal in

brevicarinatus) elytra 3.2 x prothorax length (2.8

times in brevicarinatus antennal segments 2-4

as 3:4:6 (as 1:2:3 in brevicarinatus).

Etymology: The species is named after

long carina on posterior angles of the prothorax.

Silesis brevicarinatus sp. nov.

(Fig. 3)

Fig. 3: Male genitalia of S. brevicarinatus

a. Phallobase; b. Furca; c. Aedeagus; d. Paramere

Colour: Body black. Antenna and legs

ferruginous.

Measurements: Body: length 5.5 mm,

width 1 .25 mm; head: length 0.5 mm, width 0.75

mm; antenna 2.25 mm, 2nd segment 0.1 mm,

3rd segment 0.2 mm, 4th segment 0.3 mm, last

segment 0.3 mm; thorax: length 1.25 mm, width

1.25 mm; elytra 3.5 mm.

Structure: Body width less than 0.25 times

its length. Head flat, broader than long as 3:2;

antenna extending beyond posterior angle of

pronotum, segment 3 longer than 2 as 2:1 but

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 95(3) DEC 1998

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

shorter than 4 as 2:3. Mandible dentate.

Pronotum convex, as long as broad, lateral sides

parallel, posterior margin furrowed; posterior

angle rounded, carinate, carina short, not

reaching middle of pronotum; prostemal spine

rounded, margined between mesocoxae, abruptly

declining from its main axis at 20°, abruptly

narrowing from base; lateral carina entire.

Metasternum ecarinate, truncate between

mesocoxae. Scutellum flat, ecarinate, longer

than broad as 6:5, anterior margin truncate,

with median protuberance, posterior margin

arcuately pointed. Elytra convex, 2.8 times

prothorax length, each subacute at extre-

mity; striae distinct. Last sternite flat.

Metabasitarsus equal to following 2 joints

combined.

Sculpture: Head with simple, dense,

moderate, hexagonal punctation; pronotum

punctate like head; propleurae with simple,

sparse, elongated punctation; prosternum

with simple, sparse, fine punctation; elytral striae

with deep, distinct, rounded punctation;

interstriae with simple, dense, elongated

punctation.

Pubescence: Body covered with simple,

dense, slanting, yellowish brown pubescence.

Male genitalia: (Fig. 3). Phallobase with

straight anterior margin; parameres without

subapical processes; aedeagus longer than

parameres, narrow at base, posteriorly forming

conical apex; furcae not reaching anterior margin

of parameres.

Material examined: Holotype : Male,

Sikkim, Gangtok, 1500 m, 13. v. 1993, on the leaf

of wild Rosa sp., Coll. Punam. Paratype : 1

female with same data as holotype.

Distribution: tndia: Sikkim.

Diagnostic combinations: The characters

distinguishing S. brevicarinatus from its allied

species S. longicarinatus are discussed under the

latter.

Etymology: The species name pertains to

the short carina on posterior angles of the

prothorax.

Silesis ecarinatus sp. nov.

(Fig. 4)

Fig. 4: Male genitalia of S. ecarinatus

a. Phallobase; b. Furca; c. Aedeagus; d. Paramere

Colour: Body fuscous except blackish head

and ferruginous antenna and legs.

Measurements: Body: length 5 mm, width

1.25 mm; head: length 0.5 mm, width 0.65 mm;

antenna 2.12 mm, 2nd segment 0.1 mm, 3rd

segment 0.2 mm, 4th segment 0.2 mm, last

segment 0.25 mm; thorax: length 1 mm, width

1.25 mm; elytra 3 mm.

Structure: Body width equal to 0.25 times

its length. Head convex, broader than long as

5:4; antenna not reaching posterior angle of

pronotum, segment 3 longer than 2 as 2:1 but

equal to 4. Mandible dentate. Pronotum strongly

convex, posterior margin furrowed; posterior

angle pointed, carinate, carina not reaching

middle of pronotum; prostemal spine pointed,

margin entire, gradually declining from its main

axis at 1 5°, abruptly narrowing from base; lateral

carina entire. Metastemum ecarinate, truncate

between mesocoxae. Scutellum flat, ecarinate,

longer than broad as 5:4, anterior margin straight

with median protuberance, posterior margin

pointed. Elytra convex, 3 times the length of

prothorax, each subacute at extremity; striae

distinct. Last sternite flat. Metabasitarsus equal

to following 2 joints combined.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC. 1998

463

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Sculpture: Head with simple, dense, small,

rounded punctation, pronotum punctate like

head; propleurae with simple, sparse, rounded

punctation; prostemum punctate like propleurae;

elytral striae with deep, distinct, oval punctation;

interstriae with dense, fine punctation.

Pubescence: Body covered with simple,

dense, slanting, yellowish brown pubescence.

Male genitalia: (Fig. 4). Phallobase with

slightly concave anterior margin; parameres

without subapical processes; aedeagus slightly

longer than parameres, tubular, rounded at apex;

furcae not reaching anterior margin of parameres.

Material examined: Holotype : Male,

Arunachal Pradesh, Dirang, 1500 m, 1 l.v.1992,

under light, Coll. V. Vasu. Paratypes : 1 male, 1

female with same data as holotype.

Candeze, E. ( 1 863): Monographic des Elaterides IV. Mem.

Soc. r. Sci. Liege, 17: 1-534.

Fleutiaux, E. (1940): Les Elaterides de l’lndo-Chine

Francaise. Huitieme et Derniere partie XVIII.

Subfam. Adrastinae. Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr. 109 : 19-

40.

Fleutiaux, E. (1947): Les Elaterides de 1’Indo-Chine

Francaise. Musse Heude Notes d entomologie

Chinoise, 77:233-420.

Ohira, H. (1969): The Elateridae of the Ryukyu

Archipelago, VI (Coleoptera). Bull. Aichi Univ.

Educ. (Nat. Sci.), 18: 89-102.

Ohira, H. & E.C. Becker (1971): Elateridae (Coleoptera)

from the Canadian Nepal Expedition (1967), 1.

Description of three new species of Silesis. Oriental

Ins. 5(4): 577-582.

Distribution: india: Arunachal Pradesh.

Diagnostic combinations: S. ecarinatus

is unique in having antennal segment 2 shorter

than 3; prosternal spine margin entire, head

broader than long, antenna not reaching

posterior angles of prothorax; scutellum

ecarinate and metabasitarsus equal to following

joints combined.

Etymology: The species name is derived

from its ecarinate scutellum.

Acknowledgement

We thank Prof. L.K. Vats, Chairman,

Department of Zoology, Kurukshetra University,

Kurukshetra for his valuable suggestions and

permission to use material and literature.

F.NCES

Ohira, I. & E.C. Becker (1974): Elateridae (Coleoptera)

from Canadian Nepal Expedition (1967).

Descriptions of new species and records of

Zorochrus, Melanotus and Silesis. Oriental Ins.,

8(4): 557-562.

Platia, G. & R. Schimmel (1991): II genera Silesis

Candezenella regione indiana e cinese (Coleoptera,

Elateridae, Adrastini) Fragm. Entomol. 23(1): 101-

177.

Platia, G. & R. Schimmel (1993): Nuove specie e novi

reperti di Silesis Candeze della Regione indiana e

cinese (Coleptera, Elateridae, Adrastini) Fragm.

Entomol. 25(1): 117-127.

Vats, L.K. & R.L. Chauhan (1993): Species of Silesis

Candeze from North India (Coleoptera; Elateridae).

Uttar Pradesh J. Zool. 13(1): 37-43.

464

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3) DEC. 1998

A NEW SPECIES OF IPHIA ULAX FOERSTER

(HYMENOPTERA: BRACONIDAE) FROM INDIA1

S.M. Kurhade2 and P.K. Nikam3

{With three text-figures)

Key words: Hymenoptera, Braconidae, Braconinae, Iphiaulax sp. nov.

Iphiaulax marathwadensis sp. nov. is illustrated and described. A key to the Indian species

of Iphiaulax is also provided.

Introduction

Foerster (1862) erected the genus

Iphiaulax with the type species Ichneumon

impostor Scopoli. Iphiaulax belongs to the

subfamily Braconinae and is distributed

worldwide.

In India, only eleven species of Iphiaulax

Foerster are recorded so far (Shenefelt 1978) and

the following workers have contributed on the

same: Brulle (1846), Cameron (1899, 1900,

1905, 1907, [1912] 1913) and Lai (1939).

In the present work, a new species

Iphiaulax marathwadensis is described from

material collected in India, Maharashtra,

Aurangabad. The new taxon has been compared

with seven species whose literature was

available. A key to these Indian species of

Iphiaulax is also provided.

Types have been deposited in the

entomological collection of the Department of

Zoology, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada

University, Aurangabad.

Iphiaulax marathwadensis sp. nov.

(Figs. 1-3)

Female: Body (Fig. 1) 11.2 mm. Flead

'Accepted February, 1998

2Dept. of Zoology, New Arts, Commerce and Science College,

Ahmednagar-414 001 (Maharashtra), India.

3 Department of Zoology,

Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University,

Aurangabad-431 004 (Maharashtra), India.

(Fig. 2) transverse, 1.65 times as wide as long;

vertex shiny, smooth, weakly punctate,

pubescent; ocelli in equilateral triangle; frons

concave, shiny, closely punctate with a median

longitudinal suture, pubescent, 1 .4 times as wide

as long; face 1.8 times as wide as long, convex,

closely punctate, pubescent, with a median

longitudinal suture; antenna 2 + 84 segmented,

longer than body, with fine pubescence

throughout the length; scape 2 times as long as

wide, shiny, closely punctate, pubescent; pedicel

small, as long as wide, globular, shiny, closely

punctate, with pubescence; flagellum long;

clypeus narrow, finely punctate, pubescent; malar

space narrow, closely punctate, with pubescence,

0.65 times the basal width of mandible; mandible

stout, bidentate; eyes twice as long as wide, bare;

interorbital distance as wide as the width of the

eye; occipital carina absent; temple 0.7 times the

width of eye, shiny, weakly punctate, with

pubescence.

thorax: 1.8 times as long as wide;

pronotum shiny, smooth, weakly punctate,

pubescent; mesoscutum shiny, smooth, weakly

punctate, pubescent; middle lobe bulged; notauli

distinct; scutellum convex, shiny, smooth, weakly

punctate, pubescent; lateral carinae not distinct;

mesopleurum shiny, sparsely punctate, with

pubescence; mesopleural furrow distinct,

extending 0.6 times the length of mesopleurum;

metapleurum shiny, closely punctate, with

pubescence; propodeum (Fig. 3) shiny, smooth,

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC. 1998

465

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs. 1-3: Iphiaulax marathwadensis sp. nov. Female: 1. Lateral view, entire; 2. Head, viewed from front; 3.

Propodeum with first abdominal tergite.

weakly punctate, with stout pubescence;

propodeal spiracle large, oval. Hind coxa 2.3

times as long as wide, shiny, closely punctate,

pubescent; trochanter I + II twice as long as wide,

shiny, closely punctate; femur twice as long as

wide, shiny, slender, closely punctate, with

pubescence; tibia 6.5 times as long as wide,

slender, wide at apex, closely punctate, with fine

pubescence; long tibial spur 0.9 times the tibial

width; tarsus 5 segmented; basitarsus elongated,

finely punctate, with pubescence, 5 times as long

as tibial spur; claw simple, bifid.

Forewing 4.8 times as long as broad;

stigma 5.8 times as long as wide; metacarp 1.2

times as long as stigma; first abscissa of radius

0.6 times the second abscissa; second abscissa

of radius as long as apical abscissa; third abscissa

of radius not longer than r 1 + r 2; first

intercubitus 1 .3 times as long as 2nd intercubitus;

second cubital cell 3 times as long as wide, with

four unequal sides; cubitus 3 times as long as

stigma, sclerotized throughout the length; costa

1.4 times as long as medius; nervulus slightly

inclivous, 1.6 times as long as width of stigma;

first brachial cell 2.3 times as long as wide;

submedius 3 times as long as brachius;

subdiscoideus 1.5 times as long as discoideus;

anal cell 18.8 times as long as wide, with two

dark brown patches in the middle and one faint

brown patch in the apical region; hind wing 4.8

times as long as broad; nervellus reclivous, as

long as submediella; basella 0.3 times the

466

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NEW DESCRIPTIONS

mediella, sclerotized; cubitella 0.8 times the

mediella; radiella 0.6 times the subcostella.

abdomen: 3.6 times as long as wide; first

tergite twice as long as wide basally, 1.1 times

as long as wide apically, excavated anteriorly,

with dorsal carina, deeply strigose, sparsely

punctate, with pubescence, dorsolateral carinae

distinct; second tergite wider than long, 0.95

times its own width, deeply strigose, closely

punctate, with pubescence; third tergite 1 .7 times

as wide as long, strigose mid-dorsally, rugose

laterally, sparsely punctate, pubescent; remaining

tergites rugose, closely punctate, pubescent;

ovipositor 7.35 times as long as hind basitarsus;

ovipositor sheath as long as ovipositor, with fine

bristles throughout the length.

genitalia: Gonoforceps, volsellae and

aedeagus situated on the sclerotic ring; volsellae

enclosed by gonoforceps; gonosquammae short,

strongly obliquely truncate, rounded apically,

with stiff bristles at the apex; gonostipes curved;

gonocardo pointed; gonolacinae weakly tapered

apically, teeth absent; apodeme elongated;

distivolsella moderately globular, pointed

apically; basivolsella elongated; basivolsellar

strut distinct; aedeagus moderately sclerotized,

apically rounded, without teeth; parameres short,

moderately globular, apically rounded; subgenital

plate transverse, smooth; anticosta rounded,

spiculum absent.

Body: Yellowish-red. Scape, pedicel,

flagellum, tip of mandibles, ovipositor sheath

dark brown to black; two patches and apical

margin of forewing, one light patch and apical

margin of hindwing, stigma, veins brownish-

black.

Male: Agrees with female except (i) length

12.2 mm and (ii) malar space 0.7 times the basal

width of mandible.

Holotype: Female, india: Maharashtra:

Aurangabad, 15. x. 1986, on wing,. Coll. P.K.

Nikam; Antenna, wings and legs mounted on

slides and labelled as above.

Allotype: Male, data same as holotype.

Paratypes: 6 females, 4 males, data same

as holotype.

Remarks: In the key to the Indian species

of Iphiaulax, the new species Iphiaulax

marathwadensis superficially resembles

Iphiaulax sal Cameron [1912] 1913 in having:

(i) face closely punctate, (ii) first tergite with

distinct dorsolateral carinae and (iii) wings

fuscous. However, the new species differs from

the same in the following characters: (i) vertex

smooth, shiny, weakly punctate, pubescent,

(ii) stigma dark brownish-black, (iii) third

abscissa of radius not longer than first and second

abscissa of radius, (iv) thorax shiny, smooth, (v)

abdomen 3.6 x as long as wide, (vi) first tergite

with dorsal carina, deeply strigose, sparsely

punctate, with pubescence, (vii) second tergite

deeply strigose, closely punctate, (viii) third

tergite strigose mid-dorsally, rugose laterally,

sparsely punctate and (ix) fourth tergite rugosely,

closely punctate.

Key to the Indian species of

Iphiaulax

1 . The basal 5 abdominal tergites closely reticulate

or punctate 8

— The basal 5 abdominal tergites differently

sculpted 2

2. First segment of abdomen with basal slope

smooth, shining, bordered by wide oblique

crenulated furrow; body black

sal Cameron [1912] 1913

— First segment of abdomen not smooth, shining;

body differently coloured 3

3. First segment of abdomen deeply strigose, with

dorsal carina, sparsely punctate, with pubescence,

dorsolateral carinae distinct; body yellowish-

red., marathwadensis, sp. nov.

— First segment of abdomen differently sculpted;

body not yellowish-red 4

4. Abdomen smooth. The apex of first abdominal

segment finely striate in the middle; second

tergite much more strongly, irregularly

striate hookeri Cameron 1907

— Abdomen not smooth 5

5. Petiole coarsely, rugosely punctate except in the

centre at the apex; lateral furrows with a few

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC 1998

467

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

transverse keels; 2nd, 3rd, and 4th tergites more

closely, rugosely punctate

smenus Cameron 1905

— Petiole not coarsely, rugosely punctate; 2nd, 3rd

and 4th tergites differently sculpted 6

6. Abdomen irregularly, rugosely punctate; without

keel on the base of the 2nd segment

elizeus Cameron 1 905

— Abdomen without rugose punctures 7

7. Basal three abdominal tergites, stoutly,

longitudinally striate

sikkimensis Cameron 1907

— First tergite of abdomen with raised median

triangular area, but with no keel in middle; apical

margins of 2nd, 3rd and 4th tergites transversely

grooved and longitudinally striate

Refer

Brulle, A. (1846): In Lepeletier: Histoire naturelle des

Insects Hymenopteres 4\ 689.

Cameron, P. (1899): Hymenoptera Orientalia, or a

Contribution to knowledge of the Hymenoptera of the

Oriental Zoological Region. Part 8. The Hymenoptera

of Khasia Hills, First paper. Mem. Manchester Lit. Phil.

Soc. 43(3): 1-220.

Cameron, P. (1900): Hymenoptera Orientalia, Part 9. The

Hymenoptera of Khasia Hills. Part II, Section I. Mem.

Manchester Lit. Phil. Soc. 44(1 5): 1-114.

Cameron, P. (1905): New species of Hymenoptera

(Aculeata, Ichneumonidae and Braconidae) from India.

The Entomologist, 38: 105-107.

Cameron, P. ( 1 907): On some new genera and species of

parasitic Hymenoptera from Sikkim Himalaya,

* Original not seen.

m m

safderezae Lai 1939

8. The basal five tergites of abdomen closely

reticulate, punctate; suturiform articulation

wide, crenulated

immsii Cameron [1912] 1913.

Acknowledgements

We thank the Ex-FIead Department of

Zoology, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada

University, Aurangabad for laboratory facilities.

SMK thanks the Principal, New Arts, Commerce

and Science College, Ahmednagar for

permission to work at Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar

Marathwada University, Aurangabad.

NCES

Tijdschr. Ent., 50: 71-114.

Cameron, P. (1912): 1913: On the parasitic Hymenoptera

reared at Dehradun, Northern India, from the lac

( Tachardia ) and Sal insects. Indian Forest Rec., 4: 91-

110.

*Foerster, A. (1862): Synopsis der Familien und

Gattungen der Braconiden. Naturh. Ver. Rheinande,

. Verb, 19: 224-288.

Lal, K.B. (1939): New Hymenoptera from India. Indian

J. Ent. 1(3): 49-58.

Shenefelt, R.D. (1978): Braconidae 10, Braconinae,

Gnathobraconinae, Mesostoinae, Pseudodicrogeniinae,

Telengainae, Ypsistocerinae, plus Braconidae in

general. Hymenopterorum catalogus Part 15, Dr. W.

Junk, The Hague.

m

468

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3) DEC. 1998

A NEW SALTICID SPIDER FROM INDIA1

G.L. Sadana and Aarti Gupta2

( With nine text-figures)

Key words: Salticid spider, Myrmarachne ludhianaensis sp. nov., India.

A new species of spider Myrmarachne ludhianaensis sp. nov. of the family Salticidae is

described and illustrated, and M. laetus Thorell has been recorded for the first time from

Punjab State.

Introduction

Spiders of the family Salticidae, parti-

cularly of the genus Myrmarachne MacLeay, are

inadequately known from the Indian region. Even

the classic work of Pocock (1900) on Indian

spiders makes no mention of this family.

One of the earliest contributions on Indian

Myrmarachne was by Narayan (1915). Tikader

(1972) in his Catalogue and Bibliography of

Spider Fauna of India listed ten species of

Myrmarachne from India. Subsequently (Tikader

1973), he recorded five species and of these,

four were new. Thereafter, Mittal and Bradoo

(1977) and Bradoo (1980) added three new

species to the existing fauna and Sadana (1983)

made the first record of Myrmarachne laetus

from Jammu and Kashmir State.

During a survey of spiders predaceous on

insect pests of fruit trees, we came across two

species of Myrmarachne, one of which is new and

described here as M. ludhianaensis. The other,

M. laetus Thorell 1895, is already known from

E. and S. India and Myanmar and collected for

the first time from Punjab State. The total number

of known species of the genus Myrmarachne ,

including M. ludhianaensis , is now nineteen.

The type specimens will be deposited in

the collection of the Zoological Survey of India,

Calcutta.

'Accepted February, 1997.

department of Zoology, Punjab Agricultural University,

Ludhiana-141 004, India.

All measurements given in the description

of species are in mm.

The abbreviations for different types of eyes

are: AM- anterior median, AL- anterior lateral,

PM- posterior median and PL- posterior lateral.

Myrmarachne ludhianaensis sp. nov.

(Figs. 1-9)

Cephalothorax: Female carapace length

2.30, greatest width 1 .02; cephalic region brown

with a broad dark band in the ocular region;

almost as long as wide, high and flat, distinctly

separated from the thoracic region by a deep

transverse cephalic groove; thoracic region black,

almost squarish, high anteriorly, slopes down

posteriorly. Eyes: pearly white, encircled by black

rims, arranged in two rows, anterior row slightly

recurved, posterior row strongly recurved, ocular

area wider than long, occupying less than half

the length of cephalothorax. Diameter of eyes:

AM=0.28, AL=0.13, PM=0.04, PL=0. 14, Mutual

distance between eyes: AM-AM=0.06, AL-

AL=0.83, AM-AL=0.09, PM-PM=0.08, PL-

PL=0.98, PM-PL=0. 19, AM-PM=0.35, AL-

PL=0.47. Chelicerae (Fig. 3): length 0.49, width

0.29, brown, promargin with five and retro-

margin with nine teeth, both margins with well

developed scopulae. Labium (Fig. 2): length 0.41,

width 0.33, brownish black, elongate, notched

in the middle, anterior margin with black hair.

Maxillary lobes (Fig. 4): length 0.45, width 0.30,

yellowish brown, inner margin with scopula of

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC 1998

469

uiui on

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs. 1-9. Myrmarachne ludhianaensis sp. nov.: 1. Dorsal view of female (legs omitted);

2. Ventral view of labium and sternum; 3. Inner view of chelicera of female; 4. Inner view of maxillary lobe;

5. Ventral view of epigynum; 6. Inner view of chelicera of male; 7. Palpal organ;

8. Lateral view of second leg; 9. Inner (dorsal) view of epigynum.

470

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3) DEC 1998

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

dark brown hair. Sternum (Fig. 2): length 1.35

and width 0.46, brown, nearly three times as long

as broad, produced between coxae. Pedipalpal

tibia and tarsus flattened into an oar-like

structure. Legs: long, thin, clothed with fine hair,

yellow with trochanter, femur and patella

brownish yellow, second and third coxae

separated by a space, fourth coxae contiguous.

The second pairs of legs distinctive in having

four and three pairs of spines on the ventral side

of their tibiae and metatarsi, respectively. Pedicel

visible from above, elongate, adding to the length

of the body. Length of legs: 1-7.36, II-7.52,

III- 8.22, IV-9.25.

Abdomen: Length 2.96, broadest width

1.08, yellowish with a dark band in the anterior

half, band bifurcated towards the lateral sides,

posterior half with a kite-shaped band. Venter

yellowish with a broad, brown median band,

sides black. Epigynum as in Figs. 5 and 9.

Male carapace length 1.98 and greatest

width 0.83, resembles female in all respects

except in having very long chelicerae and fangs

(Fig. 6); promargin of cheliceral furrow with

seven and retromargin with fifteen teeth. Palpal

organ with cup-shaped cymbium, embolus small,

pointed and sickle-shaped, located anteriorly.

Male abdomen: length 2.30, greatest

width 0.92, brown with a transverse depression

on the anterior half. Resembles female in other

characteristics. Posterior spinnerets longer and

more slender than anterior ones.

Total length: female 6.1 and male 5.5

Holotype: female, ex. pear, 17.xii.1992,

Ludhiana, coll. Aarti.

Allotype: male, collection data same as

Holotype.

R EFE

Bradoo, B.L. (1980): A new ant-like spider of the genus

Myrmarachne (Salticidae) from India. Curr. Sci.

49(10): 387-388.

Mittal, O.P. & B.L. Bradoo (1977): Two new species of

ant-like spiders belonging to the genus

Myrmarachne MacLeay (Araneae: Salticidae) from

Paratype: female, ex. grapevine, 7. v. 1993,

Ludhiana, coll. Aarti.

Distribution: Known from type locality.

Etymology: The new species is named

after the type locality.

Remarks: This species resembles

M. bengalensis Tikader slightly, but differs as

follows:

Legs are yellowish and without any

markings, but in M. bengalensis legs I and II

are. pale with conspicuous longitudinal deep

brown markings and legs III and IV are deep

brown. Besides, the leg formula in the new

species is 4321, whereas in M. bengalensis it is

4132. Further, the basal segment of chelicera is

cylindrical and the structure of epigynum and

pattern on the abdomen is also different. It also

differs distinctly from M. chandigarhensis Mittal

and Bradoo (1977), M. cheliceratus (Mittal and

Bradoo 1977) and M. platypalpus (Bradoo 1980)

reported from northern India.

Myrmarachne laetus Thorell

Myrmarachne laetus Thorell, 1895,

Spiders of Burma p. 320.

Material examined: 1 female, 2 males, ex.

peach, 10.ix.1995 and 1 female, 1 male, ex.

citrus, 5.ii.l996, Ludhiana, coll. G.L. Sadana.

Distribution: india: Madras, Calcutta,

Nicobar Islands, Jammu and Kashmir and

Punjab. Burma (Myanmaar).

Acknowledgements

We thank the Prof, and Head, Department

of Zoology, Punjab Agricultural University,

Ludhiana, for providing the necessary facilities

and encouragement.

ENCES

India. Proc. VII. Int. Congr. Arachn .: 500.

Narayan, K. ( 1 9 1 5): Notes on ant-like spiders of the family

Attidae in the collection of the Indian Museum. Rec.

Indian Mus., Calcutta, 77: 393-409.

Pocock, R.I. (1900): The Fauna of British India, Arachnida,

Araneae, Taylor and Francis, London, pp. 279.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC. 1998

471

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Sadana, G.L. (1983): An addition to the spider fauna

of the Jammu and Kashmir State. Proc. Wkshp.

High Alt. Ecoi, Zoological Survey of India,

pp 73-75.

Thorell, T. (1895): Descriptive catalogue of the spiders

of Burma, London, pp 1-404.

Tikader, B.K. (1972): Spider fauna of India, Catalogue

and Bibliography, Part II. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

68(3): 609-618.

Tikader, B.K. (1973): Studies on some ant-like spiders

from India (Family Salticidae). Proc. Indian Acad.

Sci., 78(2): 59-67.

472

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3) DEC. 1998

A NEW SPECIES OF PERODERMA HELLER (LERNAEOCERIFORMES :

COPEPODA) FROM SARDINES OFF THE PORTO NOVO COAST, INDIA1

A J.A. Ranjit Singh2 and P. Bensam3

( With fourteen text-figures)

Key words: Peroderma sardinellae, parasite, fish borer, rhizoid, copepod.

A new species of parasitic copepod (Lemaeoceriformes), Peroderma sardinellae sp. nov.

was recorded from sardines netted in the Bay of Bengal off the Porto Novo coast of India.

Peroderma sardinellae sp. nov. is a fish borer with anastomosing rhizoid-like structures to

anchor itself in the bore and to absorb nourishment from the host. The female parasite has

two elongated egg strings hanging out of the bore and the body of the parasite is buried

inside the bore.

Introduction

The genus Peroderma Heller (Lemaeo-

ceriformes, Copepoda) includes only two valid

species so far, namely P. cylindricum Heller and

P. tasselum Bennet. P. branchiata recorded by

Basset Smith (1898) was synonymised as P.

cylindricum by Wilson (1917), who recognised

only a single species, P. cylindricum , under the

genus Peroderma. Bennet and Chellam (1977)

described a new species, P. tasselum from Indian

waters. In the present observation on sardines,

twenty six female specimens of the genus

Peroderma, different from P. cylindricum and P.

tasselum , were collected and are described as a

new species. Yamaguti (1963) and Pillai (1965)

give comprehensive reviews of the genus

Peroderma. Detailed descriptions of P.

cylindricum from Indian waters by Bennet (1961)

and P. tasselum by Bennet and Chellam (1977)

facilitate the comparison of P. cylindricum and

P. tasselum with the present species.

'Accepted December, 1996

department of Biology,

Sri Paramakalyani Centre for Environmental Sciences,

Manonmaniam Sundaranar University,

Alwarkurichi-627 412, Tamil Nadu.

’Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute,

Cochin 682 Oil, Kerala.

Material and Methods

An infestation of Peroderma was observed

on the sardines Sardinella albella, S. gibbosa

and S. dayi collected from gill net catches. The

parasites were dissected out from the dermal bore

in the tissues of the host fish and identified. The

type material will be deposited in the National

Collection of Zoological Survey of India,

Calcutta.

Peroderma sardinellae sp. nov.

(Figs. 1-14)

Female: Body elongate, irregularly

cylindrical and divided into head, neck and trunk.

Trunk elongated and cylindrical, club-shaped at

anterior end, posterior end slightly broad having

three bulbous swellings. The neck projection

arises at right angles to the trunk. The origin of

the neck is towards the anterior region, its

position lies at 39-41% of the total length of the

trunk. Body surface not smooth, lateral surface

anterior to the origin of neck with about 7

projections which may help to get a hold inside

the host tissue. The neck is a chitinous, irregular

tube, bearing head and oral appendages at its

distal end. The broad base of the neck is easily

separable from the trunk. Neck hollow and opens

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3). DEC. 1998

473

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Fig. 1-14: Various body parts of Peroderma sardinellae sp. nov.: 1. Dorsal view; 2. Ventral view;

3. Oral tube; 4. Anterior portion of oral tube; 5. A branch of absorbing and anchoring roots;

6. An absorptive root; 7. Antennule; 8. Antenna; 9. Maxilla; 10. Maxilliped; 11. First walking leg;

12. Lateral view of the parasite; 13. Second walking leg; 14. Third walking leg.

into the trunk through a large, apparently

bipartitioned opening.

The oral tube at its distal end bears a

bunch of six irregularly branched chitinous,

double walled, plate-like absorptive and

anchoring roots which anastomose to deeper

body tissues. The dorsal surface of the body is

ridged by a pair of long rod-like structures that

run longitudinally along the body. These join

together to form a tube and open at the anterior

region of the trunk. A similar structure is found

on the ventral side, extending only upto the

origin of the neck. This structure may be

associated with the secretion of a proteolytic

enzyme to aid in drilling into the body tissues of

the host fish.

Antennules three-segmented, distal

segment quite indistinct. Basal segment broad,

bearing a single short seta; two distal segments

bearing six long non-plumose setae, of which

all except the first are long. The second and third

antennular setae show signs of segmentation.

Antenna three- segmented and appears chelate.

First segment small, second segment large and

474

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3 ) DEC. 1998

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Table 1

DIFFERENCES IN THE CHARACTERS OF THE THREE SPECIES OF PERODERMA HELLER

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC 1998

475

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

stout, third segment small and conical. The

chitinous projection on the inner side of the

mouth tube is considered to be the mandible. The

maxillae on either side of the buccal tube are

two segmented, the distal segment with a pair of

fine setae. Maxilliped three-jointed, the first

segment broad, bearing a claw at its distal end.

Second segment long and curved, bearing a small

spine distally. Third segment small and conical

in shape. Three pairs of legs are present in the

neck region; first two pairs biramous, third

uniramous. The details of structures in the first

pair of legs are not clear. The basis of first pair

of legs is broad and coxa is short. One ramus of

first pair of legs bears two segments which bear

two pointed spinous projections and six denticles

bearing many minute setae. Second leg biramous

with one ramus bearing six fine long denticles

and the other only five denticles. The denticles

appear to be segmented with no setae. The third

leg is uniramous, three segmented and the distal

segment bears a small spine. Caudal region of

trunk has three bulbous projections, bearing two

long uniseriate filamentous egg-strings which are

about 2.61 times longer than the length of the

parasite. Two very small caudal furca are attached

just beneath the origin of the ovisac.

P. sardinellae is similar to P. cylindricum

Heller and P. tasselum Bennet in the mode of

attachment to the host, the elongate body with

neck roughly at right angles to the trunk, in the

structure of oral appendages, segmentation of two

pairs of biramous legs and the presence of

uniseriate filamentous ovisac. However, there are

differences from these two species, as listed in

Table 1 and discussed below.

Refei

Basset Smith, P.W. (1898): Some new parasitic copepods

found in fish at Bombay 1 Ann. Mar. Nat. Hist. 7: 1-13.

Bennet, P.S. (1961): Peroderma cylindricum Heller, a

copepod parasite of Sardinella albella. J. Mar. Biol.

Ass. India. 3: 70-74.

Bennet, P.S. & A. Chellam (1977): Peroderma tasselum

sp. nov. (Lemaeoceriformes, Copepoda) parasitic on fish

Stolephorus commersonii Lacepede ibid. 22\ 279-282.

From Table 1 it may be seen that the

present species differs from P. tasselum in the

shape of the trunk, position of neck in the trunk,

length of pre-neck region, absence of tassel-like

head process with nodulations, the structure of

antennules, antennae, maxillipeds, first and

second pairs of walking legs, arid in the shape

of the posterior region of the trunk. These

differences may be used to separate the present

species from P. tasselum. The new species differs

from P. cylindricum in the presence of a straight,

uniformly cylindrical trunk with rough body

surface; the presence of club-shaped pre-neck

region covering 39%-41% of the total trunk

length, presence of stout, irregular chitinous neck

not originating exactly at right angles; the

absence of sub-globular head with irregular

lobes; rhizoid-like head process originating from

a common head peduncle, mouth tube with

marginal hairs; the presence of first pair of legs

bearing six denticles carrying setae and three-

segmented third leg without spines and terminal

claw and in the shape of the posterior region of

the trunk.

The specimens are thus of a new species

belonging to the genus Peroderma and are

named Peroderma sardinellae sp. nov.

ences

Pillai, N. Krishna (1965): Copepods parasitic on Indian

marine fishes; a review. Proc. Symp. Crustacea. Pt. V,

pp 156.

Wilson, C.B. (1917): Copepods belonging to the

Lemaeidae with revision of the entire family. Proc. U.S.

nat. Mus. pp 53.

Yamaguti, S. (1963): Parasitic Copepods and Branchiura

of fishes. John Wiley & Sons, Inc, New York, p. 1 1 04.

476

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3) DEC. 1998

BIOS Y STEMATIC STUDY OF TWO NEW SPECIES OF CHENOPOD1UM

FROM THE NORTH INDIAN PLAINS1

S.C. Pandeya, Geeta Singhal and Anil K. Bhatnagar2

( With four text-figures)

Key words: Chenopodium santoshei, C. cyanifolium, leaves, stem, colouration,

stigma.

Two populations of Chenopodium aggregate occurring in the north Indian plains have

been distinguished and described as Chenopodium santoshei sp. nov. and C. cyanifolium

sp. nov.

Introduction

Chenopodium album and its allies (non-

aromatic, edible), belonging to family

Chenopodiaceae, are cosmopolitan (Uotila 1976-

1978, 1988, 1993 a, b, c) annual herbs. They

occur naturally throughout the north Indian

plains as weeds in cultivated winter crop fields,

in gardens, among debris and other moist places,

flowering from November to April. The

ecoclimate of the region is tropical semi-arid,

and the soil is Pleistocene and fresh alluvia.

In the region, at least two distinct

populations of Chenopodium aggregate occur,

which differ from known species of the genus.

Both are non-aromatic and edible. They are:

1 . CC (greyish-cyan leaves) - An erect, tall,

herbaceous plant, starts growth in October/

November, flowering February to April; height

upto 2.50 m; stem ridged, almost uniformly

purple, basal branches longer (upto 65 cm),

decumbent, giving the mature plant a triangular

shape; leaves - petiole reddish green, lamina

greyish-bluish-green (cyan), petiole equal to or

longer than lamina, lamina ovate, bracts elliptic,

margins soft dentate, lamina 1.2-4. 5 x 0. 6-3.2

cm, petiole 0.5-3. 3 cm, leaf primordia greyish

'Accepted May, 1997

2Botany Department, Dayalbagh Educational Institute,

(Deemed University), Dayalbagh, Agra-282 005.

green, mealiness on young stem, leaves and

perianth; inflorescence greyish-bluish-green,

spikes terminal (30 cm) and axillary, flowers -

perianth 5, central vein less prominent, stamens

5, equal to perianth, feathery stigma bi- and trifid,

longer; seed covered with pericarp with a circular

opening on the top, disc-shaped, 1 mm x 0.98

mm, thickness 0.56 mm, colour Hue 5R 2/1 (Figs.

1 and 2). Deposited at Kew, vide ours DEI 102.

2. CS (entire red) - An erect, tall (2. 0-3. 5

m) herbaceous plant, starts growth in November,

flowering February to April; stem ridged in the

beginning, smooth on maturity, branching

throughout, almost uniformly scarlet, stele scarlet

(as seen in transverse section), middle branches

longest upto 1.3 m, shape of plant oblong,

diameter of main stem at base upto 4.5 cm,

young branches reddish green; leaves greenish-

red on dorsal side, green on ventral side with

scarlet veins, leaves turning completely crimson

upon senescence, shape hastate, three-lobed,

middle lobe oblong, basal 2 lobes pointing

upwards with one large and one small dentation,

apex of middle lobe acute to obtuse, 2-3

dentations, lamina with heavy mealiness on

young leaves (also on young stem and perianth),

getting glabrous on maturity, leaf primordia

scarlet, lamina 1.5-8. 5 x 0.6-6. 6 cm, petiole

0.8-9. 2 cm (longer than lamina), ratio of length/

width of lamina 1 .28, between lamina and petiole

0.92; spikes terminal on main stem upto 18 cm

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC. 1998

411

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Fig. 1: Chenopodium cyanifolium : a. Branching pattern and shape of a mature plant, b. mature leaf,

c. leaf primordia, d. flowering shoot

478

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3) DEC 1998

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

1 mm

Fig. 2: Chenopodium cyanifolium : a. open flower, heavy mealiness on perianth, filaments (of stamen)

equal to perianth, b. bifid stigma, c. seeds with pericarp, d. seeds without pericarp

along with branches, greenish red spikes on all

primary, secondary and tertiary branches from

base upwards, bracts broad lanceolate but with

two small projections on either side; flowers,

perianth 5, connate at base, margins scarlet,

stamen 5, filament longer than perianth, feathery

stigma 2, 3, 4-fid, smaller than CC, perianth

midrib not prominent, pericarp adherent with a

circular opening on top; seed disc-shaped

(biconvex), notched with a depression, length

0.92 mm, width 0.89 mm, thickness 0.51 mm,

colour Hue 5R 2/1, weight of 100 seeds with

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC. 1998

479

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

pericarp 0.0270, without 0.0243. Fig. 3 and 4

Type - north Indian plains, Agra, deposited at

Kew, our DEI 103.

Both CC and CS populations have been

clubbed together in different Indian Floras under

Chenopodium album Linn, and described as

variations in morphological characters

(Hook.f.in FI. Br. Ind. 5:3, 1886; Prain, Bengal

Plants, 2:879, 1903; Cooke, FI. Indian desert,

Sr. 4:968 (65), 1919; Gamble, FI. Pres. Madras,

Pt. IV: 1179, 1921; Duthie, FI. Upper Gang.

Plains & Adj. Siw. Sub-Him. Tr. 1903-29;

Maheshwari, FI. Delhi 302, 1963; Saldanha and

Nicolson, FI. HassanDist. Karnataka, India. 101,

1976; Babu, Herb. FI. Dehradun, 436-37, 1977;

Kaushik, FI. Shivpuri, 279, 1983; Bhandari, FI.

Indian desert, 296, 1990.

In the present communication, an attempt

has been made to clearly distinguish the two

populations and to assign them to their correct

systematic position.

TAXONOMIC CONSIDERATION

Specimens of both CC and CS were sent

to the authority on the subject, Prof. Pertti Uotila,

Helsinki, Finland, for his opinion. He wrote “CC

seems to belong to Chenopodium strictum Roth.

It is fairly badly known (sic) species described

from India, and widely distributed but divided

into several races. The stem is typically violet

red, inflorescence spiciform and seeds smaller

and more oval than in C. album. The leaf shape

(in our material) is somewhat odd compared with

the material I have seen earlier.” In the present

study CC does not tally with C. strictum or its

known subspecies. Table 1 gives a comparative

description of C. strictum Roth and its two

subspecies, viz., strictum and striatiforme and

the present CC. From the table it becomes clear

that CC is a separate taxon and hence is being

elevated to the rank of species, named:

Chenopodium cyanifolium Pandeya et al.

sp. nov.

It is being characterised as:

Herba erecta, 2.5 m alta, cortice purple;

lamino grey cyano, ovatis; petiolum aequalibus

vel quam laminum longior (Lamino 4.5 x 3.2

cm, petiolata 3.3 cm alta); Inflorescence grey-

cyano, stigma longior, bi-trifldus; Foliis extracta

pH 7.72, sp. con. 38 p mho; Floribus Feb.-April.

Holotypus: Lectus in Dayalbagh, Agra (India).

Positus in herbario die Botany Department,

Dayalbagh Educational Institute, Agra, India sub

numero accessionis 102.

Chenopodium folis rhomboideo -

triangulari - album bus erofis poftice integris:

fummis oblongis, racemis erectis. FI. fuec.

212.Dalib, parif. 80 Chenopodium folis

enferiorbus ovatis anthrorfum dentatis: fummis

lanceolatis.

Vir. Cliff. 22 Hort Cliff. 85. Gron. virg.

145 Roy. lugdb. 219. Hall belv. 175. Habitat in

agris Europa:

Etymology: C. cyanifolium has been

named after the greyish-cyan colour of leaves and

inflorescence, not present in any other species

of Chenopodium.

Regarding the CS population, Uotila (pers.

comm.) opines that “your Chenopodium

santoshei belongs to C. ficifolium Sm., s. lat.,

e.g., on the basis of seed characters. This species

seems to be variable especially in India and SE

Asia. Two subspecies have been distinguished,

mainly on the basis of seed coat characters: subsp.

ficifolium (European) and subsp. blomianum

(S and SE Asiatic). The latter have been divided

into several races on the basis of leaf characters.

However, leaf size and shape vary much within

all taxa of Chenopodium, and based on my

insufficient knowledge on Indian material, I am

not willing to definitely say which kind of

taxonomic recognition your specimen deserves,

if any. It has exceptionally large and broad

leaves for the species. Further red colour is

exceptional, even though not unknown in C.

ficifolium.

Table 2 gives a comparative account of

C. ficifolium and its two subspecies along with

CS population. The distinction is clear from

the table. Hence, CS population is being named

as:

480

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3) DEC. 1998

Table I

COMPARATIVE STATEMENT OF MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS OF CHENOPODIUM STRICTUM, C. S. STRICTUM, C.S. STRIATIFORME(MURR.)

UOTILA AND C. CYANIFOLIUM SP. NOV.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC. 1998

481

point of lamina, sometimes margins 3 cm x 0.5 - 1 .0 cm. olive green.

entire; apex rounded; lamina of

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narrowly trullate to narrowly elliptic,

margins entire.

Table 1 (contd.)

COMPARATIVE STATEMENT OF MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS OF CHENOPODIUM STRICTUM, C. S. STRICTUM, C.S. STR1ATIFORME (MURR.)

UOTILA AND C. CYANIFOLIUM SP. NOV.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3) DEC 1998

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Fig. 3: Chenopodium santoshei : a. branching pattern and shape of a mature plant, b. mature leaf,

c. leaf primordia, d. flowering shoot

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC. 1998

483

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

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Fig. 4: Chenopodium santoshei : a. flower, filaments of anthers longer than perianth,

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Chenopodium santoshei Pandeya et al. sp.

nov.

Etymology: The species has been named

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first showed the plant to the senior author at

Lucknow.

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Herba erectus, 3.5 m alta; Trunkus diam.

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484

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3) DEC. 1998

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC 1998

485

Table 2(contd.)

COMPARATIVE STATEMENT OF MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS OF CHENOPOD1UM FICIFOUUM SM„ C. F. FICIFOLIUM

(HEGI 1960) UOTILA, C. F. BLOMIANUM ( AELLEN) AELLEN AND CHENOPODIUM SANTOSHEI SP. NOV.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3) DEC 1998

pericarp 0.0270, without pericarp

0.0243 g.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

foliis hastatus, 3 lobus, lamino 8.5 x 6.6 cm;

petiolum 9.2 cm alta; foliis primordium rosea;

perianthus rosea; stamen filament longior quam

perianth; foliis extracta: pH 6.0, sp. Con 45 p

mho; Floribus Feb. -April. Holotypus: Lectus in

Dayalbagh, Agra et Lucknow (India). Positus in

herbario die Botany Department, Dayalbagh

Educational Institute, Agra, India sub numero

accessions 103.

Refer

Babu, C.R. (1977): Herbaceous Flora of Dehradun,

Publications and Information Directorate (CSIR),

New Delhi, pp 436-437.

Bhandari, M.M. (1990): Flora of the Indian Desert. MPS

Repros, Jodhpur, Rajasthan, pp 296.

Blatter, E. & F. Hallberg (1920): Flora of the Indian

Desert (Jodhpur and Jaisalmer). J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 27: 968-987.

Duttbe, J.F. (1903-29): Flora of Upper Gangetic Plains and

of the adjacent Siwalik and Sub-Himalayan Tracts.

Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing,

India.

Gamble, J.S. (1921): Flora of the Presidency of Madras.

Published under the Authority of State for India in

Council, London. Pt. IV: 1 179-1181.

Hooker, J.D. (1886): Flora of British India. L. Reeve &

Co., London. 5:3

Kaushik, J.P. (1983) Flora of Shivpuri. I edition, School of

Studies in Botany, Jiwaji Univ., Gwalior, M.P. pp 279.

Linnaeus, C. (1753): Species Plantarum. Holmise Impensis

laurentii Salvii, Ed. I. 2 1 8-2 1 9.

Maheshwari, J.K. (1963): Flora of Delhi. Council of

Scientific & Industrial Research, New Delhi, pp 302.

Acknowledgements

We thank Prof. Pertti Uotila, Finnish

Museum of Natural History, Finland, Botanical

Museum, University of Helsinki, Finland for his

useful opinion on the specimens. We also thank

Prof. A.B. Bhatt, Srinagar (Garhwal) for

providing the Latin description and for perusing

the manuscript.

ENCES

Prain, David (1908): Bengal Plants. Calcutta. II: pp 879.

Saldanha, C.J. & D.H. Nicholson ( 1 976): Flora of Hassan

Dist. Karnataka, India. Amerind Publishing Co. Pvt.

Ltd., pp 101.

Uotila Pertti (1976): The Chenopodium species in

Finland, their occurrence and means of immigration.

Ann. Bot. Fennici. 13: 1-25.

Uotila Pertti (1977): Chenopodium strictum subsp.

striatiforme in the Baltic sea area. Ann. Bot. Fennici.

14: 199-205.

Uotila Pertti (1978): Biosystematic study on the

Chenopodium album aggregate in Northern Europe.

Acta Bot. Fennici 108: 1-35.

Uotila Pertti (1988): Chenopodium ficifolium. FI. of

Turkey. 10: 170-171.

Uotila Pertti (1993a): Taxonomic and nomenclatural notes

on Chenopodium in the Flora of Iranica Area. Ann.

Bot. Fennici. 30: 189-194.

Uotila Pertti (1993b): Chenopodium ficifolium and subsp.

ficifolium and subsp. blomianum (Aellen) Aellen.

Galley proof, Flora Iranica pp 36.

Uotila Pertti (1993c): 15. Chenopodium strictum Roth. ,

Flora Iranica pp 42.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC. 1998

487

A NEW SPECIES OF GONIOTHALAMUS BLUME (ANNONACEAE)1

SUCHANDRA R. DUTTA2 AND S.M. ALMEIDA3

( With six text-figures )

Key words: Goniothalamus shraddhae sp. nov., Annonaceae, Kathambari,

W. Bengal.

Goniothalamus shraddhae Dutta and Almeida, a new species, is described in detail. The

Latin diagnosis, illustrations, similarities and differences of the present species and its

closely related congeneric, Goniothalamus ridleyi , are provided in support of the new

species. The holotype has been deposited in Blatter Herbarium.

Introduction

While doing field work in Kathambari

area, Jalpaiguri dist., West Bengal, we observed

an evergreen fruiting tree which looked like a

member of the family Lauraceae. After collecting

the material, we realised that it belonged to the

family Annonaceae. Critical studies on the

collected material were done at Blatter

Herbarium; and to confirm its identity, work was

done at Central National Herbarium, Calcutta

and Western Circle, Pune. It was confirmed that

the specimen belonged to a species of

Goniothalamus, Blume. After referring to the

vast literature on Annonaceae of India at BLAT,

BSI Calcutta and Pune, it proved to be a new

species of Goniothalamus Blume. Microscopic

studies such as wood anatomy, stomatal type,

epidermal appendages and seed anatomy carried

out on the collected material helped to confirm

the identity of the genus Goniothalamus.

Detailed description of the species, Latin

diagnosis and line drawings are provided in the

text.

Goniothalamus shraddhae sp. nov.

Similiss Goniothalamus ridleyi King, foliis

membranaeceis cum basibus acutis apicibus

'Accepted August, 1997

2Flat No. 5, “Parishram”, 2nd Floor,

Near Model English School, Pandurangwadi,

Dombi vli (East) - 42 1 201.

3Blatter Herbarium, St. Xaviers’ College,

Mahapalika Marg, Mumbai-400 001 .

acuminatis et carpellis sessillibus sed differt

petiolis longioribus drupis sessilibus cum

parietibus crassis cum basibus “U” formatis

leviter sculcatis cremeis semenibus secretionibus

gummosis.

This species is similar to Goniothalamus

ridleyi King, in having membranous leaves with

acute base and acuminate apex and almost sessile

carpels. The new species differs from it in the

following characters: longer petiole, sessile, thick

walled drupelets with “U” shaped, slightly

grooved base, and cream coloured seeds oozing

a gummy secretion.

Holotypus- SD 470 (BLAT). Holotype- SD

470 (BLAT), St. Xavier’s College, Mumbai.

Locus - Churabhija, Sialdoba Locality-

Churabhija, Sialdoba.

Lectus: 21 Novembre, 1995, date of

collection 21st November, 1995

Goniothalamus shraddhae sp. nov.

(Fig.-l)

Evergreen bushy tree; 2.5-3 m in height,

having ash coloured stem attaining about 15-20

cm diameter at the base; branches arise slightly

above the axil of the leaf, black in colour. Leaves

simple, alternate, exstipulate, ovate-lanceolate,

acuminate, acute at the base, 10-12 cm x 3.75 -5

cm; margin entire, thick, rolled inwards,

reticulately veined; midvein very prominent on

the ventral surface, continuous with the petiole

about three-fourth of the length of the lamina,

488

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3) DEC. 1998

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Goniothalamus shraddhae Dutta and Almeida Annonaceae

Figs. 1-6: 1. Fruiting twig; 2. Ventral surface of the leaf showing details;

3. Epidermal appendages of leaf; 4. Drupelet showing ‘U' shaped groove; 5. L.S. of drupelet;

6. Seed showing ruminate endosperm.

striate. Lateral veins 10-16, running towards the

margin, finally meeting at the apex, basal veins

straight, upto half of the distance of the lamina,

later undulate, forming a curve and uniting with

the apex of the lateral veins and nervules;

nervules many, forming a close network,

pubescent in nature, hairs visible only under the

microscope. Petiole 1.5 - 2 cm long, slightly

brownish black in colour, deeply grooved on the

dorsal surface and rounded on the ventral

surface. Fruit an etaerio of drupes, in clusters

on the branch around a swollen axis giving a

stellate appearance, closely packed, 20-22 in

number leaving little gaps between the fruitlets

(visible only in fresh condition); each fruitlet

sessile, oblong, glossy green when young,

brownish-black at maturity, compressed after

pressing; base of the fruitlets slightly grooved,

apex narrowly acute, terminating in a very short

acumen. In dry condition the fruit is very hard

with a lauraceous odour, grooved on one side

and flattened on the other. Fruit in L.S. hollow

in the centre, epicarp brownish, mesocarp white,

seed with gummy substance. Endosperm

ruminate. Seed single 1.5- 1.7 cm x 0.8 cm with

a short basal stalk, erect, 3 ribbed, occupies three-

fourth the length of the fruit. L.S. of the seed

shows simple pitted ruminate endosperm with

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC. 1998

489

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

gummy secretion oozing out.

This species is very closely allied to

Goniothalamus ridleyi King. Detailed study on

the fruiting material showed the following

differences:

G.

ridleyi King.

G. shraddhae sp. nov.

1. Petiole 1.5-2 cm long.

2. Ripe carpels stalked,

stalk 5 mm. long

3. Base of the drupelet

not grooved.

4. Drupe thin walled.

5. Seed pale brown

coloured

6. Seed slightly hairy,

not having gummy

secretions.

Petiole 2-2.7 cm long.

Ripe carpels sessile.

Base of the drupelets

slightly grooved,

U-shaped

Drupe thick walled.

Seed cream coloured.

Seed glabrous oozing

out gummy,

secretions.

Etymology: This species is named after

Miss. Shraddha Shimpi, a close friend of the

first author and a teacher in Botany, who inspired

her during her undergraduate studies.

This is a very rare species in the ever-

green forest area. Attempts to collect the

plant in flowering condition were not

succesful.

Acknowledgement

We are grateful to the Principal, St.

Xavier’s College, Mumbai; to Mr. M. R. Almeida

for help in preparing the paper; Rev. Fr. Conrad

Mascarenhas for the Latin diagnosis, to the

Director and staff of C.N.H., Calcutta and

Botanical Survey of India, Western Circle, Pune,

for their co-operation.

490

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3) DEC. 1998

REVIEWS

1 . BATS OF THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT by J. J. Bates and David L. Hamson

pp. xvi + 258, with 8 colour plates. (29.8 cm x 21 .0 cm) 1997. Harrison Zoological

Museum, Seven Oaks, U.K., price £55.00 (US $ 89).

This is a landmark publication which

brings together a comprehensive account of 1 1 9

species of bats from every part of the

Subcontinent, including the Andaman, Nicobar

and Maidive Islands. Hitherto, various studies

of Chiroptera from India have been widely

scattered, both in time and publication,

throughout various zoological journals,

including Polish and Hungarian, so that the

bibliography alone with over 600 references,

taken with the complete coverage in the text,

brings virtually all that is known under one cover.

But the authors and their team, who actively

collaborated with the Bombay Natural History

Society, have carried out extensive on-the-spot

field investigations, and this book is not solely a

museum approach. Their rediscovery of the very

rare and local Oughtomops wroughtoni and

Latidens salimalii, with their live photographs,

adds excitement to the coverage.

The great strength of this book lies in the

detailed anatomical drawings and descriptions

under the species accounts, making use of a

matrix summary of key characters within each

genus, instead of the usual dichotomous keys,

which this reviewer has had occasion to compile,

whilst becoming increasingly aware of the

inadequacy of such a taxonomic approach. Thus

there is information for the most meticulous

scientific zoologist, while the more generally

interested lay person can still glean a wide range

of ecological, biological and conservation

status information, on species less difficult to

identify with certainty. The colour plates, drawings

of nose-leafs, appendages, baculae (penis bones)

and other anatomical details are especially

helpful.

Whilst going through this book, it

becomes clear that there are still surprisingly

large gaps in our knowledge of many bat species,

and indeed I suspect, still some taxonomic

confusion due to museum specimens from other

collections having been later renamed. The

collection localities of such species as Myotis

mystacinus and Myotis muricola from Pakistan

(some collected by this reviewer), suggest such

a possibility, as also Murina tubinaris and

Murina huttoni within Pakistan.

As everyone closely associated with the

Bombay Natural History Society appreciates,

getting funding for costly field studies is much

harder than carrying out on-the-spot laboratory

or museum studies, but I hope that from the

undoubted stimulus and interest that this book

will produce, young Indian scientists will take

up the challenge to find out more about such

enigmatic endemic species as Rhinolophus

mitratus, Murina grisea, and Epesticus tatei,

which only seem to be known from less than

half a dozen old museum specimens.

The inclusion of such a comprehensive

Gazetteer is also very helpful, though possibly a

little ambitious, covering such a wide region. I

notice that Sadikabad in Pakistan is described

as located in Baluchistan, while it is in fact in

Punjab. Likewise, Peshawar lies in the North

West Frontier valley of that name, not in the

Punjab Salt Range. These are very minor

quibbles, and just handling this book and idly

looking at the drawings and species accounts,

will fill any reader with both admiration and a

desire to possess their own copy.

■ T. J. ROBERTS

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC. 1998

491

REVIEWS

2. THE FLORA OF TROMBAY by V. Abraham. Published by Bhabha Atomic

Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai, pp. I-XIV, 1-139 (22 x 14 cm), with 40

plates, 1997. Not priced.

The book contains an account of 528

species of vascular plants belonging to 388

genera and 86 families collected from a stretch

of 6 sq. km area of the BARC campus. There

are 40 plates (16 coloured and 24 black & white)

with 32 coloured photographs, in addition to 43

in black and white.

The book is a welcome publication for two

reasons. It gives a glimpse of the rich floral

diversity of the region in the heart of Mumbai and

it also provides the present status of the vegetation

of Mumbai for comparison with earlier records.

As the book is intended mainly to record

the biodiversity of the area, this flora does not

give descriptions or complete references or keys

for the identification of the taxa. The main

purpose of the book is to aquaint the reader with

the status of vegetation in the area. The book is

not a priced publication and will be supplied gratis

to those who wish to avail a copy, till stock lasts.

The author possesses a sound taxonomic

background and has spent a number of days in

Blatter Herbarium. However, due to his dis-

continuous contact with the latest taxonomic

revisions, the book contains some old names

which presently have been relegated to

synonymy. The nomenclature of at least 20

species needs to be updated in the light of recent

taxonomic researches. The number of spelling

errors could have been eliminated from this small

publication by good proof-reading. We are sure,

after R.N. Sutaria’s book on ‘Systematic Botany’

this will attract beginners in Systematic Botany.

■ SANJAY DESHMUKH

■ M.R. ALMEIDA

3. BUILDING BRIDGES FOR CONSERVATION, edited by Ashish Kothari,

Farhad Vania, Priya Das, K. Christopher and Sunita Jha. pp 356. (23.8 cm x

18.0 cm) Indian Institute of Public Administration, New Delhi, Price Rs. 200

(hardback), Rs. 100 (paperback).

This fat book is an outcome of a 14-month

multi-layered project to study the ways and

means to involve local people in the conservation

of biodiversity. The major study areas were

Dalma Sanctuary in Bihar, Rajaji National Park

in Uttar Pradesh and Kailadevi Sanctuary in

Rajasthan. It is divided in to ten chapters (called

documents). Each document or chapter is

semi-independent, with its introduction,

methodology, profile of the study area; impact

of local people on protected area, impact of

protected area on local communities and so on.

This book ( I think it is more appropriate to call

it a report) makes tedious reading with trivial

details, list of participants of workshop (p. 100),

names of district officers, annexures and source

of information. All this may be important for a

report but certainly not for a book, which is meant

for a wider readership.

‘New Directions for India’s Wildlife

Legislation’ (chapter 6) and ‘Protected Areas in

India: Proposal for an expanded system of

categories’ (chapter 7) are very thought

provoking and I would recommend them to all

those who want our wildlife and forests to

survive. In order to give these chapters wider

publicity, the Indian Institute of Public

Administration should print them separately in

the form of booklets.

Considering the bulk of the book, the price

is reasonable. Buy it for the two chapters

mentioned above.

$ ASAD R. RAHMANI

492

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3) DEC. 1998

REVIEWS

4. BIRDS OF HILL REGION OF KARNATAKA: AN INTRODUCTION by

A.K. Chakravarthy and K.P. Purna Chandra Tejasvi. 1992. Navbharath

Enterprises, Bangalore. 148 pages with colour and black & white photographs

and figures. (21.8 cm x 14.1 cm), price not stated.

A great deal of time, thought and effort

has gone into producing this handy guide to the

birds and environment of the Malnad region of

Karnataka. It is ample evidence of the interest

that non-professionals are now taking in the

wildlife of this habitat and fauna-diverse region,

a situation that bodes well for the future. The

book is based on several surveys in various parts

of this region, conducted systematically over

three years, and more informally through casual

birdwatching forays over a longer period.

The authors have made a useful attempt

at quantification and graphical representation of

some of their bird census data. I believe that

this is one of the first times that such analysis

has been attempted in an Indian publication

outside the realm of scientific journals, and is

an excellent example of the way in which

amateur birdwatchers can usefully contribute to

the growing field of ornithology in the country.

The more than two dozen colour and

black-and-white photographs are of exceptional

quality, and add greatly to the value of this

work.

A few minor modifications might be useful

in future editions. The structure of the three

classes of Frequency of Occurrence have ranges

that are perhaps too wide to be of much use in

future comparisons with this work. Species

descriptions are often too general for an

uninitiated birdwatcher to use in definite

identification ( for example, there is no reference

to size). On p. 14, conservation biology should

be not only the preservation of gene pools, but a

multidisciplinary, extremely interactive field that

encompasses the entire spectrum of descriptive,

conceptual and analytical tools developed by the

natural sciences. Some references are quoted in

full in the text (several on p 13), while others

appear in the References section. This

inconsistency takes away much from the value

of the bibliography, and should be attended to in

the next edition. Many references to papers cited

have been carelessly listed. For e.g. Davison’s

paper in Stray Feathers (x : 329) is quoted with

an erroneous title; the volume number and year

for Salim Ali’s birds of Mysore are incorrect.

Such mistakes not only take away from the value

of this otherwise interesting and apparently well

researched book, but make one wonder whether

the authors have really looked at the papers they

cite. The last page of the book contains what for

me is the greatest disappointment of this book :

a suggestion to birdwatchers in the area that

because “an amateur often finds it difficult to

even focus on smaller birds feeding actively. ..an

air rifle becomes handy for such situations.” I

believe that this is a retrogressive step, evolving

from a refusal to accept the tremendous leap in

field identification of birds that are currently

underway, with the appearance of new, brilliantly

illustrated field guides. It is this ‘movement’

aimed at enhancing identification skills that

amateurs should be encouraged to join, rather

than going back five decades when the only way

to identify most birds was to shoot them down.

The book is a welcome change from the standard

regional checklist, and birdwatchers in the region

would greatly benefit by comparing their own

notes with it.

■ SHAHID ALI

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC. 1998

493

REVIEWS

5. WATERFOWL POPULATION ESTIMATES, 2nd Edn by P. M. Rose and

D. A. Scott. Wetlands International Publication 11, The Netherlands, 1997. pp 106.

Wetlands International, created in 1996 by

the integration of the International Waterfowl

and Wetlands Research Bureau, the Asian

Wetland Bureau and Wetlands for the Americas,

is in the forefront for protection of wetlands and

waterfowl. The Wetlands International (WI) is

quick in dissemination of data if it helps in better

protection of wetlands and waterfowl. Some-

times the data is too scanty or inadequate to be

of any use. In the second edition of their

highly popular document, Rose and Scott have

attempted to collate the data on all the species

of birds dependent on wetlands. The book is in

the form of a long research paper, with Introduc-

tion, Methodology, Results, Discussion,

Acknowledgements and References.

As new information keeps appearing and

old data have to be updated, a book of this nature

has to be a ‘’working document subject to

periodic revision”. The WI plans to update this

document every three years. The second edition

is like the first edition in general design, only

population data are updated.

As the blurb of the book indicates, Rose

and Scott have identified 1,924 distinct

biogeographic populations of waterfowl from 840

species world wide. Numerical estimates of at

least one population of 641 species and the

population trends have been given. They have

also identified gaps in knowledge at both

taxonomic and regional levels. All water-

dependent species from Gaviidae (Divers),

Podicipedidae (Grebes) to Rhynchopidae

(Skimmers) have been described in tabulated

form: species and subspecies, population and

distribution, Ramsar regions, population esti-

mate and population trend. Even species or

groups such as Stone Curlew (Burhinidae), Least

Seedsnipe (Thinocoridae) and Plains-wanderer

(Pedionomidae) which are dryland birds have

been included due to their closeness to waders.

But despite the fact that some raptors are

totally dependent on wetlands (e.g. Osprey,

White-tailed Sea-Eagle, Pallas’s Fish Eagle), they

are excluded. Perhaps a separate document

about the raptors of wetlands should be brought

out.

Frequent gaps in the population data of

most species proves how little we know about

our waterfowl. The annual Waterfowl Count has

generated a lot of interest among Indian

ornithologists. This publication drives home the

point that much more work has to be done to

save our wetlands and waterfowl. I recommend

this book to all who are interested in the

protection of wetlands and waterfowl.

■ ASAD R. RAHMANI

494

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3) DEC. 1998

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1 . ON THE SCALES OF THE SCALY ANTE ATER MANIS CRASSICA UDA TA

( With three text-figures)

The present study is mainly based on

specimens examined during routine field work

on the Indian pangolin Manis crassicaudata to

study its ecological aspects. The scales are

composed of agglutinated hairs (Jerdon 1874).

They are, in fact, enormously enlarged and

flattened hairs or spines of the body (Roy 1949,

Prater 1971). The scales are not “glued hairs” as

was once believed, but are two sided symmetrical

elevations of the epidermis. The homy scales

which are lost through wear are constantly

replaced by growth from the epidermis.

Externally, the pangolin appears hairless,

as scales are present all over the upper part of its

body except on the snout, chin, sides of the face,

throat, belly and inner surface of limbs. Variation

has been noticed in the shape, texture, colour,

number, size and weight of the scales.

Interestingly, as a protective measure, the

animal curls itself into a ball whenever in danger.

This rolling posture provides a more rigid and

sharp cutting edge because of the imbricate

arrangement of the scales, that creates a gap

between rows of scales and presents a shape like

the spokes of a wheel (Fig. lb).

I noticed that the pangolin is highly

sensitive and can even feel a little touch on the

hard scales by hand or any other object. It

immediately tightens all the scales side by side

to make a compact ball. In the coiled state, its

head remains safe inside the innermost whorl.

Histologically, epidermal comification at

the tips of the dermal papillae leads to the

formation of hard scales (Rahm and Thenius,

1988). I observed that the scales on the dorsal

side of the pangolin’s body are more or less

triangular, with a broad base and narrow apex,

while some are blunt on both sides and

comparatively smaller in size. Scales are usually

dorso-ventrally flattened, but a few scales

Fig. 1: Scale arrangement on body surface:

a. in normal posture; b. in rolling posture

(Fig. 2c) appear pyramidal along the tail line.

Fine striations are visible dorsally at the lower

or proximal half of the scale which remains

attached to the body, but the distal end that

projects outwards presents a smooth upper

surface (Fig. 2a). A line marking the attachment

site for body muscles can be identified easily on

the ventral surface of the scale, (Fig. 2b) which

is pale coloured.

The present study carried out in different

ecological conditions showed that the pangolin,

being a nocturnal creature, generally comes out

and remains active at night, but has also been

seen in the daytime on several occasions, when

a cryptic body colouration can save it from

predatory and human interference. Its body hairs

are hardly visible externally (except in the lower

part of the body). So the colour of the scales plays

a significant role.

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

-G

0£)

S

X

Apex

■ Smooth upper part of the rear end

Striations

Proximal portion that remains attached with body

Total Length

a. DORSAL SURFACE OF SCALE

Line of attachment

with body muscles

Keel

b. VENTRAL SURFACE OF

SCALE

C. SHAPE OF ONE LATERAL

SCALE

ALONG THE EDGE OF TAIL

Fig. 2: Diagram of scales showing different views

Pangolins of Asian and African origin are

generally found in shades of grey, dark brown,

olive brown, pale olive, khaki, yellow brown and

yellowish (Kingdon 1971, Roberts 1977, Rahm

and Thenius 1988, Bing Su, et al. 1994). During

this study, scales were found to be grey and olive

brown, whereas in captivity they looked pale.*

Size and weight of the scales was estimated

from isolated scales of full grown or adult

animals recovered from various sources. I found

that the size of the scale** may vary from 6.5

cm - 7 cm (height) and its average breadth is 8.5

cm. Each scale weighs 7-10 gm. There is a slight

variation in the shape and size of the scales in

the Indian species of Manis. They are

comparatively smaller and darker in Manis

pentadactyla (Chinese pangolin), and larger and

blunt shaped in Manis crassicaudata (Indian

pangolin). The Indian pangolin may have about

160-200 scales all over the body, of which 40-

46% are present on the tail. It is believed that

the pangolin has the same number of scales

throughout its life.

Chemical analysis of the scales reveals that

they contain a considerable amount of

scleroprotein, which needs a lot of protein intake

from external sources, though the relationship

between food preference and accumulation of this

protein has not yet been established. The animal

pays a heavy price for its defensive armature of

scales.

Total protein content (in 100 gms of sample) =

amount of nitrogen estimated x conversion factor***

Result: protein content, percent/mass =88.4

The major use of pangolin scales is in

traditional medicine, and they can be obtained

* Recently, workers from China, have identified two forms of

pangolin without giving them any formal names.

** They were mostly taken from the dorsal and tail regions of

the animal’s body.

*** Conversion factor of 6.25 has been used for estimating the

quantity of crude protein from total nitrogen content.

496

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from traditional medicine sellers of China, Nepal,

Malaysia, Korea and many southeast Asian

countries including India. During the study, I

questioned the local inhabitants about the use of

these scales in their society. A few samples were

purchased from the tribals who kept them for

medicinal purposes.

The following are a few examples of

popular beliefs I came across during my field

work in the study areas: Scales are used as

magical charms. They help to bring good luck.

They are a curative for piles, and also used for

treating toxicosis, inflammation, rheumatic pain

and scabies.

A growing interest in the scales has been

noticed among Asian and European buyers for

the supposedly curative effect on breast cancer

(Nash 1992). Price varies in different parts of

the world but genuine information related to the

trade of the Indian pangolin is not substantial.

In the open market, a dozen scales may cost

Rs. 50-60 or more, from my experience.

Scales are generally associated with fish,

reptiles and to some extent birds, but are very

unusual among mammals. However, much is yet

to be discovered.

Acknowledgement

I thank the Forest Departments of West

Bengal, Orissa, Tripura and Bihar for permission

to carry out field work during my study. Special

thanks go to the Zoological Survey of India for

support.

January 1,1998 SANGITA MITRA

Z.S.I. Ministry of Env. & Forests,

Nizam Palace, II MSO Building,

1 3th Floor, 234/4 A.J.C. Bose Rd.

Calcutta-700 020.

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

References

BingSu, Rui-Quing Liu, Ying-Xiang Wang and Li-Ming

Shi (1994): Biochem Genetics, 32 (9 & 10).

Jerdon, T.C. (1874): The Mammals of India. John

Wheldon, London.

Kjngdon, J (1971): East African Mammals. An Atlas of

Evolution in Africa, pp. 352-369.

Matthews, H. (1971): The Life of Mammals, pp 131-134.

Nash (1992): Traffic Bulletin, 1, 1 October 1994: 15-22.

Prater, S.H. (1971): The Book of Indian Mammals (3rd

ed): 301-303.

Rahm, U. & E. Thenius (1988): Grzimeks Encyclopedia of

mammals, pp 630-64 1 .

Roberts, T.J. (1977): The Mammals of Pakistan, Ernest

Benn Ltd. London, pp 91-94.

Roy, C.R. (1949): The Indian Pangolin, / Beng. Nat. Hist.

Soc. 23: 95-98.

2. EVIDENCE OF CLOUDED LEOPARD NEOFELIS NEBULOSA

IN PAKHUI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, ARUNACHAL PRADESH

During a field project from November 1 995

to April 1996 on arboreal mammals in Pakhui

Wildlife Sanctuary (WLS) (92° 7.5' E - 92° 22'

E and 26° 53. T N - 27° 16.2* N), East Kameng

dist., W. Arunachal Pradesh, in northeast India,

I came across the carcass of a clouded leopard

Neofelis nebulosa. The carcass was about 2-3

months old. It consisted of the entire skeleton of

the animal (except the skull) along with parts of

its skin, one front and one hind limb with the

paws and skin covering intact. Clumps of fur

and whiskers were also present. Most of the

carcass had already rotted and was infested with

maggots. At the same spot, the remains of a wild

pig were present. The carcass was found in a

secondary forest 300-400 m from the forest

department colony at Seijusa, and 150 m from

an unmetalled forest road used frequently by the

forest dept, staff and captive elephants. This area

was located near the sanctuary’s southern

boundary with Assam, very near human

habitation. A clouded leopard was sighted about

1 km from Seijusa in reserved forests at the border

of Arunachal Pradesh and Assam by Shri Pratap

Singh, IFS (a forest officer from Arunachal

Pradesh Forest Dept.) in 1994. Athreya and

Johnsingh (1995) found evidence of its presence

in the area with local tribal hunters in 1994-95,

though no photographic evidence of a live animal

could be obtained. Two male clouded leopard

cubs were found in forests of the Lower Subansiri

dist. in 1995, which are now at Itanagar Zoo (Dey

1995).

The dead animal’s paws which were

slightly distorted were 5.7 cm in length and 5.5

cm in width. Athreya and Johnsingh (1995)

reported average length and width of pugmarks

from 4 captive clouded leopards as 5.6 cm and

6 cm, respectively. The tail length was 81 cm.

Walker (1975) reports that the tail length of the

clouded leopard ranges from 61 to 91 cm. The

head was missing, the length from the neck

vertebrae to the base of the tail was 66 cm.

The length of the hind limb was 52 cm. The

shoulder height of the clouded leopard is repor-

ted to be about 80 cm (Walker 1975). The

whiskers and hair samples of the animal were

collected.

Pakhui WLS, with an area of 862 sq. km,

is well-protected on its northern and western

boundaries by the Bhareli river, to the east by

the Pakke river, and is contiguous with Papum

Reserve Forest of Khellong Forest Division. To

the south lie the reserved forests of Assam. Only

a small area, where the carcass was found, near

the southeast boundary is disturbed, otherwise

the vast inner areas of the sanctuary bear

excellent undisturbed forests. There are no

settlements inside, except for one or two small

ones at the extreme northern boundary. A village

on the southeastern boundary has been relocated

outside the sanctuary. The lack of many trails

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

and general inaccessibility has helped in

preserving the sanctuary. A proposal has been

mooted to declare Pakhui a national park.

I have also seen the jaws of several clouded

leopards and tigers, a skin and skull of a leopard

cat and another stuffed specimen with tribals in

this area. Tracks of tigers, leopards and smaller

Refer

Athreya V.R. & A.J.T. JoHNsrNGH (1995): Survey of the

clouded leopard ( Neofelis nebuloso ) in Northeast

India. Unpublished report, Wildlife Institute of

India, Dehradun.

Dey, S. ( 1 995): New site confirmed for clouded leopard -

3. dugoncFdugong in

On February 9, 1998, I conducted my

annual “Showing of the Flag” among the islands

of the Gulf of Kachchh. At about 1 130 h, some

45 minutes walk from the Centre for

Environment Education (CEE), Ahmedabad’s

Nature Education Camp on Beyt, and

approaching the rocky reefs and sandbars

extending north from the Poshita headland, I saw

a brown form outlined below the surface of the

crystal clear waters. The sea was calm and the

bright sun shining from behind. The animal

surfaced to breathe and was close enough for me

to hear its breath being released. As the flat snout

broke the water, followed by the finless back, it

looked strangely like a tiny sperm whale! The

animal swam along in bucolic fashion, powered

by its horizontal, rounded flukes. We could have

approached the creature but I decided not to

disturb it. It was a large specimen a little over

cats were seen occasionally along trails and on

river beds, both in the adjacent reserved forests

and in the Sanctuary.

June 29, 1 998 APARAJITA DATTA

Wildlife Institute of India,

Post bag #18, Dehradun 248 001 .

E N C E S

a globally threatened species. Arunachal Pradesh

Forest News 37-38.

Walker, E.P. (1975): Mammals of the World (3rd

edn.), Vol. III. John Hopkins University Press,

London.

THE GULF OF KACHCHH

3 m, judging from the length of the fishing craft

we were in alongside it.

It was in the mid eighties that I had found

a dead male dugong in these very waters.

Dr. Frazier and two post-graduate students from

the Biosciences Department, Saurashtra Univer-

sity, Rajkot were fortuitously my guests and they

did a detailed dissection of the carcass. It had

drowned, apparently having got entangled in a

fishing net. There were deep cuts caused by the

nylon meshing.

The continued presence of dugongs in

these waters adds to the urgency for careful

conservation action, even as the Jamnagar coast

is witnessing massive industrial development.

February 20, 1998. LAVKUMAR KHACHER

646, Vastunirman,

Gandhinagar-382 022, Gujarat.

4. WHITE BISON IN CHINN AR

It was Mr. J.L.H. Williams who first the 1930’s, he had observed in this area several

reported the occurrence of white gaur in herds of gaur with unusually coloured individuals

Manjampatti valley and adjoining areas. During whose colour ranged from Tight red through dun

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to pure white.’ Even though the gaur is widely

distributed in the Subcontinent, this phenomenon

appears to be unique to Manjampatti area.

However, since 1940 there have been no reports

about these odd coloured gaur. E.R.C. Davidar

(1970) set out on a BNHS sponsored mission to

find and photograph them, but submitted a

negative report. It was presumed that the

Rindeipest which ravaged this area had wiped

them out.

Recently, two herds of gaur with three

greyish white individuals were observed in

Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary in Idukki dist.,

Kerala. Chinnar is contiguous with Manjampatti

Valley. On Oct. 21, 1997, at 1810 h, two greyish

white gaur, an adult female and a sub-adult were

observed on the slopes of Cheevaparamala along

with nine other gaur. A juvenile of the same

colour was found at Koottar on January 3, 1998

along with five other animals. The typical white

stockings are not distinguishable on these greyish

white gaur. Interestingly, the colour of the

majority of the animals in these herds ranges

from brick red to light red. In the first herd of

eleven gaur there were only four normal coloured

individuals and in the second herd two, including

a magnificent black bull. These herds are

extremely wary, and bolt at the first whiff of

human scent. This is the first record of White

Bison from Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary.

March 3, 1998 AJITH V.P.

Panikaseril, T.K.S. Pur am, Kodungallur,

Kerala-680 664.

MOHAN ALENBATH

Wildlife Warden,

Munnar Wildlife Division,

& Munnar, Kerala.

FRANCIS V.K.

Assistant Wildlife Warden,

Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary,

Munnar, Kerala.

References

Williams, J.L.H. (1969): The white bison country in the Davidar, E.R.C. (1970): White bison of Manjampatti,

Palni hills, Madurai district, South India. J. Bombay j Bombay nat. Hist. 67: 565-569.

nat. Hist. Soc. 66: 605-608.

5. FIVE STRIPED SQUIRREL FUNAMBULUS PENNANTI

OBSERVED EATING HONEY

{With one plate)

I had been to Bigwan to photograph

flamingoes and on the way to Dalaz No. 2 village,

I noticed that on a tall Acacia tree there were

three beehives. Two beehives were full of wasps

and one beehive was abandoned. To my surprise,

I saw a five striped squirrel Funambulus pennanti

moving up and down the beehive. I watched

through my binoculars and to my surprise, I

found the squirrel nibbling at the beehive and

licking the honey as it started flowing out. It was

astonishing that the wasps on the hive and on

the other two beehives did not attack the squirrel.

I have read of the honey buzzard, honey bird and

the badger eating honey. The above observation

could be the first record of a squirrel feeding on

honey from a hive with wasps. It is possible that

the wasps drove away the bees from the nest

September 29, 1997 SATTYASHEEL N. NAIK

Naik Hospital,

781/782, Shukrawar Peth,

» Pune-411 002.

500

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3) DEC 1998

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Sattyasheel N. Naik: Funambulus pennanti

Plate 1

Funambulus pennanti eating honey

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6. USE OF CATTLE EGRET BUB ULCUS IBIS ORGANS AS MEDICINE

On September 3, 1995, a person was

caught capturing subadult chicks from the nests

of Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis in a heronry, near

my residence at Raipur, Madhya Pradesh. He had

collected four chicks by climbing the trees. On

interrogation, he revealed that the liver is taken

out after killing the birds. This organ is dried,

powdered and mixed with other ingredients to

prepare medicine as a cure for asthma. Adult

birds are also captured, but it is more difficult to

capture them and hence, collection of subadult

birds from nests is preferred.

This is yet another instance of the killing

of birds for medicinal purposes. The scientific

basis for this practice needs to be ascertained to

curb killing on this account.

March 22, 1996 A.M.K. BHAROS

B-101, Gayatri Nagar, P.O. Shanker Nagar,

Raipur (MP) 492 007.

7. SIGHTINGS OF LESSER FLORICAN SYPHEOTIDES INDICA (J.F. MILLER)

FROM MEDAK, ANDHRA PRADESH

The endemic and endangered lesser

florican Sypheotides indica (J.F. Miller) is a rare

bird in Andhra Pradesh, with barely a few

sightings over a period of one hundred years

(Sankarah et al. 1992). It has been reported in

recent years from around Hyderabad city (Taher

pers. comm.), Medak dist. (Taher 1984) and from

Roliapadu Wildlife Sanctuary in Nellore dist.

(Manakadan and Rahmani 1990, 4993;

Sankaran and Manakadan 1990, Rao 1994).

Andhra Pradesh is the southernmost Indian state

where the Lesser Florican is found today. It is

known to breed in Roliapadu Wildlife Sanctuary,

during years of severe drought conditions in its

traditional breeding grounds of Gujarat and

Madhya Pradesh (Sankaran and Manakadan

1990). The precarious population level of this

bustard in India, estimated at a mere 750 birds

in 1989 (Sankaran et al. 1992) merits grave

concern and should be viewed seriously by

conservationists and wildlife planners in the

country. Every record of the bird, whether

new or a confirmation of existing data, is

significant.

On March 31, 1997, an immature lesser

florican was seen on the campus of ICRISAT

Asia Center (17° 30' N, 78° 15' E), Patancheru,

Medak dist., by a member of the Birdwatcher’s

Society of Andhra Pradesh (C.T.H.). He was in

a field of bajra ( Pennisetum glaucum) at 1000

h, when the bird flew up and settled in an area

of jowar (, Sorghum bicolor ), groundnut (Arachis

hypogea), and chickpea ( Cicer arietinum ) fields

some 150 m away. When informed of this

sighting, we drove down to ICRISAT on the

morning of April 6, 1997, to try to spot the bird

and confirm it. After a brief search, we saw the

bird fly up once again from a chickpea field in

the same area! On attaining a height of c. 10 m,

it turned in a wide semi-circle and disappeared

to the west over some trees and buildings. As

the bird rose, it hit an overhead wire, scattering

a few feathers. It is pertinent to note here that in

October 1984 (Taher pers. comm.), a female

lesser florican was caught in a residential area

of Hyderabad city in the evening, after it collided

with an overhead wire and fell into the garden

of a house, where it was rescued in the nick of

time from the family dog!. This bird had a fresh

injury on its breast, a horizontal bruise clearly a

result of the collision. It was subsequently handed

over to the Nehru Zoological Park authorities in

Hyderabad, where it died a few days later. Do

overhead wires pose a threat to this bird of open

grasslands during its movements within the

country?

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Another bird was reported from near

Siddipet in Dubak Mandal, Medak dist. , by the

DFO, Mr. Shankaran (pers. comm.), who had posi-

tive information of a villager having caught it

(February 26, 1997) and kept it for a couple of days

before the Forest Department staff released the bird.

Acknowledgements

We thank the management and staff

of ICRISAT Asia Center for permitting us to

birdwatch within the campus. We also thank

Mr. Shankaran, DFO, APFD for information.

June 27, 1997 AASHEESH PITTIE

8-2-545 Road No. 7,

Banjara Hills, Hyderabad 500 034.

C. TOM HASH

8-2-864/2 Road No. 12,

Banjara Hills,

Hyderabad 500 034.

SIRAJ TAHER

2-B Atlas Apartments,

Road No. 10,

Banjara Hills,

Hyderabad 500 034.

M.S. KULKARNI

Srinidhi Apts, #207, 2nd Floor,

Street 8, Habshiguda,

Hyderabad 500 007.

VINAYTOTAWAR

Staff Quarters,

#23, C.I.E.F.L.

Hyderabad 500 007.

References

Manakadan, R. & A.R. Rahmani (1990): Rollapadu

Wildlife Sanctuary, with special reference to the

Great Indian Bustard Ardeotis nigriceps (Vigors).

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86(3): 363-380.

Manakadan, R. & A.R. Rahmani (1993): A decade of

conservation of the Great Indian Bustard {Ardeotis

nigriceps ) at Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary, pp. 1 -

3 In : Bird Conservation: Strategies for the Nineties

and Beyond. Eds. Verghese, A., S. Sridhar, & A.K.

Chakravarthy. Ornithological Society of India.

Rao, K.J. (1994): Lesser Florican Sypheotides indica

breeds in Andhra Pradesh. Mayura 9:11.

Sankaran, R., A.R. Rahmani & U. Ganguli-Lachungpa

(1992): The distribution and status of the Lesser

Florican Sypheotides indica (J.F. Miller) in the

Indian subcontinent. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

89(2): 156-179.

Sankaran, R. & R. Manakadan (1990): Recent breeding

records of the Lesser Florican Sypheotides indica

(J.F. Miller) ffom Andhra Pradesh. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 87(2): 294-296.

Taher, S. (1984): Lesser Florican Sypheotides indica

found in Medak district, Andhra Pradesh. Mayura

5(4): 77-79.

8. OCCURRENCE OF REDBREASTED PARAKEET PSITTACULA ALEXANDRA

IN MUMBAI, MAHARASHTRA

The Indian Redbreasted parakeet

(Psittacula alexandri) is distributed in the lower

Himalayas (terai, bhabar , and up to c. 1500 m)

from about Dehra Dun (Kumaon) eastward

through Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan and Arunachal

Pradesh, south to Assam, Nagaland, Manipur

and Mizoram(?), Bangladesh (Ali and Ripley

1969 HANDBOOK OF BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN,

Vol. 3 : 172). It is a resident bird with some local

nomadic movement depending upon the food

supply. It is found in moist deciduous biotope -

thin secondary jungle and in the neighbourhood

of shifting cultivation. It generally avoids dense

evergreen forests. Like other parakeets, the

Indian redbreasted parakeet is a popular cage

bird. It is regularly sold in Crawford market in

Mumbai (Raj at Bhargava and A.R. Rahmani,

1997, pers. comm.).

In April 1994, 1 was surprised to see two

birds on an Indian champ ( Michelia champaca)

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tree in Andheri (West), a densely populated

suburb of Mumbai. They must certainly have

been cage escapees. After a gap of about one

month, I managed to trace their roost on closely

clustered Artocarpus heterophyllus , Syzygium

cumini and Mangifera indica trees on a busy

street of Andheri. There were nine parakeets

which shared this roosting site with other species

viz., Corvus splendens, Columba livia and

Passer domesticus.

Three years after my first observation, in

May 1997, the flock had increased to 15

individuals. One of the most interesting

observations was that of a bird entering a hole in

a wall at a height of 15 m. Perhaps these

parakeets have started breeding in the Mumbai

region.

Near Mumbai, an excellent patch of forest

exists in Sanjay Gandhi National Park (SGNP),

which is linked to the Western Ghats through other

forest patches of Tungareshwar, Matheran and

Lonavala. It is likely that the redbreasted parakeet

will establish itself and may even spread through

the Western Ghats. If so, it will be interesting to

study the repercussion on the local birds.

June 27, 1997 ANISH P. ANDHERIA

2, Sagar Building,

V.P. Road, Andheri (W),

Mumbai-400 058.

9. SIGHTING OF HODGSON’S FROGMOUTH BATRACHOSTOMUS

HODGSONI HODGSONI (G.R. GRAY) FROM SIKKIM

The Hodgson’s Frogmouth Batrachostomus

hodgsoni has been recorded as very rare in Sikkim.

Found in the Great Rangit Valley by Hodgson and

at Namchi (c. 1 500 m altitude) by Mandelli (Ali,

1962 the birds of sikkim, oup) over a hundred

years ago, it was not recorded by by Ali (1962)

during his visit to Sikkim in 1955.

On November 30, 1994 at around 1 100 h

one male frogmouth was sighted at Pabong about

4-5 km from Singtam (c. 500 m) on the way to

Namchi, by the second author, a forest officer

and keen local birdwatcher. The bird flew down

and alighted about 6 m from the jeep, beside the

road at the turning just above Pabong River.

The area is a relatively undisturbed patch

of evergreen forest of Schima wallichi and

Dyxozylum sp. In September-October 1996, the

area was visited briefly in connection with a

lowland forest survey. The entire lower stretches

of the Teesta and Rangit Valleys (450-500 m.)

were surveyed, but in both areas the species was

not sighted. Hence the above sighting was a lucky

encounter with this very rare species.

February 11, 1997

USHA GANGULI-LACHUNGPA

Project Officer (Wildlife),

Sikkim Forest Department,

Deorali 737 102, Gangtok.

SUDHIZONG LUCKSOM, SFS

Divisional Forest Officer (West),

Land-use & Environment,

Sikkim Forest Department,

Deorali 737 102, Gangtok.

10. WOODPECKERS FEEDING ON CASSIA PODS

Cassia fistula is a fairly common tree at

the Peechi-Vazhani Wildlife Sanctuary (WLS),

its long cylindrical pods are characteristic of this

tree. On several occasions, all through my study

(1991-1 993), I found two species of woodpeckers

- — Mahratta ( Picoides mahrattensis) and

Heartspotted ( Hemicircus canente) associating

with the pods of this tree. They were seen pecking

the dry, dark-coloured pods and often spent

several minutes at a stretch on these pods. Several

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pods were noticed with a series of holes in them.

The birds appeared to avoid the green, fresh pods

and concentrated on the drier dark pods. Curious

to find out what was attracting the birds to the

pods, I collected some and broke them open. I

discovered tiny larvae in two of the pods. I

handed over these specimens to Dr. George

Mathew, Entomologist, Kerala Forest Research

Institute, Peechi, who reared them and found

them to be larvae of a micro-lepidopteran species,

which could not be identified. This indicated that

the birds were not pecking at the pods for then-

pith, as I had earlier suspected.

Ganguli (1975) had earlier reported that

Mahratta woodpeckers had made holes in all the

dry Cassia fistula pods in her garden in New

Delhi, but was hot sure if it was for the pith or

for insects. Balasubramanian (1991) had reported

redvented bulbuls ( Pycnonotus cafer ) pecking at

pods of Cassia fistula at Point Calimere and

suggested they did so to feed on the pulp of the

pods.

Acknowledgement

This study was funded by the Wildlife

Conservation Society, New York, U.S.A. I thank

Dr. George Mathew of K.F.R.I., Peechi, for

identifying the insects.

February 28, 1 997 V. SANTHARAM

68, 1st Floor,

Santhome High Road,

Chennai 600 028.

References

Balasubramanian, P. ( 1 99 1 ): Bulbuls feeding on the pulp 88: 456.

of Cassia fistula pod in Point Calimere Wildlife Ganguli, U. (1975): A guide to the birds of the Delhi Area.

Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. Indian Council of Agricultural Research.

1 1 . DRUMMING FREQUENCY IN WOODPECKERS

Drumming is extensively used by wood-

peckers in the social context, to announce

their territories and locate potential mates (Short

LL. 1982 woodpeckers of the world, Delware

Museum of Natural History). However, as most

species maintain territories round the year,

they may resort to this instrumental sig-

nalling throughout the year. I have recorded the

drumming of woodpeckers at my study

site in Peechi Vazhani Wildlife Sanctuary

from September 1991 to May 1992 (see

Table 1).

The table shows the number of days on

which drumming was recorded. From this, it is

evident that the large goldenbacked woodpecker

(Chiysocolaptes lucidus) and rufous woodpecker

( Celeus brachyurus ) were the most consistent

drummers, followed by pygmy woodpeckers

( Picoides nanus), in terms of total number of days

Table 1

DRUMMING FREQUENCY OF WOODPECKERS

IN DIFFERENT MONTHS

PY : Picoides nanus SB : Picus xanthopygaeus

MA : Picoides mahrattensis RU : Celeus brachyurus

HS : Hemicircus canente GB : Dinopium benghalense

YN : Picus chlorolophus MG : Chrysocolaptes lucidus

UN : Unidentified

506

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3) DEC. 1998

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

and months in which drumming was recorded.

Two species - Mahratta ( Picoides mahrattensis )

and little scalybellied ( Picus xanthopygaeus )

woodpeckers appeared to concentrate their

drumming activities in their respective breeding

seasons.

Though distinct in some species,

drumming is similar for several species and at

times indistinguishable. This accounts for a good

number of drummings that could not be identified

to the species level. For two species - heartspotted

woodpecker ( Hemicircus canente) and lesser

yellownaped woodpecker ( Picus chlorolophus),

fewer instances of drumming were recorded. In

the heartspotted, I have reported elsewhere that

drumming is not common and is perhaps

substituted by duetting calls. It is also possible

that some of the low volume drumming was

missed due to poor audibility. Yet the drumming

of the pygmy woodpecker, which is brief and

inaudible at a distance, was recorded quite

frequently.

On two occasions, I came across two

species of woodpeckers engaged in long bouts of

drumming. Firstly, on January 13, 1992, a pygmy

woodpecker was noticed drumming on a dead

branch of Grewia tilaefolia from 1 146 - 1203 h,

with a brief interval of 2 minutes for preening.

For a period totalling 4 minutes 25 sec, I recorded

72 bouts of random drumming and for the entire

session, the bird could have drummed 243 times.

On several other occasions, I have heard the birds

drumming more briefly, about 5-20 times each.

The second occasion concerns the Mahratta

woodpecker, which drummed for a period of 14

minutes (1013-1027 h) on March 16, 1992, on a

dead teak ( Tectona grandis) branch. Random

counts for a period of 5 minutes showed the bird

drumming on 69 occasions and for the total

period the bird could have drummed 196 times.

Short {Ibid.) says that longer bursts of

drumming could be heard during the time that

birds are establishing territories or while engaged

in courtship, when a new mate is being attracted.

Acknowledgement

This study was funded by the Wildlife

Conservation Society, New York, U.S.A.

March 21,1997 V. SANTHARAM

68, 1st Floor, Santhome High Road,

Chennai 600 028.

12. RANGE EXTENSION OF THE GREEN SHRIKE-BABBLER

PTERUTHIUS XANTHOCHL ORIS IN PAKISTAN

The green shrike-babbler Pteruthius

xanthochloris occurs in Himalayan moist broad-

leaved and mixed coniferous forest, seasonally

between 1,200 m and 3,000 m (Roberts 1992).

Ali and Ripley (1972) and Inskipp and Inskipp

(1985) state that the species occurs eastwards

from the Murree Hills, Punjab, Pakistan to

Arunachal Pradesh. Roberts (1992) notes that

the western limit of the species’ range is based

solely on a breeding record from the Murree Hills

at 2,400 m in July 1900. There have been no

subsequent records of green shrike-babbler from

the Murree Hills and Roberts (1992) speculates

that the species is extinct there, summarising that

the species is “rare” in Pakistan.

During January 28-30, 1995, we spent two

days birdwatching in the Murree Hills between

Dunga Gali and Murree town. On January 29

we were in the Dunga Gali area at approximately

2,200 m altitude. Mixed flocks of birds, largely

comprising of tit species Paridae, goldcrests

Regulus regulus , and white-cheeked nuthatches

Sitta leucopsis , were frequently encountered

foraging in the open, mixed forest. At 1230 h

we stopped to watch an orange bullfinch Pyrrhula

aurantiaca amongst one such flock. As the birds

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC. 1998

507

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

moved through, a green shrike-babbler was

located in mid canopy. We observed the bird for

around three minutes before it moved on with

the goldcrests. It was foraging unobtrusively in

a manner reminiscent of a red-breasted fly-

catcher Ficedula paiwa , perching in evergreen

oak Quercus sp. foliage and occasionally flitting

to take prey.

Four weeks later, on February 23, 1995,

whilst undertaking surveys of the western

tragopan Tragopan melanocephalus in the Palas

Valley, Indus Kohistan, we encountered another

green shrike-babbler. The bird was feeding alone

in the canopy of evergreen oak forest at 1,900 m,

foraging in a fashion similar to the individual

seen earlier.

These observations confirm that the

species still occurs in the Murree Hills, and

extend the western limit of its known range into

Refer

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1972): Handbook of the birds of

India and Pakistan Vol. 7. Oxford University Press,

Bombay.

13. WESTERN GREYHEADED THRUSH

G.R. GRAY

A male western greyheaded thrush Turdus

rubrocanus rubrocanus G.R. Gray was seen

foraging in a freshly sown maize field at Forest

Colony, Baluakhani, Gangtok (1800 m) on the

morning of March 30, 1989. It was observed for

ten minutes from a distance of c. 6 m.

On being disturbed by my trying to get closer,

it stood motionless for more than four minutes.

When another person arrived, it hopped off c. 12

m away down the terraced field to the feeding

territory of the resident greybacked shrike Lanius

tephronotus, which promptly chased it almost 60

m away. We could see it foraging in that field until

some children came out to play. It then flew out of

sight.

There is only one record of this bird from

Indus Kohistan.

Acknowledgements

We thank Phil Benstead for commenting

on a draft of this note. Our survey in the Palas

Valley was commissioned and funded by the

Himalayan Jungle Project.

March 21,1997 DAVE GANDY

6 Longbrook Terrace,

Exeter, Devon, England.

DURWYN LILEY

259 Dereham Road,

Norwich, Norfolk, England.

GUY THOMPSON

1 Abbey Hill Road,

Winchester, Hampshire,

England.

ENCES

Inskipp, C. & T. Inskjpp (1985): A guide to the birds of

Nepal. Croom Helm, London.

Roberts, T.J. (1992): The Birds of Pakistan Vol. 2. Oxford

University Press, Karachi.

TURDUS RUBROCANUS RUBROCANUS

IN SIKKIM

Sikkim, by Dr. B. Biswas on January 7, 1953 at

Kewzing c. 1700 m (Ali 1962, the birds of

sikkim, oup). On May 3, 1912, one female was

collected by Stevens from the Singalila Ridge

(3000 m) in Darjeeling (Ali 1962) now in West

Bengal. These two records give the easternmost

breeding limit for the species.

After the 1989 sighting, attempts were

made to look for the bird in all other areas as

well, but so far without success.

Feb. 1 1 , 1 997 USHA GANGULI-LACHUNGPA

Project Officer (Wildlife),

Sikkim Forest Department

Deorali, Gangtok 737 101

Sikkim.

508

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3) DEC. 1998

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

14. NESTING SITES OF HOUSE SPARROW PASSER DOMESTICUS

On September 4, 1996, along the Vastana

roadside in Matar tehsil, Kheda dist., Gujarat,

we saw a pair of house sparrows Passer

domesticus nesting below the nest of some large

bird (probably an abandoned nest of house crow),

with the support of the electric pole edge. The

location of the pole was away from the village,

along the road passing through the paddy fields.

Nesting material was seen to be collected by the

male sparrow from the roadside, on September

4 and 5, 1996, at noon. A similar nest location

was recorded at Bamroli village in Nadiad tehsil,

in the same district. The sparrow had made its

nests below the nest of Whitenecked Stork Ciconia

episcopus on a neem tree Azadirachta indica.

Though the whitethroated munia

Lonchura malabarica is known to build its nest

below the nest platform of some large birds

(Parasharya 1982, Ali and Ripley 1983), the

Indian house sparrow Passer domesticus indicus

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the birds of

India and Pakistan (compact edition), Oxford

University Press, New Delhi.

Mathew, K.L. (1987): Economic ornithological studies on

the House Sparrow {Passer domesticus): breeding,

population dynamics and energy balance. Ph.D.

is not known to show such behaviour (Ali and

Ripley 1983, Mathew 1987). The house sparrow

in Britain is known to nest in the walls of the

active nests of large birds, particularly rooks

Corvus frugilegus and magpie Pica pica; and in

other European countries with nests of stork and

birds of prey (Summer-Smith 1963). The present

record confirms this behaviour in the Indian

subspecies. A nest on an electric pole at least 2

km away from the village (human habitation) is

an additional adaptation to exploit abundant food

supply — a tendency towards independent

existence but with extensive protection.

March 21,1997 AESHITA MUKHERJEE

B.M. PARASHARYA

Project on Wetland Birds

AINP on Agricultural Ornithology

Gujarat Agricultural University

Anand-388 110.

iNCES

thesis, Saurashtra University, Rajkot.

Parasharya, B.M. (1982): Unusual nesting site of

Whitethroated Munia. Newsletter for Birdwatchers,

22: (1 1 & 12): 9.

Summer-Smith, D. (1963): The House Sparrow, Collins,

London.

15. SOUTHERN BLACKHEADED MUNIA LONCHURA MALACCA MALACCA

IN KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK, BHARATPUR, RAJASTHAN

On November 12, 1996, a small flock of

5-6 southern blackheaded munia (Lonchura

malacca malacca) was spotted feeding in a reed

patch alongside a stream in Koladher area of the

Keoladeo National Park in Bharatpur, Rajasthan.

Koladher is a grassland with scrub and acacia

trees.

The munias were in black and white

plumage, with white underparts. Acccording to

Ali and Ripley (1983), out of three races of

Lonchura malacca , only the southern race L. m.

malacca has white underparts. The other two

subspecies L.m. rubriniger and L.m. atricipala

have rufous underparts and are distinguishable

in the field from L.m. malacca. Vijayan (1991)

reporting on the study conducted at Bharatpur

from 1980-90 does not record this species.

Abdulali and Pandey (1978) listed this species

as a stray, without specifying the subspecies. Vyas

(1996) recorded having seen a flock of 20 birds

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC. J998

509

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

at Madanpur, Delhi on July 6, 1996, but did not

specify the plumage details to enable recognition

of the subspecies. Since the flock was seen in

the typical habitat some distance away from any

large city, the chances of these birds being an

escape population does not seem possible.

According to Ali and Ripley (1983), the

subspecies L.m. rubriniger is found from

Himalayan duns, terai and plains of Uttar Pradesh

eastwards to eastern Nepal and south to Patna

(Bihar) and Lucknow (U.P.). The subspecies L.m.

atricipala is found from eastern Nepal eastward

to Assam, Manipur and Bangladesh and south

to northern Bihar and northern Orissa. The

subspecies L.m. malacca is found in Raipur,

Pachmarhi (Madhya Pradesh) and Mumbai,

south to Kanyakumari. This indicates that it

prefers good rainfall areas and thus is not

Abdulali, H. & J.D. Pandey ( 1 978): Checklist of the birds

of Delhi, Agra and Bharatpur. Bombay Natural

History Society, Bombay.

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of

India and Pakistan (Compact Edition) Oxford

University Press, New Delhi, pp 737.

recorded by Ali and Ripley ( 1 983) from the drier

parts of northern and northwestern India. The

distribution of this subspecies in Ali and Ripley

(1983) is based on several old records and it will

be worthwhile to compile recent sighting and

breeding records to ascertain whether this

sighting at Bharatpur was a stray record or there

is a shift in the distribution of this subspecies. It

may be noted that in the last three decades,

northern and northwestern India has seen the

emergence of large scale irrigation activity,

having a major impact on the ecology of these

dry areas.

May 10, 1997 NITIN JAMDAR

5 -A, Samata,

Gen. J. Bhosale Road,

Mumbai 400 021.

NCES

Vijayan, V.S. (1991): Keoladeo National Park Ecology

study: Final Report 1980-1990. Bombay Natural

History Society, Bombay.

Vyas, Sudhir(1996): Checklist of birds of the Delhi Region:

An update. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93(2): 219-

237.

16. THE BROWN ROOFED TURTLE KACHUGA SMITHII PALLIDIPES MOLL,

IN THE BRAHMAPUTRA DRAINAGE

The brown roofed turtle Kachuga smithii

(Gray 1863) has two subspecies distinguished by

the colouration of headshell, limbs and penis.

The nominate subspecies has a plastral pattern

of large dark brown to black blotches on each

scute, narrowly bordered with yellow; the head,

limbs, feet and penis are darkly pigmented (Das

1995); The subspecies pallidipes lacks the

plastral pattern of dark blotches^and has reduced

pigmentation on head, limbs, feet and penis.

During August 1997, a live Kachuga

smithii pallidipes was caught in a net in the

Brahmaputra river near Kukurmara, 26° 03' N,

91° 25' E, Kamrup dist., Assam. It was an adult

male weighing 105 gm with 9.4 cm CCL, 8.8

cm CCW, 8.4 cm SCL, 6.5 cm SCW and 7.8 cm

PL. The carapace was olive with a faint yellowish

rim at the periphery. The dorsal keel was slightly

brown up to vertebral 3. The plastron was pale

yellow and prominent dark blotches were present

on the ventral side of the marginals forming a

broad rim at the periphery. Other characteristics

were similar to the description of Moll (1987).

The specimen lacked a spine as shown by the

nominate subspecies of this region (Choudhury

1996).

The subspecies pallidipes has been

reported from Bherihari Wildlife Sanctuary

510

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 95(3) DEC 1998

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

(Bihar), Ghagra river at Girija Barrage (Uttar

Pradesh), Kapurthala (Punjab), Kaziranga

National Park (Assam) and from Nepal and

Bangladesh (Moll 1987, Das 1995). However,

Bhupathy et al (1992) and Choudhury (1996)

reported the presence of only the nominate

subspecies in Assam. The present record

confirms the presence of Kachuga smithii

pallidipes in Assam, and is the first report of it

Refer

Bhupathy, S., B.C. Choudhury & E.O. Moll (1992):

Conservation and management of the fresh water turtle

and land tortoises of India. Rep. Turtle and Tortoise

Conservation Project, Wildlife Institute of India, and

US Fish and Wildlife Service.

Choudhury, A. (1996): Distribution of Kachuga smithii

occurrence from lower Assam.

March 10, 1998 N.K. CHOUDHURY

Zoology Department,

D.K. College, Mirza, Assam.

S. SENGUPTA

Zoology Department

Ary a Vidyapeeth College,

Guwahati-781 016, Assam.

ENC ES

(Gray) in Assam. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93(2): 301 .

Das, I. (1995): Turtles and Tortoises of India. WWF-India.

Oxford University Press, Bombay.

Moll, E.O. (1987): Survey of the Freshwater turtles of

India. Part II. The genus Kachuga. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 84(1): 7-25.

17. PYXIDEA MOUHOTII (GRAY) IN SOUTHERN ASSAM AND MIZORAM

%

The keeled box turtle Pyxidea mouhotii

(Gray 1862) has been recorded from only a few

localities in northeast India, mostly from the

south bank of the Brahmaputra river. The

recorded localities were North Cachar Hills and

Karbi Anglong, Assam (Choudhury 1993), Khasi

and Garo Hills, Meghalaya, Namdapha National

Park, Mehao Sanctuary (Bhupathy and

Choudhury 1992) and Drupong Reserve Forest

(Choudhury 1996a) Arunachal Pradesh, and in

Tamenglong dist., Manipur (Choudhury 1996b).

The record from Drupong is the only one from

the north bank of the Brahmaputra river.

Extralimitally, the species has been recorded in

Indochina from Myanmar to Vietnam and also

Hainan (Stubbs 1991).

On October 13, 1997, 1 obtained a carapace

of the species from a hut near Katlichara in

Hailakandi dist., southern Assam. A villager had

collected it from Khajuara inside the Innerline

Reserve Forest (24° 25’ N, 92° 40’ E 200 m. above

msl) where the Reang tribals consume it

whenever it is found. The Innerline Reserve

Forest is mostly tropical wet evergreen rainforest,

with small patches of marshes in low hills. This

is the first record of the species from the entire

southern Assam region (also known as the Barak

Valley). Khajuara is located near the Assam-

Mizoram interstate boundary and the terrain and

habitat is similar on both sides of the border, thus

suggesting its presence in the latter state also.

This is the southernmost record for the species

in India, the earlier being in Manipur at 24°

40' N (Choudhury 1996b).

The carapace (AUC 49) measured (in cm):

straight line carapace length 17.5; curved

carapace length 19.3; Straight line carapace

width 12.8; curved carapace width 18.5 and

carapace height 6.3.

I would like to thank Romu Mazumdar,

Nozrul and Abdur Rahim for obtaining the

carapace.

June 1, 1998 ANWARUDDDIN CHOUDHURY

The Rhino Foundation

for nature in NE India,

C/o The Assam Co. Ltd.

Bamunimaidan, Guwahati 781 021, Assam.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC, 1998

511

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

References

Bhupathy, S. & B.C. Choudhury (1992): Turtle fauna of

Assam. Preliminary report. Wildlife Institute of

India, Dehra Dun.

Choudhury, A.U. (1993): Keeled box turtle in Karbi

Anglong - a new locality record. J. Bombay nat.

Hist.Soc. 90(3): 517.

Choudhury, A.U. (1996a): Keeled box turtle Pyxidea

mouhotii Gray on the north bank of the

Brahmaputra - A new record. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 93(1): 97.

Choudhury, A.U. ( 1 996b): The Keeled box turtle Pyxidea

mouhotii Gray - A new record for Manipur. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93(3): 590-591.

Stubbs, D. (1991): Tortoises and freshwater turtles: an

action plan for their conservation. Second Edn.

IUCN. Gland.

18. BREEDING BIOLOGY OF COMMON HOUSE LIZARD

HEMIDACTYLUS FLAVIVIRIDIS RUPELL IN MIZORAM, INDIA

Many species of gecko are commensal of

man and seen on the walls inside buildings

(Daniel 1983). In Mizoram, the common house

lizard Hemidactylus flaviviridis Riipell is found

throughout the year, even during the winter in

concrete houses, as the temperature in December

and January does not drop significantly (Harit

1996). These lizards usually lay two (rarely one

or three), eggs in a clutch, between April and

May. Eggs are laid in crevices or in a secluded

dark comer (Daniel 1983, McCann 1940).

These observations were made at Kolasib,

Mizoram, which lies on a hilly terrain located

midway between Aizawl and Silchar (Assam), in

a window on the second storey of a house. A hole

c. 5 cm deep, is visible from inside when the

window is open. This window faces direct sunlight

from the afternoon to the late evening. In 1995

and 1996, 1 saw two eggs laid inside the hole.

On June 23, 1 997, at 0500 h when I opened

the window before sunrise, I saw a lizard inside

the hole. It was collected and kept in a glass jar

covered with fine cloth. It laid two eggs on

June 25, 1997. Later the lizard was released. One

egg hatched on September 1, 1997; the second

egg did not hatch. The hatching took place 68

days after laying. The juvenile was provided with

fruit flies inside the jar, but refused to feed and

died on October 5, 1997, 35 days after hatching.

The incubation period has been previously

reported as 54 days (McCann 1940) and 33 - 54

days (Daniel 1983).

Copulating pairs have been observed from

February to November, while Sanyal and Prasad

(1967) stated that mating occurs in March and

April, generally during the morning and evening

till 2200 h. The copulation at this locality was

completed in 8 - 10 minutes, which confirms the

observation of McCann (1940).

The author is grateful to T.B.C. Liandala,

Principal, Government Kolasib College,

Mizoram and Pumendu Das, PGT Chemistry,

for assistance rendered.

April 20, 1 998 D A YA NAND HARIT

Head, Department of Zoology,

Government Kolasib College,

Kolasib-796 081, Mizoram, India.

References

Daniel, J.C. (1983): The Book of Indian Reptiles, Oxford

University Press, Bombay Natural History Society,

Bombay, p. 58.

Harit, D.N. (1996): Report on Lacertilian fauna of Kolasib

of Mizoram, India. Himalayan J. Env. Zool. 10(2): 93-

94.

McCann, (1940): A reptile and amphibian miscellany. J.

Bombay, nat. Hist. Soc. 41: 742-764.

Sanyal, M.K. & M.R.N. Prasad (1967): Reproductive

cycle of the Indian house lizard ( Hemidactylus

flaviviridis Riipell. Copeia 627 - 633 (original not

referred).

5 1 2 JOURNAL BOMBA Y NA TURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 95 (3) DEC. 1998

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

19. REDISCOVERY OF CALOTES ANDAMANENSIS BOULENGER 1891

AND A REASSESSMENT OF THE TYPE LOCALITY

Calotes andamanensis Boulenger 1891

was based on a single specimen labelled

“Andaman Islands” (in the Bay of Bengal,

India), without further data on collector or date

of collection, that is currently in the collection

of Zoologisk Museum, Kobenhavns Universitet,

Copenhagen, Denmark (ZMUC R36944). The

species, which has been listed as valid in

subsequent reviews (Moody, 1980; Smith, 1935;

Wermuth, 1967), has never been collected from

this locality, nor reported since the original

description.

On April 11,1 997 and June 2 1 , two female

Calotes were found nesting on the forest floor at

Kakachi, Kalakad Tiger Reserve (8° 25'-8° 53'

N and 77° 10'-77° 35’ E), Timnelveli disk, Tamil

Nadu State, southwestern India. Both produced

four eggs that were elliptical in shape, of mean

dimensions 16x9 mm and mean weight 0.8 gm.

One lizard has been deposited in the museum of

the Bombay Natural History Society, BNHS

Regn. No. 1436.

We allocate the two agamids to Calotes

andamanensis Boulenger, 1891, for showing the

following features: SVL 76.0 and 79.0 mm; TBL

223 and 206 mm; body weight 7 and 10 gm;

supralabials 10 and 10; infralabials 10 and 10;

two postmentals; midbody scale rows 67 and 68;

rostral bounded posteriorly by three scales; nares

bounded by six small scales; tympanum small,

three scales wide; finger III and IV subequal;

toe IV > III; dorsal crest weakly developed on

the nuchal and midbody regions; nuchals

enlarged; midbody and ventral scales bear a

single keel; lamellae under toe IV 32. The body

is slender and compressed, the tail long, feebly

swollen at the base. In addition, the body is light

green dorsally, the supralabial region bluish, and

there is an orange stripe between the supralabial

and the orbital region. The orange stripe is also

present on the thighs and a few black spots on

the trailing edges.

We suggest that the type locality was

erroneous, as the species has not been collected

from the Andaman Islands since the original

description, despite numerous surveys. Further,

the high endemicity of the herpetofaunas of the

Andamans (which is an impoverished subset of

the Burmese, rather than the Indian fauna) and

particularly of the Western Ghats and finally, all

members of the section of Calotes to which C.

andamanensis was assigned in the identification

key in Smith (1935) are from Sri Lanka and

peninsular India. The sole exception is the then

poorly-known southeast Asian C. kingdonwardi

Smith 1935, which, at the time of description,

was known from the unique holotype, a juvenile

male, which was tentatively included in this

section. Further examples of this species have

since been reported by Yang et al. (1979) and

Zhao and Yang (1997), including Calotes

kingdonwardi bapoensis Yang and Su in Yang

et al. (1979). Zhao and Adler (1993) listed this

taxon under C. kingdonwardi , but did not

comment on its systematic status or affinities. In

the absense of a phylogenetic hypothesis, we

refrain from commenting on the affinities of

C. kingdonwardi.

Nonetheless, in the context of Smith

(1935), the group to which C. andamanensis was

referred in the key appears to comprise a lineage

within Calotes of slender, weak crested or

crestless species that show body scales that are

oriented postero-ventrally, lack axillary folds, and

are only weakly sexually dimorphic in both body

size and colouration.

We therefore emend the distribution of

Calotes andamanensis Boulenger 1891 to

mainland southwestern India. No males of the

species are known at present, and it is suggested

that these arboreal lizards descend to the ground

only for nesting, which may explain why further

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC. 1998

513

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

specimens of the species have not been

collected for over a century since its original

description.

These findings are part of an ongoing

research project to examine the impact of

rainforest fragmentation on the herpetofauna and

small mammals in the Western Ghats, funded

by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service

and the Wildlife Institute of India. We thank the

Tamil Nadu Forest Department for permission

to conduct field work, T.R. Shankar Raman for

bringing these lizards to our attention and Aaron

Refer

Boulenger, G.A. (1891): On new or little-known Indian

and Malayan reptiles and batrachians. Ann. & Mag.

nat. Hist. ser. 68: 288-292.

Moody, S.M. (1980): Phylogenetic and historical

biogeographical relationships of the genera in the family

Agamidae (Reptilia: Lacertilia). Ph. D. Dissertation,

University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, pp 373.

Smith, M.A. (1935): The fauna of British India, includ-

ing Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia and Amphibia. Vol.

Il.-Sauria. Taylor and Francis, London, pp xiii + 440 +

pi 1.

Wermuth, H. (1967): Liste der rezenten Amphibien and

Reptilien. Agamidae. Das Tierreich 86: i-xiv + 1-127.

M. Bauer for comments on the manuscript.

April 6, 1998 N.M. ISHWAR

28/154, Cooperative Colony,

Valparai-642 127.

INDRANEIL DAS

Associate Professor,

Institute of Biodiversity and

Environmental Conservation,

Universiti Malaysia Sarawak,

94300 Kota Samar ahan,

Sarawak, Malaysia.

NCES

Yang, D.T., C.Y. Su & S.M. Li. (1979): New species and

subspecies of amphibians and reptiles from Gaoligong

Shan, Yunnan. Acta Zootaxon. Sinica 4(2): 185-188.

[In Chinese with English abstract.]

Zhao, E.M.& K. Adler (1993): Herpetology of China.

Contributions to Herpetology No. 10. Society for the

Study of Amphibians and Reptiles, Oxford, Ohio, pp

522 + pis 48 + maps 2.

Zhao, E.M. &D.T. Yang (1997): Amphibians and reptiles

of the Hengduan Mountains Region. The

comprehensive scientific expedition to the Qinghai-

Xizang Plateau, Chinese Academy of Sciences. Science

Press, Beijing. (8) pp + xiv + 303; pi 8.

20. SEXUAL DIMORPHISM IN A MARINE PERCH POMADASYS MACULATUS { BLOCH)

Sexual dimorphism is an important aspect

of taxonomy and fisheries. This study deals with

sexual dimorphism in Pomadasys maculatus

(Bloch), a marine perch. Thobias (1974) worked

out the sexual dimorphism in the filament barb

Puntius filamentosus (Val.); Inasu (1993) that of

a freshwater puffer fish Tetraodon travancoricus

Hora and Nair; and Tessy and Inasu (1997)

elucidated the sexual dimorphism of edible perch

Priacanthus hamrur (Cuv. & Val.).

Day (1958) described the genus Pristipoma

with nine species. Later the genus Pristipoma

was renamed Pomadasys and four species of

Pomadasys were described by W. Fischer (1974,

F.A.O). Sexual dimorphism has not been studied

in any of these species.

We collected about one hundred specimens

of adult Pomadasys maculatus (Bloch) from

January to December 1997 from Munampam,

Trichur dist., Kerala. Total length, head length,

caudal peduncle length, maximum width, inter-

orbital space, diameter of the eye, and inter-

nostril distance of 60 specimens were recorded

separately. The specimens were preserved in 7%

formaline.

Later, the body cavity of each specimen was

cut open and the gonads were examined. 28 male

specimens and 32 female specimens were sorted

into two groups. Morphological differences

between the sexes were studied and compared

by selecting two fishes of identical size of the

two sexes, with the assumption that they

514

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 95(3) DEC. 1998

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

belonged to the same age group. They were

caught from the same population. Diagrams

indicating the sexual dimorphism in Pomadasys

maculatus are provided (Figs. 1-4).

Clear sexual dimorphism is exhibited by

Pomadasys maculatus. Females are larger than

males of the same age group. The anterior dorsal

part of the upper jaw in the female is broader

than that in the male (Figs. 1 & 2). The width of

the anterior rim of the opercle in female is

broader than that in the male (Figs. 1 & 2). The

inter-orbital space and eye diameter of the female

is larger than the male (Figs. 3 & 4). The

internostril gap in males is smaller than in

females (Figs. 3 & 4). Dorsal fin in females is

Table I-A

SEXUAL DIMORPHISM - POMADASYS MACULATUS

COMPARISON OF MORPHOLOGICAL FEATURES IN

MALES AND FEMALES

Figs. 1-4: Pomadasys maculatus (Bloch)

1. Male; 2. Female; 3. Dorsal view of head, male; 4. Dorsal view of head, female

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 95(3). DEC. 1998

515

Table 1

COMPARATIVE STUDY ON MORPHOLOGICAL MEASUREMENTS OF POMADASYS MACULUATUS

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

53

ts

53

£

o

a.

u

LU

5

03

~a

33

03

CD

03

Z

o

f— 1

o

Z

5/3

O'

o

O' O O'

0 — 0

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in in

>n m ni — oo

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OO O' — — —

m ^3" m so t —

ooono — nimrf-m'-or^ooo'o — rsj

--NNDNMINHINMMrOOifO

516

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3) DEC 1998

Average 15.56 4.14 4.75 4.75 1.14 1.01 1 Average 1 6 93 4.77 5.1 7 5.46 1.46 1.303 1.03

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

more filamentous and protruding (Figs. 1 & 2).

The black basal spot on the edge of the dorsal

fin in male is more prominent than that in the

female (Figs. 1 & 2). The black blotches on the

sides of the body are clearer in males than in

females (Figs. 1 & 2). Females dominate males

in all morphological measurements (Table 1). A

comparison between males and females of the

same size also proved the dominance of the

females in morphological characters.

Sexual dimorphism in fishes mainly

follows two patterns. In some fishes, the males

are larger and more ornamented than the females

of the same age group. The aforestated pattern

of sexual dimorphism was observed in puffer fish

Tetraodon travancoricus (Hora and Nair) by

Inasu (1973) and in the filament barb, Puntius

filamentosus by Thobias (1974). But in marine

perch Pomadasys maculatus (Bloch) females are

Refe

Fischer, W. (1974): Eastern Indian Ocean and Western

Central Pacific. Fish species identifying sheets.

F.A.O., Rome.

Day, F. (1958): Fishes of India, Today’s & Tomorrow’s

Book Agency, Delhi.

Inasu, N.D. (1993): Sexual dimorphism of a freshwater

puffer fish Tetraodon travancoricus Hora & Nair,

collected from Trichur district, Central Kerala.

21. AGGRESSIVE BEHAV1

larger than the males of the same age group. The

same pattern of sexual dimorphism was also

reported by Tessy and Inasu (1977) in

Priacanthus hamrur (Cuv & Val), which is also

a marine perch.

Acknowledgement

We thank Rev. Fr. Jose Chittilapilly C.M.I.

Principal, Christ College, Irinjalakkuda, Kerala

for permission to carry out research in the college.

We are grateful to Mr. Xavier Thanipilly marine

exporter, Munampum for providing assistance in

Munampum harbour for collecting specimens.

April 17, 1998 TESSY J. MANDY

INASU N.D.

Research & P.G. Dept, of Zoology,

Christ College,

Irinjalakkuda, Kerala.

ENCES

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.90 : 523-524.

Thobias, M.P. (1974): Observations on the morphological

variations in Puntius filamentosus (Val.) Family

Cyprinidae: with a redescription of the species.

Journal Inland Fish. Society of India 45-50.

Mandy, Tessy J & N.D. Inasu (1997): Sexual dimorphism

of marine perch, Priacanthus hamrur, J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 95(1): 132-134.

)UR OF CHANNA STRIA TUS

On a sunny afternoon of November 24,

1996, we were watching birds at pool near

Mourigram railway station (West Bengal). Most

of the birds were busy collecting food from the

water or among weeds.

We observed a little egret ( Egretta

garzetta) some 7 m away on a heap of

Eichhornia , catching small fish fingerlings,

tadpoles, insects etc. The bird was collecting its

food from the same place at a few minutes

intervals. The fingerlings caught by the bird were

of Channa striatus (3-4 cm in length). Suddenly,

a large Channa striatus , approximately 50 cm

long, jumped out of the water and hit the leg of

the egret. The bird, losing its balance, fell into

the water. At first we thought that this was

accidental. But within a few seconds, the bird

sat at the same piace again and caught another

fingerling. This time too, the large Channa

striatus suddenly jumped out from the water in

the same manner and forcefully hit the egret with

its tail on its lower left side. The bird was injured,

lost its balance and fell some 30 cm away. After

a few seconds, the bird flew off to a tree 100 m

away and did not come down during the time we

remained there (about 40 minutes).

The large Channa striatus was probably

the parent of the fingerlings and the event

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC. 1998

517

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

could be an example of parental care by the

fish. Such attacks by fish are rare. Moreover,

the speed of attack and accuracy of hits on

target are remarkable. Huntingford (1976) has

noted that aggressive behaviour is generally

exhibited by male fish. But in this case, the

female fish showed aggressive behaviour

as it was probably taking care of her fingerlings.

A lot of experience or past memories and

learning may have helped the fish to take this

bold decision against the Egret (Manning and

Dawkins 1995).

Acknowledgement

We thank the local people for cooperation

during sampling. We are also grateful to the

Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, for

identification of the bird.

May 24, 1998 SUBHAMOY DAS

Jafar Ladha Laboratory,

Baishnabchak M. C. High School,

Midnapur.

SONALI BHAUMIK

B/7, Saswati Estate,

87/1 A.K.M. Rd.,

Calcutta - 700 090.

S.K. RAUT

Ecology ’ and Ethology Laboratory,

Department of Zoology,

University of Calcutta,

35, B.C. Road,

Calcutta - 700 019.

References

Huntingford, F.A. (1976): The relationship between anti- Manning, A. & M.S. Dawkins (1995): An Introduction to

predator behaviour and aggression among conspeci Ties Animal Behaviour (4th edn) Cambridge University

in the three-spined stickleback. Gaslerosteus acuteatus. Press, pp 1 96.

Anim. Behav. 24: 245-60.

22. FIRST RECORD OF CLARIAS BATRACHUS (LINN.) (SILURIFORMES: CLARIIDAE)

FROM LAKE SURINSAR (JAMMU AND KASHMIR) INDIA

Clarias Scopoli is at present absent from

Baluchistan, Iran, and Arabia, but is prolific in

Africa, where it is represented by 33 species

(Boulenger 1911). During the course of fish

collection from Mansar and Surinsar lakes of Jammu

Province during 1 996-97, several specimens of air-

breathing catfish Clarias batrachus (Linn.) were

obtained by me from Surinsar Lake, a freshwater

lake located about 34 km from Jammu city and

about 8 km to the west of Mansar Lake. The

Surinsar Lake is about 1.5 km long and 0.75 km

wide. Clarias batrachus (Linn.) is thriving in the

lake along with several other teleosts such as

Rasbora rasbora (Ham.), Puntius conchonius

(Ham.), Tor putitora (Ham.), Channa orientalis

(Schneider), etc.

As there is no previous record of the occurrence

of Clarias batrachus from the freshwaters of Jammu

Province of Jammu and Kashmir State (Nath 1 989),

the present report is a new record. It is noteworthy

that Clarias batrachus (Linn.) has not so far been

recorded from Kashmir Valley either, although

partially-digested specimens of the species have been

recovered by me from the gut contents of some

ichthyophagous birds of Kashmir Valley.

Because of a ban on fishing in Surinsar and

Mansar Lakes imposed by the Govt, of Jammu and

Kashmir, Clarias batrachus (Linn.), is thriving

very well in Lake Surinsar and specimens

measuring 20-25 cm are abundantly found in the

littoral region of the lake.

January 29, 1 998 SURENDRA NATH

Department of Zoology,

Govt. Camp College for Kashmir Migrants,

Post Box No. 140, G.P.O. Jammu (Tawi),

J&K (India)- 180 001.

518

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3) DEC. 1998

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

References

Buolenger, G.A. (1911): Catalogue of the Freshwater

Fishes of Africa in the British Museum (Natural

History) London, 2: 1 - 529.

Jayaram, K.C. (1974): Ecology and Distribution of

Freshwater Fishes, Amphibia and Reptiles. In:

Mani. M.S. (Ed.): Ecology and Biogeography in

India. Dr. W. Junk, Hague, 517 - 584.

Jayaram, K.C. (1981): The freshwater fishes of India,

Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma and Sri Lanka,

Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

Menon, A.G.K. (1951): Distribution ofClariid fishes and

its significance in zoogeographical studies. Proc.

Nat. Inst. Sci. India, 17: 291-299.

Nath, Surendra (1989): Studies on Systematics,

Ichthyogeography and Bioecology of the

Freshwater Fishes of Jammu Province (Jammu and

Kashmir State) India. Ph.D. Thesis, Kanpur

University, Kanpur (India).

23. GLYPTOTHORAX LON AH (SYKES) — AN ADDITION

TO THE ICHTHYOFAUNA OF KERALA

Catfishes of the genus Glyptothorax Blyth

inhabit foothill rivers and swift mountain

streams. These benthic fishes attach themselves

to the riverbed substrate by means of a thoracic

sucking disc, an adaptive structure. The range

of distribution of Glyptothorax lonah (Sykes) is

Deccan plateau, Godavari and Krishna river

systems (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). Silas

Table 1

SPECIES OF GENUS GLYPTOTHORAX BLYTH

REPORTED FROM KERALA STATE

(1951b) extended its distribution to the head

waters of Cauvery river, Coorg.

There is no record of the occurrence of this

catfish in Kerala State to date. Thus the present

report of this species is a new record for Kerala.

Specimens were collected upstream of the

Karappara river, main tributary of Chalakudy

river, neighbouring Karapara estate,

Nelliampathi, which lies at an altitude of 960 m

above msl, during March 1997. Nelliampathi

hills are situated at the southern margin of the

Palghat Gap. The west flowing Chalakudy river,

lies south of the Palghat Gap. This report

becomes interesting as this species was pre-

viously recorded only from the northern side of

Palghat Gap upto Cauvery river system, Coorg

disk, Karnataka (Silas 1951b).

Acknowledgements

We thank Dr. K. Remadevi, Scientist, ZSI,

Southern Regional Station, Chennai, for

confirming identification of our specimens.

December 16, 1997 BIJU, C.R.

RAJU THOMAS, K.

AJITH KUMAR, C.R.

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Mumbai 400 023.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC. 1998

519

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

References

Easa, P.S. & C.P. Shaji (1997): Freshwater fish diversity

in Kerala part of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. Curr.

Sci. 73(2): 180-182.

Hora, S.L. & N.C. Law (1941): The freshwater fish of

Travancore. Rec. Indian Mus. XLIII : 387-393.

Rajan, S. (1955): Notes on a collection of fish from the

headwaters of the Bhavani river, South India. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 53: 45-48.

Remadevi, K. & T.J. Indra(1986): Fishes of Silent Valley.

Rec. Zool. Surv. India. 84(1-4): 243-257.

Silas, E.G. (1951a): On a collection of fishes from

Anamalai and Nelliampathi hill ranges (Western

Ghats) with notes on its Zoogeographical

significances. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 49: 670-

681.

Silas, E.G. ( 1 95 1 b): On a new Cyprinid fish from Coorg,

South India. J. Zool. Soc. India. 3(1): 7-10.

Silas, E.G. (1952): Fishes from the high range of

Travancore. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 50: 323-330.

Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland fishes of

India and adjacent countries. Oxford & IBH

Publishing Co., New Delhi.

24. FIRST REPORT OF BARILIUS BENDELISIS (HAM.-BUCH.)

FROM A WEST FLOWING RIVER CHALAKUDY IN KERALA

Barilius bendelisis (Ham.-Buch.) is one

of the principal hillstream fishes in the rivers

of Jammu. It is characterised by eight to twelve

dark bands descending towards the lateral line

which become indistinct as spots in the adult,

and lateral line scales with two black spots at

their base. It was reported throughout India

except Kerala (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). It

was reported from Periyar lake, Thekkady by

Chacko (1948), but later Jayaram (1981) and

Talwar and Jhingran ( 1 99 1 ) deemed the reports

as eiToneous. Rajan (1955) reported it from the

Bhavani river, South India, but the collection

site was not mentioned. Bhavani river (a

tributary of Cauvery) is one of the main east

flowing rivers in Kerala.

Easa and Shaji (1995) have reported

this species from the Pambar river, Chinnar

Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala. This report

confirmed the occurrence of this species in

Kerala and was also its first report in Kerala.

Hitherto, this species was reported only from

Bhavani and Pambar rivers, in Kerala. Both

these rivers are east flowing. So far this species

has not been reported from the west flowing

rivers in Kerala.

We record here this species from

Tekkadiar, tributary of Chalakudy river, at 540

m above msl in Parambikulam Wildlife

Sanctuary. Chalakudy river is a west flowing over

originating from the Anaimalai hill ranges. This

species occurs in smaller numbers, compared to

the related common species Barilius gatensis

(Val.) in that locality. The temperature of the

water was 24.8°C and the dissolved oxygen value

was 8.2 ppm.

In Kerala, Barilius bendelisis (Ham.-

Buch.) has not been reported from west flowing

rivers. Thus, the present report of the species is

the fust report from a west flowing river in Kerala

State.

Acknowledgement

We thank Dr. K. Remadevi, Scientist,

ZSI, Southern Regional Station, Chennai,

for confirming the identification of our

specimens.

December 12, 1997 RAJU THOMAS, K.

BIJU, C.R.

AJITH KUMAR, C.R.

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Mumbai 400 023.

520

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3) DEC. 1998

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

References

Chacko, P.L. (1948): Development of fisheries of the

Periyar lake J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 48: 191-

192.

Easa, P.S. & C.P. Shaji (1993): Fresh water fishes of

Pambar river, Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93: 304-306.

Hora, S.L. & N.C. Law (1941): The fresh water fish of

Travancore. Rec. Indian Mus. XLIII: 387-393.

Hora, S.L. & K.K. Nair (1941): New records fresh water

fishes from Travancore. ibid. 43: 387-393.

John, C.C. (1936): Fishes of Travancore. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 38: 702-733.

Pillay, R.S.N. (1929): A list of fishes from Travancore.

ibid. 33: 347-379.

Rajan, S. (1955): Notes on a collection of fish from the

headwaters of the Bhavani river, South India, ibid.

53: 45-48.

Silas, E.G. (1951a): On a collection of fishes from

Anamalai and Nelliampathi hill ranges (Western

Ghats) with notes on its zoogeographical

significance, ibid. 49: 670-681 .

Silas, E.G. (1951b): Fishes from the high range of

Travancore. ibid. 50: 323-330.

Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland fishes of

India and adjacent countries. Oxford & IBH

Publishing Co., New Delhi.

25. NEW RECORD OF A RARE LOACH NOEMACHEILUS MONILIS FROM

ANAIMALAI HILLS, WESTERN GHATS, TAMIL NADU

Noemacheilus monilis was originally

described by Hora in 1921, based on two

specimens collected from Bhavani river,

Mettupalayam, Nilgiris. It has subsequently been

reported only once from the same locality by

Rajan (1955) who found only two specimens.

Rajan (1965) also studied its ecology and food

habits. The fish were found to feed on

ephemeropteran and dipteran larvae, besides

coleopterans and hemipterans. Jayaram et al.

(1982) in their fish fauna of the Cauvery system

listed this species only on the basis of earlier

records. Menon (1987), in his revision of

Noemacheilus, based his description of N.

monilis on the two type specimens only. The

extensive faunal collections from the Nilgiris,

made by the Zoological Survey of India (ZSI)

have no representatives of this species. However,

Easa and Shaji (1997) reported its presence in

abundance in part of the Nilgiri Biosphere

Reserve in Kerala. All the reports so far have

been from areas of the Nilgiris north of the

Palghat Gap in the Western Ghats.

During a recent survey of the Indira

Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary by the ZSI, the third

author collected this species from the Chinnar, a

small rivulet flowing eastwards and draining into

the Cauvery system. This is the first record of

this species south of the Palghat Gap in the

Anaimalai Hills.

Description: 1 ex., 39.0 mm SL, Reg. No.

F. 5218, ZSI/SRS, Chinnar River, Anaimalai

Hills, 7.viii. 1997, Coll. M.B. Raghuanathan.

D. 3/8; P. 1/9 & 1/10; V. 8; A. 3/5; C. 19;

L. 1 . complete.

The morphometric details of the specimen

are as follows (in mm): Total length 49.0,

standard length 39.0, head length 9.8, body depth

5.6, length of snout 4.0, eye diameter 2.0, inter-

orbital width 2.8, length of barbels: inner rostral

3.6, outer rostral 4.5, maxillary 3.2, predorsal

distance 20.2, post-dorsal distance 19.3, distance

from pectoral fin base to pelvic fin base 11.3,

from pelvic fin to anal fin 10.2, from anus to

anal fin 1 .9, length of caudal peduncle 5.3, height

of caudal peduncle 4.5, height of dorsal fin 6.4,

length of pectoral fin 7.4, length of pelvic fin. 6.2,

length of anal fin 5.6.

In all the biometric characters, body

proportions and colour pattern, the specimen

agrees with the description given by Menon

(1987). The only difference observed, also

mentioned by Rajan (1955), is the presence of 8

branched rays in the dorsal fin.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC. 1998

521

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

The present collection extends the

distribution of N. monilis from Nilgiris in the

Central Division of the Western Ghats beyond

the Palghat Gap to the Anaimalais in the

Southern Division. This is of zoogeographical

significance as the Palghat Gap forms a dividing

line between the Central and Southern Division

of the Western Ghats (Bhimachar 1945). Silas

(1951), in his paper on the fish fauna of

Anaimalai and Nelliamapathi hills and their

zoogeographical significance, suggests that the

Cauvery and Ponnai watersheds which connect

the Central and Southern Divisions are likely to

facilitate the dispersal of fishes from north to

south.

Refer

Bhimachar, B.S. (1945): Zoogeographical Divisions of the

Western Ghats, as evidenced by the distribution of hill

stream fishes. Curr. Sci., I: 12-16.

Easa, P.S. & C.P. Shaji ( 1 997): Fresh water fish diversity

in Kerala part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. Curr.

Sci., 73 (2): 180-182.

Jayaram, K.C., T. Venkateswarlu & M.B. Raghunathan

(1982): A survey of the Cauvery River with a major

account of its fish fauna. Rec. zool. Surv. India, Misc.

Publ. Occ. Pap. No. 36, pp. 1 1 5, pis. I-XII.

Menon, A.G.K. (1987): The fauna of India and Adjacent

Acknowledgements

We thank Dr. A.G.K. Menon, Emeritus

Scientist, the guiding force in our ichthyological

studies. We also thank Dr. J.R.B. Alfred, Director

and Dr. P.T. Cherian, Joint Director and Officer-

in-Charge, for facilities and especially the latter

for going through the manuscript.

December 15, 1997 T.J. INDRA

K. REMA DEVI

M.B. RAGHUNATHAN

Zoological Survey of India

Southern Regional Station,

100, Santhome High Road, Chennai 600 028.

NCES

countries. Pisces. Vol. IV. Part I. Homalopteridae.

pp. x + 259. Pis. I-XVI, ZSI, Calcutta.

Rajan, S. (1955): Notes on a collection of fish from the

headwaters of the Bhavani river, south India, J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 53(1): 44-48.

Rajan, S. (1965): Food of some hill stream fishes of south

India. J. Zool. Soc. India, 17 (1 & 2): 8-15.

Silas, E.G. (1951): On a collection of fish from the

Anaimalai and Nelliampathi Hill Ranges (Western

Ghats) with notes on its zoogeographical significance.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 49(4): 670-680.

26. THE OCCURRENCE OF SPOT PUFFIN IN KALAKAD-MUNDANTHURAI

TIGER RESERVE, SOUTHERN WESTERN GHATS

The Spot Puffin Appias lalage belonging

to the Family Pieridae is found in Northeast

Himalayas from Simla, Assam to Burma

(=Myanmar) (Wynter-Blyth 1957) and is

classified as rare in south India (Sathyamurthy

1966). Its occurrence has not been stated

authentically in the Western Ghats. Even Wynter-

Blyth (1957) and Larsen (1987 a-c, 1988) do not

report it in their exhaustive survey of the Nilgiris.

However, there is a lone record of this species

from Neterikal in Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger

Reserve (KMTR) of Agasthyamalai range, in the

southern Western Ghats (Sathyamurthy 1966).

Ferguson (1891) collected Hyposcritia lalage

from the Eastern slopes of the Travancore hills.

H. lalage is a synonym of Appias lalage (Talbot

1939). There has been no sighting or collection

of this species in recent times.

During a survey conducted from 1990-

1996 in the wet evergreen forest, A. lalage was

encountered frequently. A few vagrants were also

seen in the deciduous forests. Besides, it is a

common mud-puddler along with 2 sympatric

species^, indr a, and A. albina after the monsoon

at every comer of the road cutting through the

forest. A. lalage was more abundant than the

522

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3) DEC. 1998

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

other two species. The females had more

extensive black markings than males and were

encountered only inside the forest. These were

seasonal, emerging in great abundance only

during the wet-dry transition period. Dur-

ing 1991 and 1996, there was an explo-

sion in numbers and they were seen mud-

puddling in unusual places like vertical rock

faces and wherever there was water trickling

down.

This species has a disjunct distribution,

being restricted to the southern Western Ghats,

south of the Palghat Gap and then occurring in

the Northeast Himalayas. Scanty records of this

species in Western Ghats, South India, are largely

due to the lack of adequate survey work. After

Ferguson’s collection, which was mostly confined

to the western slopes, more than a century ago,

Refe

Ferguson, H.S. (1891): A list of the butterflies of

Travancore. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. VI: 433-449.

Larsen, T.B. (1987a): The butterflies of the Nilgiri

mountains of Southern India (Lepidoptera:

Rhopalocera) J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84(1): 26-54.

Larsen, T.B. (1987b): The butterflies of the Nilgiri

mountains of Southern India (Lepidoptera:

Rhopalocera). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84(2): 291-316.

Larsen, T.B. (1987c): The butterflies of the Nilgiri

mountains of Southern India (Lepidoptera:

Rhopalocera). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84(3): 560-

no detailed study was made in this area. The

species appears to be found only in the southern

Western Ghats. Intensive field survey over small

spatial scale all over the Western Ghats is

essential to evaluate the distributional range and

present status.

Acknowledgement

I thank Dr. R.K. Varshney, Zoological

Survey of India, Calcutta for confirming the

identification of the butterfly.

June 13, 1998 M. SOUBADRA DEVY

Salim Ali School Of Ecology &

Environmental Sciences

Pondicherry University,

Pondicherry-14.

ENCES

584.

Larsen, T.B. (1988): The butterflies of the Nilgiri

mountains of South India (Lepidoptera: Rhopalocera)

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85(1): 26-43.

Sathyamurthy, S.T. (1966): Descriptive catalogue of the

butterflies in the collection of Madras Government

Museum. Bulletin of Madras Govt. Museum.

Talbot, G. ( 1 938): The Fauna of British India. 1:367.

Wynter-Blyth, M.A. (1957): Butterflies of the Indian

region, Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay, pp

523.

27. FICUS HISPID A (L.F.): A NEW FOOD PLANT OF THE COMMON MIME

CHILASA CLYTIA DISSIMILIS AND CHILASA CLYTIA CLYTIA

The larva of the Common Mime is known

to feed on laurels and cinnamon, Alseodaphne

semecarpifolia, Cinnamomum zeylanicum,

Litsea deccanensis, L. sebifera and L. chinensis.

On August 14, 1997, while conducting a

nature trail at Tungareshwar, Thane disk,

Maharashtra, I came across four caterpillars

feeding on a plant which I could not identify

at first. The caterpillars were collected and

reared on the same plant. All the four cater-

pillars pupated successfully on August 23,

and emerged as adults of the Common Mime

Chilasa clytia dissimilis on September 8, 1997.

Subsequently in November 1997, I

collected two caterpillars of the Common Mime

on the same plant at Yewoor, Thane dist. Both

these caterpillars pupated successfully and

emerged as Chilasa clytia clytia, which could

be identified by their distinct markings.

The food plant was later identified as Ficus

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC. 1998

523

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

hispida. Wynter-Blyth (butterflies of the Indian

region 1957) does not mention this as the food

plant of the Common Mime.

The occurrence and successful rearing of

both the subspecies of the Common Mime on

Ficus hispida confirms it as a new food plant.

June 1 7, 1 998 DEEPAK APTE

Education Officer,

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Mumbai-23.

28. FRESHWATER ROTIFERA: EUROTATORIA

FROM ASSAM, NORTHEAST INDIA

( With eleven text-figures)

Rotifers have been documented from all

conceivable aquatic micro- and macro-

environments in all parts of the world, but these

organisms are, so far, poorly recorded from

subterranean waters (Pejler 1955). This also

holds true for the Indian Rotifera (Sharma 1991).

Taxonomic studies on the rotifers of this country

were initiated more than a century ago. However,

till now only two reports by Naidu (1967) and

Sharma (1993) refer to their distribution in

domestic water wells of Andhra Pradesh and

West Bengal respectively.

The present study deals with the species

composition of rotifers in various domestic wells

located in and around Tezpur (26° 40' N, 92° 46’

E). Upper Assam. Plankton samples were

collected from 34 domestic wells in April, 1990

(summer) and from 32 domestic wells during

December, 1990 (early winter). The collections

were obtained by vertically towing a nylobolt

plankton net (No. 25). The material so obtained

was preserved in 5% formalin. Various species

were isolated and identified (list below) following

Koste (1978) and Sharma (1987).

The sampled domestic wells were about 20-

30 years old and were characterized by acidic

water (pH: 5.0 - 6.5) and low specific conductivity

(71.4- 196.4 pS/cm).

ROTIFIER SPECIES EXAMINED

Phylum : Rotifera

Class : Eurotatoria

Superorder : Monogononta

Order : Ploimida

Family: Lecanidae

Lecane bulla (Gosse, 1851) (Fig. 1)

L. closterocerca (Schmarda, 1859) (Fig. 2)

L. hamata (Stokes, 1896) (Figs. 3 & 4)

L. inermis (Bryce, 1892) (Fig. 5)

L. luna (O.F. Muller, 1776) (Fig. 6)

L. pyriformis (Daday, 1905) (Fig. 7 & 8)

Family: Mytilinidae

Mytilina bisulcata (Lucks, 1912) (Fig. 9 & 10)

Family: Colurellidae

Lepadella patella (O.F. Muller, 1776) (Fig. 11)

Eight species of monogonont rotifers

belonging to 3 genera, representing three

eurotatorian families are documented. The

recorded species richness compares well with the

observations from West Bengal (Sharma 1993)

but our study revealed comparatively lower

generic diversity. Lower qualitative abundance

of Rotifera in the domestic wells of Assam

conforms with earlier investigations and with the

results of Ronenberger (1975) and Pejler (1995).

The paucity may be attributed to the pristine

subterranean environs.

Three species, namely, Lecane bulla, L.

inermis and L. pyriformis, represented new

reports from these biotopes, bringing the known

species of monogononts from domestic wells in

India upto 16.

All the presently recorded species are

euryecious cosmopolitan elements. Of these,

524

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3) DEC 1998

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Figs. 1-11: Lecane bulla (Gosse): 1. ventral view; L. closterocerca (Schmarda): 2. ventral view;

L. hamata (Stokes): 3. dorsal and 4. ventral view; L. inermis (Bryce): 5. ventral view;

L. luna (Muller): 6. ventral view; L. pyriformis (Daday): 7. ventral and 8. dorsal views;

Mytilina bisulcata (Lucks): 9. lateral view, 10. toes (enlarged); Lapadella patella (Muller): 1 1. ventral view.

Mytilina bisulcata and Lecane inermis are of

ecological interest. The former is an acidophilic

species (Sharma 1991), while L. inermis appears

to be confined to acidic waters in Meghalaya

(Sharma 1987) and the present study also affirms

its acidophilic nature. Further, both M. bisulcata

and L. inermis are of regional distributional

importance in India. The examined taxocoenosis

is characterized by qualitative dominance of

Lecane sp. The same has been observed in

domestic wells in West Bengal (Sharma 1993)

but the samples from Assam contained more

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC. 1998

525

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

species of the family Lecanidae.

The observed species composition differed

notably from earlier studies from Andhra Pradesh

(Naidu 1967) and West Bengal (Sharma 1993).

The rotifer communities from Assam registered

16.2% and 47.1% similarities [vide Sorensen

Index (Sorensen 1948)] with those from the

Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal. Lapadella

patella is the sole species common to the samples

from Assam and Andhra Pradesh. On the other

hand, four species i.e., Lecane closterocerca, L.

luna, Lepadella patella and Mytilina bisulcata

were found to be common to Assam and West

Bengal.

The rotifers were observed in 18 (about

53%) of the total 34 domestic wells sampled

Refer

Koste, W. (1978): Rotatoria. Die Riidertiere Mitteleuropas.

Begriindet von Max Voigt. Uberordnung Monogononta.

GebrUder Bomtraeger, Berlin. I. Textbd. (673 pp.), II.

Tefelbd. (T. 234).

Naidu, S. V. ( 1 967): A contribution to the rotatorian fauna

of South India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 64: 384-388.

Pejler, B. (1995): Relation to habitat in Rotifers.

Hydrobiologia, 313/314: 268-278.

Ronenberger, D. (1975): Zur Kenntnis der

Grundwasserfauna des Saale - Einzugsgebietes

(Thiiringen). Limnologica, 9: 323-419.

Sharma, B.K. (1987): The distribution of the Lecanid

during summer (April 1990). They, however,

occurred in only five (16%) out of the total 32

domestic wells sampled during early winter

(December 1990). The percentage occurrence is

relatively lower than the results from West

Bengal (Sharma 1993), which indicated rotifers

in 16 (64%) out of total 25 sampled domestic

wells. Further, Lecane closterocerca and L.

hamata depicted co-occurrence in a number of

collections from Assam, while other species

appeared to be rare in the present study.

May 11, 1998 B.K. SHARMA

Department of Zoology,

Northeastern Hill University,

Shillong-793 022 (Meghalaya)

NCES

rotifers (Rotifera: Monogononta: Lecanidae) in North-

Eastern India. Rev. Hydrobiol. trop. 20: 101-106.

Sharma, B.K. (1991): Rotifera. In: Animal Resources of

India: Protozoa to Mammalia: State of the art. Zool.

Surv. India. Calcutta: 69-88.

Sharma, B.K. (1993): Freshwater rotifers (Rotifera:

Eurotatoria) from some domestic wells in West Bengal .

India. J. Indian Inst. Sci., 73: 463-468.

Sorensen, T. (1948): A method of establishing groups of

equal amplitude in plant sociology based on similarity

of species content and its application to analysis of the

vegetation of Danish commons. Biol. Skr., 5: 1 1-34.

29. RECORD OF HOMALOCANTHA SECUNDA (LAMARCK 1822)

FROM OKHA IN GULF OF KUTCH

( With one text-figure)

Family Muricidae (Mollusca) is well

represented along the Indian coast. However, most

publications are based on surveys made in the early

1950s. Rao and Rao (1993) report 60 species of

Murex from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands,

from collections of the Zoological Survey of India.

The literature on molluscs along the west

coast of India is sparse. Notable contributions

are those of Melvill and Abercrombie (1893),

Subrahmanyam et al. (1952), and Menon et al.

(1961). Among the publications from south and

southeast coast of India, those of Crichton (1941),

Gravely ( 1 942), Satyamurthi ( 1 952), and Rao and

Rao (1993) are important.

During a survey conducted in 1995 at

Okha, I came across a mating pair of small Murex

which could not be identified immediately. The

specimens have a shouldered whorl, frilled outer

lip, long siphonal canal which is open, with three

to four short, strong spines. The larger shell is

526

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3) DEC. 1998

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

40 mm. The specimens are of Homalocantha

secunda (Lam.) (Fig. 1), which has been

described by Rao and Rao (1993).

H. secunda is found along the coast of

south India at Chennai (= Madras) (Gravely

1942) and the southern tip of India (D’Attilio

1983). The extralimital distribution of the species

is reported as Sri Lanka, northwestern Australia

to Indonesia and New Caledonia (Redwin and

D’Attilio 1976). None of the available

publications mention its occurrence on the west

coast of India. The presence of live specimens at

Okha in the Gulf of Kutch confirms its

distribution on the west coast of India.

July, 3 1 , 1 997 DEEPAK APTE

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road,

Mumbai 400 023.

Refer

Crichton, M.D. (1941): Marine shells of Madras. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 42(2): 323-341, pis 1-4.

D’Attilio, A. (1983): Homalocantha secunda. Notes on

distribution, shell morphology and radula. Festivus. 15

(5): 48-50.

Gravely, F.H. (1942): Shells and other remains found on

the Madras beach, Pt. 2 (Mollusca- Gastropoda). Bull.

Madras Govt. Mus. new ser. 5(2): 1-1 10, 17 txt. figs.

Melvill, J.C. & A. Abercrombie (1893): The marine

Mollusca of Bombay. Proc. Lit. & Phil. Soc.

Manchester.

Melvill, J.C. & A. Abercrombie (1897): Notes on a

collection of the marine shells from Andaman Islands.

Proc. Malac. Soc. Lond. 2: 164-172 & 220-229.

Menon, P.K.B., A.K. Datta Gupta & D. Das Gupta (1961):

Fig. 1: Homalocantha secunda (Lamarck 1822)

NCES •

On the marine fauna of Gulf of Kutch. Pt. 2. Gastropoda.

./. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 58(2): 475-494, pis 10.

Redwin, G.E. & A. D’Attilio (1976): Murex shells of the

World: An illustrated guide to the Muricidae. Stanford

Umv. Press, pp 284, pis 32, figs. 192.

Satyamurti, S.T. (1952): The Mollusca of Krusadai Island

(in the Gulf of Mannar) 1 - Amphineura and

Gastropoda. Bull. Madras Govt. Mus. (N.S.) Nat. Hist.

Soc. 1(2): Pt. 6, pp 267, pis. 34.

Subba Rao, N.V. & K.V. Surya Rao (1993): Knowledge

of Indian muricids. Rec. Zool. Surv. India, occ. paper

no. 153: 1-133, pis. 14.

Subrahmanyam, T.V., K.R. Karandikar & N.N. Murti

(1952): Marine Gastropoda of Bombay. Pt. 2,7. Univ.

Bombay. 21(3): 26-72, figs. 187.

30. THREE NEW RECORDS OF CLADOCERA (CRUSTACEA) FROM INDIA

( With eighteen text-figures)

Cladocerans are well known in India.

Recently Michael and Sharma (1988) published

a fauna of India volume on Cladocera covering

90 species. The present study reports the

occurrence of three species viz. Alona cannellata

Brehm, 1934, A. pseudanodonta anodonta

Daday, 1905 and A. holdeni Green, 1952. The

first two were collected from Madurai, Tamil

Nadu 9° 53' N lat., 78° 8' E long, and the third

from Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur,

Rajasthan 27° 10' N lat., 77° 31' E long. The three

species are reported for the first time from the

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC. 1998

527

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Oriental region. They were earlier recorded from

localities in Africa.

Family CHYDORIDAE

Subfamily Aloninae

Genus A Iona

1. Alona cannellata Brehm 1934 (Figs. 1-6)

Female: Body length 0.41 mm; body width

0.26 mm. Postero-dorsal and postero-ventral

corner of valves rounded. Valves with

longitudinal lines, 10-13 lines at the posterior

margin (Fig. 1). Rostrum blunt (Fig. 2).

Antennules reaching apex of rostrum, about half

as wide as the eye. Posterior margin of the valve

with undulation (Fig. 3). Anterior margin of

ventral side of valve with small spines (Fig. 4).

Plate of labrum rounded with a step-like incision

on the anterior margin (Fig. 5). Postabdomen

with distinct preanal and postanal comer. Dorsal

distal comer projecting and rounded. Six to eight

anal denticles, anal margin with groups of setae,

lateral groups of setae indistinct (Fig. 6). Claw

with a basal spine half as long as the claw, with

a seta at the base.

Remarks: A. cannellata occurs at

Kallanthri pond, Madurai, Tamil Nadu. This

species was first described by Brehm (1934) from

Niger basin, Africa. Smirnov (1971) has given

an account of this species in his fauna of the

world: chydoridae. The present specimens agree

with the description given by Brehm (1934),

except for the position of ocellus and shape of

postabdomen. The presence of an incision on the

labmm is also a slight variation.

2. Alona pseudanodonta anodonta

Daday 1905 (Figs. 7-12).

Female: Body length 0.41 mm, body width

0.28 mm. Valves with rows of tubercles, gramiate

between rows, postero-dorsal and postero-ventral

corners rounded, postero-ventral corner

projecting beyond the postero-dorsal corner

(Fig. 7). Maximum height in the middle.

Rostrum blunt, short and not curved. Antennule

somewhat slender, reaching almost the tip of the

rostrum, with three to four small spines on the

dorsal side (Fig. 8). Ocellus slightly smaller than

eye, situated halfway between eye and apex of

rostrum. Plate of labmm rounded anteriorly,

undulating at the posterior half and blunt

(Fig. 9). Ventral margin of valves slightly convex,

with long antero-ventral setae (more than twice

the length of middle setae). Postabdomen slightly

widened distally with distinct preanal and

postanal corners (Figs. 10-12). Anal groove

concave, dorsal-distal margin evenly rounded

and projecting beyond the base of claw. Dorsal

margin with 8-10 denticles attached sub-

marginally, followed by 3-4 groups of spines

along the anal margin. Claw stout, rather long,

slightly curved and evenly tapering distally with

a short basal spine (as long as basal diameter of

claw). Concave ^urface of claw with a series of

five setules ending a short distance from the tip.

Remarks: A. pseudanodonta anodonta

was found in a temporary pond near Kallanthri,

Madurai, Tamil Nadu. This species is somewhat

similar to A. karelica Stenroos (1897) and A.

archeri Sars (1889), especially in the shape of

postabdomen and in carapace morphology.

However, it is completely different from these

two species in the shape of the labral plate,

carapace morphology and arrangement of setae

and setules on the ventral margin of the valves

and on the structure of the postabdomen.

3. Alona holdeni Green 1952 (Figs. 13-18)

Female: Body length 0.42 mm. Valves

with 20-24 longitudinal lines (Fig. 13). Postero-

dorsal and postero-ventral corner rounded

without spines. Antennules not reaching the apex

of the rostrum (Fig. 14). Antennules slender, with

two small spines on the dorsal side (Fig. 15).

Proximal segment of endopodite of antenna with

a spine which almost reaches the distal end of

the third segment (Fig. 16). Ocellus slightly

528

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3) DEC. 1998

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Figs. 1-12: Alona cannellata female: 1. lateral view; 2. head enlarged; 3. ppstero-ventral comer;

4. antero ventral comer; 5. labrum and 6. postabdomen; Alona pseud anodonta anodonta female:

7. lateral view; 8. antennule; 9. labrum and 10 - 12 postabdomen.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC 1998

529

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Figs. 13-18: Alona hoideni female: 13. lateral view; 14. head enlarged; 16. antennule;

15. antenna; 17. labrum and 18. postabdomen.

larger than eye, situated closer to the eye, being

about 2/5 x distance between eye and tip of

rostrum. Postabdomen (Fig. 18) with rounded

anal margin and distinct preanal comer. About

10-12 denticles present submarginally and

followed by 3-4 groups of spines along the anal

groove. About seven groups of setae present

laterally, the distal-most seta being the longest

in each group and three distalmost groups

reaching the margin of postabdomen. Claw rather

long with very short basal spine, about as long

as basal diameter of claw, and two long setae

present together at the base of the claw.

Remarks: A. hoideni occurs in the marshes

of Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur,

Rajasthan. This species agrees well with A.

hoideni Green (1952) from Niger River, Africa

except for the arrangement of the setules on the

ventral side of the valves (Fig. 415, N.N.

Smirnov, 1971) and the size of the ocellus. Green

(1952) described it with a smaller ocellus than

eye. The original description of A. hoideni is

inadequate to compare with my specimens. The

few specimens available to me do not enable me

to present an elaborate description.

I thank the Director, Zoological Survey of

India, Calcutta and the Officer-in-Charge, MBS,

ZSI, Madras for facilities.

«

July 1 6, 1 997 K. VENKATARAMAN

Zoological Survey of India

Southern Regional Station,

100, Santhome High Road,

Chennai 600 028.

References .

Brehm, V. ( 1 934): Voyage de Ch. Alluaud et P. A. Chappius

en Afrique Francaise. Arch. Hydrobiologia, 26: 50-90.

Green, J. (1952): Zooplankton of the River Sokoto. The

Crustacea. Proc. Zool. Soc. London., 138: 415-453.

Michael, R.G. & Sharma, B.K. (1988): Fauna of India:

Cladocera, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, India,

pp 262.

Smirnov, N.N. (1971): The World Chydorid Fauna, USSR

Acad. Sci. Zool. Insti. nova. ser. No. 101 Leningrad,

pp 539.

530

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3) DEC. 1998

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

31. ADDITIONS TO THE FLORISTIC HISTORY OF ORISSA

In spite of intensive and extensive works

on the botany of Central India (Haines, 1921-

1925; Mooney, 1950), our surveys from 1986-

1989 in Sambalpur dist. have yielded new

distributional records for Orissa and for India

(Panda and Das 1989a, 1989b, 1991, 1992a,

1992b 1993, 1995; Panda et al. 1989, 1992a,

1992b; Panda, 1990). New distributional records

of a few taxa are given here with their Exsiccatus,

flowering and fruiting time, frequency, #

distribution, ecology and uses.

Altemanthera paronychioides St. Hil., Voy.

Bres. 2:439. 1833; Veldkamp inBlumea 19: 167.

1971 (AMARANTHACEAE).

Exsicc.: Brook’s Hill, Sambalpur,

30.xi.1987, Das et Panda 864.

FI. & Fr.: January-December.

Frequency: A common weed of cultivated

fields and wastelands across the district.

Distribution: A native of tropical America,

now naturalized in various parts of the tropics.

Ecology: The preferred soil is loam and

clay, rarely on rocks. Grows in open places in

association with Mecardonia procumbens

(Miller) Small, Lindernia anagallis (N. Burm.)

Pennell, Sphaeranthus indicus L., various grasses

and sedges.

Use: Diuretic, used occasionally.

Note: Fairly naturalized in various parts

of the dist., being a new member of the flora of

Orissa, was not recorded by Haines ( l.c .) and

Mooney (l.c.).

Altemanthera pungens H.B.K., Nov. Gen.

Sp. 2: 206. 1818; Melville in Kew Bull. 1958:

174. 1958. (AMARANTHACEAE)

Achyranthes repens L., Sp. PI. 205. 1753.

Altemanthera repens (L.) Link, Enum. PI.

Hort. Berol. 1: 154. 1821, non Gmelin 1791;

Backer in van Steenis, FI. Males. 4: 91. 1949.

Exsicc.: Badrama, 25. ix. 1987, Das et

Panda 786.

FI. & Fr.: January-December.

Frequency: Common, naturalized on wet

wastelands throughout the district.

Distribution: A native of tropical America;

now pantropical.

Ecology: A weed of open places in loamy

and clay soil, growing in association with Phyla

nodiflora (L.) Greene, Mollugo pentaphylla L.,

Phyllanthus virgatus Forst.f., Stachytarpheta

indica (L.) Vahl, etc. *

Use: The entire plant is used as a diuretic.

Note: It was not recorded by Haines (l.c.)

and Mooney (l.c.).

Leucas biflora (Vahl) R. Br., Prodr. 504.

1810; Wt., Ic. t. 866. 1844-45; Hook. f. in Hook,

f., FI. Brit. India 4: 683.1885 (excl. Syn. L.

procumbens Thw.). (LAMIACEAE)

Phlomis biflora Vahl, Symb. Bot. 3: 77.

1794.

Exsicc.: Ambanala, Badrama, 8.vii.l987,

Das et Panda 664.

FI. & Fr.: July-December.

Frequency: Rare, found only at Ambanala.

Distribution: Peninsular India, Sri Lanka.

Ecology: Grows often in dry places in

sandy-loamy soil. Associated plants are

Amaranthus viridis L., Cassia pumila Lam.,

Crotalaria prostrata Rottl., Flemingia chappar

Benth., etc.

Note: So far endemic to Peninsular India

and Sri Lanka (Hook, f, l.c.), now reported from

Sambalpur, making a new record for Orissa and

eastern India. Haines (l.c.) and Mooney (l.c.)

have not recorded it.

Nesaea brevipes Koehne, in Engl. Bot.

Jahrb. Syst. 3: 326. 1882 & Pfreich. Ht. 17: 226.

1903; Blatter and Hallberg in JBNHS 26: 216;

Gamble, FL Pres. Madr. 1: 510 (360). 1919;

Matthew, Mat. FI. Tamilnadu Carnatic 218. 1981

& III. FI. Tamilnadu Carnatic t. 281. 1982

(LYTHRACEAE)

Ammannia cordata Wt. & Arn., Prodr.

1: 304. 1834, non Nesaea cordata Hiem. In

Oliver, FI. trop. Afr. 2: 475. 1871. Clarke in

Hook, f., FI. Brit. India 2: 570. 1879; Prain, Beng.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC. 1998

531

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

PL 1: 501. 1903.

Exsicc.: Dhankaorah, Sambalpur,

7.xi.l986, Das et Panda 440 ; Bamra, 23.ii. 1987,

Das et Panda 467.

FI. & Fr.: October-March.

Frequency: Common in the district.

Distribution: Southeast India,

Bangladesh, Sri Lanka.

Ecology: A crop-field weed of marshy

places in loamy-clayey soil. Associated plants

include Tridax procumbens L., Caesulia axillaris

Roxb., Euphorbia hirta L., Evolvulus alsinoides

(L.).

Note: A new record for Orissa. Haines ( l.c .)

and Mooney (l.c.) did not record it, but Clarke

(l.c.) noted it from Noakhali of erstwhile East

Bengal, presently Bangladesh, Deccan Peninsula

of India and Sri Lanka. Prain (l.c.) commented

that it is “very rare in East Bengal” occurring as

a weed of wetlands. Gamble (op. cit.) recorded

its distribution in the Circars and Deccan.

Matthew (FI. Tamilnadu Carnatic Pt. I: 610.

1983) corroborated Clarke’s records of the world

distribution of the species. This report from

Sambalpur (Orissa) appears to have filled the gap

in its apparently disjunct distribution in south-

eastern Indian subcontinent i.e. Bengal in the

east and Peninsula and Sri Lanka in the south.

The species is endemic to the Indian Sub-

continent.

Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn., Fract.

2: 456. t. 171, f. 7. 1791; Clarke, Comp. Ind.

139. 1876; Hook. f. in Hook, f, Fl\ Brit. India 3:

308.1881; Prain, Beng. PI. 1:615. 1903; Gamble,

FI. Pres. Madr. 2(4): 708. 1921 (ASTERACEAE)

Verbesina nodiflora L., Cent. PI. 1: 28.

1755 et Amoen. Acad. 4: 290. 1759.

Exsicc.: Pradhanpat, 234.1989, Das et

Panda 1328.

FI. & Fr.: August- January

Frequency: Less common.

Distribution: A native of tropical America;

fairly naturalised in the tropics.

Ecology: Prefers cultivated ground in clay

soil. Associated plants include Glinus lotoides

L., Hygrophila salicifolia (Vahl) Nees, Scoparia

dulcis L., Bidens pilosa L.

Uses: Leaf-extract laxative, applied locally

in rheumatism. Used as fodder.

Note: Recently introduced in this area.

Haines (l.c.) and Mooney (l.c.) did not record it

from Orissa.

Torenia asiatica L., sp. PI. 619. 1753;

Hook. f. in Hook, f., FI. Brit. India 4: 277. 1885,

Yamazaki in Enu. FI. PI. Nepal 3: 127, 1982.

(SCROPHULARIACEAE)

T. cordata (Griff.) Dutta in Bull. Bot. Soc.

Beng. 19:25.1965.

Treisteria cordata Griff. Notul.

4:190.1854.

Exsicc.: Hatigirdha, Kholbilung,

4.xi.l986, Das et. Panda 263.

FI. & Fr.: May-December

Frequency: Rare, found at Kholbilung and

Nrusimhanath.

Distribution: India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar,

Java, Nepal, east to China, Malaysia.

Ecology: In open and dense forests from

dry to moist places, in loamy-clay to rocky soil.

Associated plants are Hemigraphis hirta (Vahl)

T. Anders., Barleria cristata L., Canscora diffusa

(Vahl) Roem. et Schult.,

Note: A widely distributed species in India

from peninsula to northern hills, preferably hilly

region. Indian distribution in Peninsula, West

Bengal (Darjeeling, Kurseong 940 m) and

Assam. This report of the species from

Sambalpur is a new addition to the flora of Orissa.

Haines (l.c.) and Mooney (l.c.) did not record it

from Orissa. Dutta’s (l.c.) remark “... seems to

be an endemic species” appears to be erroneous

as it is widely distributed.

Trichodesma indicum var. amplexicaule

(Roth) Cooke, FI. Bombay 2: 215. 1904; Kazmi

in J. Arn. Arbor. 52:518.1971; Banerjee &

Pramanik in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 17:113.1978.

(BORAGINACEAE)

T. amplexicaule Roth, Nov. PI. Sp. 104.

1821; Clarke in Hook, f., FI. Brit. India

4:153.1883, pp.

532

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3) DEC. 1998

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Exsicc.: Pension Para, Sambalpur,

25 . viii. 1986, Das et Panda 157 ; Kapildhar,

Nrusimhanath, 7.iv,1988, Das et Panda 1120.

Fi. & Fr.: January-December

Frequency: Common.

Distribution: India, Myanmar, Sri Lanka,

Pakistan, Cabul (=Kabul), Baluchistan, Persia,

Mauritius.

Ecology: In open, dry or moist places, also

in the forests, in lateritic soil and in rock crevices,

growing in association with Laggera aurita

(Willd.) Sch.-Bip., Hedyotis nitida Wt. & Am.,

Hemigraphis latebrosa (Roth) Nees.

Uses: Infusion of leaves and roots used in

dysentery. The plant is emollient and diuretic.

Note: Lamina amplexicaule at base. A

widely distributed taxon in the plains in India.

Haines ( l.c .) did not make any infraspecific

category and noted “probably in all districts” of

Bihar and Orissa. Banerjee and Pramanik {op.

cit .) cited specimens from Bihar, Madhya

Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra,

Andhra Pradesh, but none from Orissa. This

collection is the first addition of the taxon to the

Central National Herbarium (CAL) from Orissa.

Trichodesma indicum var. subsessilis

Clarke in Hook, f., FI. Brit. India 4: 153. 1883;

Banerjee and Pramanik, op. cit. 114. 1978.

(BORAGINACEAE)

T. subsessilis Wall., Cat. n. 933. 1828 Nom.

nud.

Exsicc.: Bamra, 3.xi.l986, Das et Panda 217.

FI. & Fr.: January-December.

Frequency: Common across the district.

Distribution: India, Burma (Myanmar),

Pegu.

Ecology: In open, dry or moist land on

loamy soil, associated with Sida cordifolia Linn.,

S. spinosa L., Croton bonplandianum Baill.,

Euphorbia hirta L.

Note: Lamina base attenuated into a short

petiole, never amplexicaule at base. Banerjee and

Pramanik {op. cit.) reported its distribution in

Jammu & Kashmir, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya

Pradesh, Bihar and different parts of North India.

This report from Sambalpur is a new record for

Orissa as well as peninsular India.

Typhonium diversifolium Wall. (Numer.

List: 300, n. 8933. 1849, nom. nud.) ex Schott,

Aroid. : 13, t. 20. 1855; Hook.f. in Hook, f., FI.

Brit. India 6 : 510. 1893. (ARACEAE)

Heterostalis diversifolia (Wall. ex. Schott)

Schott in Oesterr. Bot. Wochenbl. 7:261.1857.

Exsicc.: Hirakud, 24. viii. 1986, Das et

Panda 06.

FI. & Fr.: July-December.

Frequency: Not common, but found

throughout the district.

Distribution: India, Nepal, S. Tibet.

Ecology: Grows in semi-open places on

moist loamy lateritic soil, in association with

Plesmonium margaritiferum (Roxb.) Schott,

Lindenbergia indica (L.) O. Ktze., Solanum

nigrum L.

Note: Haines {l.c.) and Mooney {l.c.) are

silent on this species in Orissa. It is endemic to

the Indo-Nepal region.

Acknowledgement

We thank the Botanical Survey of India

for financial assistance.

December 23, 1997 SAURIS PANDA

Dept, of Botany,

Gurudas College, Calcutta-700 054.

A.P.DAS

Dept, of Botany,

North Bengal University,

Dist. Darjeeling 734 430.

References

Haines, H.H. (1921-1925): The Botany of Bihar and and Orissa. Catholic Press, Ranchi.

Orissa. 1-6 Parts, London. Panda, S. (1990): Angiospermic flora of Sambalpur

Mooney, H. (1950): Supplement to the Botany of Bihar District, Orissa (India). Volumes I & II, pp. l-872.Ph.D.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC. 1998

533

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Thesis, University of Calcutta.

Panda, S. & A.P. Das (1989a): Sida ovata Forssk.

(Malvaceae) - A new record for Eastern India. Geobios

new Reports 8: 77-79.

Panda, S. & A.P. Das (1989b): Occurrence of

Stachytarpheta dichotoma Vahl in Orissa, India. Indian

Bot. Reptr. 8(1): 71-72.

Panda, S. & A.P. Das (1991): Pavonia zeylanica (L.) Cav.

- A new record for Western Orissa. Indian Journal of

Forestry 14(4): 327-328.

Panda, S. & A.P. Das (1992a): A few noteworthy taxa for

the floristics of Orissa (India). J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 16(2):

335-336.

Panda, S. & A.P. Das (1992b): The distribution of

Glochidion hirsutum (Roxb.) Voigt in India. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 88(3): 468-469.

Panda, S. & A.P. Das ( 1 993): A few taxa new to Eastern

India with annotations on distribution. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 90(3): 549-550.

Panda, S. & A.P. Das (1995): Contributions to the study

of sedges and grasses of Sambalpur district, Orissa

(India). J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 19(2): 343-356.

Panda, S., R.N. Banerjee & A.P. Das (1989): Taxonomical

and distributional notes on Polygala telephioides Klein

ex. Willd. in India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 87: 326-

327.

Panda, S., S.K. Basu & A.P. Das (1992a): Systematic

survey of the pteridophytic flora of Sambalpur

district, Orissa (India). J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 16(2): 457-

467.

Panda, S., A.P. Das & S. Chanda (1992b): An account of

the dwindling plant species in Sambalpur district,

Orissa (India) with reference to ecology and mode of

pollination. Trans. Bose Res. Inst. 55(3-4): 45-56.

32. MICROGONIUM SUBLIMB ATUM (C. MULL.) v.d.B:

HYMENOPHYLLACEAE — A NEW RECORD FOR SOUTH INDIA

( With seven text-figures)

Figs 1-7: Microgonium sublimbatum: 1. Habit; 2. Fertile frond enlarged; 3. Sterile frond;

4. A sorus with sporangia; 5. Rhizoids on rhizome; 6. Sporangium; 7. Spore.

534

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95 (3) DEC. 1998

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

During our revisionary studies on ferns

(Hymenophyllaceae) in South India, we came

across an interesting specimen from the

evergreen forests of Thommankuthu in Idukki

dist, on the foothills of the Western Ghats of

Kerala. It was found on tree tranks just above

ground level, covering the bark of trees near the

Thommankuthu waterfall. The plant has slender,

creeping, irregularly branched, blackish

rhizomes, with pale green fronds. On comparing

with literature, we identified it as Microgonium

suhlimbatum (C. Mull.) v.d.B. In India it is

reported only from Khasia hills, Eastern

Himalayas (Iwatsuki 1985). The specimens have

been deposited in the Calicut University

'Herbarium (CALI).

Distribution: Himalaya (Khasia Hills),

Burma (=Myanmaar), Thailand, Indochina,

Malesia.

Ecology: An extremely rare species growing

on moist tree tranks just above ground level.

Specimen examined: Thommankuthu forest,

Idukki dist., Kerala; 27.xii.1996, Abdul Hameed

CU 34802 (CALI).

Note: This taxon differs from Microgonium

henzaianum (Parish ex. Hook.) which has dark

green fronds, broadest near the apex, and

involucres as wide as long. It lacks conti-

nuous submargina! false vein, which is the

identifying character of Microgonium

bimarginatum. According to Holttum ( 1 954) and

Copeland (1933), M. suhlimbatum is larger than

M. bimarginatum . But our specimen is almost

the same size as that of M. bimarginatum

collected from different parts of Kerala.

January 9, 1998 C. ABDUL HAMEED

P.V. MADHUSOODANAN

Department of Botany,

University of Calicut, 673 635 Kerala.

References

Copeland, E.B. (1933): Hvmenophyllum and Genera of Malaya. Singapore, Govt. Printing office, 2: 72-

Hymenophyllaceamm. Philip. Journ. Sci. 51: 1 67- 1 09.

1 68. Iwatsuki, K. (1985): Hymenophyllaceae of Asia, excluding

Holttum, R.E. (1954): A Revised Flora of Malaya: Ferns Malesia. J. Fac. Sci. Univ. Tokyo III, 13: 541-542.

33. PHENOLOGY OF NAREGAMIA ALATA (MELIACEAE)

FROM WESTERN MAHARASHTRA

(With one plate )

Naregamia alata W. & A. (Meliaceae) is

an endemic herb species in western

Maharashtra. We observed it in the field and

attempted its acclimatization in a nursery. The

plant is under observation for the last three years.

A change in the flowering character was

recorded, which is presented in this

communication.

During a botanical excursion to the coastal

areas of Maharashtra, (Vengurla to Goa border

area) we collected live specimens of Naregamia

alata W. & A. (Meliaceae) on the way from Akeri

to Vengurla. From the literature, we found that

the species is endemic and confined to selected

areas on the west coast of India. In India it occurs

only in the Western ghats from Konkan

southwards (Dalzell and Gibson 1861, Hooker

1875, Cooke 1901, Gamble 1910, Almeida

1990). It is also recorded as a medicinal plant

(Chopra et al. 1958).

Young plants of Naregamia alata were

collected and kept for acclimatization in a nursery

at the Agharkar Research Institute, Pune. The

plants have thrived well. The recorded length of

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC. 1998

535

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 1

Flowering fruiting: October to December

Naregamia alata flowers is 3-5 cm. But the

flower size in the nursery specimens differs from

this appreciably. Materials from herbaria at the

Botanical Survey of India Western Circle, Pune,

Agharkar Research Institute, Pune, and National

Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow were

studied. Observations on exomorphic characters

were noted and are given in the table above.

Dec. 23, 1997 ANURADHA S. UPADHYE

M.S. KUMBHOJKAR

A cirkar Research Institute,

G. G. Agarkar Road,

Pune-411 004.

References

Almeida, S.M. (1990): J. Econ. Tax. Bot. Add. Ser. no. 8

Flora of Savantwadi, Maharashtra, India,

1:88.

Chopra, R.N., S.L. Nayar & I.C. Chopra (1958): Glossary

of Indian Medicinal plants, CSIR, New Delhi.

Cooice, T. (1901): (Repr. 1958). Flora of the Presidency

of Bombay . Vol. 1:217. BSI, Calcutta.

DalzellN.A. & J. Gibson (1861): The Bombay Flora or

short descriptions of all indigenous plants: 36.

Education Society Press, Byculla, Bombay.

Gamble, J.S. (1910): Flora of Presidency of Madras: 125.

BSI, Calcutta (Reprinted).

Hooker, J.D. (1875): Flora of British India. Vol. 1 : 542, L.

Reeve & Co. London.

34. DESMODIUM DESV. (FABOIDEAE) IN EASTERN GHATS, INDIA:

A SYSTEMATIC SURVEY

( With two text-figures)

The botany of the Eastern Ghats has not

been adequately studied and no detailed Flora is

available so far. The flora of Eastern Ghats of

Orissa is covered by the work of Haines (1921),

while Gamble and Fischer (1915-1935) reported

on Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu in his flora

of presidency of madras. Recently Saxena and

Brahmam (1994), Ellis (1987), Subba Rao

(1977), Pullaiah and Chennaiah (1997), Matthew

(1993) and others have contributed to our

knowledge of the flora in some selected regions

of the Eastern Ghats. Mani (1974), Nayar et al.

(1984) and Raju et al. (1987) reported on the

vegetation and phytogeography, endemic and rare

536

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 95(3) DEC 1998

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

A.S. Upadhye and M.S. Kumbhojkar: Naregamia alata

Plate 1

1. Naregamia alata growing at ARI nursery; 2. Line drawing of Naregamia alata from medicinal plants,

Kirtikar and Basu, 1933. Lalit Mohan Basu, Allahabad;

3. Twig from plant growing in nursery showing flower, fruit and seed character.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC 1998

537

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

plants and potentially important plants of

Eastern Ghats.

Study Area: The Eastern Ghats are located

between 11° 30' to 22° N lat. and 76° 56' E to

86° 30' E long. They extend in a northeast,

southwest strike in the Indian peninsula, covering

an area of about 75,000 km2, from the Mahanadi

basin to the north, to the Nilgiri hills at the

southern end. Eastern Ghats are thus spread

through the States of Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and

Tamil Nadu. They are divided into the northern

Eastern Ghats and southern Eastern Ghats and

irrigated by the rivers Mahanadi, Godavari and

Krishna. The region has tropical monsoon climate,

receiving rainfall from both southwest monsoon

and northeast monsoon.

Fig. 1: Leaves and Pods of Desmodium spp.: A. Desmodiwn triquetrum ; B. D. laxiflorum;

C. D. motorium; D. D. caudatum; E. D. pulchellum\ F. D. heterocarpon. G. D. a\ysicarpoides\

H. D. triangulare; I. D. pryonii; J. D. dichotomum\ K. D. velutinum; L. D. tnfJorunr, M. D. biarticulatum\

N. D. gangeticum ; O. D. heterophyllum; P. D. benthamii.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC 1998

539

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

lO r

NO. OF SPECIES FLOWERING

NO. OF SPECIES FRUITING

MONTHS

Fig. 2: Phenology of Desmodium spp. in Eastern Ghats.

Periodical collections were made during

1994-1997 throughout the Eastern Ghats. For the

present study, the Eastern Ghats have been divided

into eight regions representing different types of

habitats and vegetation. The material has been

identified after scrutiny at the herbaria of Botanical

Survey of India (BSI) both at CAL and MH.

The genus Desmodium (Faboideae) is

mainly of tropical and sub-tropical distribution

(Willis 1973) and comprises of 450 species, cf

which nearly 47 species, 12 sub-species and 8

varieties are found in India (Sanjappa, 1991).

Some species of the genus are rather scarcely

represented. In the Eastern Ghats, Desmodium

is represented by 18 species which is the third

largest genus after Crotalaria (49 species) and

Indigofera (25 species).

General features of the genus: These are

prostrate herbs to shrubs, leaves simple and

trifoliolate (Fig. 1). Flowers in terminal or

axillary racemes, sometimes in axillary umbels.

Calyx tube short, campanulate or turbinate,

corolla exserted. Stamens diadelphous,

sometimes monadelphous. Pods consisting of 2-

9, 1 -seeded articles which are usually indehiscent

and easily separating, less often dehiscent at one

suture. Some compressed, reniform and

estrophiolate.

Phenologically, all Desmodium species are

annuals. Out of 18 species, 3 species i.e., D.

ferrugineum, D. repandaum and D. triflorum

bear fruit throughout the year. A month-wise

analysis of the data has been given in Fig. 2.

The maximum number of species flower in

September and October (5 species each month).

The maximum number of species (6 species) fruit

in November.

Table 1 shows the distribution of various

Desmodium spp. collected from eight different

regions of the Eastern Ghats. Out of 1 8 species,

5 are restricted in their distribution i.e.

Desmodium caudatum is rare in Paderu,

Vishakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh; D.

ferrugineum and D. repandum are common in

Shevaroy and Kolli hills; D. pryonii is rare in

Udayagiri of Seshachalam hill of Nellore dist.,

and D. biarticulatum is occasional in Araku

valley and Seshachalam hill ranges.

540

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3) DEC 1998

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 1

DISTRIBUTION OF DESMODIUM SPECIES IN VARIOUS REGIONS OF EASTERN GHATS

SYMBOLS USED: I) Koraput range; II) Mahendragiri; III) Araku valley & Madgol hills; IV) Nallamalais; V) Seshachalam

hills; VI) Shevaroy hills; VII) Kolli hills; VIII) Javadi hill *) Abundant; +) Present; -) Absent;

Desmondium benthamii is restricted to northern

Eastern Ghats. Desmodium gangeticum,

D. heterocarpon, D. laxiflorum, D. triflorum,

D. pulchellum and D. velutinum are common

throughout the Eastern Ghats. D. alysicarpoides,

D. dichotomum, D. heterophyllum, D. motorium,

D. triangulare and D. triquetrum are occasional

in their distribution in different regions.

Acknowledgements

The first author (KSM) thanks the Dept.

of Environment and Forests (DOEF) and Council

of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi

for providing financial support.

March 10, 1998 K. SRI RAMA MURTHY

S. SANDHYA RANI

T. PULLAIAH

Department of Botany,

Sri Krishnadevaraya University,

Anantapur-5 1 5 003,

Andhra Pradesh.

References

Ellis, J.L. (1987): Flora of Nallamalais. Vol. 1 Calcutta. Haines, H.H. (1921): The Botany of Bihar and Orissa.

Gamble, J.S. & C.E.C. Fischer (1915-1935): Flora of the London.

Presidency of Madras, London Rep. ed. 1957. Calcutta. Mani, M.S. (1974): The vegetation and phytogeography

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC. 1998

541

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

of the Eastern Ghats. In: Ecology and Biogeography in

India (ed.) M.S. Mani. Dr. W. Junk Publishers, The

Hague, pp 197-203.

Matthew, K.M. (1993): The Flora of the Tamil Nadu

Carnatic, Vol. 1, Tiruchirapalli.

N ayar, M.P., M. Ahmed & D.C.S. Raju ( 1 984): Endemic

and rare plants of Eastern Ghats. Ind. J. For. 7:

35-42.

Pullaiah, T. & E. Chennaiah (1997): Flora of Andhra

Pradesh. Vol. 1 . Ranunculaceae - Alangiaceae, Jodhpur.

Raju, D.C.S. , M. Ahmedullah & M.P. Nayar (1987):

Genetic potential in the Flora of Eastern Ghats of India.

J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 9: 133-138.

Sanjappa, M. (1991): Legumes of India. Dehra Dun.

Saxena, H.O. & M. Brahmam (1994): The Flora of Orissa,

Ranunculaceae to Fabaceae. Vol. 1 Bhubaneshwar.

Subba Rao, G.V. (1977): Flora of Visakhapatnam district,

Andhra Pradesh. Bull. Bot. Surv. India. 19: 122-126.

Willis, J.C. (1973): A Dictionary of flowering plants and

ferns, Cambridge University Press. 8th ed.

35. EUPA TORIUM ADENOPHORUM SPRENG. — A NEW RECORD

FOR MADHYA PRADESH

The genus Eupatorium L. with about 400

species is mostly found in Central and South

America, Asia and Africa. Hooker (1882) has

reported only 2 species E. glandulosum H.B.K.

and E. reeversii Wall, while Rao and Rao (1980)

have given a detailed account of 12 species from

the northeastern region of India.

This study is based on survey and collection

by the authors and consultation of herbarium of

Botanical Survey of India, Central Circle,

Allahabad. This species has not been reported from

central India to date (Verma et al. 1993). The

authors, while conducting a survey of medicinal

plants growing in Torenga forest, Raipur dist.,

Madhya Pradesh in 1991 and 1992, came across

E. adenophorum Spreng, growing wild.

Eupatorium adenophorum Spreng., Syst.

3:420, 1826; Rao & Rao Proc. Indian Nat. Sci.

Acad. B. 46. 4: 587-592, 1980.

Straggling perennial undershrubs. Stem

densely covered with stalked glands. Leaves

opposite, broadly elliptic or rhomboid, angular

Refer

Hooker, J.D. ( 1 882): Flora of British India. Vol. 3 p. 243-

244. Reeve and Co. Ashford, Kent, U.K.

Rao, R.R. & M.K.V. Rao (1980): The Genus Eupatorium

L. in North-East India. Proc. Indian Nat. Sci. Acad.

sharply pointed, serrate above, base cuneate.

Flower heads clustered, white, pedicelled, 40-

60 flowered; involucral bracts 20 in two rows,

lanceolate acuminate, striate, glandular-ciliate.

Corolla tube white, abruptly dilated. Achenes

black, glabrous, crowned by pappus of 10-20,

whitish hairs.

FI. & Fr.: February - May.

Specimen examined: Torenga Forest,

Raipur dist., M.P., Field Nos. 6708, 7148.

Distribution: Native to Mexico, natu-

ralized in Northeastern India, Tamil Nadu, Uttar

Pradesh and Kerala.

January 19, 1998 S.P. JAIN

S.C. SINGH

G.N. SRIVASTAVA

VINAYRANJAN

J. SINGH

Central Institute of Medicinal &

Aromatic Plants, CIMAP,

Lucknow-226015.

ENCES

B 46(4): 587-592.

Verma, D.M., R.D. Dixit & N.P. Balakrishnan

(1993):Flora of Madhya Pradesh, Vol. 1. Botanical

Survey of India, Calcutta.

542

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3) DEC. 1998

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

36. JASMINUM CA UDA TUM WALL. EX LINDL. (OLEACEAE)

A NEW RECORD FOR WEST BENGAL

During an ethnobotanical survey in

Jalpaiguri dist., West Bengal, a specimen of

Jasminum sp. was collected, which was identified

by Dr. U.C. Bhattacharyya as Jasminum

caudatum Wall, ex Lindl., hitherto unreported

from West Bengal.

Jasminum caudatum : Wall, ex Lindl. in

Bot. Reg. 28: t. 26. 1842; C.B. Clarke in Hook,

f., FI. Brit. India 3: 601. 1882; Haines, Bot. Bihar

& Orissa 526. 1922; Fischer in Rec. Bot. Surv.

India 12(2): 1 10. 1938; Kanjilal etal., FI. Assam

3: 232. 1939; Balakr., FI. Jowai 1: 302. 1981;

Hara et al., Enum. FI. PI. Nepal 3: 80. 1982;

Deb, FI. Tripura 2: 5. 1983.

Type: wallich Cat. num. list no. 2884

(K-W, microf. - CALI).

Distribution: india - Andaman Islands,

Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Sikkim,

Tripura and West Bengal; Bangladesh, nepal and

BHUTAN.

Use: The decoction of the root is used by

Totos tribals as a gargle to cure toothache.

December 23, 1997 S. SAHA

R.N. KAYAL

Botanical Survey of India,

P.O. Botanic Garden,

Howrah 711 103.

37. BRACHIARIA ERUCIFORMIS (J.E. Sm) GRISEB.

A NEW RECORD FOR KERALA

While exploring Kozhikode dist., Kerala

for grasses, I found Brachiaria eruciformis

growing by the side of a footpath in Kozhikode

city. The species has not been mentioned in

literature (Bor 1973, Nair and Sreekumar 1991)

as occurring in Kerala, though it has been

reported earlier from Bihar, Karnataka and

Bengal and has been collected by me from

Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh during October

1996.

Distribution: India westwards to Spain

and North Africa.

The species is new to Kerala and probably

introduced from other states by means of the grass

or seeds transported by interstate vehicular

traffic.

Brachiaria eruciformis can be

distinguished from other species of the genus by

the linear panicle with erect racemes of closely

crowded, softly hairy spikelets, 2-2.5 mm long

and a hairy rachis. The lower glume is a minute

scale 0.3 mm long.

This species is not a fodder grass.

The collection from Kozhikode was made

on January 31, 1997.

December 23, 1 997 MANOJ CHANDRAN

College of Horticulture,

Kerala Agricultural University,

Vellanikkara,

Thrissur,

Kerala-680 654.

References

Bor, N.L.( 1973): The Grasses of Burma, Ceylon, India & Nair, V.J. & P.V. Sreekumar (1991): Flora of Kerala-

Pakistan. Grasses. BSI.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 95(3), DEC. 1998

543

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SPECIES COMPOSITION, STATUS AND FEEDING ECOLOGY OF AVIFAUNA

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