\
« JOURNAL
—
OF THE
^PRIL 1999 Vol. 96 (1)
BOMBAY NATIJBAL HISTOBY SOCIETY
INSTRUCTIONS TO CONTRIBUTORS
1 . Papers which have been published or have been offered for publication elsewhere
should not be submitted.
2. Papers should be submitted in duplicate, typed double space. Preferably an additional
copy should be submitted on a floppy diskette (3.5") using Word Star.
3. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where identification has
been authentically established by comparison of specimens actually collected.
4. Photographs for reproduction must be clear, with good contrast. Prints should be at
least 9 x 12 cm and on glossy glazed paper. Text-figures, line drawings and maps
should be in Indian ink, preferably on tracing paper. Maps and figures will not be
acceptable if labelled free hand.
5. References to literature should be placed at the end of the paper, alphabetically
arranged under author’s name, with the abridged titles of journals or periodicals in
italics and titles of books or papers in roman type, thus:
Aluri, Raju J.S. & C. Subha Reddi (1995): Ecology of the pollination in two cat-mint
species. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92(1): 63-66.
Prater, S.H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay Natural History Society,
Mumbai, pp. 35-48.
6. Each paper should be accompanied by an abstract, normally not exceeding 200
words, and 6-8 key words. Key Words should include the scientific names of important
species discussed.
7. 25 reprints will be supplied free of cost to authors of main articles, in the case of
new descriptions, reviews and miscellaneous notes, authors will be sent a free
copy of the Journal.
8. The editors reserve the right, other things being equal, to publish a member’s
contribution earlier than a non-member’s.
Hornbill House,
Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,
Mumbai-400 023.
Editors,
Journal of the Bombay
Natural History Society
VOLUME 96 (1): APRIL 1999
Date of Publication: 1-4-1999
CONTENTS
EDITORIAL 1
POPULATION ESTIMATION OF ASIATIC LIONS
( With seven text-figures )
By Yadvendradev V. Jhala, Qamar Qureshi, Vimal Bhuva and Lekh Nath Sharma 3
CONSERVATION STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION OF SWAMP FRANCOLIN IN INDIA
(With three text-figures )
By Salim Javed, Qamar Qureshi and Asad R. Rahmani 16
SEASONAL FOOD PREFERENCE OF THE INDIAN SHORT NOSED FRUIT BAT
CYNOPTERUS SPHINX (VAHL) (CH1ROPTERA: PTEROPODIDAE)
By K. Emmanuvel Rajan, N. Gopukumar Nair and R. Subbaraj 24
A PRELIMINARY GUIDE FOR AGE AND SEX DETERMINATION OF THE HOUBARA
BUSTARD CHLA MYDOTIS UNDULATA MACQUEENII
( With four text-figures and three plates)
By Nigel S. Jarrett and Stephanie M. Warren 28
OBSERVATIONS ON THE BEHAVIOUR OF GANGETIC DOLPHINS PLATANISTA
GANGETICA IN THE UPPER GANGA RIVER
( With one text-figure)
By Sandeep K. Behera and R. J. Rao 42
MOULT IN SOME BIRDS OF PALNI HILLS, WESTERN GHATS
(With one text-figure)
By Balachandran S 48
DISTRIBUTION OF AQUATIC INSECTS IN A SMALL STREAM IN NORTHWEST
HIMALAYA, INDIA
By J.M. Julka, H.S. Vasisht and B. Bala 55
ON A COLLECTION OF FISHES FROM THE SOUTHERN PART OF UKHRUL
DISTRICT, MANIPUR
By Selim Keishing and Waikhom Vishwanath 64
MORTALITY AND SURVIVAL OF THE HIMALAYAN MAHSEER TOR PUTITORA
IN A REGULATED SECTION OF THE RIVER GANGA BETWEEN RISHIKESH
AND HARIDWAR
By J.P. Bhatt and P. Nautiyal 70
BIOSYSTEMATIC STUDIES OF INDIAN CHIRONOMIDAE (DIPTERA)
( With three text-figures)
By Girish Maheshwari and Geeta Maheshwari 74
FISHES OF PARAMBIKULAM WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, PALAKKAD DISTRICT,
KERALA
(With one text-figure)
By Biju, C.R., Raju Thomas, K. and Ajithkumar C.R 82
A PRELIMINARY SURVEY OF LICHENS FROM CORBETT NATIONAL PARK
( With three text-figures)
By D.K. Upreti and S. Chatteijee 88
ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF HIMACHAL PRADESH FROM SIRMAUR DISTRICT
By M. Sharma and Harsimeijit Kaur 93
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
NEW HUNTSMAN SPIDERS (HETEROPODIDAE: ARANEAE) FROM BUXA TIGER
RESERVE, JALPAIGURI, WEST BENGAL
( With thirteen text-figures and one plate)
By Madhuchhanda Kundu (Deb), Vivekanand Biswas and Dinendra Raychaudhuri 98
A NEW SPECIES OF AGAONID WASP (HYMENOPTERA, CHALCIDOIDEA)
POLLINATING FICUS KRISHNAE C. DC. (MORACEAE)
( With sixteen text-figures)
By D.R. Priyadarsanan 1 06
A NEW SPECIES OF SERICUS ESCHSCHOLTZ (COLEOPTERA: ELATERIDAE:
LUDIINAE) FROM INDIA
( With four text-figures)
By Punam Garg and V. Vasu 1 1 1
A NEW CYPRINID FISH OF THE GENUS SALMOSTOMA (SWAINSON) FROM A
TROPICAL RESERVOIR OF SOUTH INDIA
( With one text-figure)
By E.G. Jayaraj, D.S. Krishna Rao, S. Ravichandra Reddy, Katre Shakuntala and
K.V. Devaraj 113
ANEW SPECIES OF USCANA GIRAULT (TRICHOGRAMMATIDAE: HYMENOPTERA)
FROM THE EGGS OF CONICOBRUCHUS ALBOPUBENS (PIC)
(With ten text-figures and two plates)
By H.R. Pajni and Seema Sood 116
OBITUARY
CYRIL EDWARD HEWETSON OBE IFS (Retd)
REVIEWS
124
1 . REMINISCENCES OF INDIAN WILDLIFE
Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani 1 26
2. ENVIRONMENT AND ORNITHOLOGY IN INDIA
Reviewed by Vibhu Prakash 1 26
3. COMMUNITY FOREST MANAGEMENT IN PROTECTED AREAS
Reviewed by S. Asad Akhtar 128
4. SURVIVAL STRATEGIES — COOPERATION AND CONFLICT IN ANIMAL
SOCIETIES
Reviewed by Gayatri Ugra 129
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
MAMMALS
1 . The Desert cat Felis lybica in Panna National
Park
ByK.Yoganand 130
2. Status of the wild water buffalo Bubalus arnee
in Lohit district, Arunachal Pradesh
By Anwaruddin Choudhury 130
3. Daytime resting in the nest — An adaptation
by the Indian giant squirrel Rutufa indica to
avoid predation
By Aparajita Datta 132
4. Rediscovery of the Afghan mole vole Ellobius
fuscocapillus in Pakistan
By T.J. Roberts 134
BIRDS
5. Menopon gallinae infesting greater adjutant
stork Leptoptilos dubius at Nagaon, Assam
By Hillaljyoti Singha, Rezaul Karim and
Asad R. Rahmani
6. Strange death of a Shikra
By P.L. Kankane
7. Mycotoxicosis — A threat to wintering cranes
in Saurashtra, Gujarat
By V.C. Soni, V. Vijaya Kumar and
Rajesh Lathigara
8. Sight records of the little gull Larus minutus
from Gujarat
By B.M. Parasharya, Aeshita Mukherjee and
T.V. Patel
9. Threetoed kingfisher Ceyx erithacus sighted
at Panarwa
By Raza H.Tehsin
10. Apartment nest of the pygmy woodpecker
Picoides nanus
By V. Santharam
11. Range extension of rufousbellied babbler
Dumetia hype/ythra hyperythra (Franklin)
By Rakesh Vyas and Anil Nair
12. Sighting of whitebrowed blue flycatcher
Muscicapa superciliaris in Silent Valley,
Kerala
By B. Ajayakumar and T.S. Nayar
13. Blacknaped blue flycatcher Hypothymis
azurea trapped in the web of the giant wood
spider Nephila maculata
By Anish P. Andheria
14. House sparrow feeding on tender leaves of
neem ( Azadirachta indica)
By A.M.K. Bharos
REPTILES
15. Calotes versicolor feeding on Ly codon
aulicus
By Satish Kumar Sharma
1 6. Python preying on rat snake
By K. Yoganand
17. Aberrant banded racers Argyrogena
fasciolatus
By Ashok Captain and Sanjay Thakur
AMPHIBIANS
18. Bufo viridis in Jaipur district, Rajasthan
By Saroj Saxena
1 9. Four new records and checklist of amphibians
from Maharashtra
By Aloysius G. Sekar
20. Range extension in Uperodon globulosus
(Gunther 1 864) in Assam
By P. Choudhury, M. Baruah and S. Sengupta
2 1 . Euphlyctis hexadactylus (Lesson) feeding on
Xenochrophis piscator (Schneider)
By Brij Kishor Gupta 158
22. First record of Hoplobatrachus crassus
(Jerdon 1853) from north eastern region in
Assam and Arunachal Pradesh
By S.C. Bordoloi and Mohini Mohan Bora 1 58
FISHES
23. Distribution of fish in the Manjeswaram river,
Kasaragod (Kerala)
By Biju, C.R., Raju Thomas, K. and
Ajithkumar, C.R 159
24. Occurrence of Tetraodon travancoricus (Hora
and Nair) in the Chalakudy, Periyar and
Kechery rivers, Kerala
By Biju, C.R., Raju Thomas, K.,
Ajithkumar, C.R. and John George, M 161
25 . New record of Salmostoma sardinella ( Pisces:
Cyprinidae) from Mondai stream.
Maharashtra
By M. Arunachalam, A. Sankaranarayanan.
A. Manimekalan, R. Soranam and
J. A. Johnson 162
26. Extension of range of Esomus thermoicos
(Pisces: Cyprinidae: Rasborinae)to Kerala
By Raju Thomas K., Biju C.R. and
Ajithkumar C.R 163
27. Sexual dimorphism in cat fish Ompok
bimaculatus (Bloch)
By Molly Kurian and Inasu N.D 164
28. Macrospinosa cuja (Ham.- Buch.) a new
record from Kerala
By Biju, C.R., Raju Thomas, K. and
Ajithkumar, C.R 166
29. New record of Stigmatogobius oligactis
(Bleeker) from India
By M. Arunachalam, A. Sankaranarayanan,
R. Soranam, J.A. Johnson and
A. Manimekalan 167
INSECTS
30. New larval food plants of the Tailed Jay
butterfly Graphium agamemnon Linn..
Papilionidae
By Naresh Chaturvedi 168
3 1 . Black Rajah Charaxes fabius attracted to light
in Tadoba National Park
By R.M. Sharma and N. Chaturvedi 168
32. First record of Cassida flavoguttata Spaeth
(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Cassidinae) from
Satara district, Maharashtra
By Nilesh Rane, Rahul Marathe and
H.V.Ghate 169
139
140
141
142
142
143
143
145
145
146
146
147
147
151
152
157
OTHER INVERTEBRATES
33 . First record of Copidognathus faubuli Bartsch
(Halacaridae: Acari) from the Indian Ocean
By Tapas Chatterjee 170
34. Range extension of Neocancillci circula
(Kiener 1838)
By Deepak Apte 172
35. The giant African land snail Achatina fulicci
Bowdich in Nepal and Bhutan
ByS.K. Raut 173
BOTANY
36. Lectotypification of the hybrid Athyrium x
keralensis Manickam & Irudayaraj
(Athyriaceae, Pteridophyta)
By V. Irudayaraj 174
37. Crotalaria goreensis Guill. & Perr.
(Leguminosae) a new record for India
By K. Gopalakrishna Bhatt 174
38. A new record of the genus Molineria Colla
(Hypoxidaceae) for the State of Maharashtra
By S.R. Yadav and S.M. Bhuskute 176
39. Abnormal branching in Borassus flabellifer
Linn.
By G.M. Narasimha Rao and T.M. Florence 1 79
40. Schoenus calostachyus (R.Br.) Poir.,
Cyperaceae, from Nicobar Islands: A new
sedge record for India
By P.V. Sreekumar 180
4 1 . Additions to the grasses of Goa
By S. Rajkumar, Vaishali C. Joshi and
M.K. Janarthanam 181
Editorial
A Struggle for Survival
In 1936, the then Curator of the Society, the late S.H. Prater, did a survey of the tigers
shot under licence by sportsmen in the districts ruled by the British and in the Indian
states ruled by Maharajahs. The harvest, if one may use such an expression, came to
approximately a thousand tigers shot both with and without licence. There is no evidence
to believe that this “harvest” affected the population of tigers. The forests were extensive
in area, largely contiguous and the population of tigers was abundant wherever optimum
conditions prevailed and this was the case in the majority of tiger habitats. Poaching was
negligible and poisoning non-existent, as the deadly pesticides which are now in common
usage were not available. It can be assumed that a similar number was being killed in
subsequent years without a noticeable change in the population structure of the species.
Conditions changed with Independence. A large area of forest was converted into
agricultural land, and forests where they existed were degraded. Hunting as a sport
degenerated into trophy hunting without ethics, and with the free availability of weapons
poaching proliferated. New chemical pesticides, deadly in effect, provided an easy method
of eliminating troublesome predators on domestic stock, which replaced the wild herbivores
already poached to local extinction.
At this point of time, realisation dawned that the tiger would be extinct before the
end of the century if not protected absolutely. Project Tiger came into existence to protect
the species in identified tiger habitats and the emphasis was on numbers, with little
thought of contiguity of habitat, dispersal corridors, prey levels and the interests of the
suiTOunding human populations in the survival of the tiger. The capacity of the Field
Director was judged by the number of tigers that his tiger reserve was said to hold.
At the end of the century, we have 25 isolated tiger reserves beset with the problem
of poaching for commercial use of tiger parts, reserves largely surrounded by hostile
human populations antagonised at being denied traditional benefits they had taken from
the reserves and the belated realisation that unless the people in the surrounding villages
and those living within the protected areas co-operate, there is no future for the tiger.
How long the tiger will survive in the new millennium depends on how intelligently
the problems facing its survival are managed. Judging from the present, the future is
bleak. ■
Cover photograph: Tiger in Sundarbans
Sudheer A gas he
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are grateful to the Ministry of Science and Technology,
Govt, of India,
FOR FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE JOURNAL.
JOURNAL
OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
April 1999
Vol. 96
No. 1
POPULATION ESTIMATION OF ASIATIC LIONS'
Yadvendradev V. Jhala2’4, Qamar Qureshi2, Vimal Bhuva3 and Lekh Nath Sharma2
( With seven text-figures)
Key Words: Panthera leo persica, mark-recapture, individual identification, Gir lions.
Applicability of vibrissae spot pattern for individual identification of Asiatic lions (Panthera leo
persica) was validated in wild and captive lions. We used computer simulation models to work
out the applicability of the Lincoln-Peterson model and its sample size requirements for varied
population sizes. The model recommended marking over 30% of a hypothetical population of
250 lions to obtain a desired level of accuracy (CV < 20%) for estimating population size. An
appropriate experimental design was then developed for such a census in Gir National Park and
Sanctuary. The vibrissae technique was utilised for individual identification of 80 wild lions in
Gir for conducting a mark-recapture census. The Peterson population estimate of lions (excluding
cubs < 18 months) in Gir was 222. The standard deviation using Chapman (1951) estimator was
±54.5 lions. A separate analysis of the male and female populations estimated 74±17 males and
167±67 females. We also estimated the mean (201 lions) and standard deviation (±23) by a
modified Jack-knife technique. The Forest Department of Gujarat concomitantly conducted a
labour intensive total count of lions using bait for over three days. The total count of lions in Gir
National Park and Sanctuary (excluding cubs) was 94 males, 1 10 females (204 total). Analysis of
past several years census data suggests that the lion population in Gir has been increasing with
an r = 0.022 (P<0.001, R7=0.96). We recommend the use of the vibrissae identification method
as a tool for monitoring, estimating populations, and to develop more sophisticated models for
evaluating survival and movement of lions.
Introduction
Population estimation of wide ranging
carnivores has always been a challenge to wildlife
managers. Several approaches have been tried
for estimating large carnivore numbers. These
include pug-marks (Das and Sanyal 1995, Gore
'Accepted December, 1998.
2Wildlife Institute of India, Chandabani, Dehradun-248 001 .
Fax: (0135)6401 17, E-Mail: <[email protected]>
?Department of Biosciences, Saurashtra University,
Rajkot, Gujarat.
4Address all correspondence to Y.V. Jhala.
et al. 1993, Panwar 1979, Smallwood and
Fitzhugh 1993, 1995), track counts (Palomares
et al. 1996, Van Sickle and Lindzey 1991),
scent-plots (Knowlton and Tzilkowski 1979 ),
mark-recapture (Garshelis 1992, Karanth 1995,
Karanth and Nicholes in press), radio-telemetry
and intensive study in small areas, densities of
which are then extrapolated to estimate total
population (Fuller 1989). In case of endangered
carnivores, population estimates need to be
precise and accurate, since a small decline in such
a population could prove disastrous (Taylor and
Gerrodette 1993, Caughley 1994). Methods for
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(1). APR. 1999
3
POPULATION ESTIMATION OF ASIATIC LIONS
censusing endangered carnivores need to be
practical and cost effective with regard to
prevailing socioeconomic conditions of the
region.
Tiger (Panthera tigris) census in India is
done using the pug-mark technique (Choudhury
1970) whose accuracy and precision were
questioned (Karanth 1987). Karanth (1995), and
Karanth and Nicholes (in press) have used
camera traps to estimate tiger numbers within
intensive study areas in tiger preserves. Objective,
accurate and precise census techniques for large
carnivores are urgently needed. In this paper, we
evaluate the available data on Gir lion
populations and currently used census technique,
and demonstrate the use of sighting-resighting
population estimation (Pollock et al. 1990) as
an alternative for monitoring and estimating
numbers of the last remaining population of
Asiatic lions in the Gir Forest of Gujarat, India.
The sighting-resighting estimate of lions in Gir
was done concomitantly with the five-yearly total
count of lions that is conducted by the Gujarat
Forest Department (Singh 1995, 1997). This
provided a unique opportunity to compare the
statistical estimates obtained by the
mark-recapture technique with the total counts
as a point estimate.
Methods
Total Counts of Lions
Since 1963, the Gujarat Forest Department
has estimated lion numbers in Gir about every
five years. For the 1995 census, lions were baited
with live domestic buffaloes for three consecutive
days throughout the entire lion range (over 1 ,800
km2). Over 250 buffaloes were used and about
1500 man-days consisting of forest staff and
volunteers were employed in conducting this
massive census operation. Most lions in Gir were
used to killing livestock and readily took buffalo
bait. A daily record was kept of all lions that fed
on (or visited) the baits. After accounting for
possible double counts, the maximum number
of lions recorded on any single day was
considered to be the total population.
Precision of Population Estimates
Judging from the Forest Department
records for the past several years, we speculated
that the lion population in Gir was close to 250
individuals. We modelled a scenario wherein a
population of 250 lions was declining at a rate
of ten percent per year. Since there was no way
of estimating accuracy or precision of the total
counts reported by the Forest Department, error
bars with these estimates could not be generated.
Population estimates for large cats having a
coefficient of variation less than 20% are difficult
to achieve in wilderness areas (Karanth 1995,
Karanth and Nicholes in press, Smallwood and
Fitzhugh 1995). To evaluate the effect of
precision and time intervals between consecutive
counts on the practical utility of population
estimates, we generated 95% confidence intervals
on the modelled population estimates using a
coefficient of variation of 20%. We compared
95% confidence intervals on subsequent
population estimates to determine if the estimates
differed.
Individual Identification of Lions
Pennycuick and Rudnai (1970) developed
a technique for identifying individual African
lions (Panthera leo leo) based on vibrissae spots.
Further, they calculated levels of probability of
encountering another lion with the same vibrissae
pattern within a given population.
The vibrissae spot method is based on
variation in the spot patterns of the top row (row
A) of spots with reference to the second row (row
B) of spots (Fig. 1 ). For a detailed description of
the technique see Pennycuick and Rudnai (1970).
We collected data on vibrissae patterns of 40 wild
and 34 captive Asian lions with the aid of a 15
to 30X spotting scope and occasional
photographic records using a 300-500 mm lens.
Spot patterns were recorded on graph paper
(Fig. 1) where each square provides a potential
4
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR. 1999
POPULATION ESTIMATION OF ASIATIC LIONS
1 234 56789 10 1 1 12 13 14 15 16 17
I 1"" fill T 1 1 i
1 23456789
Fig. 1 : Left profile of a lion showing whisker
patterns used for individual identification. Graphical
representation of the same pattern is presented below
(after Pennycuick and Rudnai 1 970)
location of a spot in Rows A and B. Thus Row B
could possibly have a maximum of 9 spots, while
row A could have a maximum of 1 7 spot positions.
Data on the location of the lion, age group,
sex, pride composition, and any additional
identifiable marks on the body like notches in
the ear, and permanent scars were recorded. The
above data from Asian lions were analysed to
test the validity of the assumptions of the method
and reliability of unique identification.
Sight-Resight Population Estimation
Sight-resight population estimate is based
on the Lincoln-Peterson model (Pollock et al.
1990). The model is based on 2 capture (sighting)
sessions: (i) Sighting and individual
identification of a random sample of lions (nl).
(ii) Subsequent sighting survey, wherein another
random sample of lions is identified (n2) and
within this sample, lions that were also sighted
in the first survey are counted as “recaptures”
(m). The model has several assumptions that
need to be satisfied to estimate lion numbers
without bias and with good precision:
(i) Geographic and demographic closure of
the Gir lion population, (ii) correct identification
of each lion with no mistaken identity and (iii)
all lions must have the same, independent
probability of being sighted (Otis et al. 1978).
Population estimation (N) is based on the
principle of dilution:
_ (nl n2) equation 1
m
An unbiased estimate of N is obtained by (Otis
etal. 1978):
N = <-n1.- 'liSZzD _\ equation 2
(m+1)
and its variance was estimated as (Chapman
1951):
Var^ = (nl+l) (n2+l) (nl-m) (n2-m)
(m+1)2 (m+2)
equation 3
where nl = sample of first sighting and
identification
n2= sample of second sighting and
identification
m = number of lions from the first
sample (nl) that were again
sighted in the second sample (n2)
(resighted).
Since we included the entire Gir Forest
(National Park and Sanctuary) covering an area
of over 1400 km2 as our study area, the population
could be considered as geographically closed.
Two small lion populations have been established
outside of the Gir Reserve after 1990 by
dispersing lions (Singh 1997). These were in
Gimar numbering close to 10, and the coastal
forests of Kodinar numbering approximately 20
lions. Movement between these populations and
the Gir protected area could not be ruled out.
Even if such movements did occur during the
course of this study, the numbers involved would
be quite small.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(1), APR. 1999
5
POPULATION ESTIMATION OF ASIATIC LIONS
Session 1 , marking lions, effectively lasted
for six months in the summer and winter months
of 1994. The second session was of a much
shorter duration of 1 8 days and coincided with
the total count exercise conducted by the Gujarat
Forest Department in May 1995. The two
sampling sessions were spaced about 1 0 months
apart. Inevitably some mortality of the marked
lions would have occurred in this time frame
and affected the precision of our mark-recapture
estimate. Since mortality was likely to be greatest
amongst young cubs (Ashraf et al. 1995), we
sampled lions that were older than eighteen
months of age.
Lions are known to be territorial
(Johnsingh and Chellam 1991, Joslin 1973,
Chellam 1993). Prides are found to be composed
of related females, their young and sub-adult
male offspring. Adult males are usually found
as coalitions of 2-3, solitary, in temporary
association with prides or with single females
in oestrus. This social organization precludes
the assumption of random mixing of lions and
independent sighting probabilities. We
attempted to address this issue by sampling areas
at random for intensive searches for lions (White
and Garrot 1990). Lion distribution, in summer,
was determined to a great extent by availability
of water (Chellam 1993). We stratified Gir
Protected area into three strata; i) eastern Gir,
ii) western Gir and iii) central Gir. We mapped
all perennial sources of water in Gir and
randomly selected 2-3 water sources within
each stratum as centres for intensive search.
Eight to ten days were spent in each of
these areas looking for lions, using pug-marks,
kills, roars and fresh scats as clues. Mainly,
fresh pug-marks were located early in the
morning, the tracks followed and lions located.
Lions were then approached to within 20-40 m
on foot and the whisker patterns determined.
To increase sample size of individually
identifiable lions, we opportunistically sampled
any lion that we encountered within the study
area.
The second sampling (n2) was more
intensive and covered a short interval of
eighteen days. It coincided with the Gujarat
Forest Departments total count using baits.
During this sample we spent approximately
equal time and effort in western, central and
eastern Gir. We also used a live goat to lure
lions into becoming stationary till we had
completed identifying their vibrissae patterns.
The majority of our samples were obtained
from lions on bait. A wireless radio network
in Gir was our source of information for lions
that were located during the total count
exercise and we rushed to as many locations as
possible with two vehicles that worked
independently.
Sample Size Determination
It was important to estimate the minimum
number of lions that should be sampled for
achieving a desired precision for a population
estimate. We performed computer simulations
by varying the sample size for the first session
(nl) between 20 and 80 lions and the sample
size for the second session (n2) between 30 and
80. The simulation was run 500 times for each
combination of nl and n2 for a hypothetical
population of 250 lions. Recaptures were
determined and population size (N) computed
by equation 2.
Since we were also interested in the
general application of sight-resight model to
other large carnivore population we ran another
simulation where the total population size was
50, 100 and 250 individuals. Most wildlife
preserves in India are likely to have populations
of tigers and leopards (Pantherapardus) ranging
between the population sizes that we used for
the simulations. For these simulations we
sampled 25 and 50% (nl + n2 = 25% and 50%,
with nl = n2) of the entire population.
Coefficient of variation for the population
estimates were computed and used as an index
of precision.
6
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR. 1999
POPULA TJON ESTIMA TION OF ASIA TIC LIONS
Other Analyses
We performed 1000 modified jack-knife
estimates (Krebs 1989) by randomly dropping 2
to 9 lions from nl and n2, determining m and
computing N for each run. We plotted the N
estimates and their standard deviations obtained
from the simulation to ascertain the effect of
reducing sample size on parameter estimate.
past years as an index for Gir lion population
trends (Fig. 2).
The lion population in Gir was increasing
with an r = 0.022 (X = er = 1 .0224) for the past
25 years (p = 0.0006, R2 = 0.96). There was a
tendency towards achieving an asymptote by the
population in 1995. However, the next total count
will show whether the Gir lion population has
stabilized or continues to increase.
Results
Total Counts
It was not possible to estimate the precision
of the total counts. The counts were likely to
report minimum numbers. The technique was
extremely labour intensive and expensive. It may
become increasingly difficult in the future to use
live bait due to animal rights awareness amongst
the public. Since the same method for obtaining
total counts has been employed since 1968, it
would be possible to use the total counts for the
Precision and Time-frame of Population
Estimates
Population estimates with a 20% CV were
unable to detect any change in the modelled
declining lion population (95% Cl) after 5 years,
or even when the lion population was reduced
to half its size (Fig. 3). A ten percent annual
decline for a large carnivore is a serious cause
for concern. In case of highly endangered species
like the Asiatic lion, estimates need to be more
precise so as to detect small changes in a
Fig. 2: Trends in the lion total counts in Gir between 1963 to 1995. The inset reports regression results for
log transformed total counts between 1968 and 1995.
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(1), APR. 1999
7
POPULATION ESTIMATION OF ASIATIC LIONS
population. The current time frame of five years
interval between total counts (the only form of
population monitoring currently employed in
Gir) is too long an interval for monitoring a
highly endangered carnivore population.
Individual Identification of Lions
The maximum number of spots observed
in row A for any lion were four. The whisker
patterns of right and left side differed in the
total number of spots (Table 1). We therefore used
the left and right sides independently for
calculating frequencies and probability of spots
occurring in each position (Table 2).
The probability of finding any specific
spot pattern on any one side of a lion would
be the total product of probabilities of occur-
rence of each spot in row A (ps) observed on
that lion and the probabilities of spots not
occurring (q.) in the remaining potential spot
positions. Thus the probability of a lion having
2 spots in row A on the left side at locations 3
and 5 would be:
Table 1
FREQUENCY OF DIFFERENT NUMBER OF
VIBRISSAE SPOTS OBSERVED IN ROW ‘A’ ON LEFT
AND RIGHT SIDES FROM A SAMPLE OF 74 LIONS.
X2 between left and right sides = 8.62, p < 0.05.
P (left) = p3 x p5 x ql x q2 x q4 x q6 x q7 x q8
x q9 x qlO x ql 1 x ql2 x ql3 x ql4 x
ql 5 x q 1 6 equation 4
Values for p. and q. were computed from a
sample of 74 lions (nl number of wild lions and
captive Asiatic lions) (Table 2).
The frequency of left and right sides having
a particular number of spots in the sample
population of 74 lions was compared with the
aggregate probability of all combinations having
that number, as calculated from equation 4 and
Table 2 (Table 3). We observed that two spots
occurred more often than expected on both sides
Years
Fig. 3: A modeled population of 250 lions declining at the rate of ten percent per year. The vertical lines are
95% confidence intervals on population estimates (using CV=20%).
8
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR. 1999
POPULATION ESTIMATION OF ASIATIC LIONS
Table 2
FREQUENCY (Frq.) AND PROBABILITY (p) OF OCCURRENCE OF SPOTS AND PROBABILITY (q)
OF SPOTS NOT OCCURRING AT EACH POSITION ON THE LEFT (Lt) AND RIGHT (Rt) SIDE IN ROW A.
(COMPUTED FROM A SAMPLE OF 74 ASIATIC LIONS)
and that one spot occurred more often than
expected on the left side of our sample lions
(Table 3). The occurrence of no spots on the left
side was lower than expected in our sample. This
lack of independence of spot patterns would
reduce the level of reliability of individual
identification of lions.
The probability that more than one lion
has a particular pattern in a population of 300
lions is given by:
n v= px .(1 -p)Mx .M! / AI(M-JC)!
n „+ n ,= (i -pr + m P (\-pt-' » - e
n r- Probability that x individuals have a
particular pattern; e = Error term
p = Probability of pattern occurrence
x = Number of individual with particular pattern
M = Total population (300)
INFORMATION CONTENT
I = - log2p
I = Information content in bits
To match the reliability criteria we would
expect this probability to be e < 0.05 i.e. there
would be less than five percent chance of another
lion having the same identifying characteristics
in a population of 300 lions. Considering the
information from row A alone, all but one lion
met the stringent criteria of reliable identification.
We combined information of row A patterns with
information on the number of spots in row B and
the sex of the lion. With this combination of
information the possibility of confusing 2 lions in
a population of 300 lions was, on an average, one
in ten thousand (Fig. 4).
In accordance with the information theory
(Pemiycuick and Rudnai 1970), for a lion to be
identified definitively from amongst a population
of 300 lions, the individual must convey a
minimum of nine bits of information. All
sampled lions met this criterion and most had
over 15 bits of information (Fig. 5).
Table 3
OBSERVED AND EXPECTED NUMBER OF VIBRISSAE SPOTS ON LEFT AND RIGHT SIDES OF 74 LIONS WITH
DIFFERENT NUMBERS OF SPOTS
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
9
POPULATION ESTIMATION OF ASIATIC LIONS
10*9 10'8 10*7 10-6 10-5 10*4 0 001 0.01 0.04 0.06 0.1
Error Probabilities
Fig. 4: The distribution of sampled lions with the various probabilities of reliable identification in a
population of 300 lions after considering information in spot patterns in row A, number of spots in row B
and the sex of the lion.
35.00
30.00
25.00
«. 20.00 H
C
o
2 15.00 -
o
z io.oo H
5.00
0.00
5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00
Information Bits
Fig. 5: Information bits from row A spot pattern, number of spots in row B, and sex of the sampled lions.
10
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR. 1999
POPULATION ESTIMATION OF ASIATIC LIONS
Sample Size Estimation
Our simulation results showed that to
obtain a meaningful estimate of population size
we needed to sample over 80 lions from a
hypothetical population of 250. The results of the
simulation were less sensitive to different
magnitudes of nl and n2 as long as the sum of nl
and n2 remained constant. The greater the
magnitude of nl+n2, the higher was the precision
of the estimate. For a given sum of nl and n2,
minimum variation in parameter estimates was
obtained when nl and n2 were of equal magnitude.
In the case of varying population sizes (50,
100, 250) where a constant proportion was
sampled (constant sampling effort), the % CV
was lower for larger populations than smaller
populations for the same sampling effort. This
suggests the need for more intensive sampling
in smaller populations to obtain a similar level
of precision in population estimates (Fig. 6).
Population Estimation
The number of lions sighted and identified
for the first sample (nl) were 40. The second
sample (n2) consisted of 48 lions. The number
of recaptures m, exact matches, were 8 lions. We
were uncertain regarding the resighting of one
lioness due to a difference of a light spot seen
during the second sampling. Considering the sex,
location and pride composition of this lioness, it
seems very likely that this was indeed a recapture
and the spot was missed during nl session
(marking). All computations were done
considering m to be 8 as well as 9 (Table 4). A
separate analysis of the male and female
populations estimated 74 (sd 17) males and 167
(sd 67) females (using m=8).
The simulations using the modified
jack-knife estimator provided an unbiased
estimate of the lion number. However, precision
decreased with decrease in nl and n2 (Fig. 7).
This result also agreed with the results of our
35
30
25
> 20
# 15
10
5
0
□ 25% Sampled 250
| 50% Sampled
i
i
100
Population Size
50
Fig. 6: Precision of population estimates (%CV) in relation to sampling effort
(proportion of population sampled) and population size.
11
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
POPULATION ESTIMATION OF ASIATIC LIONS
30ft
25C
1 200
4-1
O
o
£
15C
10(j . . 9 9 9 9 9
N = 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000
2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0
No. of Lions Dropped From Analysis
Fig. 7: Modified Jack-knife estimates of the lion population obtained by randomly dropping 2-9 lions from
nl and n2 and population size estimated for each run. The error bars are standard deviations obtained from
1 000 simulation runs of each scenario.
Table 4
POPULATION ESTIMATES OF ADULT LIONS IN GIR
FOREST, GUJARAT, 1995
simulations for estimating sample size (Fig. 6).
Both the models agreed with regard to population
estimates that ranged between 201 to 224 lions
(Table 4). The modified jack-knife estimates had
a lower coefficient of variation (Table 4) in
comparison to the Chapman (1951) estimator.
All estimates included the Forest Department’s
total count of 204 lions as a point estimate within
one standard deviation of the mean.
Discussion
Total Counts
The data for the population estimates used
for the analysis of population trend were obtained
from literature and reports (Dalvi 1969, Joslin
1973, Chellam 1993, Singh 1997). The total count
method inherently precludes any estimate of
precision or accuracy of the population estimates.
The tendency of reporting an increasing population
in subsequent censuses, for political reasons, may
have been a source of bias in the reported total
counts. We can only speculate that since the method
used for all the counts between 1968 and 1997
were the same, biases (if any) in the estimates
would be similar, and therefore total counts would
at best be a good index of the population trend of
lions in the Gir Protected Area.
Several government and non-government
organizations, reputed naturalists, and wildlife
scientists were invited by the Forest Department
12
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR. 1999
POPULATION ESTIMATION OF ASIATIC LIONS
to participate in the total count exercise
conducted in 1995. Since three of the senior
authors participated in this exercise, we are in a
position to complement its sincerity and sheer
magnitude of effort that was invested by the
Department during the data collection phase.
However, none of the invited agencies or
individuals were involved in the analysis of the
data on the total counts. Lack of transparency at
this crucial stage was arguably the major
drawback of the 1995 total count and probably
also of earlier counts.
Assumptions of the Mark-Recapture Model
Computer simulation results for estimating
mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis) numbers, with
various degrees of aggregation by mark-resight
estimates, have shown that violation of the
independent sighting assumption results in
lowered precision of estimates, while accuracy
and confidence interval coverage were relatively
unaffected by aggregation (Neal et al. 1993). The
strategy of randomly searching pre-determined
areas for lions would, to some extent, ensure
equal probability of sighting different lions from
the Gir population (White and Garrot 1990). We
did observe heterogeneity of sighting probability
between individual lions. The lions of western
Gir were more conducive to permitting close
approach for individual identification, while
those of eastern Gir were relatively skittish and
more aggressive. This behaviour was likely due
to the western Gir lion population being
habituated by exposure to tourism. During the
entire study, we came across four lions that did
not permit us to ascertain their individual
identity. One lioness we tracked early morning
kept moving, and after following her for 2 km
on foot we lost her. The other three were males
that were extremely aggressive and did not permit
us to approach sufficiently close on foot to
ascertain their identification. Heterogeneity of
sighting probabilities produces a negative bias
on population estimates (Neal et al. 1993, Seber
1982).
Even though our analysis suggests non-
independence of spot patterns (Table 3), we
believe that the combination of spot patterns,
unique markings, age and sex information of Gir
lions were adequate to uniquely identify each lion
in the gir population. Rudnai and Pennicuick
(1970) have shown that the vibrissae spots do
not change at least over the period of 19 months.
In the case of Asian lions, vibrissae spots did
not change for the captive lion population in the
Safari Park in Gir and Sakkarbag Zoo at
Junagadh over the span of one year. Tthus, the
vibrissae spot patterns could be considered to be
permanent at least over the period of the current
sampling (one year).
We were uncertain regarding the resighting
of one lion due to a difference of a light spot
seen during the second sampling. This suggests
that even though the vibrissae pattern along with
other natural markings was found to have
sufficient information for unique individual
identification of lions in Gir, there existed a
possibility of observer errors in quantification of
vibrissae patterns. Errors in identification would
also affect the population estimates.
Population Estimates
The highest precision was obtained by
the modified jack-knife estimate which had the
lowest standard deviation. However, the CV was
still over 10% (CV = 11.4 to 16%) and would
not therefore meet the rigorous criteria of
detecting a 10% decline between years (Fig. 3)
(Taylor and Gerrodette 1993). The lower value
of the 95% confidence interval on the smallest
population estimate (Lincoln-Peterson with m
= 9, Table 4) was 108 lions, while the upper
value of the 95% confidence interval on the
largest population estimate (modified jack-
knife, m = 8) was 297 lions. We believe that the
adult lion population in Gir protected area
was between 108 and 297 in 1995 with 95%
certainty.
This study exemplifies the need for large
samples for precise estimates using
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(1). APR. 1999
13
POPULATION ESTIMATION OF ASIATIC LIONS
mark-recapture models. Sampling effort would
need to be disproportionally larger for smaller
populations (Fig. 6). Lions are relatively easy to
sample and “mark” and such large samples could
be made a reality. However, the practical use of
these models for estimating tiger and leopards
remains questionable.
There would be a gain in population
estimate precision if the Jolly-Seber model
(Pollock et al. 1990) or its modified versions,
which include several continuous marking and
capture sessions, were used (Anderson and
Burnham 1994, Bowden and Kufeld 1995, Neal
et al. 1993). Combination of mark-recapture
models with other methods like radiotelemetry
would go a long way in improving population
estimates of large carnivores (Neal et al. 1993).
Such models and combination of techniques
would also enable the study of survival,
mortality, and dispersion, in addition to
estimating population size or density.
For a highly endangered large carnivore
like the Asiatic lion, a continuous scheme for
monitoring the lion population needs to be
implemented. The estimation of the total
numbers of lions may be inconsequential for
detecting trends in the lion population
(Eberhardt and Knight 1996, Karanth 1987,
Karanth and Nicholes in press). Our simulation
study suggests that the best current techniques
used for estimating large carnivore numbers are
likely to lack statistical power for detecting
trends among populations. The monitoring
scheme could be based on population indices and
should have the statistical power of detecting
Refe
Anderson, D. R. & K. P. Burnham (1994): Aic model
selection in overdispersed capture-recapture data.
Ecology. 75(6): 1780-1793.
Ashraf, N. V. K., Ravi Chellam, S. Molur, D. Sharma, &
S. Walker (1995): Asiatic lion (Panlhera leo
persica), population and habitat viability assessment.
Proc. PHVA & Global Animal Survival Plan
Workshop. October 1993, Baroda, India.
slight changes in lion populations (Taylor and
Gerrodette 1993). The monitoring program
would enable timely management inputs in the
form of rectifying measures for control of
poaching, disease and other sources of mortality.
Our study suggests the possibility of utilising
the vibrissae pattern in comination with other
information for reasonably accurate individual
identification and monitoring of the Gir lion
population on an annual basis. This technique
of identification, coupled with more refined
statistical models with multiple marking and
capture sessions, would improve population
estimates and provide additional information on
the demography of Gir lions (Leberton et al.
1992).
Acknowledgements
This research was funded by Grant-in- Aid
allocations for research to the Wildlife Institute
of India. We thank the Gujarat Forest
Department, especially H. S. Singh, for inviting
us to assist them in the 1995 lion census and for
pennission to work in Gir. We acknowledge the
support of CRC, Smithsonian Institution. We
thank H. S. Panwar for inspiring us to
experiment with “new” techniques for census
of large felids in India, I. V. Jhala for logistic
support, A. P. Gore, S. A. Paranjpe, S. K.
Mukherjee and Ravi Chellam for comments on
the manuscript and field assistants Mohammad,
Ibrahim and Murad for their tireless effort,
jungle craft, and tracking ability — without them
this research would not have been possible.
ENCES
Bowden D. C. & R.C. Kufeld (1995): Generalized
mark-sight population size estimation applied to
Colorado moose. J. Wildl. Manage. 59(4): 840-85 1 .
Caughly, G. ( 1 994): Directions in conservation biology. J.
Anim. Ecol. 63(2): 215-244.
Chapman, D.G. (1951): Some properties of the
hypergeometric distribution with applications to
zoological censuses. Univ. Calif. Publ. Stat. 1:
14
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(1) APR. 1999
POPULATION ESTIMATION OF ASIATIC LIONS
131-160.
Chellam, Ravi (1993): Ecology of the Asiatic lion. Ph.D.
Thesis, Saurashtra University, Rajkot, pp 1 70.
Choudhury, S. R. ( 1 970): Let us count our tigers. Cheetal
12 (2).
Dalvi, M. K. (1969): Girlion census 1968. Indian Forester
95:741-752.
Das, P. K. & P. Sanyal ( 1 995): Assessment of stable pug
measurement parameters for identification of tigers.
Tigerpaper. 22(2): 20-26.
Eberhardt, L. L. & R. R. Knight (1996): How many
grizzlies in Yellowstone 1J. Wild! Manage. 60(2) :
416-421.
Fuller, T .K. (1989): Population dynamics of wolves in
north-central Minnesota. Wildlife Monographs 105:
41.
Garshelis, D. L. (1992): Mark-recapture density estimates
for animals with large home ranges. In D. R.
McCullough and R. H. Barrett (eds) Wildlife 2001 :
Populations. Elsevier Appl. Sci. London & New York,
pp 1098-1111.
Gore, A.P., S. A. Paranjpe, G. Rajgopalan, A. V.
Kharshikar, N. V. Joshi, M. G. Watve & M.G.
Gogate. (1993): Tiger census: Role of quantification.
Curr.Sci. 64(IQ):1\\-1\4.
Johnsingh, A. J. T. & Ravi Chellam (1991): Asian lions.
In J. Seidensticker and S. Lumpkin, eds, Great Cats.
Rodale Press, Emmaus, Pennsylvania, pp 92-93.
Joslin, P. (1973): The Asiatic lion: a study of ecology and
behaviour. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Edinburgh.
Karanth, U. K. (1987): Tigers in India: a critical review
of field census. I n R. S. Tilson and U. S. Seal (eds)
Tigers of the world. Noyes Publication, Park Ridge,
New Jersey, pp 1 18-132.
Karanth, U. K. ( 1 995): Estimating tiger populations from
camera-trap data using capture-recapture models.
Biological Conservation 71: 333-338.
Karanth, U. K. & Nicholes, J. D.: Estimation of tiger
densities in India using photographic captures and
recaptures. Ecology, (in press)
Knowlton, F. F. & W. M. Tzilkowskj (1979): Trends on
Bobcats visitations to scent-station survey lines in
western United States. In Proc. Bobcat Research
Conf. : Current research on biology and management
of Lynx rufus. pp 8- 1 2.
Krebs, C. J. (1989): Ecological Methods. Harper and Row
New York, pp 654.
Leberton, J. D., K. P. Burnham, J. Clobert & D. R.
Anderson (1992): Modelling survival and testing
biological hypotheses using marked animals: a unified
approach with case studies. Ecological Monographs.
(52:67-118.
Neal, A. K„ G.C. White, B.R. Gill, D.F. Reed, & J.H.
Oltherman ( 1 993): Evaluation of mark-resight model
assumptions for estimating mountain sheep numbers.
J. Wildl. Manage. 57(3): 436-450.
Otis, D. L., K. P. Burnham, G. C. White & D. R. Anderson
(1978): Statistical inference from capture data
on closed populations. Wildlife Monograph 62. pp
135.
Palomares, F., P. Ferreras, J. M. Fedriani & M. Delibes
(1996): Spatial relationships betweeen Iberian Lynx
and other carnivores in an area of south-western
Spain. Journal of Applied Ecology 33: 5-13.
Panwar, H. S. (1979): A note on tiger census technique
based on pugmark tracings. Tigerpaper 6: 16-18.
Pennycuick C. J. & J. Rudnai (1970): A method of
identifying individual lions Panthera leo with an
analysis of the reliability of identification. J. Zool.
London. 160: 497-508.
Pollock K. H., J. D. Nichols, C. Brownie & J. E. Hinesl
(1990): Statistical inference for capture-recapture
experiments. Wildlife Monographs. 107, pp 97.
Seber, G.F.A. (1982): The estimation of animal abundance
and related parameters. 2nd edn. MacMillan, New
York, pp 654.
Singh, H.S. (1995): Population Dynamics, Group structure
and Natural Dispersal of Asiatic Lions. Tigerpaper
22(4): 1-5.
Singh H.S. ( 1 997): Population dynamics, group structure
and natural dispersal of Asiatic lion Panthera leo
persica. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 94(1): 65-70.
Smallwood, K. S. & E. L. Fitzhugh (1993): A rigorous
technique for identifying individual mountain lions
Felis concolor by their tracks. Biological
Conservation 65: 51-59.
Smallwood, K. S. & E. L. Fitzhugh ( 1 995): A tract count
for estimating mountain Lion Felis concolor
californica population trend. Biological
Conservation 71: 51 -259.
Taylor, L. B. & Gerrodette, T. (1993): The use of
statistical power in conservation biology: the vaquita
and northern spotted owl. Conservation Biology 7(3):
489-500.
Van Sickle, W. D. &F. G. Lindzey(1991): Evaluation of
a cougar population estimator based on probability
sampling./ Wildl. Manage. 55(4): 738-743.
White, G. C. W. & R. A. Garrott (1990): Analysis of
Wildife Radio-Tracking Data. Academic Press Inc.,
New York. pp383.
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(1), APR. 1999
15
CONSERVATION STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION OF SWAMP FRANCOLIN
IN INDIA1
Salim Javed2 , Qamar Qureshi3 and Asad R. Rahmani4
( With three text-figures)
Key words: Swamp francolin, Francolinus gularis , conservation, terai, grasslands,
management
The swamp francolin Francolinus gularis is distributed in the tall wet grasslands along the
Himalayan foothills. Of the 23 localities surveyed in 1988 and 1991 covering the entire terai and
Brahmaputra flood plains in India, swamp francolin (SF) was confirmed from 12 sites; seven
from Uttar Pradesh, one from Bihar and four from Assam. The swamp francolin shows significant
preference (P<0.001) for different grass associations. Sclerostachya fusca and Saccharum spp.
association is most preferred (f = 0.82). Distribution of swamp francolin is affected by the
availability of water bodies (P<0.005). Swamp francolin sighting is inversely related with linear
distance of a waterbody. Livestock grazing is negatively correlated with swamp francolin presence
(PO.OOl ). Group size varies from 1-10 and most adults are found in pairs. Bigger flocks constitute
parents and chicks. To improve the swamp francolin habitat, plantations in the grassland should
be stopped and prescribed burning should be done in January or first half of February.
Introduction
The swamp francolin Francolinus gularis,
distributed along the Himalayan foothills in tall,
wet grasslands of the terai and the Brahmaputra
flood plains, is endemic to the Indian
subcontinent (Ali and Ripley 1987). It occurs in
a few areas in Nepal (Inskipp and Inskipp 1991)
but has probably completely disappeared in
Bangladesh, as Harvey (1990) had no sighting,
but felt that it might still occur in small numbers.
Ali and Ripley (1987) described its exceptional
occurrence in the Cherrapunji plateau (1200 m
above msl).
Very little work has been done on the status
and biology of the swamp francolin, except for
^Accepted September, 1 997
'Centre for Wildlife & Ornithology,
Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh 202 002, India.
Wildlife Institute of India,
P.O. Box 1 8, Chandrabani, Dehradun 248 001 , India.
Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House,
S.B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023. India
brief surveys by Kaul and Kalsi (1990) and Javed
and Rahmani ( 1 99 1 ). A study was also conducted
in Dudwa National Park to develop a suitable
survey technique for swamp francolin census
(McGowan et al. 1995). Based on these
preliminary studies, a more detailed study on the
habitat use of swamp francolin was conducted
just outside Dudwa National Park (Iqubal et al.
1995). A preliminary study on the diet and
activity pattern of swamp francolin was
conducted in Nepal (Shreshta 1992).
The swamp francolin is a threatened
species (Collar et al. 1994) and is considered
vulnerable to extinction under the Mace-Lande
(1991) threat criteria, because of the threat to its
tall grass habitat. Widespread reclamation, and
poaching, to some extent, have adversely affected
swamp francolin distribution.
The aim of our study was to find out
the factors affecting distribution patterns of
swamp francolin and to evaluate the present
conservation problems in protected and
unprotected areas.
16
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1 ) APR. 1999
THE SWAMP FRA NCOLIN IN INDIA
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
17
Fig. 1: Swamp francolin survey sites in India. 1. Rajaji National Park, 2. Lansdowne, 3. Hastinapur Sanctuary,
4. Corbett National Park, 5. Haldwani Division, 6. N. Pilibhit Division, 7. Lagga-bagga Reserve Forest, 8. Dudwa National Park,
9. Kishanpur Sanctuary, 10. Katarnia-ghat Sanctuary, 11. Suhelwa Sanctuary, 12. Sohagi Barua Sanctuary, 13. N. Gorakhpur Division,
14. Valmikinagar Tiger Reserve, 15. Jaldapara Sanctuary, 16. Manas Tiger Reserve, 17. Bornadi Sanctuary, 18. Sonai Rupai Sanctuary,
19 Kaziranga National Park, 20. Laokhowa Sanctuary, 21. Orang Sanctuary, 22. Pobitara Sanctuary (see Table 2)
THE SWA MP FRA N COLIN IN INDIA
Study Area
TERAI
Terai region is a flat stretch of alluvial land
between the Himalayan foothills and the
Gangetic plain. It extends through Uttar Pradesh,
parts of Bihar, northwest Bengal, Assam and
Nepal. It is characterised by soil which is clayey,
boulderless and with high moisture content. The
high water table and annual precipitation from
1000 to 1800 mm per annum play an important
role in determining the characteristic vegetation
of the whole region. The vegetation is of the moist
deciduous type, dominated by extensive patches
of sal Shorea robusta forest, interspersed with
grasslands dominated by Saccharum, Typha,
Narenga and Sclerostachyci species.
Till the early 1950’s the whole terai region
was very thinly populated except for the tribal
tharus who inhabited the area. The north Indian
terai , which once covered 12 districts of Uttar
Pradesh, is now restricted to the districts of
Pilibhit, Lakhimpur-Kheri, Bahraich, Gonda and
Gorakhpur, covering an area of about 6500 sq.
km. The uncontrolled expansion of agriculture,
current land-use pattern and other biotic and
abiotic factors have reduced the once extensive
terai into small fragments (Fig. 1). As a result,
what exists today is in protected areas such as
national parks and sanctuaries amidst a sea of
cropland and human settlements under high
biotic pressure.
DUDWA NATIONAL PARK
Dudwa National Park is situated on the
Indo-Nepal border in Nigahasan tehsil of
Lakhimpur-Kheri dist., Uttar Pradesh. The area
falls under the Terai-Bhabar biogeographic
subdivision of the Upper Gangetic Plain (7A)
according to the classification of Rodgers and
Panwar (1988). The Park lies between 28° 18'
and 28° 42' N lat., and between 80° 28' and 80°
27' E long. The Himalayan foothills lie about 30
km to the north of the Park. The Suheli river on
the southern side and the Mohana river on the
north form the natural boundaries of the Park.
The topography is flat, with a maximum
elevation of 1 82 m above msl. To protect the relict
population of swamp deer Cervas duvauceli in
particular, an area of 212 km2 was declared as a
Sanctuary. In 1977, the area was declared as a
National Park with a core zone of 490 sq. km
and a buffer zone of 1 24 km2. The buffer zone in
Dudwa National Park (DNP) is located to the
north of the core zone and includes tharu tribal
villages. About 30,000 people continue to live
in a stretch of land approximately 5 km wide in
and around the Park (Singh 1982). They are
partly dependent on the forest for thatching,
fodder and fuel wood, thus creating an important
management issue (Javed 1996).
Methods
Surveys were conducted in Uttar Pradesh,
Bihar, West Bengal and Assam in 1988, while
in 199 1 only the former two states were surveyed.
We surveyed all the protected forests and sizable
patches (3-5 sq. km) of conservation importance
in the entire north Indian terai belt and the
Brahmaputra flood plains.
Data on habitat preference and factors
affecting the distribution of swamp francolin
were collected from 1988 to 1994 in Dudwa
National Park. On the basis of reconnaissance
surveys, a few locations were selected for random
transects. Casual sightings of swamp francolin
were also included. Variables recorded for each
francolin observed were vegetation associations,
phenophase, cover value, distance of water source
(linear distance), disturbance factors such as
cattle grazing, grass cutting, plantation (year of
plantation, extent and success of plantation), fire,
draining of wetlands and encroachment.
Vehicular census was done along motorable
paths. At intensive study sites i.e. Sathiana (40
sq. km) and Kakraha (24.5 sq. km) in Dudwa,
permanent transects of varying length from 1 to
2 km were laid in different vegetation types.
Parameters recorded were the same as discussed
in the survey methods, except that in the intensive
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR. 1999
THE SWAMP FRANCOLIN IN INDIA
study areas the effects of fire and flood were also
studied. To record the effect of burning, animals
flushed from burning sites and areas utilized at
the time of burning were noted. During floods,
observations were made from elephant back in
different grassland types.
Analyses
Actual sightings and calls were considered
for analysis. Each call heard was considered as
a sighting record. Care was taken to avoid
duplication of calls/sighting. Dudwa grasslands
are divided into four broad categories (Qureshi
et al. 1990), (a) Tall wet grassland, (b) Short
grassland (c) Moist savanna and (d) Derived
grassland due to anthropogenic factors (Table 1).
Ten associations were identified in these
categories (Qureshi et al. 1990). To calculate
habitat preference, we clumped the associations
into three groups, depending on the dominant
grass species. Group I - Phragmites karka,
Arundo donax, Sclerostachya fusca, Saccharum
spp. (except S. munja), Themeda arundinacea
and Narenga porphyrocoma. Group II - Imperata
cylindrica, Vetiveria zizanoides, Desmostachya
Table 1
FREQUENCY OF DIFFERENT HABITAT TYPES IN
INTENSIVE STUDY AREA (SATHIANA AND
KAKRAHA) IN DUDWA NATIONAL PARK
Table 2
SWAMP FRANCOLIN SURVEY SITES
Disturbance level: 1 = Low, 2 = Medium, 3 = High
bipinnata and Eulaliopsis binata. Group III -
Saccharum munja, Cymbopogon martini and
Imperata cylindrica (drier type).
Chi-square test (with correction for
continuity), Null hypothesis tested by the Chi-
square test (Alleredge and Ratti 1986) based on
data on availability and utilization of habitat,
Kolmogrov-Smirov goodness of fit test, Fisher
exact test, and Phi (Cramer’s) coefficient (Zar
1984) were used for testing the significance of
swamp francolin association with different grass
associations, effect of cattle grazing and distance
of francolins from water source.
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(1), APR. 1999
19
THE SWAMP FRANCOLIN IN INDIA
Results
Status Survey
Twenty-two localities were surveyed, and
we found evidence of swamp francolin at 1 3 sites
(Fig. 1, Table 2). With its presence in all well
protected grasslands and its wide range of
occurrence, this species seems to exist in far
greater numbers than supposed earlier. The status
of swamp francolin is comparatively good in
Uttar Pradesh and Assam, while in Bihar it
occurs only in Valmikinagar Tiger Reserve. Its
presence in West Bengal is doubtful (Table 2).
We did not see any swamp francolin during our
visit to Jaldapara Sanctuary, although its presence
is not unlikely there. Table 3 shows sighting of
swamp francolin in and around Dudwa National
Park between January 1991 and 1992.
Habitat use pattern
Broad habitat categories like tall, medium
and short grasslands did not show significant
correlation (%2 = 2.56, P>0.05) with sightings of
swamp francolin. Swamp francolin showed a
Table 3
SIGHTING OF SWAMP FRANCOLIN IN AND AROUND
DUDWA NATIONAL PARK
(JANUARY TO JUNE 1 993)
% Sightings
Fig. 2: Distribution of Swamp francolin at water bodies
20
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR. 1999
THE SWAMP FRANCOLIN IN INDIA
significant preference for different associations
of three groups of grass species (n = 50, dmax =
29.3, P«0.001). The maximum association was
with group I species (f = 0.82) of which
Sclerostachya fusca and Saccharum spp.
associations were utilized more. Group II species
(f = -0.19) and group III species (f = 0.19)
showed no correlation. The distribution of swamp
francolin is further limited by distribution of
water sources. Significant correlation (n = 48,
dmax =12, p«0.005) was observed between
swamp francolin sightings and linear distance
of the water body. The majority of sightings
occurred within 200 m of the water source (Fig.
2). Cattle grazing adversely affects swamp
francolin; they withstand light grazing, but avoid
medium to heavily grazed grassland patches (f
= 0.90, P«0.001, Fisher exact test). The sample
size constrained to test the differential use of
burnt and unburnt patches. At the time of
burning, the swamp francolins took refuge in
unbumt patches. Within a week after the burning,
they were randomly distributed in burnt and
unburnt patches. Burnt patches bordering
unbumt grass patches were used more. During
the peak flood period, swamp francolin take
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
i 2 3 4 5 >5
% occurrence
refuge in derived (highland) grassland occupied
by group III species.
Group size
Swamp francolin group size varies from 1
to 10 (Fig. 3). The majority of sightings of adults
(52%, n = 29) were in pairs. Four was the
maximum group size in adults. Bigger groups
constituted a pair with chicks. On an average,
five chicks per pair or per mother (range of group
size 2-8) were observed.
Discussion
Large-scale encroachment of grassland,
plantation of commercially important trees such
as Eucalyptus, Dalbergia sissoo and Bombax
ceiba, and fragmentation of grassland are major
threats to the future of swamp francolin. Table 2
indicates the level of anthropogenic disturbance
in different areas. Swamp francolins are
associated with tall wet grasslands (Ali and
Ripley 1987). The group I species ( Phragmites ,
Arundo, Sclerostachya, Saccharum, Themeda
and Narenga) are distributed in seasonally
inundated areas or near seasonal or perennial
CD group size (n=29)
Fig. 3: Distribution of Swamp francolin in different group sizes
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
21
THE SWAMP FRANCOLIN IN INDIA
streams. Group I associations are preferred by
swamp francolin for nesting, cover and for food.
Seasonal trends of association use are not evident
from our data. Nesting generally occurs on
broken down grass stalks or near a waterbody
on grass beds (Ali and Ripley 1987).
Cattle grazing has a negative effect on the
use of an area by swamp francolin. Heavily
grazed areas are avoided due to decrease in the
density of the vegetation cover, while light
grazing seems to have no effect. Species
occupying habitat with dense vegetation cover
are likely to be most sensitive to herbage removal
(Sedgwick and Knopf 1987). Grazing pressure
is generally high in summer, when post-burn
nutritive grasses are available and water
availability is limited.
The grasslands of the terai are burned from
December to April in large areas varying from
1-5 sq. km. At the time of burning, the swamp
francolin takes refuge in unbumt grass patches,
generally near waterbodies or areas safe from fire.
The nesting time of swamp francolin in the north
Indian terai is during February- April. Thus it is
suggested that grasslands should be burned in
January and the first half of February, when
burning will not have any adverse effect on
nesting, and also provide sufficient cover. The
mosaic of burnt and unburnt patches will provide
sufficient feeding areas. It seems that sudden
changes in grassland structure due to burning
may have an effect on ranging pattern, but this
needs further study. Within a week of burning,
the birds were seen utilizing burnt patches. Rank
grass patches not burnt for 2 to 3 or more years,
forming thick tangles of dead and live material,
are avoided by swamp francolins. Studies on
grey- winged and red- winged francolins in South
Africa indicate that burnt grass patches were
preferred by these francolins (Mentis and Begalke
1979). It seems that fire did not have any negative
effect on nesting success, as adequate nesting
habitat was available in the form of unburnt
patches. Sightings of chicks in all the years
except 1990 support our view. The reason for
the decline in chick survival rate is not
understood, and the effect of fire on nesting
success and chick survival needs further
investigation.
Sightings of swamp francolin in agri-
culture dominated areas are centred around
sugarcane ( Saccharum officinarum) and paddy
(Oryza sativa) interspersed with waterbodies
(marshes) of various sizes having natural
vegetation. All sightings in croplands occurred
within 200 metres of marshes having associates
of group I species. The croplands are also shared
by the black ( F . francolinus) and grey
(F. pondicerianus ) francolins.
In its entire range of distribution, large-
scale conversion of grassland for agriculture and
plantation render most of the area unsuitable for
swamp francolins. Plantation in grassland should
be stopped and encroachment on grassland in
protected and unprotected areas should be
checked. Cattle grazing should be minimized as
per the local situation and grassland should be
burned at the end of February or in the first half
of February, leaving some patches unbumt, thus
creating a mosaic of burnt and unbumt patches
to facilitate nesting.
Acknowledgements
We thank Prof. A.H. Musavi, former
Chairman, Centre of Wildlife and Ornithology,
Dr. Jay Samant, former Director, Bombay Natural
History Society, Mr. H.S. Panwar, former
Director, Wildlife Institute of India for their
cooperation at various stages of this work. We
also thank Mr. R.S. Bhadauria, former Chief
Wildlife Warden, Uttar Pradesh, Mr. R.P. Singh
and Mr. K.C. Govil, former Directors of Dudwa
National Park for allowing us to work there, and
Tahmina Shafiq for help in preparing the
manuscript.
22
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(1 ) APR. 1999
THE S W A MP FRA N COLIN IN INDIA
References
Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Compact Handbook of the
birds of India and Pakistan Oxford University
Press. Bombay.
Alleredge, J.R. & J.T. Ratti ( 1 986): Comparison of some
statistical techniques for analysis of resource
selection./ Wildl. Manage. 50: 157-165.
Collar, N.J., M.J. Crosby & A.J. Stattersfield (1994):
Birds to Watch 2 - The World List of Threatened
Birds. Birdlife International, U.K.
Harvey, W.G. (1990): Birds of Bangladesh. University
Press Ltd., Dhaka.
Inskipp, C. & Tim Inskipp ( 1 991 ): A Guide to the Birds of
Nepal. Christopher Helm, London.
Iqubal, P., P.J.K. McGowan & A.R. Rahmani (1995): A
field project to understand habitat use of Swamp
Francolin in northern India. In Jenkins, D. (ed.).
Ann. Rev. WPA 1994/95. World Pheasant
Association, Reading, UK.
Javed, S. (1996): Study on bird community structure of
terai forest in Dudwa National Park Ph.D. Thesis.
Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh.
Javed, S. & A.R. Rahmani (1991): Swamp francolin in the
North Indian Terai. W.P.A. News 34: 15-18.
Kaul, R. & R. Kalsi (1990): Swamp francolin: A Pilot
Survey. W.P.A. News 30: 3-5.
Mace, G.M. & R. Lande (1991): Assessing extinction
threats: towards a re-evaluation of lUCN threatened
species categories. Conservation Biology 5: 148-
157.
McGowan, P.J.K., S. Javed & A. R. Rahmani (1995):
Swamp francolin Francolinus gularis survey
techniques: a case study from northern India.
Forktail 11: 101-110.
Mentis, M.T. & R.C. Begalke (1979): Some effects of
fire on two grassland francolins in the Natal
Drakensberg. S. Afr. J. of Wildlife Res. 9: 1-8.
Qureishi, Q., V.B. Sawarkar & P.K. Mathur (1990):
Ecology and Management of Swamp Deer in
Dudwa National Park, Project Report No. 1,
Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun.
Rodgers, A.W. & H.S. Panwar (1988): Planning a
protected area network in India. Vol. 1, Wildlife
Institute of India, Dehradun.
Sedgwick, A. & F. L. Knopf ( 1 987): Breeding bird response
of cattle grazing of a cottonwood bottomland. J.
Wildl. Manage. 51: 230-237.
Shreshta, T.K. (1992): Conservation Status of Swamp
Partridge ( Francolinus gularis ) in Nepal. In Perdix
VI, First International Symposium on Partridges,
Quails and Francolins, M. Birkan, G.R. Potts, N.J.
Aebischer and S.D. Dowell (eds.) Gibier Faune
Sauvage 9: 553-559.
Singh, R.L. (1982): Management plan of Dudwa National
Park for 1 982-83-1991-92. Mimeographed Report.
Zar. J.H. (1974): Biostatistical Analysis. Engelwood, N.J.
Prentice-Hall.
■ ■ ■
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(1), APR. 1999
23
SEASONAL FOOD PREFERENCE OF THE INDIAN SHORT NOSED
FRUIT BAT CYNOPTER US SPHINX (WAHL)
(CHIROPTERA: PTEROPODID AE) 1
K. Emmanuvel Rajan, N. Gopukumar Nair and R. Subbaraj2
Key words: Cynopterus sphinx , roosting tents, food items, folivory, food
preference, foraging strategy
The short-nosed fruit bat Cynopterus sphinx occurs widely in India. These plant-visiting
bats feed upon fruits, leaves and flowers. They also modify the leaves of certain plants as
“tents” for roosting. Since the availability of fruits and flowers is seasonal, their food
items vary over the seasons. In addition to feeding on fruits and flowers, these bats also
feed on the leaves of Cassia fistula throughout the year. Such folivory of these bats may be
energetically more advantageous to them than frugivory.
Introduction
A number of neotropical and palaeotro-
pical bats are known to modify leaves of plants
as “tents” for use as daytime roosts (Barbour
1932). The Indian short-nosed fruit bat
Cynopterus sphinx roosts in modified leaves of
the creeper Vernonia scandens and mast tree
Polyalthia longifolia (Balasingh et al. 1993).
Plant- visiting bats from both the neotropics and
palaeotropics are known to feed on different plant
parts such as flowers, pollen, fruit, nectar and
leaves (Kunz and Diaz 1995). In all, 250 species
of bats representing two families (Phyllostomidae
and Pteropodidae) depend on plants as a source
of food (Fleming 1988). McCann (1940)
observed C. sphinx feeding on ripe dates. He
concluded that these bats drank the juice and
discarded the pulp.
The available information relating to the
food habits of C. sphinx was mainly based on
casual or incidental observations which have
been reviewed and summarized. Considering the
paucity of information on food habits of C. sphinx
in southern India, the present study was
'Accepted November, 1997
department of Animal Behaviour and Physiology
School of Biological Sciences,
Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai 625 021 , India.
Table 1
FOOD PLANTS OF CYNOPTERUS SPHINX
24
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR 1999
FOOD PREFERENCE OF THE INDIAN SHORT NOSED FRUIT BAT CYNOPTERUS SPHINX (VAHL)
Table 2
FEEDING SEASONALITY OF C. SPHINX ON DIFFERENT SPECIES OF PLANTS
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
25
FOOD PREFERENCE OF THE INDIAN SHORT NOSED FRUIT BAT CYNOPTERUS SPHINX (VAHL)
undertaken to determine the seasonal food
preference and feeding behaviour of C. sphinx.
Study Area and Methods
Studies were carried out (November 95-
October 96) around the campus of the Madurai
Kamaraj University (9° 58' N lat.; 78° 10* E
long.).
Seeds and a large number of partially
chewed fragments of plant parts were dropped
by C. sphinx beneath the feeding roost and day
roost “tents”. The plants ingested were identified
by the seeds, fibre pellets, and leaves, which were
collected under feeding roosts and “tents”. These
remnants were collected in the early morning
hours on alternate days of our study period. In
addition, observations were also made in different
fruiting seasons, on the bats while they were
feeding at the feeding perches, and in the “tents”
during the night with the help of red filtered torch
light (>610 nm).
The flowering, fruiting and the availability
of different food items during different months
of the year were recorded.
Observations
Day roosts of C. sphinx (numbers varying
from 2 to 1 1 individuals) were located by tracing
the fecal pellets and remains of fruit, leaves and
flowers. Six day roosts with a single bat or small
groups were located under a funnel and boat
shaped tents made out of dry fronds of palmyra
palm, Borassus flabellifer. Most of these roosts
are used for weeks or months, and as a “maternity
home”.
While returning from foraging, C. sphinx
carry different parts of plants to the day roosting
sites. If the fruits are too large to transport (e.g.
Annonci squamosa , Mangifera indica, Psidium
guajava) they are consumed in situ on the fruiting
trees. The food of C. sphinx is listed in Table 1 .
The seasonal availability of plant food on which
the bats feed are listed in Table 2.
In the present study, C. sphinx was
observed to feed on 25 plant species. This bat
mostly prefer the fruit of Terminalia catappa ,
which is available for a longer duration over the
season (7 months). Various species of pteropodid
bats, including Cynopterus, have been reported
to forage on the fruits of more than 30 species of
plants in tropical and subtropical regions (Fujita
1991).
C. sphinx also feeds regularly on the
leaves of C. fistula. This was also observed by
Balasubramanian (1988) and Bhat ( 1 994). Such
folivory may be energetically more advantageous
for the bats than the ingestion of abundant
amounts of low-protein fruits (Kunz and Ingalls
1994). Marshall (1983) observed that C. sphinx
feed on flowers of several plant species.
Bhat (1994) observed C. sphinx feeding
only on the flowers of Parkia biglandulosa, and
Madhuca latifolia. However, during the present
study we observed that C. sphinx also feed on
the flowers of Bassia latifolia and Mangifera
indica. The foraging strategy of these bats,
therefore, depends on the availability, apart from
their preference, of different plant parts
throughout the year.
Acknowledgement
The authors gratefully acknowledge
financial assistance from the Department of
Environment and Forests, Government of India.
(14/11/94 -MAB/RE).
References
Balasingh, J., S.S. Isaac, R. Subbaraj (1993): Tent- Balasubramanian, P. (1988): Short-nosed fruit bat
roosting by the frugivorous bat Cynoptems sphinx Cynopterus sphinx (Vahl) feeding on leaves of
(Vahl 1797) in Southern India. Curr. Sci. (55:418. Cassia fistula at Point Calimere Wild Life
26
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR . 1999
FOOD PREFERENCE OF THE INDIAN SHORT NOSED FRUIT BAT CYNOPTERUS SPHINX (VAHL)
Sanctuary. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55:183.
Barbour, T. ( 1 932): A peculiar roosting habit of bats. Q.
Rev. Biol. 7:307-312.
Bhat, H.R. ( 1 994): Observations on the food and feeding
behaviour of Cynoptenis sphitvc (Vahl) (Chiroptera:
Pteropodidae) at Pune, India. Mammalia 58: 363-
370.
Fujita, M.S. (1991): Flying fox (Chiroptera: Pteropodidae),
Pollination, seed dispersal and economic
importance: A tabular summary of current
knowledge. Bat conservation International Inc.
Resource publication No. 2 Austin, Texas pp. 62.
Fleming, T.H. (1988): The short-tailed fruit bat. The
University of Chicago Press: Chicago and London.
Kunz, T.H. & K.A. Ingalls (1994): Folivory in bats: an
adaptation derived from frugivory. Fund. Ecol.
8: 665-668.
Kunz, T.H. & C.A. Diaz (1995): Folivory in fruit-eating
bats with new evidence from Artibeus jamaicensis
(Chiroptera : Phyllostomidae) Biotropica 27: 106-
120.
Marshall, A.G. (1983): Bats, flowers and fruits:
Evolutionary relationships in the old world. Bio. J.
Linn. Soc. 20: 115-135.
McCann, Charles (1940): The short-nosed fruit-bat
( Cynopterus sphinx) as an agent of seed dispersal
in the wild date {Phoenix sylvestris L.) J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 42: 184.
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(1), APR. 1999
27
A PRELIMINARY GUIDE FOR AGE AND SEX DETERMINATION OF
THE HOUBARA BUSTARD CHLAMYDOTIS UNDULATA MACQUEENII^
Nigel S. Jarrett and Stephanie M. Warren2
( With four text-figures and three plates )
Key words: Age determination, sex determination houbara bustard, Chlamydotis
undulata macqueenii
For 16 first year and 20 adult captive houbara bustard Chlamydotis undulata macqueenii, data
were collected on the moult sequence and feather characteristics of wing and tail plumage. First
year birds replaced most juvenile plumage with first adult plumage before age 6 months, but
retained various inner secondaries, greater secondary coverts, outer primaries and corresponding
coverts, and outer tail feathers for at least 10-11 months. A free-living houbara, caught in
Kazakhstan in May, had retained juvenile outer primaries, primary coverts, inner secondaries
and outer tail feathers. These data suggest that the presence of retained juvenile plumage may
enable field workers handling free-living houbara to separate birds in their first calendar year
from adults. The feather characteristics (shape, colour and pattern) of relevant juvenile and adult
plumage are presented, and criteria for separating the two age classes are highlighted.
Morphometries (head, culmen, tarsus, middle toe and sternum length) were taken for 129 adult
birds of known sex. For each morphometric variable, males were significantly larger than females
(between 9% and 15%). However, the range of each variable overlapped between the sexes.
Discriminant analysis of morphometric data correctly classified the gender of 99% of individuals:
100% of females and 98.7% of males; one male was misclassified. The same result was achieved
whether all five variables, or two variables only (head and tarsus), were used in the analysis.
Equations to classify the gender of adult birds are presented.
Introduction
Cramp and Simmons ( 1 980) note that after
fledging, juvenile houbara bustard undergo a
complete moult in which all feathers except a
variable number of outer primaries and outer
tail feathers are replaced by mid-winter.
However, specific feather characteristics have
not been described in sufficient detail to enable
field workers handling houbara to separate first
year birds from adults.
Similarly, male and female houbara cannot
always be separated easily: although male
houbara are significantly larger than females (by
approximately 10%), the ranges of
morphometric variables overlap between the
sexes. Also, despite the feathers of the crown
‘Accepted November, 1997
department of Agriculture and Environmental Science,
University of Newcastle upon Tyne, Newcastle upon Tyne,
NE1 7RU
and neck ruff being described as shorter in
females, the plumage of adult houbara does not
show obvious sexual dimorphism, particularly
during the non-breeding season (Cramp and
Simmons 1980, Johnsgard 1991). Furthermore,
while observation of the elaborate courtship
display may indicate the gender of male houbara
at certain times of the year, female houbara also
perform this display sometimes. (Mendelssohn
et al. 1979, Launay and Paillat 1990, Gaucher
et al. 1996, Owen pers. comm.).
We present a preliminary guide for ‘in-
the-hand’ age and sex determination of the C.
u. macqueenii subspecies using data collected
from birds in captivity. The moult sequence and
the feather shape and pattern of wing and tail
plumage of first year and adult birds are
described, and recommended as criteria to
ascertain age. For adult houbara, univariate
morphometric data, and the results of
discriminant analysis to classify gender, are
28
JOURNAL, BOMBA Y NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96 (I) APR . 1999
AGE AND SEX DETERMINATION OF THE HOUBARA BUSTARD
presented. In future, it should be possible to
establish the age of C. u. macqueenii (as either
first year or adult birds) using plumage
characteristics, and to establish the gender of
those birds classified as adults (with a known
degree of precision) using equations in-
corporating morphometric data.
Methods
The study was conducted at the National
Avian Research Center (NARC), now part of the
Environmental Research and Wildlife
Development Agency (ERWDA) of Abu Dhabi,
United Arab Emirates (UAE). NARC is an
ecological research organisation concerned
primarily with the conservation of the houbara
bustard and its habitat. NARC currently holds
190 captive houbara of the subspecies C. u.
macqueenii. This race occurs from the Arabian
Peninsula and north Caspian Sea, east to
Mongolia (Cramp and Simmons 1980). Most of
the houbara in N ARC’S care were translocated
from Pakistan to Abu Dhabi, adult birds caught
in the wild during the early 1980’s, and were
transferred to NARC in 1993.
State of moult was assessed and recorded
for 10 male and 10 female adult houbara handled
in April and September 1993, January and
November 1994 and November 1995. The
gender of these birds was ascertained surgically,
using an endoscope. More generally, moult
status was recorded for all birds by noting the
presence or absence of moulted feathers in bird
enclosures on a monthly basis. In November
1995, a photographic record was made of wing
and tail feather plumage for five birds of each
sex. Feather samples were collected at this time:
feathers were removed by cutting the rachis with
scissors, approximately 1cm above the feather
follicle. Samples included: secondary 7, greater
secondary covert 7, primary covert 6, primary
covert 8, and outermost and second from
outermost tail feathers.
For 16 houbara aged less than one year
(hatched in 1995) the sequence of post-juvenile
moult was recorded from July 1995 until April
1996. In November 1995, a photographic record
was made of wing and tail feather plumage and
feather samples were collected. Samples
included: secondary 7, greater secondary covert
7, primary coverts 6, primary coverts 8, and
outermost and second from outermost tail
feathers.
In addition, the first author examined five
free-living houbara caught in the Taukum Desert
of Kazakhstan in May 1996. A photographic
record was made of wing and tail feather
plumage.
For 129 adult houbara (birds older than
one year) of known gender (ascertained by
endoscopy), the following measurements were
taken by the first author using dial callipers: head
length (see Fig. 1); culmen length (the chord
from tip of upper mandible to root of feathering);
tarsus length (see Fig. 2); middle toe length
(the dorsal measurement from the joint with the
metatarsus to the tip of the claw); and sternum
length (the length of the keel from the
xiphistemum to the cranial edge).
Discriminant analysis of the morphometric
data to generate a discriminant function and
equations to classify the gender of unsexed birds
was performed using the SYSTAT statistical
package (SYSTAT 1992). The discriminant
function was a linear combination of the
Fig. 1 : Head length measured from the external
occipital ridge (at back of the head - including skin)
to the distal tip of the bill nail.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, .96 (I), APR. 1999
29
AGE AND SEX DETERMINATION OF THE HOUBARA BUSTARD
Fig. 2: Tarsus length measured diagonally on the
outside edge of the left leg from the notch at rear of
tarsometatarsus to the prominent edge formed when
the toes are bent back approximately
90° to the tarsus.
morphometric variables, weighted so that the
statistical difference between the sexes was
maximised. The analysis was performed twice:
once with all five moiphometric variables, and
once with two morphometric variables only (head
and tarsus length).
Note that in the Results and Plates sections,
‘juvenile’ refers to post-downy plumage and
‘adult’ refers to the feather generation replacing
juvenile, and all subsequent adult-like plumages.
‘First adult’ is used only in Plate 2, Fig. 4 to
indicate the first post-juvenile generation of outer
tail feathers.
Results
Age determination
Moult strategy - adult. Adult houbara
underwent two moult cycles. Post-breeding
(beginning late May/early June and continuing
to late September), various body and tail feathers,
followed by the elongated feathers of the crown,
sides of neck and chest, were replaced. Primary
moult began and progressed descendantly to
primaries 5-8. Pre-breeding (beginning in
November and continuing to March), the feathers
of the sides of the crown, foreneck, hindneck and
mantle were moulted and replaced by elongated
plumes. Some belly, wing covert feathers and the
outer primaries were renewed at this time.
Moult strategy - juvenile. Shortly after
fledging, at the age of 2-3 months (July- August),
moult began. Tail feathers were replaced
centrifugally, beginning with the central pair, and
a variable number were replaced before moult
was suspended in September. Two to three
secondary feathers were moulted ascendantly and
lesser, median, and greater upperwing coverts
were replaced in a random pattern. Primaries
were moulted ascendantly and by age 3-4 months
(August-September), primary feathers 3-6 had
been moulted in all birds. Primary coverts were
replaced either at the same time, or just after the
primary feathers were shed. Moult was suspended
for a variable period in autumn, but was usually
resumed at age 6 months (late October to
November), and proceeded with replacement of
the feathers of the crown, sides of neck and chest
(tracts of elongated feathering), and remaining
juvenile tail, secondary and lesser, median and
greater secondary covert feathers. In January,
when birds were aged approximately 6 months,
nearly all juvenile plumage had been replaced
by an adult-like feathercoat. By April, nearly all
birds had still not moulted a variable number of
juvenile feathers including inner secondaries,
greater secondary coverts, outer primaries and
corresponding coverts and the feathers of the
alula. Only one bird did not show any retained
juvenile plumage in at least one of these feather
groups. These data from captive first year birds
indicate that retained juvenile feathering can be
used to separate yearlings from adults up to April,
when they are aged 10-11 months.
Of the five wild houbara caught and
examined at a single display site in Kazakhstan
in May 1996, one bird showed retained juvenile
primaries 6-10 and primary coverts 6-10, some
inner secondaries and the outer tail feathers. This
bird was believed to be a yearling. In contrast,
the other four birds showed complete adult-like
plumage and were considered to be full-grown
adults. This suggests that free-living yearlings
are separable from adult birds at an age of
approximately 12 months.
30
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(1) APR 1999
Jarrett N.S. & Warren S.M.: Chlamydotis undulata macqueenii Plate 1
AGE AND SEX DETERMINATION OF THE HOUBARA BUSTARD
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
31
Fig. 1 Fig. 2
Fig. 1: Primary Covert 6. Juvenile (top). Adult (bottom). Pairs of feathers: female left, male right. Gender is tentative for juvenile
Fig. 2: Secondary 7. Juvenile (top). Adult (bottom). Pairs of feathers: female left, male right. Gender is tentative for juvenile.
Jarrett N.S. & Warren S.M.: Chlamydotis undulata macqueenii Plate 2
AGE AND SEX DETERMINATION OF THE HOUBARA BUSTARD
~o .EL
c
u ir
O
« 5
cd
£ .S2
^ ■§
C
0> ^
>
cd
. £
r- w
tS ™
5? =3
0 __
U _
a H
1 ts
§ §
<u t
oo oj
i- 3
« o
cd
° .2?
no tL.
32
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR. 1999
AGE AND SEX DETERMINATION OF THE HOUBARA BUSTARD
Jarrett N.S. & Warren S.M.: Chlamydotis undulata macqueenii
Plate 3
Fig. 5: Wing of free-living Houbara caught in May in Kazakhstan, first year male bird
(aged approximately 12 months). Retained juvenile primaries 6-9, primary coverts 7-9 visible.
Fig. 6: Wing of free-living Houbara caught in May in Kazakhstan and identified as an adult male bird. Note
that inner primaries and their coverts are new.
JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
33
AGE AND SEX DETERMINATION OF THE HOUBARA BUSTARD
The following differences in feather
characteristics were apparent between retained
juvenile and adult plumage.
outer primaries (not illustrated)
Juvenile - Short and narrow, with pointed
tips when new. Bases to primaries 7-10 white,
and distally, brownish-black with pale buff or
cream- white tips and subterminal bars.
Adult - Long and broad. Bases white and
tips black.
primary coverts (Plate 1, Fig. 1: Primary Covert 6)
Juvenile - Short, narrow and tapering.
Muted dark-brown, palest on inner vane. Outer
vane pale buff at the feather base, lightly flecked
dark-brown. Inner vane fading from dark-brown
to buff towards feather base. Cream to pale buff
feather tip showing variable amounts of brown
flecking.
Adult - Long and broad with rounded tip.
Sooty-black, with buff-white to pale cinnamon
bases. Vermiculated brown black and sometimes
heavily, on pale areas of outer vane adjacent to
solid dark areas.
secondaries (Plate 1, Fig. 2: Secondary 7)
Juvenile - Short, narrow and tapering to a
rounded tip. Dirty-brown with white tips,
variable amounts of subterminal buff
vermiculation with bases off-white on inner vane,
pale buff on outer vane. On inner vane, small
amount of brown vermiculation on pale area
where this meets the dark area of the feather.
Adult - Long and broad, less tapered to
rounded tip. Sooty-black with bases having
brownish-white or cream inner vanes and pale
buff outer vanes. New feathers sometimes show
narrow white tip to feathers. On inner vane,
variable amount of brown black vermiculation
on pale area where this meets the dark area of
the feather.
GREATER SECONDARY COVERTS
(Plate 2, Fig. 3: Greater Secondary Covert 7)
Juvenile - Narrow and tapering to a pomted
and usually worn tip. Feathers translucent, pale
buff or cream with variable patterning, ranging
from narrow black vermiculation, to pale brown
barring.
Adult - Broad with rounded tip. Pale cream
to buff-white, finely vermiculated black. Black
sub terminal bar and white tips.
outer tail (Plate 2, Fig. 4: Outer Tail 1&2)
Juvenile - Narrow and tapering, usually to
a worn tip, appearing more pointed than adult
feathers. Faded cinnamon brown in colour with
brown to black subterminal bar and whitish tip.
Three to five (usually three) dark brown and often
incomplete transverse bars. Cinnamon brown
base colour is lightly vermiculated.
Adult - Broad. Buff coloured with a broad
cream-white tip. Three dark brown (almost
black) broad transverse bars with silver
iridescence. The buff base colour is heavily
vermiculated with black, between and near to
the transverse bars. Sometimes, birds show
vermiculation between white tip and first
transverse bar, others have white of tip extending
to outer transverse bar.
Plate 3, Fig. 5 shows the wing of the free-
living houbara caught in Kazakhstan which was
identified as a first year bird (aged approximately
12 months old). Note the combination of juvenile
and (first-) adult primary coverts. Plate 3, Fig. 6
shows the wing of a free-living houbara caught
in Kazakhstan and which was identified as an
adult male bird.
Sex determination of adults
Of the 129 adult houbara for which gender
had been determined using an endoscope, 79
individuals were identified as males and 50 were
identified as females. There were significant
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
35
AGE AND SEX DETERMINATION OF THE HOUBARA BUSTARD
Table 1
MEASUREMENTS (MM) OF ADULT MALE AND FEMALE HOUBARA. MALE TO FEMALE (M:F) RATIO AND
RESULTS FROM UNIVARIATE t TESTS ARE ALSO SHOWN
differences between the sexes for each
morphometric variable (Table 1, Fig. 3); males
being, on an average, between 9% (head
measurement) and 15% (sternum measurement)
larger than females.
Discriminant analysis using all five
morphometric variables correctly classified
99.2% of individuals: 100% of females and
98.7% of males; one male was misclassified.
Fig. 4 illustrates the distribution of discriminant
scores. The coefficients used to calculate the
discriminant scores were as follows: culmen
0.058, head 0.595, tarsus 0.496, middle toe
0.157, sternum 0.364. The scores produced by
these coefficients had overall zero mean and unit
standard deviation within gender. Equations to
classify the gender of unsexed birds using all five
variables are shown in Table 2. A score is
calculated for each gender, and classification is
assigned to the gender with the highest score
Fig. 3a: Frequency distribution of morphometric variable (skull length) for male (white bars) and
female (black bars) for houbara.
36
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR. 1999
AGE AND SEX DETERMINATION OF THE HOUBARA BUSTARD
b: Tarsus length (mm)
c: Middle toe length (mm)
Fig. 3b and 3c: Frequency distribution of morphometric variables (tarsus length and middle toe length)
for male (white bars) and female (black bars) houbara
(SYSTAT 1992). Head and tarsus length had the
highest loadings on the classification equations.
Discriminant analysis using head and
tarsus length only, also correctly classified 99.2%
of individuals: 100% of females and 98.7% of
males; one male was misclassified (the same male
as above). Fig. 4 illustrates the distribution of
discriminant scores. The coefficients used to
calculate the discriminant scores were as follows:
head 0.700, tarsus 0.643. Equations to predict
the sex of unsexed birds using head and tarsus
length only, are shown in Table 2.
Discussion
The ability to determine the age and sex of
individual birds in a population can provide
important information on aspects of
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
37
AGE AND SEX DETERMINATION OF THE HOUBARA BUSTARD
79 83 87 91 95 99 103
d: Sternum length (mm)
11
107 111
115
16 T
14
12 -
o 10
£
32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
e: Culmen length (mm)
Fig. 3d and 3e: Frequency distribution of morphometric variables (sternum length and culmen length)
for male (white bars) and female (black bars) houbara
reproduction, migration and population biology
(Batt et al. 1992). Data on recruitment, survival
and mortality are especially relevant for game
species, where the ability to model the dynamics
of a population accurately is vital, if harvest at a
sustainable level is to be achieved (Hudson and
Rands 1988). It follows that a technique for
ageing and sexing of houbara could be useful to
biologists examining live birds during marking
operations or dead birds from hunters’ bags.
We have shown that houbara in their first
year retain juvenile feathers (various inner
secondaries, greater secondary coverts, outer
primaries and corresponding coverts, and outer
tail feathers). The characteristics of these feathers
can be used to separate first year from adult birds
38
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR 1999
AGE AND SEX DETERMINATION OF THE HOUBARA BUSTARD
a: Canonical score (5 variables)
b: Canonical score (2 variables)
Fig. 4a and 4b: Frequency distribution of canonical scores derived from discriminant analysis on
morphometric variables with respect to the gender of adult houbara (black bars - females; white bars -
males). Discriminant scores derived using five variables (culmen, head, tarsus, middle toe and sternum
length) (top), and two variables (head and tarsus) only (bottom)
relatively easily. Our experience with captive
birds suggests that these feathers are retained for
upto 10-11 months. Furthermore, it appears that
some juvenile feathering is retained by free-living
birds throughout the first year of life, as
illustrated by the houbara caught in May in
Kazakhstan.
It is possible that juvenile outer primaries
and corresponding coverts are retained by some
birds upto the age of 24 months. Cramp and
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
39
AGE AND SEX DETERMINATION OF THE HOUBARA BUSTARD
Table 2
CLASSIFICATION EQUATIONS TO PREDICT THE GENDER OF ADULT HOUBARA USING MORPHOMETRIC
DATA: A SCORE IS CALCULATED FOR EACH GENDER, AND CLASSIFICATION IS ASSIGNED TO THE GENDER
WITH THE HIGHEST SCORE (SYSTAT 1 992). EQUATIONS GIVEN FOR PREDICTING GENDER USING FIVE
VARIABLES (TOP), AND TWO VARIABLES ONLY (BOTTOM). MEASUREMENTS ARE IN MM.
Simmons (1980) report that some retarded (late
fledged) birds may not replace the outer primaries
before their second winter. Therefore, care should
be taken when ageing birds which have full adult-
like plumage in autumn and early winter, but
which show juvenile outer primaries (primaries
9-10) and corresponding coverts (primary coverts
9-10). It is probable that these individuals are
second year birds, but clearly, further study of
moult suspension and arrest in houbara is
required.
By using discriminant analysis, the gender
of adult birds was ascertained with a very high
degree of accuracy. This method is superior to
using a single morphometric variable, since the
range of these overlap between the sexes (this
study, and Cramp and Simmons 1980). We found
that gender could be determined with the same
degree of precision whether five or two variables
were incorporated into the analysis. When
attempting to ascertain the gender of adult
houbara, it seems sensible to use the minimum
number of measurements necessary, since this
will minimise error arising from variation in
measuring techniques (Barrett et al. 1989). It is
therefore recommended that, to determine the
gender of houbara, field workers use the equations
incorporating head and tarsus length only.
There is evidence of a variation in body
size across the range of C. u. macqueenii , for
example, birds from Arabia have shorter wings,
and wider and longer skulls, than birds from the
Indian subcontinent (Osborne 1989). Therefore,
care should be taken when attempting to
ascertain the gender of houbara from outside the
Pakistan sub-population, using the morphometric
equations provided here (which are based on
birds originating from Pakistan only). Clearly
there is a need to collect morphometries from
throughout the range of this species, as this will
enable more accurate sex determination within
the different sub-populations.
It is likely that discriminant analysis of
morphometric data can also be used to determine
the gender of first year birds (although it will be
important to take age into account when doing
so). We have collected morphometries from birds
in their first winter, but at present the gender of
these individuals is not known.
ACKNOWLEDG EM ENTS
We would like to thank the Crown Prince
of Abu Dhabi, H.H. Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed
Al Nahyan, President of the National Avian
Research Center, and H.H. Sheikh Mohammed
bin Zayed Al Nahyan, Chairman of the Board,
and Mr. Mohammed Al Bowardi, the Center’s
Managing Director, for their support and interest
in the practical and research study carried out
by NARC. We are also grateful to all members
of the Aviculture, Veterinary and Ecology
Departments for their co-operation in this study.
Patrick Osborne provided assistance with
statistical analyses, and John Cooper, Paul
Goriup, Carl Mitchell and Ian Sleigh made useful
comments on an earlier draft of this manuscript.
40
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR 1999
AGE AND SEX DETERMINATION OF THE HOUBARA BUSTARD
R EF E
Barrett, R.T., M. Peterz, R.W. Furness and J. Durinck
(1989): The variability of biometric measurements.
Ring. & Migr. 10: 13-16.
Batt, B.D.J., A.D. Afton, M.G. Anderson, C.D. Anicney,
D.H. Johnson, J.A. Kadlec and G.L. Krapu
(1992): (Eds.) Ecology and Management of
Breeding Waterfowl. University of Minnesota Press,
Minneapolis.
Cramp, S. & K.E.L. Simmons ( 1 980): (Eds.) Handbook of
the Birds of Europe, the Middle East and North
Africa. Volume II: Hawks to Bustards. Oxford
University Press, Oxford.
Gaucher, P., P. Paillat, C. Chappuis, M. Saint Jalme, F.
Lotfikhah & M. Wink. (1996): Taxonomy of the
Houbara Bustard Chlamydotis undulata subspecies
considered on the basis of sexual display and genetic
divergence. Ibis 138 (2): 273-282.
Hudson, P.J. & M.R.W. Rands (1 988): (Eds.) Ecology and
ENCES
Management of Gamebirds. BSP Professional
Books, Oxford.
Johnsgard, P. (1991): Bustards, Hemipodes and
Sandgrouse, Birds of Dry Places. Oxford University
Press, Oxford.
Launay, F. & P. Paillat (1 990): A behavioural repertoire
of the adult Houbara Bustard (Chlamydotis
undulata macqueenii). Rev. Ecol. (Terre Vie) 45:
65-88.
Mendelssohn, H., U. Marderm & M. Stavy (1979):
Captive breeding of Houbara ( Chlamydotis
undulata macqueenii) and a description of its
display. ICBP Bull. 13: 134-139.
Osborne, P. ( 1 989): The bustard morphometries data base:
an introduction and some preliminary findings.
Bustard Studies 4: 125-134.
Systat(1992): SYSTAT for Windows: Statistics, Version
5 Edition. SYSTAT Inc., Evanston, Illinois.
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
41
OBSERVATIONS ON THE BEHAVIOUR OF GANGETIC DOLPHINS
PLATANISTA GANGETIC A IN THE UPPER GANGA RIVER1
Sandeep K. Behera2 and R J. Rao
( With one text-figure)
Key word: Gangetic Dolphin, Platanista gangetica, Brahmaputra, Upper Ganga
The Gangetic dolphin (Platanista gangetica ) occurs in Ganga and Brahmaputra river systems.
Due to human activities like poaching and habitat destruction, dolphin populations in many rivers
including the Ganga river have been depleted. A study on the ecology of dolphins in the Ganga
river, Uttar Pradesh, was carried out during 1993-1995. Various behavioural aspects like feeding,
surfacing, social behaviour and habitat utilisation of dolphins were studied through field surveys.
These aspects, presented in the paper, are relevant
Introduction
The Ganges dolphin ( Platanista
gangetica ) is widely distributed in the broad and
deep sections of the Ganga-Brahmaputra-
Meghna river systems and their major tributaries
from the foot of the Himalayas to the tidal zone
(Jones 1982). It is found in India, Bangladesh,
Nepal and Bhutan (Mohan 1989), but occurrence
of dolphin in China is doubtful at present (Perrin
and Brownell 1987).
Investigations on the ecology and
distribution of the dolphin have been made since
the early 1970’s (Pilleri 1970, Kasuya and Haque
1972, Haque 1976). In recent years, studies have
focused on the status of the dolphin in various
rivers and their tributaries (Jones 1982, Pilleri
and Tagliavini 1982, Gupta 1986, Shrestha 1986,
Singh and Sharma 1985, Rao et al. 1988,
Choudhury and Hussain 1992). Its habitat
preferences in the Indus, Brahmaputra, Chambal
and the rivers of Nepal were studied by Kasuya
'Accepted March, 1 998
Present Address: World Wide Fund for Nature, Lodi Road,
New Delhi-1 10003.
School of Studies in Zoology,
Jiwaji University, Gwalior 474 01 1, M.P.
Email: jaganath@gwrl .dot.net.in
to the conservation and management of dolphins.
and Haque (1972), Jones (1982), Singh and
Sharma (1985), Perrin and Brownell (1987) and
Shrestha (1989, 1990).
Information on behavioural aspects of
dolphin is scanty (Pilleri 1970, Kasuya 1972,
Schnapp and Adloff 1986). Behaviour of
dolphins in the Upper Ganga river has not been
studied so far (Murti et al. 1991). We carried out
a detailed ecological study of the dolphin
Platanista gangetica during 1993-95 in the
Upper Ganga river. Various behavioural aspects
of the dolphin, which are important in the
conservation management of the species, are
presented in this paper.
Study Area
We carried out the study along 645 km in
the Ganga river between Rishikesh and Kanpur
towns in Uttar Pradesh (Fig. 1). This stretch is
shallow, with intermittent small stretches of deep
pools and reservoirs upstream of barrages. The
bank of the entire river stretch upto Kanpur is
sandy and muddy, except between Rishikesh and
Haridwar, which has riffle areas with rocky
banks.
The climate of the study area is extreme
during winter (end November to beginning of
March) and summer (March to June). The
42
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR. 1999
BEHA VIOUR OF GANGETIC DOLPHINS PLAT AWST A GANGETICA IN THE UPPER GANGA RIVER
UPPER JGANGA RIVER
X 'v~ > *.N
Table 1
OCCURRENCE OF DOLPHINS DURING 1993-94 IN
DIFFERENT ZONES OF RIVER GANGA: RISHIKESH
TO KANPUR TOWNS
Fig. 1 : Map of River Ganga showing
the sampling stations
(Rishikesh = 0 km)
Sharma (1985), Rao et al. (1988) and Mohan et
al (1993) for dolphins was adopted to suit the
study area. Intensive ecological study was carried
out between Bijnor and Narora Barrage ( 1 65 km)
where a good dolphin population was identified
during a reconnaissance survey in December
1992.
The study area was divided into different
zones, considering the hydrological and other
habitat characteristics (Table 1). Surveys were
conducted every month in each zone on row boats
along the middle of the river. Surfacing of
dolphins was observed on both sides. In some
areas the river was too shallow at midstream for
the boat. So one bank of the river was traversed
during the upstream survey and the other during
the downstream survey. Field survey was
ANPUR conducted between 0600 h and 1 800 h for one
day for each zone during the first half of a month.
In the second half of the month, detailed studies
at some identified areas were conducted between
0600 h and 1800 h.
Southwest monsoon arrives in end June and lasts
till September.
Methods
Surveys were carried out regularly by boat
and by walking along the riverside to locate
dolphins, either through direct sightings or from
the information gathered from people including
fishermen. The survey method used by Singh and
Dolphin sightings were recorded on maps
prepared for the present study. The size, colour
and behaviour were recorded whenever a dolphin
was found. Habitat characteristics such as river
width, depth, water temperature and flow were
noted at the feeding and breeding grounds. The
group size and sex ratio were recorded for each
sighting.
The surfacing frequency and diving
duration of calves, young and adults were noted
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
43
BEHA VIOUR OFGANGETIC DOLPHINS PLAT AMST A GANGETICA IN THE UPPER GANGA RIVER
using a stopwatch. After observing them for long
periods (1-2 hours), animals were divided into
groups according to body size, colour, length of
snout, and sex. Feeding behaviour of dolphins
was studied by watching them for long periods
at the feeding grounds.
Results
Population: Occurrence of dolphins in
different zones is shown in Table 1 . Of the seven
zones surveyed, dolphins were observed in zones
3 and 4. Only one sighting of two young dolphins
was recorded in zone 7 at Farrukhabad during
September 1993. During 1993-94 and 1994-95,
total populations of dolphin in the study area were
estimated at 20 and 22 animals, respectively
(Table 2). The population of 22 dolphins in 1994-
95 comprised of eight calves, four adolescents,
six females and four males.
Table 2
DOLPHIN POPULATION DURING 1 993-94 AND
1994-95 IN RIVER GANGA BETWEEN RISHIKESH
AND KANPUR TOWNS
Behaviour
Surfacing: Surfacing of dolphins was
observed during different times of the day.
Surface jumps were recorded more than 150
times. In this, the beak appears along with the
melon of the head, followed by the anterior part
of the body. At Brijghat, Puth and Anupshahar,
full jumps (the calves jump out completely from
the water) were recorded. In the late evenings
half jumps of adult dolphins were recorded,
where only beaks and melon are exposed. During
summer, side movement of an adult dolphin at a
very shallow depth (50-75 cm) was observed 10
km downstream of Brijghat.
Feeding: More feeding was observed
during the dry season. At Brijghat an adult
dolphin was seen holding a fish measuring 5-7
cm in its beak at 0700 h on February 15, 1994.
A similar observation was recorded in the early
morning during January, April, and May 1994
at Karnabas. Garhmukteshwar and Puth,
respectively. Their feeding on fishes near a
fishing net was also seen at Puth on April 20,
1994. In the shallow waters, dolphins chased
small fishes and caught them in large quantities.
The food of dolphins reported in the literature is
taken as a basis to identify the food availability
in the study area.
Breeding: Adult sexes were differentiated
by the length of the beak. The adult female has a
longer beak than the adult male. During April
1993 two adult dolphins (male and female)
making surface leaps together 4-5 times
(courtship behaviour) were seen at Garh-
mukteswar. During May 1 994 similar behaviour
was noted at Aharghat.
During the study period, ten adult dolphins
(four males and six females) were recorded.
During the 1993-1994 census, four calves were
observed, whereas in the 1994-1995 census, eight
calves were recorded. Since one female dolphin
gives birth to only one calf per year, the birth of
4 calves in the study area indicated that of the 6
females observed, 4 were participating in the
breeding. From the data on the calves, it is
apparent that there were atleast four breeding
females and 4 adult males in the population. The
remaining two females were either non-breeding
females or not breeding due to non-availability
of a mate. Thus, the sex-ratio of breeding dolphins
in the present study is 50:50. The dolphin
population density in the study area was estimated
at 1 dolphin per 9.1 km. The area has a high
carrying capacity and can support more dolphins.
Migration: It was observed that dolphins
move to much wider areas during the monsoon
44
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR. 1999
BEHA VI OUR OFGANGETIC DOLPHINS PLATANIST A GANGETICA IN THE UPPER GANGA RIVER
season and retreat to some sections of the river
at other times. During monsoon dolphins were
distributed throughout the intensive study area
i.e. Bijnor to Narora, a stretch of 165 km. When
the river is flooded the dolphins get a good cover.
Food is also available as fish breed in this season.
During the dry season, due to decrease in the
water level, dolphins migrate downstream and
are concentrated between Brijghat and Narora
in a stretch of 80 km. In this stretch, they get
adequate water depth due to the release of water
from the Kalagarh feeder canal and Bia river
into the main Ganges.
Coexistence with other aquatic animals:
The study area had, in addition to dolphins, two
species of crocodile, Gavialis gangeticus and
Crocodylus palustris, and twelve species of
freshwater turtles. Around fifty species of wetland
birds were also recorded at different stretches.
Many of these animals are fish eaters and
potential competitors for food. Some of the
piscivorous birds, especially large groups of
cormorants ( Phcilacrocorcix carbo) are
competitors with dolphin as they also prefer small
fishes. River terns (Sterna aurantia) were always
present where dolphins were feeding.
Discussion
Dolphins exhibit subtle and complex
behaviour. They are social animals and live in
small to large groups, associated with many
animals like crocodiles, turtles and wetland birds.
The behaviour of dolphins, particularly marine
forms, has been known, both in nature and in
captivity. Behaviour of the Ganges dolphin is less
studied as its population is very small. Sightings
are restricted to occasional glimpses. A
significant contribution on dolphin behaviour is
that of Pilleri (1970) who studied swimming,
diving, blowing, leaping, flight and panic
behaviour of Platanista gangetica.
The glimpses of surfacing dolphins in
selected stretches of the river help in locating
and counting them. By regular monitoring of a
river stretch, all the surfacing dolphins can be
counted according to the sizes, sexes and groups.
This helps to assess the population of dolphins
in various rivers.
Pilleri (1970) reported that injured and
dead fish are not eaten by dolphins. Due to small
beak size and the shape of the teeth, it is apparent
that dolphins feed on small fishes only. To get
sufficient energy, the animal has to feed on a large
quantity of fish, so it always follows the shoals
of fish available in shallow zones. The dolphin
also chases small fish into shallow waters to catch
them easily.
Breeding behaviour is important in the
population growth of a species. Pilleri (1971)
observed copulatory behaviour of Platanista
gangetica during April in a tributary of
Brahmaputra at a depth of 3 m. According to
him, the dolphin pair came out of the water
vertically, exposing half of their bodies for several
seconds, with their bellies touching, before
falling back into the water, to roll over together
and lie approximately diagonal to the water line.
In the Bijnor-Narora area, dolphins have a
gestation period of 10-12 months, and give birth
during March- April.
Dolphins do not stay in a particular
location permanently, but move from one place
to another for food, breeding or in search of
proper cover (Jones 1982). The migration of
dolphins has been broadly divided by earlier
workers into two types; seasonal and local
migration (Kasuya and Haque 1972, Jones 1982,
Pilleri and Taglivini 1982, Singh and Sharma
1985 and Mohan et al. 1993). Pilleri and
Taglivini (1982) reported that dolphins of
Narayani river in Nepal migrate when the water
level of Rapti river rises and is enriched by fishes
and crustaceans. Mohan et al. (1993) recorded
seasonal migration of dolphins in Brahmaputra
river. According to them, dolphins ascend
upstream during the flood. In Manas, Dikhow,
Buridihing and Dansiri rivers they observed
similar migration. Downstream movement of
dolphins was also recorded by Kasuya and Haque
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
45
BEHA VIOUR OFGANGETIC DOLPHINS PLATANISTA GANGETICA IN THE UPPER GANGA RIVER
(1972), and Jones (1982) in the Brahmaputra,
Meghna, and the rivers of Nepal.
Local migration of dolphins is a regular
phenomenon. The fluctuation of number and
group composition of dolphins at a particular
area, and disappearance of dolphins from
preferred places indicated local migration. It is
assumed that such movement of dolphins is in
search of food (Sinha 1993), to join other groups
for breeding (Singh and Sharma 1 985) or to avoid
human interference.
Dolphins were observed between Bijnor
barrage and Narora barrage. This is the only
surviving population in the upper stretch of the
Ganga river. According to Ballou (1995), small
populations are challenged by a number of
factors that increase the likelihood of their
extinction. If a population is declining in
Refer
Ballou, J. (1995): An overview of small population biology.
Zoos Print 70(9): 3.
Choudhury, B.C. & S.A. Hussain (1992): Ganges river
dolphin in protected areas of India. Review of its status
and conservation needs. Abs. Seminar on conservation
of river dolphins of the Indian Subcontinent. New Delhi.
Gupta, P.D. (1986): The Ganges river dolphin Platanista
gangetica (Lebeck). In: Wildlife Wealth of India. Ed.
T.C. Majupuria, Tecpress Service, L.P. Bangkok.
Haque, A.K.M. Aminul (1976): Comments on the
abundance and distribution of the Ganges susu,
Platanista gangetica and the effects of the Farakka
barrage on its population. Conservation and
Management of Marine Animals and their Environment
Begen.
Jones, S. (1982): The present status of the Ganges river
susu, Platanista gangetica with comments on the Indus
susu P. minor. Mammals of the seas. FAO Fisheries
series No. 5 Vol. IV, FAO. Rome.
Kasuya, T. (1972): Some information of the growth of the
Ganges dolphin with comments on the Indian dolphin.
Sci. Rep. Whales. Res. Inst. Tokyo, 24 : 87-108.
Kasuya, T. & A.K.M. Aminul Haque (1972): Some
informations on distribution and seasonal movement
of the Ganges dolphin. Sci. Rep. Whales. Res. Inst. 24:
109-115, 1 plate.
Mohan, R.S. Lal (1989): Conservation and management
of the Ganges river dolphin Platanista gangetica in
number, and no action is taken to reverse the
trend, then local extinction is imminent. This is
applicable to the dolphins in the present study
area. Protection to the small population between
Bijnor and Narora barrages has to be given high
priority. This will be better achieved if this
river stretch is protected as a Dolphin Sanctuary.
Necessary measures have to be taken to regulate
the fishing activities and also to maintain
water quality, to provide a suitable habitat for
dolphins.
Acknowledgments
We are thankful to Ganga Project
Directorate, Government of India for financial
assistance. We also thank various people who
helped in many ways during the study.
E N C E S
India. Proc. Biology and Conservation of the
Platanistoid Dolphins. Eds. Perrin, W.F. and Brownell,
R.L. Jr., Zhou Kaiya, and Liu, Jiankang, IUCN/SSC,
Occasional Paper 5.
Mohan, R.S. Lal, S.C. Dey, S.P. Bairagi & S. Roy ( 1 993):
Studies on the population of Ganges river dolphin,
Platanista gangetica of Brahmaputra, Assam. Annual
report (1992-93). IUCN.
Murti, C.R., K.S. Bilgrami, T.M. Das & R.P. Mathur
(1991): The Ganga. A Scientific Study. Northern Book
Centre. New Delhi.
Perrin W.F. & R.L. Brownell (1987): Report of the
Workshop on Biology and Conservation of the
platanistoid dolphins. Wuhan, People’s Republic of
China. Published by IUCN.
Pilleri, G. (1970): Observations on the behaviour of
Platanista gangetica in the Indus and Brahmaputra
rivers. In: Investigations on Cetacea, ed. Pilleri 2:26-
60.
Pilleri, G. (1971 ): Observation of the copulatory behaviour
of the Ganges river dolphin, Platanista gangetica. In:
Investigations on Cetacea. 3 (I): 3 1 -33.
Pilleri, G. & F. Tagliavini (1982): Observations on the
ecology and distribution of the susu ( Platanista
gangetica ) in Nepalese Rivers, In: Investigations on
Cetacea. Ed. Pilleri XIII: 57-261 .
Rao, R.J., S.A. Hussain & R.K. Sharma ( 1 988): The status
and conservation of Gangetic dolphin ( Platanista
46
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR. 1999
BEHA VIOUR OFGANGETIC DOLPHINS PLATANISTA GANGETICA IN THE UPPER GANG A RIVER
gangetica ) in the National Chambal Sanctuary.
Tigerpaper April- June, pp 6-1 0.
Schnapp, D. & B. Adloff (1986): River Dolphins.
Operation Platanista. Copenhagen.
Shrestha, T.K. (1986): Ecology of Gangetic dolphin,
Platanista gangetica in the Karnali river. In: Nepal
Himalaya Geo-ecological perspectives, pp 112-142. Ed.
Hoshi, S.C. Himalayan Res. Group, Nainital.
Shrestha, T.K. (1989): Biological, status and Conservation
of the Ganges river Dolphin, P. gangetica in Nepal. In:
Biology and conservation of the river dolphins. Eds.
Perrin, Brownell, Kaiya and Jiankang. Occasional
Papers of the IUCN/SSC No. 3.
Shrestha, T.K. ( 1 990): Resource ecology of the Himalayan
waters. Tribhuvan Univ. Press.
Singh, L.A.K. & R.K. Sharma (1985): Gangetic dolphin,
Platanista gangetica: Observations and distribution
pattern in National Chambal Sanctuary. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 82(3): 648-653.
Sinha, R.K. (1993): Bio-conservation of the Gangetic
dolphin (. Platanista gangetica) and turtle ( Kachuga
tecta). Annual Progress report. GPD.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
47
MOULT IN SOME BIRDS OF PALNI HILLS, WESTERN GHATS
Balachandran, S.* 2
( With one text-figure)
Key words: Moult, Garrulax jerdoni , laughing thrush, Zosterops palpebrosa , white-
eye, Muscicapa albicaudata, verditer flycatcher, Palni Hills.
Bird ringing studies at Kodai Hills in winter and summer indicate that most of the resident
species undergo a complete moult once a year soon after breeding ( April-May), which is expected
to be complete not later than August in all the species. Moult duration for three species, namely
Garrulax jerdoni, Zosterops palpebrosa, and Muscicapa albicaudata were estimated. Smaller
birds tend to have a shorter duration than larger species. Post-juvenile moult was observed in two
species of bulbuls ( Pycnonotus jocosus and Hypsipetes madagascariensis). Variation in
commencing dates at different altitudes was also observed within a species.
Introduction
The seasonality of the Palearctic migrants
passing through and wintering in the Western
Ghats, and the life cycle of most of the resident
species, are poorly understood. Bird ringing
camps organised in different seasons in 1990-91
at Palni Hills by the Bombay Natural History
Society provided valuable information on the
seasonality of the wintering Palearctic migrants
and the altitudinal movements of resident birds.
Based on the data collected on moulting of some
resident species of Palni Hills during November
1990 and April to June 1991, an attempt been
made to study primary moult and its duration.
Study area
Kodaikanal hills are situated at an altitude
of 2100 m on the easternmost tip of the Palni
Hills, an off- shoot of the main Western Ghats. A
circular main road begins from Kodaikanal (10°
41' N, 77° 29' E), passes through Gundar,
‘Accepted March, 1997
2Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai - 400 023.
Present address:
1 1/100, Central Street, Agasteeswaram P.O.,
Kanyakumari District. Tamil Nadu. 629 701
Poomparai, Paricombai, Manna vanur, Benjam,
Mathikattan Shola, Pillar rock and ends at
Kodaikanal. Bird netting was carried out on
either side of the road upto 4 km before and after
Poomparai, which lies about 20 km from
Kodaikanal on the ring road. Poomparai village
is surrounded by cultivated land, with plantations
of Pinus, Eucalyptus and Acacia spp. Natural
primary forest is restricted to isolated pockets
and at the edges of two plantations. Diverse
microhabitats such as shola pockets, primary
forests, scrub jungle, clear felled areas with
secondary growth and various plantations
(acacia, pine, and eucalypt), provide for a great
abundance of birds. The remnant original forests
and the clear felled area with secondary growth
are ideal for netting. The exotic weed Eupatorium
occurs in patches.
The other areas covered with netting were
Berijam on the ring road at an altitude of about
2500 m, and Marian shola and Pulavachar which
lie 10 km and 18 km away from Berijam, on the
Berijam-Munnar Road before Top station. Very
good shola patches are found in Berijam and
Marian shola. At Pulavachar most of the primary
forests have been cleared for plantation.
Netting was also carried out at the moist
deciduous forests around Oothu and Pannaikadu
48
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR. 1999
MOULT IN SOME BIRDS OF PALNI HILLS
area situated at an altitude of 1000-1100 m
between Battlagundu and Kodaikanal.
Plantations adjacent to these forests were mainly
coffee and orange.
Methods
Birds were netted with mistnets from
November 5 to November 20, 1990 and April 20
to June 7, 1991 (summer). All the birds caught
and handled for ringing were examined for
moult. Though netting was not done for the full
month in April and June, the birds caught during
the last week of April, and first week of June
were taken as the samples for summer. The birds
examined for moult during November were taken
as the samples for winter.
Primary feathers were numbered from
distal (1) to proximal (10), including the much
reduced distal primary, making a total of ten
primaries. Similarly, eight secondaries were also
numbered. The primaries, secondaries and the
rectrices ( 12 in number) were examined for moult
which was recorded on separate moult cards by
assigning each primary and secondary feather
an integral score between *0’ (old feathers) and
‘5’ (full grown feathers). The British Trust for
Ornithology (BTO) notation was adopted (Snow
Table 1
NUMBER OF BIRDS IN MOULT IN DIFFERENT MONTHS
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
49
MOULT IN SOME BIRDS OF PALNI HILLS
40
30
o
o
CO
20
CD
* *
» •* I
10-
» »•
f 8 •
— t 1 r
24 29 4
April
“1 T"
14 19
May
Date
24 29
H I
3 8
June
Fig. 1 : Progress of primary moult in Garrulax jerdoni
1967) for scoring. A score of ‘T was given to a
feather missing or in pin, ‘2’ ‘3’ and ‘4’ to one-
third, two-thirds, and nearly full grown feathers.
The scores for all the ten primaries and eight
secondaries of each wing were then added
separately to get a primary moult score with a
maximum of 50 and a secondary score of 40.
Moult scores of different individuals of
laughing thrush were plotted against the dates
of capture to estimate the duration, starting, and
ending dates of moult. Duration of moult was
also calculated from the rate of feather growth
of an individual bird caught more than once
during its moulting period. Secondary scores of
a few species were plotted against the primary
score, to establish the relation between primary
and secondary growth.
Generally, the word ‘moult’ denotes
primary moult unless otherwise mentioned. As
the data collected were from the earlier stage of
the moult, the commencing date of the moult is
evident from this study.
White-breasted Laughing thrush
Garrulax jerdoni : The first adult bird in primary
moult was obtained with the score of ‘12’ on
April 24. However, among the 33 adults caught
during the first week of June, 21% had yet to
commence the moult. Moreover, the moulting
individuals had wide variation in moult score.
This indicates that the commencing date of
primary moult also ranged from mid-April to
mid- June (Table 1 and Fig. 1)
Among 57 moulting birds, the only
individual seen with arrested moult was also the
one with the maximum score (30). It was caught
on July 1 1 . The birds observed with a moult score
between 20 and 30 in early June must have
commenced moulting in mid-April. Since the
laughing thrush had obtained 50% of the primary
moult score in seven weeks (mid-April to early
June) it could be expected to complete the moult
in another seven weeks i.e. by the end of July.
Possibly, the moult duration for this species was
around 100 days (14 weeks).
50
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1 ) APR. 1999
MOULT IN SOME BIRDS OF PALNI HILLS
Table 2
NUMBER OF GROWING PRIMARIES IN DIFFERENT SPECIES
Species
No. of birds No. of primaries in growth
in moult 1 2 3 4 5
Garrulaxjerdoni 57
Zosterops pcilpebrosa 1 9
Megaiaimo viridis 6
Pycnonotus jocusus 3
Muscicapa albicaudata 3
Pomatorhinus schisticeps 2
Pams xanthogenys 1
Culicicapa ceylonensis 3
Chrysocolaptes lucidus 2
Hypsipetes indicus 3
Moult duration calculated on the rate of
growth from retrapped birds varied between 1 GO-
116 days. Though the number of primaries
growing concurrently varied from 1 to 4, most
moulting individuals were observed with two
primaries growing concurrently followed by
one.
In all individuals, secondary moult
commenced while the primary moult was in
progress. Generally, like the secondary moult,
the tail moult started after the commencement
of the primary moult. However, in some
individuals, tail moult preceded the primary
moult.
Among 130 young birds examined for
moult, post-juvenile moult was not noticed till
early June.
White-eye Zosterops palpebrosa : In this
species, the primary moult commences from the
first week of May. It was evident that all the 71
adults caught and examined for moult during
April had not commenced moulting. Though the
commencing date is two weeks later than that of
the laughing thrush, 45% of the adults caught in
the first week of June were yet to commence their
moult. Birds with a moult score between 20 and
15 33 7 2 -
6 11 1 1
15---
12- - -
12---
2
1 - - - -
111-
2
3 - - - -
30 in early June might have started the moult in
early May, and could be expected to complete it
by early July. Hence, the duration would be 8-9
weeks.
An unmoulted adult caught on April 20
was retrapped with a score of ‘19’ on May 22.
Since the score had increased from ‘O’ to ‘19’
within 30 days (assuming that it had commenced
moulting a day after the first capture), based on
the rate of growth, the duration should be less
than 79 days. As none of the birds was seen in
primary moult till the end of April, it must have
commenced in the first week of May at the
earliest, in which case the duration would be
around 58 days. •
The secondary moult was noticed after the
primary score reached ‘15’. Tail moult was
observed in some individuals before the primary
moult had started. The number of primary
feathers in growth varied from 1 to 3. The
majority of moulting birds were seen with two
feathers in growth (Table 2).
Small green barbet Megalaima viridis :
A total of 25 adults were caught from Poomparai
(high altitude) and Pannaikkadu (lower altitude)
area. Out of them, six were moulting. The birds
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
51
MOULT IN SOME BIRDS OF PALNI HILLS
caught till the middle of May at Poomparai were
yet to begin moulting. The two birds caught on
May 21 and June 7 had a moult score of ‘3’ and
"6' respectively. Out of the seven individuals
caught on June 2 at Pannaikkadu, four were in
moult, with a score varying between ‘6’ and ‘26’.
The moult commences in the third week of May
at Poomparai; at Pannaikkadu it is perhaps much
earlier than at Poomparai. Out of six moulting
birds, five were observed with two primaries
growing concurrently (Table 2). The duration
could not be calculated as the sample was
small.
Nilgiri Verditer flycatcher Muscicapa
albicaudata : Out of the 47 adults caught between
late April and early May, only three birds were
in moult. The first such bird was obtained on
May 17 with the score of ‘22’. The other two
were caught in the first week of June and had a
score of ‘26’ and ‘29’. This shows that only a
small population of this species undergoes moult
in May and June, and the majority of the
population will moult at a later date. However,
the rate of growth calculated from a retrapped
individual indicated that the moult was fast and
its duration short. In a 40 days interval, the
increase in score was ‘29’. Assuming that the
moult had commenced the day after its first
capture, the duration would be less than 69
days.
Greyheaded flycatcher Culicicapci
ceylonensis : Among the nine adults, the first six
caught between late April and early May had
not commenced moulting. The remaining three,
caught between May 14 and 21, had scores of
‘ 1 1’ and ‘12’. This indicates that the species
commences its primary moult in early May.
Scimitar babbler Pomatorhinus
schisticeps : Seven birds caught in April and May
had not commenced moulting, but the two birds
netted on June 5 and 6 had a moult score of ‘6’,
indicating that the moult commences by the end
of May or early June.
Yellow-cheeked tit Parus xanthogenys :
Out of the eight individuals netted between April
and early June, only one caught on June 7 was
moulting and had a moult score of ‘9’, indicating
that moult must have commenced at the end of
May.
Tickell’s flowerpecker Dicaeum
erythrorhynchos : Four adults were netted during
the study period. Adults in April and May had
an advanced moult score between ‘35’ to ‘45’
and the one caught in early June had completed
its moult.
Larger goldenbacked woodpecker
Chiysocolaptes lucidus : Two birds caught on
May 1 8 at Oothu were in moult, with a score of
‘19’ and ‘22’.
Yellowbrowed bulbul Hypsipetes indicus :
Out of the seven birds caught on May 1 8 and 19,
four were in moult with the score between ‘9'
and ‘15’. The two birds caught in the first week
of June had yet to commence moulting.
Black bulbul Hypsipetes madagascariensis:
An adult bird with a score of ‘9’ on April 23
was the only moulting bird among the nine
examined in the same month. The only adult
caught in June had a score of ‘ 18’. Among the
four juveniles, two were in post-juvenile moult.
Redwhiskered bulbul Pycnonotus
jocosus : A total of 49 adults and six juveniles
were caught and examined between April and
early June. Till June 7, none of the adults had
commenced wing moult. A few adults were
observed in tail moult. Post-juvenile moult was
observed from April. Out of the six juveniles
examined in three months, four were in moult
with scores ranging from ‘5’ to ‘20’.
Other species: The only grey jungle fowl
Gallus sonneratii netted on May 1 8 had a score
of ‘14’. Among the two spotted doves
Streptopelia chinensis, one had arrested its
primary moult after renewing four inner
primaries. The white-bellied shortwing
Brachypteryx major albiventris one of the
commonest species in the Kodai hills, had not
commenced wing moult till June 7. In the 65
adult birds, only tail moult was noticed in some
individuals. The other common species of Kodai
52
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96 (!) APR. 1999
MOULT IN SOME BIRDS OF PALNI HILLS
hills not observed in moult were the blackbird
Turdus merula, jungle myna Acridotheres fuscus
and black-and-orange flycatcher Muscicapa
nigrorufa.
Discussion
The studies at Palni Hills in winter and
summer indicate that most of the resident species
undergo a complete moult once a year, soon after
their breeding in summer. Moulting is completed
between July and August in all the species, as
most of them are in partial primary moult till
early June, while in November all the species
seen have fresh as well as slightly worn
primaries. This indicates that primary feathers
must have been renewed two to three months
earlier, that is before the end of August. Probably
the same primaries were retained till April and
May, by which time they became frayed with age.
As the post nuptial moult is expected to be
completed between July and August, it is clearly
not possible for them to undergo another moult
before November. The fresh primaries observed
during November and the old primaries about
to be renewed in April confirmed that there was
no moult from December to March. Thus this
study clearly shows that the birds of the Palni
Hills have a definite period (April to August) to
complete their moult after breeding (February
to April).
Feather replacement: Though the
commencement date of the primary moult varied
between species and also between individuals
of the same species, the pattern of feather
replacement in individuals of all the species was
the same. They started from the innermost
primary and progressed outwards. The
secondary feathers generally started from the
outer feather and progressed inwards initially,
and later from the middle and the innermost
secondaries also. Tail feathers also generally
commenced from the middle feathers and
progressed both ways, but in some individuals
the feather replacement was irregular.
The same kind of regular replacement was
observed in the post nuptial and post-juvenile
moults of the resident birds of Timpati Hills of
the Eastern Ghats, especially in three species of
bulbuls namely whitebrowed ( Pycnonotus
luteolus), redvented (P. cafer) and redwhiskered
( P.jocosus ) (Balachandran et al. 1 995). However,
in the resident birds of Point Calimere, even
within the same species (P. luteolus , P. cafer),
the feather replacement was irregular and birds
with moult were observed throughout the year
(unpublished data). This may be due to the
absence of definite breeding seasons at Point
Calimere, where both species breed throughout
the year. However, at Timpati and Kodai Hills
all birds complete breeding in a particular season
and undergo a post-nuptial moult soon after
breeding.
Commencing date: Variation in commen-
cing date among the species may be due to the
variation in the breeding season. The most
common species, the white-breasted laughing
thrush, was probably the earliest breeder among
the resident species, and also had the earliest
commencing date (mid- April). From the status
of the brood patch, it was inferred that a smaller
population of the birds caught in April were
brooding and attending the nest. In May, very few
birds had a brood patch, and the proportion of
young birds was high in late May and early June.
Other species which commenced moulting
in April included the Tickell’s flowerpecker.
Scimitar babbler and yellow-cheeked tit were the
late moulting species, they commenced moult at
the end of May. The non-moulting species during
the study period were the blackbird, black-and-
orange flycatcher, white-bellied shortwing and
redwhiskered bulbul (only adult).
The commencing date of moult for the
small green barbet was seen to vary at different
altitudes. Birds from lower altitudes commence
moulting much earlier than high altitude forms.
This may be due to the abundance of food,
especially Ficus sp., the favourite fruit of many
birds commonly found at low altitudes.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
53
MOULT IN SOME BIRDS OF PALNI HILLS
Moult duration: The moult duration
mainly depends upon the rate of feather growth.
It appears that smaller birds tend to have a shorter
duration than bigger birds. Among the estimated
duration for three species (laughing thrush,
verditer flycatcher and white-eye), the smallest
bird (the white-eye) had the shortest duration (58
days) and for the largest bird (the laughing
thrush) it was around 100 days. The duration
for the verditer flycatcher, which is larger than
the white-eye, and smaller than the laughing
thrush, was around 70 days.
Arrested moult: Arrested moult is likely
to lengthen the total duration of moult, which
also enables long distance migrants to make use
of partly new and therefore efficient full wing
(Kozlova in Pienkowski 1976). Arrested moult
was noticed in only two individuals among all
the species at Kodai Hills. As these birds are
breeding residents, they have no need to maintain
a full wing by arresting the moult to fly long
distances. Hence, they probably maintain a
continuous feather growth.
Refer
Balachandran, S., K.K. Mohapatra & S.A. Hussain
(1995): Moult in three species of bulbuls of the
genus Pycnonotus from Tirupati hills of the Eastern
ghats, Andhra Pradesh. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
92(2): 152-159.
a ■
Moulting and breeding do not overlap, as
the moult starts after breeding. This is evident
from the condition of the brood patch.
The post-juvenile moult has been observed
only in redwhiskered and black bulbuls. Similar
post-juvenile moult occurs in three species of
bulbuls (whitebrowed, redwhiskered, and
redvented) one month after breeding at Tirupati
Hills (Balachandran et cil 1995).
Acknowledgement
This study was carried out as part of
the Bird Migration Study of the Bombay Natural
History Society (BNHS), supported by the U.S.
Fish & Wildlife Service under a grant from
PL-480 released through Ministry of Environ-
ment, Wildlife and Forests of India. I gratefully
acknowledge permission to work in the area by
the Tamil Nadu Forest Department. I thank
Mr. J.C. Daniel, former Director of BNHS for
his guidance and for going through the
manuscript.
;nces
Pienkowski, M.W., P.J. Knight., D.J. Stanyard & F.B.
Argyle (1976): The primary moult of waders on
the Atlantic coast of Morocco. Ibis 1 18: 151-167.
Snow, D. W. ( 1 967): A guide to moult in British birds. BTO
Field Guide No. 1 1 . Tring, U.K.
54
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(1 ) APR 1999
DISTRIBUTION OF AQUATIC INSECTS IN A SMALL STREAM IN
NORTHWEST HIMALAYA, INDIA'
J.M. Julka2, H.S. Vasisht3 and B. Bala2
Key words: Northwest Himalaya, stream insects, species composition, microhabitat,
species diversity index.
This article deals with species composition, annual variability, microhabitat preference and species
diversity index of aquatic insects in a perennial stream in northwest Himalaya, during 1989-91.
A total of 62 morphospecies belonging to Ephemeroptera, Odonata, Plecoptera, Hemiptera,
Megaloptera, Coleoptera, Trichoptera and Diptera were caught in the samples. Some of these
showed a marked preference for particular microhabitats within a short span of the stream. Nymphs
of mayflies, Baetiella tuberculata (Kazlauskas) and Baetiella sp., and the larvae of dipteran
Horaia sp., preferred stony substrate with fast water current. Burrowing nymphs of mayfly Caenis
sp., and the stoneflies Amphinemura rahungi Aubert and Nemoura sp., predominated in sand
and silt deposited between gravel and rubble. Nymphs of Ecdyonurus, Epeorus and Ephemerella
(Ephemeroptera) were mainly associated with gravel-rubble and also loose stones. Filter feeders,
like larvae of Cheumatopsyche columnata Martynov (Trichoptera) and some species of Simulium
(Diptera) were abundant in the gravel-rubble as it provided suitable substratum for attachment of
their nets and bodies. The gerrid bugs Chimarrhometra orientalis (Distant) and Metrocoris compar
(Buchnan White), and the gyrinid beetle Orectochilus murinus Regimbart, were mainly found in
sheltered midstream pools by the side of large rocks. Mean monthly species diversity index
varied little between two years, i.e. 2.13 and 2.66 for 1989-90 and 1990-91 respectively.
Introduction
The stream environment is complex and
heterogeneous, having many habitat patterns,
primarily due to a wide range in the size of
substrate particles and configurations on the
stream bed, different kinds of microcurrents and
a variety of available food. These habitats are
characterised by a high diversity of aquatic
insects. There are considerable differences in
insect distribution between various sections along
the course of a stream and also at microhabitat
level (Williams and Feltmate 1992).
Considerable information is available on the
distribution and other ecological aspects of
stream insects in Europe and North America, as
reviewed by Hynes ( 1 970), Resh and Rosenberg
(1984), and Williams and Feltmate (1992).
'Accepted August, 1997
Zoological Survey of India, Solan - 173212 (H.P.)
-Present address: E-l 7, Sector 40, Noida - 201303 (U.P.)
Flowers (1991) has dealt with the insect diversity
of Central American rivers. But such studies on
Indian stream insects are sparse and limited to
the works of Annandale and Prashad (1919),
Gupta and Michael (1983), Julka et al. (1988),
Arunachalam et al.{ 1991), Balasubramanium
et al. (1992) and Burton and Sivaramakrishnan
(1993).
The objective of this investigation was to
study species composition, annual variability,
specific niche preference, and species diversity
index of insects in a stream in northwest
Himalaya.
Study Area
Himachal Pradesh (between 30°23'-33o12'
N lat., 75°37'-79°04/ E long.) falls in the
northwest Himalaya. The entire area is drained
by an intricate network of springs, streams and
rivers. A spring-fed perennial stream in the
Barog Hills (Dist. Solan) was selected for the
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
55
TORRENTICOLE INSECTS OF NOR THWESTHIMALA YA
present study. It flows southeastwards to
discharge into the Raboun tributary of the Giri-
Yamuna drainage. The area has four distinct
seasons: spring (late February to April), summer
(May to August), autumn (September to middle
of November) and winter (middle of November
to middle of February). A distinct wet summer
period during the southwest monsoon months of
July-August is distinguished from summer in
May- June. Total rainfall during 1989-90 and
1990-91 was 1404.7 mm and 993.4 mm
respectively.
The study area is a small riffle close to the
source of the stream near Barog railway station
(7 km from Solan; altitude 1500 m above msl.
30°55 'N lat; 77°06 'E long.). The riffle is 0.5-
2.6 m wide and 5-15 cm deep. It flows through
a narrow valley, largely exposed to sunlight. Its
substrate comprises gravel, rubble and boulders,
and granite rocks. A considerable amount of sand
is deposited in the interstices of gravel and rubble.
Various physico-chemical characteristics of the
stream are given in Table 1 .
Riparian vegetation comprises trees of
Pi juis roxbui’ghii , Eucalyptus sp., Quercus
leucotJ'ichophora, Moi~us alba and Pristacia
intergrimma\ small shrubs like Utrica dioco,
Pinsepia u tills, Rubus ecipticus and Carrisa
caranda. Prominent herbs on the banks of the
stream are Targetes minuta , lpomea sp. and
Salvia lanata.
Material and Methods
The benthos were sampled monthly by
quantitative and semiquantitative methods from
June, 1989 to May, 1991. Different microhabitats
arising from physical changes in the substratum
of the riffle were sampled: Site I with rocky
bottom, Site II with gravel, Site III with loose
stones and Site IV comprised small midstream
pools with slow flow of water. Semiquantitative
samples were obtained by operating a hand net
(30 cm diam., cloth mesh 0.4 mm) for about 45
Table 1
PHYSICO-CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF A
STREAM AT BAROG (H P.)
seconds in each of three pools, and by picking
and washing 20 loose stones (diam. 15-20 cm).
Quantitative samples were taken with a Surber’s
sampler (25 cm2 area; mesh opening — 0.4 mm)
at places with almost level rocky and gravel
strata. The Surber’s sampler was operated by the
method of Welch (1948). On each occasion, 6
replicates were obtained. The area sampled
exceeded 0.3 m2, which is considered satisfactory
for normal quantitative purposes by Dudgeon and
Richardson (1988).
The water surface temperature was taken
with a standard mercury Celsius thermometer.
Current velocity was determined by timing a float
in midcurrent. The volume of flow, dissolved
oxygen, carbon dioxide and total alkalinity were
estimated by methods given in Welch ( 1948). The
pH was recorded with a pH meter (Model AMK
1020A AMKAY) and conductivity readings were
taken with a conductivity meter. The coarse
particulate organic matter (CPOM; >lmm) and
fine particulate organic matter (FPOM; <lmm)
56
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR. 1999
TORRENTICOLE INSECTS OF NOR THWESTHIMALA YA
were estimated following the methods in Ernst
and Stewart (1986).
Observations
Faunal composition
In all, 62 morphospecies of insects were
collected from the Barog stream during the
sampling period. These belonged to 8 major
groups: Ephemeroptera, Odonata, Plecoptera,
Hemiptera, Megaloptera, Coleoptera,
Trichoptera and Diptera. Relative densities of
major groups at four sites are shown in Table 2.
Ephemeroptera, Trichoptera and Diptera were
co-dominant on the rocky substratum and in
gravel/rubble section. Among nondominant
groups, only Coleoptera and Plecoptera had a
significant presence in gravel-rubble. The insect
fauna on loose stones was dominated by the
larvae of Trichoptera, followed by Diptera and
Ephemeroptera. Dominant insect groups in
midstream pools were semiaquatic Hemiptera on
the water surface and Coleoptera in the water
column. Larvae of Ephemeroptera, Trichoptera
and Diptera were also present in significant
numbers.
Annual variability
The number of taxa varied little over the
two years of the present studies (Table 3).
However, relative densities of numerically
dominant (>1% of the total number collected)
species of the mayflies Baetis , Ecdyonurus sp. 1
and Epeorus , the stonefly Nemoura, and the
blackfly Simulium ( Simulium ) digitatum and
Simulium {Simulium) sp. increased significantly
from the first (1989-90) to second year (1990-
91). On the contrary, these values declined
substantially from first to second year in case of
chironomids like Pentaneura sp.,
Cryptochironomus sp., and trichopterans like
Agapetus triangularis and the Lepidostomatidae.
Variability between sites
Relative densities of all morphospecies at
different sites are presented in Table 3. Within
Ephemeroptera, Baetis sp. 1 attained greatest
abundance on rocky substratum (34.43%) and
in gravel/rubble (16.19%) sections of the riffle.
Baetiella tuberculata and Baetiella sp. were
Table 2
RELATIVE DENSITY (%) OF INSECT GROUPS IN A HILL STREAM AT BAROG IN
1989-90 AND 1990-91
Site Rocky substratum Gravel/Rubble Loose stones Midstream pools
substratum
(Site I) (Site II) (Site III) (Site IV)
Order
1989-1990 1990-1991
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
57
TORRENTICOLE INSECTS OF NORTHWEST HIM ALA YA
Table 3
RELATIVE DENSITY (%)0F INSECTS IN A STREAM ATBAROG FOR 1989-90 AND 1990-91,
AND AT FOUR SITES FOR 1 989-91 (BOTH YEARS COMBINED).
58
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR. 1999
TORRENTICOLE INSECTS OF NORTHWEST HIM ALA YA
Table 3 (contd.)
RELATIVE DENSITY (%)OF INSECTS IN A STREAM ATBAROG FOR 1989-90 AND 1990-91,
AND AT FOUR SITES FOR 1 989-91 (BOTH YEARS COMBINED).
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
59
TORRENTICOLE INSECTS OF NOR THWESTHIMALA YA
largely confined to rocky substratum or gravel-
rubble section of the riffle.
Among Trichoptera, Agapetus triangularis
(51.83%) and Cheumatopsyche columnata
(6.75%) were abundant on loose stones with
significant numbers on rocky substratum and in
gravel-rubble. Likewise, the representatives of
Lepidostomatidae (13.85%, 7.27%) predomina-
ted among loose stones and in gravel-rubble, but
also with significant numbers in midstream
pools. Chimarra aberrans were collected from
all 4 sites, although at low densities. Rhyacophila
sp. and members of Poly-centropodidae were not
found in midstream pools.
Among other insect groups, the stonefly
Nemoura sp. was more abundant in gravel-rubble
than in other sites. The gyrinid beetles
( Orectochilus murinus) and the gerrid Hemiptera
{Chimarrhometra orientalise Metrocoris compar )
preferred midstream pools.
Species diversity index
Species diversity indices (H') for different
months are depicted in Table 4. Quantification
of species diversity index indicated generally
higher values from summer to autumn (May to
October). Lower values were recorded in late
winter and spring months (January to April)
during the first year, and in November, December
and March during the second year. A peak
diversity index of 2.55 occurred in October and
2.77 in May during the first and second years
respectively. Minimum diversity index of 1 .43
was obtained for April, 1990, and it was 1 .76 for
March, 1991. The mean monthly species
diversity indices varied little between two years
i.e. 2.13 and 2.66 during the first and second
years, respectively.
Discussion
From the available data, the stream under
study can be described as an Ephemeroptera-
Trichoptera-Diptera type. This type of aquatic
insect community, also represented by Plecoptera
Table 4
INDICES OF SPECIES DIVERSITY (FT) OF INSECTS
DURING DIFFERENT MONTHS IN A STREAM AT
BAROG (HP.) 1989-1991
(BOTH YEARS COMBINED)
Index of species diversity (H')
N.R. = Not recorded
and Coleoptera, appears to be characteristic of
streams with gravel and rubble in both tropical
and temperate regions (Bishop 1973; Minshall
and Kuehne 1969; Clifford 1978; Gupta and
Michael 1983).
Certain species indicated a preference for
microhabitats within a short span of the stream.
Substrate type influenced their distribution the
most, which is consistent with the observation
of Arunachalam et al. ( 1991) on the invertebrates
of a south Indian river. Nymphs of the mayflies
Baetiella tuberculata and Baetiella sp. (Family
Baetidae) were abundant at Site I with rocky
substrate and rapid water current, while the
dipteran larvae of Horaia sp. (Family
Blepharoceridae) were restricted in occurrence.
They displayed obvious morphological
modifications for adaptation to rocky substrate
to withstand the force of rapid currents. The
abundance of Baetiella sp. at this site may be
attr ibuted to their streamlined bodies and sparsely
fringed cerci, which provide the least resistance
to the rapid water current. In addition, their claws
60
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(1) APR. 1999
TORRENTICOLE INSECTS OF NOR TH WEST HIM ALA YA
are dentate for clinging to rocky surfaces. Their
food includes algae growing on submerged rocky
substrate which is available in plenty at this site.
The preference of Baetiella for rocky substrate
with a fast current has also been demonstrated
by Dudgeon (1990) in Hongkong streams. To
withstand the force of water current, larvae of
Horaia sp. are provided with 6 median ventral
suction discs which function efficiently only on
rocky surfaces.
Site II of the stream is a mixed substrate
section comprising gravel, rubble, coarse sand
particles and silt. It provides many microhabitats
and therefore supports a greater variety of taxa
(56 species; Table 3).
Immature stages of several benthos had
also higher densities in gravel-rubble section than
in other microhabitats e.g. Ecdyonurus sp.l,
Epeorus sp., Ephemerella spp. and Caenis sp.
among mayflies; Nemoura sp. and Amphinemura
rahungi among stoneflies; elmid beetles;
Pentaneura sp. and Palpomyia sp. among
dipterans. Nymphs of Caenis are adapted to
burrowing in coarse particles, sand and silt, and
possess a large second pair of gills which are
operculate and protect succeeding gills from
becoming clogged with silt. Their abundance in
gravel-rubble is due to their adaptation to live in
silt and coarse sand particles deposited between
gravel and rubble, which also provides them a
sheltered microhabitat. Cummins and Lauff
(1969) also found that light silting enhanced the
selection of interstices of coarse sediments by
Caenis latipennis. However, Bishop (1973)
suggested that microdistribution of Caenis sp.
was due to food availability and habitat stability
rather than a particular substrate. Like Caenis
sp., nymphs of Nemoura sp. and Amphinemura
rahungi also burrow in coarse particles among
gravel-rubble, for protection from predators.
The nymphs of Ecdyonurus sp.l, Epeorus
sp. and Ephemerella spp. have flat bodies which
appear to be an adaptation to decrease resistance
to water current, and also to enable them to seek
shelter in crevices and under stones. High density
of dorsoventrally flattened nymphs of the mayfly
Habrophlebia vibrans has also been correlated
with the presence of gravel in a Canadian stream
(Lauzon and Harper 1988). The bodies of the
elmid beetle larvae and the chironomid
Pentaneura sp. are long, slender and flexible,
and allow easy passage among gravel and rubble.
They seek out this type of microhabitat as a
refuge, and also to exploit micronutrients trapped
among substrate particles (Williams and Feltmate
1992).
The case-building caddisfly larvae of
Agapetus triangularis of the family
Glossosomatidae and representatives of the
family Lepidostomatidae were predominant
among loose stones in the gravel-rubble zone.
Their abundance is possibly due to the presence
of mineral and organic matter required for case
building, and also protection against water
current. In the rocky zone, they were lower in
number because of fast water current (i.e. mean
0.71 m s'1 against mean 0.46 m s ' in gravel-
rubble section), and less amount of mineral and
organic matter. A few workers have also related
the abundance of case-building caddisfly larvae
with the availability of material for their case
construction. According to Tolkamp (1980)
Sericostoma personatum uses mainly 0.25-0.50
mm grains of minerals for its case, and it prefers
to live on predominantly coarse substrate.
Similarly, the larvae of Pycnopsyche
scabripennis prefer substrates where suitable
materials for their cases are present (Mackay
1977). Net spinning larvae of the trichopteran
Cheumatopsyche columnata were more common
in the gravel-rubble zone than at other sites.
Possibly, this microhabitat provided suitable
substrate to attach their nets for trapping food
particles flowing with slow water current. Larvae
of some Simulium spp., well known filter feeders,
were also more abundant in the gravel-rubble
zone than elsewhere, because of the availability
of suitable substrates (stones) for their
attachment and a rich supply of FPOM (mean
15.375 mg nr2).
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
61
TORRENTJCOLE INSECTS OF NOR THWESTHIMALA YA
Chimarrhometra orientalis , Onychotrechus
robustus and Metrocoris compar (Gerridae:
Hemiptera) and Orectochilus murinus (Gyrinidae:
Coleoptera) showed preference for midstream pools
usually formed by the side of bigger rocks. They
are able to avoid the force of water current in
this microhabitat. Similarly, Williams and
Feltmate ( 1 992) found these in abundance in such
a habitat where the water current was of less
intensity. However, the young stages of Gerridae
and Gyrinidae occupied different ecological
zones, the former midstream pools and the latter
gravel section.
Seasonal changes in species diversity were
evident during both years. Low values of diversity
indices (H') occurred in late winter and spring
during the first year. Unfavourable climatic
conditions probably caused depressed winter
values. Rosillon (1985) also recorded lower
Refer
Annandale, N. &B. Prashad (1919): The fauna of certain
streams in the Bombay Presidency. Rec. Indian Mus.
16: 109-161.
Arunachalam, M.K., K.C. Madhusoodanan Nair, J.
VlJVERBERG, K. KORTMULDER & H. SURIYANARAYANAN
(1991): Substrate selection and seasonal variation in
densities of invertebrates in stream pools of a tropical
river. Hydrobiologia 213: 141-148.
Balasubramanium, C., K. Venkataraman & K.G.
Shivaramakrishnan (1992): Bioecological studies on
the burrowing mayfly Ephemera ( Aethephemera )
nadinae McCafferty and Edmunds, 1973
(Ephemeroptera:Ephemeridae) in Kurangani stream.
Western Ghats. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 89(1): 72-
77.
Bishop, J.E. (1973): Observations on the vertical
distributions of the benthos in a Malaysian stream.
Freshw. Biol. 3: 147-156.
Burton, T.M. & K.G. Sivaramakrishnan (1993):
Composition of the insect community in the streams of
the Silent Valley National Park in southern India Trop.
Ecol. 34(1): 1-16.
Clifford, H.F. (1978): Descriptive phenology and
seasonality of a Canadian brown water stream,
Hydrobiologia 58(3): 213-231.
Cummins, K.W. & G.H. Lauff (1969): The influence of
substrate particle size on the microdistribution of stream
winter values in a Belgian chalk trout stream,
but with less evident seasonal changes in species
diversity. In Barog stream, mean annual species
diversity indices of 2. 1 3 and 2.26, during the first
and second years respectively, were slightly lower
than 2.44 as recorded by Rosillon (1985).
However, Burton and Sivaramakrishnan (1993)
reported higher values of species diversity (H'),
ranging from 3.86 to 4.41, in a wet evergreen
forest stream of the Silent Valley National Park,
southern India.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to the Director,
Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta and the
Officer-in-Charge, High Altitude Zoology Field
Station, ZSI, Solan for providing laboratory
facilities.
ENCES
macrobenthos. Hydrobiologia 34: 145-81 .
Dudgeon, D. ( 1 990): Benthic community structure and the
effect of rotenone piscicide on invertebrate drift and
standing stocks in two Papua New Guinea streams.
Arch. Hydrobiol. 119(1): 35-51.
Dudgeon, D. & J.S. Richardson (1 988): Dietary variations
of predatory caddisfly larvae (Trichoptera:
Rhyacophilidae, Polycentropodidae and
Arctopsychidae) from British Columbian streams.
Hydrobiologia 160: 33-43.
Ernst, M.R. & K.W. Stewart (1986): Microdistribution
of eight stonefly species (Plecoptera) in relation to
organic matter in an Ozark foothills stream. Aquatic
Ins. 8: 237-254.
Flowers, R. W. (1991): Diversity of stream living insects
in northwestern Panama. J.N. Am. Benthol. Soc. 10(3):
322-334.
Gupta, A. & R.G. Michael ( 1 983): Seasonal differences
and relative abundance among populations of benthic
aquatic insects in a moderately high altitude stream.
Proc. IV/cs hp. High Alt. Ent. & Wild/. Ecol. Zool. Surv.
India: 21-28.
Hynes, H.B.N. (1970): The ecology of running waters.
Liverpool University Press, Liverpool.
Julka, J.M., H.S. Vasisht & B. Bala (1988): Ecology of
invertebrates of two hill streams of Solan (H.P.). Res.
Bull. (Sci.) Panjab Univ. 39(III-IV): 139-143.
62
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR. 1999
TORRENTICOLE INSECTS OF NOR THWESTHIMALA YA
Lauzon, M. & P.P. Harper (1988): Seasonal dynamics of
a mayfly (Insecta: Ephemeroptera) community in a
Laurentian stream. Holarctic Ecol. 11: 220-234.
Mackay, R.J. (1977): Behaviour of Pycnopschye
(Trichoptera: Limnephilidae)on mineral substrates in
laboratory streams. Ecology 58: 191-95.
Minshall, G.W. & R.A. Kuehne (1969): An ecological
study of invertebrates of the Dudden, an English
mountain stream. Arch. Hydrobiol. 66: 169-91.
Resh, V.H. & D.M. Rosenberg (1984): The ecology of
aquatic insects. Praeger Publishers, New York.
Rosillon, D. ( 1 985): Seasonal variations in the benthos of
a chalk trout stream. The River Samson, Belgium.
Hydrobiologici 126: 253-262.
Tolkamp, H.H. (1980): Organism - substrate relationships
in low land streams. Agriculture Research Report No.
907. Agricultural University Wageninggen, The
Netherlands.
Welch, P.S. (1948): Limnological Methods. McGraw Hill
Book Co., Inc., New York.
Williams, D.D. & B.W. Feltmate (1992): Aquatic Insects.
C.A.B. International, Wallingford.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
63
ON A COLLECTION OF FISHES FROM THE SOUTHERN PART OF
UKHRUL DISTRICT, MANIPUR1
Selim Keishing and Waikhom Vishwanath2
Key words: Fish, Ukhrul district, Manipur
The southern part of Ukhrul district is drained by three important rivers, viz., Chatrickong,
Maklang and Litan. The rivers form a part of the Chindwin river system. A detailed survey of the
fish fauna shows 69 species belonging to 45 genera, 18 families and 7 orders. The collections
include new records of 6 species, viz., Schistura multifasciatiis (Day), Psilorhyncus balitora
(Ham.), Labeo fimbriatus (Bloch), Tetraodon cutcutia (Ham.), Puntius puntio (Ham.), and
Macrognathus panculas (Ham.) from Manipur. Tor putitora (Ham.) and Pseudocheneis sulcutas
(Hora) are new records from the Chindwin drainage and Mystus pulcher (Chaudhuri) and Exostoma
stuarti (Hora) are new records from India.
Introduction
The fish fauna of Ukhrul dist. has not been
studied in detail. The district is situated at the
extreme eastern part of Manipur State. It shares
about 200 km of international border with
Myanmar in the east. It is bounded by Nagaland
on the north, Senapati in the west and Chandel
in the south. Three major rivers drain the
southern part of Ukhrul from west to east, which
are the waterheads of the Chindwin drainage.
Chatrickong is formed by the confluence of
Sanalok and Khunukong. Khunukong originates
in the foothills of Shiroi hills, while Sanalok
originates in the foothills of Khayangphung hill.
Sanalok flows near the boundary to the south for
about 100 km, meets Khunukong at Dha-ado,
and flows as Chatrickong to the east into the
Chindwin of Myanmar. The Maklang river
originates near Khangkhui. It is joined by the
Tuyungbi and flows for about 90 km to meet the
Yu river a branch of the Chindwin in Myanmar.
Litan river originates in the western foothills of
the Shiroi. It follows a southwesterly course to
meet Imphal river, which flows out of India as
River Manipur, to meet the Chindwin. Although
there are some reports on the fishes of Manipur
(Chaudhuri 1912, Hora 1921, Hora and Mukherji
'Accepted August 1998
department of Life Sciences, Manipur University,
Canchipur 795003, Imphal, Manipur
1935, Hora 1936, Menon 1952, Menon 1954), a
detailed survey of the fishes of southern Ukhrul
dist. has not been carried out. This paper reports
on the fishes of three major rivers of southern
Ukhrul dist.
Material and Methods
An extensive collection of fishes was made
from Chatrickong, Maklang and Litan between
March, 1995 and May, 1997. The specimens were
collected by cast net, gill net, sidetracking, and
chemical bait. Fishes were identified as per
Jayaram (1981). The specimens were compared
with collections at Manipur University Museum
of Fisheries (MUMF) and Zoological Survey of
India (ZSI) to confirm their identification.
Observations and Discussion
68 species belonging to 45 genera, 18
families and 7 orders were collected. It has been
recorded that the fish fauna of southern Ukhrul
dist. has Myanmarese as well as endemic
elements and also some widely distributed
species. Nemacheilus mcinipurensis Chaudhuri,
N. prasadi Hora, Garra litanensis Vishwanath,
Semiplotus mcinipurensis Vishwanath,
Glyptothorax sinense mcinipurensis (Menon) are
endemic to the hill streams of Manipur. The
Myanmarese elements are Raicimcis guttatus
64
JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(1) APR. 1999
FISHES OF UKHRUL DISTRICT MANIPUR
LIST OF FISHES WITH LOCAL NAMES, THEIR DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
65
FISHES OF IJ KHROL DISTRICT, MANIPUR
LIST OF FISHES WITH LOCAL NAMES, THEIR DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE (contd.)
66
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR. 1999
FISHES OF UKHRUL DISTRICT, MANIPUR
LIST OF FISHES WITH LOCAL NAMES, THEIR DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE (contd.)
RM = new records from Manipur, RI = new records from India, RC = records from Chindwin drainage, - = absent, + = present,
(Day), Osteobrama cotio cunma (Day),
Crossocheilus burmanicus Hora, Garra gravely i
(Annandale), Neolissochilus stracheyi (Day),
Chagunius nicholsi (Myers), Salmostoma
sladoni (Day) and Mystus pulcher (Chaudhuri).
The remaining fishes are widely distributed and
common in other parts of India.
Taxonomic Remarks
■ Schistura multifasciatus (Day, 1878).
Fish. India, p 617 (Type locality: Darjeeling and
Assam)
Material examined: 1 ex., Chatrickong
river, 2-ii- 1 997, SL 41.3 mm
Distribution: india: Chatrickong River and
NEPAL
Remarks: New record from Manipur.
Body marked by 16 vertical bands and a black
spot at base of anterior dorsal fin rays.
■ Psilorhyncus balitora (Ham. 1822).
Fishes of Ganges, p 393. (Type locality: Rivers
of northeast Bengal).
Material examined: 1 1 ex. Maklang river,
24-iv-1995 SL 39.5-61.3 mm
Distribution: india: Chatrickong river,
BANGLADESH, NEPAL and MYANMAR
Remarks: New record from Manipur.
Lateral scales 30-34, branched dorsal fin rays 8
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
67
FISHES OF UKHRUL DISTRICT, MANIPUR
8, head small and conical.
■ Labeo fimbriatus (Bloch, 1795).
Natugesog. auland. fische, 12: 50, pi 409.
(Type locality: “Malabarischen Kueste”, Madras)
Material examined: 1 ex. Chatrickong
river, 6-vi-1996. SL 88.6 mm
Distribution: india: Chatrickong river,
NEPAL and MYANMAR.
Remarks: New record from Manipur.
Dorsal fin with 15 branched rays and lateral
transverse scale row 5 between lateral line and
pelvic fin base.
■ Tetraodon cutcutia ( Hamilton, 1822).
Fishes of Ganges, 8, 362, pi. 18 fig. 3 (Type
locality: Ganges river)
Materials examined: 2 ex. Maklang river,
24-iv-1995. SL 130.5-131 mm
Distribution: india: Maklang river,
BANGLADESH, SRI LANKA, MYANMAR and MALAY
ARCHIPELAGO.
Remarks: New record from Manipur.
Dorsal fin with 10-12 rays, anal fin with 10 rays.
Only two species found in Indian rivers.
■ Puntius puntio (Hamilton, 1822).
Fishes of Ganges, pi 318, (Type locality: Ponds
and ditches of southern Bengal)
Material examined: 1 ex. Chatrickong
river, 6-vi-1996. TL 22.5 mm
Distribution: india: Chatrickong river,
BANGLADESH and MYANMAR.
Remarks: New record from India. A single
wide band around the base of caudal fin.
■ Pseudocheneis sulcatus (McClelland,
1842). J. nat. Hist. 2: 587. (Type locality: Khasi
Hills, Meghalaya)
Materials examined: 1 ex. Chatrickong
river, 12.V.1997. SL 125.3 mm.
Distribution: india: Chatrickong, nepal
and BANGLADESH.
Remarks: New record from Chindwin
drainage. The species is characterised by broad and
oval thoracic apparatus and four large irregular
reddish-brown blotches on side of lateral line.
■ Macrognathus panculas (Ham. 1822).
Fishes of Ganges. 30,364. (Type locality: Tanks
of Ganges province)
Material examined: 5 ex. Chatrickong
river, 6.vi.l996 SL 74.4-85.6 mm
Distribution: india: Chatrickong river,
PAKISTAN and BANGLADESH.
Remarks: New records from Manipur.
Dorsal spine with 24-25 and with many
yellowish-white spots on the flank on the sides
of the body.
■ Tor putitora (Ham. 1822). Fishes of
Ganges. 303: 388. (Type locality: Eastern part
of Bengal)
Material examined: 3 ex. Chatrickong
river. 2.ii.l997 SL 133.4.166.2 mm
Distribution: india: Chatrickong river,
AFGHANISTAN, PAKISTAN, NEPAL and BANGLADESH.
Remarks: New record from Chindwin
drainage. The species can be easily distinguished
from Tor putitora from its greater snout length.
Since it is one of the waterheads of Chindwin
drainage the species might also occur in
Myanmar.
■ Mystus pulcher (Chaudhuri, 1911).
Rec. Indian, Mus. 6:20. (Type locality: Bhamo,
Myanmar)
Materials examined: 6 exs. Chatrickong
river. 6-6-96. SL 65.3-69.8 mm
Distribution: india: Chatrickong river and
MYAN MAR
Remarks: New record from India. The
species can be easily differentiated from other
species by the presence of two large black spots,
one on the dorsal fin base and the other on the
caudal fin base. The species was listed by Dutta
and Laisharam (1984) in their zoogeographic
study on the fishes of Manipur; however, it was
not present in their collection. Thus it is a new
records from India.
■ Exostoma stuarti (Hora, 1923). Rec.
Indian. Mus., 25 , p. 39. (Type locality: Namyak
river at Tanga in the northern frontier of
Myanmar).
Materials examined: 1 ex. Chatrickong
river, 12.V.1997, SL 68 mm
Distribution: india: Chatrickong and
68
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR. 1999
FISHES OF U KHROL DISTRICT. MANIPUR
myanmar: Namyak river at Tanga.
Remarks: New record from India. Adiposed
dorsal fin free from caudal fin; a distinct black
spot at the base of the pectoral fin; least height of
caudal peduncle 2.02 in its length. The species is
known to occur only in Myanmar but this report
now extends its distribution to India.
Refer
Chaudhuri, B.L. (1912): Description of some new species
of freshwater fishes from north India. Rec. Indian.
Mus. VII pp 437-444.
Hora, S.L. (1921): Fish and fisheries of Manipur with some
observation on those of the Naga hills. Rec. Indian
Mus., 22(3): 165-214.
Hora, S.L. & D.D. Mukherji (1935): Fish of the Naga
Hills., Rec. Indian Mus. 38: 317-331.
Hora, S.L. ( 1 936): On a further collection of fishes from
Naga Hills. Rec. Indian Mus.. 36: 571-573.
AcKNOW LEDG EM ENT
We thank J.R.D. Alfred, Director,
Zoological Survey of India and T.K. Sen, Head
of the Fish Section for permission and help
during our investigation, and to DOEN, New
Delhi, for financial assistance.
n c ES
Jayaram, K.C. (1981): The freshwater fishes of India,
Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma and Sri Lanka. A
hand book — Zoological Survey of India, No. 2: xii
+ 475.
Menon, M.A.S. (1952): On a collection of fish from
Manipur and Assam. Rec. Indian Mus., 50(2): 265-
270.
Menon, A.G.K. (1954): Further observation on the fish
fauna of Manipur State. Rec. Indian Mus., 52: 21-
26.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
69
MORTALITY AND SURVIVAL OF THE HIMALAYAN MAHSEER
TOR PUTITORA IN A REGULATED SECTION OF THE RIVER GANGA
BETWEEN RISHIKESH AND H ARID WAR1
J.P. Bhatt and P. Nautiyal2
Key words: Himalayan Mahseer, Tor putitora, mortality rate, survival rate, river Ganga
Studies were conducted to assess the mortality and survival rates of the Himalayan Mahseer Tor
putitora in the foothills section of the Ganga 285-290 m above msl (29° 56’ N lat., 78° 10’ E
long.), where the river has been extensively regulated through two barrages and an array of
canals for hydropower generation, irrigation and recreation. The mortality and survival rates of
samples measuring 14.5 to 98 cm in length were observed to be 0.414 and 0.586 (pooled sample),
0.348 and 0.652 ( 1993-94), 0.487 and 0.513 (1994-95), 0.499 and 0.501 (male) and 0.381 and
0.6 1 9 (female) respectively, in the 1+ to 9+ age-group fishes. The weighted mortality and survival
rates were 0.323 and 0.67 (pooled sample), 0.346 and 0.654 ( 1 993-94), 0.47 and 0.53 ( 1 994-95),
0.436 and 0.564 (males) and 0.467 and 0.567 (females) respectively, while instantaneous mortality
rate was 0.589, 0.53, 0.693, 0.855 and 0.555 in the pooled sample, 1993-94, 1994-95, males and
females respectively. Mortality was high in the
Introduction
The age composition of the stock, the
relative strength of different age groups and the
maximum life span are, within certain limits,
species characteristic. Fishes with short life cycle,
with a population which consists of only a few
age groups, are adapted to living under
conditions of very high and variable mortality.
On the other hand, species which form
populations containing many age groups and
with late mortality are adapted to living under
conditions of a relatively stable food supply,
negligible annual fluctuation in the mortality of
mature individuals, and little effect of predator
fishes. If a substantial part of a population should
die, its replacement is slow and this is reflected
in the age composition which is a function of
replacement, growth and death (Nikolsky 1976).
Smith (1983) and Wankowski et al. (1988)
studied the mortality rates in Nemcidactylus
macropterus , but information on the mortality
'Accepted June, 1997
^Department of Zoology, H.N.B. Garhwal University,
Srinagar 246174. Uttar Pradesh.
higher age groups in captivity.
of T. putitora is not available in India and in
Garhwal region.
Material and Methods
Fishing mortality rates were estimated
from commercial landings from the foothills
section of the Ganga near Ajeetpur, a riverside
village located downstream of Haridwar. The fish
samples were taken randomly from the fish
contractor at Ajeetpur or from the Raiwala fish
market (where fish is supplied from Ajeetpur).
Fish samples were given an abdominal incision
and preserved in 10% formalin. In the case of
large fishes, length and weight was recorded on
the spot and scales were collected.
The age of the samples was determined
with the help of key scales (Bagenal 1978)
obtained from the base of dorsal and pectoral fins
from fishes measuring 14.5 to 98 cm. Preliminary
screening indicated that the number of rings was
similar in the dorsal and pectoral scales. Thus
only dorsal fin region scales were selected. To
determine the age, the scales were analysed with
a Carl Zeiss Jena Documeter. The number of
70
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(1) APR. 1999
MORTALITY AND SURVIVAL OF THE HIMALAYAN MAHSEER IN THE RIVER GANG A
annuli in each key scale was recorded. Annulus
formation was determined by the criteria
suggested by Bagenal (1978) and adopted by
Nautiyal (1990). According to him, a zone of
closely spaced ridges is followed by a zone of
widely spaced ridges. The annulus is usually
considered to be at the outer border of the closely
spaced ridges.
The mortality and survival rates were
determined by the age frequency method
(Rounseefell and Everhart 1985), using the
following equations.
The annual mortality rate (r) = (1-s) or
(1-e 8) where 5 (rate of survival) was computed
in the following manner:
n-1 n
[ I log f (y) ] - [ I log f (y) ]
y = x y = x - 1
where f(y) = age frequency at any age (y)
The instantaneous mortality rate (8) was
computed as follows:
8 = l°gI0(l/s) (l/logIOe) = loge (1/1-r)
where l/log10e = 2.303
Observations
The rates obtained for the year-class
samples 1993-94 and 1994-95 were 0.348 and
0.487 respectively. The mortality rate for the
pooled data (1993-1995) was 0.414 (Table 1).
The survival rate for the pooled data was
recorded as 0.586. Relatively higher survival rate
was recorded in the 1993-94 year sample (0.652)
as compared with 1994-95 year sample (0.513).
The weighted mortality rate was found to be
0.346, 0.47 and 0.323 for the 1993-94, 1994-95
and pooled year samples, respectively. The
weighted survival rates were 0.65, 0.53 and 0.67
for 1993-94, 1994-95 and pooled samples (Table
1).
Mortality rate was observed to be 0.499
for males and 0.381 for females. The survival
rates were recorded as 0.501 and 0.619 in
male and female, respectively. Weighted
mortality rates were found to be 0.436 and 0.467,
while survival rates were 0.564 and 0.567 in male
and female respectively. The instantaneous
mortality rate was 0.855 in male and 0.555 in
female (Table 1).
The 1+ and 2+ age groups showed zero
mortality rates in the year class sample 1993-
94, male and female. Zero mortality was also
observed in the 3+ age group during 1994-95.
Low mortality and higher survival rates were
observed in the lower age classes (3+, 4+) while
higher mortality and lower survival rates were
seen in the higher age groups (8+, 9+; Table 2).
Discussion
Studies indicate that information on the
various aspects of population structure is
important for managing natural populations,
especially commercially exploited fish stock. The
age structure, like other parameters of the
population, may change from time to time.
Table 1
COMPUTATION OF MORTALITY AND SURVIVAL RATES IN TOR PUTITORA
FOR DIFFERENT YEARS AND SEXES
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
71
MORTALITY AND SURVIVAL OF THE HIMALAYAN MAHSEER IN THE RIVER GANG A
Table 2
COMPUTATION OF MORTALITY AND SURVIVAL RATES OF TOR PUTITORA IN THE POOLED SAMPLES
adapting to change in the environmental
conditions. The data on age structure can also
be used to draw inferences on the health of the
population, its mortality and survival rates
(Nikolsky 1976, Bagenal 1978 and Rounseefell
and Everhart 1985).
In our study, survival rates were found to
be higher than the mortality rates. Relatively
higher annual mortality and lower survival rates
were found in males (0.499, 0.501) than in
females (0.381, 0.619). In the Atlantic salmon
also, this difference has been reported by
Nikolsky (1980). He also stated that each species
has a definite mortality rate. A species with a
short life cycle exhibits a relatively higher death
rate than one with a long cycle and late maturity
such as the Himalayan mahseer.
We reiterate that the numbers of a species
before the harvestable size are not a true index
for the calculation of mortality/survival rates
because the fish at this size/age are vulnerable
to fishing gear. Similar results (high mortality
in higher age classes and low mortality in the
lower age classes) were also obtained by Tandon
and Johal (1996) in C. mirigala and L. rohita
from Gobindsagar, and by Graham (1956) in cod
and haddock. According to Gulland (1978), the
mortality varies continuously with age. It is
usually more convenient and more reliable,
within an acceptable approximation, to consider
that fishing mortality changes abruptly, being
zero on the pre-recruits below a certain age and
constant from a given age upwards.
It was concluded that mortality in captivity
increased with age. Tandon and Johal (1996)
stated that increase in mortality between
particular age classes is due to substantial
increase in the exploitation rate. According to
Ricker ( 1 962) and Gulland ( 1 975), the variations
in the percentage mortality between different age
classes are due to the available stock, shifting of
year class, and probably also due to sampling
error. Rounseefell and Everhart (1985) stated that
weighted values do not depart far from the values
computed by the conventional methods, although
it may be an advantage to weight when the
samples are small.
Acknowledgement
The authors are grateful to the Ministry of
Environment and Forests, Govt, of India, New
Delhi, for financial assistance.
72
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR. 1999
MORTALITY AND SURVIVAL OF THE HIMALAYAN MAHSEER IN THE RIVER GANGA
References
Bagenal, T. (1978): Methods for Assessment of Fish
Production in Freshwaters. Blackwell Scientific
Publications, Oxford, pp 365.
Graham, M. ( 1 956): Sea Fisheries: Their investigations in
the United Kingdom. Edward Arnold Publishers Ltd.,
London: 487.
Gulland, J. A. (1975): Manual of methods for fish stock
assessment Pt. 1. Fish population analysis. FAO
manuals in fisheries science. No 4 FRS/n4 1 54.
Gulland, J.A. ( 1 978): Fishing, fish and food production.
In Ecology of Fresh Water Fish Production (ed. S.D.
Gerking), pp 381-402. Blackwell Scientific
Publications, Oxford.
Nautiyal, P. ( 1 990): Natural history of Garhwal Himalayan
Mahseer: Growth rate and age composition in relation
to fishery, feeding and breeding ecology. Proc. 2nd
Asian Fisheries Forum . Tokyo, (eds. R. Hirano & I.
Hanyu.): 769-772.
Nikolsky, G.V. (1976): The Ecology of Fishes. Academic
Press, London Inc. 3-352.
Nikolsky, G.V. (1980): Theory of Fish Population
Dynamics as the Biological Background for Rational
Exploitation and Management of Fishery Resources.
Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun. India
and Otto Koeltz Science Publishers, W. Germany: 1-
323.
Ricker, W.E. ( 1 969): Effect of size-selective mortality and
sampling bias on estimation of growth, mortality,
production and yield. J: Fish. Res. Board Can.. 26:
479-541.
Rounseefell, G.A. & W.H. Everhart (1985): Fishery
Science, Its Methods and Applications. International
Books and Periodicals Supply Service, New Delhi: 1-
444.
Smith, D.C. ( 1 983): Annual total mortality and population
structure of Jakss morwong ( Nemadactylus
macropterus Bloch and Schneider) in eastern
Australian waters. Aust. J. Mar. Freshwater Res. 34:
253-260.
Tandon, K.K. & M.S. Johal ( 1 996): Age and Growth in
Indian Freshwater Fishes. Narendra Publishing House,
New Delhi: 1-232.
Wankowski, J.W.J., E. Hyduke, & S. Willium (1988):
Population age structure and natural mortality rates of
Jakss morwong {Nemadactylus macroptems ) in eastern
Bass Strait, Australia. Fisheries research 6: 317-336.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(1). APR. 1999
73
BIOS Y STEMATIC STUDIES OF INDIAN CHIRONOMIDAE (DIPTERA)1
Girish Maheshwari2 and Geeta Maheshwari3
( With three text-figures)
Key words: Biosystematics, Chironomidae, India.
The taxonomy of Indian Chironomidae attracted attention in the beginning of this century, but
their biosystematics still requires attention by Indian dipterologists. The present study highlights
some significant factors that require special attention in India, viz. (i) role of Chironomidae in
determining water quality and typology of lakes (ii) demography, population dynamics and
distribution, (iii) chironomid behaviour and (iv) phylogenetic relationship.
Introduction
The Chironomidae, a family of amphibiotic
insects, have been recognized as bioindicators
of water quality. Perhaps no other freshwater
amphibiotic insects are more ubiquitous,
inhabiting almost all the ecological niches from
high altitude glacial torrents to deep eutrophic
lakes and seas. The larvae (bloodworms) of some
Chironomidae form an important constituent of
the biological filter fauna in settling tanks and
filter beds in urban water works.
Chironomid species and population
composition and its temporal changes reflect
sediment quality. They also play an important
role in the circulation and energy flow of aquatic
ecosystems. Investigations on the role of detritus-
feeding benthic chironomid groups enables better
understanding of natural purification and
oligotrophication of water bodies. Since
numerous fish species, such as ruff, carp and eel,
feed on chironomid larvae, these investigations
can help in fishery development in India.
Systematics
The major work in India came from Kieffer
(1910-1914), who studied the Chironomidae in
the Indian Museum, Calcutta, based mainly on
'Accepted February, 1996
’School of Entomology, St. John’s College,
Agra - 282 002, India
’Department of Zoology, B.S.A. College, Mathura, India.
colour patterns and relative sizes of the body
parts, particularly of the females. Edwards
(1969), Tokunaga (1959), Singh (1958), Singh
and Kulshrestha (1975 and 1977), Singh and
Maheshwari (1986-1989), Kaul (1970),
Chaudhuri and Ghosh (1981, 1982) Chaudhuri
and Sinharay (1983) and Maheshwari (1986-
1990) contributed to literature on Indian
Chironomid fauna. Singh (1958) recorded for the
first time high altitude Chironomidae above the
timber-line in the Northwest Himalaya. His
record of the genus Brillia Kieffer remains the
solitary example of this Holarctic genus from
India. Kaul (1970) described two species of the
torrenticole Diamesinae from the same region.
Singh and Kulshrestha (1977) described some
Chironomidae of the Indogangetic plains.
Chaudhuri and Ghosh (1981, 1982) described a
new genus Neopodonomus from Bhutan, and
some Orthocladiinae and Chironommi from
eastern India. Chaudhuri and Sinharay (1983)
added three new species of genus Rheocricotopus
Thien. and Hamisch to the Indian fauna from
Darjeeling and Shillong. Singh and Maheshwari
(1987-89) described the Chironomidae of
Chandertal Lake (4270 m above msl), Lahaul
Spiti Valley, Northwest Himalaya, with five new
species of Micropsectra and three new species
of Corynoneura Winn. Maheshwari (1986-95)
described the Chironomidae from Gangetic plain,
coastal parts and high altitude regions. He also
made a faunal assessment of settling tanks of
74
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR. 1999
BIOSYSTEM A TICS OF INDIAN CHIRONOMIDA E
the Civil Water Supply System, Agra, India.
Maheshwari and Agarwal (1993) studied the
Harnischia complex from India.
Faunal composition of Indian Chironomidae
be further divided into two phylogenetic groups
of subfamilies namely Tanypodinae and
Podonominae. The second group constitutes
Diamesinae, Orthocladiinae and Chironominae.
B Chironomini
H Tanytarsini
H Clidotanypodini
PI Tanypodini
O Pentaneurini
^ Macropelopini
^ Orthocladiinae
HI Diamesini
□ Podonomini
HI Protanypodini
Fml
Fig. 1 : Percentage analysis of species of
Chironomidae from Indian limits
The material we collected represented five
subfamilies: Orthocladiinae, Tanypodinae,
Podonominae, Diamesinae and Chironominae,
covering thirty-nine genera and 94 species. The
majority were Orthocladiinae and Chironominae
with 44.09% and 43.01% respectively, while
Tanypodinae, Diamesinae and Podonominae
were represented by 9.68%, 2.15% and 1.08%
respectively.
Phylogeny of Chironomidae (Fig. 2)
Goetghebuer (1914) evaluated the
phylogenetic relationships of Chironomidae. But
except for his conclusion that the Chironominae
were derived from the Orthocladiinae, most of
his results have been found untenable. Our study
reveals that the subfamily Telmatogetoninae
belongs to a group with five other subfamilies
viz. Podonominae, Tanypodinae, Diamesinae,
Orthocladiinae, and Chironominae. These can
Ecology
No consistent work has been done on the
ecology of Indian Chironomidae so far. Singh
and Maheshwari (1987 a & b) reported that
Chandertal (4,270 m. above msl), in the Lahaul-
Spiti Valley has a chironomid community of five
species, of Micropsectra ; one species of
Metriocnemus and three of Corynoneura. On the
basis of their swarming behaviour, genera can
be differentiated: Micropsectra spp. swarm over
green vegetation while Metriocnemus spp. do so
over stones and boulders. Corynoneura gyrates
on the surface of lake water after emergence and
each species of Corynoneura exhibits a specific
pattern of gyration. Maheshwari (1992) studied
Chironomidae as indicators of lake typology of
Northwest Himalaya and categorized high altitude
lakes into subgroups. A key for the classification
of high altitude lakes is given below:
Key to the types of lakes on the basis of
chironomid fauna
1 . Paracladopelma and Tanypodinae present
Eutrophic lakes (Nanakmata)
Above absent 2
2. Heterotrissocladius, Stictochironomus and
Phaenopsectra present Mesotrophic lakes
(Bhimtal, Sattal, Naukuchia Tal, Nainital)
Micropsectra, Corynoneura, Diamesa,
Pseudodiamesa and Metriocnemus present
Oligotrophic lakes 3
3. Corynoneura and Micropsectra ( Notocene gp.).
present.... zeta-Oligotrophic (Chandertal lake)
Corynoneura spp. absent 4
4. Micropsectra himachali, Diamesa dashauhari
and Pseudodiamesa present
alpha oligotrophic (Dashauhar lake)
Micropsectra himachali present. Diamesa
and Pseudodiamesa spp. absent
beta-oligotrophic...(Suraj Tal)
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
75
Ceratopogonidae
out group
BIOSYSTEMA TICS OF INDIAN CHIRONOMIDAE
Fig. 2: Scheme of argumentation delineating the cladogenesis of the subfamilies of Chironomidae by means
of trends 1-22.
76
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR. 1999
BIOSYSTEMA TICS OF INDIAN CHIRONOMIDAE
Trends used in the cladistic analysis are being
given hereunder (a = apomorphous; p = plesio-
morphous)
Trend 1 Notum absent (a); notum present (p)
Trend 2 Anal point present (a); anal point
absent (p)
Trend 3 Gonostylus male short and ovoid (a)
male gonostylus long, tapering distally (p).
Trend 4 Tergite VIII of female reduced (a);
Tergite VIII of female well developed (p).
Trend 5 Gonocoxite IX of female reduced (a);
Gonocoxite IX well developed (p).
Trend 6 Female Labia fused (a); Labia separated.
Trend 7 Seminal capsule absent, spermathecal
ducts serve as seminal storage organ (a);
Seminal capsules present and well developed
(p)-
Trend 8 Gonapophysis VIII of female very long,
elongated (p); Gonapophysis VIII relatively
short, single or divided (a)
Trend 9 Gonostylus IX of female present (p);
Gonostylus IX of female absent (a).
Trend 10 Gonostylus tooth, X and Y-seta absent
(p); either tooth or X and Y- seta present (a).
Trend 1 1 Aedeagal membrane present in .male
(p); absent (a)
Trend 12 Tergite and stemite IX of male segment
completely fused (a); Tergite and stemite IX
not completely fused (p).
Trend 1 3 Gonocoxite of female reduced and fused
with tergite IX to form gonotergite IX(a); both
not fused (p).
Trend 14 One pair reduced volsella present (p);
volsella 2-4 pairs and well developed (a).
Trend 15 Gonapophysis VIII of female not
divided into 1-2 lobes (p); Gonapophysis VIII
of female divided into 2-3 lobes (a).
Trend 16 Gonostylus tooth present (a); absent (p)
Trend 17 Gonotergite IX narrow and reduced
with very few setae (a); gonotergite hood-
shaped with numerous setae (p).
Trend 18 Female gonocoxapodeme VIII weakly
developed (p); gonocoxapodeme VIII absent
(a).
Trend 19 Tergite IX of female undivided, large,
hood shaped (p); tergite IX divided into two
setigerous protrusions. If undivided,
shortened (a).
Trend 20 Male gonostylus posteriorly directed
(a); anteriorly directed (p).
Trend 2 1 Segment X of male absent (a); segment
X present (p).
Trend 12 Notum of female long (a); Notum
relatively short (p).
As apparent from this key, the occurrence
of specific forms in a particular water body
indicate the character of the lake.
The present study reveals that occurrence
of Chironomidae is related to the availability of
appropriate larval habitat.
The species of tribe Chironomini are
thermophilic and adapted to standing water.
Tribe Tanytarsini includes rheophilic and
thermophilic species. Rheophilic species
represented by Micropsectra Tokunaga,
represented by seven species, are restricted to the
Himalayan Region. Micropsectra chanderi and
Micropsectra bifurcata are also adapted to
torrential streams. The rest of the Micropsectra
species are found in the oligotrophic lakes of
Himachal Pradesh. Tanytarsus Wulp and
Rheotanytarsus Bause are thermophilic and
lentic, while Stempellina Bause species are
thermophilic and lotic. Polypedilum Kieffer
species are found in marshy places.
Tanypodinae is represented by tribes
Clinotanypodini, Tanypodini, Macropelopiini
and Pentaneurini, are thermophilc, with a solitary
example of rheophilic Macropelopia sp.
Orthocladiinae is a widely distributed
group, inhabiting marine, marshy, lotic and lentic
habitats in high altitude and low land water
bodies. Symbiocladius Kieffer inhabits brackish
water, running, stagnant water of low land and
cold water bodies of Kulu Valley. Corynoneura
Winn, are restricted to the ultra-oligotrophic
lakes of Lahaul-Spiti Valley of Himachal
Pradesh. Cricotopus Wulp are thermophilic and
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
77
BJOSYSTEMA TICS OF INDIAN CHIR ONOMIDA E
Table 1
DISTRIBUTION OF INDIAN CHIRONOMIDAE IN RELATION TO HABITATS AND WATER CONDITIONS
BIOSYSTEMA TICS OF INDIAN CHIRONOMIDAE
lentic. Smittia Holmagren are adapted to
thermophilic and rheophilic conditions. Brillia
Kieffer and Euricnemus Wulp are the rarest
chironomids of India, inhabiting cold water
bodies of Kulu and Lahaul Valley, Himachal
Pradesh. Paraphenocladius Thienemann is
adapted for torrential streams. Among the
Orthocladiinae, Symbiocladius Kieffer occur as
external parasites on mayfly larvae.
Thalassosmittia is exclusively marine.
During the last ten years, the high altitude
lakes Suraj Tal (4864 m above msl), Chandertal
(4270 m above msl), (Singh and Maheshwari
1987 a & b) Dashauhar Lake (4200 m above msl),
(Singh and Maheshwari 1989), Bhrighu Lake
(4132 m above msl), Deepak Tal (4202 m above
msl) were explored and faual compositions of
each lake was found specific. Dashauhar lake
shows domination of Diamesci-Pseudodiamesci,
whereas Bhrighu, Chandertal and Suraj Tal are
dominated by Micropsectra species. Deepak Tal,
a comparatively small lake, shelters a few species
of Orthocladiinae (Maheshwari 1987).
Altitudinal Distribution
Chironomidae are abundant upto 5000 m
above msl. A reduction in diversity with
increasing altitude is observed in Chironomidae,
only 35-40 species occuring over 2000 m. The
Chironomini zone ranges 0-400 m above msl and
supports 27 species with a single exception of
Glyptotendipes, which was found between 1 800-
2000 m above msl (Kulu to Rhala fall). The
Tanytarsini zone ranges from 0-5000 m and
supports 14 species. Micropsectra , a high altitude
group of Tanytarsini, is found distributed between
2000-5000 m above msl and represented by seven
species (Kulu and Lahaul valley). Orthocladiinae
inhabits marine water (Andaman and Nicobar
Islands), low land water bodies in the plains of
Uttar Pradesh, torrential streams and Himalayan
lakes (Chandertal, Deepak Tal and Bhrighu lake).
Podonominae and Diamesinae are exclusively
hypsobiont and generally found above 2000 m.
Discussion
Although great overlaps occur, especially
in the lower mountain and low land categories,
there are distinct shifts in the Chironomidae
community with increasing height. Substrate
type and available food influences chirononud
distribution as much as temperature. Most
hypsobiont species have optimum temperature
near their minimum tolerance value, whereas the
warm water species or eurythermic species have
a wider range of tolerance. The cold stenothermic
species, were represented by Diamesa,
Pseudodiamesa and some Orthocladiinae, those
are restricted in ultra-oligotrophic lakes such as
Dashauhar (Pir Panjal Range) and Suraj Tal lake
(Great Himalayan Range). Similarly,
Corynoneura spp. are only found in specific
niches of Chandertal Lake in Lahaul Valley. On
the other hand, Micropsectra are distributed
throughout the Himalaya and adapted to lotic and
lentic water bodies. Algal grazers such as
Diamesinae and a few Orthocladiinae can
dominate in glacial brooks and lakes. At the
foothills, the shade of riparian vegetation
diminishes algal grazer and increases scraper and
collector species. This group comprises
Tanytarsini, some Chironomini and most
Orthocladiinae. In low land water bodies, due to
low water velocity and high amount of particulate
organic matter, filter and deposit feeding
Rheotanytarsus and some species of Chironomini
predominate.
Acknowledgements
We thank Prof. G.M. Ram, former
Principal, St. John’s College, Agra for facilities.
We also thank Dr. Ipe M. Ipe, Principal and Dr.
Santokh Singh, former Head, School of
Entomology, St. John’s College, Agra for
encouragement and Prof. Ole Saether, Director,
Museum of Zoology, University of Bergen,
Norway for his comments.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
79
BIOSYSTEMA TICS OF INDIAN CHIRONOMIDA E
(HEIGHT IN METRES)
Fig. 3: Altitudinal distribution of Chironomidae
80
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(1) APR. 1999
BIOSYSTEMA TICS OF INDIAN CHIRONOMIDA E
Refer
Chaudhuri, P.K. & D.C. Sinharay (1983): A study on
Orthocladiinae (Diptera: Chironomidae) of India.
The genus Rheocricotopus Thienemann and
Harnisch. Ent. Bas, 8: 298-407.
Chaudhuri, P.K. & M. Ghosh (1981): Record of
Chaetocladius Kieffer (Diptera: Chironomidae)
from India. F. Ent. Hungarica. 1: 5-7.
Chaudhuri, P.K. & M. Ghosh ( 1 982): Orthocladid midges
of genus Orthocladius Vander Wulp (Diptera;
Chironomidae) from eastern Himalaya. Annals
Zoologica. 36 (25): 491-500.
Edwards, F.W. (1969): Some Chironomidae (Diptera) from
Berkuda Islands, Chilka Lake (India). Rec. Indian
Mus. 34(2): 177-183.
Goetghebuer, M. (1914): Contribution a l’etude des
Chironomides de Belgique. Annals Biol. Lacustre
7: 66-72.
Kaul, B.K. ( 1 970): Torrenticole insects of the Himalaya.
II. Two new Diamesini (Diptera: Chironomidae).
Oriental Ins. 4(3): 293-297.
Kieffer, J.J. (1910): Etude surles Chironomides des .ndex
Orien tales. Mem. Indian Mus. 2:181 -242.
Kieffer, J.J. (191 1): Chironomidae (Indian Ocean). Trans.
Linn. Soc. London 14(2): 315-366.
Kieffer, J.J. (1911a): Les Chironomidae (Tendipedidae)
de L’ Himalaya et d’ Assam. Rec. Indian Mus., 9:
118-197.
Kiefer, J.J. (1914): Quel ques nouvaux des Chironomides
des Index. Rec. Indian Mus. 10: 313-315.
Maheshwari, Girish ( 1 986): Bioecology of the Chironomus
spp. found in the filter beds of Civil Water Supply
System of Agra. (Diptera: Chironomidae) Ph.D.
Thesis, Agra University, Agra.
Maheshwari, Girish ( 1 987): A new species of Tanytarsini
from India (Diptera: Chironomidae). Entomon
12(2): 207-210.
Maheshwari, Girish (1989): Mating Behaviour of
Chironomidae (Diptera). Proc. V. Indian Symp.
Invertebrate Reproduction 377-383.
Maheshwari, Girish (1 989a): Distributional Pattern of high
altitude Chironomidae (Diptera). St. John’s College,
ENCES
Science Spectra 1(1): 131-137.
Maheshwari, Girish (1989b): Redescription of two
Chironomus spp. from India. (Diptera:
Chironomidae). Acta. Biol. Debr. Oecol. Hung., 2:
253-264.
Maheshwari, Girish (1990): Role of rice midges in
agroecosystem of paddy and in pollination of
flowering plants. Participants seminar of Insect
Plant Interaction ERI Madras: 14 (Summary).
Maheshwari, Girish (1992): Behavioural ecology of
Chironomidae (Diptera) from northwest Himalaya.
DST Project report (unpublished).
Maheshwari, Girish ( 1 995): Some peculiar behaviour of
high altitude Chironomidae. Chironomus (3): 13-
14.
Maheshwari, Girish & Geeta Agarwal (1993):
Taxonomy of Hamischia complex from India with
a short note on their seasonal occurrence. Comp.
Physiol. Ecol. 18(4): 169-175.
Singh, Santokh (1958): On a collection of nival
Chironomidae (Diptera) from the Northwest
Himalaya. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. (India), Allahabad
(B), 28(2): 304-314.
Singh, Santokh & A.K. Kulshreshtha (1975): Three new
spp. of Tanytarsus. Oriental Ins. 9(4) : 419-424.
Singh, Santokh & A.K. Kulshrestha ( 1 977):
Dicrotendipes rajastham nov. sp. from India. Ent.
Scand., 7(2): 155-158.
Singh, Santokh & Girish Maheshwari (1987a): Swarming
ecology of Chironomidae (Diptera) of high altitude
lake Chandertal (Northwest Himalaya). Ad. Bios.
6(2): 179-186.
Singh, Santokh & Girish Maheshwari (1987b):
Chironomidae of Chandertal Lake, Northwest
Himalaya (Diptera: Chironomidae). Annals. Ent.
5(2): 11-20.
Singh, Santokh & Girish Maheshwari (1989):
Biosystematic Study of Diamesa Meigen from
India. Acta. Biol. Debr. Oecol. Hung., 2: 343-254.
Tokunaga, M. (1959): A new midge from Kashmir
(Diptera: Tendipedidae) Akitu. 8: 21-24.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
81
FISHES OF PARAMBIKULAM WILDLIFE SANCTUARY,
PALAKKAD DISTRICT, KERALA1
Biju, C.R., Raju Thomas, K. and Ajithkumar C.R.2
( With one text-figure)
Key words: Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary, fish diversity, conservation measures.
A survey was conducted from December, 1 996 to May, 1 997 to document the freshwater fishes of
Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary. Fishes were collected from 15 main localities and 15 subsites,
using cast nets, gill nets and scoop nets. A total of 40 species of 12 families were collected.
Osteochilichthys longidorsalis, Barilius bendelisis and Glyptothorcix lonah are the important
species recorded. The major threats to the fish fauna and recommendations for their conservation
have been given.
Introduction
The hill streams and other water bodies
located in the Western Ghats are rich in fish
fauna. Of the 930 species of fish recorded in the
lentic and lotic fresh waters of India, 168 are
found in the Western Ghats (Singh, 1993). To
conserve this fish diversity, special consideration
should be given to freshwater bodies originating
from Western Ghats. Pillay ( 1 929), John ( 1 936),
Horn and Nair ( 1 94 1 ) and Hora and Law (1941)
reported the freshwater fishes of Kerala,
especially from the Travancore region. This
survey was conducted from December 1996 to
May 1997 to document the freshwater fishes of
Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary.
Physiography
Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary lies in
a valley between Anaimalai and Nelliampathy
hill ranges located in Palakkad district of Kerala,
lying between 10° 20'- 10° 32' N lat. and 76° 35'
- 76° 5' E long. In 1973, 285 sq. km area of the
Parambikulam valley was notified as a Wildlife
Sanctuary contiguous with the Anaimalai
Wildlife Sanctuary of Tamil Nadu across the
border. The hills are covered with tropical
‘Accepted January, 1998
2Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House,
Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,
Mumbai - 400 023.
evergreen and semi-evergreen forests along the
western part of the sanctuary. Other vegetation
types are moist teak bearing forests. South Indian
moist deciduous forests and riparian fringing
forests.
The main drainage systems in this Sanctuary
include the rivers Karappara, Parambikulam and
Thekkadiyar and their tributaries. The altitudes
vary from 459 m to 1439 m above msl.
Methods
The study area was visited during
December 1996 to May 1997, and fishes were
collected from 15 main localities and an equal
number of subsites (Fig. 1). Cast nets, gillnets
and scoop nets of varying mesh size were used.
Works of Jayaram (1981), Talwar and Jhingran
(1991) and Menon (1987, 1992) assisted in
identification. Survey of India toposheets
(1: 50,000) were used for the identification of
approachable areas and to find out the order of
streams. Some physical and chemical parameters
were also measured. To avoid sampling error,
collection methods were almost similar in all
the sites.
Result and Discussion
The present survey indicates the richness
of fish diversity in the drainage systems of
Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary. A total of 40
82
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(1) APR. 1999
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
83
A. Parambikulam Reservoi
B. Thunakadavu Reservoir
Fig. 1: Map of Parambikulam wildlife sanctuary showing various collection sites C. Peruvaripallam Reservoi
FISHES OF PARAMBIKULAM WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
Table 1
DISTRIBUTION OF FISHES IN DIFFERENT LOCALITIES IN PARAMBIKULAM WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
Collection sites — 1 . Orukombankutty; 2. Chakkali thodu; 3. Karappara river; 4. Karaparakutty;
5. Orukomban; 6. Panathiyar; 7. Varagiliar; 8. Parambikulam dam site; c). Kolikamathithodu;
10. Sichali pallam; ll.Sungam 12. Thunakadavuar; 1 3. Thekkadiar; 14. Thellickalar;
15. Kuriarkuttiar; t - total number of specimens.
84
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR. 1999
FISHES OF PARAMBIKULAM WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
TableI (contd.)
DISTRIBUTION OF FISHES IN DIFFERENT LOCALITIES IN PARAMBIKULAM WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
FAMILY-BAGRIDAE
27. Mystus armatus (Day)
28. Mystus malabaricus (Jerdon)
FAMILY-SISORIDAE
29. Glyptothorax lonah (Sykes)
FAMILY-CLARIDAE
30. Claries batrachus (Linnaeus)
FAMILY-APLOCHEILIDAE
31. Aplocheilus lineatus (Val.)
FAMILY-NANDIDAE
Sub family-Pristolepidinae
32 . Pristolepis marginata Jerdon
FAMILY-CICHLIDAE
33. Etrop lus maculatus (Bloch)
34. Etrop lus suratensis (Bloch)
35. Oreochromis mossambica
(Peters)
FAMILY-GOBIDAE
36. Glossogobius giuris
(Ham.-Buch.)
2 1 -
2 - 2
- 3
1 - 1
10 - -
3 - 2
8 2 4
2 - -
4 4 4
3 4 2
FAMILY-CHANNIDAE
37. Channa marulius (Ham.-Buch.) 1
38. Channa orientalis - - 2
(Bloch & Schneider)
FAMILY-MATACEMBELIDAE
39. Macrognathus guentheri Day - - 1
40. Mastacembelus armatus 1
(Lacepede)
1 - 4 - - - - 1 9
2 - - 6
- - 3
4 2 18 2
3 2 4 3
2
39
3 - 2 -
2 - 15
6 4
5 3 -
5
3 -
5 6 4 -
2 31
5
8 2 45
2 3 2 -4
3
2 - 25
1 - - 1
1 - - - 1
3
4
2
1
2
5
Total no. of species
32 18 19 17 22 9 12 23 7 4 14 13 11 12 11 -
Collection sites — 1. Orukombankutty; 2. Chakkali thodu; 3. Karappara river; 4. Karaparakutty;
5.0rukomban; 6. Panathiyar; 7. Varagiliar; 8. Parambikulam dam site; 9. Kolikamathithodu;
10. Sichali pallam; 1 1 . Sungam; 12. Thunakadavuar; 13. Thekkadiar; 14. Thellickalar;
1 5. Kuriarkuttiar; t - total number of specimens.
species belonging to 12 families were collected
from various localities (Table 1). Of these, 3 were
culture fishes. Most of the species are widely
distributed in Kerala and other parts of Western
Ghats. Garra mullya, Puntius melanampyx,
Barilius gatensis, Parluciosoma daniconius,
Danio malabaricus, Nemachellus triangularis
and Lepidocephalus thermalis were uniformly
distributed in this Sanctuary. Puntius carnaticus,
Gonoproktopterus curmuca, Tor khudree,
Barilius bakeri, Esomus danricus, Nemacheilus
guentheri, Mystus armatus, Clarias batrachus,
Etroplus suratensis, Channa marulius and
Anguilla bengalensis were comparatively rare.
Bhavania australis and Travancoria jonesi were
confined upstream in the Parambikulam river.
Osteochilichthys longidorsalis was
recently discovered from the lower reaches of
Athirapilly waterfalls, Chalakudy river
(Pethiyagoda and Kottelet 1996) and collected
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
85
FISHES OF PARAMBIKULAM WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
by us from Parambikulam river near
Orukombankutty. This is the second report of
this fish from the same river. Garra
surendrcinathanii was collected from its type
locality (Shaji et al. 1996). Barilius bendelisis ,
which has been reported only from the east
flowing Pambar river in Kerala, was reported
for the first time from a west flowing river system
(Raju Thomas et al. 1998). Glyptothorax lonah
collected from Karappara river was its first record
in Kerala (Biju et al. 1998). Tor khudree, the
Deccan Mahseer was well represented at almost
all sites.
Freshwater fish diversity was very high (32
species recorded) in the Orukombankutty, the
confluence of Karappara, Sholayar and
Parambikulam rivers. This area had deep pools
and ditches and the bottom was rocky or sandy
in most parts. Hence special consideration should
be given to protection of this habitat, as it
harbours a large number of fish species.
Values of physical and chemical
parameters varied with the change in the habitats.
The temperature varied between 23°C-26.5°C
and pH was 6.5-8. 1. The value of dissolved
oxygen was between 6-8.1 mg/1.
Major Threats and Recommendations for
the Conservation of Fish fauna
Anthropogenic alterations of the forest
habitat cause great changes in rivers and their
Refer
Biju, C.R., K. Raju Thomas & C.R. Ajithkumar (1998):
Glyptothorax lonah an addition to the ichthyofauna
of Kerala. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 95 (3): 51 8-5 1 9.
Hora, S.L. & N.C. Law (1941): The freshwater fish of
Travancore. Rec. Ind. Mus., 43: 233- 256.
Hora, S.L. & K.K. Nair (1941): New records of
freshwater fishes from Travancore. Rec. Ind. Mus.
43: 387-393.
John, C.C. (1936): Freshwater fish and fisheries of
Travancore. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 33: 347-
379.
Jayaram, K.C. (1981): The freshwater fishes of India and
adjacent countries. Oxford and IBH., New Delhi.
fish fauna. Spreading of fish diseaes, mainly due
to pollution, is another threat facing the fish
fauna. Due to these reasons, some groups of fishes
have become rare and endangered. These fishes
need immediate protection to save them from
extinction. Some recommendations are:
1. A separate fish sanctuary should be
established in the rivers flowing through
this area.
2. Regular monitoring of water quality.
3. Existing suitable habitats should be
protected from erosion and deterioration of
water quality.
4. Further introduction of exotic fishes should
stop.
5. Extensive use of traps, long lines and
explosives should be curtailed.
6. River bank restoration should be started in
damaged areas with suitable riparian
vegetation in the Anaimalai and
Nelliampathi hill ranges.
Though Parambikulam is a deemed
sanctuary with very little human interference, the
Orukombankutty area, with its highly diverse fish
fauna, must be monitored to protect it.
Acknowledgement
We thank Dr. K. Rema Devi, Scientist, ZSI,
Southern Regional Station, Chennai, for
confirming our identification of the fishes.
E N C E S
Menon, A.G.K. (1987): Rare and endangered fishes of
Malabar, India . Zoos’ Print. 12: 619.
Menon, A.G.K. (1992): The fauna of India and the
adjacent countries. Pisces. Vol. 4. Teleostei-
Cobitoidea. Part 2. Cobitidae. Zool. Surv. India.
Madras.
Pethiyagoda, R. & M. Kottelet (1994): Three new
species of fishes of the genera Osteochilichthys
(Cyprinidae), Travancoria (Balitoridae) and
Horabagrus (Bagridae) from Chalakudy river,
Kerala, India. J. South Asian nat. Hist. 1: 97-1 16.
Pillay, R.S.N. (1929): A list of fishes from Travancore.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 33: 347- 379.
86
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR. 1999
FISHES OF PA RA MB IK ULAM WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
Raju Thomas, K., C.R. Biju & C.R. Ajithkumar (1998):
First report of Barilius bendelisis from a west
flowing river, Chalakudy river, in Kerala. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 95(3): 519-520.
Shaji, C.P., P S. Easa & L.K.Arun (1996): Garra
surendranathanii - A new Cyprinid fish from the
southern Western Ghats, India. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 93: 572-575.
Singh, D.F. (1993): Fish diversity of the Western Ghats.
Draft report. SACON. (Unpublished).
Shaji, C.P. & P.S. Easa (1997): Fresh water fish diversity
in Kerala part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. Curr.
Sci. 73(2): 180-182.
Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991 ): Inland fishes of
India and adjacent countries Oxford and IBH., New
Delhi.
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(1), APR. 1999
87
A PRELIMINARY SURVEY OF LICHENS FROM CORBETT NATIONAL PARK1
D.K. Upreti and S. Chatterjee2
( With three text-figures)
Key words: Lichen, epiphytic, Corbett National Park
The paper enumerates 69 species representing 21 genera of lichens found growing on different
tree species in seven forest sites in Jim Corbett National Park, Uttar Pradesh, India. It also
includes a comparative account of lichens growing on different phorophytes. The crustose lichens
exhibit dominance on trees.
Introduction
Corbett National Park was established on
8th August, 1936 and happens to be the oldest
National Park of the Indian subcontinent. The
park is located between 29° 13' and 29° 35' N
lat., and between 78° 46' and 79° 33' E long.,
spread over an area of 1318.54 sq. km. It is
situated in the foothills of Himalayas, mainly in
the districts of Pauri Garhwal andNaini Tal. The
park contains two protected areas within its
precincts, namely Corbett National park (CNP)
520.82 sq. km and Sonanadi Wild Life Sanctuary
(WLS) 301.18 sq. km.
As the park lies in the Shivalik-terai biotic
province abutting the Himalayas, it has great
habitat diversity. The northern side of the park
is bounded by mountains of outer Himalayas,
while the drier Shivalik range lies on the south.
The rainfed Ramganga river enters the park at
Marchula, and before emerging out of the park
at Kalagarh, Mandal, Palain and Sonanadi are
its main tributaries. Construction of a dam across
the Ramganga at Kalagarh led to the formation
of a large man-made reservoir spread over an
area of 82 sq. km.
Vegetation: Acacia catechu (Khair) and
Dalbergia latifolia (Sissu) forest thrive in
'Accepted November, 1998
2 Lichenology Laboratory,
National Botanical Research Institute,
Lucknow-226001 . Uttar Pradesh.
riverine areas, while Shorea robusta forests are
found on hilly slopes and ridges. About one
tenth of the park has open grasslands. Dhikala,
Paterpani, Kinnanauli, Bijrani and Jhirna
are some of the important grasslands of the park.
The common associates of Shorea robusta
are evergreen species of Mallotus philippensis
and Syzygium cumini. The other small to medium
sized trees are Phoebe lanceolata, Litsea
glutinosa, L. monopetala, Drypetus roxburghii and
Boehmeria rugulosa. Murraya, Mangifera indica
and Citi'us medica grow in mixed and pure patches.
Among the deciduous species, Terminalia
alata, T. chebula, Semecarpus anacardium,
Lannea coromandelica, Sapium insigne, and
Lagerstroemia parviflora are common at
Dhikala, Bijrani, and Malani. Paterpani also
harbours Acacia catechu, Holoptelea integrifolia
and Phyllanthus emblica. Dalbergia sissoo
occupies large patches in Dhikala and Paterpani.
Bischofia javanica, Firmiana pallens and Ficus
species are very common in Sultan. Shrubs or
small trees of Murraya koenigii are scattered
throughout the park.
Pant (1987) enumerated 594 species of
angiosperms, and 22 ferns and fern allies from
the park. The cryptogamic flora, however, have
not received adequate attention so far.
Material and Methods
In this study, seven forest localities
(Bijrani, Malani, Dhikala, Jhirna, Chuhi, Sultan
88
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR. 1999
LICHENS FROM CORBETT NATIONAL PARK
1. Bijrani; 2. Malani; 3. Dhangari; 4. Sultan; 5. Paterpani; 6. Jhirna; 7. Saddle Dam; 8. Dhikala;
9. Ramganga Reservoir; 10. Kalagarh
and Paterpani) in the core zone of the park were
surveyed (Fig. 1) and about 300 lichen specimens
were collected, growing over trees of Syzygium
cumini, Mallotus philippensis, Murraya koenigii,
Mangifera indica, Shorea robusta, Termincilia
arjuna and Toona ciliata, and on sandstone and
other rocks.
The specimens were studied anatomically,
morphologically and chemically. They are now
preserved in the lichen herbarium of the National
Botanical Research Institute (LWG).
Results and Discussion
A total of 69 species representing 2 1 genera
of lichens were found growing on trees, sandstone
and other rocks in the area surveyed. There is
dominance of crustose form of lichens, in all the
seven forest sites (Fig. 2) represented by 62
species, while only 7 foliose species of three
genera Dirinaria, Parmelia and Physcia were
found on Syzygium cumini, Murraya koenigii,
Shorea robusta and Terminalia arjuna in the
moist area of Malani, Sultan, Paterpani and
Chuhi.
Syzygium cumini trees, the most common
associates of Shorea robusta in moist places along
streams, harbour 45 epiphytic species, while
Shorea robusta, Mallotus philippensis and
Murraya koenigii bear 15, 7 and 8 lichen species
respectively (Tables 1-4).
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
89
LICHENS FROM CORBETT NATIONAL PARK
30
25
20
w 15
o
10
□ CRUSTOSE
■ FOLIOSE
CHUHI SULTAN BIJRANI PATERPANI DHIKALA JHIRNA MALANI
SROT
Fig. 2 : Growth form types of lichens in different forest sites of Corbett National Park
An orange-yellow crustose lichen
Brigantiaea leucoxantha, commonly grows on
Syzygium cumini , in moist and also dry places
in the park, while on trees in moist, damp,
shaded areas, along the stream, the
pyrenocarpous lichen Pyrenula dominates with
seven species. Chuhi Srot and Sultan areas have
the maximum diversity of epiphytic lichens on
Syzygium cumini , as represented by 23 and 18
species respectively (Table 1). Syzygium trees in
more or less dry areas of Malani, Jhirna and
Dhikala bear only 2, 3 and 5 lichen species
respectively.
Trees of Shorea robusta bear 15 epiphytic
species of lichen. Young trees of Shorea robusta
have smooth and soft bark, preferred by the
crustose species Lecanora cinereofusca, L.
pulicaris and Chrysothrix candelaris in Malani
and Paterpani areas. In mature Shorea robusta
trees, the bark is thick and rough. Mature trees
in dry places show poor growth of a few crustose
lichens like Bacidia, Caloplaca and Pertusaria,
while at moist, shady places they bear foliose
lichen genera Parmelia and Leptogium.
It is interesting to note that decaying logs
of Shorea robusta in moist places of Malani area
have a luxuriant growth of both crustose
{Brigantiaea and Buellia) and foliose ( Parmelia ,
Dirinaria and Physcia) species.
Mallotus philippensis trees have hard
wood, with a thin, smooth, upper surface,
preferred by only a few pyrenocarpous and
graphidaceous genera. The trees exhibit no
growth of foliose lichens. Due to its smooth bark,
Mallotus philippensis shares 4 and 2 common
epiphytic species with Syzygium cumini and
Murraya koenigii respectively, whereas it does
not share any species with the thick, rough barked
Shorea robusta (Fig. 3).
Murraya koenigii , an evergreen shrub or
small tree, with smooth bark on the trunk, is
scattered throughout the park. It is common in
more or less dry, open areas of Paterpani, and
Jhirna area, and bears 8 species, of which two are
90
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR. 1999
LICHENS FROM CORBETT NATIONAL PARK
Table 1
LICHENS ON SYZYGIUM CUMINI IN CORBETT
NATIONAL PARK
Table 2
LICHENS ON SHOREA ROBUSTA
IN CORBETT NATIONAL PARK
foliose and six crustose. It shares two species with
Mallotus and 4 with Syzygium cumini (Fig. 3).
Conclusion
B: Bijrani, C: Chuhi, D: Dhikala, J: Jhima, M: Malani, The maJor conclusions that emerge from
P: Paterpani, S: Sultan. this Study are as follows:
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
91
LICHENS FROM CORBETT NATIONAL PARK
Table 4
LICHENS ON MURRA YA KOENIGII
IN CORBETT NATIONAL PARK.
B: Bijrani, C: Chuhi, D: Dhikala, J: Jhima, M: Malani,
P: Pateipani, S: Sultan.
Fig. 3: Common epiphytic lichens species sharing
different trees in Corbett National Park
■ In all the sites surveyed crustose lichens
dominate, except at Malani, where only foliose
lichens were found growing on decaying logs of
Shorea robusta.
Table 5
LICHENS ON MANGIFERA INDICA IN CORBETT
NATIONAL PARK
B: Bijrani, C: Chuhi, D: Dhikala, J: Jhima, M: Malani,
P: Pateipani, S: Sultan.
■ The Chuhi and Sultan areas are lichen-
rich, having 26 and 20 species respectively, as
both are moist, and shady sites with luxuriant
growth of evergreen Syzygium cumini and
Mallotus philippensis.
■ Syzygium cumini bears 23 epiphytic
lichen species, followed by Shorea voubsta,
Murray a koenigii, and Mallotus philippensis
with 15, 8 and 7 species respectively.
■ Mangifera indica is preferred by some
specific lichen species of pyrenocarpous
genera.
■ Terminalia arjuna and Toona ciliata
show poor growth of only a few lichen species.
ACKNOW LEDG EM ENTS
We are grateful to the Director, National
Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow, for
providing laboratory facilities, to the authorities
of Corbett National Park, for extending all help
during survey and collection, and to Mr. Murari
Ranjan and Jyoti Tandon for laboratory
assistance.
Reference
Pant, P.C. (1987): ‘Flora of Corbett National Park’ Flora of India Series-4. Botanical Survey of India.
92
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR. 1999
ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF HIMACHAL PRADESH FROM
SIRMAUR DISTRICT1
M. Sharma and Harsimerjit Kaur2
Key Words: New records, flora, Sirmaur.
5 1 species of flowering plants recorded from Sirmaur district of Himachal Pradesh, hitherto not reported
from the State, have been listed along with pertinent information on their habits and habitat.
Introduction
Ever since June 1984, the senior author
and his students have been engaged in the
districtwise systematic survey of the flora of
Himachal Pradesh in Northwest Himalaya.
Consequently, besides three new introductions
to Indian flora (Singh and Sharma 1988,
Dhaliwal and Sharma 1995, Sharma and
Dhaliwal 1997 a), new records of 28 species from
Chamba dist. (Sharma and Singh, in press) and
32 species from Kulu dist. (Sharma and Dhaliwal
1997 b) have been made for Himachal Pradesh.
In this communication, we enumerate, along with
some pertinent information, 51 species of
flowering plants from Sirmaur dist. which have
not been reported earlier from Himachal Pradesh.
These were gathered during our extensive and
intensive field studies of the district during 1991-
1994. But for minor modifications, to conform
to current circumscription of taxa, the arrange-
ment of the families is after Hooker ( 1 872- 1 897).
Unless otherwise stated, all the specimens cited
here are conserved in the Punjabi University
Herbarium, Patiala (PUN).
Ranunculaceae
Clematis buchananiana DC. var. vitifolia
Wall, ex Hook.f. & Thoms.
Common in forests, 1500-2500 m.
FI. & Fr.: August - September.
Shasholi (Rajgarh), Harsimerjit 17634.
'Accepted January, 1998
department of Botany, Punjabi University, Patiala- 147 002.
Annonaceae
Annona squamosa Linn.
Rare, in tropical forests, 1000-1500 m.
FI. & Fr.: May - September.
Nahan, Harsimerjit 18302 & 18926.
Menispermaceae
Cocculus hirsutus (Linn.) Diels
Rare, 500-1000 m.
FI. & Fr.: February - May.
Nahan, Sangrah; Harsimerjit 18424 &
18603, 18604.
Brassicaceae
Malcolmia africana (Linn.) R.Br.
Rare in dry areas, 500-700 m.
FI. & Fr.: February - May.
Paonta Sahib, Harsimerjit 18334 & 18436.
Capparaceae
Capparis zeylanica Linn.
Rare among hedges, 500-600 m.
FI. & Fr.: April-May.
Paonta Sahib, Harsimerjit 17622.
Caryophyllaceae
Spergula fallax (Lowe) Krause
Common weed of cultivation, fallow fields
and moist wasteland, 400- 1 1 00 m.
FI. & Fr.: January-March.
Nahan, Harsimerjit 18432.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
93
FLORA OF HIMACHAL PRADESH
Malvaceae
Abutilon persicum (Burm.f.) Pers.
Common, 400-1500 m.
FI. & Fr.: March-May.
Kolar (Paonta Sahib), Batapul, Yashwant
Nagar; Harsimerjit 18610, 18611, 18704.
Hibiscus hirtus Linn.
Rare, 400-600 m.
FI. & Fr.: August-October.
Paonta Sahib, Harsimerjit 18909.
Tiliaceae
Corchorus capsularis Linn.
Rare, 400-600 m.
FI. & Fr.: August-October.
Kala Amb, Harsimerjit 18310 & 18912.
C. tridens Linn.
Common in wasteland, 400-600 m.
FI. & Fr.: July-October.
Dadahu, Kala Amb, Chandni, Batapul,
Dholakuan; Harsimerjit 17603 & 18913, 17609,
18308, 18309, 18914.
OXALIDACEAE
Biophytum reinwardtii (Zucc.) Klotz
Sataun, Karki 90047 (BSD).
Sapindaceae
Cardiospermum halicacabum Linn. var.
microcarpum (Kunth) Blume
Common climber, 500-1700 m.
FI. & Fr.: August-October.
Nahan, Dadahu; Harsimerjit 17654,
18950.
Papilionaceae
Desmodium pulchellum (Linn.) Benth.
Common undergrowth in forests, 1000-
1800 m.
FI. & Fr.: August-October.
Nahan, Samwala, Sarahan; Harsimerjit
18376, 18377, 19571.
Indigofera tinctoria Linn.
Common in waste places, 500-1000 m.
FI. & Fr.: August-November.
Sangrah, Nahan, Renuka, Dholakuan,
Paonta Sahib; Harsimerjit 18465 & 18650,
18466, 18657, 18777, 18778.
Rhynchosia minima (Linn.) DC. var.
laxiflora (Camb.) Baker
Common among hedges, 400-600 m.
FI. & Fr.: July-October.
Paonta Sahib, Harsimerjit 18358.
Caesalpiniaceae
Cassia leschenaultiana DC.
Rare in grassy fields, 800-1500 m.
FI. & Fr.: August-November.
Nahan, Harsimerjit 19774.
Mimosaceae
Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd.
Common, 400-500 m.
FI. & Fr.: October-December, March-
May.
Kala Amb, Harsimerjit 19234.
Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC.
Common and gregarious on undisturbed
ground, 400-700 m.
FI. & Fr.: March-May.
Sangrah, Sainwala; Harsimerjit 19237,
19547.
Lythraceae
Rotala mexicana Cham. & Schlecht.
Rare in marshes and rice fields, 1000-1500 m.
FI. & Fr.: September-January.
Nahan, Harsimerjit 19190.
94
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR. 1999
FLORA OF HIMACHAL PRADESH
Cucurbit aceae
Luffa ecliinata Roxb. var. longistyla
Clarke
Occasionally found among hedges, 400-
1000 m.
FI. & Fr.: August-October.
Renuka, Harsimerjit 19913.
Momordica balsamina Linn.
Rare among hedges or on trees, 400-700 m.
FI. & Fr.: April-October.
Renuka, Harsimerjit 19744.
M. charantia Linn. var. muricata (Willd.)
Chakravarty
Rare climber in tropical zone, 400-1000 m.
FI. & Fr.: July-October.
Nahan, Moginand (Kala Amb);
Harsimerjit 19276, 19767.
Cactaceae
Nopalaea cochenillifera (Linn.) Salm-
Dyck
Rare, 400-1000 m.
FI.: January - May, September - October.
Fr.: December - January.
Sangrah, Harsimerjit 19238.
Opuntia monacantha (Willd.) Haw.
Common in waste places, 450-1800 m.
FI. & Fr.: April-October.
Kala Amb, Harsimerjit 19263.
Rubiaceae
Oldenlandia gracilis (Wall.) Hook.f.
Sarahan, Vohra 946281 (BSD).
Asteraceae
Chrysanthellum americanum (Linn.) Vatke
Common in grassy areas, 400-1500 m.
FI. & Fr.: August-November.
Nauradhar, Haripurdhar; Harsimerjit
19307 & 19390, 19323.
Sphaeranthus senegalensis DC.
Rare in moist grassy fields, 400-1000 m.
FI. & Fr.: November - May.
Paonta Sahib, Harsimerjit 19509.
Vicoa vestita (Wall, ex DC.) Benth. ex
Hook.f.
Rare, 400-1000 m.
FI. & Fr.: March-May.
Nahan, Harsimerjit 19604.
Gentian aceae
Centaurium centaurioides (Roxb.) Rolla
Rao & Hemadri
Rare in grassy fields, 400-700 m.
FI. & Fr.: March-May.
Chandni, Harsimerjit 19035.
SOLANACEAE
Datura tatula Linn.
Occasionally found in wasteland, 500-1000 m.
FI. & Fr.: August-September.
Chandni, Renuka; Harsimerjit 18399,
18835.
SCROPHULARIACEAE
Bacopa procumbens (Linn.) Greenm.
Common on sandy river beds, 400-1000 m.
FI. & Fr.: March-May.
Sainwala, Bherewala; Harsimerjit 18563
& 19545, 18798.
Scop aria dulcis Linn.
Common, 600-1500 m.
FI. & Fr.: July - December.
Paonta Sahib, Harsimerjit 17155.
Veronica polita Fries
Common in moist grassy fields, 400-2000 m.
FI. & Fr.: December- April.
Nahan, Harsimerjit 17154.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
95
FLORA OF HIMACHAL PRADESH
Lamiaceae
Ocimum gratissimum Linn.
Cultivated, often grows as an escape in
wasteland, 500-1000 m.
FI. & Fr.: December-March.
Nahan, Sirmuri Tal; Harsimerjit 18678,
19667.
Prunella vulgaris Linn. var. hispida Benth.
Common, 1400-3000 m.
FI. & Fr.: March-October.
Nauradhar, Haripurdhar; Harsimerjit
18522, 18584.
Salvia coccinea Juss. ex Murr. var.
pseudococcineci (Juss. ex Murr.) Gray
Common near Nahan cantonment road,
900-1000 m.
FI. & Fr.: August-October.
Nahan, Harsimerjit 18592.
Amaranthaceae
Alternanthera tenella Colla
Very common, 400-1000 m.
FI. & Fr.: February- April.
Paonta Sahib, Kala Amb; Harsimerjit
19017, 19094.
Phytolaccaceae
Rivinia humilis Linn.
Common in hedges, gardens and
wasteland, 500-1500 m.
FI. & Fr.: July-November.
Shilai, Harsimerjit 19354.
Euphorbiaceae
Croton bonplandianum Baill.
Common in waste places, 500-1000 m.
FI. & Fr.: March-November.
Dadahu, Sirmuri Tal, Sundraghat
(Sangrah), Kala Amb, Paonta Sahib; Harsimerjit
17129, 18843, 18897, 19112, 19413.
Euphorbia pilosa Linn. var. cognata Hook.f.
Very common as forest undergrowth
especially on way to Churdhar, 2400-2800 m.
FI. & Fr.: June-September.
Churdhar, Nauradhar; Harsimerjit 18686,
19491.
PONTEDERIACEAE
Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms
Occasionally found in ponds, 400-600 m.
FI.: August-No vember, April-May.
Batapul, Paonta Sahib; Harsimerjit 17363,
19373.
COMMELINACEAE
Commelina suffruticosa Blume
Rare in rice fields, 400-1000 m.
FI. & Fr.: July-October.
Paonta Sahib, Harsimerjit 19168.
Araceae
Colocasia esculenta (Linn.) Schott
Common in marshy places especially near
Renuka Lake, 400-1000 m,
FI. & Fr.: August-November.
Renuka, Harsimerjit 19681.
Cyperaceae
Cyperus nutans Vahl var. eleusinoides
(Kunth) Haines
Common in marshy places and rice fields,
400-1500 m.
FI. & Fr.: July-October.
Paonta Sahib, Harsimerjit 19752.
POACEAE
Cencltrus setigerus Vahl
Common in waste places, 500-1000 m.
FI. & Fr.: August-November, March-
April.
96
JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR. 1999
FLORA OF HIMACHAL PRADESH
Nahan, Paonta Sahib; Harsimerjit 19246,
19258.
Chrysopogon aciculatus (Retz.) Trin.
Common as forest undergrowth, 1000-
1500 m.
FI. & Fr.: July-November.
Sarahan, Harsimerjit 19400.
Cyrtococcum patens (Linn.) A. Camus
Rare in sandy areas, 400-1500 m.
FI. & Fr.: August-November.
Nahan, Harsimerjit 18858.
Dinebra retroflexa (Vahl) Panz.
Common on dry slopes, 400-1500 m.
FI. & Fr.: August-October.
Nahan, Shilai, Paonta Sahib; Harsimerjit
19247, 19272, 19533.
Eragrostis ciliaris (Linn.) R.Br.
Rare in cultivated fields, 400-1000 m.
Dhaliwal, D.S. & M. Sharma (1995): Oenothera affinis
Camb. (Onagraceae) - a new record for India from
Himalaya. Rheedea 5(2): 151-153.
Hooker, J.D. (1872-1897): Flora of British India. 7 vols.
L. Reeve & Co., London.
Sharma, M. & D.S. Dhaliwal (1997a): Raphanus
raphanistrum Linn. (Cruciferae) - an alien weed
established in Kulu district (Himachal Pradesh). Indian
For. 123(9): 870-872.
FI. & Fr.: March-May.
Paonta Sahib, Harsimerjit 19536.
E. tenella (Linn.) P. Beauv. ex Roem. &
Schult. var. insularis Hubb.
Common in agricultural fields and lawns,
400-1500 m.
FI. & Fr.: August-October.
Nahan, Shilai; Harsimerjit 16898, 19353.
Panicum walense Mez
Common in sandy localities, 400- 1 000 m.
FI. & Fr.: August-November.
Sainwala, Nahan; Harsimerjit 1 8859, 1 93 1 5 .
Acknowledgement
We are obliged to the authorities of CAL,
BSD and DD for providing access to their
herbaria and libraries and to Dr. V.J. Nair, Indian
Liaison Officer at Kew herbarium for identifying
and confirming the identity of some taxa.
NC ES
Sharma, M. & D.S. Dhaliwal (1997b): Additions to the
flora of Himachal Pradesh from Kulu district. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 94(2): 447-450.
Sharma, M. & H. Singh (in press): Additions to the flora
of Himachal Pradesh, North-West Himalaya. Bull Bot.
Surv. India.
Singh, H. & M. Sharma (1988): Gnaphalium coarctatum
Willd. - a South American taxon naturalized in Chamba
district (Himachal Pradesh), India. Ibid. 30: 181-184.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
97
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
NEW HUNTSMAN SPIDERS (HETEROPODIDAE: ARANEAE)
FROM BUXA TIGER RESERVE, JALPAIGURI, WEST BENGAL1
Madhuchhanda Kundu (Deb),2 Vivekanand Biswas 3 and Dinendra Raychaudhuri2
( With thirteen text-figures and one plate)
Key words: Spiders, Heteropodidae, Heteropoda straminiosa sp. nov., Olios tikaderi
sp. nov., Buxa Tiger Reserve, West Bengal, India
Two new species, Heteropoda straminiosa sp. nov. and Olios tikaderi sp. nov. are described and
illustrated from Buxa Tiger Reserve, Jalpaiguri
Introduction
Huntsman spiders (Heteropodidae:
Araneae) of West Bengal are so far known by 7
species of Heteropoda Latreille and 3 of Olios
Walckenaer (Biswas and Biswas 1992, Sethi and
Tikader 1988), and from Buxa Tiger Reserve by
2 species, namely, Heteropoda leprosa Simon
(Biswas and Biswas 1992) and Heteropoda buxa
Saha et. al. (Saha et al. 1994, 1995).
Both Heteropoda straminiosa and Olios
tikaderi have been recognized as new species
after comparing them with the types deposited
in the National Collection, Zoological Survey of
India, Calcutta. The species are described and
illustrated. Type specimens are at present in the
collection of the Entomology Laboratory,
Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta,
Calcutta. Collection of further material from the
type locality will enable us to deposit the material
in the National Collection, Zoological Survey of
India, Calcutta.
Material and Methods
Collection and preservation of the spider
samples were done following Tikader ( 1987). The
‘Accepted November, 1997
2Entomology Laboratory, Department of Zoology,
University of Calcutta, 35 Ballygunge Circular Road,
Calcutta - 700 019. India.
department of Zoology, Government RC. College,
Bagerhat -9301 . Bangladesh.
, West Bengal.
material was studied using a stereozoom
binocular microscope, model Zeiss, SV8. All the
measurements are in millimetres, made with an
eyepiece graticule.
The status of the two species has been
confirmed following Biswas and Biswas (1992),
Pocock (1900), Sethi and Tikader (1988) and
Tikader (1987).
Heteropoda straminiosa sp. nov.
(Figs. 1-6; Plate 1A)
Holotype: female: Total length 8.43;
carapace length 3.14, width 2.90; abdominal
length 5.28, width 3.43. Legs as in Table 1.
Colour in alcohol: Cephalothorax, legs and
abdomen yellowish with small brown spots all
over, those on abdomen more dense and heavy,
particularly on the posterior part.
Carapace: Slightly longer than wide,
anteriorly narrow; cephalic region slightly raised,
marked by weakly impressed cervical grooves
that enclose a weaker brown median longitudinal
line; anterior margin of cephalothorax straight
with the anterolateral comers raised and conical,
with a few long brown hairs, otherwise with short
thinly distributed brown hairs; thoracic region
with a deeply distinct longitudinal fovea,
encircled by thinly distributed short brown hairs,
extending posteriorly as a deeply distinct
longitudinal groove; cephalothorax midlongi-
tudinally with faint brown U-shaped patch,
98
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR. 1999
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Kundu M., Biswas V. & Raychaudhuri D.: New Huntsman spiders
Plate 1
Fig. A: Heteropoda straminiosa sp. nov. Female: Holotype
Fig. B: Olios tikaderi sp. nov. Male: Holotype
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
99
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
I i
0.5 mm
Figs. 1-6: Heteropoda straminiosa sp. n., female holotype:
1. Whole body; 2. Chelicerae; 3. Maxillae and labium; 4. Sternum; 5. Epigynum; 6. Internal genitalia
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
101
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
extending upto the posterolateral eyes marked
by brownish pubescence; outwardly directed faint
radii present. Eyes in two rows, with black
patches, on brownish area, anterior row shorter
than posterior row; anterior row of eyes
procurved as seen from in front and posterior
row recurved as seen from above; laterals
subequal, anteromedians smallest; posterolaterals
situated on somewhat elevated tubercle; ocular
quad longer than wide, wider posteriorly.
Chelicerae strong, yellowish with dark brown
dorsal spots, inner margin with 4 teeth and outer
with 3; area between the margins with a few
much smaller teeth; each with a ventral tuft of
long hair on brown patch at the inner aspect of
cheliceral base, fangs reddish brown, strongly
curved. Labium and maxillae yellowish, the latter
anteriorly brownish; labium wider than long,
maxillae longer than wide, both thickly
scopulate. Sternum yellowish, nearly triangular,
anteromedially wide, posteriorly narrowing, with
brown spots and long and short pale yellow to
brown hairs. Legs moderate, basally yellowish,
gradually becoming brown; tibia with long paired
ventral spines; tarsal scopulae distinct; Leg
formula 2143.
Abdomen: elongate oval, dorsum ante-
riorly yellowish, posteriorly brownish, anteriorly
with a pair of dark median brown patches,
marked by cluster of brown hairs; midlongi-
tudinally with yellowish bar, entirely clothed with
golden yellow hairs and pubescence, these
posteriorly longer, a few anterior hairs brown;
sigilla two pairs. Venter yellow, with scattered
brown longitudinal bands, these midlongi-
tudinally broad and narrowed posteriorly;
entirely clothed with golden and brown hairs.
Epigynum with paired comma-shaped lateral
lobes, basally close to each other, divergent
anteriorly, forming a depression; epigynum and
internal genitalia as in Figs. 5 & 6.
Male unknown.
Specimen examined: Holotype , Female,
South Volka, BTR, Jalpaiguri, West Bengal,
India, 27.xii.1995, Coll. V. Biswas. Paratypes,
Table 1
MEASUREMENTS OF LEG SEGMENTS OF
HETEROPODA STRAMINIOSA SP. NOV.
(FEMALE)
5 females,data same as holotype.
Distribution: india: West Bengal,
Jalpaiguri (known only from the type locality).
Remarks: The new species shows close
affinity to Heteropoda akashi Sethi and Tikader
(Sethi and Tikader 1988), in being similar in
general appearance, chelicerae, maxillae and
labium, but distinct in having:
1 ) Carapace and legs with distinct small brown
spots,
2) Faintly impressed cervical grooves,
3) Weakly recurved posterior row of eyes,
4) Chelicerae with an additional row of small
teeth between the margins,
5) Abdomen with a midlongitudinal band and
anterolaterally with a pair of dark brown
patches bearing cluster of hairs,
6) Epigyne, spermathecae and spermathecal
ducts quite different.
These differences justify the recognition of
the species as new to science.
Etymology: The species Heteropoda
straminiosa is so named because of its yellow
colour.
Olios tikaderi sp. nov.
(Figs. 7-13; Plate IB)
Holotype: one male: Total length 15.41;
carapace length 8.00, width 7.59; abdominal
length 7.41, width 5.76. Legs as in Table 2.
Colour in alcohol: Cephalothorax orangish
with cephalic part anteriorly reddish; legs
yellowish, gradually becoming darker distally,
abdomen greyish.
102
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR. 1999
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Figs. 7-13: Olios tikaderi sp. n., male holotype:
7. Whole body; 8. Chelicerae; 9. Maxillae and labium; 10. Sternum; 1 1. Male palp (prolateral view);
12. Male palp (ventral view); 13. Male palp (retrolateral view).
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
103
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Carapace: Longer than wide, convex,
clothed with hairs and spines; cephalic region
raised, cervical furrows weakly distinct, thoracic
fovea reddish, longitudinal, deeply distinct, radii
weakly distinct, clypeal and ocular regions with
some long, black bristles. Eyes in two rows,
anterior row from above slightly recurved and
posterior row slightly procurved; anteromedians
largest; ocular quad squarish, narrowing
anteriorly. Chelicerae long, reddish, inner and
outer margins with 5 and 2 teeth respectively,
fangs black, robust. Labium and maxillae both
yellowish brown, anteriorly thickly scopulate;
labium wider than long with a lateral notch on
each side; maxillae longer than wide. Sternum
orangish, convex, nearly heart-shaped, with long
brown hairs. Legs long and strong, hairy; all
tibiae with two pairs of ventral spines. Leg formula
2143. Male palp as in Figs. 11,12 and 13.
Abdomen: Heart-shaped, anteriorly broad
and posteriorly tapered, with long golden hairs,
dorsum midlongitudinally with a yellowish
streak extending on the anterior half. Venter
greyish with a midlongitudinal brownish bar
extending from epigastric furrow to the
spinnerets.
Table 2
MEASUREMENTS OF LEG SEGMENTS OF OLIOS
TIKADERI SP.NOV. (MALE)
Specimen examined: Holotype, Male,
Jayanti, BTR, Jalpaiguri, West Bengal, India,
24. v. 1995, Coll. B. Kundu.
Distribution: India: West Bengal,
Jalpaiguri (known only from the type locality).
Remarks: The present species is closely
allied to Olios xerxes (Pocock) but differs in the
following:
1) Body entirely clothed with long hairs,
2) Carapace broader than abdomen, with
distinct cervical furrows and radii,
3) Abdomen anteriorly broad and posteriorly
tapering, dorsum anteromedially with a
yellowish streak and devoid of any sigilla,
and
4) Structurally different male palp.
Again, the species is distinct from Olios
punctipes Simon, even though the male palps
are similar, by the following characters:
1) Carapace longer than wide,
2) Labium with a lateral notch
3) Abdomen peripherally devoid of dark patch
and without any sigilla,
4) Structure of cymbium,
5) Structure and origin of retrolateral
apophysis.
The species is therefore new to science, this
has been confirmed by the Zoological Survey of
India, Calcutta.
Etymology: The species is named after a
great Indian arachnologist, the late Dr. B.K.
Tikader.
Acknowledgements
We thank the Ministry of Environment
and Forests, Government of India, for financial
assistance, the authorities of Buxa Tiger Reserve,
West Bengal, and the Head, Department of
Zoology, University of Calcutta, for kindly
providing facilities. We also thank Dr. B.K.
Biswas, In-Charge, Arachnida Section,
Zoological Survey of India, for confirming the
status of Olios tikaderi sp. nov.
References
Biswas, B. & K. Biswas (1992): Fauna of West Bengal, Pocock, R.I. (1900): The Fauna of British India.
Part-3, Araneae: Spiders. State Fauna Series, Zool. Arachnida. Taylor & Francis, London, pp 279.
Surv. India, 3:357-500. Saha, S., V. Biswas & D. Raychaudhuri (1994):
104
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR. 1999
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Heteropodidae and Lycosidae of Buxa Tiger
Reserve, West Bengal. Acta arachnol. 43:
43-48.
Saha, S., V. Biswas & D. Raychaudhuri (1995): A new
name for Heteropoda acuta Saha, Biswas et
Raychaudhuri, 1994 (Araneae: Heteropodidae).
Acta arachnol. 44(1): 15-16.
Sethi, V.D. & B.K. Tikader ( 1 988): Studies on some giant
crab spiders of the family Heteropodidae from India.
Rec. Zool Surv. India. Occ. Pap. 93: 1-94.
Tikader, B.K. (1987): Handbook of Indian Spiders.
Director, Zoological Survey of India, pp 251 .
■ ■ ■
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(1). APR. 1999
105
A NEW SPECIES OF AGAONID WASP (HYMENOPTERA, CHALCIDOIDEA)
POLLINATING FICUS KRISHNAE C.DC. (MORACEAE)1
D.R. Priyadarsanan2,3
( With sixteen text-figures)
Key words: Eupristina (E.) rehmani, Eupristina (E.) masoni, Eupristina (E.)
belgaumensis, Ficus krishnae, F. drupciceae var. pubescens, F. benghalensis.
Eupristina (Eupristina) rehmani sp. nov. pollinating Ficus krishnae C.DC. is described and a
short note on the taxonomic status of the host plant is given.
Introduction
The fruits of all species of Ficus are
colonized by a heterogenous group of insects of
the family Agaonidae (Hymenoptera,
Chalcidoidea), commonly called fig insects or
fig wasps. Fig insects of the subfamily Agaoninae
are the exclusive pollinators of their hosts. Genus
Eupristina Saunders are the pollinators of Ficus
spp. of section Conosycea (Miq.) to which Ficus
krishnae C.DC. belongs. Ficus krishnae is a
small to medium sized banyan, commonly known
as ‘Krishna bor’ or ‘butter cup of Krishna’. This
tree has a fair distribution in North and Central
India, but is rare in South India.
An agaonid pollinator of F. krishnae is
described here and the taxonomic status of its
host Ficus is evaluated.
The type specimens are presently kept in
the collection of the Museum of Department of
Zoology, University of Calicut (ZDC).
Eupristina (Eupristina) rehmani sp. nov.
Female
Length 2.2 mm; colour generally black,
antennal scape, femur and coxa yellowish on
ventral side.
'Accepted May, 1997
department of Zoology, University of Calicut,
Kerala, lndia-673 635.
’Present address: ATREE, No. 1 7, 2nd Cross,
Amaijyothi Layout, Chalanagar, Bangalore-560 032,
E-mail: [email protected]
Head: (Fig. 1) almost as long as wide and
2.5 times the longitudinal diameter of the
compound eye (5:2); eyes positioned a little
posteriorly; cheek almost equal to eye length,
margins of the facial groove more divergent
anteriorly.
Antenna (Fig. 2) 11 segmented, scape
almost twice its own width; pedicel one third the
length of scape and less than twice its maximum
width (10:6), bears 22 backwardly directed spines
on the dorsal side; appendage of the 3rd segment
blunt, bears a few spines and reaches the middle
of the 5th; 4th segment less than twice its own
width (10:6); 5th segment almost equal to 4th,
as long as its own width, and bears 4 sensillae;
6th segment is the narrowest and it bears two
sensillae; 7th segment is the largest, twice the
length of the 5th and 1.5 times its own width,
and bears 16 sensillae in two rows; 8th segment
two-thirds the length of 7th and of its own width
(21:15) and bears 16 sensillae; 9th segment half
the length of 7th and its own width ( 12:21) and
provided with a distal row of 16 sensillae; 10th
segment as wide as long, and as long as the 9th
bearing 12 sensillae; 1 1th segment forms a club,
and bears 16 sensillae and a few setae. Mandible
(Fig. 3) as long as wide, bidentate, two glands
and with 5 ventral ridges; mandibular appendage
twice the length of the mandible, thrice its
own width, 10 lamellae present, and first 6
lamellae produced into lateral teeth; labio-
maxillary complex (Fig. 4), the labium bearing
two setae.
106
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR. 1999
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Figs. 1 -9: Eupristina ( Eupristina ) rehmani sp. nov. Female:
1. Head; 2. Antenna; 3. Mandible; 4. Labio-maxillary complex; 5. Forewing; 6. Foretibia & tarsus;
7. Hind coxa; 8. Hindtibia & tarsus; 9. Pygostyle.
(Figs. 1 & 5 XI 00, 2-4 & 6-9 X400)
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
107
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Figs. 10-16: Eupristina (Eupristina) rehmani sp. nov. Male:
10. Head; 1 1. Antenna 12. Mandible; 13. Thorax; 14. Foretibia & tarsus; 15. Midtibia & tarsus;
16. Hindtibia & tarsus.
(Figs. 10 & 13X100, 11, 12 & 14-16 X400)
108
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR. 1999
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Thorax: Pronotum 1 .5 times its own width,
slightly pubescent; pronotum, mesonotum and
metanotopropodeum in the ratio 8:4:3. Propodeal
spiracles elongate, flask-shaped. Forewing (Fig.
5) twice its own width, 1.2 mm long, hyaline,
only premarginal vein developed, which reaches
two fifths the length of the wing and bears 3
pustules at its distal end. Hindwing 0.82 mm,
venation not distinct, fringe long and middorsally
there is a tuft of a few hairs. Foreleg coxa with
comb and corbicula; femur bears 6 setae at the
basal ventral comer, arranged in a semicircle;
tibia (Fig. 6) ventrally curved and with a deep
apical invagination; tibial armature consists of a
dorso-apical comb of 3 claws, ventral tooth and
a few long setae; tarsus pentamerous, each
tarsomere with two prominent subapical setae,
tarsomeres in ratio 2: 1 : 1 : 1 :2. Midleg coxa 4:3,
femur with a tapering apex, length width ratio
4:1, tibia with shortest width at the base and
maximum at the apex bearing long curved claw
ventrally and a few setae at the apex; tarsomeres
in the ratio 8:5:5:4:6. Hindleg coxa (Fig. 7) with
a circlet of spines proximally; tibial armature
(Fig. 8) consists of a tricuspid tooth antiaxially
and a long curved bifid tooth at the ventral apex;
tarsomeres in the ratio 12:7:6:4:7.
Gaster: Normal; pygostyle (Fig. 9) with 4
setae, 2 apical (only one visible dorsally) and two
subapical; protruding pail of the ovipositor 1 .4 mm.
Male
Vermiform, length 1.9 mm; colour dark
brown, legs pale yellow except dorsal half of hind
coxa.
Head: (Fig. 10) Slightly wider than long,
longitudinal diameter of eye one fifth the length
of the head; compound eyes and the antennae
placed just behind the mandibles; shortest
distance between the antennal toruli and the
distance from the antennal toruli to the
compound eyes are in the ratio 5:1. Antenna (Fig.
11) 4 segmented; scape length: width ratio 2:1;
scape, pedicel and club in the ratio 2:1:2.
Mandible (Fig. 12) 5:4, bidentate, two glands.
Thorax: (Fig. 13) Pronotum, mesonotum
and metanotopropodeum in the ratio 3:1:2.
Foreleg coxa (4:3) proximally tapering; femur
(2:1) as long as coxa; tibia (Fig. 14) has a deep
invagination on the axial plate which is lined on
its ventral margin by a row of long setae; tibial
armature consists of a dorsal comb of three blunt
teeth, one more apicad, a bifurcated ventral tooth
and a row of spines on the dorsal comb; tarsus
bimerous, 1st tarsomere with three backwardly
directed spines. Midleg coxa wider than long 5:8;
femur 8:7; tibia (Fig. 15) with 6-10 spines on
the plate dorsally and 10 spines around the apex;
tarsus pentamerous, tarsomeres with a row of 5
to 6 spines at their apices and in the length ratio
11:7:7:6:15. Hindleg coxa 6:5; femur broad at
the base; tibia (Fig. 16) with 4 blunt teeth at the
apex, 3 on the antiaxial plate and the remaining
axially, and 12-14 spines on the dorsal plate;
tarsus pentamerous; 1st tarsomere has two spines
on its plate and all tarsomeres have a row of long
spines at their apex; tarsal ratio 10:7:6:6:10.
Gaster: Normal
Host: Ficus krishnae C.DC.
Material Examined: Female holotype,
India: Kerala, Trichur (Museum Compound),
coll. D.R. Priyadarsanan, 1 0.xii. 1 993, 2 female
paratype and allotype 2 males. Slide mounted
(Nos. ZDC A-XII/1 , la, lb, A-XII/2, 2a
respectively).
Note: This species is related to Eupristina
(E.) belgaumensis Joseph (1954), the pollinator
of Ficus glomeratci Thunb. var. pubescens
(Roth.) Comer. However, these species differ in
the following characters: In the female, E.
rehmani has 5 ventral ridges on the mandibles,
appendage has 1 0 lamellae, dorso-axial comb of
foretibia has 3 claws, the hindcoxa has a circlet
of setae around and ovipositor valves are twice
the gaster, while E. belgaumensis has 6 ventral
ridges to the mandible, appendage with 8
lamellae, 5 teeth to the dorso-axial comb of
foretibia; hindcoxa is devoid of circlet of setae
and ovipositor valves are only 1.7 times the
gaster. In the males of E. rehmani, head is 1.33
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
109
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
times its width and foretibia has 3 teeth on the
dorsal comb, while in E. belgaumensis the head
is as long as wide and foretibia has 6 teeth on its
dorsal comb.
Taxonomic position of Ficus krishnae
C.DC.
Prain ( 1 906) pointed out that F. krishnae
shares many features with F. benghalensis L. and
Corner (1965) treated it as a variety of F.
benghalensis L. Studying the unique features of
the development of its back-pocketed leaf,
Unnikrishnan and Hema (1990) recommended
revision of Prain’ s opinion.
In a mutualistic co-evolution, the
phylogenic relationship of each partner must be
congruent with the relative phylogeny of the other
(Brooks 1985). A comparison of the classification
of Ficus and the fig insects reveals that barring
a few exceptions (Wiebes 1968, Compton 1990,
Berg and Wiebes 1992) fig insects are species-
specific, and related Ficus spp. have related
pollinator wasps (Wiebes 1963, 1994; Wiebes
Refer
Berg, C.C. & J.T. Wiebes (1992): African fig trees and fig
wasps. Verh. Kon. Ned. Akad. Wet. Afd. Natk. 2de
reeks 89, pp 298.
Brooks, D.R. ( 1 985): Historical ecology: A new approach
to studying the evolution of ecological associations.
Ann. No. Bot. Gard. 74: 660-680.
Compton, S.G. (1990): A collapse of host specificity
in some African fig wasps. Sth. Afr. J. Sci. 86: 39-
49.
Corner, E.J.H. (1965): Checklist of Ficus in Asia and
Australasia with keys to identification. Gdns ’ Bull.
Singapore 21: 1-186.
Joseph, K.J. ( 1 954): Contributions to our knowledge of fig
insects (Chalcidoidea: Parasitic Hymenoptera) from
India vi Idem. IV. On six new species of Agaonidae.
Agr. Univ. J. Res. (Sci.) 2: 401-416.
Prain, D. (1906): Ficus krishnae. Bot. Maq. Ser. 4.
Saunders, S.S. (1883): Descriptions of three genera and
species of fig insects allied to Blastophaga, from
and Abdurahiman 1980). So no wasp can
propagate its kind or effect pollination in any
plant except its specific host.
Ficus benghalensis is pollinated by E.
masoni Saunders (1883). The presence of a
pollinator species of its own, i.e. Eupristina (E.)
rehmani, prevents the chances of Ficus krishnae
being cross pollinated with F. benghalensis. This
favours the view that independent species status
must be accorded to Ficus krishnae.
Etymology: The new species is named
after Dr. U.C. Abdurahiman, Professor of
Zoology, University of Calicut, in honour of his
contribution to our knowledge of fig insects.
Acknowledgements
I thank the Head of the Department of
Zoology, University of Calicut, Kerala for
providing necessary facilities and Dr. U.C.
Abdurahiman, Professor of Zoology, University
of Calicut, for inspiration.
ENCES
Calcutta, Australia and Madagascar with notes on
their parasites and on the affinities of the respective
races. Trans, ent. Soc. Lond. 6-7, PI. 1.
Unnikrishnan, K. & K.S. Hema (1990): Development of
back-pocketed leaf in Ficus krishnae C.DC.
Phytomorphology 40( 1 &2): \ 5\-\51 .
Wiebes, J.T. (1963): Taxonomy and host preferences of
Indo-Australian fig wasps of the genus Ceratosolen
(Agaonidae). Tijdschr. Ent. 106: 1-112.
Wiebes, J.T. ( 1 968): Fig wasps from Israel Ficus sycomorus
and related East African species (Hymenoptera:
Chalcidoidea). Zool. Meded. Leiden. 42: 307-320.
Wiebes, J.T. (1994): The Indo-Australian Agaoninae
(pollinators of figs). Kon. Ned. Akad. v. Wetensch.
Verh. Afd. Nad., 2de reeks, Deel 92, pp 208.
Wiebes, J.T. & U.C. Abdurahiman ( 1 980): Additional notes
on Platyscapa Motschoulsky (Hymenoptera:
Chalcidoidea, Agaonidae) Proc. Kon. Ned. Akad.
v. Wetensch. 83: 195-207.
110
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR. 1999
A NEW SPECIES OF SERICUS ESCHSCHOLTZ (COLEOPTERA: ELATERIDAE:
LUDIINAE) FROM INDIA1
PUNAM GaRG AND V. VASU2
( With four text-figures)
Key words: New species, Sericus Eschscholtz, Elateridae, India.
Sericus bicarinatus sp. nov. is described and illustrated. The features distinguishing it from its
allied species S. lahaulensis Vats and Chauhan have been commented upon.
Introduction
Genus Sericus Eschscholtz is characterized
by having frons broader than long; labrum entire,
mandibles dentate; prothorax broader than long,
posterior margin with lateral furrows;
prostemopleural sutures simple, parallel; elytra
with rounded extremities; aedeagus longer than
parameres and parameres with subapical
processes. With the discovery of a new species
from Himachal Pradesh, Vats and Chauhan
(1992) recorded Sericus for the first time from
India. To this genus, we are adding a new species
which has been recorded from Nagaland (India).
Though this species was collected from the leaves
of Bambusa sp., the host plant is uncertain.
Type material will be deposited at Indian
Agricultural Research Institute, Division of
Entomology, Pusa National Collection, New
Delhi, India.
Sericus bicarinatus sp. nov.
(Figs. 1-4)
Colour: Body piceous; antenna and legs
fuscoferruginous.
Measurements: Body length 11.5 mm,
width 2.5 mm; head length 1.25 mm, width
1 mm; antenna 5.5 mm; second segment 0.15
mm; third segment 0.3 mm; fourth segment 0.5
mm; last segment 0.6 mm; thorax length 2.25
mm, width 2.5 mm; elytra 7.75 mm.
Oa
I I
'Accepted May, 1997
’Department of Zoology, Punjabi University,
Patiala- 147 002, Punjab.
Figs. 1-4: Sericus bicarinatus sp. nov.:
1. Male genitalia; 2. Scutellum; 3. Prosternal spine;
4. Pronotum.
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
111
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
External features: Body width less than
0.25x its length. Head flat, longer than broad as
5:4; frons with incomplete frontal carina; antenna
extending beyond posterior angle of pronotum;
segment 3 longer than 2 as 6:3 but shorter than
4 as 3:5; mandible dentate. Pronotum convex,
broader than long as 10:9, gradually narrowing
anteriorly (Fig. 4); posterior angle rounded,
bicarinate, outer carina reaching middle of
pronotum, inner carina short; prostemal spine
pointed, without any medial glabrous line,
declined from its main axis at 25°, emarginate,
abruptly narrowing at base (Fig. 3). Scutellum
flat, longer than broad as 3:2, anterior margin
straight, posterior margin arcuate (Fig. 2). Elytra
convex, 3.44x prothorax length; striae distinct.
Metabasitarsus longer than following 2 joints
combined as 8:7.
Sculpture: Head with simple, dense, large,
hexagonal punctation; pronotum (Fig. 4) with
double, dense, rounded punctation; propleurae
with simple, dense, oval punctation; prostemum
with simple, scattered, rounded punctation;
elytral striae with deep, distinct, oval punctation;
interstriae with scattered, fine, inconspicuous
punctation.
Pubescence: Body covered with moderate,
slanting, brownish red pubescence.
Male genitalia: (Fig. 1) Phallobase with
anterior margin emarginate; parameres with
subapical processes with deep concavity behind;
aedeagus longer than parameres, constricted in
middle, with conical apex; furcae short, not
reaching anterior margins of parameres.
Material examined: Holotype : Male,
Nagaland, Zunheboto, 1874 m, lO.v. 1994, under
light Coll. Punam. Paratypes : 1 male and 2
females with same data as holotype.
Distribution: india: Nagaland.
Diagnostic combinations: Characters
distinguishing this species from its allied species
S. lahaulensis are: posterior angles bicarinate
(unicarinate in latter), antennal segment 3 shorter
than 4 (longer in latter), pronotum with double,
dense punctation (simple, sparse in latter) and
prosternal spine with medial longitudinal
glabrous line (without line in latter).
Etymology: The species name pertains to
two carinae present on posterior angles of
pro thorax.
Acknowledgement
We are highly thankful to Prof. L.K. Vats,
Chairman, Department of Zoology, Kurukshetra
University, Kurukshetra for his valuable
suggestions and permission to compare our
material with identified specimens. Financial
assistance rendered by DST, New Delhi is also
acknowledged.
Reference
Vats, L.K. & R.L. Chauhan ( 1992): New species of Ludiinae (Coleoptera: Elateridae). J. Em. Res. 16(3): 189-192.
■ ■ ■
112
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR. 1999
A NEW CYPRINID FISH OF THE GENUS SALMOSTOMA (SWAINSON)
FROM A TROPICAL RESERVOIR OF SOUTH INDIA
E.G. Jayaraj* 2, D.S. Krishna Rao,3 S. Ravichandra Reddy,3
Katre Shakuntala3 and K. V. Devaraj4
( With one text-figure)
Key words: Salmostoma belachi, cyprinid fish, taxonomy
A new fish species of the genus Salmostoma from a tropical reservoir of South India is described.
A total of 14 species of Salmostoma are reported to occur in Indian waters. The new species
described hereunder stands separate from all the hitherto described species. 1 0 meristic and 1 9
non-meristic characters have been measured and compared with those of known species to establish
its distinct taxonomic status.
Introduction
A new fish species of the genus
Salmostoma (Family: Cyprinidae; Subfamily:
Cultrinae) inhabiting the Nelligudda reservoir,
35 km from Bangalore, South India is described v
While surveying for ichthyofauna of the
Nelligudda reservoir, well established popula-
tions of Salmostoma hitherto undescribed were
recorded.
The genus Salmostoma was established by
Swainson (1839) with Cyprinus bacaila
Hamilton as the designated type. While revising
this genus, Banarescu (1968) clarified the generic
status of Salmostoma vis-a-vis Chela Hamilton
and Securicula Gunther. Following Banarescu,
Jayaram (1981) listed 10 species occurring in
Indian waters. Recently, Srithar and Jayaram
(1990) have described a new species, Salmostoma
longicauda , from river Krishna of Dhom
reservoir. Talwar and Jhingran (1991) have
taxonomically listed 14 species occurring in
'Accepted May, 1 997
2Zonal Research Station, Konehally, Tiptur 572 202,
Karnataka, India.
3Dept. of Zoology, Jnanabharathi, Bangalore University,
Bangalore 560 056, Karnataka, India.
4University of Agricultural Sciences, 39, UAS Layout,
Bangalore 560 094, Karnataka, India.
Indian waters. The new species described here
stands significantly different from the hitherto
known species of Salmostoma of Indian waters.
Ten specimens of the new species of either
sex have been examined. The data on 1 0 meristic
and 19 non-meristic characters were recorded
and are presented in Table 1.
Salmostoma belachi sp. nov.
D II, 7; P I, 12; V I, 8; A III, 13 or 14; C
17+ 12; LL 86-89.
Diagnosis: A Salmostoma species with gill
raker counts of 22-24, branched anal fin rays 13
or 14, and lateral line scale counts of 86-89
(see Table 2).
Description: Body compressed and
elongated with minute scales. Dorsal profile
nearly straight and round transversely. Ventral
profile tapering and razor-like. Mouth upturned;
symphysial knob on lower jaw fitting right into
upper jaw groove; no barbels. Lips thin, snout
plain. Eyes placed superiorly in the anterior part
of the head, visible from below the ventral surface
of the head. Pectoral fins laterally inserted, with
prolonged outer rays. Pelvic fins short, not
reaching the anal fin. Anal fin long, not reaching
the caudal fin when depressed. Gill rakers few,
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
113
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Table 1
MORPHOMETRIC DATA OF SALMOSTOMA BELACHI SP. NOV. (N = 1 0)
Table 2
TAXONOMIC FEATURES OF SALMOSTOMA SPECIES
COMPARED WITH 5. BELACHI SP. NOV.
(FROM TALWAR AND JHINGRAN 1991)
* Srithar & Jayaram ( 1 990)
22-24 in the first gill arch and moderately long.
Lateral line curved towards the ventral profile,
reaching the base of the caudal fin. Caudal fin
forked, unequal, with lower lobe longer than the
upper one (Fig. 1).
Scale counts:
LL / Dorsal 15 Vi
LL/ Pelvic 214 or 314
LL / Anal 314 or 414
Circumpeduncular 25 or 27
Colour: Fresh specimens are bright silvery,
with metallic green over the dorsal profile, while
Fig. 1 : Salmostoma belachi holotype
(semi-diagrammatic)
114
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96 (I) APR. 1999
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
formalin preserved specimens have a streak of grey
running along the centre of the body and over the
dorsal ridge; pale white below the lateral line.
Distribution: Nelligudda reservoir, Bidadi,
Ramnagara Taluk, Bangalore dist., Karnataka,
South India. Nelligudda reservoir is a perennial
man-made lake constructed below the confluence
of two seasonal streams, with a waterspread area
of 80 ha at full reservoir level. The major fishery
is contributed by the exotic cichlid Oreochromis
mossambicus. Salmostoma are underexploited
and occasionally appear in the catch when small
meshed gillnets (30 mm approx.) are operated
in the open waters. On an average, the fish attains
a length of 1 10 mm and weighs 5.5 g.
Etymology: The new species is named
after the popular name Belachi meaning
blanched, indicating the apparent colour of the
species in vernacular (Kannada).
The type specimens of S. belachi are
deposited at the Zoological Survey of India.
Chennai (Madras), and also at the Zoological
Museum of Department of Zoology, Bangalore
University, Bangalore.
References
Banarescu, P. ( 1 968): Revision of the Indo-Burmese genus
Salmostoma Swainson (Pisces, Cyprinidae) with
description of a new species. Rev. Roum. Biologie
Zoologie 13(1): 314.
Jayaram, K.C. (1981): The freshwater fishes of India,
Bangladesh, Pakistan, Burma, Sri Lanka.
Handbook No. 2, Zoological Survey of India, pp
475, pi 13.
Srithar, R.T. & K.C. Jayaram ( 1 990): On a new species
of Salmostoma Swainson (Cyprinidae: Cultrinae)
from Dhom reservoir, Satara District, Maharashtra.
J. Bombay, nat. Hist. Soc. 87(2): 272-274.
Swainson ( 1 839): The natural history and classification of
fishes, amphibians and reptiles or monocardian
animals. 2 Vols., London.
Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland fishes of
India and adjacent countries. Vol. 1 , Oxford & IBH,
New Delhi, Bombay & Calcutta, pp 541 .
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
115
A NEW SPECIES OF USCANA GIRAULT (TRICHOGRAMMATIDAE:
HYMENOPTERA) FROM THE EGGS OF CONICOBRUCHUS ALBOPUBENS (PIC)1
H.R. Pajni and Seema Sood2
( With ten text-figures and two plates )
Key words: Uscana femoralis, Conicobruchus albopubens, pest, Cyamopsis psoraloides
A new species, Uscana femoralis, is being reported from the eggs of Conicobruchus albopubens
(Pic), a pest of Cyamopsis psoraloides DC (Hindi=gwar). A key to the known Indian species of
the genus Uscana is also given.
Introduction
Trichogrammatidae, including the well
known Trichogramma associated with many pest
species, is a family exclusively of egg parasitoids
on a variety of insects. Uscana, another genus of
Trichogrammatidae described by Girault (1911),
includes 16 species which are mostly associated
with the eggs of different species of Bruchidae
(Viggiani 1979, Fursov 1987, Huis et. al. 1991).
From India, only one species namely Uscana
mukerjii (Mani) has so far been recorded from
the eggs of store bruchids (Mani 1935: reported
as Chaetostricha mukerjii ). The taxonomy of
genus Uscana is quite complicated and different
species are recognized from the number of
sensilla present on different segments of the
antennal club. On this basis, Steffan (1954)
divided the species under Uscana into three
groups. Uscana mukerjii was subsequently
allocated to a fourth group (Pajni and Singh 1 973).
The species under report is exceptional in
having greatly swollen hind femora in the male, a
feature not observed in any of the known species.
Observations
The family Trichogrammatidae can be
distinguished from other families of superfamily
'Accepted March, 1997
department of Zoology, Panjab University,
Chandigarh - 160014, Punjab.
Chalcidoidea by the presence of 3-segmented
tarsi. Genus Uscana can be separated from the
other genera of Trichogrammatidae by a
combination of characters namely: Antenna with
one or two annulets, and placoid and fungoid
sensilla on the 4-segmented club; broad fore wing
with straight and thickened marginal vein and a
row of setae on RS, from tip to stigma (Dout and
Viggiani 1968).
Key to the species of Genus Uscana
Male with hind femora normal mukerjii (Mani).
Male with hind femora swollen femoralis, sp. n.
Uscana femoralis sp. nov.
(Figs. 1,6-14; Plate 1,2)
Description
Female: Length 0.46-0.56 mm. Body
short, flat, with ovipositor turned upward and
forward in dry specimens; head light brown with
face, front and vertex pale yellow; ocelli dark
red; pronotum dark brown; mesoscutum pale
yellow with two large brown patches; metanotum
pale yellow; tibia and tarsi with apices pale white.
Head wider than thorax; mandibles
quadridentate. Antenna with basal segment
slightly widened in middle; pedicel 1.3 times as
long as wide; annulets two, normal. Club 2.6
times as long as its greatest width at first segment,
approximately equal in length to antennal
116
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(1) APR. 1999
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
0.05 mm
Fig. 1: JJscana femoralis sp. n., c?; Figs. 6-9: Uscana femoralis sp. n., $ : 6. antenna;
7. mandible; 8. forewing; 9. hindwing.
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
117
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Figs. 10-14: Uscana femoralis sp. n., d; 10. antenna; 1 1. forewing; 12. hindwing;
13. hindleg; 14. genitalia.
118
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1 ) APR. 1999
NE W DESCRIPTIONS
Pajni P.R. & Sood S.: Uscana femoralis
Plate 1
Fig. 2 & 3: Uscana femoralis Male: 2. Mesonotum; 3. Antenna.
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
119
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Pajni H.R. & Sood S.: Uscana femoralis
Plate 2
Fig. 4 & 5: Uscana femoralis Female: 4. Club segments with different types of sensilla;
(a) placoid; (b) fungoid; (c) Chaetoid; 5. Fungoid sensillum
120
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR. 1999
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
segments 3 and 4 together, with obtuse triangular
projection on dorsal surface of first segment and
a similar projection on one side of third segment,
with fourth segment pointed apically, with sides
of first segment 1.6 times as long as second
segment and half as long as segment 3 and 4
combined. Club segments with following
distribution of sensilla: placoid 4:2:2:2, fungoid
1:2: 1:0, chaetoid 2:4:6:4, with longest sensilla
(chaetoid) 1 .4 times as long as greatest width of
club.
Mesoscutum 1 .6 times as wide as long, with
an anterior pair of long and posterior pair of short
setae; mesoscutal surface coarsely reticulate late-
rally and with a stripe of longitudinal reticulation
in middle covering one fifth its area; scapula and
axilla with single seta each; scutellum 1.9 times
as wide as long, with an anterior pair of short and
posterior pair of long setae, with coarse reticulation
on sides and longitudinal reticulation in the middle.
Postphragma reaching the abdominal tergite IV, a
little shorter than length of mesonotum.
Forewing twice as long as its greatest width
and its fringe one-fifth as long as its greatest
width; costal cell 1.7 times as long as marginal
vein; marginal vein 2.4 times as long as wide,
furnished with 3 costal setae, 6 short hairs on
dorsal side and 3 short hairs on ventral side;
radial vein four fifths the length of marginal vein.
Surface of forewing with 16 rows of discal
setulae, 13 of them running uniformly. Hindwing
about 8 times as long as its greatest width, its
fringe 1.5 times as long as greatest width of free
membrane.
Abdomen 1.69 times as long as thorax;
ovipositor protruding, approximately equal to
length of midtibia (16:14.5).
Male: Length 0.39 - 0.51 mm. Pedicel 1.5
times as long as wide; annulets 2; club 2.9 to 3.0
times as long as its greatest width at first segment
and 1.5 times as long as segments 1 and 2
combined, first and third segments equal, second
and third subequal, segment 1 slightly reduced
on inside and prolonged on outside, segment 2
with incurved sides and projecting upper surface,
segment 4 bifid at tip; sensilla of club with
following distribution: placoid 1:1:1 :0; fungoid
1: 1:1:1; chaetoid 3:3:2:5.
Forewing 2.3 times as long as its greatest
width, its fringe one third of its greatest width;
surface of forewing with discal setulae arranged
in 17 rows, with 13 of them uniform. Hindwmg
about 7 times the greatest width of free
membrane. Hind femur strongly broadened, dark
brown; male genitalia with phallobase 3.0 times
as long as broad.
Material: Holotype Male; from eggs of
Conicobruchus albopubens (Pic) on the pods of
Cyamopsis psorciloides DC (guar); Coll. Seema
Sood, 23. ix. 1995; Chandigarh. Paratypes 8
males, 4 females; collection data same as for the
holotype. Type material in Entomology section,
Department of Zoology, Panjab University,
Chandigarh. Regn. No. 135/99.
Distribution: Areas surrounding
Chandigarh.
Biology: A parasitoid of eggs of
Conicobruchus albopubens (Pic), which is a pest
of Cyamopsis psoraloides DC (Hindi = guar).
Under laboratory conditions, it also attacks the
eggs of Callosobruchus maculatus (Fabr.),
C. analis (Fabr.), C. chinensis (Linn.) and
Zabrotes subfasciatus (Boh.).
Etymology: The species has been named
after the characteristic greatly swollen hind
femora of the male.
ACKNOWLEDG EM ENTS
We thank the University Grants
Commission for financing a project on biological
control of bruchids, and the Chairman,
Department of Zoology, for providing research
facilities.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(1), APR. 1999
121
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
References
Dout, R.L. & G. Viggiani (1968): The classification of the
Trichogrammatidae (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea).
Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci. 35: 477-586.
Fursov, V.N. (1987): New species of Uscana Girault
(Hymenoptera; Trichogrammatidae) from Gruzia and
the Ukraine. Ent. Obozr. 1: 175-183.
Girault, A. A. (1911): Descriptions of nine new genera of
the chalcidoid family Trichogrammatidae. Trans.
Arner. Ent. Soc. 37: 22-25.
Huis, A. Van, N.K. Kaashoek & H.M. Maes (1991):
Biological control of Bruchids (Coleoptera:
Bruchidae) in stored pulses by using egg parasiloids
of the genus Uscana (Hym.: Trichogrammatidae): A
review. F. Fleurat Lessard and P. Ducom (eds.). In:
Proc. 5th Int. Working Conf. on Stored Product
Protection 1: 99-108. September 9-14, 1990,
Bordeaux, France.
Mani, M.S. (1935): First record of the Trichogrammatid
chalcid genus Chaetostricha Walker from India, with
a description of a new species. Rec. Indian Mus. 37:
337-338.
Pajni, H.R. & T. Singh (1973): A note on the taxonomic
position of Uscana mukerjii (Mani), an egg parasite
of store-bruchids (Trichogrammatidae;
Hymenoptera). Res. Bull. Panjab Univ. 24: 163-164.
Steffan, J.R. (1954): Note sur le genre Uscana Girlt.
(Hym.: Trichogrammatidae) et description d’especes
nouvelles parasites de bruches. Bull Mus. Hist. Nat.
Paris 2e Ser. 26: 667-673.
Viggiani, G. (1979): Ricerche Sugli Hymenoptera:
Chalcidoidea. LXII. Uscana spermophagi n.sp.
(Trichogrammatidae) parassita de Spermophagus
sericeus Geoffr. (Col. Bruchidae). Boll. Lab. Entomol.
Agr. “F. Silvestri ”36: 51 -54.
n b n
122
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(1) APR. 1999
Mr. Cyril Edward Hewetson
obe ifs (Retd)
1903 - 1998
124
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR. 1999
OBITUARY
Cyril Edward Hewetson
obe ifs (Retd)
CEH was born in 1903. His father served
in India in the Indian Civil Service and his
maternal grandfather in the Indian Medical
Service. He remained in India as a small child
until his father retired when CEH was four years
old.
He was educated at Repton, King’s
College, London, and Oxford University where
he studied Forestry, and gained a Blue in Hockey.
He joined the Indian Forest Service and
went out to the Central Provinces in 1926,
serving in Balaghat, Nagpur, Raipur, Bastar,
Berar, Bhandara, North Chanda, Jabalpur, Betul
and Hoshangabad. At the time of Independence,
in 1947, he was one of only two British Forest
Officers left in the C.P., the other being Archie
Stein. CEH stayed on, and eventually took over
from G.G. Takle as Chief Conservator, Madhya
Pradesh for a short period before he retired from
India in 1955.
He was a keen member of the Bombay
Natural History Society, writing observations on
the bird life in Madhya Pradesh, which were
published in 1956 and other articles later on in
the journal of the BNHS. He became a Life
Member in 1963.
After his retirement, he continued his
interest in forestry and wildlife both in India and
in his home country. He was a member of
the Royal Forestry Society, the Common-
wealth Forestry Society, and the Society of
Foresters, attending their meetings well into his
eighties.
In the last two decades, he made several
visits to India, and attended the centenary
celebrations of the Society in 1983. Salim Ali
also visited him in England. He maintained a
keen interest in all the Society’s activities until
his death on July 15, 1998, at the age of 95.
CEH was married in 1954 and is survived
by his wife and two sons.
A LIST OF HIS PUBLICATIONS IS GIVEN BELOW:
Hewetson, C. E. (1939): The bird year in Betul (Central
Provinces). JBNHS 4 1 : 286-310.
Hewetson, C.E. (1944): Additional notes on the birds in
Betul district and surrounding area in the Central
Provinces. JBNHS 44: 471-474.
Hewetson, C.E. (1944): Bearded Bee-eater ( Alcermerops
athertoni) in the Central Proinces. JBNHS 44: 592-
593.
Hewetson, C.E. (1954): Migration of insectivorous birds
in Madhya Pradesh in 1953. JBNHS 52: 207-208.
Hewetson, C.E. (1956): Observations on the bird life in
Madhya Pradesh. JBNHS 53: 595-645.
Hewetson, C.E. (1981): Madhya Pradesh forests revisited.
JBNHS 78: 333-336.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
125
REVIEWS
1. REMINISCENCES OF INDIAN WILDLIFE by R. S. Dharmakumarsinhji.
1998. ppl 15. Published by Oxford University Press, Delhi. Rs. 225/-.
R. S. Dharmakumarsinhji, the youngest of
three brothers of the last ruling Maharaja of
Bhavnagar State in Gujarat, was perhaps the
finest example of the class of hunter-naturalists,
who contributed immensely to documenting the
saga of India’s wildlife. During a career spanning
six decades, Dharmakumarsinhji authored four
books and more than a hundred articles. Some
of the articles are classical and compulsory
reading for young Indian naturalists. They are
written in the old, rambling style, but they help
in comparing the wildlife situation then and now.
REMINISCENCES OF INDIAN WILDLIFE is a
delightful book, small but full of interesting
observations made by the author during his
hunting expeditions, and later during natural
history forays. The book was written as early as
1971, and published 12 years after the author’s
death, Mr. Divyabhanusinh has done an
excellent job by writing a brief biography of
Dharmakumarsinhji. The book contains 14
chapters, generally very interesting to read, even
though some of them have gory details of
slaughter of wildlife. I did not like the first
chapter Crocodile Anecdotes, as it is full of grisly
descriptions of killing peacefully sleeping or
resting crocodiles. The book is also full of the
terms ‘game’, ‘sport’, ‘shooting’, which may
have been prevalent 50 years ago but now, when
Indian wildlife is facing its worst crises, they
appear outdated. Despite the antediluvian
approach, the book is absorbing to read and
shows the keen interest of the author in natural
history details. For example, the mating
behaviour of lions is wonderfully described. In
this book, replete with shikar stories, it was a
delight to read the amusing description of
cooperative behaviour of the large grey babbler.
Dharmakumarsinhji is perhaps the first naturalist
to observe a crude tool-using attempt by these
perky birds.
Unfortunately, the selection of pictures is
not good. Most of them are veiy dark and badly
printed. Many were taken in captivity.
Sometimes, the caption does not make sense, e.g.
“I received reports of a man-eating tiger” under
a picture of an over-fed tiger in some zoo. Only
two pictures have been acknowledged (p 93 and
p 97), so ostensibly the remaining pictures were
taken by the author. However, the picture on page
47, of a tusker in the rams is a well-known
photograph by Mr. M.Y. Ghoipade.
■ ASAD R. RAHMANI
2. ENVIRONMENT AND ORNITHOLOGY IN INDIA by Prakash Gole. 1 994.
Published by Rawat Publications, Jaipur and New Delhi, pp 262 (22. 1 x 14.4 cm)
Price Rs. 400/-.
This compact book has an attractive jacket
with the famous wildlife artist David Rankin’s
paintings of a foraging pair of sarus cranes and
a painted stork.
The book’s fifteen chapters are based on
the author’s work of over fifteen years on
ornithology and the environment. He is one of
the best known crane conservationists in the
country and it is quite natural that he has devoted
four full chapters to cranes. The last chapter is
on the barheaded goose, a spin-off from his
studies on blacknecked cranes. The rest are
mainly on his studies in and around Pune, where
he lives.
Gole has discussed serious environmental
issues such as regional environment planning,
restoration of the forest cover on the hills,
ecological and social dynamics of an irrigation
reservoir and managing man-made wetlands. In
simple, easy to understand language, he has
126
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR. 1999
REVIEWS
offered practical solutions to such vexatious
issues as managing bird sanctuaries or
man-made tropical wetlands.
The chapters on birds in the urban
environment, in agriculture and in polluted
rivers, reveal the author’s deep understanding
of the functioning of ecosystems, based on his
painstaking observations.
The chapters on the blacknecked and sarus
cranes, and barheaded goose are good. The reader
is taken to the beautiful and remote valleys of
Ladakh, Arunachal Pradesh and Bhutan, and
also to the fertile Indogangetic plains where the
sarus and man co-exist. In lucid style, he
discusses the problems and threats faced by these
bird populations. He has successfully developed
a habitat suitability index for various species. It
was interesting to read where he discovered the
blacknecked crane in Sangti Valley (Chapter 14,
page 240). He could actually predict the presence
of the cranes based on the habitat suitability index
and the presence of the benign Buddhist
community.
The author’s narrative style, though
interesting and informative, tends to become
very boring and redundant at times. The first
chapter is replete with details about the
formation of the Panchgani Regional Planning
Board and its subcommittees, whereas very little
is said about how the environmentalists
succeeded in persuading the Board to accept
their demands of preserving the ecology of the
region.
The recommendations for attracting birds
or creating habitats for some species appear to
be very simplistic and based on inadequate data.
The preference and utilization of water depths,
food and roosting habitats could only be obtained
by many years of systematic observations or from
published work carried out on the species
elsewhere. The author has assigned birds to
various groups, based on their feeding in different
depths of water or roosting in particular habitat,
without referring to his data or any other
published information (p 59). At times, the
grouping does not make sense, e.g. according
to feeding habits, and the groups are birds of
prey, upland feeders and grassland feeders. The
classification should be insectivorous,
piscivorous, granivorous birds. According to
habitat it should be upland feeders, grassland
feeders and wetland feeders. While discussing
management plans for bird sanctuaries or
suggesting measures to attract more birds,
literature should have been consulted
exhaustively. There have been a number of
species-specific and bird community studies in
India on the habitat utilization and food
preferences of many species, which could have
been consulted.
There is inconsistency in the usage of bird
names. In chapter 15, mostly latin names are
mentioned. The barheaded goose is referred to
as Anser indicus but at one or two places only
the common name has been used. It is difficult
to make out from the text that the latin name of
the barheaded goose is Anser indicus. In Chapter
6, only common names are used, whereas in
Chapters 13 and 14 both common and latin
names are used. In running text only common
names should be used, while latin and common
names should be given in an appendix to avoid
confusion.
There are inconsistencies in the names of
places also. The Keoladeo National Park is
mentioned as Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary (p 254),
and Keoladeo Ghana National Park (p 79).
Editing is not up to the mark and there are
spelling mistakes even in the tables (p 64).
Despite these shortcomings, the book
makes good reading and is a must for any good
library of natural history. On the whole, it is
informative and it will interest serious
ornithologists as well as amateurs.
■ VIBHUPRAKASH
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
127
REVIEWS
3. COMMUNITY FOREST MANAGEMENT IN PROTECTED AREAS.
© Rural Litigation & Entitlement Kendra (RLEK), Dehradun, 1977. pp v + 336
(15 cm x 20.7 cm). Hardbound Edition, published by Natraj Publishers. Dehradun,
10 maps, 9 appendices, 19 tables, photographs. Rs. 395/-.
This book is a good case study of a forest
dependent community and incorporates the field
work done by the Rural Litigation Entitlement
Kendra (RLEK) in the Rajaji National Park.
The book documents in detail the conflict
between the Van Gujjars, an indigenous forest-
dwelling pastoral tribe in northern Uttar Pradesh
and the authorities responsible for the proposed
Rajaji National Park. It outlines an alternative
management plan by providing a general model
of Community Forest Management in Protected
Areas and specific proposals for implementation
in the proposed Park. The appendices contain
the World of the Van Gujjars , an account of their
benign outlook and lifestyles, the Rio
Declaration on Environment and Development,
ILO Convention 169 of 1989 , and National
Forest Policy { 1988). The exhaustive references
provided by the researchers put the issue in its
proper context. The Rio Declaration, the ILO
Convention, to which India is a signatory, and
the National Forest Policy (1988), acknowledge
the rights of forest dependent communities.
The concept of Community Forest
Management in Protected Areas (CFM - PA)
where the community takes the lead and manages
the resource while the government is a passive
supporter or observer, as drawn up by RLEK in
consultation with the Van Gujjars, aims to protect
the Rajaji National Park as well as the traditional
rights of the local villagers and the nomadic Van
Gujjars.
Realisation is now dawning on
professionals and amateurs alike, that the task
of nature conservation is inexorably spinning out
of hand. It is now acknowledged that, ‘Nature
can never be managed well unless people closest
to it are involved in its management and a healthy
relationship is established between nature, society
and culture’. Practical, realistic and down to
earth, the Van Gujjars possess an intimate
knowledge of wildlife and the forest. Their
cultural values and a feeling for the forest are
still largely intact and speak strongly against
poaching or destruction of habitat. These very
sentiments and attitudes, the protagonists argue,
can be channelised to help conserve the Rajaji
ecosystem. The objectives are sought to be met
through five complementary strategies.
Though well intentioned, the proposals
leave quite a few queries unanswered. In a few
years from now, will the educated offspring of
these Van Gujjars prefer the nomadic lifestyle of
their parents and continue to be a part of the
CFM system? The reviewer is witness to similar
changes in lifestyle in Jammu & Kashmir, where
the government’s aggressive education policy has
brought education to the doorstep of the remotest
pastoral communities. The dramatic change in
lifestyles has in turn affected, to quote just one
example, the production of mutton. Livestock for
this has to be imported from outside the state,
for what used to be a livestock surplus state!
The protagonists realise the magnitude of
the change in management practices that the
CFM system entails and plan to implement it in
pilot zones so as to identify strengths and learn
from problems as the process evolves. Yet they
appear to be over ambitious when anticipating
cooperation from others, naively suggesting
‘prompt prosecution’ of persons who threaten or
harass the Van Gujjars in the course of
implementing the programme.
At first glance the idea appears utopian.
Will it attract cooperation and commitment from
the ‘dispossessed’ forest officials as before? What
about the Police, the Revenue department and
other officials? On close scrutiny, the arguments
128
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR. 1999
REVIEWS
for the CFM sound convincing. The CFM plan
seeks to circumvent the trauma of forceful
eviction that the Van Gujjars otherwise face.
Hence on this count atleast, the plan should be
given a trial.
The book highlights the population trends
in the area and points out that the Van Gujjars
have been unjustifiably accused of breeding like
rabbits. The Van Gujjar population has shown a
marginal increase from approximately 3072 in
1931 to about 5500 at present, while the
population of Dehradun district has multiplied
roughly four times between 1941 and 1991.
Moreover, the needs of the Gujjars pale into
insignificance when compared to the unrelenting
and unsustainable demands of the urbanised
population of Dehradun district.
The ecological and economic exploitative
system that the Van Gujjars encounter in their
daily lives has been well documented and should
serve as an eye opener. Ironically, inspite of all
the harassment and exploitation that they are
subjected to, the unlettered Van Gujjars stand
accused, like the proverbial lamb drinking
downstream accused of having spoiled the water
upstream!
■ S. ASAD AKHTAR
4. SURVIVAL STRATEGIES — COOPERATION AND CONFLICT IN
ANIMAL SOCIETIES by Raghavendra Gadagkar. Pp i-xvi + 1-196, (21 x 15 cm),
Published by Universities Press (India) Ltd. 1997. Paperback price Rs. 120/-.
In the words of E.O. Wilson, “survival
strategies is a highly readable update of the
spectacular evolutionary productions of animal
behaviour. The author, a leading contributor to
the subject, ranges smoothly from natural history
to the genetic basis of the many phenomena that
have surfaced in the past two decades.”
Professor Raghavendra Gadagkar draws
upon a vast storehouse of information on social
behaviour in animals, particularly his own field
of specialisation, i.e. insects, to write an
eminently interesting book. He has illustrated his
ideas with well known and some lesser known
examples, including cooperation in the social
organisation of honey bees, evolution of
melanistic forms in Biston betularia
(Lepidoptera), bird migration and the conflicts
between the queen and workers in social ants.
The author has not only addressed many
questions which would interest students of
evolution, behaviour and genetics, but has also
provided the interested, inquiring mind with a
great deal of information, free of jargon or
pedantry. A gem from page 9: “When the food
reserves of the (honeybee) colony fall to
dangerously low levels, the workers seize the
drones by their legs and throw them out of the
colony!”
The author has followed the maxim quoted
at the beginning of the Preface “Nothing in
biology makes sense except in the light of
evolution.” He says “Variety and diversity are
the hallmarks of biological systems and ... there
are many different ways that animals have
developed for achieving a given objective.” He
concludes at the end of the book “Whatever the
extent of variation, however, we can be certain
that achieving a fine balance between cooperation
and conflict is an invariant feature of the survival
strategies of social animals.”
Finally, a word about the production
values. The Universities Press (India) Ltd. has
brought out a series of Educational Monographs,
of which this book is one. To this reviewer,
accustomed to ploughing through page after
page of indifferent prose, a skillfully written,
competently edited and well printed book is a
pleasure to read.
■ GAYATRI UGRA
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
129
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
1 . THE DESERT CAT FELISLYBICA IN PANNA NATIONAL PARK
I saw a desert cat in Panna National Park
on the evening of October 25,1997. It was near
the southeastern comer of the Park, about 500 m
west of Rampura barrier. When I first saw it from
about 50 m, it was crouching by the side of the
road, probably stalking the jungle bush quails
that were dust bathing close by. When I
approached it on my motorcycle, it stood up on
its longish legs, swiftly climbed the rubble
boundary wall and jumped on to the other side. I
stopped the motorcycle, turned the engine off and
rolled it back. The cat froze, and watched me
passing by. It was about the size of an adult
domestic cat, but more slender and with a long
tail. It was pale sandy buff overall, cryptically
merging with the background terrain. It had
slightly elliptical black spots on the flanks and
almost all over; two thick black stripes on the
elbows; a black ringed tail; black stripe on the
cheeks and with small triangular ears. Its tail
length was about two-thirds the size of the body.
Prater (1965) gives the distribution of the
desert cat in India as Gujarat, Rajasthan and the
arid regions of central India. Its extralimital
distribution extends from Africa into middle-east
Asia. However, the recent classifications consider
Felis lybica a subspecies of the widely distributed
Felis sylvestris (Corbett and Hill 1992). Jerdon
(1874) and Brander (1982) write about having
collected specimens of this cat from places like
Nagpur, Mhow, etc., in central India. However,
there are no records as far east as Panna, though
the habitat in Panna is quite similar to the
western semi-arid parts of central India.
October 27, 1998 K. YOGANAND
Wildlife Institute of India,
P.O. Box, 18, Chandrabani,
Dehradun 248 001,
Uttar Pradesh.
References
Corbett, G.B. & J.E. Hill (1992): The mammals of the
Indo-malayan region: A systematic review. Oxford
University Press, New York.
Dunbar Brander, A. A. (1982): Wild animals of
Central India (Indian reprint). Natraj Publishers,
Dehradun.
Jerdon, T.C. (1 874): A handbook of the mammals of India.
Mittal Publishers ( 1 984 reprint), Delhi .
Prater, S.H. (1965): The Book of Indian Animals.
Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai.
2. STATUS OF THE WILD WATER BUFFALO BUBALUSARNEE
IN LOHIT DISTRICT, ARUNACHAL PRADESH
( With one text-figure)
With the decline of its wild population, and
due to its restricted range, the Asiatic wild water
buffalo Bubalus arnee Kerr is in urgent need of
conservation attention. Micro-level information
has becomes extremely important. Here I report
its occurrence and present status in the Lohit dist.
(27° 35'-28° 28' N, 95° 46'-97° 25' E) of eastern
Arunachal Pradesh. Field studies have been
carried out in the area between 1992 and 1994.
Reference to the wild buffalo in this area
is found in Cooper (1873), after which no
published records were available till Choudhury
(1996). However, I documented the status of the
species in Dibang Valley dist., which is adjacent
to Lohit (Choudhury 1988). An account of its
status in northeast India, the only stronghold of
130
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
the species, was given (Choudhury 1994). Katti
et al. ( 1 990) mistook horns of domestic animals
preserved at Kalai basti in Kamlang Wildlife
Sanctuary which were brought for sacrifice, for
those of the^wild buffalo.
From the habitat type and discussion with
old hunters, villagers and forest staff, it seems
that the wild buffalo was not uncommon in the
riverine tracts of the Lohit river, from
Parshuramkund (Brahmakund) where the river
debouches onto the plains, to the interstate border
with Assam near Sunpura in Sadiya, and then
extending inside Assam. The grassy tracts of
some of the tributaries of the Lohit, such as Hajjo
and Digaru rivers, were also inhabited by the
buffalo. The last large herds in the Hajjo river
area were seen in the early 1970s.
At present, small and scattered populations
occur in the chapories (riverine islets and tracts)
of the Lohit river, with stray animals in Hajjo
and Digam chapories. In 1986, one bull was shot
near the Lohit river, near Wakro after it had killed
a Nepali grazier. In the same area, a herd of 20
was seen in 1995 (M. Kashyap, pers. comm.). In
September, 1993 a lone bull was encountered by
the forest staff in Lai Anchal Reserved Forest
(RF). The animals are shy because of fear of
hunting. Although they do not occur inside the
Kamlang Sanctuary, some animals roam in the
northern areas of Kamlang RF.
Estimating the population of such an
extremely shy (due to regular persecution) and
thinly distributed species is a difficult task.
However, after visiting all the known and
potential areas and interviewing old hunters and
graziers of the khutis (cattle camps, mostly mn
by Nepalis and Biharis), villagers and forest staff,
it can be safely said that there are less than 20
animals in Lai Anchal RF and adjacent areas,
mostly affecting the grasslands of the Lohit river.
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
131
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
In the grasslands between Wakro and
Chowkham, covering parts of Turung, and
northwestern areas of Kamlang RF and adjacent
grasslands on the banks of the Lohit and
Kamlang rivers, some 60 to 90 buffaloes occur.
Between Chowkham and Sunpura, covering parts
of Lohit, Paya and Digaru RFs including the
adjacent unclassed forests, a widely scattered
population of 20 to 40 animals occurs.
Westwards, it is contiguous with some of the
buffalo-bearing areas of Bhim chapori of Sadiya
in Tinsukia dist. (Assam). The total habitat
available for wild buffalo in the district is around
150 sq. km. (Fig. 1).
Expansion of lowland paddy cultivation by
the Khamtee tribe in the southern areas of the
Lohit river, poaching for meat by the Khamtees,
Digaru Mishmi and Miju Mishmi tribals,
development of townships at Tezu, Chowkham
and Wakro and shifting of many interior villages
to the fertile plains have resulted in a gradual
decline of the wild buffalo. Moreover, the
presence of domestic buffaloes in the khutis is a
potential hazard to the small wild population due
to the danger of diseases like anthrax, foot-and-
mouth and rinderpest. However, domestic males
are usually not kept in the khutis and hence,
contamination of wild stock due to interbreeding
is a rerqote possibility. Domestic animals going
feral are also brought back immediately, because
they are too valuable to their owner. The feral
animals are also shot by the local tribals for food.
Poaching with guns and rifles is taking its
toll, and unless conservation measures are taken,
the future of these animals in Lohit dist. is bleak.
The grassy parts of Kamlang RF, Lai Anchal RF
and some adjacent areas (totalling about 30 sq.
km) have been recommended as additions to the
Kamlang Wildlife Sanctuary.
Oct. 27, 1998 ANWARUDDIN CHOUDHURY
The Rhino Foundation for Nature in NE India
C/o The Assam Co. Ltd.
Bamunimaidan - Guwahati - 781 021. Assam.
References
Choudhury, A.U. (1994): The decline of the wild
water buffalo in north-east India. Oryx. 28(1):
70-73.
Choudhury, A.U. (1996): Trekking through Kamlang.
Sanctuary Asia XVI(5): 44-49.
Choudhury, A.U. (1998): Wild water buffalo Bubalus
hubalis arnee in Dibang Valley district of Arunachal
Pradesh. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 95(1): 1 10-112.
Cooper, T.T. (1873): The Mishmee Hills. Mittal
Publications, New Delhi (reprint 1995).
Katti, M. S. Mukherjee, N. Manjrekar & D. Sharma
( 1 990): A report on a wildlife survey in Arunachal
Pradesh with special reference to takin. Wildlife
Institute of India, Dehra Dun. pp 103.
3. DAYTIME RESTING IN THE NEST — AN ADAPTATION BY
THE INDIAN GIANT SQUIRREL RA TUFA INDICA TO AVOID PREDATION
Predation may play an important role in
influencing social behaviour. In tree squirrels,
predation could affect nest tree selection and
behavioural strategies. Most studies on temperate
and tropical squirrels have documented the
importance of diurnal raptors as predators of
sciurids. (Emmons 1980, Borges 1989, Joshua
1992).
Predation attempts by the black eagle
(Ictinaetus malayensis perniger) and crested
serpent eagle ( Spilornis cheela) on the Indian
giant squirrel ( Ratufa indica) and grizzled giant
squirrel (R. macroura) have been reported by
Borges (1989), Ramachandran (1991), Joshua
(1992), and Joshua and Johnsingh (1994). I
observed three unsuccessful predation attempts
by the crested hawk-eagle (Spizaetus cirrhatus
limnaetus) on the Indian giant squirrel ( Ratufa
indica) in Bori Wildlife Sanctuary (WLS),
Madhya Pradesh (Datta 1993).
132
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Squirrels were observed in two riverine
patches surrounded by deciduous forests. One of
these, along Bhainsa nullah was subject to
disturbance due to nearby villages and cattle
grazing. Canopy gaps exist in this forest due to
felling of trees in the past. The other study site
was a relatively undisturbed riparian habitat.
Observations were made while following
five individually identified squirrels twice a
month from dawn to dusk, using focal animal
sampling (Altmann 1974) from December 1992
to April 1993. Two other individuals were also
observed for 2 days each in December.
After the morning feeding bout, giant
squirrels usually return to their nest tree to rest.
The nest seems to be the focal point to which
they return after foraging. Squirrels rested inside
the nest in the afternoons, both in summer and
winter. They rarely rested for long periods in the
canopy. A large part of the day was spent
inactively inside the nest. Previously, nests were
reported to be used extensively in the daytime
only in the wet season and also at mid-day during
the dry season (Borges 1989). I found that the
squirrels usually returned to the nest or adjacent
trees after foraging in the morning. A squirrel
which is resting for long periods in the afternoon
outside the nest can be extremely vulnerable to
avian predators which were seen frequently in
the relatively shady, cool riparian area. These
raptors were active in the afternoon, calling and
flying through the canopy, and perching on the
tall Terminalia arjuna trees. A squirrel resting
outside would have to be alert because of greater
chances of predation, whereas inside the nest it
would be safer. Resting inside the nest in the
daytime could thus be an adaptive strategy to
avoid predation. In fact, a predation attempt was
seen when an individual squirrel came out of the
nest in the afternoon, to rest outside. The
individual I was following was safe inside the
nest and could not be detected by raptors. The
two raptor species sighted here are not reported
to be nest robbers, unlike the black eagle (Joshua
and Johnsingh 1994).
Based on my observations and anecdotal
evidence, I hypothesize that giant squirrels,
irrespective of sex or even season rested inside
the nest as an anti-predatory strategy. It is not
unusual for temperate squirrels to rest inside the
nest in the winter months because of the harsh
sub-zero temperatures. But tropical squirrels
have not been reported to enter the nest in the
daytime except during heavy rains or inclement
weather (Borges 1989, Joshua 1992). Borges
( 1 989) reported that they used the nest for resting
at mid-day in the dry season, attributing it to
facilitation of heat loss in summer. But this was
not a regular occurrence in her study area. They
usually rested on horizontal broad branches in
the canopy after their morning forage and rarely
entered the nest except to feed young or in very
bad weather (Borges 1989). In any case, if the
squirrels were resting inside the nest due to
weather conditions, they would not be doing so
both in summer and winter (December 1992 to
April 1993). Therefore, it is unlikely that it is
thermoregulatory behaviour. This behaviour was
observed for all focal squirrels. This could be a
local adaptation to a disturbed habitat, where the
canopy is more open and where there seems to
be a high density of two raptor species which
prey on giant squirrels. Emmons (1980)
speculated that by retiring to the nest early, a
squirrel could minimise its daily exposure to
diurnal avian predators.
Nevertheless, towards the end of my study
in April, on the last two days, the individuals I
followed did not retire to the nest but rested in
the lower canopy which was still leafy and
shaded. Since it was summer, the nests were
exposed to the sun in the top canopy of the nest
trees at the edge of the riparian area. Therefore,
at certain times, unfavourable nest temperature
may prevent the squirrels from resting in the nest.
Raptors were sighted at least once on every
observation day, frequently between 1 000 h and
1430 h, though in winter they were twice
recorded around 0640 h. A nest of the crested-
hawk eagle was sighted further up the nullah on
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
133
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
in secondary forests, verges, clearings, scattered
woodlands and plantations. They are not birds
of the primary forest interior (Thiollay and
Meyburg 1988). They perch in tall trees using
them as lookouts to scan for prey, reportedly
jungle fowl, peafowl, partridges, hares, rodents,
snakes and lizards. I observed a hawk-eagle
preying on a field or bush rat in the late afternoon.
On another occasion, I observed for close to an
hour a hawk-eagle feeding on an unidentified prey.
Predation rates have been reported higher
close to the forest edge, suggesting that predation
rate was high due to predators living in the
surrounding habitat and penetrating the forest
fragments (Wilcove 1985, Wilcove etal. 1986).
The relative abundance of raptorial species was
found to increase in disturbed and logged forests
(Johns 1983).
The general behaviour pattern observed in
all focal squirrels, and incidentally in other non-
focal squirrels entering the nest in the daytime
to rest for long periods, may constitute a local
adaptation to a more disturbed, open canopy
habitat, where avian predator density, activity and
predation attempts seem high.
Acknowledgements
I thank the Madhya Pradesh Forest
Department for permission to work in the field
and Mr. M. Chacko, AFC, Bori WLS for help
during the study. I thank Chet Ram for assistance
in data collection and Manoj V. Nair for comments.
October 24, 1 998 APARAJITA DATTA
Wildlife Institute of India, Post bag 18,
Dehradun 248 001.
References
Altmann, J. (1974): Observational study of behaviour:
sampling methods. Behaviour 49 : 227-266.
Borges, R.M. (1989): Resource heterogenity and the
foraging ecology of the Malabar Giant Squirrel
{Ratufa indica ). Ph.D. dissertation, University of
Miami, Flonda.
Datta, A. ( 1 993): Space-use patterns of the Indian giant
squirrel ( Ratufa indica centralis) in relation to food
availability in Bori Wildlife Sanctuary, Madhya
Pradesh, India. Unpubl. M.Sc. thesis, Saurashtra
University, Rajkot, Gujarat.
Emmons, L.H. (1980): Ecology and resource partitioning
among nine species of African rain forest squirrels.
Ecological Monogr. 50(1): 31-54.
Johns, A.D. (1983): Ecological effects of selective timber
extraction. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis. University of
Cambridge.
Joshua, J. ( 1 992): Ecology of the endangered grizzled giant
squirrel ( Ratufa macroura) in Tamil Nadu, South
India. Ph.D. dissertation, Bharatidasan University,
Tiruchirapalli, Tamil Nadu.
Joshua, J. & A.J.T. Johnsingh (1994): Impact of biotic
disturbances on the habitat and population of the
endangered grizzled giant squirrel ( Ratufa
macroura) in south India. Biol. Cons. 68(1): 29-
34.
Ramachandran, K.K. ( 1 99 1 ): Ecology and Behaviour of
Malabar Giant Squirrel ( Ratufa indica maxima)
Schreber. K.F.R.I. Research Report: 55 (Summary).
Thiollay, J. & B.U. Meyburg (1 988): Forest fragmentation
and the conservation of raptors: A survey on the
island of Java Biol. Cons. 44: 229-250.
Wilcove, D.S. (1985): Nest predation in forest tracts and
the decline of migratory songbirds. Ecology 66:
1211-1214.
Wilcove, D.S., C.H. McLellan & A.P. Dobson (1986):
Habitat fragmentation in the temperate zone. In
M.E. Soule, (ed.) Conservation biology: The science
of scarcity and diversity. Sinauer Assoc.
Sunderland, Mass, pp 237-256.
4. REDISCOVERY OF THE AFGHAN MOLE VOLE ELLOBIUS FUSCOCAPILLUS
IN PAKISTAN
( With one plate)
Rodents which spend most of their lives are poorly represented in the world’s major
underground are hard to catch or trap, and hence museum reference collections.
134
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Roberts T.J.: Ellobius fuscocapillus Plate 1
Fig. 1 : Ellobius fuscocapillus showing incisor teeth; Fig. 2: Habitat of Ellobius fuscocapillus
showing foxtail lilies and mountain ash Fraxinus xanthoxiloides
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR 1999
135
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Whilst studying the mammals of Pakistan
in the 1970’s, I examined specimens available
in the British Museum of Natural History, the
Smithsonian Natural History Museum in
Washington, and the extensive collection
belonging to the Bombay Natural History Society,
which has received contributions from all over
the Subcontinent. The Smithsonian possessed a
good series of the Afghan mole vole (Ellobius
fuscocapillus) from northern parts of Iran, but
none from Pakistan, or elsewhere, despite
extensive mammal collecting in the province of
Baluchistan during the 1960’s by the University
of Maryland, and later by the Chicago Field
Museum in neighbouring Afghanistan. The
British Museum possessed only two specimens
from Pakistan, and one from Afghanistan, both
Pakistani specimens collected at the turn of
the century, from Mach in the centre of the
province (29° 52' N, 67° 20' E). There were no
specimens in the Bombay Natural History Society
collection.
In the late 1960s and throughout the 1970s
I made mammal trapping surveys in most parts
of Baluchistan. My associates working for the
FAO sponsored Vertebrate Pest Control Centre
(of which I was then Project Manager) under the
National Agricultural Research Council of
Pakistan, also searched around Mach, only
encountering the short tailed mole rat ( Nesokia
indica), so that I concluded (Roberts 1977) that
this larger and highly aggressive burrowing
rodent had possibly driven the Afghan Mole Vole,
at best a relict population in Pakistan, to local
extinction.
In 1995 my friend S. Raza Abbas, a
professional wildlife photographer was perched
on a precipitous mountain ridge in the Torghar
Range of Zhob dist. in northwestern Baluchistan,
filming straight-horned markhor ( Capra
falconeri jerdoni). Something moving by his feet
caught his eye — it was a very active, small,
furry creature which seemed to ignore human
presence, and was busily searching for green
food. Raza Abbas filmed it eating green leaves
and moving extensively over very steep shaley
ground. Some two years later, this film was
shown to Dr Charles Wood of Florida Museum
and subsequently to me — both of us recognised
it with excitement as the long lost Afghan mole
vole — excitement because it was discovered
nearly 322 km northwest of the Mach (at 3 1° 20'
N, 68° 27' E), at a much higher elevation
(2650 m) and in a region which experiences
winter temperatures down to -16°C. The
literature, mostly from Russian sources, described
this vole as inhabiting rolling hilly country and
preferring valley floors with a good covering of
soil. In the former Soviet Union, it only occurs
in southern Turkmenistan along the border with
northeastern Afghanistan (Bobrinskii et al.
1965).
In late April this year, I had the privilege
of camping in the Torghar Nature Reserve, in
Zhob dist., Baluchistan, at the invitation of Sirdar
Naseer Tareen, a local tribal leader who is a
dedicated conservationist and who through
patience and persistence has encouraged the local
tribesmen to create this Sanctuary, successfully
controlling over-grazing and banning all
hunting. (Sadly, such success stories are
exceptional in Pakistan today). From this
experience, I would like to add to what is known
about this enigmatic little vole. The habitat can
be described as arid mountain steppe country,
with light snowfall in winter not exceeding 45
cm. Torghar consits of jagged wind-eroded
sandstone and mudstone ranges, extending
roughly east-west for approximately 96 km with
rainfall rarely exceeding 101-121 mm per
annum.
The region is characterised by much
endemism in plants, and in spring is decorated
with stretches of bright flowering plants,
including many bulbous lilies, tulips and wild
onions. These succulent bulbs form the main diet
of the Afghan mole vole, principally the golden
foxtail lily, Eremurus stenophyllus, the Persian
foxtail lily Eremurus persicus , pink or yellow
Tulipa stellata, and several species of Allium.
JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(1). APR. 1999
137
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
The dominant trees are stunted xerophytic
Pistachio cabulica and Fraxinus xanthoxiloides,
interspersed with bushes of Berberis
balochistanica and Astragalus psilocentris.
Evidence obtained over five nights, from
recently excavated mounds of earth, indicated that
the mole vole was relatively widespread and
common in this area, from 1,800 - 2,600 m. A
mature specimen is quite large for a vole,
measuring 140 mm in head and body length, with
a very short, hair-covered tail 1 1-15 mm in length,
tiny eyes, a blunt upturned muzzle, and very
prominent pro-odont incisors, pinkish white in
colour and bearing longitudinal grooves. The body
fur is velvety and thick, enabling the animal to
reverse inside its burrow when necessary. The tiny
ears are hairless and hidden in the body fur
(2-5 mm in length). Its scientific name
{ fuscocapillus ) indicates that the hair of its head
is blackish, but the body fur can be quite variable
in colour, generally quite dark in winter, changing
to reddish or cinnamon brown in summer, but with
most of the head blackish and the cheeks paler
reddish brown. The belly fur is greyish white, and
the forefeet, considering its burrowing habits are
not particularly strong or well developed.
Captured animals, as well as free ranging
ones, often showed no inclination to burrow, and
Lay (1967) describes one in Iran which swam
strongly across a 9 m wide stream, and another
which travelled 300 m, and remained one hour
above ground before commencing to burrow.
Their eyesight is, however, very poor as
indicated by the one which nearly bumped into
Raza Abbas, and also by their frequent falling
off the edge of eroded ground whilst travelling
on the surface. Their burrowing technique is not
entirely typical of other fossorial rodents, in that
they use mostly their protruding incisors to dig
soil, only occasionally pushing it backwards with
the forefeet, and eventually moving their whole
body backwards, using their spade shaped hind
feet to push soil into surface mounds. After
admiring the speed with which this vole could
burrow in such dry stony ground, I would like
to “christen” it “Fossorulus” (Latin = Little
Digger). When its jaws are open the fur covered
lips are seen to extend around and behind the
incisors down to a relatively small round mouth
opening. Such an arrangement enables them to
dig and to forage, without swallowing any soil.
Films made by S. Raza Abbas and Sirdar Tareen
show the area with plenty of small predators,
including the stone marten ( Martes foina ), the
elusive spotted steppe cat ( Felis sylvestris
ornata ), hill foxes (Vulpes vulpes griffithi ), rat
snake ( Ptyas mucosus), and such diurnal birds
of prey as the booted eagle (Hieraaetus
pennatus ), and both the long legged ( Buteo
rufinus) and common buzzard (Buteo buteo
japonicus). The Afghan mole vole must at times
fall prey to all these, but it does not hibernate in
winter and can breed at all times of the year
(Nowak 1991), and so can reproduce fairly
rapidly. Grzimek (1975) states that they reach
sexual maturity at 90 days and that the young
are fairly slow growing, remaining in the
underground nest for upto 8 weeks.
On April 28, 1998, at an elevation of
2285 m, with the help of the local tribesmen I
obtained an immature female (head and body
length 123 mm), with a litter of three young
estimated as one month old. These were light
silvery grey in colour with black face masks, quite
unlike their cinnamon brown mother. The nest was
a surprisingly bulky affair made of chewed herb
and grass fibres, and measuring about 220 cm in
diameter. Tunnels radiated from this nest.
This vole has an ability to reconnoitre new
territory and to travel extensively above ground,
frequently in bright sunlight and over very steep
gradients. In Torghar there is only sparse
vegetative cover with much bare ground
intervening, and being dependent mostly on
underground tubers, this vole must soon exhaust
accessible food supply and seek fresh ground in
which to burrow. The much more widely spread
short tailed mole vole (Nesokia indica ), in
Baluchistan is confined to areas with some grass
cover. Our radio telemetry studies in Sind (Fulk,
138
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Smiet, and Khokhar 1981), revealed that
Nesokia spends prolonged periods underground,
surfacing only occasionally, invariably in
darkness. Its principal food, we found, was
rhizomes of grasses and succulent roots. It is,
therefore, not an ecological competitor with
Refer
BobrjnsKH, N.A., B.A. Kuznekov & A.P. Kuzyakjn
(1965): Synopsis of the Mammals of the USSR,
Moscow, (in Russian)
Fulk, G.W., A.C Smiet & A.R. Khokhar (1981):
Movements of Bandicota bengalensis and
Nesokia indica in rice fields in Sind J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 18(1)\ 107-112.
Grzimek, Bernhard, Editor in Chief ( 1 975): Animal Life
Encyclopedia, Vol. 1 1 , Van Nostrand Reinhold Co.,
Ellobius in arid mountainous tracts.
July 6, 1998 T.J. ROBERTS
Cae Gors, Rhoscefnhir
Nr. Pentraeth Anglesy LL75 8 YU
Wales, United Kingdom.
e n c e s
New York.
Lay, D.M. (1967): A study of the Mammals of Iran
Resulting from the Street Expeditions of 1 962-63,
Fieldiana: Zoology. Vol. 54. Chicago.
Nowak, Ronald M., (1991): Walker’s Mammals
of the World, Vol. 2, John Hopkins Press,
Baltimore.
Roberts, T.J. (1977): Mammals of Pakistan, 1st edn.
Ernest Benn Ltd., London.
5. MENOPON G ALLIN AE INFESTING GREATER ADJUTANT STORK
LEPTOPTILOS DUBIUS AT NAGAON, ASSAM
Numerous reports on the occurrence of the
poultry louse Menopon gallinae on poultry and
wild birds are available (Soulsby 1968) but there
appears to be no report on the occurrence of M.
gallinae on the greater adjutant stork Leptoptilos
dubius (Gmelin). The greater adjutant stork is
the most endangered species of stork in the world
(Rahmani et. al. 1990). Only a small viable
population is surviving in the Brahmaputra
valley, Assam (Saikia and Bhattacharjee 1989).
These storks are mainly scavengers, but during
the breeding season they prey on living creatures.
In the non-breeding season, they are found at
garbage dumps in some towns of Assam. At such
foraging sites they can be seen with vultures
Gyps spp., black kites Milvus migrans, crows
Corvus spp. and other scavengers. The garbage
generally contains inedible parts of slaughtered
animals, which are readily eaten up by adjutant
storks.
In 1995 in Nagaon, a juvenile greater
adjutant stork was observed sitting continuously
on a mound in a shallow river for more than 24
hours. It was too weak to walk and fell down
frequently when it tried to walk. We brought it
to our field laboratory for study and to render
first aid.
The bird was seen to be heavily infested
with tiny, flat, mobile, wingless arthropods.
They were removed with a soft brush and
preserved in glass vials for identification. They
were cleared in 10% KOH solution, fixed in
10% formalin and permanent slides were
prepared. At the College of Veterinary Science,
Assam Agricultural University, Guwahati, they
were identified as the common poultry louse
Menopon gallinae.
The infested bird was treated first with a
repellent extract of deodar and vegetable oils.
Later, it was treated with Carbary 1 Dust Notix
(Carbaryl 5%, Inerts q.s.). Within ten days, the
lice had almost disappeared.
After we gave it medicine for liver disease
and drops of astrozyme, it recovered quickly and
became a voracious feeder. Soon it could stand
on its feet, and on the third day it had almost
recovered. We kept it for two months under
observation and then released it into the wild.
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
139
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Menopon gallinae (Family Menoponidae,
Order Mallophaga) is a well known insect
ectoparasite (Noble and Noble 1974). It is pale
yellow in colour. The male is 1.71 mm and the
female 2.04 mm. The thoracic and abdominal
segments each have a row of bristles. This
species is found in all domestic and wild birds,
including turkey, guineafowl, ducks and pigeons
(Levine 1983). The eggs are laid in clusters on
the host feathers and the life cycle is completed
on the same host. The eggs hatch in two to three
weeks. These lice are not blood ingesters, they
feed on the barbs and scales of the host feathers.
They do not infest young chicks, presumably
because chicks lack well developed feathers
(Cheng 1982).
In most birds, heavy infestation is
generally encountered during winter. Birds
affected by lice are restless because of the
irritation. They become so restless that they
cannot feed or sleep properly. Birds scratch their
bodies to get rid of the lice and injure themselves,
which leads to complications. The infestation
apparently causes reduced egg production in
Refer
Cheng, T.C. (1982): General Parasitology. Academic
Press, London, pp. 803-805.
Levine, N.D. (1983): Text Book of Veterinary
Parasitology. CBS Publishers and Distributors, Delhi,
pp. 140-150.
Noble, E.R. & G.A. Noble (1974): Parasitology The
Biology of Animal Parasites. 3rd Edn. Lea and
Febiger, Philadelphia, pp. 366-367.
Rahmani, A.R., G. N arayan & L. Rosalind ( 1 990): Status
birds, and increases the host’s susceptibility to
bacterial, viral and protozoal diseases.
Acknowledgements
We thank the Head of the Department of
Parasitology, College of Veterinary Science,
Assam Agricultural University, for identifying
the parasites.
September 3, 1997 HILLALJYOTI SINGH A
Centre of Wildlife and Ornithology,
Aligarh Muslim Univesity,
Aligarh 202 002, UP, India.
REZAUL KARIM
Disease Investigation Officer,
Animal Health Centre,
Animal Health and Veterinary Department,
Guwahati 781 022, Assam, India.
ASAD R. RAHMANI
Bombay Natural History Society,
Hornbill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk,
Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road ,
Mumbai 400 023.
ENC ES
of Greater Adjutant Stork ( Leptoptilos dubius ) in the
Indian Subcontinent. Colonial Waterbirds. 13(2): 139-
142.
Saikia, P. & P.C. Bhattacharjee (1989): A Preliminary
Survey of Adjutant Storks in Assam. Asian Wetland
News 2(2): 14-15.
Soulsby, E.J.L. (1968): Helminths, Arthropods and
Protozoa of Domestic Animals. 6th Edn. ELBS &
Baillere, Tindall & Cassell Ltd. London, pp. 368-377.
6. STRANGE DEATH OF A SHIKRA
Deep in the desert, southwest of Jaisalmer
in Rajasthan, I was watching a shikra ( Accipiter
badius) flying very low over the sandy plain.
Suddenly it gained height, dived to the ground,
then flew up, with a rodent in its talons. Through
the binoculars I could not identify the species of
the small mammal. Having settled over an
electric wire the shikra started feeding on the
prey. While the raptor was feeding on the body
of the rodent, the tail was dangling below. The
bird shifted its posture and the rodent’s tail
touched the electric pole-bar below, there was a
140
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
flash and a spark, and the shikra dropped to the
ground, dead. Apparently, through the rodent’s
tail, the body of the shikra was earthed, resulting
in its death by electrocution. The predator had
become a prey of man's electric power. Both the
animals were collected. The rodent turned out to
be an Indian desert gerbil, Meriones hurrianae
(Jerdon).
June 1 1 , 1 997 P.L. KANKANE
Desert Regional Station.
Zoological Survey of India, Jodhpur-342 009.
1. MYCOTOXICOSIS - A THREAT TO WINTERING CRANES
IN SAURASHTRA, GUJARAT.
The Saurashtra region (21° 10' - 24° 45'
N, lat.; 68° 10' - 70° 30' E long.) of Gujarat
state, India, is the most important wintering
ground for the demoiselle crane Anthropoides
virgo and common crane Grus grus. Several
hundred thousand cranes winter in this region.
In the wintering ground, the cranes mainly feed
on groundnut Arachis hypogea. Therefore, a
research project on “Assessment of crop
depredation by cranes in the groundnut
cropfields” was carried out in collaboration with
the Indian Council of Agricultural Research,
New Delhi, for three years. Field study
commenced in October, 1989 and during the
study period we recorded 32 cranes with peculiar
symptoms, which resulted in their mortality
within 2-3 days. The symptoms observed were
paralysis of wing and neck, reluctance to feed,
weight loss and death within 2-3 days. Dein
(1989) reported that there are four major factors,
bacterial, fungal, viral and animal parasites,
which affect cranes both in captivity and in the
wild. The cranes were probably suffering from
mycotoxicosis, caused by the fungus Aspergillus
flavus, which produces a toxin called aflatoxin.
The fungus is a normal constituent of the
micro flora in air, soil and water and is associated
with living or dead plants and animals
throughout the world. Aflatoxins are carcino-
genic and mutagenic, and were implicated in
an outbreak of hepatitis in tribal areas of more
Refe
Dein, F.S. ( 1 989): Disease and disease management in cranes.
India (unpubl.).
ICAR ( 1987): Technologies for better crop. Aflatoxins in grou
than 200 villages of Rajasthan and Gujarat in
1974. It was observed that groundnut and its
products are a favourable substrate for the
growth of A. flavus, when its moisture content
exceeds 9% (ICAR Report 1987).
In Saurashtra, the groundnut crop is
harvested during July and October. Hence, at the
arrival time of the cranes, most of the harvested
fields have left over groundnut pods. During
winter, the moisture content of the soil and
groundnut may increase, which favours the
growth of A. flavus. Thus, mycotoxicosis reached
a peak during January and February.
Furthermore, during our study period we visited
only 30% of the waterbodies of Saurashtra region,
in which we recorded 32 diseased cranes. Hence,
there are possibilities of more cranes with similar
disease. The afflicted cranes are unable to move
due to paralysis of their wings and legs, and fall
easy prey to such predators as the village dog,
fox and jackal.
Acknowledgement
We are thankful to the Indian Council of
Agricultural Research, New Delhi, for funds.
June 9. 1997 V.C. SONI
V.VIJAYA KUMAR
RAJESH LATHIGARA
Department of Biosciences,
Saurashtra University,
Rajkot- 3 60 005, Gujarat.
E S
wc. of the Asian Crane Congress. Dec. 27-30. Rajkol.
Inut. 33: ICAR, New Delhi.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
141
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
8. SIGHT RECORDS OF THE LITTLE GULL LARUS MINUTUS FROM GUJARAT
We saw a single little gull Larus minutus
Pallas in flight amongst a mixed flock of gulls at
Nalsarovar Bird Sanctuary (Ahmedabad dist.),
on January 25, 1996. Since the foraging flock
was very close, comparison of its size with other
gulls through a spotting scope was not difficult.
The second record was made at Okha port
(22° 15' N, 69° 01' E, Jamnagar dist.) on the
Gulf of Kachchh on December 29, 1996. Four
little gulls, along with the blackheaded gull Larus
ridibundus , yellowlegged herring gull Larus
argentatus and lesser blackbacked gull Larus
fiuscus (total 500 gulls) were sitting on the edge
of a shallow water body at 1300 h.
The species has been reported from Shinay
dam, Anjar tehsil, Kachchh (Bapat and
Himmatsinhji 1992) and the coast of Bhavnagar
(Parasharya et al. 1994). Present sight records
suggest that the species might be far more
common on the coast and freshwater bodies of
Gujarat than it was believed to be, and it can be
distinguished from other gulls using a good
optical instmment.
May 8, 1997 B.M. PARASHARYA
AESHITA MUKHERJEE
T.V. PATEL
AINP on Agricultural Ornithology .
Gujarat Agricultural University,
Anand-388 1 10. Gujarat
References
Bapat, N.N. & M.K. Himmatsinhji (1992): Occurence of Larus minutus Pallas in Kutch. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc
89(1): 119-120.
Parasharya, B.M., K.L. Mathew & N.C. Bhatt(1994): Sighting of Little Gull Lams minutus Pallas at Bhavnagar New
Port, Gujarat. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 91(1): 141.
9. THREETOED KINGFISHER CEYX ERITHA CVS SIGHTED AT PANARWA
Panama is a village situated about 100 km.
southwest of Udaipur in Rajasthan. High hills of
the Aravalli surround this village, which has an
extensive forest area, one of the densest and
largest forest tracts of Rajasthan. The River Vakal
runs through this forest. Deep and shady pools
of water remain all through the year at many
places in the river in this region. The river course
is strewn with boulders and the banks have dense
vegetation. The area has been declared a Wildlife
Sanctuary called “Phoolwari Ki Naal.”
On April 20, 1997 at 1715 h as I was
searching around some of the shady pools of
Vakal river for aquatic birds, I sighted a
kingfisher perched on a branch about 30 m from
where I stood. The plumage of this bird took me
by surprise as it was different from all the
kingfishers found in this region. This prompted
me to make a detailed note of its features with
the help of my binoculars. The bird obliged me
for about seven minutes and then flew away.
When I compared its features with those in
“HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN” by
Salim Ali and S. Dillon Ripley (1987) I found it
to be an Indian three toed forest kingfisher ( Ceyx
erithacus).
The distribution of this bird is restricted
to moist deciduous and evergreen biotope. Ali &
Ripley’s handbook says: “Resident, dispersing
widely during the rainy season with the advent
of suitable conditions. Thus, a regular SW
monsoon (breeding) visitor to many areas, then
142
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(1 ) APR 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
also turning up sporadically in unexpected
localities. Movements not worked out. Nepal
eastward through N. Bengal, Sikkim, Bhutan...
Assam, Nagaland.... Also the humid Sahyadris
or Western Ghats and their outliers from a little
north of Bombay (limit not established)...” This
first sighting of the bird in Rajasthan is of special
interest.
June 1 1, 1997 RAZA H. TEHSIN
106, Panchwati,
Udaipur-3 1 3001 , Rajasthan.
10. APARTMENT NEST OF THE PYGMY WOODPECKER PICOIDES NANUS
On February 2, 1992, I saw a pygmy
woodpecker ( Picoides nanus) excavating a fresh
hole in a dead branch of a live Bombax ceiba
tree at the Peechi-Vazhani Wildlife Sanctuary,
Kerala. The nest-hole was being excavated on a
branch about a metre long, that already had four
other holes. This hole was the second and about
40 cm from the tip of the branch. The holes were
more or less evenly spaced and were ca 15-20
cm from each other. All were of uniform
dimension (3.3 cm diam) and hence were
presumed to be earlier nest/roost cavities of the
pygmy woodpecker. The branch was soft, its bark
peeling off and hence preferred for nesting.
Subsequently, the bird occupied the nest. The
nesting was successful and two young ones were
raised in due course.
Woodpeckers generally avoid nesting near
old nests, as these may be known to potential
predators and competitors (Nilsson et al. 1991;
Sonerud 1985; Sedgwick and Knopf 1992).
Besides, old nest substrates may be weakened by
decay as smaller woodpeckers generally prefer
weaker and softer substrates which, especially
in tropics, may decay fast and be unsafe (Kilham
1983; Hagvar et al. 1990; Lang and Knight
1975). Yet the choice of this branch for nesting
indicates a shortage of nest substrates for these
birds, and calls for better forest management
practices. This would ensure the availability of
suitable branches for nesting.
Acknowledgement
This study was funded by the Wildlife
Conservation Society, New York, U.S.A.
February 28, 1997 V. SANTHARAM
68, 1st floor, Sant home High Road,
Chennai 600 028.
References
Hagvar, S., G. Hagvar & E. Monness (1990): Nest site
selection in Norwegian woodpeckers. Holartic Ecol.
13: 156-165.
Kilham, L. ( 1 983): Life history studies of woodpeckers of
Eastern North America Publ. of the Nuttall Ornithol
Club No. 20.
Lang, G.E. & D.H. Knight (1979): Decay rates for boles
of tropical trees in Panama. Biotropica 11: 31 6-3 1 7.
Nilsson, S.G., K. Johnson & M. Tjerberg (1991): Is
avoidance by Black Woodpeckers of old nest holes due
to predators? Anim. Behav. 41: 439-441 .
Sedgwick, J.A. & F.L. Knopf ( 1 992): Cavity turnover and
equilibrium cavity densities in a Cottonwood
bottomland. J. Wildl. Manage 56: 477-484.
Sonerud, A.G. ( 1 985): Nesthole shift in Tengmalm’s Owl
Aegolius funereus, as defence against nest predation
involving long-term memory in the predator. J Anim.
Ecol. 54: 179-192.
11. RANGE EXTENSION OF RUFOUSBELLIED BABBLER
DUMETIA HYPERYTHRA HYPERYTHRA (FRANKLIN)
the compact handbook of the birds of india mentions the range of rufousbellied babbler
ANDPAKiSTANby SalimAliandS.D.Ripley(1987) Dumetia hyperythra hyperythra from Simla in
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(1), APR. 1999
143
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
the north to Darjeeling, West Bengal and
Bangladesh in the east, south to the Krishna
river and west to a line passing through
Hyderabad, Jalna, Mhow and Jhansi. The
western limit of the range falls approximately
on 78° E longitude and roughly overlaps with
the distributional range of the Mount Abu
whitethroated babbler Dumetia h. abuensis on
22° N lat. A CHECKLIST OF THE BIRDS OF ANDHRA
pradesh by Siraj Taher and A. Pittie (1989) lists
Dumetia h. hyperythra as a very rare resident in
Andhra Pradesh. According to Abdulali and
Panday (1978, checklist of the birds of Delhi,
agra and bharatpur) the rufousbellied babbler
has not been recorded from Bharatpur and only
one sighting has been recorded from the Delhi
area. Kota is an industrial centre in southeast
Rajasthan on the banks of the Chambal river
(25° 10' N lat., 75° 56' E long.). It is located in
the intervening area where neither of the
above-mentioned babblers are expected to be
found.
We found the rufousbellied babbler in the
margins of an old patch of forest at Jagpura, 1 5
km from Kota city, which was a hunting reserve
of the erstwhile rulers of Kota. Although much
depleted in size now, this area harboured large
cats and a variety of ungulates in its heyday.
On April 7, a party of 5 rufousbellied babblers
was found among the clumps of bamboo growing
on the southern margin of the forest. The area
is interspersed with Carissa, Annona, Acacia
and Zizyphus bushes. Ficus, Bombax,
Azadirachta, Tamarindus, Phoenix, Morinda,
Terminalia and Mitragyna form the upper canopy
of the forest.
The upper body of these babblers is
sandstone brown with a dull red crown from
forehead to nape. The bill is homy grey, and legs
and feet are pink. The lower body is the colour
of red clay, with a greyish undertail. There is no
white colour on the throat, or any other part of
the body, except for a few white upperwing
coverts visible only when the bird ruffles its
feathers.
A party of five rufousbellied babblers
Dumetia h. hyperythra was seen moving about
in the bamboo thickets. The birds were identified
on the basis of field characters, habits and habitat.
Over a period of seven days, 8 to 10 hours were
spent on observation. It is a very restless bird,
always flitting from branch to branch, entering
deep into the clumps and rarely coming out into
the open. The group was seen feeding on insects,
moths and flies. A full grown individual was seen
begging for food by dropping its wings, tucking
in its tail and chattering in typical babbler
fashion. It was fed a white moth by another adult
bird.
Although Ali and Ripley (1987) state that
its habits and food are similar to the
whitethroated babbler Dumetia h. albogularis ,
we observed that the mfousbellied babbler prefers
bamboo clumps and thorny bushes, and rarely
descends to the ground to rummage for food
among the leaf litter. The party of four to five
birds flies from thicket to thicket, and moves
rapidly in the depths of vegetation in search of
insects, many a times disappearing for 5-10
minutes. Suddenly, the birds come out into the
open, fly a short distance, hop from branch to
branch, regroup and plunge into the clumps of
vegetation again.
All the literature consulted suggests that
although it is widely distributed, this bird occurs
in small and fragmented populations. The present
record extends its westward range by
approximately 300 km (78°E-75°E long.) and
its shared habitat with the Mount Abu
whitethroated babbler by approximately 200 km
(22° N - 25° N lat.). In view of its rarity, the
rufousbellied babbler’s range extension is
extremely important.
We are thankful to Mr. A.H. Zaidi for his
help during the surveys.
June 3, 1 997 RAKESH VYAS
ANIL NAIR
2 P 22, Vigyan Nagar,
Kota 324 005, Rajasthan.
144
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
12. SIGHTING OF WHITEBROWED BLUE FLYCATCHER
MUSCICAPA S UPER CILIARIS IN SILENT VALLEY, KERALA
The whitebrowed blue flycatcher
( Muscicapa superciliaris ) is a small bird that
breeds in the Western Himalayas between 1800
and 3200 m (Ali and Ripley 1987). Its breeding
range extends from Kohat in Pakistan to the north-
eastern hill states of Nagaland, Manipur, Assam,
Meghalaya and Arunachal Pradesh in India.
The bird winters in central India,
occupying areas from Delhi down to southeast
Karnataka and northwest Andhra Pradesh,
covering northern Maharashtra, Orissa, Bengal
and Bihar (Ripley 1982, Ali and Ripley 1987).
Recently, it has been sighted at Shareneshwar in
Sabarkantha, Gujarat (Khacher 1996). This
implies that there is no record of the bird
migrating to the Western Ghats region. There is
no report of its occuring further south than
southeast Karnataka. It is not recorded so far from
Kerala (Ali 1969, Ali and Ripley 1987,
Neelakantan 1996, Neelakantan et al. 1993).
On March 5, 1997, while monitoring
frugivorous birds in Silent Valley as part of a
project on keystone species, a bird with striking
colouring (blue upperparts with prominent white
eyebrow extending to the nape and white
underparts with prominent greyish band broken
by white on the breast) was seen by the first
author. The bird was sitting in the middle storey
canopy of a Mallotus philippensis tree located
in the ecotone region of an evergreen patch at
Sirandhri in Silent Valley. It sat at a safe distance
from a seemingly related species, the rufous tailed
flycatcher ( Muscicapa ruficauda), which is
common in the area. It moved from branch to
branch at the time of observation, possibly in
search of insects. It was seen for only five
minutes, and then it flew away. Later study
confirmed the identity of the bird as a male
whitebrowed blue flycatcher ( Muscicapa
superciliaris). This species was not sighted again
in Silent Valley until May 1997.
Acknowledgement
We thank WWF-India, New Delhi, for
financial assistance.
August 25, 1997 B. AJAYAKUMAR
T.S. NAYAR
Division of Conservation Biology
Tropical Botanic Garden and
Research Institute
Palode, Thiruvananthapuram - 695 562,
Kerala.
References
Ali, S. (1969): Birds of Kerala. Oxford University Press,
New Delhi.
Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Handbook of the Birds of
India and Pakistan, Compact Edition. Oxford
University Press, New Delhi.
Khacher, L. (1996): Whitebrowed Blue Flycatcher
(. Muscicapa superciliaris ) Delineation of its wintering
range in West India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93: 587-588.
Neelakantan, K.K. (1996): Keralathile Pakshikal. Kerala
Sahitya Academy, Thrissur.
Neelakantan, K.K., C. Sashjkumar & R. Venugopalan
(1993): A Book of Kerala Birds. WWF-India,
Trivandrum.
Ripley, S.D. (1982): A Synopsis of the Birds of India
and Pakistan. Bombay Natural History Society,
Bombay.
13. blacknaped blue flycatcher hypothymis azure a trapped
IN THE WEB OF THE GIANT WOOD SPIDER NEPHILA MACULATA
In October 1996, 1 had gone birdwatching situated in Mumbai. I was observing a mixed
to the Sanjay Gandhi National Park (SGNP) hunting party of brown flycatcher Muscicapa
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
145
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
latirostris , redbreasted flycatcher Muscicapa
superciliaris , blacknaped blue flycatcher
Hypothymis azurea and paradise flycatcher
Terpsiphone paradisi, when I noticed a vigorously
vibrating web of the giant wood spider Nephila
maculata , which was about 1.5 m in diameter.
I also saw a blacknaped blue flycatcher at
a distance of 1 m from the centre of the web,
where the spider was resting. On closer
inspection, 1 realised that the left wing of the
bird was entangled in one of the main spokes of
the web. The bird was alive but exhausted, as all
its desperate attempts to free itself proved futile.
The giant wood spider is tbe largest orb
weaving spider in India (K. Vijaylakshmi and
Preston Ahimaz, spiders: an introduction, 1993)
and is known to feed on large insects, but I am
not aware whether birds also form a part of its
diet. Moreover, it was surprising to see a bird
weighing 9-14 gm, several times heavier than
the spider, helplessly entangled in the web.
I have read about the bird eating spiders
of the equatorial forests of South America, but
to see a blacknaped blue flycatcher trapped in a
web was a memorable experience. I waited at
the spot for 45 minutes, but eventually had to
leave due to bad weather.
June 27, 1 997 ANISH P. ANDHERIA
2, Sagar Building,
V.P. Road,
Andheri (West), Mumbai 400 058.
14. HOUSE SPARROW FEEDING ON TENDER LEAVES OF NEEM
(AZADIRACHTA INDICA )
The house sparrow ( Passer domes ticus
indicus ), a common bird feeds on a variety of
food items, the hand book of birds of india and
Pakistan (Ali and Ripley 1987, 10: 670) describes
the food of the species as mostly grass, weed
seeds and cereal grains, also fruits and flower
buds, tender shoots, kitchen scraps and
insects.
On March 20, 1996, at my residence at
Raipur, a female bird was seen plucking a fresh
tender leaf from a neem tree (Azadirachta
indica ), carrying it to the ground below, holding
it in the bill and placing it on the ground. In
order to feed on it, the sparrow placed the leaf
under its toe, snapped off a fragment and fed on
it. This was repeated thrice and in the process
half the leaf was eaten. Thereafter, the bird flew
away, leaving the remaining part of the leaf on
the ground.
Though the species is known to feed on
tender shoots, feeding on a bitter leaf of the neem
tree is reported for the first time.
May 25, 1996 A.M.K. BHAROS
B-101, Gayatri Nagar,
P. O. Shanker Nagar,
Raipur 492 007,
Madhya Pradesh.
15. CALOTES VERSICOLOR FEEDING ON LYCODON AULICUS
According to Smith (1935), Daniel (1983)
and Tikader and Sharma (1992), Calotes
versicolor is primarily an insectivorous arboreal
lizard, but also takes small birds and their
nestlings, frogs, centipedes and vegetable
matter.
On June 1, 1998, on a regular visit to the
Nal-Sandol Forest Nursery near Jhadol village
in Udaipur dist., Rajasthan, I observed a male
Calotes versicolor which was swallowing a small
Ly codon aulicus, approximately 25 cm in length
in a nursery-bed at about 0930 h. The anterior
half of the snake was already swallowed and it
took nearly 6 minutes to complete the process.
146
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
After swallowing the prey, it slowly climbed up
a Ricinus communis tree and settled itself on a
twig and remained motionless till 1530 h.
A garden lizard feeding on a snake is unusual,
hence worthy of placing on record.
Sep. 15, 1998 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA
Range Forest Officer,
Aravalli Afforestation Project,
Jhadol (F.) Dist. Udaipur,
Rajasthan 313 702.
References
Daniel, J.C. (1983): The Book of Indian Reptiles, BNHS, Sauria. Taylor & Francis, London.
Bombay. Tikader, B.K. & R.C. Sharma (1992): Handbook of Indian
Smith, M.A. (1935): The fauna of British India. Vol. II. Lizards. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.
16. PYTHON PREYING ON RAT SNAKE
It was raining in Panna National Park,
Madhya Pradesh, during late June, 1998. One
day, while I was sampling for bear scats down a
road, a forest guard I met on the way informed
me that a python had been found lying about
100 m off the road. Eager to break the monotony
of sampling for scats, I went about looking for
it. It was close to the Kheriah grassland along a
stream bordered with a few riparian trees. I found
this young python lying in a small pool of water,
holding on to a rat snake effortlessly, biting the
mid-body and smothering it. The rat snake
helplessly tried to get out of the stranglehold.
The python was about 2.1 m long, and the rat
snake was a full grown one of about 1.8 m long,
but only one- fifth or one- sixth as thick as the
python. I watched them for about 1 5 minutes and
left the place so as not to disturb them any longer.
I assume that the python must have eaten the rat
snake after killing it.
Though seeing a python, particularly
during the rainy season, is not unusual in Panna,
I was surprised to see it preying on a rat snake. I
have not come across reports of python feeding
on other snakes. Whitaker (1978) reports
mammals and birds as the major food of python,
and Daniel (1983) adds monitor lizard and
various frogs to its reported prey. Bhupathy and
Vijayan (1989) report the various mammal and
bird food items eaten by python in Bharatpur,
but they have not, in their two year study,
recorded python preying on another snake.
November 5, 1998 K. YOGANAND
Wildlife Institute of India,
P.O. Box, 18, Chandrabani,
Dehradun 248 001 ,
Uttar Pradesh.
References
Bhupathy, S. & V.S. Vijayan ( 1 989): Status, distribution Daniel, J.C. ( 1 983): The Book of Indian Reptiles. Bombay
and general ecology of the Indian python in Keoladeo Natural History Society, Bombay.
National Park, Rajasthan. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. Whitaker, R. (1978): Common Indian snakes: A field
86(3): 381-7. guide. Macmillan & Co., New Delhi.
17. ABERRANT BANDED RACERS ARGYROGENA FASCIOLATUS
( With two plates )
In January 1998, the second author found Maharashtra. It had nine supralabials on each
a snake in Ghorawadi, near Talegaon, Pune dist., side and 97 paired subcaudals. Barring these two
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
147
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
discrepancies, the snake fits Smith’s (1943)
description of Argyrogena fasciolatus well.
Table 1 provides important details on
measurements and scalation of the snake.
Additional information is presented below (see
also Fig. 1 and 2). Snout strongly projecting; head
feebly distinct from neck; rostral large, broader
than high; suture between internasals shorter
than that between prefrontals; pupil round. Body
pale brown above, marked anteriorly with narrow
cross bars formed by a pattern of white and dark
brown marks; posteriorly, the bars become
indistinct and finally disappear towards the tail
which is a uniform pale brown above; ventrum
uniform enamel white. Head above marbled with
light and dark brown; a white spot on the rnidlme
of each frontoparietal suture, another on the
middle of the interparietal suture. We were unable
to sex the snake. The specimen has been
deposited at the Bombay Natural History Society
(Specimen no. 3175).
Smith (1943) lists eight supralabials as a
key character foi - A. fasciolatus, while the number
of subcaudals recorded by him are 77-92.
Specimens from Pakistan also have eight
supralabials (Minton 1966). Though ventral and
subcaudal abnormalities have been reported in
this species (Gharpurey 1931), we are unaware
of any supralabial variation on record.
The two aberrations exhibited by the
Ghorawadi individual might seem insignificant
by themselves, but together they cause Smith’s
(1943) key to the species of Coluber sensu lato
to fail. Using the key alone, without referring to
descriptions of each species of Coluber, one
would wrongly assign this individual to Coluber
ravergieri.
Before assigning this snake to Argyrogena
fasciolatus, descriptions and pholidosis of all the
species of the Coluber complex (sensu Smith 1943)
that are known to occur in India were studied
( Coluber , Spalerosophis and Argyrogena).
Photographs of the head shields of the aberrant
snake, as well as its scale counts were compared
with four previously identified A. fasciolatus
Table 1
DATA ON MEASUREMENTS (IN MM) AND
SCALATION OF ARGYROGENA FASCIOLA TUS
(SHAW 1802) FROM MAHARASHTRA, INDIA
specimens in the collection of the Bombay Natural
History Society. In addition, two specimens of
Coluber ravergieri were also examined. Finally,
the aberrant individual was compared with 12 live
A. fasciolatus. Five of these were from Pune dist.,
7 from around Aurangabad.
Two of the live snakes from Aurangabad
had varying supralabials. One of them had L8
(4,5), R7 (3,4); the other had L9 (5,6), R8 (4,5)
supralabials (L - left, R - right, scales contacting
orbit in brackets). This lends further credence to
the fact that the Ghorawadi individual was indeed
an aberrant Argyrogena fasciolatus and not a
wrongly identified snake.
To conclude, we quote Frank Wall (1907)
“ many people appear to expect a key to direct
them unerringly in every case to the object of
their enquiry, but the disciple of Darwin, on a
little reflection, must see how impossible it is to
fulfil such expectations, for it is only through
variation that the evolution doctrine can be
accepted. Whether the variation is retrogade —
a reversion to an ancestral type, or progressive
— a deviation towards a new type, the effect is
the same, and certain individuals must occur
which depart in some way or other from the
accepted normal type. This being so, any key,
however well constructed, will fail to correctly
148
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Ashok Captain & Sanjay Thakur: Argyrogena fasciolatus
Fig. 1: Argyrogena fasciolatus (Shaw 1802). Live aberrant snake from Maharashtra, India.
A. and C. Lateral views of head showing 9 supralabials; B. Dorsal view of head.
Plate 1
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(1), APR. 1999
149
Ashok Captain & Sanjay Thakur: Argyrogena fasciolatus
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
150
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(1) APR. 1999
Fig. 2: Argyrogena fasciolatus (Shaw, 1802). Live aberrant snake from Maharashtra, India. Dorsal view of body
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
indicate certain individual specimens. In framing
keys, one endeavours to select characters which
are found to be most stable in individuals of the
same species, so as to minimise the chances of
misleading.”
Only time will tell whether the Ghorawadi
variation is retrograde or progressive.
Acknowledgements
We thank alphabetically: N. Chaturvedi,
J.C. Daniel, “Doc” Ghate, V. Hegde,
J. Kadapatti, S. Kadapatti, A. Khaire and
N. Khaire. We also thank the Akurdi Snake Park
and Aviary for allowing us to examine all then-
banded racers.
August 28, 1 998 ASHOK CAPTAIN
117, Koregaon Park , Pune 411 001, India.
SANJAYTHAKUR
666/1, Bhoi All
Raviwar Peth,
Talegaon Dabhade 410 506,
Pune.
References
Gharpurey, K.G. (1931): Number of ventral scales in the
Fasciolated Dhaman (Z fasciolatus). J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 35: 465.
Minton, S.A. (1966): A contribution to the herpetology of
West Pakistan. Bull. American Mus. nat. Hist. 134(2):
27-184.
Smith, M.A. (1943): The fauna of British India, Ceylon
and Burma, including the whole of the Indo-Chinese
sub-region. Reptiliaand Amphibia. Vol. lll.-Serpentes.
Taylor and Francis, London.
Wall, F. (1907): Some new Asian snakes. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 17: 612-618.
18. BUFO VIRIDIS W JAIPUR DISTRICT, RAJASTHAN
( With one plate)
During the rainy season, in July 1995, a
large number of newly hatched larvae were
collected from a temporary pool and juvenile
toads were collected from the grass near the pool
and from nearby fields, in sand, crevices, and
under pebbles from various localities in Jaipur
dist., Rajasthan. It was identified at BNHS as
Bufo viridis, which has been reported earlier from
Jammu & Kashmir, north and west of Punjab
and Gujarat and now for the first time from Jaipur
(Rajasthan).
Bufo viridis, a handsome toad, commonly
known as the green toad, grows to a length of
73.5 mm to 98 mm (head to vent). Snout pointed
and black, eyes prominent, tympanum distinct.
First finger longer than the second, toes
about 2/3 webbed, heels do not meet when the
legs are folded at right angles to the body, two
shovel-shaped metatarsal tubercles are present.
Skin slightly loose laterally, an inverted V-shaped
glandular ridge present between the shoulders,
a row of white tubercles present along the outer
aspect of the forearm and hind limbs, ventrally
the skin is glandular.
Body grey, with dark green marbling with
reddish centres. Lips, limbs (fore and hind) and
toes are barred. Colour of the ventrum white, but
throat and chest stippled with brown.
A burrowing species, it is rarely seen above
ground except during the breeding season. These
toads are excellent burrowers in loose soil, using
their powerful metatarsal tubercles to burrow
quickly and disappear underground. While
burrowing, the soil is dislodged by sideways
movements of the legs, and the animal subsides
into the ground; the eyes disappear last, leaving
no trace above of its presence. The toads move
with slow hops and are very feeble swimmers.
They can climb well, doing so over grass in a
curious manner, with the help of the pads present
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(1), APR. 1999
151
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
at the bases of the 1st and 2nd fingers, while 3rd
and 4th fingers help in gripping.
In captivity, they have the peculiar habit
of resting all together in a jumbled heap.
Just after hatching tadpoles were collected
in large numbers from temporary rain water pools
in various localities in Jaipur dist. The tadpoles
were small, ranging from 3-4 mm in length. Head
and body flat and oval in shape, snout rounded,
nostrils small and circular and situated
approximately half way between the eye and the
tip of snout. Gill situated at some considerable
distance behind the eye.
The mouth is terminal as compared to the
tadpoles of Bufo stomaticus , where it is ventral.
The dental formula is 1: 1+1/3, the lower row on
the upper lip is clearly interrupted. Teeth small
and black, very small and feebly developed on
the 3rd row of the lower lip. The lower beak
almost V-shaped, upper beak convex and
minutely denticulated.
Tail long, twice as long as the head and
the body, bluntly pointed and has well developed
dorsal and ventral fins. The dorsal fin membrane
starts from the posterior extremity of the body
and rises gradually. The tadpoles are bottom
dwellers.
Colour dorsally dark, mottled with green and
red circular patches. Dark pigments are also present
on the axial fleshy region of the tail. Ventral surface
colourless. Forearms, hand, fingers, thigh, shank,
tarsus, foot and toes are barred. A fully grown
tadpole measures 30-40 mm.
Development is rapid, being completed
within 20-24 days. Metamorphosed toadlets
measure approximately 10 mm from snout to
vent.
August 19, 1998 SAROJ SAXENA
Department of Zoology,
University of Rajasthan,
Jaipur-302 004, Rajasthan.
19. FOUR NEW RECORDS AND CHECKLIST OF AMPHIBIANS
FROM MAHARASHTRA
The amphibian fauna of Maharashtra has
been reported by Daniel (1974) in the
Maharashtra State Gazetteer. He has listed 22
species. In 1976, Yazdani and Mahabal reported
1 1 species from Pune. Later, Ravichandran and
Pillai (1990), who worked on the amphibian
collection at the Western Regional Station,
Zoological Survey of India, Pune raised the number
of species from Maharashtra to twenty-nine.
In August, 1995 during an amphibian
survey along the Western Ghats in south
Maharashtra, I recorded 17 species including
four, namely Limnonectes brevipalmata, Rana
curtipes, Philautus leucorhinus and
Rhacophorus malabaricus, which were not
reported hitherto from Maharashtra. The details
of collection, morphometry and field notes of
the newly recorded species are summarized
below.
Limnonectes brevipalmata (Peters 1871)
Material: (1) 1 exp. BNHS 2989; Koyna
(550 m), Satara dist., Maharashtra; 16.viii.1995.
(2) 4 exp. BNHS 3025, 3039-304 1 ; Amboli (750
m), Sindhudurg dist., Maharashtra; 26.viii.1995.
Measurements: Snout-vent length 46.30-
53.60 mm; Head length 15.30-16.95 mm; Head
width 15.60-17.45 mm; Tibia length 26.65-30.63
mm. All the specimens with vertebral streak.
Field notes: The individual from Koyna
was picked up from the short-grass patch in a
nursery, whereas the specimens from Amboli
were collected from a stone heap in the middle
of a big man-made tank with 1 5 cm of water in
semi-evergreen forest.
Rana curtipes Jerdon 1853
Material: 1 exp. BNHS 3038; Amboli
152
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Saroj Saxena: Bufo viridis
Plate 1
The green toad Bufo viridis recorded for the first time in Jaipur dist. Rajasthan.
A. Lateral view; B. Dorsal view.
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(1). APR. 1999
153
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
(750 m), Sindhudurg dist., Maharashtra;
26.viii.1995.
Measurements: Snout- vent length 60.15
mm; Head length 25.40 mm; Head width 25.1
mm; Tibia length 28.70 mm.
Field notes: The specimen was collected
from the damp cement floor of a man-made tank
with decayed leaf litter in semi-evergreen forest.
Philautus leucorhinus
(Lichtenstein and Martens 1856)
Material: (1) 2 exp. (2 males); BNHS
2998-2999; Koyna (550 m), Satara dist.,
Maharashtra; 17.viii.1995. (2) 3 exp. (3 males);
BNHS 3013-3015; Kalammawadi (650 m) 10 km
from Radhanagari, Kolhapur dist., Maharashtra;
22.viii.1995. (3) 2 exp. (1 male, 1 female); BNHS
3021-3022; Amboli (750 m), Sindhudurg dist.,
Maharashtra; 25.viii.1995.
Measurements: Snout-vent length of
adult female 39.90 mm; Head length 12.05 mm;
Head width 12.6 mm; Tibia length 17.5 mm.
Snout-vent length of adult males 29.5 mm; Head
length 10.15-11.3 mm; Head width 11.3-12.5
mm; Tibia length 15.3-16.5 mm.
Field notes: All the specimens, except
one, were collected from the branches and leaves
of shrubs growing to a height of 2 m. One
individual was taken from a tree trunk, 1 m from
the ground. Frogs of this species were heard
calling in chorus after sunset in the forest, along
with the related species Philautus bombayensis,
but these two species could be differentiated by
their calls in the field. The male and female from
Amboli were collected while they were in
amplexus. The amplexus was axillary. The pair
was kept in a jar to continue their mating. The
female laid 58 whitish, spherical eggs which
measured 2.5 mm in diameter.
Rhacophorus malabaricus Jerdon 1870
Material: 5 exp. BNHS 3042-3046;
Amboli (750 m), Sindhudurg dist., Maharashtra;
26.viii.1995.
Measurements: Snout-vent length 55.6
to 63.1 mm; Head length 18.2-20.5 mm;
Head width 14.45-20.4 mm; Tibia length
29.6-32.6 mm; width of toe pad 3.45-4.20 mm.
Field notes: All the frogs were collected
in the night at 2010 h. from the branches of a
tree, about 5 m above ground level, in semi-
evergreen forest. The frogs were highly
camouflaged among the colour and shape of the
leaves. The tadpoles were found in the forelimb
stage, in a man-made tank near the tree from
where adult frogs were collected.
The distribution of Limnonectes
brevipalmata and Rana curtipes has been
described as Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka.
The bush frog Philautus leucorhinus has been
collected so far from Kerala, Karnataka and Goa,
whereas the Malabar gliding frog Rhacophorus
malabaricus has been recorded from Tamil Nadu,
Kerala, Karnataka and Goa (Sekar 1991). There
is no record of these four species from
Maharashtra so far, and this is the first report.
Based on the two lists provided by Daniel
(1974) and Yazdani and Mahabal (1976) and
their work on the ZSI collection, Ravichandran
and Pillai (1990) reported 29 species of
amphibians from Maharashtra. However, the
species list requires some addition and deletion.
Limnonectes syhadrensis , which was
recorded from Nasik, Maharashtra was not
included in the previous lists. L. syhadrensis
described by Annandale (1919), was treated as
one of the varietals of Limnonectes limnocharis
(Boulenger 1920). For this reason, Daniel (1974)
did not include it in the list of amphibia of
Maharashtra. In 1974, Dubois separated this
species from L. limnocharis (Frost 1985).
Though the Caecilian lchthyophis
bombayensis (Taylor 1960) was reported from
Maharashtra by Dutta ( 1 992), it was not recorded
from Maharashtra in the present study. The
species is known only from the type locality
Waghai, Surat Dangs, in Gujarat (Frost 1985).
With the available information and the results
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(1), APR. 1999
155
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
of the present survey, an updated species list of
the amphibian fauna of Maharashtra, comprising
of 2 orders, 6 families, 17 genera and 34 species,
has been prepared according to the new
classification (Dutta 1992).
UPDATED SPECIES LIST OF AMPHIBIANS OF
MAHARASHTRA
ORDER: APODA
1. family: Ichthyophiidae Taylor 1968
1 . Genus Ichthyophis Fitzinger 1826
I. Ichthyophis subterrestris Taylor 1960
2. family: Caeciliidae Gray 1825
2. Genus Indotyphlus Taylor 1960
2. Indotyphlus battersbyi Taylor 1960
ORDER: ANURA
3. family: Bufonidae Gray 1825
3. Genus Ansonia Stoliczka 1870
3. Ansonia kamblei Ravichandran 1992
4. Genus Bufo Laurenti 1758
4. Bufo melanostictus Schneider 1799
5. Bufo beddomii Gunther 1875
6. Bufo stomaticus Liitken 1862
7. Bufo parietalis Boulenger 1882
8. Bufo microtympanum Boulenger 1882
9. Bufo koynayensis Soman 1963
4. family: Microhylidae Gunther 1859
5. Genus Microhyla Tschudi 1838
10. Microhyla ornata
(Dumeril and Bibron 1841)
II. Microhyla rubra (Jerdon 1854)
6. Genus Uperodon Dumeril and Bibron 1841
12. Uperodon globulosus (Gunther 1864)
7. Genus Ramanella Rao and Ramanna 1925
13. Ramanella montana (Jerdon 1854)
14. Ramanella variegata (Stoliczka 1872)
5. family: Ranidae Gray 1825
8. Genus Euphlyctis Fitzinger 1843
15. Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis
(Schneider 1799)
16. Euphlyctis hexadactylus (Lesson 1834)
9. Genus Hoplobatrachus
17. Hoplobatrachus tigerinus
(Daudin 1803)
10. Genus Limnonectes Fitzinger 1843
18. Limnonectes limnocharis
(Boie in: Wiegmann 1835)
19. Limnonectes brevipalmata (Peters 1871)
20. Limnonectes keralensis Dubois 1890
2 1 . Limnonectes syhadrensis
(Annandale 1919)
11. Genus Indirana Laurent 1986
22. Indirana beddomii (Gunther 1875)
23. Indirana leithii (Boulenger 1888)
12. Genus Rana Linnaeus 1758
24. Rana malabarica Tschudi 1838
25. Rana curtipes Jerdon 1853
26. Rana temporalis (Gunther 1864)
13. Genus Tomopterna Dumeril and
Bibron 1841
27. Tomopterna breviceps
(Schneider 1799)
28. Tomopterna rufescens (Jerdon 1854)
14. Genus Nyctibatrachus Boulenger 1882
29. Nyctibatrachus humayuni Bhaduri
and Kripalani 1955
6. family: Rhacophoridae Hoffman 1932
15. Genus Philautus Gistel 1848
30. Philautus glandulosus (Jerdon 1853)
31. Philautus leucorhinus
(Lichtenstein and Martens 1856)
32. Philautus bombayensis
(Annandale 1919)
16. Genus Polypedates Tschudi 1838
33. Polypedates maculatus (Gray 1834)
17. Genus Rhacophorus Kuhl and
Van Hasselt 1822
34. Rhacophorus malabaricus
Jerdon 1870
Acknowledgement
I thank Dr. Jay Samant, former director.
156
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
BNHS for encouragement, Mr Vithoba Hegde
for assistance in the field, BNHS for financial
assistance and the forest officials in Satara,
Kolhapur and Sindhudurg forest division for
their kind cooperation.
September 17, 1996 ALOYSIUS G. SEKAR
Herpetology Section,
Bombay Natural History Society,
Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,
Mumbai 400 023
References
Annandale, N. (1919): The fauna of certain small streams
in the Bombay Presidency. Rec. Ind. Mus. 16: 1 09-
161.
Boulenger, C.A. (1920): A monograph of the South Asia,
Papuan, Melanesian and Australian frogs of the genus
Rana. Rec. Ind. Mus. 20: 1-226.
Daniel, J.C. (1974): Fauna in Maharashtra State
Gazetteers. Edited by B.G. Kunte. Govt, of
Maharashtra, pp 1-423.
Dutta, S.K. (1992): Amphibians of India: Updated species
list with distribution record. Hamadryad 17: 1-13.
Frost, D.R. (1985): Amphibian species of the World. Allan
Press Inc. and The Association of Systematics
Collection, Lawrence, Kansas, pp 732.
Ravichandran, M.S. & R.S. Pillai (1990): Amphibia of
Maharashtra with description of a new species of
Torrent toad, Ansonia. Rec. Zool. Surv. India 86(3 &
4): 505-513.
Sekar, A.G. (1991 ): Distribution of the Amphibian fauna
of India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 88: 125-127.
Yazdani,G.M. & A. Mahabal(1976): Amphibia of Poona.
Newl. Zool. Surv. India 2(4): 138-139.
20. RANGE EXTENSION IN UPERODON GLOBULOSUS (GUNTHER 1864)
IN ASSAM
Uperodon globulosus (Gunther 1864) is a
fossorial microhylid occurring in India and
Bangladesh (Inger and Dutta 1986, Khan 1982).
In India, it is distributed in Assam, West Bengal,
Orissa, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh,
Karnataka and Goa (Daniel 1963, Inger and
Dutta 1986, Dutta 1997). In Assam, it was
reported from Kamrup, Nalbari, Barpeta and
Kokrajhar districts (Chanda 1994, Sengupta
unpublished data).
On June 6, 1998 a pair of Uperodon
globulosus were collected from Biswanath Plain
(93° 25' E and 26° 45' N, Sonitpur dist., at 2015
h. from a low-lying temporary waterlogged
grassland around a perennial pond. Both were
mature females (SVL 6.7 and 6.9 cm). These
Refer
Chanda, S.K. (1994): Anura (Amphibian) of North Eastern
India. Mem. Zool. Surv. India 8: 1-143.
Daniel, J.C. ( 1 963): Field guide to the amphibians of Western
India. Part II. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 60: 690-702.
Dutta, S.K. (1997): Amphibians of India & Sri Lanka
(Checklist & Bibliography). Odyssey Publishing
represent a range extension by ca. 135 km
northeast, the previous easternmost point of
distribution being Mandakata (91° 47' E, 26° 17'
N) in Kamrup dist. In Assam, the species is found
along the floodplain from Kokrajhar dist., upto
Sonitpur dist., on the north bank of the
Brahmaputra, and only a single record (Chanda
1994) — Jalukbari has been reported from the
south bank.
August 2 1 , 1 998 P. CHOUDHURY
M. BARUAH
S. SENGUPTA
Zoology Department,
Ary a Vidyapeeth College,
Guwahati-781'016. Assam.
ENC ES
House, Bhubaneswar, Orissa.
Inger, R.F. & S.K. Dutta (1986): An overview of the
amphibian fauna of India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
83: 135-146.
Khan, M.A.R. (1982): Wildlife of Bangladesh. A. checklist.
University of Dhaka, Bangladesh.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
157
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
21. EUPHLYCTIS HEXADACTYLUS ( LESSON) FEEDING ON
XENOCHROPHIS PISCATOR (SCHNEIDER)
Unlike other adult amphibians, the Indian
green frog Euphlyctis hexadactylus (Lesson) is the
only known folivore (Das 1 995). The principal diet
includes aquatic macrophytes, Mollusca,
Arthropoda, and among Chordata, fish and
amphibians (Das 1995, 1996). There are reports
of other frogs ( Polypedates maculatus) feeding on
a juvenile Hemidactylus frenatus (Das 1996).
On November 12, 1997, while conducting
an amphibian survey along the Kodungarai River
in Anaikatty on the border of Tamil Nadu and
Kerala states, I observed an adult Euphlyctis
hexadactylus feeding on a checkered keelback
snake Xenochrophis piscator (approx. 0.3 m in
size). It took the frog about 3 minutes to swallow
the prey.
I thank the Gerald Durrell Memorial Fund
of the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, UK,
for funds for the amphibian project, and
Kaliswamy for his help in the field.
June 1 , 1 998 BRI J KISHOR GUPTA
Coimbatore Zoological Park &
Conservation Centre
Pioneer House ', Peelamedu
Coimbatore 641 004, Tamil Nadu.
References
Das, I. ( 1 995): Folivory and seasonal changes in diet in Das, I.( 1 996): Resource use and foraging tactics in a south
Rana hexadactyla (Anura: Ranidae). J. Zool., Lond. Indian amphibian community. J. South Asian nat. Hist.
258 : 785-794. 2(1): 1-30.
22. FIRST RECORD OF HOPLOBATRACHUS CRASSUS (JERDON 1853)
FROM NORTH EASTERN REGION IN ASSAM AND ARUNACHAL PRADESH
( With one text-figure)
Hoplobatrachus crassus was originally
known as Rana crassa (Jerdon). Dutta
(AMPHIBIANS OF INDIA AND SRI LANKA CHECKLIST
and bibliography, 1997) gave the distribution as
Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Tamilnadu (Madurai
dist., Madras: Mamallapuram), Karnataka, Uttar
Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal
(Midnapur dist.), Orissa (throughout coastal
districts).
We record its occurrence in the North
Eastern Region of India. Two male specimens
were collected from swampy areas in Chessa
(27° 10' N lat, 93° 40' E long.), Papumpare dist.,
Arunachal Pradesh, situated at 500 m above msl.
Two male and four female specimens
were collected from Gahpur (26° 3T N lat, 92°
2 1' E long.), Sonitpur dist., Assam, at 200 m above
msl.
The specimens have been deposited at
Cotton College Museum (CCM). Specimen nos.
CCM 628-1 male, CCM 628-2 male, CCM 628-
3 female, CCM 628-4 female, CCM 628-5 male,
CCM 628-6 female, CCM 628-7 female. One
specimen is deposited at BNHS Museum,
identification confirmed by BNHS, Mumbai by
letter of ref. no. 100/98.
Description: Dorsal surface of male dark
with black spots. Ventral surface creamy white
with black patches on the throat region. Dorsal
surface of female brown with chocolate brown
spots. Ventral surface creamy white with dark
patches on the throat region.
Measurements (in cm) - Snout- vent length
4-8.1, Head length 1.4-2. 6, width 1.3-2. 6;
Length of snout 0.7- 1.4, Maximum length of
eye 0.4-0. 9, Interorbital space 0.25-0.6, Length
158
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Fig. 1 : Male and female specimens of Hoplobatrachus crassus (Jerdon 1853)
of arm 1.7-3. 8, Tympanum 0.35-0.7, Length of
hand 0.83-1.6, 1st finger 0.5-0. 8, second finger
0.4-0. 7, 3rd finger 0.6- 1.1, 4th finger 0.3-0. 6,
Length of leg 5.5-1 1.0, Length of Tibia 1. 8-3.0,
Length of Foot 0.85-3.6, 1st Toe 0.25-0.5, 2nd
Toe 0.4-0. 7, 3rd Toe 0.65-1.1, 4th Toe 0.95-2.3,
Fifth Toe 0.7- 1.1. Tibiotarsal articulation
reaches tympanum.
H. crassus shares a common habitat with
H. tigerinus (Daudin 1803).
Acknowledgement
We thank the G.B. Pant Institute of
Himalayan Environment and Development,
Almora for financial support.
June 22, 1 998 S. C. BORDOLOI
MOHINI MOHAN BORA
Ecological Laboratory \
Department of Zoology, Cotton College,
Guwahati-781 001., Assam.
23. DISTRIBUTION OF FISH IN THE MANJESWARAM RIVER,
KASARAGOD (KERALA)
Distribution of freshwater fishes of
northern Kerala, north of the Palghat Gap, was
studied by various workers in the past (Raj an
1955,Mukerji 1931, Rema Devi andlndra 1986).
Recently Shaji and Easa (1997) reported on the
hill stream fishes of the Kerala portion of Nilgiri
Biosphere Reserve. However, there has been no
record of the fish fauna of the rivers flowing
through Kasaragod dist., Kerala.
The Manjeswaram river, one of the smaller
rivers in Kerala, was surveyed during October-
November 1997. This river originates at 60 m
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(1), APR. 1999
159
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
above msl, from the shrub-covered hills situated
at the northern border of Kerala, in Kasaragod
dist. This river has a length of 16 km and a
catchment area of 90 sq. km, width of about
10-50 m and depth. 2-9 m. The bottom is sandy
or muddy in most parts.
Collections were made, using cast net, gill
net and scoop net of varying mesh size. A total
of 20 species representing 1 1 families were
collected, as listed below:
FAMILY ANGUILLIDAE
1 . Anguilla bengalensis bengalensis (Gray)
FAMILY CYPRINIDAE
Subfamily - Cyprininae
2. Puntius amphibius (Val.)
3. P. filamentosus (Val.)
4. P. vittatus Day
Subfamily - Rasborinae
5. Danio aequipinnatus (McClelland)
6. D. malabaricus (Jerdon)
7. Parluciosoma daniconius (Ham.-Buch.)
Subfamily - Garrinae
8. Garra mullya (Sykes)
FAMILY BAGRIDAE
9. Mystus gulio (Ham.-Buch.)
10. M. armatus (Day)
FAMILY BELONIDAE
11. Xenentodon cancila (Ham.-Buch.)
FAMILY APLOCHEILIDAE
12. Aplocheilus lineatus (Val.)
FAMILY THERAPONIDAE
13. Therapon jarbua (Forskal)
FAMILY GERREIDAE
14. Gerres lucidus (Cuvier)
Mukerji, D.D. ( 1 93 1 ): On a small collection of fish from
the Bhavani river (south India). J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 35: 162-171.
Rajan, S. ( 1 955): Notes on a collection of fishes from the
FAMILY CICHLIDAE
15. Etroplus maculatus (Bloch)
16. E. suratensis (Bloch)
17. Oreochromis mossambica (Peters)
FAMILY MUGILIDAE
18. Mugil cephalus Linn.
FAMILY GOBIDAE
19. Glossogobius giuris (Ham.-Buch.)
FAMILY BELONTIDAE
Subfamily - Macropodinae
20. Macropodus cupanus (Val.)
Freshwater fish are a small part of the
biodiversity in the small rivers of Kasaragod dist.,
compared to other rivers in Kerala. This may be
because of few habitat types in this river. The
chief substratum in most parts of this river is
sand and mud. Hence Puntius amphibius,
Parluciosoma daniconius, Danio malabaricus,
Aplocheilus lineatus and Glossogobius giuris are
the most abundant and uniformly distributed
fishes in this river.
Marine species like Therapon jarbua,
Gerres lucidus and Mugil cephalus were
collected in large numbers from the river mouth
and also a few kilometres away from the sea.
A total of 20 species belonging to 1 1
families were collected from this river, most of
which are widely distributed throughout Kerala.
January 13, 1998 BIJU, C.R.
RAJU THOMAS, K.
AJITHKUMAR, C.R.
Bombay Natural History Society,
Hornbill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk,
Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,
Mumbai 400 023.
ENC ES
head waters of Bhavani river. South India. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 53(1): 45-48.
Remadevi, K. & T.J. Indra ( 1 986): Fishes of Silent Valley
Rec. Zool. Surv. India. 84(1-4): 243-257.
160
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(1) APR. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Shaji, C.P. & P.S. Easa (1997): Freshwater fish diversity Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland fishes of
in Kerala part of the Nilgiri Bisophere Reserve. Curr. India and adjacent countries. Oxford and IBH
Sci. 73(2): 180-182. Publishing Co., New Delhi.
24. OCCURRENCE OF TETRAODON TRA VANCORICUS (HORA AND NAIR)
IN THE CHALAKUDY, PERIYAR AND KECHERY RIVERS, KERALA
Malabar puffer fish (Tetraodon
travancoricus) is a small species of less than 3
cm total length. Hora and Nair (1941) reported
this species from Pamba river, Kerala. After a
long period, this species was reported again from
inundated brickyards at Pudukkad, Trichur,
Kerala (Inasu 1993). Apart from these
observations, there was no report on this fish
from other rivers in Kerala.
Distinguishing Characters: D 7-8; A 8;
P 16-18
T. travancoricus is characterised by an
oblong and laterally compressed body; arched
dorsal profile, highest at the middle of back; flat
inter-orbital space; terminal mouth that is
directed forward; nostril a hollow tube, nearly
as high as wide, only its distalmost part formed
into two very small lobes which are bent inwards,
giving a key-hole appearance to the nares.
Remarks: Specimens were collected from
Kanakkankadavu area of Chalakudy river,
Thattakad and Kalady regions of Periyar river
and Puzhakkal area of Kechery river, and this is
the first report of the species. This species was
not reported by earlier studies conducted in the
Chalakudy and Kechery rivers (Thobias 1973,
Antony 1973 and Inasu 1991).
In a study on the sexual dimorphism, Inasu
( 1 993 ) reports, all the males of this species should
Refer
Antony, A.D. ( 1 973): Systematics, ecology, bionomics and
distribution of the hill stream fishes of Trichur District.
Ph.D. thesis submitted to the Calicut University.
Inasu, N.D. (1991): Systematics and bionomics of inland
fishes of Trichur District. Ph.D.thesis submitted to the
Cochin University of Science and Technology.
Inasu, N.D. (1993): Sexual dimorphism of a freshwater
puffer fish, Tetraodon (Monoiretus) travancoricus
have a dark bluish ventral band from mouth to
the caudal region. However, we observed that the
number of males with the above mentioned
character were less than the female specimens.
Out of the 56 specimens collected from
Chalakudy river, only four specimens appeared
male. Furthermore, it appeared in large groups,
occasionally in hundreds, observed mainly
during the summer months (January to May) and
very rarely during the rainy season. Local
fishermen consider this fish as “frog tadpoles”.
The present report extends its distribution to three
more rivers in Kerala.
ACKNO W LEDG EM ENT
We thank Dr. M.O. Koshi, Principal,
Marthoma College for Women, Perumbavoor, for
laboratory facilities.
May 30, 1998 BIJU, C.R.
RAJU THOMAS, K.
AJITHKUMAR, C.R.
Bombay Natural History Society,
Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,
Mumbai 400 023.
JOHN GEORGE, M.
Zoology Department,
Marthoma College for Women,
Perumbavoor, Kerala.
:nces
Hora & Nair, collected from Trichur District, Central
Kerala J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 90: 523-524.
Hora, S.L. & K.K. Nair ( 1 94 1 ): New records of freshwater
fish from Travancore. Rec. Ind. Mus. 43: 387-393.
Thobias, M.P. ( 1 973): A study on the ecology, systematics
and bionomics of freshwater fishes in paddy fields and
rivers in Trichur District, Kerala, Ph.D. thesis submitted
to the University of Calicut.
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(1). APR. 1999
161
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
25. NEW RECORD OF SALMOSTOMA SARDINELLA (PISCES: CYPRINIDAE)
FROM MONDAI STREAM, MAHARASHTRA
( With one text-figure)
While conducting a survey on the
freshwater fishes of Maharashtra, five specimens
of Salmostoma sardinella (Cyprinidae) were
collected from Mondai stream in Satara dist.,
Maharashtra. The species has not been recorded
so far from this state.
The Mondai stream originates from
Mandhardevi hills and meets the river Neerar.
The fish was collected 1 km from Shirrai in
Satara dist. It is a moderate flowing stream.
Substrate types are small boulder (20%), gravel
(20%), cobblestones (34%) and sand (26%).
The typical features of S. sardinella are as
follows:
Body elongate and compressed. Dorsal
profile equally convex as ventral profile, caudal
deeply forked. Lateral line scales 54-56. It grows
upto 15 cm (Talwar and Jhingran 1991); in the
present collection the range is 6.5-8. 1 cm. Head
length 4.5 to 4.6 times in standard length. Body
depth 5.5 to 6 times in standard length. Colour
of live fish silvery. After preservation, dorsal part
of body pale brown; ventral part of body pale
yellow.
Valenciennes ( 1 842) described this species
from Rangoon (Burma). Day (1878) recorded it
from Irrawadi river at Rangoon. Tilak (1967)
recorded it from Poonpun river, Patna. Talwar
and Jhingran (1991) give its distribution as
Ganga, Brahmaputra drainage and Orissa. The
present record of this fish in Mondai stream
extends its distribution to Maharashtra.
Acknowledgements
We thank Prof. Madhav Gadgil, Centre for
Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science,
Bangalore, for financial assistance under Western
Ghats Biodiversity Network, Dr. K. Rema Devi,
Zoological Survey of India, Southern Regional
Station, Chennai for confirming the
identification and Dr. P.T. Cherian, Officer-in-
Charge ZSI, Southern Regional Station, Chennai
for facilities.
August 27, 1998 M. ARUNACHALAM
A. SANKARANARAYANAN
A. MANIMEKALAN
R. SORANAM
J.A. JOHNSON
Sri Paramakalyani Centre
for Environmental Sciences,
Manonmaniam Sundaranar University,
Alwarkurichi - 627 412, Tamil Nadu.
Fig. 1: Salmostoma sardinella
162
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
References
Day, F. (1878): The Fishes of India; (4th ed. 1994)
Jagmander Book Agency, New Delhi: pp 778.
Tilak, Raj ( 1 967): Distribution of a new subspecies of a
cyprinid and a new distributional record of a sciaenid
from Poonpun river, a tributary of river Ganga near
Patna (Bihar). Cheetal 20(1): 25.
Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland Fishes of
India and adjacent countries. Vol. I. Oxford & IBH,
New Delhi, India, pp 327.
Valenciennes (1842): Hist. Nat. Poiss. 17: 344.
26. EXTENSION OF RANGE OF ESOMUS THERMOICOS
(PISCES: CYPRINID AE: RASBORINAE) TO KERALA
Esomus thermoicos Valenciennes 1842 was
described from the hot springs at Kanniya, Sri
Lanka (type locality). It was thought to be
restricted to Sri Lanka until 1992, when it was
found in the Kalakad Wildlife Sanctuary,
Tirunelveli district, Tamil Nadu, India (Rema
Devi 1992). The present record of the species
from a freshwater pond adjacent to
Mangalampuzha, a tributary of Bharathapuzha,
extends its range of distribution to Kerala. The
present report is based on three specimens
averaging 85 mm SL collected during 1997.
Esomus thermoicos (Val.)
Nuria thermoicos Valenciennes 1842, Hist
nat. Poiss; 16: 238; pi. 472
Esomus thermoicos : Hora & Mukeiji 1928,
Rec. Ind. Mus; 30(1): 44.
Esomus danrica thermoicos : Munro 1955,
Marine and freshwater fishes of Ceylon: 42, pi. 7.
Distinguishing features
Di7; A iii 5; P i 13-14; V i 7.
Esomus thermoicos is a heavy bodied
species and the length of its head is nearly equal
to the depth of the body, which is about 4.4 times
in standard length and the maxillary barbels
extend nearly to the tip of the pectoral fin. Lateral
line with 32-34 scales.
Distribution: Sri Lanka; India: Kalakad
Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu and wetlands of
Kerala.
Remarks: Dr. P.E.P. Deraniyagala of the
Colombo Museum informed Dr. S.L. Hora of
Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta that no
Esomus danrica was to be found within a radius
of 300 yards of the hot springs at Kanniya, Sri
Lanka, judging from two collections of fishes
from these springs. Other fishes including the
peculiar Puntius (Barbus) thermalis were also
absent in Kanniyan springs (Talwar and Jhingran
1991).
From India, this species has so far been
reported only from Kalakad WLS, Tamil Nadu
(Rema Devi 1992). The present report extends
its distribution to Kerala.
We are grateful to Dr. K. Rema Devi,
Scientist, ZSI, Southern Regional Station,
Chennai, for confirming our identification of the
species.
February 14, 1998 RAJU THOMAS, K.
BIJU C.R.
AJITHKUMAR C.R.
Bombay Natural Histoiy Society',
Hornbill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk,
Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,
Mumbai 400 023.
References
Remadevi, K. (1992): Fishes of Kalakad Wildlife Sanctuary, Tirunelveli district, Tamil Nadu, India, with a redescription
of Horalabiosa joshuai Silas. Rec. Zool. Surv. India, 92(1-4 ): 193-209.
Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland fishesof India and adjacent countries. Oxford & IBH. New Delhi.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(1), APR. 1999
163
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
27. SEXUAL DIMORPHISM IN CAT FISH OMPOK BIMACULATUS (BLOCH)
( With two text-figures )
cm
Fig. 1: Ompok bimaculatus (Bloch): a. male; b. female.
The study of sexual dimorphism is
important in taxonomy, bionomics and
reproductive biology. It is also significant in
biodiversity assessments. This paper deals with
sexual dimorphism in an edible cat fish Ompok
bimaculatus (Bloch).
The genus Ompok (Lacepede) has three
species: Ompok bimaculatus (Bloch) O. pabda
(Hamilton) O. pabo (Hamilton).
Thobias (1974) reported on the sexual
dimorphism of the filament barb Puntius
filamentosus (Val.). Inasu (1993) observed sexual
dimorphism in a freshwater puffer fish,
Tetraodon travancoricus Hora and Nair. Tessy
and Inasu (1997) worked out the sexual
dimorphism of an edible perch, Priacanthus
hamrur (Cuv. and Val.).
Twenty adult specimens were collected
from Muriyad (Kole land) and Nedumbal (Kole
land) of the inland waters of Trichur dist., during
June-September 1997. The body cavity of each
fish was cut open and the gonads were exposed.
Specimens with testes and those with ovaries
were separated. Morphological differences
between the two groups were studied and
illustrated.
Distinct sexual dimorphism is present in
Ompok bimaculatus (Bloch). Females are nearly
twice as long and five times heavier than males
of the same age group (Fig. 1 a, b). Dorsal profile
of the head of the male has a clear downward
slope, but is more or less straight in the female
(Fig. la, b). A conspicuous, wide, crescent-
shaped groove is present on the ventral side of
the head in female, but absent in male (Fig 2a, b).
The lateral line in the female has a downward
bend at the middle of the body, while it is straight
in male in the middle portion and slopes
downwards only near the operculum (Fig. la,
b). Eyes of the female bulge conspicuously, while
104
JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(1 ) APR. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
MORPHOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE MALE AND FEMALE OF
OMPOK BIMACULA TUS (BLOCH)
Fig. 2: Ompok bimaculatus (Bloch) ventral view of head: a. female; b. male
the male has very small eyeballs. (Fig. la, b).
The maxillary barbels in female do not extend
beyond the pectorals, while in males they extend
beyond the pectorals (Fig. la, b). Central rays of
the caudal fin in female have dark longitudinal
stripes, but these are absent in males. The entire
skin of the female is darker than that of the male.
Sexual dimorphism in fishes is exhibited
in size and weight. In some fishes, the males are
larger than females of the same age group, but
in others the females are larger. Inasu (1993)
observed that males are larger than females of
the same age group in Tetraodon travancoricus
Hora and Nair, while Tessy and Inasu (1997)
observed that in the edible perch Priacanthus
hamrur (Cuv. and Val.) females are more than
twice as large and heavy as males of the same
age group. In Ompok bimaculatus (Bloch), the
female is more or less twice as large and five
times heavier than males of the same age group.
We thank Rev. Fr. Jose Chittilappilly,
Principal, Christ College, Irinjalakuda for giving
facilities to conduct this study. We are also
grateful to Sri Thankappan (fisherman, Muriyad)
for specimens.
May 24,1998 MOLLY KURI AN
INASU. N.D.
Research & P. G. Dept, of Zoology ,
Christ College, Irinjalakuda , Kerala.
References
Inasu, N.D. (1993): Sexual dimorphism of a fresh water puffer fish, Tetraodon travancoricus Hora & Nair, collected
from Trichur district, Central Kerala. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 90 (3): 523-524.
Tessy J. Mandy & N.D. Inasu (1997): Sexual dimorphism of an edible Perch, Priacanthus hamrur (Cuv. & Val.).
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 95(1): 132-134.
Thobias, M.P. (1974): Observations on the morphological variations in Puntius filamentosus (Val.) Family Cyprinidae
with a redescription of the species. Jour, inland Fish. Soc. India pp. 45-50.
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
165
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
28. MACROSPINOSA CUJA (HAM.-BUCH.) A NEW RECORD FROM KERALA
Sciaenid fishes are an important fishery
resource in the warm coastal waters and estuaries
of the world. Many species use the estuarine
environment as a nursery and feeding ground
for the young; they also ascend rivers but do not
live there permanently. 20 genera of the family
Sciaenidae are recorded from the Indian region,
of which 1 1 genera inhabit inland waters (Talwar
and Jhingran 1991).
Macrospinosa cuja (Ham.-Buch.)
Bola cuja Ham.-Buch. 1822, Fishes of
Ganges: 81, 369, pi. 12, fig. 27 (type locality:
estuaries of Ganges).
Sciaena cuja Day, 1876 Fishes of India:
187; Day, 1889, Fauna of British India, Fishes,
2: 115.
Macrospinosa cuja Talwar, Fauna of India,
Pisces: (in press), fig. 3.
Distinguishing features: D X-XI + I 27-
29; All 6-7; PI 17; V 15.
Body elongate with a rather blunt snout;
snout profile evenly decurved in young, flatter
over eyes with age, profile then rising steeply to
occiput and highly arched back. Dorsal fin deeply
notched, second to fourth spines with stout bases,
third spine longest. Second anal spine robust.
Caudal fin rhomboid. It can be easily identified
by the presence of a series of oblique, dark scales
above the lateral line and faintly horizontal
streaks below the lateral line.
Distribution: India: Gangetic estuary,
lower reaches of Chalakudy river (Kerala).
Remarks: From India, Macrospinosa cuja
has so far been reported only from the Gangetic
estuary. From the erstwhile Travancore, seven
other species of the family Sciaenidae were
reported, but not M. cuja, (Pillai 1929). Three
species of the genus Sciaena were recorded from
Malabar region (Day 1865). Earlier studies
conducted in Kerala did not report M. cuja from
fresh waters of Kerala. Specimens collected from
Kanakkankadavu area, Emakulam dist., in the
Chalakudy river extends the range of
Macrospinosa cuja to central Kerala.
Kanakkandavu is located near the confluence of
Periyar and Chakaludy rivers less than 40 m
above msl and 19 km away from the sea coast.
Chalakudy and Mangalapuzha, a branch
of Periyar river, join at Elanthikara, where tidal
influence can be noticed in Chalakudy river.
Before it joins with the Periyar river, a temporary
sand bund is constructed near Kanakkankadavu,
mainly to prevent the mixing of salt water and
fresh water. During the rainy season this bund
breaks and fresh water mixes with the sea water,
facilitating the migration of marine fishes. The
present collection was taken from the freshwater
side of the river. Hence, it can be concluded that
this fish may migrate to the fresh water during
the rains for breeding and feeding and may be
trapped there when the bund is constructed.
The present observation also showed the survival
of this fish in fresh water with very little trace of
salinity. The type locality of M. cuja is the
estuary of River Ganges. 9 sciaenid fishes have
so far been recorded from Malabar and
Travancore areas of Kerala. This is the first
record of this species from the fresh waters of
Kerala.
Acknowledgements
We thank the local fishermen who helped
to collect specimens and Dr. K. Remadevi,
Scientist, ZSI, Regional Station, Chennai, for
confirmation of identification.
May 30, 1998 BIJU, C.R.
RAJU THOMAS, K.
AJITHKUMAR, C.R.
Bombay Natural History Society
Hornbill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk,
Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,
Mumbai-400 023.
166
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
References
Day, F. (1865): The fishes of Malabar. Bernard Quaritch. London.
Pillai, R.S.N. (1929): A list of fishes from Travancore. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 33: 347-379.
Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland fishes of India and adjacent countries. Oxford and 1BH, New Delhi.
29. NEW RECORD OF STIGMATOGOBIUS OLIGACTIS (BLEEKER) FROM INDIA
(With one text-figure)
One specimen of Stigmatogobius oligactis
(Bleeker) was collected from Dhom reservoir of
Satara dist., Maharashtra. Dhom reservoir is a
man-made impoundment across the Krishna and
Vaitali rivers. This species is not recorded
anywhere in India by earlier workers. Hence it
is a new record for India.
Day (1878) Hora and Misra (1942), Suter
(1944), Kulkami and Ranade (1974), Jeyaram
(1981), Talwar and Jhingran (1991), Ghate and
Pawar ( 1 992), Menon ( 1 992) do not mention this
species. Extralimitally, Weber and Beaufort
(1953) recorded it from rivers of Java.
Habitat : The substrate is mixed with sand
and boulders.
Diagnostic features: Body elongate,
anteriorly cylindrical, posteriorly compressed.
Head depressed. Snout convex, tongue bilobate.
Head scaled above, behind the eye, and laterally
oh opercle with large cycloid scales. Head with
crowded blackish spots on lateral sides.
Measurements of specimen: Total length
4.5 cm, Standard length 3.6 cm. Head length
1.2 cm, Head width 0.7 m, Eye diameter 0.3 cm,
Body depth 0.7 cm, Snout length 0.3 cm. Mouth
width 0.6 cm. Predorsal scales 10. Lateral line
scales 29. Depth of caudal peduncle 0.4 cm.
Dorsal fin D1 VI; D2 i/6, A i/6, Pectoral fin 18.
Acknowledgements
We thank Prof. Madhav Gadgil, Centre for
Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science,
Bangalore, for financial assistance under Western
Ghats Biodiversity Network; Dr. K. Rema Devi,
Zoological Survey of India, Southern Regional
Station, Chennai for confirming identifica-
tion and Dr. P.T. Cherian, Officer-in-Charge,
ZSI, Southern Regional Station, Chennai fcr
facilities.
August 27, 1998 M. ARUNACHALAM
A. SANKARANARAYANAN
R. SORANAM
J.A. JOHNSON
A. MANIMEKALAN
Sri Paramakalyani Centre for
Environmental Sciences
Manonmaniam Sundaranar University
Alwarkurichi-627 412. Tamilnadu.
Fig. 1: Stigmatogobius oligactis (Bleeker)
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
167
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Refer enc es
Day, F. (1878): The fishes of India; (4th ed. 1994)
Jagmander Book Agency, New Delhi, pp. 778.
Ghate, H.V. & V.M. Pawar(1992): Fish Fauna of the River
Neera near Veer Dam, Pune: A preliminary Note.
Proceedings of 1st Nat. Sym. On Central hydraulics:
118-121.
Hora, S.L. & K.S. Misra (1942): Fish of Poona-II. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 43 (2): 218-225.
Jeyaram, K.C. (1981): The freshwater fishes of India,
Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma and Sri Lanka. Hand
book Zoological Survey of India, pp. xii 475.
Kulkarni, C. V. & M.R. Ranade ( 1 974): Fauna Gazette of
India: Chapter I Maharashtra State.
Menon, A.G.K. ( 1 992): Conservation of freshwater fishes
of Peninsular India, unpubl. rep. Ministry of
Environment and Forests, Govt, of India pp 1 36.
Suter, M. (1944): New records of fish from Poona. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 44(3): 408-414.
Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland fishes of
India and adjacent countries. Oxford & IBH Publishing
Co., Pvt. Ltd. Vol. I. pp 327.
Weber, M. & L.F. de. Beaufort (1953): The Fishes of the
Indo-Australian Archipelago. Leiden, E.J. Perill Ltd.,
A.J. Prints Agency, New Delhi.
30. NEW LARVAL FOOD PLANTS OF THE TAILED JAY BUTTERFLY
GRAPHIUM AGAMEMNON LINN. , PAPILIONIDAE
The Tailed Jay butterfly is an inhabitant
of urban areas and can be seen throughout the
day, flying in the vicinity of its larval food plants.
On Sept. 11, 1997, I noticed a caterpillar of the
Tailed Jay on the leaf of a tree. A branch of the
tree was collected and was later identified as
Artabotrys hexapetalus (Linn.), locally known
as Hirva champa. It is a large climbing shrub,
commonly grown in gardens for its fragrant
flowers. While working on butterflies at the
Borivli National Park, I had also seen many
caterpillars of this species on a Polyalthia
cerasoides tree growing on the periphery of the
park.
The caterpillar of the Tailed Jay, according
to Sevastopulo (\913)JBNHS 70(1): 156-183 are
known to feed on Saccopetalum tomentosum,
Annona muricata, A. squamosa, A. discolor, A.
reticulata, Polyalthia longifolia, all belonging
to Family Annonaceae; Michelia champaca
Family Magnoliaceae, and Cinnamomum of the
Family Lauraceae.
November 17, 1997 NARESH CHATURVEDI
Bombay Natural History Society,
Hornbill House, Dr. Scilim Ali Chowk,
Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,
Mumbai 400 023.
3 1 . BLACK RAJAH CHARAXES FABIUS ATTRACTED TO LIGHT
IN TADOB A NATIONAL PARK
Hundreds of species of insects are known
to be attracted to light. However, this attraction
is little known in butterflies, which are usually
diurnal.
Thome (1960) published his observations
on North American butterflies attracted to light.
Donahue (1962) recorded butterflies attracted to
light in India, and mentioned that further
observations and experimentation will
undoubtedly help in the interpretation of this
interesting phenomenon. Shull and Nadkerny
( 1 967) in a paper on “Insects attracted to Mercury
Vapour Lamp in the Surat Dangs” have reported
four species of family Nymphalidae.
The present observation was recorded
during a faunistic survey of Tadoba National Park
in December 1996, when one of us (RMS)
witnessed a somewhat baffling incident on the
night of December 6. While collecting insects
attracted to light outside Rest House No. II around
2200 h, we saw a butterfly suddenly dashing
against a tubelight. For a moment we thought it
168
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96 (J) APR. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
was either a strong flying sphingid moth or the
common Evening Brown, a regular visitor to
light. These two normally flutter for a while and
settle. Their respective flights are also unique.
But the speed with which this butterfly struck
the light source was startling. It rested for a
fraction of a second and then started moving
restlessly in the verandah at the same speed. We
finally managed to net it and to our surprise, it
was an unusual visitor to light, the Black Rajah
(Charaxes fabius ) male.
The Black Rajah is widely distributed but
rarely seen, as it flies high, and normally occurs
in forested areas near water. It visits dung, filth
or over-ripe fruits and toddy juice during the day
Refer
Donahue, J.P. (1962): Observations and Records of
Butterflies attracted to light in India. Jour. Lepid Soc.
16: 131-135.
Haribal, Meena (1992): The Butterflies of Sikkim
Himalayas and their Natural History. Sikkim Nature
Conservation Foundation (SNCF), Gangtok
time, and has never been encountered at night.
Haribal (1982) states that she has seen this
species being attracted to chemicals in the
laboratory, possibly to alcohol. Its nocturnal visit
to light is really baffling.
April 25, 1998 R.M. SHARMA
Assistant Zoologist
Zoological Survey of India
Western Region , Pune 411 004.
N. CHATURVEDI
Bombay Natural Histoiy Society,
Hornbill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk,
Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,
Mumbai 400 023.
ENCES
pp. 217.
Shull, E.M. &N.T. Nadkerny (1967): Insects attracted
to mercury vapour lamp in the Surat Dangs, Gujarat
State. / Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 64: 256-266.
Thorne, Alvin L. (1961): Lycaenopsis pseudargiolus in
light trap. Jour. Lepid Soc. 14: 242.
32. FIRST RECORD OF CASSIDA FLAVOGUTTATA SPAETH
(COLEOPTERA: CHRY SOMELID AE : CASSIDINAE) FROM
SATARA DISTRICT, MAHARASHTRA
Spaeth had described Cassida flavoguttata
in 1914 on the basis of specimens collected by
H.L. Andrews from Nilgiri Hills [the fauna of
BRITISH INDIA INCLUDING CEYLON AND BURMA.
COLEOPTERA! CHRY SOM ELI DAE (CLASSIDINAE &
Hispinae) Maulik 1919]. We have not done
extensive literature search. However, we had
access to a part of Prof. Dr. Borowiec’s ongoing
compilation on cassidine beetles of the world
and it is clear that this species has not been
reported for a long time (Prof. Lech Borowiec,
Wroclaw University, Poland, pers. comm.).
We recently came across this beautiful
beetle (late monsoon, Sep. -Oct 1 997), at a place
about 200 m from the northern part of Kas
reservoir, Kas, Satara dist. It was found in mixed
shrub vegetation and the host plant could not
be identified.
We thank Dr. M.L. Cox and Identification
Services, International Institute of Entomology
(HE), London (now CABI Bioscience UK Centre
at Egham, Surrey), for confirming the identity
of the species. We are indebted to Prof. Lech
Borowiec (Wroclaw University, Poland) for
providing valuable information on Asiatic
Cassidinae and to the authorities of Modern
College, Pune, for facilities.
August 8, 1998 NILESH RANE
RAHUL MARATHE
H.V. GHATE
Post-Graduate Research Centre,
Department of Zoology >,
Modern College,
Pune 411 005.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
169
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
33. FIRST RECORD OF COPIDOGNA THUS FA UBULI BARTSCH
(HAL AC ARID AE : ACARI) FROM THE INDIAN OCEAN
( With seven text figures )
A female specimen of Copidognathus
faubuli Bartsch, encountered among the thalli
of Halimeda opuntia from Mus Island, Nicobar
Is., is reported here for the first time from the
Indian Ocean. This species was earlier described
from Philippines by Bartsch (1986). This is also
the first report of the species outside its type
locality. A brief description is given below.
The idiosomal length is 280 pm. All dorsal
plates are separate and sculptured with rosette
pores and fovea (Fig. 1). Anterior portion of
anterodorsal plate (AD) is gable-like. Areolae
are inverted ‘Y’-shaped and present in the
anterior region of AD. The two ds? are located
in the two arms of the inverted ‘Y* -shaped
areolae present on AD and the ds2 on the
anteromedian margin of ocular plate (OC).
Posterior portion of OC tapers and extends
beyond the insertion of leg III. Four costae are
present embedded in the posterodorsal plate
(PD). Middle two costae are 2-3 pores wide, while
the paracostae are 1-2 rosette pores wide.
All ventral plates are separated by cuticular
membrane (Fig. 2). Rosette pores are present
laterally nearer the I and II coxal prominences
of anteroepimeral plate (AE). The AE bears 3
pairs of setae and posteroepimeral plate (PE) 3
ventral and 1 dorsal seta. Genitoanal plate (GA)
with paragenital areolae. Genital opening (GO)
guarded by a pair of sclerites which bear a pair
of subgenital setae (SGS) anteriorly. Three
perigenital setae (PGS) are present on each side
of the GO.
Gnathosoma stout and short, sculptured
with rosette pore ventrolaterally and canaliculi
ventromedially. Tectum is long. A pair each of
proto deuto -, trito-, and basirostral setae
present on gnathosoma (Fig. 3). Palp 4-
segmented.
Rostrum extending upto two thirds the
length of palpal telofemur. Palpal trochanter and
patella devoid of setae. Palpal telofemur bears
one dorsal seta and the palpal tibio-tarsus with 3
basal setae, besides one distal eupathidia.
Chaetotaxy of the legs I-IV is as follows:-
Trochanter 1-1 -1-1, Basifemur 2-2-2-2,
Telofemur 5-5-2-2, Patella 4-4-3-3, Tibia 7-7-5-
5. Chaetotaxy of tarsus is discussed in the text.
Telefemorae III and IV are devoid of
ventral seta. Tibiae I and II bear 3 ventral setae
(one hair- like and the other two pectinate) besides
4 dorsal setae (Figs. 4, 5). Tarsus. I bears 3 dorsal
setae, one solenidion, one profamulus besides
three ventral setae (one filiform basally, two
singlet eupathidia distally) and 4 PAS (two
doublet eupathidia). Tarsus II with 3 dorsal setae,
one solenidion and 2 PAS. Tarsi III and IV with
3 dorsal fossary and one proximodorsal seta
besides two PAS (one singlet eupathidia, one
scaliform seta) (Figs 6, 7).
All legs bear two lateral claws and one
bidentate median claw. Lateral claw of leg I is
smooth ventrally with an accessory tooth dorsally.
Lateral claws of legs II, III and IV bear an
accessory tooth dorsally and are pectinate
ventrally.
With the present record, the distribution
of the species is extended into the Indo-Pacific
region. The species occurs both in the Philippines
and Indian coast in the shallow coral reef region.
I thank Dr. Ilse Bartsch, Biologische
Anstalt Helgoland, Hamburg, Germany for
encouragement.
July 14,1997 TAPAS CHATTERJEE
Department of Biology,
Indian School of Learning,
I.S.M. Annexe, Dhanbad-826 004, Bihar.
170
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(1) APR. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Figs. 1-7: Copidognathus faubuli Bartsch: 1. Idiosoma dorsal of female; 2. Idiosoma ventral of female;
3. Gnathosoma; 4. Basifemur - Tarsus of leg I; 5. Telofemur - Tarsus of leg II;
6. Basifemur - Tarsus of leg III; 7. Leg IV.
Reference
Bartsch, I. (1986): Three new species of Copidognathus (Acari Halacaridae) from the Philippines. Philipp. Journ.
Science I 15(1): 43-54.
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
171
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
34. RANGE EXTENSION OF NEOCANCILLA CIRCULA (KIENER 1838)
( With one text-figure )
The family Mitridae is well represented
along the Indian coast. Cernohorsky (1976)
classified four subfamilies of Mitridae based on
radula and shell characters. Subba Rao and Dey
(1984) gave an excellent review of Indian
mitrids, with their distribution. Most of the data
on distribution is, however, very old.
Neocancilla circula (Kiener 1838),
formerly Mitra circula Kiener 1838, was
recorded from the south to southeast coast of
India along Pamban, Chennai (= Madras), and
Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Gravely 1942,
Satyamurti 1952, Subba Rao and Dey 1984).
None of these mention its occurrence along the
west coast. A few references to molluscan fauna
along the west coast are available (Melvill and
Abercrombie 1893, Subrahmanyam et al. 1952,
Menon et al. 1961), but none of these mention
N. circula.
A specimen of N. circula was collected
from Sasvane, Alibag (Maharashtra) during
1991-92. Subsequent surveys revealed its wide
distribution on the west coast extending from
Okha (Gulf of Kutch) to Malvan (Konkan coast,
Maharashtra). The species has also become
established along the Mumbai coast since 1992.
Fifty transects in 1991 revealed 78 individuals,
while a transect study in 1996 recorded 635
individuals from the study site.
Habitat: The species prefers rocky shores
covered abundantly with silt or mud, but it is
Refer
Cernohorsky, W.O. (1976): The Mitridae of the World
(Pt. 1), the subfamily Mitrinae. Indo-Pacific Mollusca.
3(17): 273-528.
Gravely, F.H. (1942): Shells and other remains found
on the Madras beach, Pt. 2 (Mollusca - Gastropoda).
Bull. Madras Govt. Mus. new ser. 5(2): 1-110,
17 text. figs.
Melvill, J.C. & A. Abercrombie (1893): The marine
Fig. 1: Neocancilla circula (Kiener 1838)
also found on sandy shores and mangroves.
Description: The shell is thick and spirally
ridged. Upper whorls bear three spiral ridges,
while lower whorls bear more than three. The
outer lip is crenulated. The height of the shell is
double or slightly more than that of the aperture.
Columella bears three strong folds, of which the
uppermost is the strongest. Subba Rao and Dey
(1984) mention that the columella of N. circula
bears four folds while Satyamurti (1952) records
three. In this study of 500 individuals, the
columella in all the specimens bears three folds,
thus agreeing with Satyamurti (1952).
The average measurement of the shell is
42.1 mm in length and 20.0 mm height of
aperture.
July 31,1997 DEEP AK APTE
Bombay Natural History Society,
Hornbill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk,
Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,
Mumbai 400 023.
ENCES
Mollusca of Bombay. Proc. Lit. & Phil. Soc.
Manchester.
Menon, P.K.B., Datta Gupta & Das Gupta (1961 ): On
the marine fauna of Gulf of Kutch. Pt. 2. Gastropoda.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 58(2): 475-494, pis. 10.
Satyamurti, S.T. ( 1 952): The Mollusca of Krusadai Island
(in the Gulf. of Mannar) 1- Amphineura and
Gastropoda. Bull. Madras Govt. Mus. N.S. Nat. Hist.
172
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Soc. 1(2): Pt. 6, 34 pis pp 267.
Subba Rao, N.V. & A. Dey (1986): Contributions to the
knowledge of Indian marine molluscs - 1, Family
Mitridae. Rec. Zool. Surv. India occ. paper no.
61: 1-48, 3 pis.
SUBRAHMANYAM, T.V., K.R. KARANDIKAR & N.N. MURTI
(1952): Marine Gastropoda of Bombay. Pt. 2, J. Univ.
Bombay. 21(3): 26-72, figs. 187.
35. THE GIANT AFRICAN LAND SNAIL ACHATINA FULICA BOWDICH
IN NEPAL AND BHUTAN
The giant African land snail (Achatina
fulica ) is a serious agrihorticultural pest in most
Indo-Pacific islands (Mead 1961, 1979; Raut and
Ghose 1984, Raut 1992, Srivastava 1992). Being
native to Kenya, East Africa, these snails were
available in islands adjacent to East Africa
around 1800 AD. W.H. Benson, a conchologist,
brought a pair of live adult A. fulica specimens
from Mauritius and released them in the
Chowringhee Garden, Calcutta in 1847. Within
a few years, they were common in parts of Bengal
and Bihar. They are now very common in most
Indian States (Raut and Ghose 1984),
Bangladesh, Nepal and Bhutan. The status of A.
fulica in Bangladesh was reported by Jahan and
Raut ( 1 994), but information on these snails from
Nepal and Bhutan is wanting. This note is a
report on the present status of A. fulica in Nepal
and Bhutan.
In Nepal, A. fulica is common to abundant
in almost all possible niches of Birat Nagar,
Jaleshwar and Birgunge. In Bhutan, Samchi,
Phuntsoling and Chirang are infested by these
snails. It is said that these snails have invaded
these countries from the adjacent snail-infested
areas of India and become established over the
past 6 to 7 decades.
The snails are nocturnal. They feed on
vegetable crops viz. gourd, lettuce, cabbage, bean,
etc.; fruit plants viz. papaya and cucumber and
ornamentals marigold, chrysanthemum and
American life plant. By feeding on these, they
damage the crops seriously. Kitchen gardens and
flower gardens are seriously threatened. Though
the degree of damage is influenced by the snails’
density, the seedlings of preferred food-plant
species are never spared.
With the onset of monsoon they come out
of their hiding places and start breeding. In Nepal
and Bhutan, countries, breeding starts by May
and continues upto early November. In all these
countries, the rate of egg laying is higher during
the first three-month period and the population
density gradually increases during the last three
months of the active period. During September-
November they become a serious nuisance and
health hazard. They are so numerous that every
day a person must collect a few dozen snails from
the walls, doors and lawn of his house, so as to
keep the premises clean. Besides, it becomes
practically impossible to walk on the road or
drive a car at night, without crushing the
crawling snails. Many of them are found
crawling on the water supply or tube- well pipes,
or on water tanks, thereby contaminating
drinking water.
To date, no effective control measure has
been found. Common salt is sometimes applied
on the moving snails. Bandicoot rats are seen to
feed on these snails, but it is not known whether
the rats prefer the snails’ flesh or feed on them
only under compulsion.
Acknowledgements
I thank the Head, Department of Zoology,
Calcutta University and the Director, Zoological
Survey of India, Calcutta for facilities.
August 30, 1997 S.K. RAUT
Ecology and Ethology Laboratory,
Department of Zoology,
Calcutta University,
35, B.C. Road, Calcutta 700 019.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
173
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
References
Jahan, M.S. & S.K. Raut (1994): Distribution and food
preference of the giant African land snail. Achatina
fulica Bowdich in Bangladesh. J. Asiat. Soc.
Bangladesh Sci. 20: 111-115.
Mead, A.R. (1961): The giant African snail: A problem in
economic malacology. The University of Chicago Press,
Chicago. XVII + pp 257.
Mead, A.R. (1979): Economic malacology with particular
reference to Achatina fulica: In: Pulmonates. Vol. 2B.
Vera Fretter and J. Peaks (Ed.) Academic Press,
London. IX + pp 150.
Raut, S.K. ( 1 992): Population dynamics of the pestiferous
snail Achatina fulica (Gastropoda: Achatinidae).
Malacol. Rev. 24: 79-106.
Raut, S.K. & K.C. Ghose (1984): Pestiferous land snails
of India. Technical Monograph No. 11, Zoological
Survey of India, Calcutta, pp 1 5 1 .
Srivastava, P.D. (1992): Problem of land snail pests in
agriculture (a study of the giant African snail). Concept
Publishing Co., New Delhi, pp 234.
36. LECTOTYPIFICATION OF THE HYBRID A THYRIUM x KERALENSIS
MANICKAM & IRUDAYARAJ (ATHYRIACEAE, PTERIDOPHYTA)
Athryium x keralensis Manickam &
Irudayaraj (1992) is an interspecific hybrid of
Athyrium puncticaule T. Moore and A.
solenopteris (Kunze) T. Moore. It was described
as a new hybrid based on a single gathering from
Kurusumalai (1000 m), Kerala. A detailed
description and illustration have been given by
Manickam and Irudayaraj (1992) in their book
PTERIDOPHYTE FLORA OF THE WESTERN GHATS, SOUTH
India (B.I Publications, New Delhi).
Unfortunately it was not typified. Hybrids are
largely governed by the same rules as species by
ICBN. As per the rules it is lectotyped here. There
is a single herbarium sheet which has been
entered in the field book of Rapinat Herbarium,
Tiruchirapalli (RHT 33588) and preserved in St.
Xavier’s College (XCH), Palayamkottai. It is
selected here as the lectotype of the hybrid.
Athyrium x keralensis Manickam &
Irudayaraj [Athyrium solenopteris (Kunze) T.
Moore x A. puncticaule T. Moore] pterid. fl.
W. GHATS S. INDIA, 238, PI. 185 (1992).
Lectotype: S. India, Kerala, Kurusumalai
(1000 m) Manickam, RHT 33588 (XCH!)
Acknowledgement
The author is thankful to Dr. P.K.K. Nair,
director of Environmental Resource Research
Centre, Thiruvananthapuram, for encourage-
ment.
December 29, 1 997 V. IRUDAYARAJ
Environmental Resources Research Centre,
Poomallioorkonam, P.B. No. 1230,
Peroorkada, Thiruvananthapuram 695 005.
37. CROTALAR1A GOREENSIS GUILL. & PERR. (LEGUMINOSAE)
A NEW RECORD FOR INDIA
( With six text-figures )
While investigating the flora of Dakshina
Kamiada dist. of Karnataka, I came across an
interesting, adventive species of Crotalaria near
Padubirdi, Udupi Taluka, along roadsides. After
a critical study, it was identified as C. goreensis
Guill. & Perr., a tropical African species. Since
there is no report of the species from India, a
brief description and illustrations are provided
below.
Crotalaria goreensis Guill. & Perr., Fl.
Seneg. Tent. 165. 1832; Thulin, Legumi.
Ethiopia. - Opera Bot. 68: 162. 1983.
174
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1) APR. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
C. macrostipula Steud. ex A. Rich., Tent. FI.
Abyss. 1: 153. 1847. C. goreensis subsp.
macrostipula (Steud. ex. A. Rich.) Bak. f. in
Joum. Linn. Soc., Bot. 42: 413. 1914.
An annual herb; 0.5 - 2.5 m tall; stem
densely pubescent with appressed hairs. Leaves
digitately 3-foliate; petioles up to 8 cm long;
leaflets up to 8.5 x 2.5 cm, oblanceolate to
obovate, sparsely appressed pubescent beneath;
stipules 0.9-2. 5 x 0.3 -0.7 cm, oblong - falcate.
Racemes terminal, up to 6 cm long, many-
flowered, dense, elongating in fruit. Calyx
4-5 mm long. Petals yellow, with prominent
reddish veins; standard ca 0.9 x 0.6 cm; wing
ca 1 x 0.3 cm; keel ca 0.9 x 0.5 cm, with a
distinct straight beak. Pods 1. 5-2.0 x 0.7 - 0.9
cm, subsessile, pubescent, 12-16 seeded. Seeds
smooth.
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
175
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Specimens examined: india - Karnataka
State, Dakshina Kannada dist. Near Padubidri,
2 1 .ix. 1 996 K.G. Bhat 11013 (BSI & K)
This species is similar to C. pallida Aiton
but differs in having prominent stipules.
I thank Sri Krishna Murti, Indian
Botanical Liaison officer, Kew, for examining
the specimen and for valuable comments; and
Dr. S. Karthikeyan, Botanical Survey of India,
Pune for help.
Aug. 10, 1997 K. GOPALAKRISHNA BHATT
Department of Botany,
Poornaprajna College,
Udupi - 576 101,
Karnataka.
38. A NEW RECORD OF THE GENUS MOLINERIA COLLA (HYPOXIDACEAE)
FOR THE STATE OF MAHARASHTRA
( With one plate)
During a botanical excursion to Eastern
Maharashtra, some sterile specimens of
Hypoxidaceae were collected from a place named
Daldalkui in Bhandara dist. on November 4,
1995. In the absence of flowering and fruiting,
the specimens could not be identified at that time.
They were brought to Shivaji University and
planted in earthem pots, where they flowered in
October, 1996. They were identified as Molineria
trichocarpa (Wight) Balakr., which forms a new
specific and generic record for the state of
Maharashtra. A full description, citation and
photographs are, therefore, included in the paper.
The Indo-malayan genus Molineria Colla
comprises about 7 species (Willis 1973)
distributed in Tropical Himalaya, Eastern India,
Tamilnadu, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Sri
Lanka and Malaysia. In India, it is represented
by three species, namely M. capitulata (Lour.)
Herb., M. latifolia (Dryanad.) Herb, and M.
trichocarpa (Wight) Balakr. (Karthikeyan et al.
1989). The genus is closely allied to Curculigo
Gaertn. but differs in the following characters:
Perianth tube produced beyond ovary;
stamens perigynous; flower(s) 1 or 2; style
trilobed; bracts broadly lanceolate,
overlapping, 9-nerved, glabrous; petiole
less than 3 cm long; seeds beaked
Curculigo
Perianth tube not produced beyond ovary;
stamens epigynous; flowers 5-8; style not
lobed; bracts filiform, linear, distant, 1-
nerved, pilose; petiole upto 25 cm; seeds
not beaked Molineria
Molineria trichocarpa (Wight) Balakr. in
j. Bombay nat. hist. soc. 63: 330. 1966; Hypoxis
trichocarpa Wight, Icon. PI. Ind. Orient, t. 2045.
1853; H. latifolia Wight, l.c.t. 2044.1853; H.
leptostachya Wight, l.c.t. 2045.1853; Curculigo
trichocarpa (Wight) Bennet and Raiz. in ind. j.
for. 4:68.1981; Molineria finlaysoniana Wall,
ex Baker in j. linn. soc. 17:121.1878; Curculigo
finlaysoniana (Wall, ex Baker) Hook.f., fl. brit.
india 6:279.1892; Fyson, fl.s. ind. hill stat.
602.1932.
A perennial herb with thick fibrous roots;
rhizome erect, stoloniferous. Leaves broadly
lanceolate, 20-40 cm long; petiole 3-7 cm long,
sheathing at base, channelled; leafblade 15-30 x
3-9 cm, plicate, glaucous, up to 20-nerved, base
narrowed, apex gradually acuminate. Scape
axillary, solitary, 3-6 cm long: racemes 4-5 cm
long, 5-10 flowered: bracts 20-25 mm, linear,
pilose. Flowers yellow, regular, lower bisexual,
upper male, pedicellate; pedicels 1-1.5 cm,
pilose; perianth lobes 6, yellow, 9-10 x 2 mm,
outer ones pilose outside, inner ones glabrous;
stamens 6, upto 7 mm long; filaments up to
176
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(1) APR. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Yadav S.R. & Bhuskute S.M.: Molineria trichocarpa
Plate 1
Figs. A - C: Molineria trichocarpa (A) Plants under cultivation; (B) Closeup of flowering plant;
(C) Closeup of raceme and flower.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(1), APR. 1999
177
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
4 mm long, erect, glabrous; anthers basifixed,
up to 3 mm long, yellow, introrse; ovary 3-celled,
ovules many, style 9-10 mm long, thickened and
hairy towards apex, stigma capitate. Fruits not
seen.
Flowering: Under cultivation, it flowered
in October.
Remarks: Molineria Colla grows along
stream beds in shady places in forest areas. It
forms dense local populations along stream beds.
It looks very similar to Curculigo orchioides
Gaertner in the vegetative stage. It was not
reported from Maharashtra state, probably
because of wrong identification as C. orchioides
by previous workers.
Refer
Karthikeyan, S., S.K. Jain. M.P. Nayar & M. Sanjappa
( 1 989): Florae Indicae enumeratio Monocotyledonae
Flora India: series 4: pp. 82-83.
39. ABNORMAL BRANCHING IN
We came to know from the students of a
local college that a palmyra palm in the village
Gollagonda, nearly 40 km away from Andhra
University, had 7 branches, some of them also
secondary branching. We visited the village and
observed the plant. According to the villagers,
the palm has been in existence for more than 40
years and earlier it had 1 5-20 branches, but some
of those branches broke due to high wind. Now
there are only seven branches. Among these
branches, two branches have 2-5 secondary
branches. The local people worship the plant and
believe that it is a Goddess. Nearly 100 metres
away from this plant, there is another bifurcated
palmyra palm. One more plant in the nearby
village of Nagaram has 4 branches, but due to
recent cyclonic winds all of those branches were
broken off.
According to Blatter (1926) branching is
a rare phenomenon in palms. It is often caused
by injury to the terminal bud, as in Phoenix
Acknowledgements
We thank Dr. V.N. Naik for guidance
during our excursion to Eastern Maharashtra and
Mr. M.R. Almeida for his expert opinion on the
identity of the species and suggestions on this
manuscript.
January 4, 1998 S.R. YADAV
Department of Botany, Shivaji University,
Kolhapur-4 1 6 004 (MS).
S.M. BHUSKUTE
Department of Botany,
Bhawbhuti Mahavidyalaya,
Amgaon (S.E. Rly.) -441 902, Bhandara (MS).
ENCES
Willis, J.C. ( 1 973): A dictionary of the flowering plants
and Ferns. (8th ed. revised H.K. Airy Shaw).
Cambridge Univ. Press, pp. 753.
BORASSUS FLABELLIFER LINN.
sylvestris (wild date), where the apex is
continuously tapped for toddy. Multiple
branching in wild date due to the terminal bud
being struck by lightning has been recorded by
Field (1908). In other cases, branching is a
consequence of the replacement of flowering buds
by leaf buds which develop into shoots.
According to the literature, lightning and injury
of the terminal bud are responsible for multiple
branching. But in the palm studied by us, the
above two factors (lightning and terminal bud
injury) may not be responsible for multiple
branching. If branching is due to either apical
bud injury or lightning, branching may not
happen again — it is unlikely to be struck by
lightning on 3-5 branches again. The factors,
which are responsible for caudex stem branching,
again those common factors are responsible for
subsequent branching in some of those branches.
Most probably, genetic factors may be involved
in this branching.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
179
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
We are thankful to Mr. Gandi Mahesh and
Mahammed Tajuddin, students of Kalinga Junior
College, for their kind help in field study.
December 23, 1997 G.M. NARASIMHA RAO
Department of Botany,
Andhra University, Waltair-530 003.
T.M. FLORENCE
Lecturer,
Department of Botany,
A.P.S. W.R. Junior College,
Nakkapalli-53 1 081,
Andhra Pradesh.
References
Blatter, E. (1926): Palms of British India and Ceylon, Field, F. (1908): A branching date palm ( Phoenix
Oxford University Press, London. sylvestris ) J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 18(2): 699-700.
40. SCHOENUS CALOSTACHYUS (R. BR.) POIR., CYPERACEAE, FROM
NICOBAR ISLANDS: A NEW SEDGE RECORD FOR INDIA
( With one text-figure )
While exploring the grasslands of the
Nancowry group of islands, the author
encountered an interesting sedge growing along
open, damp, grassy slopes of Teressa Island,
which turned out to be Schoenus calostachyus
(R. Br.) Poir., a species hitherto unknown in
India. As this is the first record for India, a
detailed description, along with illustrations, is
provided.
The genus Schoenus L. holds over 80
species (Kern 1974) distributed mainly from
southeast Asia, Australia, New Zealand, New
Caledonia, Micronesia, Europe, South America
and Malesia. Karthikeyan et al. (1989) refers to
one species, S. nigricans L., as occurring in
Northwest India. S. calostachyus (R.Br.) Poir, is
so far known only from Australia, Micronesia to
Indo-China, Thailand, Ryu Kyu Is., Sumatra,
Malay Peninsula, Borneo and New Guinea.
Schoenus calostachyus (R.Br.) Poir. Encyc.
Suppl. 2:251.181 1; Kern, FI. Males. 7:675.1974.
Chaetospora calostachya R. Br. Prod. 233. 1810.
(Fig. 1).
Perennials with woody rhizomes. Culms
tufted, erect, sub-terete, 50-100 cm high. Basal
leaves tough, acuminate, 3-ribbed beneath,
2-3 mm wide, with purplish sheaths.
Fig. 1 : Schoenus calostachyus (R. Br.) Poir.
A. Habit; B. Spikelet; C. Rachilla; D. Glume; E. Grain
180
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(1 ) APR. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Inflorescences narrow, racemose, up to 60
cm long with 2-6 distant fascicles of branches.
Branches compressed, scaberulous on the angles,
each holding 1-3 spikelets. Spikelets oblong-
lanceolate or lanceolate, greyish-brown or
chestnut brown, 20-25 mm long, 3-6 mm wide.
Glumes lanceolate, brownish yellow to chestnut
brown, shining, 8-15 mm long (fertile ones up
to 20 mm long), coriaceous, ciliate on the upper
margins. Nuts trigonous, oblique, 2 angles
convex and the other straight, 2. 5-3. 5 x 1. 5-2.0
mm, brown, rugose.
Ecology: Occasional in open grassland,
heaths; usually in wet places, growing in clumps
in association with Sorghum nitidum (Vahl) Pers.,
Pachystoma senile (Lindl.) Reichb. f.,
Rhynchospora sp. etc.
Specimen examined: Nicobar islands:
Teressa Is., way to Enam from Minyuk, at ±2
km, 26. ii. 1997, P.V. Sreekumar 16739 (PBL).
I am grateful to Dr. P. K. Hajra, Director,
Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta for
encouragement and facilities.
December 23, 1 997 P.V. SREEKUMAR
Botanical Survey of India
Andaman-Nicobar Circle
Port Blair-2, Andaman Islands.
References
Karthjkeyan, S., S.K. Jain. M.P. Nayar& M. Sanjappa(1989): Florae Indicae Enumeratio: Monocotyledonae: 70.
Kern, J.H. (1974): Cyperaceae in FI. Malesiana 1(1): 435-753. Leyden.
41. ADDITIONS TO THE GRASSES OF GOA
The family Poaceae has attracted
considerable attention due to its economic
importance and diversity. However, the flora of
Goa state has not been studied well due to its
historical isolation, till 1961. The floras
published on Goa (Dalgado 1898, Vartak 1966,
Rao 1985, 1986) are not complete. Many species
reported by them were collected outside the state
of Goa. Recently Kulkarni and Janarthanam
(1995) added 10 species of Scrophulariaceae to
the existing published accounts. We report 24
additional grass species from Goa.
The identity of specimens was confirmed
at BLAT, BSI and MH. The specimens are
deposited at the Department of Botany
Herbarium, Goa University.
1 . Arthraxon lanceolatus (Roxb.) Hochst.
var. meeboldii (Stapf) Welzen in Blumea 27: 285.
1981; Lakshminarasimhan in Sharma et al. FI.
Maharashtra Monocot. 40 1 . 1996. Found in open
areas of forests. Exsiccata: Surla, Alt. 460 m,
8.xi.l996, 309.
2. Chrysopogon lancearius (Hook.f.)
Haines, Bot. Bih. Orissa 1036. 1924;
Lakshminarasimhan in Sharma et al. FI.
Maharashtra Monocot. 431. 1996. On open
laterite plateaus. Exsiccata: Goa University
campus, 23.x. 1996, 348.
3. Dicanthium filiculme (Hook.f.) Jain and
Deshpande in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 20: 134.
(1978) 1979; Lakshminarasimhan in Sharma et
al. FI. Maharashtra Monocot. 454. 1996. Found
on cut surfaces of rocks and hillocks. Exsiccata:
Molem, 22. xi. 1996, 413.
4. Dimeria blatteri Bor in Kew Bull. 1 949:
70. 1949; Lakshminarasimhan in Sharma et al,
FI. Maharashtra Monocot. 467. 1996. Found
along streams. Exsiccata: Surla, Alt. 460 m.
8.xi.l996, 339.
5. Dimeria ornithopoda Trin., Fund.
Agrost. 167, t. 14. 1820; Lakshminarasimhan
in Sharma et al. FI. Maharashtra Monocot. 468.
1996. Found in marshy areas. Exsiccata: Keri,
16.x. 1996, 231.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
181
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
6. Eragrostis gangetica (Roxb.) Steud.
Syn. PI. Glum. 1: 266. 1854;
Lakshminarasimhan in Sharma et al. FI.
Maharashtra Monocot. 483. 1996. Found
growing in marshy areas, especially paddy fields.
Exsiccata: Keri, 16.x. 1996, 220.
7. Eriochloa procera (Retz.) C.E. Hubb.
in Kew Bull. 1930: 256. 1930; Lakshminara-
simhan in Sharma et al. FI. Maharashtra
Monocot. 494. 1996. Found in brackish water.
Exsiccata: Courtalim, 14.xi.1996, 385.
8. Garnotia arborum Stapf ex T. Cooke,
FI. Pres. Bombay 2: 1013. 1908 (3: 534. 1967,
repr. ed.); Lakshminarasimhan in Sharma et al.
FI. Maharashtra Monocot. 497. 1996. On black
boulders. Exsiccata: Molem-Almode road, Alt.
400 m, 28.ix.1996, 204.
9. Isachne elegans Dalz. in Dalz. & Gibs.,
Bombay FI. 291. 1861; Lakshminarasimhan in
Sharma et al. FI. Maharashtra Monocot. 509.
1966. In cultivated fields. Exsiccata: Taleigao,
30.x. 1996, 277.
10. Ischaemum dalzellii Stapf ex Bor in
Kew Bull. 1951: 448. 1952; Lakshminara-
simhan in Sharma et al. FI. Maharashtra
Monocot. 516. 1996. Along hillsides. Exsiccata:
Chorla, Alt. 400 m, 8.xi.l996, 327.
11. Ischaemum kingii Hook.f. FI. Brit.
India 7: 129. 1896; Lakshminarasimhan in
Sharma et al. FI. Maharashtra Monocot. 519.
1996. On black boulders near water falls.
Exsiccata: Chorla, Alt. 350 m, 8.xi.l996, 332.
12. Ischaemum mangaluricum (Hack.)
Stapf ex C.E.C. Fischer in Gamble, FI. Pres.
Madras 1723. 1934; Lakshminarasimhan in
Sharma et al. FI. Maharashtra Monocot. 519.
1996. On plateaus. Exsiccata: Goa University
campus, 14.viii.1996, 22.
13. Ischaemum timorense Kunth, Rev.
Gram. 1: 369, t. 98. 1830; Lakshminarasimhan
in Sharma et al. FI. Maharashtra Monocot. 527.
1996. Along the roadsides of Ghat areas.
Exsiccata: Surla, 8.xi.l996, 312.
14. Leersia hexandra Swartz. Prodr. Veg.
Ind. Occ. 21. 1788; Lakshminarasimhan in
Sharma et al. FI. Maharashtra Monocot. 534.
1996. In ponds and marshy areas. Exsiccata:
Ciba, Old Goa, 4.1.1997, 465.
15. Leptochloa malabarica (L.) Veldk.
Blumea 19: 64. 1971; Nowack in Rheedea
4: 84. 1994. Usually in brackish waters ( Kazan
lands). Exsiccata: Courtalim, 14. xi. 1996,
380.
16. Mnesithea clarkei (Hack.) Koning and
Sosef in Blumea 31: 290. 1986;
Lakshminarasimhan in Sharma et al. FI.
Maharashtra Monocot. 538. 1996. Along open
hillsides. Exsiccata: Chorla, Alt. 400 m,
8.xi.l996, 331.
17. Oryza rufipogon Griff., Notul. 3: 5.
1851; Lakshminarasimhan in Sharma et al. FI.
Maharashtra Monocot. 545. 1996. Puddles on
plateaux. Exsiccata: Lolium plateau,
24.viii.1996, 76.
18. Panicum hippothrix K. Schum. in
Engl., Pflanzenw. Ost.-Afr. c. 103. 1895;
Lakshminarasimhan in Sharma et al. FI.
Maharashtra Monocot. 548. 1996. In marshy,
cultivated fields. Exsiccata: Taleigao,
13.ix.1996, 156.
19. Panicum walense Mez. in Bot. Jahrb.
34: 146. 1904; Lakshminarasimhan in Sharma
et al. FL. MAHARASHTRA monocot. 555. 1996. In
cultivated fields. Exsiccata: Keri, 16.x. 1996,
244.
20. Paspalum canarae (Steud.) Veldk. var.
fimbriatum (Bor) Veldk. in Blumea 21: 72. 1973;
Lakshminarasimhan in Sharma et al. FI.
Maharashtra Monocot. 558. 1996. An
undergrowth of forests. Exsiccata: Surla,
8.xi.l996, 306.
21. Sacciolepis indica (L.) A. Chase in
Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 21: 8. 1908;
Lakshminarasimhan in Sharma et al. FI.
Maharashtra Monocot. 584. 1996. Common in
ponds and marshy areas. Exsiccata: Carambolim
lake, 2.xii.l996, 443.
22. Setaria pumila (Poir.) Roem. &
Schult., Syst. Veg. 2: 891. 1817; Lakshminara-
simhan in Sharma et al. FI. Maharashtra
Monocot. 595. 1996. On open lateritic plateaux.
Exsiccata: Verna plateau, 17.viii. 1 996, 42.
23. Spodiopogon rhizophorus (Steud.)
Pilger in Engl, and Prantl, Pflanzenf. Aufl.
182
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(1) APR. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
2. 14e: 119. 1940; Lakshminarasimhan in
Sharma et cil. FI. Maharashtra Monocot. 608.
1996. Open slopes of hills. Exsiccata: Chorla,
Alt. 400 m, 8.xi.l996, 328.
24. Sporobolus virginicus (L.) Kunth.
Rev. Gram. 1: 67. 1929; Lakshminarasimhan
in Sharma et al. FI. Maharashtra Monocot. 615.
1996. Along sandy beaches. Exsiccata: Miramar
beach, 3 1 .viii. 1996, 109.
Acknowledgements
We thank the Goa State Council for
Refer
Dalgado, D.G. ( 1 898): Flora de Goa e Savantwadi. Lisbon.
Kulkarni, R.A. & M.K. Janarthanam (1995): Additions
to the Scrophulariaceae of Goa. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 92(3): 440-441.
Science and Technology for financial assistance
and the authorities of BLAT, BSI and MH for
permission to consult the specimens. We also
thank Dr. S.R. Yadav, Department of Botany,
Shivaji University for help.
December 24, 1997 S. RAJKUMAR
VAISHALI C. JOSHI
M.K. JANARTHANAM
Department of Botany,
Goa University,
Goa-403 206.
ENCES
Rao, R.S. (1985, 1986): Flora of Goa, Diu, Daman, Dadra
& Nagarhaveli. 2 Vols. Botanical Survey of India.
Vartak, V.D. ( 1 966): Enumeration of Plants of Gomantak,
India. Pune.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(1), APR. 1999
183
THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS
(Price to members)
The Book of Indian Animals, by S.H. Prater, 4th edition (Reprint) Rs. 2 1 0/-
The Book of Indian Birds, by Salim Ali, 12th edition Rs. 320/-
A Pictorial Guide to the Birds of the Indian Subcontinent,
by Salim Ali & S. Dillon Ripley, (Reprint with corrections) Rs. 278/-
Checklist of the Birds of Maharashtra, by Humayun Abdulali, 2nd edition Rs. 21-
The Book of Indian Reptiles, by J.C. Daniel (under revision)
Some Beautiful Indian Trees, by E. Blatter and W. Millard Rs. 225/-
Conservation in Developing Countries: Problems and Prospects,
Edited by J.C. Daniel and J.S. Serrao Rs. 300/-
A Week with Elephants-Proceedings of the International Seminar on Asian Elephants,
Edited by J.C. Daniel and Hemant Datye Rs. 338/-
A Guide to the Cranes of India, by Prakash Gole Rs. 60/-
Salim Ali’s India, Edited by A. Kothari and B.F. Chhapgar Rs. 900/-
Illustrated Flora of Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan,
by V.P. Prasad, Daniel Mason, Joy E. Marburger & C.R. Ajith Kumar Rs. 525/-
The Book of Indian Trees, by K.C. Sahni Rs. 2 1 0/-
The Book of Indian Shells, by Deepak Apte Rs. 225/-
Types of membership, fees and subscription for publications (As on April 1996)
Types of membership, fees and subscription for publications (As on April 1996)
Libraries, Schools, Colleges
Universities and Forest Dept.,
Defence Institution
(Special membership within India)
(c) Outside India
£5or$ 10
£ 100 (annual)
or $ 300
Free
£ 15 or $ 50
Registered with the Registrar of Newspapers under RN 5685/57 ISSN 0006-6982
CONTENTS
EDITORIAL 1
POPULATION ESTIMATION OF ASIATIC LIONS
( With seven text-figures)
By Yadvendradev V. Jhala, Qamar Qureshi, Vimal Bhuva and Lekh Nath Sharma 3
CONSERVATION STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION OF SWAMP FRANCOLIN IN INDIA
( With three text-figures)
By Salim Javed, Qamar Qureshi and Asad R. Rahmam 16
SEASONAL FOOD PREFERENCE OF THE INDIAN SHORT NOSED FRUIT BAT
CYNOPTERUS SPHINX (VAHL) (CHIROPTERA: PTEROPODIDAE)
By K. Emmanuvel Rajan, N. Gopukumar Nair and R. Subbaraj 24
A PRELIMINARY GUIDE FOR AGE AND SEX DETERMINATION OF THE HOUBARA
BUSTARD CHLAMYDOTIS UNDULATA MACQUEENII
( With four text-figures and three plates)
By Nigel S. Jarrett and Stephanie M. Warren 28
OBSERVATIONS ON THE BEHAVIOUR OF GANGETIC DOLPHINS PLA TANISTA
GANGETICA IN THE UPPER GANGA RIVER
( With one text-figure)
By Sandeep K. Behera and R. J. Rao 42
MOULT IN SOME BIRDS OF PALNI HILLS, WESTERN GHATS
( With one text-figure)
By Balachandran S 48
DISTRIBUTION OF AQUATIC INSECTS IN A SMALL STREAM IN NORTHWEST
HIMALAYA, INDIA
By J.M. Julka, H.S. Vasisht and B. Bala 55
ON A COLLECTION OF FISHES FROM THE SOUTHERN PART OF UKHRUL
DISTRICT, MANIPUR
By Selim Keishing and Waikhom Vishwanath 64
MORTALITY AND SURVIVAL OF THE HIMALAYAN MAHSEER TOR PUTITORA
IN A REGULATED SECTION OF THE RIVER GANGA BETWEEN RISHIKESH
AND HARIDWAR
By J.P. Bhatt and P. Nautiyal 70
BIOSYSTEM ATIC STUDIES OF INDIAN CHIRONOMIDAE (DIPTERA)
(With three text-figures)
By Girish Maheshwari and Geeta Maheshwari 74
FISHES OF PARAMBIKULAM WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, PALAKKAD DISTRICT,
KERALA
(With one text-figure)
By Biju, C.R., Raju Thomas, K. and Ajithkumar C.R 82
A PRELIMINARY SURVEY OF LICHENS FROM CORBETT NATIONAL PARK
( With three text-figures)
By D.K. Upreti and S. Chatterjee 88
ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF HIMACHAL PRADESH FROM SIRMAUR DISTRICT
By M. Sharma and Harsimerjit Kaur 93
NEW DESCRIPTIONS 98
OBITUARY 124
REVIEWS 126
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 130
Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Mumbai 400 103 and
published by J.C. Daniel for Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House,
Dr. Salim Ali Chowk, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai-400 023.
JOURNAL
OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
AUGUST 1999
Vol. 96 (2)
/
INSTRUCTIONS TO CONTRIBUTORS
1 . Papers which have been published or have been offered for publication elsewhere
should not be submitted.
2. Papers should be submitted in duplicate, typed double space. Preferably an additional
copy should be submitted on a floppy diskette (3.5") using Word Star.
3. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where identification has
been authentically established by comparison of specimens actually collected.
4. Photographs for reproduction must be clear, with good contrast. Prints should be at
least 9 x 12 cm and on glossy glazed paper. Text-figures, line drawings and maps
should be in Indian ink, preferably on tracing paper. Maps and figures will not be
acceptable if labelled free hand.
5. References to literature should be placed at the end of the paper, alphabetically
arranged under author’s name, with the abridged titles of journals or periodicals in
italics and titles of books or papers in roman type, thus:
Aluri, Raju J.S. & C. Subha Reddi (1995): Ecology of the pollination in two cat-mint
species. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92(1): 63-66.
Prater, S.H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay Natural History Society,
Mumbai, pp. 35-48.
6. Each paper should be accompanied by an abstract, normally not exceeding 200
words, and 6-8 key words. Key Words should include the scientific names of important
species discussed.
7. 25 reprints will be supplied free of cost to authors of main articles, in the case of
new descriptions, reviews and miscellaneous notes, authors will be sent a free
copy of the Journal.
8. The editors reserve the right, other things being equal, to publish a member’s
contribution earlier than a non-member’s.
Hornbill House,
Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,
Mumbai-400 023.
Editors,
Journal of the Bombay
Natural History Society
VOLUME 96 (2): AUGUST 199^fJ[iTHS0^
Date of Publication: 1-8-1999 f v\
CONTENTS V AU6 1 72000 )}
EDITORIAL
NOTES ON THE BREEDING PLUMAGE OF THE MALE BL A C KbRTA S ' rTt)
WEAVERBIRD PLOCEUS BENGHALENSIS NEAR HYDERABAD, ANDHRA
PRADESH
( With 2 plates)
By Aasheesh Pittie, Siraj Taher and C. Tom Hash 1 87
OBSERVATIONS ON THE DUGONG, DUGONG DUGON (MULLER), IN THE ANDAMAN
AND NICOBAR ISLANDS, INDIA
( With two text-figures)
By H.S. Das and S.C. Dey 195
ICHTHYOFAUNA OF ERAVIKULAM NATIONAL PARK WITH NOTES ON TROUT
CULTURE IN RAJAMALAI, MUNNAR, KERALA
( With five text-figures)
By K. Raju Thomas, C.R. Biju, C.R. Ajithkumar and M. John George 199
THE BIRDS OF GOA
( With one text-figure)
By Heinz Lainer 203
POPULATION DENSITIES OF THE BLACKNAPED HARE LEPUS NIGRICOLLIS
NIGRICOLLIS AT ROLLAPADU WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, KURNOOL DISTRICT,
ANDHRA PRADESH
( With one text-figure )
By Ranjit Manakadan and Asad R. Rahmani 221
INTER- AND INTRASPECIFIC VARIATION IN THE RESOURCE USE OF
BLOSSOMHEADED AND BLUEWINGED PARAKEETS IN SIRUVANI, TAMIL
NADU, INDIA
( With two text-figures)
By V. Gokula, C. Venkataraman, S. Saravanan and S. Swetharanyam 225
FISHES OF GADANA RIVER IN KALAICKAD MUNDANTHURAI TIGER RESERVE
By M. Arunachalam and A. Sankaranarayanan 232
STATUS OF THE-BLACK SHAHEEN OR INDIAN PEREGRINE FALCON FALCO
PEREGRINUS PEREGRINATOR IN SRI LANKA
( With one text-figure)
By Hermann Dottlinger and Thilo W. Hoffman 239
FISH FAUNA, ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION IN CHALAKUDY RIVER SYSTEM,
KERALA
( With one text-figure)
By C.R. Ajithkumar, K. Rema Devi, K. Raju Thomas and C.R. Biju 244
BIONOMICS AND BIOCONTROL EFFICIENCY OF ANASTATUS SP. (EUPELMIDAE:
HYMENOPTERA), AN EGG PARASITE OF CHORISONEURA BILIGATA (SERVILLE)
(BLATTELLIDAE: DICTYOPTERA)
( With nine text-figures)
By S. Bhoopathy 255
FOOD AND FEEDING HABIT OF PENAEID PRAWN METAPENEOPSIS STRIDVLANS
(ALCOCK 1905)
By B.G. Kulkami, V.D. Deshmukh and V.R. Kulkami 262
FRESHWATER CLADOCERA (CRUSTACEA) OF SOUTHERN TAMIL NADU
( With four text-figures)
By K. Venkataraman 268
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
NEW SPECIES OF A GONISCHIUS CANDEZE (COLEOPTERA, ELATERIDAE: LUDIINAE)
FROM INDIA
( With six text-figures )
By Punam Garg and V. Vasu
A NEW SPECIES OF POA L., FAMILY POACEAE, FROM GARHWAL HIMALAYA, INDIA
( With one text-figure)
By D.C. Nautiyal and R.D. Gaur
NOEMACHEILUS MENONI, A NEW SPECIES OF FISH FROM MALAPPARA, PERIYAR
TIGER RESERVE, KERALA
( With one text-figure)
By V J. Zacharias and K.C. Minimol
A NEW SISORID CATFISH OF THE GENUS MYERSGLANIS HORA & SILAS 1951, FROM
MANIPUR, INDIA
( With one plate and one text-figure)
By Waikhom Vishwanath and Laishram Kosygin
NEW SPECIES OF ACACIMENUS DLABOLA (HEMIPTERA: CICADELLIDAE:
DELTOCEPHALINAE) FROM INDIA AND SRI LANKA
( With thirty-one text-figures)
By C.A. Viraktamath
REVIEWS
1 . PEOPLE AND PROTECTED AREAS: TOWARDS PARTICIPATORY CONSERVATION
IN INDIA
Reviewed by S. Asad Akhtar
2. AMPHIBIANS OF INDIA AND SRI LANKA
Reviewed by J.C. Daniel
3. BIRDS OF THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT
Revi ewed by T om Roberts
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
281
285
288
291
297
306
306
9. The occurrence of collared pratincole or
swallow plover Glareola pratincola (Linn.)
in Kutch
By M.K. Himmatsinhji
10. Sighting of the threetoed kingfisher Ceyx
erithacus erithacus (Linn.) in Pune City
By Kiran Purandare
1 1 . Infanticide in hoopoe Upupa epops Linnaeus
By Sonali Ghosh
12. Frugivory by the great black woodpecker
Dryocopus javensis
By V. Santharam
13. Attempt by red vented bulbul Pycnonotus
cafer to feed on a young house gecko
Hem idactylus flaviviridis
By A.M.K. Bharos
14. Flocking and altitudinal movements of the
black bulbul Hypsipetes madagascariensis in
the southern Western Ghats, India
By T.R. Shankar Raman
1 5 . Purple sunbird Nectarinia asiatica (Latham)
— A new pest of grapes under agroclimatic
conditions of Hissar, Haryana
By Suneel Sharma and R.K. Kashyap
REPTILES
16. On the identification of Lycodon
flavomaculatus Wall 1 907
By Ashok Captain
FISHES
1 7. Pisodonophis boro (Ham.) from Periyar river,
Kerala collected after more than a century
By M. John George, K. Raju Thomas.
C.R. Biju and C.R. Ajithkumar
18. New record of Heteropneustes microps
(Gunther) (Clariidae: Heteropneustidae) from
Western Ghats rivers, India
By M. Arunachalam, J. A. Johnson,
A. Manimekalan and S. Sridhar
19. Additions to the fish fauna of Pambar river,
Kerala
By K. Raju Thomas, C.R. Biju and
C.R. Ajithkumar
20. Distribution of freshwater fishes in the Uppala
river, Kasargod district, Kerala
By C.R Biju, K. Raju Thomas and
C.R. Ajithkumar
21. New records of fishes from Gadana river,
Kalakad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, Tamil
Nadu
By M. Arunachalam and
A. Sankaranarayanan
INSECTS
22. Some observations on the biology of the
parasitic beetle Metoecus paradoxus Linn.
(Rhipiphoridae: Coleoptera) on mud dauber
wasp grubs
By G. Srinivasan, K. Sasikala and
Mohanasundaram 337
23. Predation by ants on frogs and invertebrates
By Shomen Mukherjee and
VivekGour Broome 338
24. Mass feeding of Baronet butterfly
Symphaedra nais Foster on honey dew drops
By Naresh Chaturvedi and
V. Shubhalaxmi 342
25. Polymorphism in the immature stages of
Othreis fullonia Clerck
By Deepak Apte 342
OTHER INVERTEBRATES
26. Maculotriton serrialis ( Deshayes in Laborde
& Linnet 1 834) from Okha, Gulf of Kutch: A
new record
By Deepak Apte 346
27. On the occurrence of the pestiferous slugs
Laevicaulis alte in Jorthan, Sikkim
By S.K. Raut 346
28. Observations on the feeding habits of
Solifugae (Arachnida: Solifugae) in Semarsot
Sanctuary (M.P.), India
By Shomen Mukherjee 347
29. Resurrection of Biapertura kwangsiensis
(Chiang 1 963) from Biapertura karua (King
1 853) (Crustacea: Cladocera)
By K. Venkataraman 347
BOTANY
30. Range extension for Ceropegia oculala
Hook., an endangered species of Maharashtra
By Neelam Patil 354
31. Aeginetia pedunculata (Roxb.) Wall.
(Orobanchaceae) — A new record from Bihar
By S.K. Varma and Sanjib Kumar 354
32. A new variety of Costus speciosus (Retz.) Sm.
By M.R. Almeida and S.M. Almeida 355
33. Asparagus densiflorus ‘Sprengeri’ Robustus
— An addition to the ornamental flora of
Andamans
By D.B. Singh, Sujatha A. Nair and
T.V.R.S. Sharma 356
34. Poa harae Rajb. (Poaceae): A new record for
India
By D.C. Nautiyal and R.D. Gaur 359
316
318
318
319
320
320
322
323
328
330
332
334
336
Cover Photograph: Great Indian Bustard
Asad R. Rahmani
Editorial
In December 1978, a party of Arab falconers crossed over from Pakistan to hunt Houbara
bustard Chlamydotis undulata in the Thar desert of India. The news was first published
in the Rajasthan Patrika, and then the Indian Express splashed it all over India. For
most people, bustard means the Great Indian Bustard Ardeotis nigriceps , a highly
endangered species. The statement of the hunting party that it had come to hunt (Houbara)
bustard caused further confusion, as a result of which the whole country was wrongly
informed that the Government of India had allowed royal falconers to kill the Great
Indian Bustard, or Godawan as it is called in the Thar. The first public protest was
organised by Mr. Harsh Vardhan, Hon. Secretary of the Tourism and Wildlife Society of
India (TWSI). Soon, public and media condemnation became widespread. Protest rallies
at Jaipur, Udaipur and Delhi, angry protest letters and erudite editorials in newspapers,
harassment of the hunting party and government officials by intrepid reporters, and
finally a stay order by the Jodhpur High Court, forced the Central government to cancel
the hunt and to request the ‘guests’ to leave the country. This hunting episode was a
blessing in disguise, as it focussed attention on this beleaguered species.
The TWSI, foremost in the fight against Arab falconers, organised the first
international conference on bustards at Jaipur in 1980, where it was revealed that the
Great Indian Bustard survives in six states — Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. In the 1980s, intensive studies were
conducted by the BNHS, with funds provided by the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. On
the recommendations of the BNHS, Andhra Pradesh declared a 6 sq. km dry grassland
near Rollapadu village as a wildlife sanctuary. The Madhya Pradesh government declared
two bustard sanctuaries — Karera in Shivpuri and Ghatigaon in Gwalior, and
Maharashtra officially protected three talukas each in Ahmednagar and Solapur districts,
in the form of a vast 8,496 sq. km bustard sanctuary!
Unfortunately, all this could not arrest the steady decline of this majestic Indian
bird, chiefly because its grassland habitat was not properly protected from over-grazing,
plantation of exotic species, lack of control on pesticide use, development of canals and
other irrigation facilities, changes in land use pattern and expansion of agriculture. No
bustard is left in Karera, and only 3 to 5 survive in Ghatigaon. A sugar mill now stands
on a male bustard territory in Maharashtra. Meanwhile, poaching has become common
in the Thar, thanks to the availability of all-terrain vehicles. The great Thar desert, the
last bastion of the bustard, is under siege. In the Thar, the bustard still survives in many
areas and enjoys tremendous sympathy of the local people. It is this sympathy which the
BNHS is now tapping by conducting regular conservation awareness programmes. If
this campaign succeeds, the booming display call of male bustards will be heard for
many more years and they will be able to propagate their own kind in the grasslands.*
ASAD R. RAHMANI
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are grateful to the Ministry of Science and Technology,
Govt, of India,
FOR ENHANCED FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE JOURNAL.
JOURNAL
OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
August 1999
Vol. 96
No. 2
NOTES ON THE BREEDING PLUMAGE OF THE MALE BLACKBREASTED
WEAVERBIRD PLOCEUS BENGHALENSIS NEAR HYDERABAD,
ANDHRA PRADESH'
Aasheesh Pittie* 2, Siraj Taher3 and C. Tom Hash4
( With 2 plates)
Key words: breeding plumage, blackbreasted weaverbird, Ploceus benghalensis ,
Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, taxonomy
During a visit to ICRISAT Campus (Patancheru, Medak district, Andhra Pradesh) in August
1996, a breeding colony of blackbreasted weaverbirds was seen. This was the first record
of these birds breeding in Andhra Pradesh. A closer look at the birds showed that all the
males had white cheeks. This did not correspond to the normally known breeding plumage
of this bird. A similar observation was made in another colony about 1 5 km from ICRISAT.
This variant breeding plumage has occasionally been reported in earlier literature and
some very old specimens (1863 & 1 890) from northeast India are in the British Museum of
Natural History. Not much thought has been given to this aspect of the bird’s plumage.
These variations in breeding plumage give rise to some interesting queries like hybridization
with other weaverbirds, relationship of the disjunct populations and a need to study the
breeding ecology and taxonomy of Ploceus benghalensis.
The blackbreasted weaverbird Ploceus
benghalensis , an endemic of the Indian
subcontinent, has been reported earlier from
Hyderabad in 1985 (Pittie and Taher 1985). On
August 25, 1996, two of us (A.P. and S.T.) were
birding on the campus of ICRISAT, near
Patancheru, Medak dist., when we spotted a
colony of about 50 of these birds, nesting in short
grass and bulrushes ( Typha sp.), close to a colony
of nesting bayas Ploceus philippinus. There were
'Accepted March, 1 998.
"8-2-545 Road No. 7, Banjara Hills, Hyderabad 500034.
2-B Atlas Apartment, Road No. 1 0,
Banjara Hills, Hyderabad 500034.
48-2-684/2, Road No. 12, Banjara Hills, Hyderabad 500034.
15-20 nests of P. benghalensis , and construction
was in full swing. Most of the males were in
breeding plumage .with the golden yellow cap
and black breast band prominently visible. But
there was something wrong with their faces! The
illustration in the pictorial guide (Ali and Ripley
1983) just did not match the birds we were
watching. In this book, breeding males are shown
with brown cheeks, sides of neck and ear-coverts,
whereas the birds we were observing had white
feathers in those areas! And not just a few birds
had this plumage, all breeding males had it. A
sketch was made on the spot, and when compared
with the text and illustrations in other books
(Ganguli 1975), the discrepancy remained. We
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
187
BREEDING PL UMA GE OF THE MALE BLA CKBREASTED WE A VERBIRD
called up C.Tom Hash, who works on the campus
and is a keen birder, informing him of our
observations, and he replied immediately “But
aren’t they different!” Indeed they were.
Additional breeding colonies of these birds were
seen on September 8, 1996, comprising 45-50.
nests, in flowering Sudan grass Sorghum bicolor
patches and on peripheral vegetation (mainly
Polygonaceae, Verbenaceae, Gramineae,
Meliaceae, Faboidae and Compositae) about an
open well in the same campus. Photographs of
the birds were taken and sent to the Bombay
Natural History Society for comparison with their
collections. No matching male was found.
Subsequently, 4 live birds (2 males and 2 females)
were sent to the BNHS on September 18, 1996
for their collection. Observations of the breeding
activity at ICRISAT continued until November
3, 1996, when 2 immature birds were observed
near a colony of 26 nests of which 19 had tubes,
which in some cases were c. 36 - 38 cm long. At
least one nest had a large hole in its egg chamber
region, indicating predation. After this, birds in
breeding plumage were not seen during visits
on December 1, 1996, January 19 and April 6,
1997.
The variant plumage was noticed once
again during the breeding season of 1997, when
on June 21, a colony of 13 nests was observed,
of which 1 0 were under construction with fresh
green vegetation. White cheeked males, some
with a white collar on the hind neck, were busy
at them. At least 2-3 birds were observed bringing
yellow flowers from a nearby Acacia sp., and
placing them at the base of the half completed
egg chamber, behind the ‘chin-strap’ (see also
Ambedkar 1972). A female also visited the
colony while we watched, sending the males into
paroxysms of display. On August 1, 1997, Suhel
Quader surveyed the colony and found one nest
with 4 eggs, one with 1 egg and a freshly hatched
chick, one with 2 eggs and a fledgeling, one nest
with 3 eggs, and one nest with 2 chicks with
feathers. On August 10, 1997, this colony had
12 nests, of which 4 were under construction with
green vegetation. Two of these nests were
inspected by Suhel Quader and A.P. One of them
had 4 white eggs, and the other had 2 (the
remaining nests were not examined). Between
400 and 500 birds were observed within the
ICRISAT campus by Suhel Quader, in June, July
and August 1997. Some of these were trapped in
mist nets, photographed (Plate 1, Fig. 1),
measured and released. Their measurements are
given below in Appendix I. Almost all males seen
had white cheeks. Some males had the sides of
the head white suffused with a wash of brown.
During this time, the baya P. philippinus and
streaked weaver P. manyar were also breeding,
mostly in separate colonies except one case,
where P. philippinus and P. benghalensis had a
mixed colony, in which P. philippinus had
constructed nests hanging from banana ( Musa
sp.) leaves, while P. benghalensis hung theirs
from the interwoven leaves of bulrushes. Another
flock of c. 30 birds was observed on July 27, 1997
by C.T.H. northwest of Golconda Fort,
Hyderabad, which is at least 15 km away (as the
crow flies) from the ICRISAT campus. Here too,
all males had similar white feathers on the face.
A colony of about 7-8 nests was under
construction among typha reeds.
A preliminary literature survey by
Dr. Kumar Ghorpade (in litt. 14-9-1996) and
Dr. S. Unnithan of the BNHS (in litt. 27-9-1996),
revealed that Jerdon (1863) described the male
blackbreasted weaver thus, “the cheeks, ear-
coverts, and sides of the neck white, more or less
suffused with dusky on the ear-coverts and
throat”. Oates (1883) wrote, “throat, cheeks and
ear-coverts white, sullied with brown on the latter
two parts”. Murray (1890) described a breeding
male as having “... cheeks, ear coverts, sides of
neck and throat white, more or less suffused with
dusky...”. But surprisingly, Oates and Blanford
(1889-98) state, “After the partial spring moult
... the chin and throat become whitish or whity
brown, and the entire side of the head and neck
become uniform brown ...” and Baker (1922-30)
“sides of head and lores brown; chin and throat
188
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
R. BHARGAVA/CWLO
BREEDING PLUMAGE OF THE MALE BLACKBREASTED WEAVERBIRD
Pittie, Aasheesh et al. : Ploceus benghalensis
PLATE 1
Fig. 1 Blackbreasted weaverbird Ploceus benghalensis
were trapped, measured and released.
Fig. 2: (left) Type A: Peak nuptial plumage;
(right) Type B: Constituted 10-15% of total blackbreasted males.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOChi' X >6(2), AUG . 1999
189
BREEDING PLUMAGE OF THE MALE BLACKBREASTED WEAVERBIRD
Pittie, Aasheesh et al. : Ploceus benghalensis
PLATE 2
Fig. 3: Type C: Only one specimen was found of its type.
Fig. 4: Specimens from the British Museum of Natural History,
Tring: four males in breeding plumage.
190
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
BREEDING PLUMAGE OF THE MALE BLACKBREASTED WEA VERBIRD
Appendix I
MEASUREMENTS OF PLOCEUS BENGHALENSIS MALES
1
Notes
1 . The first and second birds were measured by Siraj Taher.
The rest by Suhel Quader.
2. Linear measurements are in mm. Flattened wing chord
and tail from uropygial gland measured with a ruler to
the nearest mm.
3. Tarsus measured to nearest 0.5 mm. (Joint of ankle to
first complete scale from the claws).
4. Bill Length: length of upper mandible from front edge of
nostril (to nearest 0. 1 mm with Vernier callipers).
5. Bill Depth: Taken at front edge of nostril (to nearest 0. 1
mm with Vernier callipers).
6. Bill Width: Taken at front edge of nostril (to nearest 0. 1
mm with Vernier callipers).
7. Weight to nearest 0.25 gm with Pesola spring balance.
8. Colour bands on first 5 birds were put on their right legs.
9. Sex of penultimate bird could not be determined.
COMPARATIVE AVERAGE MEASUREMENTS OF PLOCEUS BENGHALENSIS
1. Handbook Ali, S. and S.D. Ripley (1987)
2. Our measurements are averaged from 1 1 specimens.
whitish; in a few specimens, perhaps very old,
the sides of the head and throat become
practically pure white.” Among more
contemporary observations, Ali (1961), while
watching a mixed colony of P. manyar and P.
benghalensis in Bhurian village, Naiiii Tal dist.,
U.P., on July 8, 1961, noted “In male upper breast
is a continuation or extension of the solid black
of throat, but in some examples upper breast is
incipiently, or even rather distinctly, streaked as
in manyar .”
Crook (1963), who studied the black-
breasted weaver in the “Kumaon tarai,” does not
mention a white chm and throat in the breeding
plumage of a male at all. Neither does he mention
the presence of white cheeks, sides of neck and
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
191
BREEDING PLUMAGE OF THE MALE BLACKBREASTED WEA VERBIRD
ear-coverts. In fact, the black-and-white
photograph in his paper (Plate II) of a male P.
benghalensis clearly shows black feathers in
these regions of its plumage. A white chin or
throat is not visible, as the bird is perched with
its back to the photographer, glancing sideways
at the camera. The various line drawings also
show breeding males with black feathers on their
cheeks, sides of neck and ear-coverts. There is
no trace of a white chin or throat in these
illustrations! The handbook (Ali and Ripley
1987) is uncharacteristically ambiguous with
“Below, whitish with a broad dark brown band
across breast.” Roberts ( 1 992) states “In breeding
plumage, the male is distinguished from the other
two species of weaver found in Pakistan by
Table 1
DETAILS OF MALE PLOCEUS BENGHALENSIS
SPECIMENS IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM
having a continuous broad black band around
the breast with a clear unmarked white chin and
throat patch ... His lower neck and upper mantle
are also solid black.”
Rajat Bhargava (in lift. 2-9-1997)
observed the plumage of a minimum of 200-250
trapped “for bird release business” blackbreasted
weavers in Meerut, Uttar Pradesh, during the
breeding season of May- Aug, 1997 and says he
found 3 types of plumages on males: A. Those
“purely blackthroated or blackchinned with black
breast and no white neck ring. This type, in
relation to the other two types of blackbreasted
weaverbirds, is not less than 85 to 90% (of the
total population studied). This plumage, I believe
was the peak nuptial plumage,” (Bird at left, Plate
1, Fig. 2). B. Birds with a “black throat with
small whitish chin not much visible unless
handled, with no white ear coverts. This
constituted about 10-15% of total blackbreasted
males. I feel this may not be a separate variety,
and possibly a stage just prior to or after the peak
days of nuptial plumage, or it could be another
type. This type closely resembles the plate
illustration of the blackbreasted in Salim Ali’s
pictorial guide,” (Bird at right, Plate 1, Fig. 2).
C. Birds with a “conspicuous prominent white
chin or white neck ring and white ear-coverts,”
(Plate 2, Fig. 1). Of this type “I came across
only one specimen as shown in the picture. This
I feel is a separate type and the bird was in its
full nuptial plumage.”
On September 24, 1997, C.T.H. observed a
male in breeding plumage among a small flock
feeding on maturing pearl millet Pennisetum
glaucum near Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh. This bird
had plumage like that illustrated in the pictorial
guide, with prominent white chin patch, black
cheeks and black ear coverts.
While rummaging through some old black-
and-white photographs, A.P. came across a
picture of the birds from near Hyderabad taken
in 1985, when they were first reported there. Four
males can be seen in this photograph, and all
four have the white-cheeked plumage described
above!
There are, however, some interesting
specimens in museum collections in Europe
192
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
BREEDING PLUMAGE OF THE MALE BLACKBREASTED WEA VERBIRD
and America. In the British Museum of Natural
History (BMNH) at Tfing,„Dr. S. Subramanya
(in litt. 9-10-1997) scrutinized these specimens
and wrote “the collection has only four skins
of males in breeding plumage (i.e. with
yellow cap).” The details of the skins (all
males) are given in Table 1. See also Plate 2,
Fig. 2.
Dr. Pamela Rasmussen (in litt. 28-10-
1997) mentions “two male P. benghalensis of the
white-cheeked form.” One, in the Yale Peabody
Museum (YPM No. 43464), is from Darbhanga
dist., Jaingar (sic. Jainagar), N. Bihar and was
collected on 12-10-1898. The other, in the
University of Michigan Museum of Zoology
(UMMZ No. 177055), is from Assam. She writes
“UMMZ also has two molting males from there
that appear to be partially white-cheeked.”
Discussion
Three published sources, from well over a
century ago (between 1863 and 1890), report
breeding male blackbreasted weavers with white
feathers on their cheeks, ear-coverts and sides of
neck. It is quite possible that Oates (1883) and
Murray (1890) were quoting Jerdon (1863) in
their works. Though Baker (1922-30) mentions
that the throat and sides of neck turn practically
pure white in some very old specimens, we think
that this may not be a correct assessment for the
birds studied by us, for the breeding population
was quite large and certainly not all the breeding
males would be “very old” specimens.
Subsequent published literature is quite
inconsistent in the description of a breeding
male’s head plumage. Some authors mention and
illustrate a white throat and chin, others do not.
None describe a black throat and chin. Neither
do any refer to the white cheeks, ear-coverts and
sides of neck described by ornithologists in the
late 1800s. We wonder whether it is of any
significance that the specimens in the British
Museum, YPM and UMMZ, are all from east
India and have either traces or a definite presence
of white in their facial plumage, similar to the
birds we observed here. Do P. benghalensis males
have a different breeding plumage in different
parts of the country (north India, and east and
northeast India), which has escaped the scrutiny
of ornithologists and taxonomists, or is their
breeding plumage inconsistent due to some other
anomalies? Should hybridization of P
benghalensis with either of the other two weavers
be ruled out, as descriptions of the plumage
pattern under discussion have already been
published over a century ago? (see above). But
at that time this bird was known only from
northern and eastern India. Could there be a
relation between the populations of east Indian
birds and those found near Hyderabad, similar
to other species of the Subcontinent that have a
disjunct distribution in eastern and northeastern
India and in the Eastern Ghats and Western
Ghats, e.g. Oriolus chinensis (Abdulali 1949)?
And now, a large majority of breeding males in
Meerut (Uttar Pradesh State, northern India)
have no trace of white on their chins, etc., these
areas being dark brown in colour. We think that
a serious look at the taxonomy of Ploceus
benghalensis is called for, vis-a-vis the summer
or breeding plumage of the males under
consideration and those described in standard
books to date.
Acknowledgements
We thank Dr. Kumar Ghorpade, Dr. S.
Unnithan, Mr K. Jaganmohan Rao, Chief
Conservator of Forests, Andhra Pradesh, Mr. K
Varaprasad, Range Officer and Mr. Kameshwar
Chowdhary for their help. Mr. Raj at Bhargava,
Dr. S. Subramanya, Mr. Tim Inskipp and
Dr. Pamela Rasmussen went out of their way to
help us with crucial information and to them we
are very grateful. We thank Mr Suhel Quader
for unhesitatingly sharing his observations and
measurements of the birds. We thank the
management of ICRISAT for permission to work
on their campus.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
193
BREEDING PL DMA GE OF THE MALE BLA CKBREASTED WEA VERBIRD
Refer
Abdulali, H (1949): Some peculiarities of avifaunal
distribution in peninsular India. Proceedings of
the National Institute of Science of India 25(8):
387-393.
Ali, S. (1961): Note Books. Unpublished. National
Museum of Natural History Archives. New Delhi.
Ali, S. & S.D. Rjpley (1983): A Pictorial Guide to the
Birds of the Indian Subcontinent. Bombay Natural
History Society, Bombay.
Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Compact Handbook of the
Birds of India and Pakistan. 2nd edition. Oxford
University Press, Delhi.
Ambedkar, V.C. (1972): On the breeding biology of the
Blackthroated Ploceus benghalensis (Linnaeus)
and the Streaked Ploceus manyar flaviceps
(Lesson) weaver birds in the Kumaon terai.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 69(2): 268-282.
Baker, E.C.S. (1922-30): Fauna of British India. Birds.
2nd edn., 8 vols., Taylor & Francis, London.
Crook, J.H. (1963): The Asian weaver birds: problems
of co-existence and evolution with particular
E N C E s
reference to behaviour. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
60(1): 1-48.
Ganguli, U. (1975): A Guide to the Birds of the Delhi
Area. I.C.A.R. New Delhi.
Jerdon, T.C. (1862-4): The Birds of India. 2 vols. (3
parts). Published by the author, Calcutta.
Murray, J. ( 1888-90): The Avifauna of British India and
its Dependencies. 2 vols. Education Society Press,
Bombay.
Oates, E.W. & W.T. Blanford (1889-98): Fauna of
British India, Birds. 1st edition, 4 vols. [Vols. 1
and 2 by E.W. Oates, 1889-90 ; Vols. 3 and 4, by
W.T. Blanford, 1895, 1898] Taylor & Francis,
London.
Oates, E.W. (1883): Handbook of the Birds of British
Burmah. Vols 1 &2.
Pittie, A. & S. Taher ( 1 985): Blackbreasted weaver bird
Ploceus benghalensis observed in Hyderabad.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82(1): 206-208.
Roberts, T.J. (1992): The Birds of Pakistan. Vol. 2.
Oxford University Press, Karachi.
194
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(2) AUG. 1999
OBSERVATIONS ON THE DUGONG, DUGONG DUGON (MULLER),
IN THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS, INDIA1
H. S. Das2 and S. C. Dey3
( With two text-figures)
Key words: Dugong dugon , Andaman and Nicobar Islands, habitat protection.
The paper presents records of dugongs in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Morphological
description of an adult female caught dead in a fishing net near Hut Bay in the Little Andamans
is also given. It is concluded that the population of dugong in the islands, though not very high, is
significant and can be conserved by protecting its potential feeding grounds.
Introduction
Situated between 6-14° N and 92-94° E,
the Andaman and Nicobar Islands have large
areas of seagrass, rich in diversity, which
flourishes in clear, low-turbidity coastal waters.
At least nine species of seagrasses belonging
to six genera grow here (Das 1996). Fishes,
turtles, crustaceans and echinoderms mainly use
this habitat. Seagrass beds are also crucial for
the highly endangered marine mammal, the
dugong.
In the recent past, the urgent need to study
the seagrass habitat and its associated animal life
in Andaman and Nicobar Islands was felt by
several workers (Silas and Fernando 1985, Rao
1990). Accordingly, a study was initiated by the
Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural
History (SACON) to evaluate the habitat status,
resource potential and conservation value of this
ecosystem. The primary objective of the study
was to identify the potential seagrass habitats for
conservation, and information on dugong was
also collected during the study.
Once widely distributed, the dugong
Dugong dugon (Muller) has disappeared from
many parts of its realm and is under serious threat
Accepted January, 1998.
'Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History,
P.O. Anaikatty, Coimbatore 641 108.
Directorate of Fisheries, Port Blair,
Andaman & Nicobar Islands, India.
in most of the remaining areas. In India, dugongs
occur in the Gulf of Kutch, Gulf of Mannar, Palk
Bay and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Seagrasses being the staple food, the dugong is
intimately associated with the seagrass habitat.
Information on dugongs in the Indian
subcontinent is available for Gulf of Mannar,
Palk Bay and Gulf of Kutch. However, there are
not many records such as photographs or
morphometric descriptions of dead or live
dugong from the Andaman and Nicobar coast.
A photograph of a dead dugong from Diglipur
area was published by Rao (1990) and a
diapositive of a dugong caught dead near Hut
Bay during March 1989 is available at Zoological
Survey of India (ZSI), Port Blair (P. T. Rajan,
pers. comm.). Besides, there are a few other
reports (Bhaskar and Rao 1992, Rao 1990, James
1988, Jones 1980) which mention the presence
of dugongs in the Bay Island.
Methods
The survey was undertaken, with the help
of local fishermen and divers, from morning to
evening around the seagrass habitats of the
selected localities (Figs. 1 and 2) during 1994 and
1995 (pre- and postmonsoon periods). The sites
were sampled randomly by snorkelling and
diving, since there is no established method to
estimate dugong population size accurately in
the wild, except by aerial survey. Interview
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
195
THE DUGONG IN THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS
North Andaman
Diglipur
Middle Andaman
&($J*Ritchie's
Archipelago
Havelock
*3
South Andaman
Rutland Island
t
Little
Andaman
Hut Bay
50 km
0
N
Car Nicobar
Tarasa
Dwip
Katchall
Island
Cb
D ti1
Q
n Cami
VA Tr"
Tillanchang Dwip
Camorta
Trinket
Nancowry group of
Islands
Great Nicobar
Islands
50 km
Fig. 2: Map showing survey locations in the Nicobar
Islands
Results and Discussion
Fig. 1: Map showing survey locations in the
Andaman Islands
surveys were conducted to collect data on
encounters and sightings of dugong in the coastal
villages close to the survey area. As dugong
poaching is illegal, the local fishermen were
reluctant to share information. Hence, the
interviews were done informally in several
coastal villages covering various tribes, races and
communities of the Andaman and Nicobar Is.
The measurement of morphological features of
a dead specimen at Hut Bay was done by one of
the authors (Dey). Subsequently, we examined
the complete skeleton.
Surveys by motor boat and rowing boat
around Ritchie’s Archipelago, North Reef,
Marine National Park, Wandoor, and Diglipur
during 1994 and 1997, and Little Andaman,
Camorta, Pilo Milo, Little Nicobar and Great
Nicobar Islands during 1995 and 1997 failed to
locate dugongs in the wild. On several occasions,
bones could be examined at Maya Bunder, Port
Blair, Havelock, Hut Bay, Katchall and Camorta.
The information gathered through interviews was
very useful. Most of the tribes, namely the
Andamanese, Onges and Nicobarese traditionally
hunt dugong with iron harpoons tied to a boat
(dunghi). Shompens have no knowledge of
dugong hunting, hostile tribes (Sentinelese and
196
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
THE DUGONG IN THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS
Jarawas) were not interviewed. Settlers, though
they have no knowledge about hunting, at times
get dugong in fishing nets close to seagrass beds.
None of the tribes go for regular dugong hunting
because of the time and effort it takes to catch
one. The settlers from the mainland of India are
mostly Hindus (Bengali and Hindi speaking) and
do not like dugong meat as it looks and tas.tes
like beef. Though there are no religious taboos
preventing them from eating dugong meat, the
settlers prefer fish. Hence killing is very often
unintentional. To avoid legal problems, if an
animal is caught dead in the fishing net, settlers/
non tribals hand it over to the tribes who are
exempted from the Wildlife (Protection) Act,
1972.
Table 1
INTERVIEW SURVEYS ON DUGONG SIGHTING
BY FISHERMEN AND DIVERS DURING 1990-1 995.
* sporadic sightings reported, but numbers not confirmed.
! As the distance between Hut Bay (Little Andamans) and
Dugong creek is only 1 8 km in the sea, it is presumed that
the same population of five animals cover both the areas.
The fishermen and regular divers had
sightings of five dugongs on separate occasions
between 1990 and 1994, along the north-western
side of Camorta Island, five sightings near
Dugong Creek and Hut Bay (five individuals),
and four specimens each around Little Nicobar
(Pilo Milo side) and Great Nicobar Islands.
Moreover, around Ritchie’s Archipelago, a group
of five or six dugongs were seen by fishermen
and divers on at least five separate occasions
during 1990-1997 and six near Landfall island
on regular basis. Thus, the number of dugongs
living around the island groups are estimated to
be around 40 (Table 1 ). However, a detailed study,
preferably an aerial survey along the coast with
expert help is essential to ascertain reliably the
population size.
On February 19, 1997, a dugong was
caught and brought dead to the shore at Hut Bay,
Little Andamans. Since the net was laid 500 m
offshore near the 11 km stop at 1700 h on
February 18, 1997 and the animal was noticed
dead in the net next morning at 0430 h, it must
have got entangled and died any time during that
period. Probably, the dugong had come to feed,
as evidenced by the presence of surrounding
seagrass patches and the stomach contents of the
animal. When it was brought ashore, the Asst.
Fisheries Development Officer (co-author of this
paper) was informed. He reached the site
immediately and prevented the fishermen from
distributing the meat and bones. The dugong,
an adult female (length: 2.63 m and weight: 250
kg), was buried under sand after recording
morphometric details (Table 2). The complete
skeleton was exhumed later and kept in the
fisheries office at Hut Bay. The skeleton was
examined in detail in May 1997.
Dugongs were common in the 1950s, but
the population has dropped drastically in the
recent past, as evidenced by sporadic sightings
and rare records of poaching. The primary reason
for this decrease in this island group is habitat
loss, which has resulted from increasing heavy
boat traffic, faulty land use practices such as
conversion of forests to banana, areca nut and
coconut plantations. Natural calamities like
cyclones and high energy tidal storms may also
be partly responsible. In fact, a wounded and
dead dugong was noticed by Andaman Public
Works Department workers near Pilo Kunji of the
Great Nicobar Islands in July 1 989 after a cyclone.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
197
THEDUGONGIN THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS
Table 2
MORPHOMETRIC DETAILS OF THE DUGONG
CAUGHT DEAD IN A FISHING NET
ON FEB. 1 9 1 997 AT HUT BAY
This study concludes that dugongs are less
abundant than in the recent past. Although their
numbers are highly reduced and large
populations are seen no more, dugongs still exist
at least around Ritchie’s Archipelago, North
Reef, Little Andamans, Camorta (Allimpong,
Trinket and Pilpilow), Little Nicobar and parts
of the Great Nicobar Is. On the basis of the data
Refer
Bhaskar, S & G.C. Rao (1992): Present status of some
endangered animals in Nicobar Islands. J. Andaman
Sci. Assoc. 8(2): 181-186.
Das, H S. (1996): Status of seagrass habitats of the
Andaman and Nicobar coast. SACON Technical Report
No. 4. pp 32.
Jam^s, D. B. (1988): Some observations and remarks on
the endangered marine animals of Andaman and
Nicobar Islands. Proc. Symp. Endangered Marine
Animal and Marine Parks, Cochin , 1985(1): 337-340.
Jones, S. (1980): The dugong or the so called mermaid.
collected, we propose that the following measures
should be taken for the conservation of du-
gongs in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands:
(1) initiation of environment education
programmes in the coastal villages, (2) protection
of potential dugong habitats and enforcing strict
legislation to protect dugongs in and around then-
feeding habitats by restricting human activities
such as fishing and trafficking, and (3) regular
monitoring of the dugong population. The study
also advocates the necessity of an aerial survey
of dugong populations to determine its current
status, and to undertake long term monitoring
thereafter.
Acknowledgements
The paper is part of the project “Status of
the seagrass habitats of the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands” sponsored by the Ministry of
Environment and Forests, Govt, of India. Help
rendered by the Forest department and Fisheries
Department of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands
during the survey is gratefully acknowledged.
iNCES
Dugong dugon (Muller) of the Indo-Sri Lankan Water-
problems of research and conservation. Spol. Zeylan.
(Colombo Museum centenary volume) 35 (J&2):
223-260.
Silas, E. G. & A.B. Fernando (1985): The Dugong in India
— Is it going the way of the Dodo? Proc. Symp.
Endangered Marine Animal and Marine Parks,
Cochin , 1985, 1: 167-176.
Rao, G C. (1990): Present status of the sea cow, Dugong
dugon (Muller) in Bay Islands. J. Andaman Sci. Assoc.
6(2): 181-186.
198
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
ICHTHYOFAUNA OF ERAVIKULAM NATIONAL PARK WITH NOTES ON
TROUT CULTURE IN RAJAMALAI, MUNNAR, KERALA1
K. Raju Thomas, C.R. Biju, C.R. Ajithkumar2 and M. John George3
( With five text-figures)
Key words: Ichthyofauna, distribution, trout culture, Eravikulam National Park,
Rajamalai, trout hatchery.
The status and distribution of fishes in the Eravikulam National Park, Kerala were studied.
Only four species viz. Garra hughi, Horalabiosa joshuai, Nemacheilus keralensis and
Salmo gairdnerii, belonging to three families were recorded from the Park. This may be
due to high altitude, low water temperature and high gradient. Except for the exotic Salmo
gairdnerii , these species are endemic to the southern Western Ghats, especially to southern
Kerala. Some observations on of trout culture are included.
Introduction
Eravikulam National Park is situated in
Idukki dist., Kerala. The Eravikulam Plateau and
the adjacent areas in the high ranges of Kerala
were the lease lands of the Kannan Devan Hills
Produce Co. The Park is famous for sustaining
the largest surviving population of the
endangered Nilgiri tahr, Hemitragus hylocrius.
This area was declared a Sanctuary in 1972.
Because of its outstanding ecological, faunal,
flora, geomorphological and zoological
significance, the area was declared a National
Park in 1978 (Nair 1991). The Park has extensive
grasslands interspersed with evergreen shola
forests. Eravikulam supports the largest
population of the Nilgiri tahr in the world, a
viable population that exists without human
interference. Anamudi Peak (2694 m), the
highest point south of the Himalayas falls in the
southern parts of the Park.
Eravikulam National Park is located at 10°
8' N - 10° 19' N lat. and 77° O' E - 77° 8' E long,
and lies in Devikulam taluk of Idukki dist.,
Kerala. It is bounded by the old Kannan Devan
Hills Produce village along the ridges through
'Accepted October, 1 998
Bombay Natural History Society,
Hombill House, S.B. Singh Road,
Mumbai 400023.
'MarThoma College, Perumbavoor, Ernakulam,
Kerala 685 542.
Kattumudi and Perumamalai in the east;
northern boundaries of Chattamunnar,
Nyamakad and Vaguvarai estates of Tata Tea
Co. in the south; old Kannan Devan Hills
Produce village ridges through Rajamalai,
Sambamalai and Kolukkumalai in the west. The
northern boundary coincides with the interstate
boundary between Tamil Nadu and Kerala
(Fig. 1). The average elevation of the park is
2000 m above msl. The main plateau is divided
roughly in half from northwest to southeast by
Turner’s Valley. The park is criss-crossed by
small perennial streams of Periyar and Pambar
rivers, of which Periyar is a west flowing river
while Pambar is an east flowing one. The average
annual rainfall is 4800 mm: it is one of the wettest
areas on earth. Perennial streams, wetlands and
marshes increase the ambient water. The isolated
sholas act like sponges, giving out water
throughout the year.
Results of Faunal Survey:
Samples were collected during December,
1997 and February, 1998 to study the status and
distribution of fishes in the streams of
Eravikulam National Park. Fish sampling was
carried out using cast nets, hooks and a modified
form of cast net for small fishes. The specimens
were preserved in 10% formalin. Only four
species were collected from the Eravikulam
National Park; all are typical freshwater fishes.
Compared to the other National Park and
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
199
ICHTHYOFA UNA OF ERA VIKULAM N A TIONAL PARK
IT O' 77° 8’
Fig. 1: Map of Eravikulam National Park showing
various collection sites
Sanctuaries in Kerala, the fish diversity of
Eravikulam National Park is much less. This may
be due to high altitude, low water temperature
and high gradient. All the streams, including the
Eravikulam before the introduction of the
Rainbow trout, Salmo gciirdnerii , were full of
an indigenous fish, Glyptothorax
madraspatanus. This fish species was not
represented in collections. The following species
were recorded from the Park:
List of species (Figs. 2, 3, 4, 5)
Family: Cyprinidae
1 . Garra hughi Silas
2. Horalabiosa joshuai Silas
Family: Balitoridae
3. Nemacheilus keralensis
(Rita & Nalbant)
Family: Salmonidae
4. Salmo gairdnerii Richardson
1. Garra hughi was collected only from
Eravikulam stream, a small tributary of Pambar
river. It was originally reported from lower
Vauguvarae estate, Travancore, Kerala br Silas
)1954), in whose original description scales were
absent on mid-dorsal streak. Recently Rema Devi
observed that the type specimen does have scales
on the mid-dorsal streak (pers. comm.). Our
specimens also had scales on the mid-dorsal
streak.
2. Horalabiosa joshuai was described by
Silas (1953) from the head- waters of Tamrapann
river at Singampatty in the Western Ghats of
Tirunelveli dist. Tamil Nadu. Raju Thomas et
al. (1999) have reported this species from
Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary area of Pambar river.
This is the second report of this species from
Kerala.
3. Nemacheilus keralensis was distributed
in almost all streams inside the Park. So far it
has been reported only from high altitude streams
and is considered a typical hill stream fish. The
type locality is Pampadampara, near Munnar,
Kerala.
4. The Rainbow trout, Salmo gairdnerii
was introduced into India from United Kingdom,
New Zealand and Sri Lanka in 1869 (Talwar and
Jhingran 1991). The young of S. gairdnerii were
stocked in different streams of Eravikulam
National Park and nearby reservoirs. They are
now well established there.
Physical features of the habitat, viz. width,
depth, substrate distribution, land use pattern,
nature of water and flow rate were assessed at
various collection sites. The water temperature
ranged between 13°-18°C and is the most
important factor for the survival of the above
species, especially trout. During the sampling
time the flow of water ranged between 20-25 cm/
sec; width and depth of streams were less, i.e. 2-
4 m and 10-25 cm respectively. Around most of
the collection sites, there were tea and eucalyptus
plantations and southern montane wet grassland
with small patches of montane wet temperate
200
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
ICHTHYOFA UNA OF ERA VIKULAM NATIONAL PARK
Fig. 2: Garra hughi Silas
Fig. 3: Horalabiosa joshu&i Silas
Fig. 4: Nemacheilus keralensis
(Rita & Nalbant)
Fig. 5: Salmo gairdnerii Richardson
forests known as ‘ Shotas’. Water is almost clear
in all the streams. Regarding the substratum,
mud, sand and detritus were less compared to
gravel, cobble, boulder and bedrock. The pH
ranged around 6.9 and the DO values ranged
between 6 and 7 ppm.
Trout culture in Rajamalai
Fish culture in the uplands of India began
with the introduction of exotic fishes in 1899.
The first ever hatchery for Brown Trout in India
was made by Mitchell (Jhingran & Sehgal 1978).
Artificial propagation of trout is practised to meet
the stocking requirements of streams lakes and
reservoirs for angling, and for food. A trout
hatchery was established at Rajamalai, 20 km,
from Munnar. This hatchery is still the mainstay
of the High Range Angling Association. Salmo
gairdnerii is cultured here.
Acceptable sources of water for a trout farm
are springs, streams, rivers and lakes, of which
spring water is considered ideal. Due to
fluctuation in water temperature throughout the
year, water from rheocrene (running) springs and
limnocrene (located in depressions) springs are
more suitable. There should also be moderate
rainfall, moderate gradients, moderate foliage
cover, uniform temperature, adequate limestone
and other mineral deposits, absence of grazing,
mining etc., provision of underground hatchery
intake from source of water supply, provision of
underground pipelines in the hatchery to
minimise temperature changes, and covering of
the water supply channels to prevent surface
contamination (Jhingran and Sehgal 1978). In
Rajamalai trout farm, the water is supplied by
the Anamudi stream and almost all conditions
mentioned above are maintained here. The
optimum temperature ranges between 1 2°- 1 6°C.
The spawning season of trout varies to with
the temperature of the water. For rainbow trout,
the spawning season is September to February.
Rainbow Trout shows sexual dimorphism
(Jhingran and Sehgal 1978), when the sexes
attain maturity.
Prior to egg-taking the cock fish (males)
and hen fish (females) are kept in separate tubs
and the water is changed by fresh drawal from a
stream. The egg-taking is done by applying
gentle pressure on the belly of the fish. The
released eggs and milt are transferred to
spawning pans. This is followed by shocking,
which is the process of hastening the whitening
of infertile eggs, which are otherwise non-
discemible, so that they can be removed quickly
from the tray. The eggs are agitated to speed up
coagulation, by stirring them in the hatching tray
with bare hands or siphoning through a common
garden hose. After the shock, dead eggs are
removed with a pipette. This is called egg-
picking.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
201
ICHTHYOFA UNA OF ERAVIKULAMNA TIONAL PARK
After the trout eggs are water hardened and
counted, they are transferred to a hatchery for
incubation. In the Rajamalai hatchery, unpainted
concrete is used as trough for incubation. The
rate of trout egg development is dependent on
water temperature. Incubating eggs pass through
several stages of which four are well marked.
They are: Green egg, Eyed egg, Sac-fry or Alevin
and Swim-up fry.
Sanitation is very important in a trout
hatchery. Fungal infection is the greatest foe of
trout and is difficult to prevent it from spreading.
To avoid this, dead eggs must be carefully
removed from the tray every morning. A mixture
of salt and potassium permanganate is used to
prevent diseases in Rajamalai hatchery. Based
on studies conducted in various parts of the
world, the most satisfactory results are achieved
with malachite green.
Ponds for rearing trout are of diverse sizes
and designs. An ideal trout pond is deep with a
little current most of the time, but can be readily
converted into a shallow swift pond when
necessary. The troughs being shallow, fry cannot
be kept there for an indefinite period and hence
the need to transfer them to nursery ponds. The
usual size of a nursery tank in Rajamalai is 5 x 1
x 0.75 m. Once the fry have grown to fingerling
size, they are transferred to larger growing ponds
and raceways. A raceway is usually an elongated
artificial body of water. A natural raceway is like
an oblong trench with earth walls and bottoms.
Each raceway can be connected to a series of
other raceways.
Refer
Jhingran, V.G. & K.L. Sehgal (1 978): Coldwater Fisheries
of India. Inland Fisheries Society of India,
Barrackpore. pp. 239.
Mackay, W.S.S. & H.A. Ragg(1945): Trout of Travancore.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 45(3): 352-373.
Nair, S.C. (1991): The southern Western Ghats. A
Biodiversity conservation Plan. INTACH, New
Delhi, pp. 92.
Rajtj Thomas, K., C.R. Biju & C.R. Ajtthkumar (1999):
Additions to the fish fauna of Pambar river, Kerala.
One of the most important aspects of
rearing pond management is to assess their
carrying capacities in advance so as to determine
stocking rates. Oxygen consumption and basal
metabolic rate which a given water flow can
support are crucial in estimating the quantity of
fish in a hatchery.
Acknowledgements
We thanks the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service and the Ministry of Environment and
Forests for sponsoring the project on “Ecology
of the hillstreams of the Western Ghats with
special reference to fish community”; this
paper is a part of the study carried out under
this project. We thank Mr. J.C. Daniel, Honorary
Secretary, Dr. Asad Rahmani, Director and
Dr. B.F. Chhapgar of the BNHS for
encouragement. We also thank Mr. Manoharan,
C.C.F. Kerala Forest Department and Mr. Mohan
Alampath, Wildlife Warden, Munnar for
permission to enter the Park and for
accommodation; Tata Tea Co. for permission to
see the trout hatchery and for details regarding
its culture practices.
We thank Dr. Neil B, Armantrout, U.S.
FWS, Dr. K. Rema Devi, Scientist ZSI, Chennai
for confirming our identifications, Dr. R.
Sugathan, Zoological Research Station.
Thattekad Bird Sanctuary, Kerala, Drs. C.K.G.
Nair and Sunny George, Limnological
Association of Kerala and Dr. N.D. Inasu, Christ
College, Irinjalakuda.
E N C E S
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 96(2): 332-334.
Silas, E.G. (1953): New fishes from the Western Ghats,
with notes on Puntius arulius (Jerson). Rec. Ind.
Mus. 51:21-31.
Silas, E.G. (1954): Garra hughi , a new cyprinid fish from
the Western Ghats, peninsular India, with notes on
its bionomics. Rec. Ind. Mus. 52: 1-14.
Talwar, P.K. & V.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland Fishes of
India and Adjacent Countries. Vols. 1 & 2. Oxford
and IBH Publishing Co., New Delhi, pp. 1158.
202
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
THE BIRDS OF GOA1
Heinz Lainer2
( With one text-figure)
Key words: ornithological survey, populations, Goa, breeding records, migration
This annotated checklist is the result of 13 years of intensive field study, including 1300
field trips, starting from 1 980. The avifauna of Goa has been studied in terms of popula-
tions, number of sightings, migratory and breeding records if present. These have been
compared with the records of previous decades, starting in 1972. The differences in the
observations over these two decades have been discussed, to provide an overview of the
avifauna of Goa.
Introduction
Little work has been done on Goa’s
avifauna. The Portuguese who ruled the tiny
territory on India’ s West Coast from 1 5 1 0 to 1 96 1
were, unlike their British counterparts, less
interested in birds as objects of scientific study
than in their nutritious and culinary properties!
This attitude seems to have rubbed off on their
colonial subjects of 451 years, and is still
prevalent.
In 1972, however, the Government of the
erstwhile Union Territory of Goa, Daman and
Diu commissioned the Bombay Natural History
Society to conduct an ornithological survey. This
led to a 1 6-day field trip by Dr. Salim Ali and
R.B. Grubh at the end of 1972. Work was almost
entirely restricted to the belt of dense evergreen
and moist deciduous forests along the Western
Ghats, and consisted mainly of collecting
specimens, resulting in the publication of a
systematic list comprising 154 species (Grubh
and Ali 1975). Ulhas Rane visited the same area
thrice, for a couple of weeks altogether, in 1981-
82 and added a further 33 species to this list
(Rane 1982)
This annotated checklist is the result of 13
years of fairly intensive field studies and about
'Accepted February, 1998
" Praias de St. Antonio
Anjuna 403 509
Goa
1300 field trips of both short and extended
duration, commencing in 1980. The author,
admittedly an amateur ornithologist, found his
occupation an extremely lonely one, having never
come across a birdwatcher of either Indian or
foreign provenance over a span of nine years.
However, with the advent of low-priced direct
charter flights from Europe to Goa in the late
eighties there is a rapidly growing number of
mostly British birdwatchers visiting, usually for
two or three weeks only. They are of the fast
moving and competitive ‘life list’ type, generally
well informed about India’s avifauna, extremely
keen and sharp-sighted. In their desire to notch
up as many ‘new’ species as possible, in the very
short time available, they frequently get carried
away and tend to make blatant misidentifications
which are then mirrored in the photocopied
leaflets about their exploits that they publish,
circulate, and sell among birdwatchers in Britain.
It was only recently when Gordon Frost, a
knowledgeable, scrupulous field worker, settled
in Goa that I was able to join forces with a fellow
birdwatcher.
Geographical outline
Goa is a narrow strip of land 3,701 sq.km
in area, 105 km long and up to 65 km wide. It is
flanked by the Arabian Sea to the West and the
Western Ghats (or Sahyadris) to the East. It lies
between 15°48'00" N and 14° 53’54" N lat. and
between 74°20T3" E and 73° 40'33" E long.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
203
THE BIRDS OF GOA
Physical features and vegetation types
For an ornithological survey, Goa is most
conveniently split into three main physical
divisions, i.e., the coastal belt, the midland region
and the Western Ghats.
1. The coastal belt: Goa's 133 km long
coastline is characteristic of South Konkan, with
its sandy bays, beaches and rocky headlands
broken by the wide estuaries of the Mandovi and
Zuari rivers and interspersed with minor
estuaries. Behind the coast stretches a patchwork
quilt of paddy fields, well-wooded villages,
groves of coconut palms and evergreen leafy
trees, creeks, saltpans, saline and freshwater
marshes. Along the larger rivers, this coastal
habitat extends into the interior as far as tidal
influence reaches (over 40 km), forming inland
bays of brackish and saline marshes. Over 2,000 ha
of mangroves line Goa’s creeks and estuaries.
2 . The midland region: Central Goa consists
by and large of lateritic plateaus 30-200 m high,
with their outlying detached elements abutting in
several places as headlands into the sea. They
are covered with stunted cashew trees, thorny
scrub and coarse grass, while the scarp-faces,
especially the hollows and gullies, support
patches and strands of remnant semi-evergreen
forest. Numerous perennial springs feed intensive
cultivation of areca, coconut, spice, fruit and
paddy in the often terraced valleys. A good part
of this region is indelibly scarred and irreversibly
degraded by large scale open cast and strip
mining of iron and manganese ore.
3. The Western Ghats: The Sahyadris in
Goa extend in a 125 km long arc, with a Crestline
constituting the eastern border with Karnataka.
About 600 sq. km in area, they have an average
elevation of 800 m above msl, several hundred
metres lower than the adjoining sections, thereby
creating the ‘Goa gap’. The northern part is of
the Deccan trap type with horizontally layered
vertical cliff-faces reminiscent of South
Maharashtrian hill-stations like Amboli, while
the southern and larger part consists of the
rounded and densely wooded hills characteristic
of the northern Uttar Kanara Ghats. Tropical wet
evergreen forest occurs in strands and patches
in the deeper valleys over about 200 sq.km.
Tropical moist deciduous forests account for
approx. 400 sq.km.
Climate
The maritime, monsoon type climate of
Goa is equable and moist or humid throughout
the year. Except for the monsoon season, it is
temperate, with little demarcation between the
cold and hot weather periods.
Annual rainfall is 250-320 cm along the
coast and 510-760 cm on the higher slopes of
the Ghats. Over 90% of precipitation occurs
during the SW monsoon from June to September.
Seasonal variation in temperature is slight:
May, the hottest month, has a mean daily
temperature of ca. 30° C, January, the coolest, ca.
25° C. Due to the proximity of the sea, the diurnal
range of temperature is not large (4-6° C during
monsoon and 10-12° C in January-February).
Relative humidity is high, even during the
dry season it is generally above 60%.
Conservation
Since Goa’s liberation from colonial rule
in 1961, several measures were taken by the
government to protect wildlife, with varying
results. During the decade after liberation, the
most effective means of protection has proved to
be the politically motivated unavailability of
ammunition for the large number of firearms left
by the Portuguese in the hands of the landed and
affluent class.
In 1967, a 240 sq.km area of prime wet
evergreen, semi-evergreen and moist deciduous
forest on and below the slope of the Western
Ghats was notified as the Bhagwan Mahaveer
Wildlife Sanctuary (BMWS). This includes the
Mollem, Collem and Dudhsagar areas largely
covered by the previous ornithological
204
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
THE BIRDS OF GOA
investigations. This sanctuary is still unspoiled,
but is being increasingly opened up to
government sponsored tourism which will ensure
its degradation. Mammalian wildlife has
recovered to an amazing degree from near non-
existence at the end of the colonial era and since
Grubh and Ali (1975) commented on its sorry
state in the early seventies.
The Bondla Wildlife Sanctuary, a small
area of 8 sq.km in a cluster of outlying hills, is
an obvious misnomer. Detached from the main
body of the Western Ghats, it features an
abysmally ill-kept zoo, a botanical garden and
an attached government-run tourist resort,
making it one of Goa’s favourite picnic spots but
hardly a wildlife sanctuary. Though surrounded
by extensive open cast iron mines, the moist
deciduous forests beyond the sanctuary limits
harbour a surprisingly rich birdlife typical of the
middle section of the Western Ghats.
The Cotigao Wildlife Sanctuary at Goa’s
southern border to the Uttar Kanara district of
Karnataka is 105 sq.km in size and consists of
mainly riverine semi-evergreen and moist
deciduous forests, interspersed with large tracts
under rubber, eucalyptus and teak plantations and
a sprinkling of hamlets whose mostly tribal
population is not yet weaned away from its
traditional slash-and-bum method of cultivation.
Poaching and large-scale illegal tree felling are
rampant.
The western end of Chorao (Tiswadi), an
alluvial island in the inland estuary of the
Mandovi river, was only recently notified as the
Dr. Salim Ali Bird Sanctuary. Its 1.8 sq. km
consist of the last sizeable mangrove forest in
Goa’s coastal belt, and is therefore worth
protecting, but it contains no avian life worth
mentioning.
On the other hand there is Carambolim
lake, a freshwater village tank of 0.7 sq. km,
situated close to the World Heritage site of Old
Goa. Throughout the year, it sustains a large and
varied population of resident waterfowl and in
winter an immense number of migratory ducks,
well over 35,000 in normal years and over 75,000
in the winter of 1987-88, when large parts of
India were affected by drought, while Goa had
the benefit of an adequate monsoon. The
Carambolim lake has been shown by way of the
Asian mid-winter waterfowl count (Daniel 1 988)
to be the major wintering quarter of migratory
ducks in peninsular India, and one of the most
important in the Subcontinent. Under the Ramsar
Convention, which India signed in 1982, this
village tank would qualify for inclusion in the
list of about 300 protected wetlands of
international importance the world over. Yet, the
Goa government deems it unfit even to be
declared a bird sanctuary!
The most effective means of protection
appears to be private ownership. At Corlim
(Tiswadi), close to the Carambolim lake, the
Swiss-owned Hindustan Ciba-Geigy Ltd.
produces at its Santa Monica plant a range of
highly toxic pesticides for agricultural use. The
large factory compound contains two shallow
ponds that give undisturbed shelter to Goa’s only
known heronry, and a safe haven to quite a
number of migrant and vagrant Ciconiidae and
Threskiornithidae. Despite the tight security
around the plant, ornithologists are encouraged
by the General Manager, himself an amateur
birdwatcher, to visit the site.
A Note on the Systematic List
— All observations and records, if not
mentioned otherwise, are by the author.
— The number in brackets after the serial
number of each species refers to the
“Synopsis number” of Ali and Ripley
(1995).
— I have followed the sequence used in the
Synopsis (Ripley 1982) by inserting the
species numbered 429-44 between nos. 361
and 362.
— To facilitate locating places on a detailed
map, the name of the taluka (an
administrative unit) is added in brackets.
— Quantitative terms used in the text:
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
205
THE BIRDS OF GOA
Fig. 1 : Map of Goa (with Wildlife Sanctuaries and other places of ornithological interest)
206
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
THE BIRDS OF GOA
BMWS: Bhagwan Mahaveer Wildlife
Sanctuary
HCGL: Hindustan Ciba- Geigy Ltd.
at Corlim (Tiswadi)
Systematic list of birds
(Unconfirmed records of birds that
are difficult to identify in the field and records
within 5 km beyond Goa’s borders are appended.)
1 . (5) Little Grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis
(Pallas)
Resident in moderate numbers. Thinly
spread over the freshwater bodies of the
coastal belt, though one specimen was observed
in the totally saline estuary of the Tirakol
river. Small numbers breed from July to
February.
2. (14) Wilson’s Storm Petrel Oceanites
oceanicus (Kuhl)
Passage migrant in probably large
numbers. Migration along Goa’s coast starts in
mid-August and peaks in the first week of
September, when a sweep with a field-scope
rarely shows less than 20 birds foraging and
moving southward at a sedate pace ( ca . 200-300 m
offshore). The last stragglers are seen in early
October.
3. (23) Masked Booby Sula dactylatra
Lesson
Vagrant. Davidson (1898) ‘obtained a
specimen of this bird at Sadasheogarh on June
23, 1893. It was blown ashore and captured
alive.’ Sadasheogarh, now renamed Sada-
shivgad, is North Kanara’s northernmost coastal
village, and borders on Goa.
On August 4, 1997, I observed a masked
booby ca. 300 m. offshore at Anjuna (Bardez).
4. (25) Brown Booby S. leucogaster
(Boddaert)
Vagrant. In early June 1997, I observed
an adult bird coming in and settling just beyond
the surf-line off Anjuna Beach, possibly a storm-
blown specimen, as the previous day a cyclonic
depression had crossed over from the northern
Arabian Sea into Saurashtra. This appears to be
only the second record from India’s West Coast
(Handbook 1:34 35).
5. (26) Cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo
(Linn.)
Rare visitor. Ones and twos were observed
in the HCGL compound at Corlim (Tiswadi)
during June, September, December and January.
6. (27) Indian ShagP. fuscicollis Stephens
Breeding visitor. Moderate numbers (up to
100 pairs) breed annually in the heronry inside
the HCGL compound from mid- July to end of
January.
7. (28) Little Cormorant P. niger (Vieillot)
An increasingly common and considerably
numerous resident. In the dry season, the
population is evenly spread out over wetlands of
the coastal region (occasionally up to the base of
the Western Ghats). With the onset of the SW
monsoon, these birds congregate at a pond inside
the HCGL compound, where about 200 pairs
breed between late June and early December.
8. (29) Darter Anhinga rufa (Daudin)
Apparently a regular breeding visitor. Up to
10 birds arrive by end May at the HCGL heronry
and breed there from end June to early November.
Usually by mid-December all birds have left.
9. (36) Grey Heron Ardea cinerea Linn.
Moderately common non-breeding
resident, found throughout the coastal belt.
During the SW monsoon, the few birds that have
not evaded the rains gather at the fringes of the
heronry at Corlim (Tiswadi).
10. (37) Purple Heron A purpurea Linn.
Rather uncommon and moderately
numerous resident of the coastal belt and river
basins as far as tidal influence reaches. Up to 35
pairs breed regularly in the HCGL heronry
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
207
THE BIRDS OF GOA
between mid-May and early October.
11. (38) Little Green Heron Ardeola
striatus (Linn.)
Common and considerably numerous
resident of the coastal strip, from offshore islands
and rocky sea-shore ascending the tidal rivers
and creeks up to 15 km inland. Also found at
saltpans and rock-strewn freshwater streams.
Fledglings were seen in May.
12. (42) Pond Heron A. grayii (Sykes)
Resident and local migrant. One of the
most common and numerous birds of Goa, less
so during monsoon. Found from offshore islands
to streams in dense evergreen forest along the
Western Ghats strip. Uncommon breeder during
the SW monsoon.
13. (44) Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis (Linn.)
A common and numerous dry season
visitor ranging from the coastal belt to the foot
of the Ghats. Up to 2,000 birds may congregate
at the Carambolim tank in April before moving
out in the first week of June to evade the rains.
They return towards mid- September when the
worst of the monsoon is over.
14. (46) Large Egret Ardea alba Linn.
Fairly uncommon resident in moderate
numbers. Confined to the coastal belt where up
to 50 individuals may be encountered in a single
marsh. About the same numbers breed between
late April and mid-September at the heronry in
the HCGL compound.
1 5 . (47) Smaller Egret Egretta intermedia
(Wagler)
A common and moderately numerous local
migrant. Restricted to the coastal belt and river
basins. Most birds absent themselves during the
SW monsoon, from mid- June to mid-September,
presumably moving up into the Deccan.
16. (49) Little Egret E. garzetta (Linn.)
Common and very numerous dry season
visitor, from just behind the sea-shore to the base
of the Western Ghats. These egrets leave by mid-
June and return towards mid-September with
only a few individuals staying on during the
rains.
17. (50) Indian Reef Heron E. gularis
(Bose)
A dry season visitor, commonly occurs in
moderate numbers, along the sea-shore and
inland estuaries of the larger rivers, where over
a hundred may congregate on tidal mudflats. The
reef heron’s pre-monsoon withdrawal lasts from
mid- April till the first week of June when all the
birds have disappeared, only to return from mid-
September onwards. Although Dharmakumar-
sinhji and Lavkumar (1956) reported an
enigmatic ‘heronry of reef herons right in the
centre of the Oyster Rock off Kaiwar’ just a dozen
km south of Goa, there is no indication of their
breeding anywhere in Goa.
18. (52) Night Heron Nycticorax
nycticorax (Linn.)
Uncommon winter visitor in small
numbers. There are just a dozen or so records,
ranging from the end of October to mid-March,
all from the coastal belt and river basins. Hume
(1876) mentioned to have seen a ‘colony’ of night
herons on St. George’s Island off Bogmalo Beach
(Marmagoa) but does not say if they were
breeding. However, there was certainly no
breeding colony in Goa for the last 17 years.
19. (53) Malay Bittern Gorsachius
melanolophus (Raffles)
I observed a single Malay bittern in semi-
evergreen forest at the foot of the Anmod Ghat,
in the BMWS, in July 1985, at the height of the
SW monsoon. Davidson ( 1 898) reported to ‘have
seen the bird at ...Anshi..., all in May, and at
many places round Karwar in the rains’. Both
locations are only a dozen km to the south of
Goa.
20. (56) Chestnut Bittern Ixohrychus
cinnamomeus (Gmelin)
A fairly common and moderately
numerous monsoon visitor that is found in paddy
fields, at ponds and mangrove- lined creeks, from
just behind the sea-shore to the base of the Ghats.
This bittern makes its appearance towards the
end of June and winds up its season by mid-
October, unseasonal records being few.
208
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
THE BIRDS OF GOA
2 1 . (57) Yellow Bittern I. sinensis (Gmelin)
Status unclear. There were a number of
sightings of two adults and an immature bird at
a patch of sea-holly in a saline marsh along the
Baga (Bardez) creek, between December 1995
and May 1996.
22. (60) Painted Stork Mycteria
leucocephala (Pennant)
Stray. Throughout March 1997, up to 4
birds were seen in marshes at Shiroda (Ponda)
and at their night-roost in the HCGL compound
at Corlim (Tiswadi).
23. (61) Openbill Stork Anastomus
oscitans (Boddaert)
An uncommon and rather irregular dry
season visitor to the coastal belt and river basins;
up to 60 birds were counted in a single marsh.
In recent years, appearances and even
oversummering seem to be more frequent.
24. (62) White-necked Stork Ciconia
episcopus (Boddaert)
Uncommon, but regular dry season visitor
in moderate numbers. Met with at creeks and
marshes of the coastal region, where up to 55
individuals may congregate. Occasionally seen
soaring along or above the crest of the Sahyadris.
Their habitual night-roost is at the HCGL
compound. Not yet recorded between early June
and mid-October.
25. (63) White Stork C. ciconia (Linn.)
Vagrant. A single adult was observed
soaring above the Dudhsagar waterfalls, in the
BMWS, and resting in the HCGL compound at
Corlim (Tiswadi), in February 1998.
26. (65) Black Stork C. nigra (Linn.)
Vagrant. An adult and an immature
specimen were recorded in January 1998 at the
ponds in the HCGL compound.
27. (68) Lesser Adjutant Leptoptilos
javanicus (Horsfield)
Small numbers (up to 18 in a group) of
this rather scarce visitor are found regularly at
wetlands situated between the Zuari and Mandovi
rivers, the focal point being the HCGL heronry.
One bird was seen circling low over secondary
forest at the base of the Western Ghats. Not yet
recorded during June-July.
28. (69) White Ibis Threskiornis
aethiopica (Latham)
Rather rare visitor in very small numbers.
Liable to turn up at any season, on freshwater
bodies throughout the coastal belt and river
basins.
29. (71) Glossy Ibis Plegadis falcinellus
(Linn.)
Scarce winter visitor in moderate numbers.
Since 1988, this species appears irregularly in
singles and groups of up to 72 individuals at
riverine freshwater marshes of the coastal region.
30. (72) Spoonbill Platalea leucorodia
(Linn.)
Straggler. There are 8 records of up to 1 9
birds from the Carambolim lake and the ponds
in the HCGL compound, all during March, May
and June.
31. (88) Lesser Whistling Teal
Dendrocygna javanica (Horsfield)
A resident in small numbers, and a dry
season visitor in considerable numbers. Found
at wetlands of the coastal belt and river basins,
and occasionally seen travelling over the open
sea along the coastline. Gatherings of up to 800
birds are not uncommon at the Carambolim lake;
the highest number, 1300+ ducks, was recorded
at the HCGL ponds in March. These birds are
absent from the end of April till late August,
though a dozen or so hang on throughout the
monsoon, now and then. Breeding is rare, seen
in August-September.
32. (90) Ruddy Shelduck Tadonia
ferruginea (Pallas)
I have had only three sightings of up to
20 birds, from different wetlands in the river
basins, in November-December.
33. (93) Pintail Anas acuta Linn.
A regular winter visitor in very large
numbers, occurs sporadically in wetlands of the
river basins, mainly at the Carambolim lake and
on mudflats in the nearby inland-estuary of
Mandovi, with maximum numbers (Jan. -Feb.)
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
209
THE BIRDS OF GOA
averaging close to 35,000 over a period of 6 years.
More than 70,000 birds were estimated to be
present for a couple of weeks in January 1988,
the largest single number recorded in the area
covered by the annual Asian Mid-winter
Waterfowl Count for this year (Daniel 1988).
Apparently, the drought conditions prevailing in
northern India had forced the birds further south
into the peninsula, where wetlands were filled
by a more than sufficient monsoon.
The majority of pintails arrive in the first
week of October and leave by late March, with
one or two drakes lingering on right into the
rains.
34. (94) Common Teal A. crecca Linn.
Uncommon winter visitor in small
numbers. Found at wetlands of the coastal region
from the end of October till early April, in flocks
ranging up to 200 (at the Carambolim lake).
35. (97) Spotbill Duck A. poecilorhyncha
J.R. Forster
A very rare winter visitor to the
Carambolim lake and the nearby inland-estuary
of Mandovi, in January and March. There are
only 5 records from 4 years. The maximum
number, 12 birds, was seen by Willoughby ( 1 996)
in March.
36. (1 00) Mallard A. platyrhynchos Linn.
Very rare winter visitor to the Carambolim
lake and mudflats in the Mandovi river. I have 4
records in 3 years of up to 15 birds from Nov. to
Feb.
37. (101) Gadwall A. strepera Linn.
A rare winter visitor to the inland estuary
of the Mandovi and Carambolim lake. There
were 6 sightings of up to 7 birds, between October
and March.
38. (103) Wigeon A. penelope Linn.
Very rare winter visitor to the Carambolim
lake and mudflats in the Mandovi. The existing
5 records are of single birds, between October
and March.
39. (104) Garganey A. querquedulalAnn.
A dry season visitor in large numbers. It
might turn up at any saline, brackish or
freshwater wetland throughout the coastal region,
and occasionally even over the open sea. Well
over 4,000 birds winter regularly at the
Carambolim lake (maximum 8,000+ in January
1991). These ducks start arriving by the end of
September and depart towards the end of April,
with a few staying on right into July.
40. (105) Shoveller A clypeata Linn.
A regular winter visitor to freshwater
bodies of the coastal belt and to estuaries. A
maximum number of 1 1 birds was recorded at
the Carambolim lake. Present from late
September till early May.
41. (1 08) Common Pochard Aythya ferina
(Linn.)
Very rare winter visitor. I have three
records of up to 6 birds from Carambolim lake
and the tidai mudflats of the Mandovi river, in
October, November and January.
42. (109) Ferruginous Duck A. nyroca
(Giildenstadt)
A scarce winter visitor, the 7 existing
records are of a single bird in the fully saline
mouth of the Chapora river, in November, and
of up to three birds at the Carambolim lake, in
December-January.
43. (Ill) Tufted Duck A.fuligula (Linn.)
Vagrant. I saw two drakes on the tidal
mudflats in the inland estuary of the Mandovi
river, in November 1987.
44. (114) Cotton Teal Nettapus
coromandelianus (Gmelin)
Common, dry season visitor to wetlands
throughout the coastal and midland regions. The
largest gatherings, often more than 400,
occasionally up to 800 birds, are found at the
Carambolim lake. Generally absent from early
May till mid-November, though a few regularly
stay on during the rains.
45. (115) Comb Duck Sarkidiornis
melanotos (Pennant)
A regular winter visitor from mid-
November to early April, with one or two birds
lingering on till the end of May. Found only at
the Carambolim lake and the ponds in the HCGL
210
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
THE BIRDS OF GOA
compound at Corlim (Tiswadi), where up to 80
birds may congregate.
46. (124) Black-winged Kite Elanus
caeruleus (Desfontaines)
Uncommon dry season visitor in small
numbers. Occurs from the coastal plain to the
foot of the Western Ghats, between the end of
October and early June.
47. (127) Black-crested Baza Aviceda
leuphotes (Dumont)
Status unclear. I have two records (March
1987 and 1989) from the same ridge in dense,
wet, evergreen forest, in the BMWS, at an
altitude of ca. 500 m.
48. (130) Honey Buzzard Pernis
ptilorhyncus (Temminck)
A fairly common dry season breeding
visitor that takes evasive action during the
monsoon, absenting itself from the end of May
till mid-October. Moderate but slowly declining
numbers (rapidly in the coastal belt) of this raptor
are almost evenly spread out over the whole state.
Breeding was recorded throughout the dry
season.
49. (133) Pariah Kite Milvus migrans
(Boddaert)
A very common (almost) resident in
considerable numbers. Found throughout the
coastal belt and, to a lesser degree, in the midland
region. This raptor is the most typical monsoon
fugitive and the most accurate indicator of the
imminent rains. It leaves a week ahead of the
advancing monsoon in a steady stream, at times
over 50 birds within 10 minutes, moving
northwards along the coast. The return
movement in early September is less dramatic.
50. (135) Brahminy Kite Haliasiur indus
(Boddaert)
A very common resident of the coastal
region, where congregations of up to 300 birds
may occur at suitable wetlands. It moves up
along the larger rivers as far as tidal influence
reaches. Numbers decline sharply during
monsoon. Breeding was recorded in April and
August.
51. (139) Shikra Accipiter badius
(Gmelin)
A fairly common, moderately numerous
resident from the seashore to the base of the
Western Ghats. Breeding in April and July.
Numbers are declining steadily since the mid-
eighties.
52. (144) Crested Goshawks, trivirgatus
(Temminck)
Rare resident(?). Grubh and Ali (1975)
sighted this raptor in the BMWS during Nov.-
Dec. 1972. Saha and Dasgupta collected a
specimen in the Bondla WS in October 1977. I
have recorded a single bird in the Cotigao WS
in October 1987, and a pair each in May 1996
and 1997, both in display flight near the
Dudhsagar waterfalls in the BMWS.
53. (147) Sparrow-Hawk A. nisus (Linn.)
A rare winter visitor. There are 5 records
of single birds from the BMWS, in October,
January and February.
54. (151) Besra Sparrow-Hawk A.
virgatus (Temminck)
First noted by Rane (1982) sometime
between April and June 1982, in the BMWS. I
saw three birds at different localities of the same
WS on a single day in February 1987 and a single
bird in December 1995.
55. (153) Long-legged Buzzard Buteo
rufinus (Cretzschmar)
Stray. Throughout January and February
1997, one bird frequented pasture land at the
coastal village of Candolim (Bardez).
56. (157) White-eyed Buzzard-Eagle
Butastur teesa (Franklin)
Saha and Dasgupta (1992) reportedly saw
this raptor near Margao (Salcete) and Valpoi
(Sattari) in December 1968 and January 1969,
respectively. Specimens were collected by Grubh
and Ali (1975) in the BMWS and others were
noted at Mayem (Bicholim) and Canacona, in
Nov. -Dec. 1972.
I have identified this bird with certainty
only once, on Chorao Island (Tiswadi), in
February 1985.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
211
THE BIRDS OF GOA
57. (161) Crested Hawk-Eagle Spizaetus
cirrhatus (Gmelin)
An uncommon resident, in small numbers,
of the Western Ghats section and patches of
remnant evergreen and semi-evergreen forest on
the scarp of plateaus facing the coastal strip.
Breeding was noted in February, March and
August.
58. (163) Bonelli’s Eagle Hieraaetus
fasciatus (Vieillot)
Straggler. I have three sightings of single
birds from the coastal lowlands, during the
months of January-March.
59. (164) Booted Hawk-Eagle H.
pennatus (Gmelin)
A common winter visitor in small
numbers. Found between early October and mid-
April, mainly in the coastal belt, rarely at the
base of the Ghats.
60. (165) Rufous-bellied Hawk-Eagle
H. kienerii (E. Geoffroy)
Very rare resident. Single birds were
recorded in all seasons at the top of the
Dudhsagar waterfalls, in the BMWS.
61. (170) Greater Spotted Eagle Aquila
clanga Pallas
Scarce winter visitor in very small numbers
to larger wetlands in the coastal region, from end
October to late March.
62. (172) Black Eagle Ictinaetus
malayensis (Temminck)
Uncommon, but regular dry season visitor,
in small numbers, from the first week of
November to mid-May. Found mainly in the
Western Ghats and their outlying hills, rarely in
the coastal belt.
63. (173) White-bellied Sea-Eagle
Haliaeetus leucogaster (Gmelin)
A fairly common resident along the sea-
coast. The breeding population along Goa’s
133 km long coastline consists of at least 1 6 pairs;
breeding season appears to be September to
January.
These beautiful eagles are still a fairly
common sight at the state capital Panaji, where
they used to breed occasionally at Malim
(Bardez), just across the Mandovi river. Some
venture up to 15 km inland along the larger tidal
rivers and even ascend non-tidal rivers into dense
semi-evergreen forest (Cotigao WS).
64. (175) Grey-headed Fishing Eagle
Ichthyphaga ichthyaetus (Horsfield)
Vagrant. A single sub-adult was observed
at a freshwater reservoir on top of a barren
lateritic plateau near Sancoale (Marmagoa), in
November 1987.
65. (185) Indian White-backed Vulture
Gyps bengalensis (Gmelin)
A not frequently seen resident. The not
very local population of approx. 45 birds may
turn up anywhere, from a seaside village to the
crest of the Western Ghats. A shaip decline in
numbers has been noticed since 1995.
66. (186) Egyptian Vulture Neophron
percnopterus (Linn.)
Stray. A single was observed soaring above
the Dudhsagar waterfalls in the BMWS, in
January 1997.
67. (190) Pale Harrier Circus macro urus
(S.G. Gmelin)
Rather scarce, irregular winter visitor (in
ones and twos). Recorded in the coastal plains
and on isolated coastal plateaus from mid-
October to early March.
68. (191) Montagu’s Harrier C. pygargus
(Linn.)
Rare and irregular winter visitor. There are
only 5 records (of singles and a pair ) in eleven
years, all from the coastal lowlands, between
December and February.
69. (192) Pied Harrier C. melanoleucos
(Pennant)
Vagrant. I had a sighting of the strikingly
patterned male on Divar (Tiswadi) island, in the
inland-estuary of the Mandovi, in December
1989.
70. (193) Marsh Harrier C. aeruginosus
(Linn.)
A regular and fairly common winter visitor
in small numbers. Confined to the coastal belt
212
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
THE BIRDS OF GOA
and the river basins, it arrives usually by mid-
September and leaves around mid-April.
71. (195) Short-toed Eagle Circaetus
gallicus (Gmelin)
Rare and irregular winter visitor, in singles
and pairs, to the coastal belt, between December
and March.
72. (196) Crested Serpent Eagle Spilornis
cheela (Latham)
A common and moderately numerous
resident in all three zones, from pockets of
remnant semi-evergreen forest on coastal
headlands to the crest of the Sahyadris.
73. (203) Osprey Pandion haliaetus (Linn.)
Uncommon but regular winter visitor to
the coastal strip and up to 15 km inland in the
river basins. Small numbers are present from
mid-September till the first week of April. Sub-
adult birds occasionally brave the rains and stay
on during the SW monsoon.
74. (209) Peregrine Falcon Falco
peregrinus Tunstall
Small numbers of this uncommon winter
visitor are found throughout the coastal strip,
from mid-October to the end of March. Grubh
and Ali (1975) had noted the nominate race at
the BMWS, in November-December 1972.
75. (222) Kestrel F. tinnunculus (Linn.)
An uncommon but regular winter visitor.
Small numbers occur between early October and
late March at coastal plateaus and lowlands,
exceptionally also at the foot of the Ghats.
76. (250) Grey Quail Cotumix coturnix
(Linn.)
A scarce winter visitor in very small
numbers, recorded during Jan.-Feb. in the coastal
belt and at the base of the Sahyadris. Noted by
Grubh and Ali (1975) at Valpoi (Sattari), in
November-December.
77. (252) Black-breasted Quail C.
coromandelica (Gmelin)
Monsoon visitor in small numbers, found
on pasture land and neglected rice paddies on
the alluvial islands in the inland-estuary of the
Mandovi and on grassy lateritic plateaus
bordering the coastal belt, from end- June to mid-
November.
78. (255) Jungle Bush Quail Perdicula
asiatica (Latham)
An uncommon and moderately numerous
resident of lateritic plateaus, even coastal ones.
There are indications of their breeding in June-
July.
79. (275) Red Spurfowl Galloperdix
spadicea (Gmelin)
Fairly common resident, in considerable
numbers, of plateaus (coastal and midland) up
to the foot of the Ghats. Breeding was recorded
in August-September.
80. (301) Grey Junglefowl Gallus
sonneratii Temminck
A fairly common, considerably numerous
resident of the Western Ghats strip and its
outlying hills. An unusually large population
seems to reside outside (!) the boundaries of the
Bondla WS.
81. (311) Common Peafowl Pavo cristatus
Linn.
Fairly common resident, in considerable
numbers, of the plateau region. The population
appears to be increasing steadily, even advancing
to the coast by way of several headlands. Breeding
noted in August.
82. (318) Common Bustard-Quail Turnix
suscitator (Gmelin)
A rather scarce resident in unknown
numbers. I have come across this bird in 4
localities on the scarp of plateaus and at the base
of the Western Ghats. Grubh and Ali ( 1975) had
noted it in ‘various localities’ in 1972.
83. (229) Blue-breasted Banded Rail
Rallus striatus Linn.
Uncommon resident of mangrove-fringed
tidal creeks. Davidson (1898) had found this rail
‘common about Karwar (14 km to the south of
Goa) in the rains...’
84. (337) Baillon’s Crake Porzana pusilla
(Pallas)
Straggler(?) I caught a specimen of this
crake that was traipsing through a coconut-palm
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
213
THE BIRDS OF GOA
grove just behind the beach, at Anjuna (Bardez),
in March 1981. In November 1988, I saw a
Baillon’s Crake at a little freshwater pond beside
the Baga (Bardez) creek.
85. (339) Ruddy Crake P. fusca (Linn.)
I have a single record of one bird at the
Baga (Bardez) creek, in October 1987, where
Willoughby (1996) saw it in November 1995.
86. (343) White-breasted Waterhen
Amaurornis phoenicurus (Pennant)
A common and numerous resident of the
coastal and midland regions. Breeding was noted
from June to October.
87. (346) Watercock Gallicrex cinerea
(Gmelin)
Stray (?). There are only two sightings: two
birds at the Carambolim lake, in June 1996, and
one at the fringes of the Nerul (Bardez) marsh,
in November 1996 (G. Frost, N. Manville, pers.
comm.)
88. (347) Moorhen Gallinula chloropus
(Linn.)
A common and moderately numerous
winter visitor to freshwater bodies in the coastal
belt and river basins, from late September till
early April. Numerous fledglings that were barely
able to fly were observed in late October.
89. (349) Purple Moorhen Porphyrio
porphyrio (Linn.)
A considerably numerous resident with
strong seasonal fluctuations at the Carambolim
lake, and off and on, a nearby pond at Pilar
(Tiswadi). Up to 500 individuals congregate
during December and January; numbers dwindle ■
during the hot season to single digits. A few pairs
breed irregularly in April, September and
January.
90. (350) Coot Fulica atra Linn.
A common winter visitor to the larger tanks
and ponds of the coastal region, from mid-
October to the first week of May, with singles
occasionally remaining into early June.
Assemblies of over 2,000 birds are to be found
at the Carambolim lake during December-
January.
91. (358) Pheasant-tailed Jacana
Hydrophasianus chirurgus (Scopoli)
A fairly common resident of freshwater
wetlands throughout the coastal belt and river
basins. Maximum numbers, up to 600 birds, may
be seen in January at the Carambolim lake. This
jacana shuns the rains and the greater part of
the population evades the monsoon from end
May to early August. Breeding was noted from
September-December.
92. (359) Bronze-winged Jacana
Metopidius indicus (Latham)
A fairly common resident of freshwater
ponds and tanks in the river basins. Over the
last 8 years the population has increased rapidly,
with over 200 birds, in May 1996, at the
Carambolim lake alone. Only small numbers stay
on during the three months of heavy monsoon
rains and equally small numbers breed between
August and October.
93. (360) Oystercatcher Haematopus
ostralegus Linn.
Irregular and uncommon winter visitor
to the coast, from mid-September to late
March; an occasional single may show up during
the SW monsoon. The largest group on record
consisted of 19 birds. Not recorded since
1989.
94. (429) Painted Snipe Rostratula
benghalensis (Linn.)
Status uncertain. Sightings, at brackish
and freshwater marshes of the coastal region,
started in 1988 and are becoming more frequent
in recent years. This bird is probably a year-
round resident, except for the driest part of the
dry season. A maximum of 8 specimens were
seen in a single locality.
95. (430) Black-winged Stilt Himantopus
himantopus (Linn.)
An uncommon but regular visitor from
October-April, occasionally to mid- June, to the
coastal belt and river basins; sometimes ventures
up to irrigated paddy fields at the foot of the
Ghats. A maximum of 47 birds were counted at
the Carambolim lake.
214
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
THE BIRDS OF GOA
96. (434) Crab Plover Dromas ardeola
Paykull
Stray. A single adult specimen was
observed on tidal mudflats in the estuary of the
Chapora river, in October 1996.
97. (436) Stone Curlew Burhinus
oedicnemus (Linn.)
Stray. I saw one bird on a sparsely wooded
grassy lateritic plateau at the coastal village of
Arpora (Bardez), in September 1981.
98. (443) Collared Pratincole Glareola
pratincola (Linn.)
Straggler. I have 4 records of up to 14 birds:
three from freshwater wetlands in the coastal belt
and one from a saline estuary, between late
September and the beginning of March.
99. (444) Small Indian Pratincole G .
lactea Temminck
A fairly common but capricious winter
visitor, in large numbers, to the coastal belt and
river basins, from early November to late April.
Several flocks of over 2,000 birds were recorded,
often along the high water line of beaches.
100. (365) Grey-headed Lapwing
Vanellus cinereus (Blyth)
Vagrant. A sub-adult bird was sighted at
an almost dry tidal marsh beside the Baga
(Bardez) creek on three consecutive days in
January 1989 (Lainer 1989).
101. (366) Red-wattled Lapwing V.
indicus (Boddaert)
Common, considerably numerous resident,
found from the seashore to the foot of the Ghats.
Breeds from April to July.
102. (370) Yellow-wattled Lapwing V.
malabaricus (Boddaert)
Rather uncommon, dry season visitor in
moderate numbers. Occurs from wasteland behind
the beaches to the base of the Western Ghats. It
appears to be declining since the early eighties.
103. (371) Grey Plover Pluvialis
squatarola (Linn.)
Uncommon, somewhat irregular winter
visitor in moderate numbers to beaches and
estuaries, sometimes also on plateaus near water.
There is a pronounced autumn migration between
mid-August and late September.
104. (373) Eastern Golden Plover P.
dominica (P.L.S. Muller)
A common, regular winter visitor in
moderate numbers, from mid-September to early
May. Frequents rocky sea-coast, saline and
brackish marshes. Over 180 birds were counted
in a single flock.
105. (374) Large Sand Plover Charadrius
leschenaultii Lesson
A common, moderately numerous 'dry
season visitor to beaches and tidal mudflats in
estuaries, from late August to end May.
106. (378) Ringed Plover C. hiaticula Linn.
A single adult specimen was found among
15 little ringed plovers on the pebbly shore of
the freshwater reservoir on the Sancoale
(Marmagoa) plateau, in Nov. 1987.
107. (380) Little Ringed Plover C. dubius
Scopoli
Common and considerably numerous
winter visitor, spreading from the coastal strip
to the base of the Ghats. This plover arrives in
early October and moves out by mid-April,
though a few may linger on a month longer.
108. (381) Kentish Plover C.
alexandrinus Linn.
An uncommon, irregular winter visitor to
beaches and tidal mudflats. Numbers vary
capriciously from a single or a dozen in one year
to several hundreds the next. Recorded from early
September to mid-March.
109. (384) Lesser Sand Plover C.
mongolius Pallas
A common winter visitor in large though
highly fluctuating numbers to the entire seaboard
and the estuaries, from mid-Sept. to mid-April.
Occasionally singles or small groups stay on
during the SW monsoon. Flocks of over 2,000
birds are no rarity during Dec. -Jan.
1 10. (385) Whimbrel Numenius
phaeopus (Linn.)
A common winter visitor in small numbers
to the coast and estuaries, this wader is the
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
215
THE BIRDS OF GOA
earliest to arrive (usually mid- July) and the first
to depart (early March).
111. (388) Curlew TV. arquata (Linn.)
Fairly common winter visitor, in small
numbers, to beaches and tidal mudflats in estuaries,
from late August to the first week of May.
112. (389) Black-tailed Godwit Limosa
limosa (Linn.)
Sporadic autumn passage migrant. I have
7 records of singletons and a threesome, ranging
from late Aug. to mid-Dec., from flooded
paddies, saltpans and tidal mudflats in estuaries.
1 13. (391) Bar-tailed Godwit L. lapponica
(Linn.)
Scarce but apparently regular winter visitor
to beaches and tidal mudflats. The two or three
annual sightings (of up to 12 birds in a group)
fall between the first week of September and early
March.
114. (392) Spotted Redshank Tringa
erythropus (Pallas)
Straggler. There are less than 10 records,
all from the coastal belt, from November to late
April, 1995-97.
115. (393) Common Redshank T. totanus
(Linn.)
A common visitor, in large numbers, to
wetlands in the coastal strip and river basins.
The first trickle of migrants arrives by the end
of July, the majority following in late Sept.
Outward migration begins in April, with a few
birds staying on till early June.
1 16. (395) Marsh Sandpiper T. stagnatilis
(Bechstein)
Uncommon, but regular winter visitor in
very small numbers to the coastal belt, where it
seems to favour saltpans. Present in twos and
threes from late August to early April.
117. (396) Greenshank T. nebularia
(Gunner)
Common visitor in considerable numbers
to various water bodies, from the coastal strip to
the base of the Ghats. Arrival and departure times
are ill-defined, since some non-breeding birds
tend to stay on in the monsoon.
118. (397) Green Sandpiper T. ochropus
Linn.
Common winter visitor in small numbers.
Found in all three zones, but mainly in the coastal
belt. Arrives about the beginning of September
and departs by mid- April. Rarely stays on till
the monsoon.
119. (398) Wood Sandpiper T. glareola
Linn.
A common winter visitor, in large
numbers, to wetlands from just behind the
seashore to the base of the Sahyadris. The first
birds usually arrive in mid-Sept.; outward
migration is over by mid-May. Numbers in a
single wetland can be up to 3,000 in some years.
120. (400) Terek Sandpiper T. terek
(Latham)
A fairly common winter visitor, in small
numbers, to beaches, estuaries and saline
marshes throughout the coastal belt. Absent only
from early June to late August Flock size ranges
up to 40.
121. (401) Common Sandpiper T.
hypoleucos Linn.
Ubiquitous dry season visitor to freshwater
and saline wetlands of the three zones. Avoids
the heaviest rains by moving out around mid-
May and returning in early August.
122. (402) Turnstone Arenaria interpres
(Linn.)
Uncommon and erratic autumn passage
migrant; found on tidal mudflats in estuaries
from late August to mid-October. The occurrence
of a single specimen in mid-Jan. seems to be
exceptional. Flock size does not exceed a dozen.
123. (406) Pintail Snipe Gallinago
stenura (Bonaparte)
A common, regular winter visitor in
smallish numbers. Mostly met with at the fringe
of saline marshes in the coastal belt. Present from
end September to mid- April.
124. (409) Fantail Snipe G. gallinago
(Linn.)
A common, slightly irregular and mode-
rately numerous winter visitor to flooded paddy
216
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
THE BIRDS OF GOA
fields in all three zones and to saline marshes,
from early October to late April. Up to 300 birds
assemble at times in irrigated paddies that are
under the plough for the winter crop.
125. (413) Eastern Knot Calidris
tenuirostris (Horsfield)
Rare winter visitor or passage migrant. I
have 6 sightings of up to 14 birds, on beaches and
in estuaries, from October to November and March.
126. (414) Sancferling C. alba (Pallas)
An uncommon but regular winter visitor,
in moderate numbers, to sandy beaches and
estuarine mudflats. Arrives by mid- August and
departs by March-end. Flock size usually up to
30, rarely exceeding 100 individuals.
127. (416) Little Stint C. minuta (Leisler)
Common, moderately numerous winter
visitor to wetlands throughout the coastal belt,
estuarine mudflats and, rarely, beaches. Begins
to arrive in the first week of September and the
last birds depart in early May. Flocks rarely more
than a hundred birds.
128. (417) Temminck’s Stint C.
temminckii (Leisler)
A fairly common winter visitor in moderate
numbers (up to a hundred birds in a single flock)
to freshly ploughed, soggy paddy fields and less
frequently, to saline wetlands of the coastal
region. This little wader is one of the last to arrive
in its winter quarters (first week of November;
departure is over by late April).
129. (420) Dunlin C. alpina (Linn.)
An uncommon, slightly irregular winter
visitor in small numbers. Frequents beaches, estua-
rine mudflats from early September to first week
of March. Assemblies of up to 30 may be seen.
130. (422) Curlew Sandpiper C. testacea
(Pallas)
Scarce visitor, in ones and twos, to saline
marshes and saltpans. There are 8 sightings from
end- July to the first week of May.
131. (424) Broad-billed Sandpiper
Limicola falcinellus (Pontoppidan)
Rare passage migrant. Up to 19 birds were
recorded during September on Divar (Tiswadi)
island, in the inland estuary of the Mandovi.
132. (426) Ruff Philomachus pugnax
(Linn.)
Scarce winter visitor to soggy rice paddies
and, rarely, saline wetlands in the coastal region.
Recorded from mid-September to early February
in numbers ranging up to 35 birds.
133. (448) Parasitic Skua Stercorarius
parasiticus (Linn.)
Straggler(?) I have 5 records of ones and
twos off the coast of Anjuna (Bardez), in
September. I am sure they are much more
frequent visitors to Goa’s coast than these few
records suggest. Madsen (1988) had observed
them frequently off the coast at Gokam (North
Kanara), ca. 140 km south of Anjuna, between
September 1987 and January 1988. When
Madsen and I visited the Vengurla Rocks off
Malwan (Sindhudurg dist., Maharashtra), only
45 km north of Anjuna, in March 1989, we saw
several parasitic skuas every day.
134. (450) Herring Gull Larus argentatus
(Pontoppidan)
A common, moderately numerous winter
visitor to the entire coastline. For years I hesitated
to ascribe any of the baffling large white-headed
gulls, even when they were in well-defined adult
plumage, to this or the following species.
However, a number of visiting British bird-
watchers, who were familiar with both species,
identified the majority as L. argentatus heuglini.
The largest concentrations, of well over 500
birds, occur on Morjim (Pemem) beach. They
arrive in early October, and depart towards end
April.
135. (452) Lesser Black-backed Gull L .
fuscus Linn.
Uncommon winter visitor in small
numbers, to beaches and estuaries, from early
September to end April.
136. (453) Great Black-headed Gull L.
ichthyaetus Pallas
Common winter visitor in moderate
numbers to beaches and estuarine mudflats, from
mid-Sept. to end April. Congregations of up to
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
THE BIRDS OF GOA
1 50 birds are found regularly at Morjim (Pemem)
beach and the nearby mouth of the Chapora river.
137. (454) Brown-headed Gull L.
brunnicephalus Jerdon
A common winter visitor in vast numbers.
Present along the entire seaboard from mid-Sept.
to mid-May. The largest gatherings of over 5000
birds occur on Velsao (Marmagoa) beach.
138. (455) Black-headed Gull L.
ridibundus Linn.
A common winter visitor to the sea-coast
and estuaries, in large, but erratically fluctuating
numbers. Most of the birds arrive in mid-October
and leave towards the end of May. A few non-
breeding birds occasionally loiter around through
the monsoon. Single-species flocks of close to
10,000 birds (February and December 1983, at
Morjim/Pernem beach) were encountered,
though this gull is generally much less numerous
than L. brunnicephalus.
139. (456) Slender-billed Gull L. genei
Breme
Uncommon and irregular winter visitor to
beaches and estuaries. This gull is often
overlooked, being usually swamped by the vast
numbers of other wintering gulls. However, the
frequency of sightings has steadily increased over
the last 8 years. Records of up to 20 birds date
from late August to end February.
140. (458) Whiskered Tern Chlidonias
hybrida (Pallas)
Common but capricious dry season visitor
in moderate numbers. Mostly found at freshwater
and saline marshes and tanks throughout the
coast. The highest numbers (up to 40 birds in
one wetland) are encountered during inward
migration, in September-October Decreasing
numbers make less frequent visits till mid-May.
They may suddenly appear in June or even in
July, if the rains slacken.
141. (460) Gull-billed Tern Gelochelidon
nilotica (Gmelin)
Common, moderately numerous and
widespread dry season visitor to the sea-coast,
coastal region and occasionally to freshwater
tanks in the midland zone. Found from mid-
September to mid-May, up to 85 in a single
locality. Oversummering by a few birds is quite
common.
142. (462) Caspian Tern Hydroprogne
caspia (Pallas)
An uncommon but regular passage migrant
in small numbers. Spring migration lasts from
early March to mid- April, autumn passage from
mid-Sept. to mid-Dec. At Morjim beach
(Pernem), their favourite resting place along
Goa’s coast, up to 20 birds may assemble in
March; autumn migration is less pronounced.
143. (463) Indian River Tern Sterna
aurantia J.E. Gray
Straggler. I have four records of up to three
birds from fully saline stretches of the Chapora
river and from the freshwater Carambolim lake.
These sporadic appearances occurred in Feb.,
May, September and November in recent years.
144. (464) Common Tern S. hirundo Linn.
Status uncertain, mainly due to confusion
with S. repressa when both are in non-breeding
plumage and migrating far off-shore. The
common tern is, with certainty, a minor
participant in the annual spring and post-
monsoon mass-migration of the white-cheeked
tern. Small numbers are found off and on at
estuarine mudflats and beaches during the winter
months.
145. (466) Roseate Tern S. dougallii
Montagu
Scarce post-monsoon passage migrant in
small numbers. In August and September, singles
and small groups of up to 5 birds were observed
travelling southward with the steady stream of
migrating S. repressa or resting on tidal mudflats
at the mouth of the Chapora river. An isolated
record of a single bird from mid- April could have
been of a bird on return migration.
146. (467) White-cheeked Tern S.
repressa Hartert
Passage migrant in very large numbers. Its
southward movement is concurrent with and
parallel, though closer inshore, to the autumnal
218
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
THE BIRDS OF GOA
mass migration of S. anaethetus. A roughly
estimated 15,000 individuals pass between end
August and mid-October along Goa’s coast, with
only a few birds putting in short stop-overs on
tidal mudflats in estuaries. The less dramatic
return movement from March to June
occasionally brings large flocks of up to 500
birds to the Chapora estuary. Roving flocks of
up to 300, groups and singles, may be
encountered during the SW monsoon.
147. (470) Black-bellied Tern S'.
acuticauda J.E. Gray
Stray. I saw three birds in full breeding
plumage at the freshwater reservoir on top of a
barren lateritic plateau near Sancoale (Marmagoa),
in September 1988. Four days later, S.T. Madsen
and I saw a group of at least 27 birds at the river
mouth at Tadri, near Gokarn (North Kanara,
Karnataka), az.105 km to the South.
148. (471) Brown-winged Tern S.
anaethetus Scopoli
A regular off-shore passage migrant in very
large but highly fluctuating numbers. Over
28,000 birds were counted during a quantitative
survey in 1996. The first of these pelagic terns
turn up in the waters off Goa during end August.
By mid-September, a massive southward
migration sets in, with birds passing several km
offshore at a peak rate of over 2,000 per hour.
This large-scale movement slows down towards
late September and peters out by the first week
of October. These terns are known to breed
during the SW monsoon on the Vengurla Rocks
off Malwan, but not in numbers sufficient to
account for the extent of the migration observed
off Goa.
149. (474) Sooty Tern S. fuscata Linn.
Uncommon off-shore passage migrant in
smallish numbers. These terns either participate
or are simply swept along, in ones and twos, in
the annual mass migration of S. anaethetus.
Immature birds are predominant.
150. (475) Little Tern S. albifrons Pallas
Annual visitor, in moderate and fluctuating
numbers, to beaches, estuaries and, rarely, marshes
in the river basins. This tern is more numerous
during the first half of the year (with flocks of up
to 150 birds) and totally absent only in August.
151. (478) Large Crested Tern S. bergii
Lichtenstein
A common year-round visitor, in
considerable numbers, to the entire coastline.
Their favourite resting place between foraging
trips is at the mouth of the Chapora river, where
up to 800 birds may assemble during the dry
season. Numbers dwindle to an average of 15
during monsoon. There are indications of a
northward spring and southward autumn
movement along the coast.
152. (479) Indian Lesser Crested Tern
S. bengalensis Lesson
A common, considerably numerous visitor
throughout the year. Found all along the coast,
with the main gathering point at the mouth of
the Chapora (up to 850 birds in the dry season).
Less numerous in the monsoon.
153. (480) Sandwich Tern S. sandvicensis
Latham
Common, considerably numerous year-
round visitor to the entire coastline. The most
frequented resting place is at the mouth of the
Chapora, where loose flocks of at least 500 birds
are seen during April. Their numbers drop sharply
during the SW monsoon, and are steadily declining
over the years. For a preliminary discussion of the
status of this species see Lainer (1988).
154. (484) Indian Skimmer Rynchops
albicollis Swainson
Stray. In September 1996, G. Frost and I
sighted one adult bird among various terns on a
tidal mudflat in the Chapora estuary.
155. (496) Pompadour Green Pigeon
Treron pompadora (Gmelin)
A common resident in considerable
numbers, from coastal headlands to the lower
slopes of the Western Ghats.
156. (503) Yellow-legged Green Pigeon
T. phoenicoptera (Latham)
Noted by Rane (1982) at the Bondla WS,
some time between April and June 1982.
JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(2), AUG. 1999
219
THE BIRDS OF GOA
157. (501) Orange-breasted Green
Pigeon T. bicincta (Jerdon)
One was observed in the Cotigao WS, in
mid- January 1998.
158. (506) Green Imperial Pigeon
Ducula aenea (Linn.)
Scarce resident of dense wet evergreen
forests of the Western Ghats; rarely below
300 m, except in the Cotigao WS.
159. (510) Imperial Pigeon D. badia
(Raffles)
A rather uncommon and moderately
numerous resident of the middle and upper slopes
of the Sahyadris, where flocks of over 1 5 birds
may be seen. Strays occasionally to some of the
remnant patches of evergreen forest in the plateau
region.
160. (516) Blue Rock Pigeon Columba
livia (Gmelin)
Non-feral birds are commonly found
roosting during the monsoon in an overhanging
cliff on the coast of Tirakol (Pemem), on rocky
offshore islands, the steep cliffs on the headland
of Cabo de Rama (Canacona) and the 60 m high
‘ersatz-cliff’ of the Anjunem (Sattari) dam, at
the base of the Ghats.
161. (521) Nilgiri Wood Pigeon C.
elphinstonii (Sykes)
A rather scarce, erratic visitor, possibly
resident. Davidson (1898), writing about N.
Kanara, found ‘this pigeon is rare . . . Mr. Aitken
however informs me it is more common further
north about Digi on the Portuguese frontier’. I
have sighted it no more than 10 times in a pocket
of remnant semi-evergreen forest on the scarp of
a coastal plateau, between October and
December, and twice in dense wet evergreen
forest on the crest of the Western Ghats, in May.
162. (530) Rufous Turtle Dove
Streptopelia orientalis (Latham)
Straggler(?) Grubh and Ali (1975) noted
it at the BMWS and at Mayem (Bicholim), in
November-December 1972. 1 have seen it thrice
on the crest of the Western Ghats and once on
Chorao (Tiswadi) Is. in the Mandovi.
163. (534) Indian Ring Dove S. decaocto
(Frivaldsky)
Rane ( 1 982) noted this dove between April
and June at the Bondla WS. I recorded four
instances of flocks of up to 40 birds appearing
on fallow rice-paddies of coastal villages, staying
from one week to a month, between Nov.- Feb.
164. (537) Spotted Dove S. chinensis
(Scopoli)
Ubiquitous and very common breeding
resident, in very large numbers, of the coastal
and midland regions, and the base of the Ghats
up to ca. 150 m.
165. (541) Little Brown Dove S.
senegalensis (Linn.)
Noted by Grubh and Ali (1975) in or
around the Cotigao WS, in Nov. -Dec. 1972.
166. (542) Emerald Dove Chalcophaps
indica (Linn.)
Small numbers of this rather uncommon
resident are found in the Sahyadris foothills to
ca. 200 m., occasionally in pockets of remnant
semi-evergreen forest on plateau-scarps, even in
close proximity to the sea.
(to be continued)
220
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(2) AUG. 1999
POPULATION DENSITIES OF THE BLACKNAPED HARE LEPUS NIGRICOLLIS
NIGRICOLLIS AT ROLLAPADU WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, KURNOOL DISTRICT,
ANDHRA PRADESH1
( With one text-figure)
Ranjit Manakadan and Asad R. Rahmani2
Keywords: blacknaped hare, Lepus nigricollis nigricollis, population, census,
Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary, Andhra Pradesh.
This paper is part of a study carried out on the Indian fox Vulpes bengalensis at Rollapadu
Wildlife Sanctuary, Kumool dist., Andhra Pradesh, between July 1994 and April 1995. It
describes the census method (actually devised for the fox) used for estimating population
densities of the blacknaped hare Lepus nigricollis nigricollis. A comparative census was
conducted in grazed grassland and ungrazed
censuses are discussed.
Introduction
During censuses of the Indian Fox Vulpes
bengalensis at Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary
(RWS), Kurnool dist., Andhra Pradesh, we
encountered the blacknaped hare Lepus
nigricollis nigricollis quite regularly during the
samplings. We realised that the census technique
used for the fox was also suitable in detecting
and estimating population densities cf the hare.
We suggest the use of this census technique for
estimating the population densities of hares,
since it can be done by an individual and does
not need any equipment. Other methods, such
as trapping or drive counts, are stressful for the
species, and involve more personnel, effort and
equipment. In this note, we describe the census
method used, and discuss the findings of the study.
Study Area
Rollapadu is 18 km southeast of
Nandikotkur (15°58’N and 78°18’E), Kumool
dist., Andhra Pradesh. It lies in the plains
between the Nallamalai and Yerramalai hills, at
an altitude of about 200 m. The terrain is gently
undulating, with predominantly poor red soil.
The region is semi-arid with an average annual
‘Accepted October 1998
^Bombay Natural History Society,
Hombill House, S.B. Singh Road,
Mumbai 400 023.
grassland for the species. The results of the
rainfall of 668 mm, received from both the
Southwest and Northeast monsoons, Summer
(March to May) peaks at 42°C and winter
(November to Febmary) is mild (17°C).
The Sanctuary, covering an area of 6. 14 km2,
consists of three grazing and disturbance
free grassland enclosures, set up in 1982 to
improve the habitat of the great Indian bustard
Ardeotis nigriceps. These enclosures are
surrounded by grazing land and crop fields.
The grazed grassland is characterised by short
grass (<30cm) with poor ground cover,
dominated by Chrysopogon fulvus, Heteropogon
contortus and Melanocenchris jacquemontii.
The ungrazed grassland (enclosures) has taller
grasses (c. 50 cm.) with good ground cover,
dominated by Heteropogon contortus,
Chrysopogon fulvus and Eremopogon
foveolatus. Sehima nervosum (>100 cm), the
climax grassland species of gravelly soils of these
areas (Dabadghao and Shankarnarayan 1973)
has formed pure stands in patches in some areas
of the enclosures. The scmbland was dominated
by Carissa spinarum, Cassia auriculata, C.
fistula , Phoenix sylvestris , and Zizyphus
mauritiana.
The other major fauna of the Sanctuary are
lesser florican Sypheotides indica, harriers
(mostly Circus pygargus and C. macrourus),
blackbuck A ntilope cervicapra , wolf Can is lupus ,
jackal Canis aureus and common Indian monitor
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
221
POPULA TION DENSITIES OF THE BLACKNAPED HARE
Varanus bengalensis. For more details on the
Sanctuary, see Manakadan and Rahmani (1989,
1993 & 1997).
Methodology
Four sites were selected in each of the two
habitat types (grazed grassland and ungrazed
grassland). The area was thoroughly covered on
foot at a constant steady pace, walking in an
irregular and generally zigzag manner. Some
light noise, such as humming, dragging of feet
or tapping the bushes with a stick, was made to
flush out hares. On flushing a hare, the direction
it ran and the place it stopped was noted to avoid
duplication of counts. The micro-habitats (grass/
shrub species and their height) in which the
animals were encountered were recorded. A unit
time (animals/hr) adopted as the basis of the
censuses initially, was later modified, as larger
areas could be covered in the grazed than
ungrazed grassland in the time period, due to
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
J‘94 A S O N D J'95 F M A
Month
HH Ungrazed grassland
Note: The hare was recorded only once in the grazed grassland
Fig. 1 : Density of the blacknaped hare at Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary
the greater visibility in the former. Hence,
approximately the same area ( ca . 40 ha) was
covered in the two habitat types during the one
hour searches.
Census was done in the evenings once
a fortnight from July 1994 to April 1995. Except
for one site in the grazing land, which was
predominantly open short scrubland, all the other
site samples were grassland (grazed or ungrazed).
Censuses conducted in tall grass areas (> 100
cm) and dense scrubland were discontinued, as
it was apparent that the technique was unsuitable
for such habitat types (hares could hide or run
off undetected).
Results
Considering the mean values of the four
sites for each habitat type, the hare was recorded
for all the months in the ungrazed grassland, and
only once in the grazed grassland (Fig. 1 ) during
222
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
POPULA TION DENSITIES OF THE BLA CKNAPED HARE
Table 1
CHARACTERISTICS OF HARE SIGHTING SITES
the wet season (July - October 1995). Data was
not collected from November to the first fortnight
of December. For the rest of the study period
(second fortnight of December till April 1995 -
dry season), the hare was not recorded in the
grazed grassland, but was occasionally flushed
in the ungrazed grassland. Densities of the hare
were lower in the dry season than in the wet
season. There were no sightings of the hare in
the scrubland habitat sampled.
Of the total of 27 sightings (Table 1) in
both the habitat types together, the maximum
sightings were in tall grass areas (> 30cm to ca.
50 cm). Of the eleven sightings in short grass
habitat (< 30 cm), in nine cases, the hares were
detected under the cover of a bush or tall grass
clump, pointing to the necessity of cover in short
grass areas.
Discussion
The hare is nocturnal, but not exclusively
so (Prater 1980). Hence, most of the sites where
the hare was recorded were likely to be ‘forms’
(regular sleeping spots where the grass is arranged
into a hollow) or near such sleeping quarters.
Nevertheless, the repeated flushing of hares from
the same area could also indicate that these animals
held territories. This implies that areas surrounding
such ‘forms’ were their foraging areas.
The population of the hare was low in the
grazed grassland, while it was fairly high in the
ungrazed grassland in the enclosures. Greater
grass biomass, cover from predators, and the
absence of human related disturbances, provided
better habitat and survival chances for the hare
in the enclosures. In the grazing land, fodder
was scarce, grass cover minimal, and disturbance
from humans heavy, except during summer.
Surreptitious hunting of hares also occurred in
the grazing lands. In the grazing lands, the hare
takes shelter under thorny bushes or in crop fields
(where villagers trap them during the harvest).
Judging by the lower densities during the hot
season, there seems to be some dispersal or
wandering of the hare during the hot season.
Prater (1980) described greater movement of
hares during the hot weather, when the grass is
scarce.
The studies show that the hare is largely a
grassland species, and has a preference for tall
(ca. 50 cm) grasslands. Short grass areas, even
within the protected enclosures, were not
preferred, at least for ‘forms’. Almost always,
those recorded in short grass stands
(Heteropogon contortus , Chrysopogon fulvus) in
the enclosure were found under a bush or an
isolated patch of tall grass (Eremopogon
foveolatus, Sehima nemosum or Cymbopogon
caesius). Very few sightings during these or other
studies were obtained from scrub-dominated
areas of either the enclosures or grazing lands.
Therefore, the spread of scrub, as seen in some
areas of the enclosures, could be detrimental to
this species.
Our studies show that the census technique
devised by us could be used for estimating the
populations of the hare (and other similar
reclusive species) in grassland and scrubland
habitats of up to ca. 50 cm.
Acknowledgements
This paper is an off-shoot of the Grassland
Ecology Project of the Bombay Natural History
Society, funded by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(2), AUG. 1999
223
POPULA TION DENSITIES OF THE BLA CKNAPED HARE
Service and sponsored by the Ministry of
Environment and Forests. We thank the Andhra
Pradesh Forest Department for permission to
Refe
Dabadghao, P.M. & K.A. Shankarnarayan (1973): The
Grass Cover of India. Indian Council of Agricultural
Research, New Delhi.
Manakadan, R. & A.R. Rahmani (1989): Rollapadu
Wildlife Sanctuary. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
86(3): 368-380.
Manakadan, R. & A.R. Rahmani (1993): A decade of
conservation of the Great Indian Bustard at
Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary, Kumool district,
Andhra Pradesh. Proc. Changing Scenario of Bird
Ecology and Conservation (Ed: A. Verghese, S.
work in the Sanctuary, and the co-operation and
help rendered by the staff of Rollapadu Wildlife
Sanctuary.
ENCES
Sridhar & A.K. Chakravarthy), Bangalore.
Ornithological Society of India, Bangalore, pp. 1 -3
Manakadan, R. & A.R. Rahmani (1997): Rollapadu
Wildlife Sanctuary In: A study of the ecology of
grasslands of the Indian plains with particular
reference to their endangered fauna. Final Report,
(Ed: A. R. Rahmani). Bombay Natural History
Society, Mumbai, pp. 117-180
Prater, S.H. (1980): The Book of Indian Animals
(3rd Edition). Bombay Natural History Society,
Bombay.
224
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(2) AUG. 1999
INTER- AND INTRASPECIFIC VARIATION IN THE RESOURCE USE
OF BLOSSOMHEADED AND BLUEWINGED PARAKEETS
IN SIRUVANI, TAMIL NADU, INDIA1 .
V. Gokula, C. Venkatraman, S. Saravanan2 and S. Swetharanyam3
( With two text-figures)
Key words: parakeet, Psittacula cyanocephala, Psittacula columboides,
resource use, competition.
The blossomheaded (. Psittacula cyanocephala) and bluewinged ( P . columboides) parakeets
were studied to identify the similarities or differences in their use of resources in the moist
deciduous forest at Siruvani foothills, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India. Data on foraging
pattern and nest-site characteristics were collected for both the species. Comparisons were
made between sexes using data on foraging and between species with data on nest-site
characteristics. In both the species, intersexual difference was apparent in the selection of
height, canopy and posture. Inter-specific difference was found in the selection of nest
orientation and trees with different size class. Both the species in this area showed variation
in the resource use to alleviate inter- and intraspecific competition.
Introduction
Studies on resource partitioning mostly
demonstrate the ecological differences or
similarities between species. Such differences or
similarities are found or presumed to indicate
the limits of interspecific competition on the
number of species that can stably co-exist
(Schoener, 1974) and are important in the
generation of assembly rules for communities.
But most of the attempts to characterise the
foraging relations and associated niche
characteristic of forest birds have not taken
intersexual variation in foraging into account.
This is largely due to the difficulties of clearly
identifying the sex in the field. Moreover,
obtaining sufficient sample sizes for each sex can
also be a problem.
Studies of single species or small guilds,
however, have shown that foraging patterns of
males and females often differ, e.g., in species of
‘Accepted April, 1998
:Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History,
Anaikatti P. O., Coimbatore 641 1 08, Tamil Nadu, India.
?Division of Wildlife Biology, A.V.C. College,
Mayiladuthurai 609 305, Tamil Nadu, India.
woodpeckers (Kilham, 1965 and 1970; Ligon,
1986; Jackson, 1970; Williams, 1980),
nuthatches (McEllin, 1979), Muscicapid
flycatchers (Bell, 1982) and several warblers
(Morse, 1968, 1971 and 1980). Understanding
such differences or similarities at inter- and
intraspecies level not only increases the
understanding of a species niche in an area, but
would also help to conserve the species.
A study was carried out on blossomheaded
( Psittacula cyanocephala) and bluewinged
P. columboides) parakeet in the moist deciduous
forest at the foothills of Siruvani to evaluate how
the sexes within a species differ in their use of
resources (foraging pattern) and how both species
differ in the nest-site selection. These species
were selected since both are hole nesters and their
ecology is poorly known.
Study area
The Siruvani foothills come within the core
area of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve and lie from
10° 56' to 10° 58’ N and 76° 42’ to 76° 44' E, at
350 to 650 m above msl. Temperature ranges
from 24° C to 38° C during the day time and
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
225
RESOURCE USE OF BLOSSOMHEADED AND BLUEWINGED PARAKEETS
from 1 8° C to 29° C at night. The average relative
humidity is 51%. The area received both
southwest and northeast monsoon. The mean
annual rainfall is about 842 mm. The river Noyil
drains this area. The vegetation type has been
classified as “Southern Tropical Moist
Deciduous” (Champion and Seth, 1968) and it
merges with the Southern Tropical Ever-
green Forests at higher elevations in Muthikolam
area of Kerala state. The common tree species in
the study area are Lagerstroemia lanceolata,
Terminalia bellerica , T. paniculata, Antidesma
diandrum , Piliostigma malabaricus and
Bauhinia racemosa.
Methods
The parakeet species and their sex were
determined by the colour of the plumage and
calls (Ali and Ripley 1987).
Foraging records. Foraging behaviour
was quantified following Holmes et al. (1978).
Birds were followed and the first attempt to
capture food was recorded. Only one foraging
record (Initial) was taken from any individual,
but it was not possible to prevent or quantify
observations of the same individual on different
days. For each foraging attempt, the foraging
Fig. 1: Posture adopted while feeding by
both parakeets
height, method, substrate, plant species from
which the food was taken and the type of food
were recorded. Foraging attempts were divided
into seven height classes (0-2 m, 2-4 m, 4-6 m,
6-8 m, 8-10 m, 10-12 m and >12 m), based on
the general physiognomy of the vegetation. All
foraging attempts were assigned to ten substrate
categories under three major classes: 1. Plant
form (tree, shrub), 2. Branches (primary,
secondary, tertiary, twigs), 3. Canopy (top, side,
middle and lower).
The position or posture of the bird on the
branch while feeding was classified based on
Remsen and Robinson (1990).
A= “hang-up” on vertical perch, B= “hang-
sideways” on vertical perch, C = “hang-down”
on vertical perch, D = “hang-up” on horizontal
perch, E = “hang-down” on horizontal perch,
and F = “hang-upside down” on horizontal perch.
All these categories were based on how a bird
positions itself on a branch to acquire its food
(Fig. 1).
Data were mostly collected within the first
four hours after sunrise. Each foraging attempt
was considered as an observation for all analyses.
Phenological records. The phenology of
dominant food plant species was recorded to
assess food availability during the study period.
Ten individuals of each plant species were
marked and monitored every 15 days. All the
vegetative and reproductive phases were assigned
in percentage according to their availability.
Nest-site selection. Intensive nest search
was made throughout the area. A hole was
confirmed to be occupied if adults were seen to
perform activities related to breeding near the
nest. Data were collected on nest height (height
of the nest from ground level), tree species used
for nesting, Girth at breast height (Gbh) of
nesting tree, Girth at nest level, nest hole
diameter, nest hole depth and orientation of the
nest hole on the tree.
Statistical analyses. The %2 test of
independence was used to identify the variation
in the resource use between species and sexes.
226
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
RESOURCE USE OF BLOSSOMHEADED AND BLUEWINGED PARAKEETS
Mann- Whitney U test was performed for nest-
site variables.
Results
Four types of food items i.e. fruit, seed,
flower and sprouting leaves, were recorded for
both the parakeets. Flowers and nectar were the
predominant food for both the sexes and species.
No parakeets showed any variation in the type
of food used (Table 1 ).
Table 1
FOOD ITEMS OF BLOSSOMHEADED AND
BLUEWINGED PARAKEETS (%)
Blossomheaded Parakeet: In all, 352
feeding observations of blossomheaded parakeet
were made, of which the male and female
observations were 189 and 163 respectively.
Both the sexes preferred trees to shrubs.
Within the tree, both the sexes preferred only
the top and side canopy. The difference in canopy
preference between the sexes was not significant.
No bird was ever observed feeding in the lower
canopy. In general, twigs were preferred to the
same extent by both sexes (Table 2).
Of the six positions or postures (A, B, C,
D, E and F), the male and female used mostly
“D” and “E” type respectively. Interestingly, “A”
was the next type preferred by both the sexes
(Table 3). Position “F” was the least preferred
by both the sexes. Overall, the posture used
differed significantly between sexes (x2 = 41.1,
P<0.05). Interestingly, it differed significantly
between the months in both male (x2 = 30.09
P<0.05) and female (%2= 42.9 P<0.05). In height
use, though sexes did not differ significantly over
different months, overall they showed a
significant difference (x2 = 20.40, P<0.05).
In general, male and female highly preferred
6- 1 0 m height class. The female showed a higher
preference for 8-10 m height class (61%) over
the male (44%) while the male showed higher
preference for the >10 m height class (30%) than
the female (21.5%).
Bluewinged parakeet: Altogether 492 foraging
observations were made for bluewinged parakeet,
of which 287 observations were on male and 205
on female. Both males and females of bluewinged
parakeet preferred only trees. No foraging was
observed on shrubs. Both the sexes selected only
top and side canopy of the trees. The top canopy
was highly preferred, while the middle and lower
canopies were least preferred by both the sexes.
Sexes showed a similarity in canopy preference.
Table 2
PERCENT FREQUENCY OF SUBSTRATE USED BY BLOSSOMHEADED PARAKEET
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
227
RESOURCE USE OF BLOSSOMHEADED AND BLUEWINGED PARAKEETS
Table 3
PERCENT FREQUENCY OF HEIGHT AND POSTURE USED BY BLOSSOMHEADED PARAKEET
A = “hang-up” on vertical perch; B = “hang-sideways” on vertical perch; C = “hang-down” on vertical perch; D = “hang-up” on
horizontal perch; E = “hang-down” on horizontal perch, and F = “hang-upside down” on horizontal perch.
Both the sexes preferred twigs and no signi-
ficant difference was observed in this respect
(Table 4).
The position (A, B, C, D, E and F) used
showed significant difference between sexes (%2
= 20.38, P= 0.001) overall, and it differed even
monthwise for both male (%2= 17.83, P<0.05)
and female (x2 =25.96, P<0.05). Of the six types
of positions, the male did not perform type “F”
but the female opted for all the types.
Interestingly, type “B” was the second preference
of both the sexes (Table 5). Regardless of sex,
the bluewinged parakeet mostly preferred > 8 m
height class throughout the period (Table 5).
They were not observed feeding on 0-2 m
category. Regardless of months, sexes
significantly differed in height selection (x2 =
22.5, P<0.05). Male showed a higher preference
(43%) for >10 m height class than the female
(29%).
Nest-site characteristics. In all 12 nests
of blossomheaded and 1 1 nests of bluewinged
parakeet were located. Tree species namely
Grewia tillifolia , Tectona grandis , Albizici
odoratissima , Lagerstroemia lanceolata and
Melia dubia were used for nesting by both the
species. The majority of bluewinged parakeet
nests were found in Grewia tillifolia (64%)
Table 4
PERCENT FREQUENCY OF SUBSTRATE USED BY BLUEWINGED PARAKEET
228
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
RESOURCE USE OF BLOSSOMHEADED AMD BLUEWINGED PARAKEETS
Table 5
PERCENT FREQUENCY OF HEIGHT AND POSTURE USED BY BLUEWINGED PARAKEET
A = “hang-up” on vertical perch; B = “hang-sideways” on vertical perch; C = “hang-down” on vertical perch; D = “hang-up on
horizontal perch; E = “hang-down” on horizontal perch, and F = “hang-upside down” on horizontal perch.
followed by Melia dubia (27%). Similarly,
blossomheaded parakeet nests were mostly on
Grewia tillifolia (42%) and Tectona grandis
(42%).
The bluewinged parakeet preferred to
select holes at higher places (7.88 ± 3.23 m) than
blossomheaded parakeet (6,44 ± 3.23 m).
Moreover, bluewinged parakeets select taller and
bigger trees for nesting than the blossomheaded
(Table 6). Both the species showed difference in
the nest orientation (Fig 2). Among the four
N
■ Bluewinged □ Blossomheaded
Fig.2: Orientation of nest holes of parakeets
Table 6
NEST-SITE CHARACTERISTICS OF
BLOSSOMHEADED PARAKEET AND
BLUEWINGED PARAKEET
variables (nest height, nest tree height, tree girth
at breast height (gbh) and girth at
nest hole level), significant difference was
observed between the two species only in tree
gbh (U = -2.4, P=0.01).
JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2). AUG. 1999
229
RESOURCE USE OF BLOSSOMHEADED AND BLUEWINGED PARAKEETS
Discussion
The bluewinged and the blossomheaded
parakeet showed a preference for sprouting leaves
and flowers (nectar). Ali and Ripley (1987) have
reported that grains and fruits are the preferred
food of blossomheaded and blue winged parakeet,
and they also eat buds, petals and nectar.
Balasubramanian (1986) reported that the
roseringed parakeet feeds on leaves in the absence
of fruits. During this study, fruit availability was
low. The observed preference for flowers and
sprouting leaves is, therefore, a strategy to exploit
an alternative food resource.
Intersexual differences. Of the six
dimensions (food, plant form, height, canopy,
branches and posture) used, there was significant
difference in height and posture between sexes.
In the case of foraging posture, significant
difference was shown by both the species. The
difference was notable even between different
months. Parakeets normally forage in flocks and
feed very close to each other on the same plant.
If any one of them is disturbed or starts flying,
all flee immediately. The availability of perches
(twigs or branches) near the resources are
insufficient to accommodate all the flock
members, and hence, each individual chooses
different foraging postures. Normally, horizontal
perches and sitting upright seem to be more
comfortable than the vertical or other postures.
As the available space is occupied by the first
arrival or on hierarchical basis, other individuals
are forced to use the next available perch. This
could be to avoid predation, or as a result of their
social behaviour.
In height use, the male preferred greater
height classes than the female. For both the sexes,
the resources were the same, but the way in which
they were exploited was different. For example,
both the sexes preferred flowers and sprouting
leaves available mostly on the top and side
canopies, but utilised the resources at different
height classes and by different methods. The
differences in sexes can be attributed as a means
to alleviate intraspecific competition (Rand, 1952
and Selander, 1966). Another reason could be
that they forage near their centres of activity,
which differ between sexes in the breeding season
for passerine birds. During the breeding season,
males are more conspicuous and effective in long
distance communication with females when they
are at greater heights and feed near their song
perches; likewise, females forage in lower strata
near nests (Morse, 1968 and 1980). Though the
result supports both the hypotheses, the “centres
of activity” hypothesis is meant perhaps only for
breeding individuals and passerines. But in the
present study, data was collected on both breeding
and non-breeding individuals of non-passerines.
It may be noted that inclusion of both breeders
and non breeders would probably distort the
result. Thus our results would be meaningful if
the reason for differences in the resource use
between sexes is intraspecific competition, rather
than the centres of activity.
Inter-specific differences. Cavity nesters
pose a unique habitat problem. Obligate cavity-
nesting is generally associated with intra- and
interspecific competition for nest sites (Collias
and Collias, 1984 and Nilsson, 1984) and such
competition was found to result in bird species
selecting nest holes that differed in height, size,
shape and orientation (Edington and Edington
1972, Van Balen et al. 1982). In their nest-site
requirements, both species of parakeets differed
in the selection of plant species in terms of their
size. The blue winged showed some consistency
in selecting a particular plant species, as well as
size of the tree. The selection of Grewia tillifolia
by the majority for nesting can be attributed to
its greater height and spread. The bluewinged
parakeet starts nesting earlier than the
blossomheaded, therefore the probability of its
selecting the most suitable holes for nesting was
greater than the latter.
In conclusion, it may be stated that
differences in the selection of nest height,
orientation, mature tree and time of breeding
between these two congeneric parakeets may
230
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
RESOURCE USE OF BLOSSOMHEADED AND BL UE WINGED PARAKEETS
enable them to coexist in this moist deciduous
habitat.
Acknowledgements
We wish to thank Dr. P. A. Azeez, Principal
Scientist, SACON, and Dr. Justus Joshua,
Refer
Ali, S & S. D. Ripley (1987): Compact handbook of the
birds of India and Pakistan, Delhi, Oxford
University Press, Oxford, New York. p. 737.
Balasubramanian, P. (1986): A note on Roseringed
Parakeet ( Psittacula krameri ) feeding on the leaves
of Salvadora persica in the Point Calimere Wildlife
Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
86(1): 103.
Bell, H. L. (1982): Sexual differences in the foraging
behaviour of the Frill-necked Flycatcher Arses
telescopthaimus in New Guinea. Aust. J. Ecol. 7:
137-147.
Champion, H.G. & S.K. Seth ( 1 968): A revised survey of
the forest types of India, Manager of Publications,
Delhi, p. 404.
Collias, N.E. & E.C. Collias (1984): Nest building and
bird behaviour. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton
Univ. Press, p. 336.
Edjngton, J.M. & M.A. Edington (1972): Spatial patterns
and habitat partitioning in the breeding birds of an
upland wood. J. Anim. Ecol. 41: 331-357.
Holmes, R.T., T. W. Sherry & S.E. Bennett ( 1 987): Diumal
and individual variability in the foraging behaviour
of American Redstart ( Setophaga ruticilla).
Oecologia 36: 141-149.
Jackson, J.A. (1970): A quantitative study of the foraging
ecology of Downy Woodpeckers. Ecology 51: bi-
ll.
Kilham, L. (1965): Differences in feeding behaviour of
male and female Hairy Woodpeckers, Wilson Bull.
77: 134-145.
Kilham, L. (1970): Feeding behaviour in Downy
Woodpeckers. I. preference for paper birches and
sexual differences. Auk 87: 544-556.
Ligon, D. (1986): Sexual difference in foraging behaviour
■ l
Research Associate, Wildlife Institute of India
for reading the manuscript and suggesting
valuable improvements; special thanks to Dr. V.
S. Vijayan, Director, SACON, for computer and
library facilities in SACON. We are greatly
indebted to the Tamil Nadu Forest Department
for their help and co-operation during the study.
ENCES
in two species of Dendrocopes Woodpeckers. Auk
85: 203-215.
McEllin, S.M. (1979): Population demographics, spacing
and foraging behaviour of Whitebreasted and
Pygmy nuthatches in ponderosa pine habitat, pp.
301-329 In: The role of insectivorous birds in forest
ecosystems (J. G. Dickson et al.) Academic Press,
New York.
Morse, D.H. ( 1 968): A quantitative study of foraging male
and female spruce- woods warblers. Ecology 49:
779-784.
Morse, D.H. ( 1 97 1 ): The foraging of warblers isolated on
small island. Ecology 52: 216-218.
Morse, D.H. (1980): Foraging and coexistence of spruce
woods warblers. Living Bird 18: 7-25.
Nilsson, S.G. (1984): The evolution of nest-site selection
among hole-nesting birds; The importance of nest
predation and competition. Ornis Scand. 75:167-
175.
Rand, A.L. (1952): Secondary sexual characters and
ecological competition, Fieldiana Zool. 34: 65-70.
Remsen. J.V. Jr. & S.K. Robinson (1990): A classification
scheme for foraging behaviour of birds in terrestrial
habitat. Studies in Avian biology No. 13: 144-160.
Schoener. T.W. (1974): Competition and the form of
habitat shift. Theoretical population biology 6:
265-307.
Selander, R.K. ( 1 966): Sexual dimorphism and differential
niche utilization in birds. Condor 68: 113-151.
Williams, J.B. (1980): Intersexual niche partitioning in
Downy Woodpeckers, Wilson Bull. 92: 439-45 1 .
Van Balen, J.H., C.J.H, Booy, A.J. Van Franeken &
E.R.Oseick (1982): Studies in Hole-nesting birds
in natural nest-sites: 1 . Availability and occupation
of natural nest sites. Ardea 70: 1 -24.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
231
FISHES OF GAD ANA RIVER IN KALAKKAD MUNDANTHURAI
TIGER RESERVE1
M. Arunachalam and A. Sankaranarayanan2
Key words: Kalakkad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, fish diversity, Western Ghats
Streams in Gadana river basin located in the buffer zone of Kalakkad Mundanthurai Tiger
Reserve were surveyed during January 1997-98. Thirty-one species belonging to 5 orders,
1 2 families and 22 genera were recorded, of which Hypselobarbus dobsoni, Pseudambassis
ranga, Puntius sarana orphoides and Glyptothorax madraspatnum were first records for
this river basin.
Introduction
Documentation and conservation are the
current areas of concern for fish biologists.
Gadana river and its tributaries which flow in
the buffer zone of Kalakkad Mundanthurai Tiger
Reserve form a sub-basin of a major river called
Tamiraparani in the southeastern Western Ghats.
Tamiraparani river basin constitutes the Gadana
river, Ramanadhi, Pachayar, Chittar,
Manimuthar and Jambunadhi. However, the river
systems of Tamiraparani sub-basins were
completely unexplored. Silas (1953) described a
new species of Puntius arulius tambiraparniei
from Tamiraparani river. Johnsingh and
Wickram (1987) reported the freshwater fishes
from Kalakkad Mundanthurai Wildlife
Sanctuary. Rema Devi et al. ( 1 997) gave a list of
fishes from Tamiraparani river system. To date
there is no record of fishes from the sub-basins
of Tamiraparani river. The present survey is part
of a programme on the fish diversity in Western
Ghats streams.
Study Area
Gadana river, with its tributaries, forms a
sub-basin in the Tamiraparani river basin. This
river originates (8° 48' N lat., IT 19' E long.)
from Alwarkurichi and Kadayam ranges of
Western Ghats at an altitude of 1,564 m above
'Accepted March, 1 999
'Sri Paramakalyani Centre for Environmental Sciences
Manonmaniam Sundaranar University
Alwarkurichi 627 412, Tamil Nadu
msl and flows down the eastern slopes of
Western Ghats. During flooding, this river
confluences with the Tamiraparani river. The
perennial Gadana river is drained by three
tributaries, viz. Pampar, Kallar and Iluppaiyar.
Pampar and Kallar are dammed and Iluppaiyar
stream joins the Gadana river below the reservoir.
Below the confluence of Iluppaiyar, the river
traverses through plains, draining many villages
adjacent to the river for about 12 km south-
eastwards, before joining Tamiraparani river near
Thiruppudai Marudur village in Ambasamudram
taluk. The length of Gadana river from its origin
to the confluence is about 33 km.
Material and Methods
Fishes were collected from several
localities in the three tributaries using drag net,
various mesh sizes of gill nets and scoop nets.
The colour, spots if any, and other characters of
the fishes caught were noted and the specimens
were preserved in 10% formalin.
Systematic Account
Among the 31 species recorded from
Gadana river, a systematic account of 23 species
is given below; detailed accounts on 8 species
( Hypselobarbus dobsoni , Puntius arulius
tambiraparniei , Anguilla bengalensis , Puntius
sarana orphoides , Ompok bimaculatus,
Bhavania australis , Nemacheilus triangularis
and Glyptothorax madraspatnum have been
published earlier (CAMP workshop 1997;
Arunachalam and Sankaranarayanan in press).
232
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
FISHES OF GADANA RIVER
1. Labeo calbasu (Hamilton-Buchanan)
1822, Cyprinus calbasu Ham.-Buch.
Fishes of Ganges: 297, 387 pi. 2, fig. 33 (type
locality: rivers and ponds of Bengal and in the
Western provinces)
Material: 2 examples; 98 mm to 124 mm
from one locality (Iluppaiyar) were examined.
Distribution: Gadana river. First record.
Elsewhere: Pakistan, Nepal, Myanmar, Thailand
and Yunnan (South China).
Status: Not common in Gadana river.
Remarks: It attains a standard length of
90 cm (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). In our
collections, we recorded a maximum standard
length of 124 mm.
2. Puntius amphibius (Valenciennes)
Capoeta amphibia Valenciennes, 1842, Hist,
nat. Poiss., 16: 182, pi. 478 (type locality: Bombay).
Material: 3 examples; 32 mm to 84 mm
from one locality (Pampar) were examined.
Distribution: Pampar. First record.
Elsewhere: Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan
and Sri Lanka.
Status: Not common in Gadana river.
Remarks: It attains a standard length of
200 mm (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). But we
recorded a maximum standard length of 84 mm.
3. Puntius bimaculatus (Bleeker)
Gnathopogon bimaculatus Bleeker, 1844,
Verh. Nat. Holl. Maatsch. Haarlem, (2) 20: 17,
pi. 4, fig. 1 (type locality: Ceylon)
Material: 4 examples; 36 mm to 48 mm
from two localities (Pampar and Iluppaiyar) were
examined.
Distribution: Gadana river. First record.
Elsewhere: Bangalore.
Status: Common in Gadana river.
Remarks: It attains a standard length of
100 mm (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). But we
recorded a maximum standard length of 48 mm.
4. Puntius dorsalis (Jerdon)
1849, Systomus dorsalis Jerdon, Madras
J. Lit & Sci 15: 314 (type locality: tanks and
rivers in the neighbourhood of Chennai).
Material: 3 examples; 48 mm to 98 mm
from three localities were examined.
Distribution: Gadana river. First record.
Elsewhere: Cauvery and Krishna river systems
and Sri Lanka.
Status: Common in Gadana river.
Remarks: It attains a standard length of
24 cm (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). We recorded
a maximum standard length of 98 mm.
5. Puntius filamentosus (Valenciennes)
1 844, Leuciscus filamentosus Valenciennes
Hist. nat. Poiss, 17: 96 pi. 492 (type locality:
Alleppey, Kerala State)
Material: 3 examples; 42 mm to 58 mm
from one locality (Iluppaiyar) were examined.
Distribution: Gadana river. First record.
Elsewhere: Goa, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu, Sri
Lanka and Thailand.
Status: Not common in Gadana river.
Remarks: Attains a total length of 1 80 mm
(Jayaram, 1991). In our collections we recorded
a maximum total length of 58 mm.
6. Puntius sarana sarana (Hamilton-Buchanan)
1822, Cyprinus sarana Ham.-Buch. Fishes
of Ganges: 307, 388 (type locality: ponds and
rivers of Bengal).
Material: 4 examples; 72 mm to 1 1 1 mm
from one locality (Iluppaiyar) were examined.
Distribution: Gadana river. First record.
Elsewhere: Afghanistan, Pakistan, throughout
India except peninsula south of Krishna river.
Nepal, Bangladesh and Myanmar.
Status: Common in Gadana river.
Remarks: It attains a standard length of
31 cm (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). In our
collections we recorded a maximum size of
1 1 1 mm in standard length.
7. Puntius sarana subnasutus (Valenciennes)
1842, Barbus subnasutus Val. Hist. nat.
Poiss., 16:16:154 (type locality: Pondicherry)
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
233
FISHES OF GAD AN A RIVER
Material: 5 examples; 74 mm to 1 1 1 mm
from one locality (Iluppaiyar) were examined.
Distribution: Gadana river. First record.
Elsewhere: Krishna and Cauvery river systems
and Kerala in Peninsular India.
Status: Common in Gadana river.
Remarks: It attains a standard length of
250 mm (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). But we
recorded a maximum standard length of 1 1 1 mm.
8. Puntius ticto (Hamilton-Buchanan)
1822, Cyprinus -ticto Ham.-Buch. Fishes
of Ganges. 314, 398 pi. 8, fig. 87 (type locality:
Southeastern parts of Bengal
Material: 6 examples; 48 mm to 52 mm
from one locality (Iluppaiyar) were examined.
Distribution: Gadana river. F rst record.
Elsewhere: Pakistan, lower Swat river drainage;
India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Myanmar
and Thailand.
Status: Not common in Gadana river.
Remarks: It attains a standard length of
100 mm (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). In our
collections we recorded a maximum standard
length of 52 mm.
9. Puntius vittatus Day
1 865, Puntius vittatus Day Proc. Zool. Soc.
Lond: 303 (type locality: Cochin, Kerala)
Material: 10 examples; 23 mm to 26 mm
from one locality (Iluppaiyar) were examined.
Distribution: Gadana river. First record.
Elsewhere: Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu,
Kutch, Bihar, Rajasthan and Sri Lanka.
Status: Common in Gadana river.
Remarks: It attains a total length of
25 mm ( Jayaram 1 99 1 ). We recorded a maximum
total length of 26 mm.
10. Salmostoma clupeoides (Bloch)
1782, Cyprinus clupeoides Bloch,
Naturges ausland Fische 12:49 pi. 408, fig. 2
(type locality: “Indian ocean” evidently not the
Ocean but a freshwater body).
Material: 5 examples; 62 mm to 84 mm
from one locality (Iluppaiyar) were examined.
Distribution: Gadana river. First record.
Elsewhere: Eastern and Western Ghats,
Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and
Myanmar.
Status: Not common in Gadana river.
Remarks: Salmostoma clupeoides is not
common in Gadana river. It attains a standard
length of 15 cm (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). We
recorded a maximum standard length of 84 mm.
1 1 . Amblypharyngodon microlepis (Bleeker)
1853, Leuciscus microlepis Bleeker Verh.
Batav Genoot. Kunst. Wet., 25:141 (type
locality: Bengal).
Material: 5 examples; 51 mm to 76 mm
from one locality (Iluppaiyar) were examined.
Distribution: Gadana river. First record.
Elsewhere: Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal,
Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
Status: Not common in Gadana river.
Remarks: It attains a standard length of
100 mm (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). But in our
collections we recorded a maximum standard
length of 76 mm.
12. Danio aequipinnatus (McClelland)
1839, Perilampus aequipinnatus
McClelland, Asiat. Res. 19(2): 393 pi. 60, fig. 1
(type locality: Assam)
Material: 10 examples; 48 mm to 84 mm
from three localities were examined.
Distribution: Gadana river. First record
Elsewhere: India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh,
Myanmar and Thailand.
Status: Common in Gadana river. Inhabits
hill streams up to 300 m above msl.
Remarks: It attains a standard length of
1 50 mm (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). But we only
recorded a maximum standard length of 84 mm.
13. Esomus themacois (Valenciennes)
1842, Nuria thermocois Val. Hist. nat.
Poiss. 16: 238 pi. 472 (type locality: hot spring
at Kanniya, Sri Lanka).
234
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
FISHES OF GADANA RIVER
Material: 3 examples; 42 mm to 83 mm
from one locality (Iluppaiyar) were examined.
Distribution: Gadana river. First record.
Elsewhere: Sri Lanka.
Status: Not common in Gadana river.
Remarks: It attains a standard length of
120 mm (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). But we
recorded a maximum standard length of 83 mm.
14. Parluciosoma daniconius
(Hamilton-Buchanan)
1822, Cyprinus daniconius Ham.-Buch.
Fishes of Ganges: 327, 391 pi. 15, fig. 89 (type
locality: rivers of Southern Bengal)
Material: 10 examples; 42 mm to 103 mm
from Pampar and Thoniyar were examined.
Distribution: Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka,
Bangladesh, Myanmar and Thailand, Mekong
river basin.
Status: Common in Gadana river, prefers
running water.
Remarks: It attains a standard length of
100 mm (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). We
recorded a maximum standard length of 1 03 mm.
15. Garra mullya (Sykes)
1841, Chondrostoma mullya, Trans. Zool.
Soc. Lond. 2: 359, pi 62, fig. 3 (type locality:
Bheema river at Daunde, near Pune).
Material: 10 examples; 42 mm to 122 mm
from three localities were examined.
Distribution: Gadana river. First record.
Elsewhere: India except Assam and the Himalaya.
Status: Common in Gadana river.
Remarks: It grows upto 170 mm in
standard length (Talwar and Jhingran 1991 ). We
recorded a maximum standard length of 1 22 mm.
16. Lepidocephalus thermalis
(Valenciennes)
1846, Cobitis thermalis Val. Hist. nat.
Poiss., 18: 78 (type locality: Malabar)
Material: 2 examples; 35 mm to 42 mm
from two localities (Pampar and Thoniyar) were
examined.
Distribution: Gadana river. First record.
Elsewhere: Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra and
Sri Lanka.
Status: Common in Gadana river.
Remarks: Lepidocephalus thermalis
attains a standard length of 80 mm (Talwar and
Jhingran 1991). We recorded a standard length
of 42 mm.
17. Mystus armatus (Day)
1865, Hypselobagrus armatus Day, Proc.
Zool. Soc. Lond: 289 (type locality: Cochin)
Material: 3 examples; 42 mm to 68 mm
from two localities (Pampar and Thoniyar) were
examined.
Distribution: Gadana river: First record.
Elsewhere: Wynaad hills, Western Ghats and
Nagaland; probably also lower Myanmar.
Status: Common in Gadana river.
Remarks: Mystus armatus attains a
standard length of 145 mm (Talwar and Jhingran
1991). But we recorded a maximum standard
length of 68 mm only.
18. Aplochelius lineatus (Valenciennes)
1846, Panchax lineatum Val. Hist. nat.
Poiss., 18: 381 (type-locality: Peninsula,
India)
Material: 9 examples; 33 mm to 60 mm
from two localities (Pampar and Iluppaiyar) were
examined.
Distribution: Gadana river. First record.
Elsewhere: Western and Southeastern regions.
Status: Common in Gadana river.
Remarks: It attains a length of 100 mm
(Day 1878). But we recorded a maximum
standard length of 60 mm only.
19. Pseudambassis ranga
(Hamilton-Buchanan)
1822, Chanda ranga Ham.-Buch. Fishes
of Ganges 1 13, 371 pi. 16, fig 38 (type locality:
freshwaters of all Gangetic provinces).
Material: 3 examples; 32 mm to 38 mm
from one locality (Iluppaiyar) were examined.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
235
FISHES OF GADANA RIVER
Distribution: Gadana river. First record.
Elsewhere: Pakistan, India, Bangladesh,
Myanmar, Thailand and Malaysia.
Status: Not common in Gadana river
Remarks: It attains a standard length of
70 mm (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). But we
recorded a maximum standard length of 38 mm.
20. Etroplus maculatus (Bloch)
Chaetodon maculatus Bloch, 1785, Syst.
Ichth. PI. 427, fig. 2 (type locality: India)
Material: 5 examples; 30 mm to 44 mm
from one locality (Iluppaiyar) were examined.
Distribution: Gadana river. First record.
Elsewhere: India: Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil
Nadu, Kerala and Sri Lanka.
Status: Not common in Gadana river.
Remarks: It attains a standard length of
80 mm (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). But in our
collections we recorded a maximum standard
length of 44 mm.
21. Oreochromis mossambica (Peters)
1852, Chromis (Tilapia) mossambicus
Peters, Montab, Akad, Wiss., Berlin: 681 (type
locality: Mozambique)
Material: 6 examples; 42 mm to 240 mm
from one locality (Iluppaiyar) were examined.
Distribution: Gadana river. First record.
Elsewhere: East Africa; introduced in India,
Pakistan and Sri Lanka.
Status: Common in Gadana river.
Remarks: In our collections we recorded
a maximum standard length of 240 mm.
22. Macropodus cupanus (Valenciennes)
1831, Polyacanthus cupanus, Hist. nat.
Poiss., 7: 357 (type locality: Ariancoupon river
at Pondicherry)
Material: 2 examples; 28 mm to 32 mm
from one locality (Iluppaiyar) were examined.
Distribution: Gadana river. First record.
Elsewhere: Eastern India, Sri Lanka, Western
Myanmar, Malay peninsula and Sumatra.
Status: Not common in Gadana river.
Remarks: It attains a standard length of
75 mm (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). But we
recorded a maximum standard length of 32 mm.
23. Mastacembelus armatus (Lacepede)
1800, Macrognathus armatus Lacepede,
Hist. nat. Poiss, 2: 286 (type-locality: not known)
Material : 2 examples ; 1 40 mm to 5 1 0 mm
from three localities were examined.
Distribution: Gadana river. First record.
Elsewhere: Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Nepal,
Myanmar through Thailand and Malaya to
Southern China.
Status: Common in Gadana river.
Remarks: It attains a standard length of
61 mm (Talwar & Jhingran 1991). In our
collections we recorded a maximum size of
510 mm.
Results and Discussion
From our study, it is evident that Gadana
river drainage system is rich in fish diversity. A
total of 32 species belonging to 21 genera were
recorded from each locality of the three tributaries
(Table 1). Of all these three localities, Pampar
and Iluppaiyar are less disturbed. The banks of
the Iluppaiyar stream are unstable due to farming
activities. Even though Iluppaiyar stream is
disturbed beyond the riparian zone, the fish
species richness is high compared to the other
two streams. This may be due to the presence of
rich riparian strips.
Puntius sarana orphoides, Pseudambassis
ranga , Glyptothorax madraspatnum are
comparatively rare and Hypselobarbus dobsoni
occurs in great abundance in Gadana river,
but they are not recorded in other river systems
constituting the Tamiraparani river basin.
Puntius sarana orphoides was originally
described by Valenciennes from Java. Menon
(1963) recorded this subspecies from Manipur.
This species was first reported from Western
Ghats of South India. Menon (1992) recorded
Hypselobarbus dobsoni from the Krishna river
236
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
FISHES OF G ADANA RIVER
Table 1
FISH SPECIES RECORDED IN GADANA RIVER
Species
Pampar Kallar Iluppaiyar Species
Pampar Kallar Iluppaiyar
reported from Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala
by Shaji et al. (1995). The present survey reports
(1822). Later Ajithkumar and Vijayan (1988)
recorded this species from Keoladeo National Park,
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
237
1
FISHES OF GADANA RIVER
Bharatpur, Rajasthan. We are reporting it from
Gadana river for the first time.
Acknowledgements
One of the authors (M.A.) thanks the
Department of Biotechnology, Ministry
of Science and Technology, Government of India
for financial assistance. We thank Dr. Melkani
(Field Director, Kalakkad Mundanthurai Tiger
Refer
Ajithkumar, C.R. & V.S. Vijayan (1988): On the fish fauna
of Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur (Rajasthan),
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85(1): 45-49.
Arunachalam, M. & A. Sankaranarayanan (in press):
Some economically important/cultivable fishes in
Gadana river. Western Ghats of south Tamil Nadu.
Proc. Workshop on Germplasm inventory and Gene
banking in freshwater fishes. National Bureau on Fish
Genetic Resources, Lucknow.
Arunachalam, M. & A. Sankaranarayanan (in press):
Ornamental stream fish Puntius arulius tambraparniei
endemic to the Tamiraparani river. Western Ghats of
south Tamil Nadu. Ibid.
Arunachalam, M. & A. Sankaranarayanan (in press):
Economically important cultivable fish Hypselobarbus
dobsoni endemic to Gadana river, Western Ghats of
south Tamil Nadu. Ibid.
Day (1 878): The Fishes of India, 4th edn. Jagmander Book
Agency, New Delhi, p. 778.
Hamilton-Buchanan, F. (1822): An account of the fishes
found in the river Ganges and its branches. Edinburgh
and London, pp. vii + 405, 39 pis.
Jayaram, K.C. (1991): Revision of the genus Puntius
Hamilton from the Indian region. Rec. Zool. Surv. India.
Occ. Paper No. 135: 178.
Johnsingh, A.J.T. & D. Vickram (1987): Fishes of
Reserve) and Mr. Sornappan (Asst. Conservator
of Forest, Kadayam range) for their co-opera- ;
tion. We also thank Mr. A. Vanarajan and
Mr. K. Sankar (Project Assistants - DBT) for
their assistance, Dr. K. Rema Devi (Scientist,
ZSI, Chennai) for confirming the identifica-
tions of fish specimens and Dr. P.T. Cherian
(Officer-in-charge), Zoological Survey of India,
Southern Regional Station, Chennai for research
facilities.
:nces
Mundanthurai Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84(3): 526-533.
Menon, A.G.K. (1963): Spolia zeylanica, 36(1): p. 69.
Menon, A.G.K. ( 1 992): Conservation of freshwater fishes
of Peninsular India. Unpublished report (Grant No. 14/
24/87-MAB/RE dt. 12.8.88) Ministry of Environment
& Forests, Govt, of India, p. 136
Molur, Sanjay & Sally Walker (eds.) ( 1 997): Report of
the workshop “Conservation Assessment and
Management Plan (CAMP) for freshwater fishes of
India” ZOO Outreach Organisation, Coimbatore, India,
p. 156
Rema Devi, K., T.J. Indra, M.B. Raghunathan, M. Mary
Bai, & M.S. Ravichandran (1997): Ichthyofauna of
the Tamiraparani river system, Tamil Nadu. Zoos print.
Vol. 12(7): 1,2.
Shaji, C.P., P.S. Easa & S. Chand Basha (1995):
Freshwater fish diversity in Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary,
Kerala, South India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92: 360-
364.
Silas, E.G. (1953): New fishes of the Western Ghats with
notes on Puntius arulius (Jerdon). Rec. Indian Mus.
57:27-38.
Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland fishes of
India and adjacent countries, Oxford & IBH, New
Delhi. Vol. I & II, p. 1158
238
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(2) AUG. 1999
STATUS OF THE BLACK SHAHEEN OR INDIAN PEREGRINE FALCON
FALCO PEREGRINUS PEREGR1NATOR IN SRI LANKA1
Hermann DOttlinger2 and Thilo W. Hoffmann3
( With one text-figure)
Key words: Indian peregrine falcon, shaheen falcon, Falco peregrinus
peregrinator, Sri Lanka, nest sites, population estimate
A literature survey and study of museum specimens was carried out to register all locations
of sightings for the subspecies Falco peregrinus peregrinator in Sri Lanka. In 1 995 and
1996, field surveys were conducted to find occupied nest sites. Data of nest site distances
were used for the calculation of a preliminary population estimate. Comparison of the
estimated population density of 40 breeding pairs in Sri Lanka was made with sample data
from southern Germany. In spite of no obvious signs of food shortage, or nest site limitations,
the estimated breeding population of Sri Lanka is very low.
Introduction
The Indian peregrine falcon ( Falco
peregrinus peregrinator) has always been
regarded as a very uncommon and shy bird, and
it is very rarely met with by amateur birdwatchers
(Ali and Ripley 1968, Legge 1878-80). Thus data
from Sri Lanka are scarce. It is generally
acknowledged that it is a breeding resident in
Sri Lanka (Henry 1971, Lamsfuss 1996b, Wait
1971) but estimates of the total population have
only been made on the basis of data from single
sight records.
Material and Method
In 1995 and 1996, field surveys were
conducted to determine the current status. This
was necessary as a prerequisite for a research
project which is presently ongoing, supported
by the Ceylon Bird Club and the Department of
Wildlife Conservation. Before starting any field
work, all available historical data were collected
to gain a preliminary impression and to find a
possible starting point for the field surveys. The
data gathered from an intensive literature survey
'Accepted May, 1997
2 Ecology Research Unit, Canterbury Christ Church College,
North Holmes Road, Canterbury, Kent, U.K.
Present address :
Langer Rain 4, 85301 Sunzhausen, Germany.
3Ceylon Bird Club, P.O. Box 1 1, Colombo. 1 , Sri Lanka.
as well as from labels on museum skins (Natural
History Museum, Tring; Bombay Natural
History Society Museum; the Museum of
Zoology, University of Michigan) in 1994 are
shown in Table 1 . Equipped with this data, the
first brief field search was carried out from
March 17 to 26, 1995. The shaheen falcons
display greatest activity during early courtship
which is believed in Sri Lanka to be from
February to June (Henry 1971). To locate nest
sites and the falcons, road side searches were
thought to be best. Every rock face along a road
was checked for white marks and scanned with
binoculars. The white marks result from excreta
of falcons roosting at the same spot in a rock
face and can be seen fairly well from a distance.
When white marks (droppings) were spotted, the
rock face was marked on the map and the
geographical data were recorded by Geogra-
phical Position System (GPS). Approximately
one to two hours were then spent on direct
observation to determine the presence of shaheen
falcon. The main purpose of this road side count
was to find nest sites occupied by breeding pairs
for further research at a later date. Results of
the 1995 road side count are listed in Table 2.
Although not many birds could be found
during the first survey, the results were
encouraging and one possible study area
(Dehiattakandiya) was selected for further
research. Preparations for the subsequent year’s
survey were then made.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
239
ST A TUS OF THE BLA CK SHAHEEN IN SRI LANKA
Table 1
HISTORICAL RECORDS OF SHAHEEN FALCONS (FALCO PEREGRJNUS PEREGRINA TOR) SEEN OR SHOT IN
(CEYLON) SRI LANKA. DATA GATHERED FROM LITERATURE SURVEY AND MUSEUM SKIN EXAMINATION
In early 1996, a set of data (Lamsfuss
1996a) concerning shaheen sightings in
Sri Lanka became available and is listed in
Table 4. All data are based on sightings and
observations reported in the Ceylon Bird
Club Notes (CBCN) for the period 1 98 1 to 1 99 1 .
Most are single sightings with only very
few places where several sightings had been
made. One of these is Sigiriya Rock with
more than 10 records, another the City of
Colombo (Lamsfuss 1996a). From April to May
1996, the second field survey was conducted and
was again started with road side counts from
Colombo via Ratnapura into the South
(Hambantota) and then northwards via
Wellawaya-Monaragla-Bibile to Mahiyangana.
The data collected during the 1996 road side
count are listed in Table 3.
Table 2
RESULTS OF 1995 ROAD SIDE COUNTS CARRIED OUT BETWEEN 1 7.iii.95 AND 29.iii.95
Date Location Observations
240
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
STA TUS OF THE BLA CK SHAHEEN IN SRI LANKA
Table 3
RESULTS OF THE FIELD SURVEY CONDUCTED FROM APRIL TO MAY, 1 996
Results and Discussion
The nest sites found in 1995 and nest sites
known earlier have allowed a rough calculation
of the probable population in Sri Lanka. The
mean distances between a cluster of nesting sites
(Sigirya, Kudagala, Kehelula, Inginiyagala,
Maho) were used for estimating the approximate
size of the probable breeding territories. The
mean radius was calculated at r = 22.6 km. In
this calculation it has to be considered that not
every nest site was detected because of the thick
forest and long distances from the road; not every
potential breeding rock could be reached by car.
Furthermore, it was not possible to enter the
National Parks by car and in these cases the
search was mostly conducted along the borders
of the National Parks. A rough estimate of the
Table 4
RECORDS COMPILED BY LAMSFUSS ( 1 996A) FROM THE CEYLON BIRD CLUB NOTES, 1981-1995
ONLY THE FIRST DATE OF EACH LOCATION IS GIVEN
(SUBSEQUENT SIGHTINGS AT THE SAME LOCATION ARE NOT LISTED)
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
241
STA TUS OF THE BLA CK SHAHEEN IN SRI LANKA
■ = literature survey + = 1 995/1 996 field survey = wet zone
★ = Lamsfuss, CBCN 1981-1995 = semi arid zones
o - City or Town
Fig. 1 : Map of Sri Lanka showing all locations at which Falco peregrinus peregrinator has been recorded
(except for the Ceylon Bird Club Notes 1942-1980, which remain to be evaluated).
242
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
STA TUS OF THE BLA CK SHAHEEN IN SRI LANKA
total population in Sri Lanka is at least 40
breeding pairs of shaheen falcons. Additionally,
there would be about 20 birds, the so called non-
breeders or surplus birds. It is interesting that
this estimate accords well with that of Hoffmann,
who suggested approximately 100 individuals.
The findings of 1996 confirmed the
original calculation, but new discoveries of nest
sites in future would necessitate recalculation. It
is assumed that the total number of Shaheen in
Sri Lanka would be rather higher. First
indications are found in the 1996 results, with
the true distance from Wellawaya to Buttala being
17 km, from Buttala to Kumbukkana 4 km and
from Kumbukkana to Monaragala 16 km. These
distances are much shorter than those found in
the previous year, but nest sites need to be
confirmed for occupancy during the next survey
(Fig. 1). It is still not clear which factors are
responsible for limiting the population to this
comparatively low number as there were no
indications of food shortages or nest site
limitations. In Bavaria, a part of southern
Germany almost as large as Sri Lanka (65,000
km2), a breeding population of 115 pairs of
peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus peregrinus)
has been recorded, and Baden Wurttemberg has
205 breeding pairs in an area of 35,750 km2
Refer
Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1968): Handbook of the Birds of
India and Pakistan. Vol. 1 . Oxford University Press,
Bombay, pp. 342-361 .
Heller, M. & I. Heller (1984): Ein Wanderfalkenhorst
{Falco peregrinus peregrinator ) im Dschungel
Ceylons. Verh.orn.Ges. Bayern 24 (1): 139-140.
Henry, G.M. (1971): A Guide to the Birds of Ceylon, Ox-
ford University Press, London.
Hoffmann, T. W. ( 1 989): Notes on the status and distribu-
tion of some Birds in Sri Lanka as listed in S.D.
Ripley (1982) “A Synopsis of the Birds of India
and Pakistan”, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86 (1):
7-16.
Hoffmann, T.W. (1992): Observation in Ceylon Bird Club
Notes, CBCN 92:79.
Kostrzewa, A. & G. Speer (1995): Greifvogel in
■ l
(Kostrzewa and Speer 1995). The arithmetic
mean values are 1 pair for every 1,625 km2 in
Sri Lanka, 1 pair for every 565 km2 in Bavaria
and 1 pair for every 174 km2 in Baden
Wurttemberg. The very low density of the
estimated population in Sri Lanka is obvious.
As stated before, neither food shortage nor nest
site limitations could be observed, and if it is
assumed that the calculated population in Sri
Lanka is correct, there must be some other
factor(s) responsible for this relatively low
density.
Further research and direct field
observation will help to provide more details,
which promise to be of considerable interest.
Acknowledgements
We would like to express our thanks to
Dr. N. Atapattu of the Department of Wildlife
Conservation, Gunter Lamsfuss, A. Baur &
Company Ltd., the Deutscher Falkenorden, W.E.
Abeydeera, Christian Rol3, K.H. Gersmann, the
Natural History Museum Tring, UK, the Bombay
Natural History Society, the University of
Michigan Museum of Zoology and the Elmar-
Schlogel-Stiftung for their contributions in
supporting this programme.
EN C E S
Deutschland, Bestand, Situation, Schutz, Aula
Verlag, Wiesbaden.
Lamsfuss, G. (1996a): Analysis and Evaluation of the
Ceylon Bird Club Notes 1981-1995 {Falco
peregrinus peregrinator ) Shahin, Falcon,
Darmstadt, unpubl.
Lamsfuss, G. (1996b): Die Vogel Sri Lankas und der
Malediven, einschlieBlich denen der Lakkadiven
und des Chagos-Archipels, Dannstadt, Eigenverlag.
Legge, V. (1878-80): A History of the Birds of Ceylon.
London. 1: 106-109.
Wait, W.E. (1971): Manual of the Birds of Ceylon, (2,,d
Ed.) London, Dulau & Co. pp 277-279.
Wood, Casey A. &F.M. Fyfe(1943): The Art of Falconry
by Frederick II of Hohenstauffen, reprint 1961.
Stanford University Press.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
243
FISH FAUNA, ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION IN CHALAKUDY
RIVER SYSTEM, KERALA1
C.R. Ajithkumar2, K. Rema Devi3, K. Raju Thomas and C.R. Biju2
( With one text-figure)
Key words: Freshwater fishes, Chalakudy river, Kerala, Anaimalai hills,
Nelliampathy hills, Barilius bendelisis, Glyptothorax lonah.
Chalakudy river originating from the Anaimalai and Nelliampathy hill ranges was surveyed
from November 1 996 to February 1 998, and the total number of fish species recorded from
this river reached up to ninety-eight. Glyptothorax lonah is a new record for Kerala. Barilius
bendelisis was recorded for the first time from a west flowing river in Kerala. Hypselobarbus
kurali, Puntius dorsalis, Travancoria jonesi, Tetraodon travancoricus, Nemacheilus
guentheri, Ompok malabaricus, Euryglossa orientalis and Macrospinosa cuja were reported
for the first time from this river. Lowland (<75 m from sea level) and midland (75 to 500 m
above msl) have a greater number of species than highland (500 to 750 m above msl) and
high ranges (>750 m above msl). This is because of the migratory species recorded in the
lowland and midland and also because this area is connected with paddy fields or other
wetlands.
Introduction
The Western Ghats are one of the most
important biodiversity hot spots in India. In spite
of adverse human impacts, they still support a
good number of endemic flora and fauna,
including fish fauna. Several endemic fish
species were recorded from southern Western
Ghats (Jayaram 1981; Talwar and Jhingran
1991). Study on fresh water fishes of Kerala
started with Day’s fishes of malabar (1865) and
fishes of India (1889) After that, most of the
studies on fishes were conducted in southern
Western Ghats i.e. south of Palghat gap during
the forties and fifties, and include Pillay (1929),
John (1936), Hora and Law (1941), Hora and
Nair ( 1 94 1 ), Raj (1941), Chacko ( 1 948), Menon
(1950) and Silas (1951).
The earliest specific study, in the higher
reaches of Chalakudy river system in Anaimalai
and Nelliampathy Hills was carried out by Silas
'Accepted August, 1998
^Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House,
Dr. Salim Ali Chowk, S.B.S. Road, Mumbai 400 023.
Zoological Survey of India, 1 00, Santhome High Road,
Chennai 600 028
(1951). Later, Thobias (1973) did a detailed study
of the fishes in Trichur dist. while Antony (1977)
studied the hill stream fishes in the same area.
Study on the fishes of the lower reaches and the
wetlands in Trichur dist. was done by Inasu
(1991). From Chalakudy river, Pethiyagoda and
Kottelat (1994) have reported three new species,
viz, Osteochilichthys longidorsalis, Travancoria
elongata and Horabagrus nigricollaris from
Vettilappara, 26 km upstream of Chalakudy town
and Shaji et al. (1996) have reported a new
species Garra surendranathanii from
Orukomban.
There is, however, no detailed study of the
whole Chalakudy river system. We have carried
out a detailed survey in the Chalakudy river system
including the portions lying in Tamil Nadu State
and the results thus obtained were collated with
past records to get a clear picture of the present
distribution and abundance of fishes.
Study area
River Chalakudy is 144 km long, and its
basin lies between latitudes 10° 10' 0” and 10° 33'
30" N and longitude 76° 17' 0" and 77° 4' 0" E.
244
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
FISH FAUNA, ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION
It originates from Anaimalai and Nelliampathy
hills and joins Periyar river at Elanthikara, a few
kilometres before flowing into the sea. The main
tributaries of this river are Sholayar,
Parambikulam, Kuriarkuty and Karappara. The
Sholayar and Parambikulam rivers originate
from Anaimalai at 1066 m and 1676 m above
msl respectively. Sholayar flows westwards for
44.8 km and then turns northwards and joins
Parambikulam river, 1.6 km before
Orukombankutty at an elevation of 473 m.
Parambikulam river flows parallel and north to
Sholayar. Kuriarkuty river also originates from
the Anaimalai hills and joins Parambikulam
river. Karapara river originates from the
Nelliampathy hills of Palakkad dist. at an
elevation of 914 m, flows west and turns
southwest till it joins Parambikulam river at
Orukombankutty; from this point the river is
known as Chalakudy river. Before its confluence
with Periyar there are some smaller streams such
as Charppa thodu, Kannamkuzhi, Pillaparathodu
and Arurmuzhi. Till it reaches the plains, the
river has a rocky bottom with deep crevices and
pools, rapids and falls, a famous one being
Athirapilly falls.
Chalakudy river has a catchment area of 1 ,704
sq. km and the total runoff is 3, 1 2 1 x 1 0 m3. There
are a number of reservoirs in the river system,
viz. Parambikulam, Thunakadavu, Peruvari-
pallam, Malakkapara, lower Sholayar, and
Poringalkuthu.
Method
During 1 996-97 the survey was carried out
in Nelliampathy, Anaimalai and Cardamom hills
(south of the Palghat gap). This includes
Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary and part of
Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary. Post-monsoon
period was suitable for fish survey. 1:50,000
Survey of India topo sheets were used to pinpoint
the approachable sites and to identify the stream
order. At the sampling site, careful observation
was made without disturbing the water and visual
count for roughly 2 sq. m area was carried out if
the water was clear. In the post-monsoon period,
the water was rarely turbid. Various sampling
methods such as cast net, scoop net, gill net and
a circular net with very small mesh and sinkers
on the edge, were used to catch different species,
adding to the visual count. A constant number
of efforts was made to reduce statistical bias.
Samples were preserved in 10% formalin and
kept for identification and further studies. Fishes
were identified mainly from Jayaram (1981) and
Talwar and Jhingran (1991).
Based on altitude, the study area was
classified into four main divisions; (1) Lowland
(<75 m from sea level), (2) Midland (75 to 500 m
above msl), (3) Highland (500 to 750 m above
msl), (4) High ranges (>750 m above msl)
Distributional variation and seasonal abundance
of the species were closely observed.
Results and Discussions
As the western side of the Western Ghats
is narrow, the rivers flowing westward are also
smaller than the east flowing rivers. Moreover,
in these river systems, separated as they are from
each other by hills, easy mixing of species is
difficult. Though these rivers are small in size,
the number of fish species is high. Chalakudy
river is one of the important rivers in Kerala with
highly diverse fish fauna.
Fish Fauna
During the present survey, 83 species were
recorded. A complete list of fish from this river,
including past records, gives a total number of
98 species, 34 families and 10 orders. Previous
records that have been included in this list are of
Silas (1951); Thobias (1972); Antony (1977);
Inasu (1991); Pethiyagoda and Kottelat (1994)
and Biju et al. (1998, 1999). The most abundant
order in this report is Cypriniformes followed
by Perciformes and Siluriformes. The family with
the maximum number of representatives is
Cyprinidae. The most abundant genus in this
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
245
FISH FAUNA, ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION
river is Puntius followed by Mystus. This list
includes typical primary freshwater fishes,
secondary freshwater fishes or migratory fishes
and wetland species.
Silas (1951) studied the Ponnani drainage
and Periyar drainage system (he considered
Chalakudy river as a part of Periyar because it is
connected with Periyar just before it joins the
Arabian Sea). He recorded eight species from
Nelliampathy hills. The works of Thobias (1973),
Antony (1977) and Inasu (1991) were
concentrated only in the Thrissur (= Trichur) dist.
Hence their list of species also included fishes
from Karuvannur and Kecheri rivers. Thobias
(1973) collected 58 species of freshwater fishes
from Thrissur dist. of which 5 1 were found in
the Chalakudy river. Antony (1977) described
48 species of hill stream fishes from Thrissur
district, of which 42 species were from Chalakudy
river. Inasu (1991) studied the distribution of
inland fishes and listed 57 species, of which 17
species were from the Chalakudy river.
Pethiyagoda and Kottelat (1994) have reported
three new species from this river under the genera
Travancoria, Osteochilichthys and Horabagrus.
Shaji et al. (1996) reported a new species under
the genus Garra. Biju et al. (1999) reported 40
species of freshwater fishes of Parambikulam
Wildlife Sanctuary. 15 species that have been
recorded by previous workers were not located
by us during the present survey.
Hypselobarbus kurali , Puntius dorsalis ,
Travancoria jonesi, Macrospinosa cuja ,
Euryglossa orientals, Nemacheilus guentheri ,
Ompok malabaricus and Tetraodon
travancoricus are reported for the first time from
this river.
Tor khudree is considered as a rare and
endangered species in Kerala. This species was
recorded in good numbers from upstream
stretches. Moreover, one specimen of this species
was collected from the lowlying
Kanakkankadavu area. Tor khudree is a sport
fish, and specialised methods to catch fish in the
river have resulted in this species being
endangered and listed accordingly. One specimen
recorded from Kanakkankadavu showed it
can thrive in lowland, midland and highland
streams.
The fishes recorded from the present survey
and the past records (*) are given in Table 1.
The fishes are classified according to Talwar and
Jhingran ( 1991 ) with modifications from Menon
(in press).
Notes on some interesting species
1. Garra surendranathanii Shaji et al.
1996. Garra surendranathanii Shaji et al.,
JBNHS, 93(3): 572-575
13 specimens of G. surendranathanii were
collected from Orukombankutty and nearby
places. This species described by Shaji etal. from
Chalakudy, Periyar and Pamba rivers of Kerala.
Table 1
LIST OF SPECIES RECORDED FROM CHALAKUDY RIVER
Sp. No.
I Order: Elopiformes
Family: Megalopidae
1 . Megalops cyprinoides (Broussonet)
II Order: Anguilliformes
Family: Anguillidae
2 . A nguilla bengalensis bengalensis
(Gray & Hardwicke)
3. Anguilla bicolor bicolor McClelland
III Order: Clupeiformes
Family: Clupeidae
Subfamily: Pellonulinae
Sp. No.
4. Dayella malabarica (Day)
Family: Engraulididae
5. Stolephorus commersonii Lacepede
IV Order: Cyprini formes
Family: Cyprinidae
Subfamily: Cyprininae
6. Catla catla { Hamilton)
7. Cirrhinus mrigala (Hamilton )
8. Cyprinus carpio communis
Linnaeus
9. Hypselobarbus curmuca (Hami lton )
10. H. kolus (Sykes)
246
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
FISH FA UNA, ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION
Table 1 ( contd .)
LIST OF SPECIES RECORDED FROM CHALAKUDY RIVER
Sp. No.
Family: Cobitidae
Subfamily: Cobitinae
52. Lepidocephalus thermalis (Valenciennes)
V Order: Siluriformes
Family: Bagridae
53 . Horabagrus brachysoma (Gunther)
54. H. nigricollaris Pethiyagoda &Kottelat*
55 . Pseudobagras chryseus ( Day)*
56. Mystusgulio (Hamilton)
57. M.armatus{ Day)
58. M. cavasius( Hamilton)
59. M. malabaricus (ievdon)
60. M. oculatus (Valenciennes)
61. M. vittatus (Bloch)*
Family: Siluridae
62. Ompok bimaculatus (Bloch)
63 . O. malabaricus (Valenciennes)
64. Wallago attu (Schneider)
Family: Sisoridae
65. Glyptothorax lonah (Sykes)
66. Glyptothorax madraspatamim Day*
Family: Claridae
67. Clarias batrachus (Linnaeus)
Family: Heteropneustidae
68. Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch)
Family: Ariidae
69. Arius caelatus Valenciennes
VI Order: Cyprinodonti formes
Family: Hemirhamphidae
70. Hyporhamphus limbatus (Valenciennes)
Family: Belonidae
7 1 . Xenentodon cancila (Hamilton)
Family: Aplocheilidae
72. Aplocheilus lineatus (Valenciennes)
73. Aplocheilus panchax (Hamilton)*
VII Order: Synbranchi formes
Family: Synbranchidae
74. Ophisternon bengalense McClelland*
VIII Order: Perciformes
Family: Ambassidae
75. Parambassis thomassi (Day)
76. Parambassis dayi (Bleeker)
Family: Teraponidae
77. Teraponjarbua (Forsskal)
Family: Carangidae
78. Caranx carangus (Bloch)
Family: Lutjanidae
79. Lutjanus argent imaculatus (Forsskal)
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
247
FISH FA UNA, ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION
Table 1 ( contd .)
LIST OF SPECIES RECORDED FROM CHALAKUDY RIVER
Sp- No. Sp. No.
Family: Gerreidae
80. Gerres filamentosus Cuvier 90.
Family: Sciaenidae
8 1 . Macrospinosa cuja ( Hami 1 ton )
Family: Scatophagidae 91 .
82. Scatophagus argus (Linnaeus)
Family: Nandidae 92.
Subfamily: Pristolepidinae
83. Pristolepis marginatus Jerdon 93.
Subfamily: Nandinae 94.
84. Nandusnatidus (Hamilton)
Family: Cichlidae 95.
85. Etroplus maculatus (Bloch) 96.
86. E. suratensis (Bloch)
87. Oreochromis mossambicci (Peters)
Family: Mugilidae ^
88. Mugil cephalus Linnaeus
Family: Gobiidae
Subfamily: Gobinae
89. Glossogobius giuris (Hamilton) 98.
♦Recorded by previous workers
Family: Anabantidae
Anabas testudineus (Bloch)
Family: Belontidae
Subfamily: Macropodinae
Macropodus cupanus (Valenciennes)
Family: Channidae
Channa marulius
(Hamilton-Buchanan)
C. orientalis Bloch and Schneider
C. striatus (Bloch)
Family: Mastacembelidae
Macrognathus guentheri (Day)
Mastacembelus armatus (Lecepede)
IX Order: Pleuronectiformes
Family: Solteidae
Euryglossa orientalis (Bloch & Schneider)
X Order: Tetraodontiformes
Family: Tetraodontidae
Tetraodon travancoricus Hora & Nair
shows great resemblance to G. mcClellandi
(Jerdon) in body form, position of the dorsal fin
and number of lateral line scales. But it can be
distinguished by the nature of spine in the
tubercles. G. mullya and G. menoni differ from
it in the number of lateral line scales. It differs
from G. hughi (Silas) by the presence of scales
in the mid-dorsal streak and from G. gotyla
stenorhyncus (Jerdon) in the absence of a
proboscis. This survey confirmed the presence
of this species only in its type locality,
Orukombankutty. This is the sixth type of species
under the genus Garra, recorded from Kerala.
2. Osteochilichthys longidorsalis
Pethiyagoda & Kottelat
1994. Osteochilichthys longidorsalis,
Pethiyagoda & Kottelat, J. South Asian nat. Hist.,
1(1): 97-116
The first report of this 'species was from
Chalakudy river, near Vettilappara (type locality),
26 km upstream of Chalakudy town. During the
present survey, one specimen of this species was
collected from the Parambikulam river, tributary
of Chalakudy river, two kilometres away from
Orukombankutty. This species has distinctive
characters from all other species of the genus in
having 1 0 branched rays and a markedly elongate
last simple dorsal fin ray. It differs from O.
thomassi in the absence of a dark lateral stripe,
by having a shallower body, and not having a
fimbriated upper lip. It can be distinguished from
O. nashii by having a shallower body and by the
absence of a dark blotch on the dorsal fin. The
present report of this species is the second one
from Kerala from the same river.
3. Barilius bendelisis (Hamilton)
B. bendelisis (Ham.) is one of the principal
hillstream fish in the rivers of Jammu. It is
characterised by eight to twelve dark bands
descending towards the lateral line which become
indistinct as spots in adults and lateral line scales
with two black spots at their base. It was
considered to be present throughout India except
Kerala (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). It was
reported from Periyar lake, Thekkady by Chacko
(1948), but later Jayaram (1981), Talwar and
248
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
FISH FA UNA, ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION
Jhingran (1991) considered this as erroneous.
Easa and Shaji (1996) have reported this species
from the east flowing Pambar river, Chinnar
Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala. This report
confirmed its occurrence in Kerala.
During the present survey six specimens
of this species were collected from Thekkadiar
tributary of Chalakudy river in Parambikulam
Wildlife Sanctuary area. This is the first report
of this species from a west flowing river in Kerala
(Raju Thomas et al. 1998).
4. Glyptothorax lonah (Sykes)
Six specimens of G. lonah were collected
from Karappara river in Parambikulam Wildlife
Sanctuary area and also from Nelliampathy area.
The known distribution of this species was
Deccan plateau, Godavari and Krishna river
systems. Silas (1951) extended its distribution
to the headwaters of Cauvery river. It was first
reported from Kerala by Biju et al 1998). A small
description of this species is given below:
Body elongate, head depressed, as long as
broad; occipital process about 4 times as long as
broad, apposed to basal bone of dorsal fin.
Maxillary barbels extend posteriorly to anterior
third of pectoral fins. Adhesive apparatus longer
than broad, without a central pit. Dorsal fin
inserted nearer to adipose fin than to snout tip.
5. Horabagrus nigricollaris
Pethiyagoda & Kottelat
Type locality of this species is Chalakudy
river, 26 km upstream of Chalakudy town, near
Vettilappara. It is distinguished from H.
brachysoma by the colour pattern; it has a black
saddle shaped bar extending across the dorsum
from the humeral region of each side; and also
by having a shorter head, a larger eye, a broader
pectoral girdle, a longer dorsal spine and a
smaller distance between the dorsal origin and
coracoid. The two species also differ in the shape
of the adipose fin, in H. nigricollaris, the dorsal
profile of the adipose fin is continuous with the
dorsal profile of the dorsum anterior to it. During
the present study, this fish has not been located
anywhere in this river.
6. Travancoria elongata
Pethiyagoda & Kottelat
This species was also described from the
Chalakudy river near Vettilappara. It is
distinguished from its only congener in having
a more slender body, a longer and more slender
caudal peduncle, and lobes of the rostral cap
between the rostral barbels present, but not
developed into barbel-like projections. During
the present study, it has not been located in this
river.
7. Tetraodon travancoricus
Hora and Nair
This is a small species, less than an inch
in length. Hora and Nair (1941) described this
fish from Pambar river, Kerala. In the present
survey, 75 specimens of this fish were collected
from Kanakkankadavu area, Emakulam district.
This is the first report of this species from this
river.
Distribution and abundance of fishes
Samples were collected from 53 locations
(Fig. 1), mainly in two seasons, viz, summer and
post-monsoon periods. Separate collections were
taken from lowland, midland, highland and high
range areas. Distribution of various species under
each altitudinal area is given in Table 2.
A total of 61 species were recorded from
lowland areas, out of which 26 were specific to
this zone. In this survey, 12 species of migratory
or secondary freshwater fishes were obtained
(Table 3). Most of the migratory or secondary
freshwater fishes were restricted to the lowland
area except Megalopes cyprinoides and
Euryglossa orientalis, which were reported even
50 km away from the sea coast in the midland
area.
Macrospinosa cuja is the first report
from the freshwaters of Kerala. It was reported
primarily from the Gangetic estuary. Hence its
record from Kerala is interesting. The presence
of this species in this river may be due to
its introduction, considering its commercial
value.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
249
Fig.l: Map of Chalakudy river showing various collection sites and reservoirs
FISH FAUNA, ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION
ra w ~
i- a 51
« P M
Cl S3 £4
Q, a •= £
2 33 — -r
2 w *3 S o
^ Z cl u cl
V
c/j
— c<~, g •
ir-, tr, it, P5 <
2 1
3 ^
a. 3
3 :~
s* JO>
L<4 c
, cc 5
o *3 2
c/3 2 CL
2HJC
3
oo
e
3
x x 3
3 3 12
iE El
12 3 03 w
ex ^ — 75
a, j= j= 5
3 n n x:
C O O .« 3
< ^ ^ c/3 a.
CO
^ 2
-a -o — co
co co co rS
-- - J4 J4 Q_
2 •* co
r '3 u u a u
<D JC J3 -C CO
> H H U *
fS IT, \0 I — OO On
't'tO’O-’OO’O'Tt'O-
£
CO
>, “
£
— i co
g
3 = 3
S3 33 ^ cO D
2 * ■§ = 5 2 £
Q- *r; ^3 cs
— t; w, *— ■—
:> *: £
EJ E
^ C3 C3
v- *. w § O § g*
> > a, 2 ^ t- w
- M r, Tt ir, 3 h x ac
r*3 c*~, r*-, m r«-( <*-, r*~, r*-, c«-, of-
2 a
>* >> 3
co a s _
3 = C 2
^52 co
co -O -C i_ O-
Jo £ £ 2l J2
Du O O ^ co
-S co cO^-^-3^3
C5COU.U.33OC
ccacoiZu^£
<<^^OOc^<
£ E
CO CO
>■> ;>.
co co
CO
a
Cl.
co ._
co
_LS U'
3
co
— -cNfn^tinsor^ooos
(Nr)MMNMMMtN
CO JO
< 1
IS s
N N
3 3^
M
ell
CO CO CO
CO
u»
"3 CO
CS o
co
' *0 CO co
S S.g & §• J =5. s*
C Cj= CO CO N c u
CO (3 « £ £ CO 3 o
^^<UU>o-a.
— 'Mr, O’^'Ot^ooON
250
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(2) AUG. 1999
10. Ezhattumugam 20. Poringal-a 30. Valpai
FISH FAUNA, ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION
Table 2
DISTRIBUTION AND STATUS OF FISHES IN DIFFERENT ALTITUDINAL ZONES IN CHALAKUDY RIVER SYSTEM
No. Species
#1
#2 #3
#4
Status
GT
26
19
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
251
FISH FA UNA, ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION
Table 2
DISTRIBUTION AND STATUS OF FISHES IN DIFFERENT ALTITUDINAL ZONES IN CHALAKUDY RIVER SYSTEM
Species recorded in various altitude zones
# 1 . <75 m above msl #2. 76-500m above msl #3.501 -750m above msl #4. >750m above nisi; GT -Group Total
252
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
FISH FAUNA, ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION
Table 3
SECONDARY FRESHWATER FISH DISTRIBUTION INTHECHALAKUDY RIVER
Species recorded in various altitude zones
#1 . <75 m above msl; #2. 76-500 m above msl; #3. 501-750 msl; #4. >750 m above msl
Highest number of species (68) was
recorded from midland, whereas the least number
of species (14) from the high ranges. In the
lowland and midland areas freshwater fish
diversity was very high. This may be due to the
presence of migratory fishes and the deep
waterbodies sufficient for the fish life in these
areas in all seasons. Moreover, the paddy fields
or the wetlands are also connected with the
lowlands. Besides these, during the summer
months fishes from upstream migrated towards
the lower reaches and midland areas.
19 species were found both in the lowland
and midland areas, whereas 17 species were found
only in the midland area, out of which 9 previously
recorded species were not located during the
present study. 13 species were collected from both
the midland and highland areas.
Of the total fishes obtained, 15 species
were found to be very common, out of which 1 1
had a uniform distribution throughout the river
system. 34 species were common while 1 5 were
rare. Six species were considered very rare,
namely Hypselobarbus thomassi, Labeo calbasu,
Glyptothorax madraspatanm (past records),
Hypselobarbus kolus, Glyptothorax lonah and
Travancoria jonesi. Five species from those
collected were introduced species. Among the
introduced species Oreochromis mossambica was
one of the well established fishes and it was
recorded from all the four zones. Though Garra
mullya is modified to survive in the hill streams,
this species was found seasonally in various
zones. G. lonah, T. jonesi, Ompok malabaricus
and Barilius bendelisis were restricted to
highland or high ranges.
During the present survey, we were not able
to collect 15 species that were recorded by earlier
workers and are marked with asterisk in Tables
1 & 2. Of these 15 species, Labeo calbasu can be
considered as locally endangered. Hypselobarbus
kolus is being considered as a synonym of
Hypselobarbus curmuca (Menon, in press).
Acknowledgements
We thank the US Fish and Wildlife Service
and the Ministry of Environment and Forests for
sponsoring the project on “Ecology of the
hillstreams of Western Ghats with special
reference to fish community”; Dr. A.G.K. Menon
for going through the manuscript and suggesting
necessary modifications. We also thank Mr. J.C.
Daniel, Honorary Secretary, Dr. Asad R.
Rahmani, Director and Dr. B.F. Chhapgar of the
Bombay Natural History Society for their
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
253
FISH FA UNA, ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION
encouragement and keen interest in the project,
and the Forest Department of Kerala for permission
and assistance in collections. Discussions with
Dr. Neil B. Armentrout, US Fish and Wildlife
Service are also acknowledged. Dr. R. Sugathan,
Scientist, Zoological Research Station. Thattekad
Refer
Antony, A. D. (1977): Systematics, ecology, bionomics and
distribution of the hill stream fishes of Trichur Dis-
trict, Ph.D. thesis submitted to the University of
Calicut.
Buu, C.R., K. Raju Thomas & C.R. Ajithkumar (1998):
Glyptothorax lonah (Sykes) - An addition to the
Ichthyofauna of Kerala. J. Bombay nat. Hist . Soc.
95(3): 519-520.
Biju, C.R., K. Raju Thomas & C.R. Ajithkumar (1999):
Fishes of Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary,
Palakkad District, Kerala, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
96(1): 82-87
Chacko, P.L. (1948): Development of fisheries of the
Periyar lake. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 48: 191 -
192.
Easa, P.S. & C.P. Shaji (1996): Freshwater fishes of
Pambar river, Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93(2): 304-306.
Gadgil, M. & V.M. Meher-Homji (1990): Ecological di-
versity in conservation in developing countries —
problems and prospects. Proc. of the BNHS cente-
nary seminar (Eds. J.C. Daniel & J.S. Serrao)
Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.
Hora, S.L. &N.C. Law (1941): The freshwater fishes of
Travancore Rec. Ind. Mus. 43: 234-256
Hora, S.L. & K.K. N air (1941) New records of freshwa-
ter fishes from Travancore. Rec. Ind. Mus. 43: 233-
256.
Inasu,N.D. (1991): Systematics and bionomics of inland
fishes of Trichur District. Ph.D. thesis submitted to
the Cochin University of Science and Technology.
Jayaram, K.C. (1981): Freshwater fishes of India. A hand-
book. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.
John, C.C. (1936): Freshwater fishes of Travancore.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 38: 702-733.
Bird Sanctuary, Kerala, Dr. C.K.G. Nayar (Retd.)
and Dr. N.D. Inasu, Dept, of Zoology, Christ
College, Irinjalakuda, Dr. John George, Marthoma
College, Perumbavoor and Dr. Sunny George,
Limnological Association of Kerala were very
helpful during the study period.
E N C E S
Menon, A.G.K. ( 1 950): On a remarkable blind sisorid fish
of the family Clariidae from Kerala (India). Rec.
Ind. Mus. 48: 59-69.
Menon, A.G.K. (in press): Checklist of freshwater fishes
of India. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.
Pethiyagoda, R. & M. Kottelat ( 1 994): Three new spe-
cies of fishes of the genera Osteochilichthys (Cyp-
rinidae), Travancoria (Balitoridae) and
Horabagrus (Bagridae) from the Chalakudy river,
Kerala, India. J. South Asian nat. Hist. 1: 97-1 16.
Pillay, R.S.N. (1929): Fishes of Travancore. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 33: 347-379.
Raj. B.S. (1941): A new genus of Schizothoracine fishes
from Travancore, South India. Rec. Ind. Mus. 43:
209-214.
Raju Thomas, K., C.R. Biju & C.R. Ajithkumar (1998):
First report of Barilius bendelisis (Hamilton-
Buchanan) from a west flowing river, Chalakudy
river, in Kerala. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 95(3):
520-521.
Shaji, C.P., L.K. Arun & P.S. Easa (1996): Garra
surendranathanii — a new cyprinid fish from the
southern Western Ghats, India. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 93(3): 572-575.
Silas, E.G. ( 1 95 1 ): On a collection of fishes from Anaimalai
and Nelliampathy hill ranges (Western Ghats) with
notes on its zoogeographical significance. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 49: 670-681 .
Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland fishes of
India and adjacent countries. Oxford & IBH Pub-
lishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
Thobias, M.P. (1973): Study on the ecology, systematics
and bionomics of freshwater fishes in paddy fields
and rivers of Trichur District, Kerala, Ph.D. thesis
submitted to the Univesity of Calicut.
254
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(2) AUG. 1999
BIONOMICS AND BIOCONTROL EFFICIENCY OF ANASTATUS SP.
(EUPELMIDAE: HYMENOPTERA), AN EGG PARASITE OF
CHORISONE URA BILIGATA (SERVILLE) (BL ATTELLID AE : DICTYOPTERA) 1
2
S. Bhoopathy-
( With nine text-figures)
Key words: Egg parasites, cockroach, bionomics, biocontrol, Chorisoneura
biligata, Anastatus sp.
In the course of this study, it was found that the ootheca of the cockroach Chorisoneura
biligata (Serville) was parasitized by an eupelmid species, Anastatus sp. which shows
morphological resemblance to Anastatus tenuipes in many respects, but differs in the general
coloration, size and in the tips of male antennae. The duration of its life cycle was between
26 and 35 days. Although absolute host specificity was not found, a single female by
ovipositing in 3 oothecae contributes to the control of 36 - 54 host eggs.
Introduction
Insect parasites of cockroaches have
attracted the attention of many investigators.
Roth and Willis (1954a, 1954b) have given
details of distribution, development, behaviour
and sex ratios of several entomophagous
parasitoids belonging to orders Hymenoptera,
Diptera, and Coleoptera which infest
cockroaches. The biology of the encyrtid parasite,
Camperia merceti, developing in the eggs of
Blattella germanica and Supella longipalpa had
been thoroughly investigated by Lawson (1954)
and Zimmerman (1944). The genus Anastatus,
family Eupelmidae, is known to parasitize the
eggs of several species of cockroaches. Anastatus
floridanus has been recorded from the oothecae
of Blatta orientalis, Periplaneta americana and
Eurycotis floridanus, the last named species
being the natural host for that eupelmid parasite
(Roth and Willis 1954a). Flock (1941) studied
the development, rate of parasitization and sex
ratio of Anastatus tenuipes. The biology of
Anastatus sp. parasitic on the eggs of S.
longipalpa was studied by Ananthasubramanian
'Accepted July, 1997
Department of Zoology, Voorhees College,
Vellore 632 001 , Tamil Nadu, India.
and Ananthakrishnan (1961). Uma et al. (1982
a,b) studied the biology of Anastatus umae
parasitic on the eggs of Neostylopyga
rhombifolia. In the family Eulophidae
Tetrastichus hangenowii was found to parasitize
the eggs of several species of cockroaches such
as Periplaneta americana, Blattella germanica
and Blatta orientalis (Takahashi 1924, Sonan
1924, Bodenheimer 1930, Rau 1940, Usman
1949, Roth and Willis 1954a). Schal etal. (1984)
studied the interspecific associations of
cockroaches. Bhoopathy (1995) studied the
bionomics of the evaniid parasite Brachygaster
minutus (Oliver), parasitic on the eggs of the
cockroach Blattella humbertiana Saussure. The
parasites such as nematodes and protozoans were
also found in the intestines of cockroaches
(Bhoopathy 1996). A number of parasites and
predators were listed by Bhoopathy (1986) in
some cockroach species.
Bionomics and life history of hymenop-
teran parasitoids were studied by Nikam et al
(1987). Baktharatchagan (1993) and Panicker
and Srinivasan (1992) worked out the biology of
Anastatus tenuipes parasitic on the brown banded
cockroach Supella longipalpa. Uma (1992) did
comparative biological studies on the two
oothecal parasitoids Comperia merceti and
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
255
BIONOMICS AND BIOCONTROL OF AN ASTA TUSSP.
3
Figs. 1-9: 1. Freshly laid egg; 2. Egg enlarged during incubation; 3. First instar larva; 4. Second instar larva;
5. Third instar larva; 6. Mature larva; 7. Mandibles of mature larva; 8. Pupa; 9. Adult female.
256
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
BIONOMICS AND BIOCONTROL OF AN AST A TUS SP.
Anastatus tenuipes. The reproductive strategies
of the egg parasitoid Trissolcus sp. was studied
by Senrayan et al. (1988). The efficiency of
parasites and their development in relation to
the age of the host was studied by Kumarasingha
and Jayanthi (1987), on oothecal parasites of
Periplaneta americana.
However, no information was available on
Anastatus sp. except for the two references
mentioned above. In the present study, the
bionomics of Anastatus sp. parasitic on
Chorisoneura biligata and its biological control
efficiency were investigated.
Material and Methods
Oothecae of C. biligata glued on the host
plants were collected and reared individually in
test tubes measuring 10 x 1.5 cm, plugged with
cotton wool. The parasites could be seen when
the oothecae were held against light, especially
in the later stages of parasite development. When
the adult parasites emerged from the oothecae,
they were fed on droplets of honey and kept alive.
Freshly deposited oothecae of C. biligata were
exposed to Anastatus sp. for parasitization, to
study the host hunting and ovipositing behaviour
of the parasite. Parasitized oothecae were reared
in test tubes, and a few of them were dissected in
normal saline at intervals of 24 hours to study
the parasitoid eggs, larval and pupal stages. The
eggs and immature stages of the parasite were
mounted in glycerine to study their structure.
To determine the efficiency of biological
control by the egg parasite, enough oothecae were
offered for oviposition and the number of adults
finally emerging from them were counted.
Unmated females of Anastatus sp. were offered
host eggs, to find out whether parthenogenesis
occurred and the fate of offspring resulting from
that phenomenon. Adult parasites were reared
by feeding them honey solution, prepared by
dissolving one part of honey in 5 parts of water,
in order to observe the behaviour of the adults,
longevity, fecundity and mating behaviour.
Results
Bionomics of Anastatus sp., parasitic on
the egg of Chorisoneura biligata.
Immature stages
Egg: Nearly cylindrical, oblong, stalked,
stalk nearly as long as egg and club-shaped; a
short, slender, recurved flagellum at the opposite
end of egg; the flagellum straightens when the
egg swells up after it is inserted into the ootheca.
Ovarian egg black, the hue fading to translucent
after being deposited into ootheca. Length of egg
0.65 mm, including stalk; stalk 0.3 mm long;
flagellum 0.4 mm; egg swelling up about 3.5
times its size within an hour after deposition.
Dissections on ootheca of C. biligata egg-
capsules soon after parasitization by Anastatus
sp., revealed 25-45 eggs of the parasite per
ootheca. The duration of egg stage was found to
be 2-3 days. Five to nine eggs of the parasite out
of 25-45 did not hatch, accounting for nearly 20%
egg-mortality.
First instar larva
Agriotypiform, body elongate, distinctly
13 -segmented and characterised by a pair of
caudal processes, usually bent at right angles to
the long axis of the body, their length equalling
the combined length of the first two segments.
Head conical, equipped with a pair of short,
conical, recurved, highly chitinised mandibles;
general coloration of larva pale white, head and
first two segments maroon with black; each
segment except the 1st and 2nd with a row of
backwardly directed spines, more conspicious
ventrally and laterally; spines in the anterior
segments longer. The larva is 0.5-0. 6 mm long
and 0.2 - 0.22 mm wide; caudal processes about
one tenth as long as body (0.040-0.05 mm).
The number of first instar larvae per
ootheca was found to be 20-36. The larvae move
actively, churning the contents of the host eggs.
The mortality rate of the parasite at this stage
appears to be as high as 50%. Oothecae cut open
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
257
BIONOMICS AND BIOCONTROL OFANASTA TUSSP.
about a week after parasitization revealed only
10-18 second instar larvae; this number was
found to coincide with the number of dead
specimens of the 1st instar, the duration of which
was found to 3-5 days. The moulted skins of the
first instar larvae appear to be consumed by the
later larval stages.
Second instar larva
Hymenopteriform, lacking the conspicuous
spines of the preceding stage; body about one
and a half times as long as the first instar larva;
cylindrical, with short, sparse spinules; caudal
processes much reduced, 0.02 mm long, being
about one-sixth of the body length, mandibles
dark brown; length of larva about 0.75 mm.
Colour milky white. Duration 3-4 days.
Third instar larva
Robust, about twice as long as the second
instar larva; body smooth, devoid of spines;
caudal processes disappearing, caudal segment
bilobed; tracheal tubes opening to the exterior
by spiracles; spiracles 10 pairs located in the first
ten segments. Length 1.5- 1.8 mm. Duration
3-4 days.
Fourth instar larva
Similar to the preceding stage, except for its
larger size; body distinctly segmented, 2-2.1 mm
long; mandibles much reduced; spiracles distinct;
coloration light yellow; full grown larva fits
snugly into the ootheca, prior to pupation.
Duration 3-4 days.
Pupa
As in other species of the family; larval
skin of last larval stage forming the cocoon;
coloration at first yellowish, gradually turning
to light brown, deep brown and black in regular
sequence; duration 12-15 days.
Emergence of the adult
The adults were seen moving about within
the ootheca for 6-12 hours before one of them
cut a circular exit hole of about 0.2 mm diameter.
Often, the adults remain within the oothecae for
2 to 3 days or more; in such oothecae for some
unknown reason no exit hole is made; if such
oothecae are carefully split open, the insects
emerge out one by one. Rarely, two exit holes
are found on the ootheca located just below the
keel at one end of the ootheca. Most of the adults
cast off their meconia before emerging from the
ootheca, while it is not uncommon to note some
adults emerging with the meconia hanging from
their abdomen, and they are discarded soon. In
some cases, the adults emerge in batches.
A total of 10-18 adults have been noticed
to emerge from each ootheca (Table 1).
Table 1
DURATION OF EGG AND LARVAL STAGES
AND SEX RATIO IN AN AST A TUS SP.
Duration of life-cycle and number of
generations per year
The duration from oviposition to the
emergence in Anastatus sp. was found to be 26 -
258
JOURNAL , BOMBAY-NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
BIONOMICS AND BIOCONTROL OF ANASTA TUSSP.
35 days at a temperature of 28-3 1°C and relative
humidity of 65-90%. Nearly half of this period
is spent on the pupal stage, and as many as
11-12 generations are completed per year if host
eggs are accessible.
Adults and their behaviour
The adult female of Anastatus sp. measures
2.0 - 3 . 1 mm long. General coloration black; head
jet black, eyes dark metallic black; thorax dark
brown; antennae yellowish brown, pedicel pale
white; forewings with a transverse fascia at about
half the distance from the bases, fringed with
fine bristles; hindwings much shorter and smaller
than forewings; legs light brown except coxae
and trochanters which were black; abdomen
black dorsally and light brown ventrally, except
the anterior one-third which is pale white. Males
much shorter than females, measuring 1 .25- 1 .85
mm long. Abdomen black; forewings extending
beyond abdomen.
Like other eupelmids, Anastatus sp. is ant-
like in its general appearance. Both sexes were
quite active, preferring walking as the normal
mode of movement, but at the least disturbance
they jump vertically. Only under repeated
stimulation did they take wing, flying short
distances. The jumping habit is perhaps the chief
mode of locomotion (Clausen 1940).
Food and Feeding habits
In the present study, adult females of
Anastatus sp., were observed to puncture the host
eggs for oviposition but not for feeding. However,
in a few instances, the females were found to feed
on the fluid that oozed out of the oviposition
puncture. The adults did not appear to feed at all
and lived for 2 or 3 days only. Under laboratory
conditions it was, however, possible to keep the
adults alive for 7-10 days on a diet of dilute honey.
Copulation occurred immediately after
emerging from the host ootheca. A single male
was found to mate with 1-10 females. Females
also copulate 1-3 times. Copulation lasted 3-16
seconds.
Host selection and oviposition
Anastatus sp. did not demonstrate host
specificity, in the laboratory the female oviposited
successfully into the oothecae of domiciliary
species such as Supella longipalpa, Blatta
orientalis and Periplaneta americana. Its life
history in these atypical hosts was not followed
up in the present study. After copulation, the
female Anastatus sp. hunted for the ootheca of
the host cockroach; on encountering an ootheca,
it tapped the ootheca with the antennae,
presumably to test the suitability of the ootheca
for oviposition. Oothecae containing eggs that
were already parasitized, were decidedly avoided,
as was experimentally confirmed in the present
study. Antennal sensory cells serve to select the
specific site of oviposition in the oothecae. The
ovipositor also appeared to have a sensory
function — the tip of the ovipositor was gently
struck at various points on the ootheca before
piercing a specific region. After selecting the
oviposition site and sitting on the ootheca with
the long axis of its own body at right angles to
that of the ootheca, the female inserted the
ovipositor and moved it back and forth several
times, presumably to anchor the eggs into the
host eggs. Oviposition was completed in 35 - 50
minutes, and in one instance it was found to
extend over a period of 90 minutes. A single
female was found to attack upto three oothecae
in quick succession and oviposited in all three.
Further, it was observed that a single female
oviposited into the same ootheca five times in
the course of two hours. Parthenogenesis
occurred commonly in Anastatus sp. and all the
resulting offspring were found to be males.
Sex-ratio
Normally females predominated; often
only one male emerged along with 9-17 females.
However, the mean value of sex-ratio determined
from 20 samples clearly showed the
predomination of females as 2:1. In some
instances, all the individuals emerging from
fertilized eggs were male.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
259
BIONOMICS AND BIOCONTROL OFANASTA TUSSP.
Efficiency of biological control
To find out the maximum number of host
eggs that could be parasitized, five mated females
kept alive in separate test tubes were offered
2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 oothecae. Observations were made
from oviposition through development, until the
adult parasite emerged. The results (Table 2)
revealed that a single female was capable of
ovipositing into as many as 3 oothecae,
contributing to the control of 36-54 host eggs. It
was noteworthy that a maximum of 1 8 adults of
Anastatus sp. emerged in certain instances, where
the female parasite had access to only one
ootheca, while a maximum of 16 adults was
found to have emerged when a single female was
offered 3 oothecae. However, in many such cases,
only 6-12 adults were found to have emerged.
Table 2
REALISED REPRODUCTIVE CAPACITY OF
ANASTATUS SP.
Discussion
In the course of this study, it was found
that the ootheca of the cockroach Chorisoneurci
biligata was parasitized by the eupelmid species
Anastatus sp., which showed morphological
resemblance to A. tenuipes in many respects, but
differed in general coloration, size and in the
tips of male antennae.
The degree of host specificity of the
hymenopterous egg parasites of cockroaches
varied. Some parasites were absolutely specific,
e.g., the encyrtid parasite, Comperia merceti
attacked only the ootheca of Blattella germanica
and would not parasitize the oothecae of
Periplaneta americana or B. orientalis (Lawson
1 954). Roth and Willis ( 1 954b) could not induce
the eupelmid parasite Tetrastichus hangenowii
to attack the eggs of B. germanica and
Parcoblatta virginica , its specific host being
Blatta orientalis. Further, when that eupelmid
species oviposited accidentally in the ootheca
of S. longipalpa, the parasite’s eggs either failed
to hatch, or if hatched, the larvae died soon.
Edmunds (1953) could not induce Prosevania
punctata to parasitize the eggs of B. germanica.
Cros (1942) induced this evaniid parasite to
oviposit into a mantid ootheca, but neither the
mantid eggs nor the parasite developed. In the
present study, Anastatus sp. which parasitizes
the eggs of C. biligata , could also oviposit into
the oothecae of P. americana and Blatta
orientalis but the eggs deposited into such host
eggs failed to develop. All these instances lead
to the conclusion that the host specificity of the
egg parasites of cockroaches appeared to be
rather absolute, and any atypical or abnormal
behaviour in this respect interferes with egg
viability or results in arrested development of
the parasite and the host.
Acknowledgements
I thank Dr. Louis M. Roth, U.S. Army
Research and Development Command, Natick,
Massachusetts, U.S. A., for determining the
taxonomic status of the blattid. I am indebted to
Prof. Dr. K.S. Ananthasubramanian, Department
of Zoology, Loyola College, Chennai for help and
guidance. I also thank Dr. Z. Boucek,
Commonwealth Institute of Entomology, London
for identifying the parasitoid.
References
Ananthasubramanian, K.S. & T.N. Ananthakrishnan Hymenoptera) Parasitic on the ootheca of Supella
(1961): The Biology of Anastatus sp. (Eupelmidae: supellectilium. Journal of Zoological Society of
260
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(2) AUG. 1999
BIONOMICS AND BIOCONTROL OF A NASTA TUSSP.
India 13(1): 62-69.
Baktharatchagan, R. (1993): Bionomics of Neostylopyga
rhombifolia (Stoll), Supella longipalpa (F) and
their oothecal parasitoids. Ph.D. thesis submitted
to the University of Madras.
Bhoopathy, S. (1986): Bioecological studies of some
blatiids from Southern India. Ph.D. thesis submitted
to the University of Madras.
Bhoopathy, S. (1995): Bionomics of Brachygaster minutus
(Oliver) parasitic on the eggs of Blattella
humbertiana Saussure and their efficiency in the
control of the host species. Bulletin of pure and
applied sciences 14A (1) : 35-40.
Bhoopathy, S. (1996): Intestinal parasites of some
cockroaches. / Ecobiol. 8(1): 51-53.
Bodenheimer, F.S. (1930): Die Schadlingsfauna Palestinas.
Monogs. Angen. ent. Zeitchr. Angen Ent. 16(10):
1-439.
Clausen, C.P. (1925): Entomophagous Insects. McGraw
Hill. New York pp 688.
Cros, A. (1942): Blatta orientalis et Ses Parasites. I.
evania punctata II. Eulophus sp. Etude Biologigne
Eos. 18: 222-230.
Edmunds, L.R. (1953): A Study of the biology and life
history of Prosevania punctata (Brulle) with notes
on additional species (Hymenoptera: Evaniidae).
Ph.D. thesis, Ohio State University.
Flock, R. A. (1941): Biological control of the brown-banded
cockroach. Bull. Brooklyn Ent. Soc. 36: 178-181.
Kumarasingha & P. Jayanthi (1987): Oothecal parasites
of Periplaneta americana. Parasitization and
development in relation to host age. Insect, sci.
aplie. 8(2): 225-228.
Lawson, F.A. (1954): Observations on the biology of
Comperia merceti (Compere) ( Hymenoptera:
Encyrtidae). Jour. Kansas Ent. Sci. 27: 128-142.
Nikam, P.K., L.J.Kamhekar & C.D. Basarkar(1987): Life
table and intrincic rate of natural increase of
Goryphus nursei (Cameron) (Hymenoptera:
Ichneumonidae). Population on Earios vitella
Pupae. Entomon 12(4): 357-362.
Panicker, K.N. & R. Srinivasan (1992): A note on the
biology of A. tenuipes, an oothecal parasitoid of
brown banded cockroach Supella longipalpa. J.
Biol. Control 6(1): 44-45.
Rau, P. ( 1 940): The life-history of the American cockroach.
Periplaneta americana L. (Orthoptera: Blattidae).
Ent. News 51: 121-124, 151-155, 186-189, 223-
227, 273-278.
Roth, L.M. & E.R. Willis (1954a): Anastatus floridanus
(Hymenoptera: Eupelmidae) a new parasite on the
eggs of the cockroach. Eurycotis floridana. Trans
Amer. Ent. Soc. 80: 29-41 .
Roth, L.M. & E.R. Willis (1954b): The biology of the
cockroach egg-parasite, Tetrastichus hagenowii
(Hymenoptera: Eulophidae). Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc.,
80: 53-73.
Schal, C., J.Y. Gautier & W.J. Bell (1 984): Behavioural
ecology of cockroaches. Biol. Rev. 59: 209 - 254.
Senrayan, R., R. Velayudham & S. Rajadurai (1988):
Reproductive strategies of an egg parasitoid,
Trissolcus sp. (Hymenoptera: Scelinidae) on two
different hosts. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. (Anim. Sci.)
97: 455-461.
Sonan, H. (1924): Observations upon Periplaneta
americana L. and P. australasiae F. (In Japanese).
Trans. Nat. Hist. Soc., Formosa 14: 4-21
(Translated into English by Associated Technical
Services).
Takahashi, R. (1924): Life history of Blattidae (In
Japanese). Du buts, zasshi, Zool. Mag. Tokyo,
36: 215-230.
Uma Narasimham, A. & T. Sankaran ( 1 982a): Ecological
specificity of a new oothecal parasitic of
Neostylopyga rhombifolia (Stoll). Proc. Symp.
Ecol. Anim. Popul. Zool. Sury. India, part. Ill: 71-
77.
Uma Narasimham, A. & T. Sankaran ( 1 982b): Biology of
Anastatus umae (Hymenoptera: Eupelmidae), an
oothecal Parasite of Neostylopyga rhombifolia
(Blatfoidae: Blattidae). Colomanis 1(3): 135-140.
Uma Narasimham, A. (1992): Comparative biological
parameters of Comperia mercetii (Compere) (Hym.
Encyrtidae and Anastatus tenuipes Bolivar (Hym.
Eupelmidae) oothecal parasitoid of the cockroach
Supella longipalpa (Fabr.). Biol. Control 2: 73-77.
Usman. S. (1949): Some observations on the biology of
Tetrastichus hagenowii Ratz., an egg parasite of
the house cockroach ( Periplaneta americana L.)
Current Sci. 75:407-408.
Zimmerman, E.C. (1944): New cockroach egg parasite
from Honolulu. Proc. Hawaiian Ent. Soc. 12: 20.
■ ■ ■
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
261
FOOD AND FEEDING HABIT OF A PENAEID PRAWN
METAPENEOPSIS STRIDULANS (ALCOCK 1905)'
B.G. Kulkarni2, V.D. Deshmukh3, V.R. Kulkarni2
Key words: Penaeid prawn, Metapeneopsis stridulans, food and feeding, Mumbai.
Metapeneopsis stridulans feeds on a variety of food items, viz. diatoms, foraminiferans
polychaetes, molluscs, crustaceans and detritus consisting of unidentifiable decaying matter
along with sand and mud. The species does not show a preference for any particular food
item. There is no significant difference in the food habits among the various size groups
observed in the prawn. Monthwise feeding intensity for males and females shows males
with empty stomach to be prevalent in most months.
Introduction
Food and feeding habits help to understand
the rate of growth, population concentration,
maturation of gonads and other metabolic
activities of marine organisms. They also help
to find links in the food chain and predator -
prey relationship in the particular habitat where
these organisms occur. Some of the important
contributions on food and feeding habits of prawn
are of: Williams (1955) on a North American
shrimp; Eldred et al. (1961) on Penaeus
duorarum , Hall (1962) on the food of Indo-West
Pacific penaeids, Dali (1967) on Australian
penaeid prawns. Tiews et al. ( 1 972) on Philippine
shrimp and Wassenberg and Hill (1987) on the
natural diet of Tiger Prawn Penaeus monodon.
In spite of investigations on food and feeding
habits of some Indian marine prawns (Panikkar
and Menon 1956, Kunju 1967, George 1959 &
1974, Rao 1988), of several neglected species,
which are now gaining economic importance,
remain uninvestigated. To fill this lacuna, a study
of the food, feeding habits and the feeding
intensity of the penaeid prawn Metapeneopsis
stridulans from Mumbai waters is presented here.
Material and Methods
Metapeneopsis stridulans were collected
at Sassoon Dock landing centre (South Mumbai).
'Accepted June, 1 997
"The Institute of Science, Mumbai 400 032.
CMFRI, Army and Navy Building, Mumbai 400 032.
The gut contents of 673 specimens were analysed
sexwise from January to December, 1992. 339
males, ranging from 50 to 90 mm in total length
and 334 females, ranging from 40 to 100 mm in
total length, were analysed. The animals were
cut open and the foregut removed. These were
examined and the intensity of feeding was
determined by the degree of stomach distension
and expressed as full, three-fourths full, half-full,
one-fourth full and empty, depending on their
fullness. Further, foreguts were dissected and the
contents were observed qualitatively under a
microscope. The foregut of Metapeneopsis
stridulans is very minute and the gut contents
for the anterior and posterior proventriculus
were, therefore, considered together.
Results
A qualitative analysis of the proventriculus
of 673 specimens of Metapeneopsis stridulans
revealed the presence of the following food items:
Diatoms: These were present in the
stomach contents in small quantities, with mud
and detritus.
Foraminiferans: The shells of foramini-
ferans were noticed in many guts and in some
cases the entire stomach was full of the
foraminiferan Elphidium sp.
Polychaetes: These worms were easily
located by their iridescent setae and jaws, which
sometimes occupied the entire proventriculus.
Molluscs: Fragments of gastropod shells
and sometimes bivalves were also noticed in the
262
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
FOOD AND FEEDING HABIT OF A PENAEID PRA WN
stomach. Crushed shells of various forms were
observed.
Crustaceans: These formed an important
and dominant constituent of the diet, consisting
mainly of amphipods, isopods and sometimes
Acetes sp. Crustaceans were easily identified by
the presence of their jointed appendages, plumose
setae and stalked eyes.
Fish: Though not often present, fish in the
stomach could be identified from their scales,
fragments of bones and eye lens.
Detritus: It formed an important item,
consisting of unidentifiable decaying matter,
along with sand and mud. In general, sand
predominated in the stomach of Metapeneopsis
stridulans.
Miscellaneous: Components seen were
bryozoans, shells, filamentous algae and hooks
of unidentified animals.
During the present investigation, 301
prawns (44.73 DO) showed empty stomachs,
followed by one-fourth full stomach in 113
prawns (16.79 TO), full in 97 prawns (14.41
DO), three-fourths full in 82 prawns (12.18 DO)
and half full in 80 prawns (1 1.89 TO).
Comparing male and female specimens
revealed that empty stomachs were more
prevalent in males (47.20%) than in females
(42.22%). The percentage of females with full
stomachs was, however, greater (22.75%) than
males (6. 1 9%). In general, the intensity of feeding
in males was lower than in females (Table 1).
Table 1
FEEDING INTENSITY IN MALES AND FEMALES OF
M. STRIDULANS (% IN PARENTHESES)
Monthwise intensity of feeding for males
and females is given in Tables 2 and 3
respectively. The data shows that males with
empty stomachs were more prevalent in most of
the months. However, the percentage of these
prawns was higher in May (84%), October
(77.27%) and September (76%). Males with full
stomach were noticed during November -
February and July - August.
Females with empty stomach were also
encountered in most months except December.
The percentage of empty stomachs was higher
in September (68%), May (65.38%) and
November (73.33%). Females with full stomachs
were observed during December (85%), January
(41%) and August (33.33%).
In order to study the relation of size to
intensity of feeding, males and females were
grouped into size groups of 10 mm. Sizewise
fullness of stomach shows (Table 4) that
prevalence of empty stomach is 71.42% in the
50-60 mm size-group, followed by 58.16% in
60-70 mm, 49.39% in 70- 80 mm and 25.67%
in 80-90 mm. Thus, the percentage of empty
stomach in males decreases with increase in
length. Conversely, the percentages of full and
three-fourths full stomachs show an increasing
trend with increase in length.
The size-related intensity of feeding in
females and males showed similar trends, the
full and three- fourths full stomach exhibiting
predominance with increase in length (Table 5).
Empty stomach among immature (40%),
early maturing (43.22%) and mature (43.05%)
prawns is nearly equal; the predominance of full
and three-fourths full in females shows an
increasing trend of feeding as they mature
(Table 6).
Discussion
Investigations have shown that penaeid
prawns have varied food habits. Gopalakrishnan
(1952) showed that Penaeus indicus is an
omnivorous species feeding on crustaceans and
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
263
Table 2 Table 3
M0NTHW1SE FEEDING INTENSITY OF MALE MONTHWISE FEEDING INTENSITY OF FEMALE
M. STRIDULANS (% IN PARENTHESES) M. STRIDULANS (% IN PARENTHESES)
FOOD AND FEEDING HABIT OF A PENAEID PRA WN
>>
a.
£
UQ
nO r~ co
04 n£> —
o no
— t — (NO
wo NO wo O
o no no wo
00 3- 3 CO So* 3
__ 04 ^ 8 _ , ,
( - — ' — 1 - — ' On •. — - — < . — - —
co _ co wo co
m ^ vo ^ in ^ >
os oo ^ o o — o*
no oo ~ o~ o — no
— I co o — E
Sr-3o4S~S»n3co3o4S
wo o*
3<n S
CO w 04 w NO w
04
wo
oo
wo 3
8 =
u.
T3
C/i <U
C
£ —
S 2 _
<r c Os
Cl. a co sD
co ^
on 3 — 3 co
c
I £
^ a.
3 <u
< 00
<s
3
Q.
E
uu
2?
© NO oo
8 8
oo on o
oo p — wo
8
83^3-3co
CO
04 OO OO rf
3^3^t3- S 04
OO T' oo WO
3 3 9 - 9(0 3
o Tt ©
o
OO^-ONt^pcO^O-tSCOWO
— * SO 04 SO O wo p — — _ — ©
. OO CO rj- E Tt- © ON ON v_f CO w — ' • w
-3^o3-<3^3-£o43c4SoCico
OO NO ON CO
04 CO 04 CO
Tt El T*
— w WO
— _ — ^ fO.
owooo-
P O wo p so
NO ^ ^ wo NO
NO S' *-* w- — 1 2- WO 3
^ 3-
3 8
ON w CO P
03
c/5 4)
c £
£ —
2^
Q- n r-
O CO
O co
© CO
Cl
4)
CO
a
264
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
(13.86) (21.24) (47.20)
Table 4 Table 5
FOOD AND FEEDING HABIT OF A PENAEID PRA WN
w
N
ft
OH
E
oo
<
ft
W
c/5
PQ
X
H
2
W
£*
2
2
£3
2 |
"2 £
r^
VO
uo
2 f s
Co
s§
ON
— ON
— ; CM
— * __ ■'t _ ^
5 £
UO o n
J <
00
W
00
W
S
H
. . 2
Si
Z 2
2 5
2 ^
I
E
o g
Z £
53 -8
3 £
f2 *s
.a I
00 S
©
OO NO
on — > r*
— * OO _ On Tl"
1/-J lO ' — - t — • — ' —• w-
NO ON ZZ —
ON )0 CO t—
<n — : no «n
-Coof^C-C
NO © —
o o »n
co _ ro
S.ooS.2-
©
o o
ON —
r- 2
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
265
FOOD AND FEEDING HABIT OF A PENAEID PRA WN
Table 6
FEEDING INTENSITY OF FEMALE M. STRIDULANS IN
DIFFERENT MATURITY STAGES (% IN PARENTHESES)
vegetable matter, which form the bulk of the gut
contents. Panikkar and Menon (1956) have
concluded that the food of prawns consists of
detritus of both animal and plant origin, which
accumulates at the bottom of the habitat. The
prawns Metapenaeus dobsoni , Penaeus stylifera
and P. indicus, prefer area of muddy habitat
indicating their preference for detritus. However,
Hall (1962) stated that penaeids in general cannot
be considered as detritus feeders. The gut
contents of Metapenaeus monoceros has shown
the presence of small crustaceans along with sand
grains and mud, while detritus was of less
importance (George 1974).
The present study reveals that
Metapeneopsis stridulans is not predominantly
a detritus feeder but a carnivore, feeding on
crustaceans, molluscs, small fishes and
polychaetes. Moreover, it also feeds on
foraminiferans in the benthic region
and takes up diatoms, sand particles,
mud and detritus along with them.
These results agree with the
examined conclusions of Hall (1962) that prawns
are carnivorous.
Low feeding intensity, indicated
by the prevalence of empty, one-fourth
full and half-full stomachs during
maturation and pre-spawning period is
widely known in fishes. In penaeid
prawns, major expansion of ovary
during maturation takes place in the
abdominal region (Rao, 1968). The gut
of prawns is located in the
borax, in which ovarian expansion is
less; therefore, the prevalence of full and
three-fourths full stomachs in mature female
prawns does not seem to be affected. In fact, the
females must feed intensively in order to derive
more energy for reproductive output during
maturation. The presence of a larger number of
full and three- fourths full stomachs in mature
females and the increasing order of intensity with
maturity supports this view. Higher feeding
intensity, as indicated by a greater number of
full and three-fourth full stomachs during the
breeding period, i.e., December to January, also
corroborates this view.
Acknowledgement
The authors are thankful to the Director,
Institute of Science, Mumbai, for encouragement.
References
Dall, W. (1967): Food and feeding of some Australian
Penaeid shrimps. FAOFish. Rely 57(2): 25 1 -258.
Eldred, B. R. K.D. Ingle, R.F. Woodburn, R.F. Hutton,
& H. Jones (1961): Biological observations on the
commercial shrimp, Penaeus duorarum
Burkenroad, in Florida waters. Prof. pap. Ser. mar.
lab.fla. 3: 1-139.
George, M.J. (1959): Notes on bionomics of the prawn
Metapenaeus monoceros (Fabricius). Indian J.
Fish. 6 (2): 268.
George, M. J. (1974): Food of the shrimps Metapenaeus
monoceros (Fabricius) caught from the backwaters.
Indian J. Fish 21 (2): 495-500.
Gopalkrishnan, V. (1952): Food and feeding of Penaeus
indicus. Madras Univ. J., 22\ 69-75.
Hall, D. N. F. ( 1 962): Observations on the biology of some
266
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
FOOD AND FEEDING HABIT OF A PENAEID PRA WN
Indo-West Pacific Penaeidae (Crustacea, Decapoda)
FishPubl. Colonial Off. London 17: 1-229.
Kunju, M. M. (1967): Some aspects of the biology of
Solenocera indica. In: FAO World Scientific
Conference on the biology and culture of shrimps
and prawns. FAO FR: BSCP/671E/20 pp. 1-19.
Panikkar, N.K. & M.K. Menon (1956): Prawn fisheries
of India. Proc. Indo-Pacific Fish Coun. Section III:
326-328.
Rao, G.S. (1988): Studies on the feeding Biology of
Metapenaeus monoceros (Fabricius) along the
Kakinada coast J. marbiol. Ass. India. 30 (I&2):
171-181.
Rao, P. V. ( 1 968): Maturation and spawning of the penaeid
prawns of the south-west coast of India. In : Proc.
World Scientific Conf. on the Biology and Culture
of shrimps and prawns, Mexico City, Mexico, 1 2-
21 June 1967 FAO Fish Rep. 57(2) . 285-302
Tiews, K., S.A. Bravo & I. A. Ronguilli (1972): On the
food and feeding habits of some Philippine shrimps
in Manilla bay and San Miguel bay. Proc Indo-
Pacific Fish. Coun. 13 (iii): 85-92.
Wassenberg, T.J. & Hill (1987): Natural diet of the Tiger
prawns, Penaeus esculentus and P. semisulcatus.
Aus. J. Mar. Freshw. Res., 38: 169-182.
Williams, A. B. (1 955): A contribution to the life histories
of commercial shrimps (Penaeidae) in North
Carolina. Bull. Mar. Sci. Gulf. Caribb. 5: 1 16-146.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
267
FRESHWATER CLADOCERA (CRUSTACEA) OF
SOUTHERN TAMIL NADU1
K. Venkataraman2
( With four text-figures)
Key words: Cladocera, 46 species, Tamil Nadu, freshwater, wetlands.
The investigation on the taxonomy of Cladocera shows that about 46 species belonging to
five families Sididae, Daphniidae, Moinidae, Macrothricidae and Chydoridae are
represented in and around southern Tamil Nadu, of which 34 are new records. The species
composition of Cladocera in the present study has some features unique to this region.
Leptodoridae, Halopedidae and Polyphemidae are absent and species belonging to the
genera Pleuroxus as well as Ceriodaphnia are scarce. Only four species of Cladocera are
distinctly dominant in the limnetic zooplankton of southern Tamil Nadu. They are Daphnia
similis, Ceriodaphnia cornuta, Moina micrura and Diaphanosoma excisum. Littoral regions
of the wetlands of southern Tamil Nadu are dominated by Pseudosida bidentata and
Latonopsis australis, two co-occurring members of the family Sididae. The tropicopolitan
and cosmopolitan forms of Cladocera predominate the southern Tamil Nadu wetlands.
Two unexpected species Daphnia longicephala and Daphnia projecta are recorded for the
first time in India. Two rare species, namely Alona cf. karelica and Graptoleberis
testudinaria were also found in the present study.
Introduction
Though the Cladocera of the Indian region
have been studied by different authors, those of
South India, especially Tamil Nadu, have
received scant attention. Michael (1973) and
Murugan and Job (1981) have briefly dealt with
a few species occurring in and around Madurai,
Tamil Nadu.
The present work on the taxonomy of
Cladocera of southern Tamil Nadu was conducted
in Madurai, Ramnad, Tirunelveli and
Kanyakumari districts. Extensive and intensive
sampling was undertaken in 1979 and all the
available species were studied in detail. Over 700
samples were collected from various types of
habitats and a total of 46 species of Cladocera
were identified, of which 34 were recorded for
the first time from this region.
‘Accepted August, 1996
Zoological Survey of India, Marine Biological Station,
100, Santhome High Road, Chennai 600 028.
Material and Methods
The sampling sites are shown in Fig. 1.
Plankton nets with 36 cm diameter were used.
The net was dragged among the vegetation close
to the bottom of the shallow waters in marshes.
Oblique hauls were taken to obtain zooplankton
from the shores of the man-made reservoirs and
ponds.
The concentrated samples were preserved
in 5% and 10% formalin with one teaspoon per
litre sugar and 95% glycerine alcohol and were
stored in 50 or 100 ml plastic containers for
taxonomic studies. The technique of Fernando
(1980a) was adopted to prepare the head-shields
of species of Chydoridae. The specimen was
placed on a cavity slide containing concentrated
HC1, heated and later cooled. The head
shield was carefully dissected out and
permanently mounted using Lactophenol and
Canada balsam. Mounts of the entire specimen
were also made for Macrothricidae, Moinidae and
Chydoridae.
268
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
FRESHWA TER CLADOCERA OF TAMIL NADU
Fig. 1 : Area where Cladocera samples were collected for study in southern Tamil Nadu
Results
Detailed study of the collections revealed
the occurrence of 46 species of Cladocera
belonging to 23 genera and 5 families (Table 1).
A systematic account of a few of the rare species
recorded in the present study are given below.
Family Daphniidae
1 . Daphnia longicephala
Hebert 1977 (Fig. 2)
Female: Body size 4.2 mm. Anterodorsal
cephalic crest present; shape and length of the
crest vary; dorsal margin with well developed
spines; rostrum acute, extends up to ventral
carapace margin. Eye situated well away from
the margin; ocellus often absent, if present very
minute. Postabdomen with 8-12 anal spines; claw
with 9-10 proximal, 14-16 middle and 28-36
distal pectens.
Distribution: Southern Tamil Nadu:
Madurai and Ramnad dist. Elsewhere: Single
report from New South Wales (Hebert 1977).
This is the first record of its occurrence in India.
Remarks: Well developed anterodorsal
helmet and conspicuous spines on the dorsal
margin are distinguishing characters which
separate this species from D. cephalata King.
However, Grant and Bayly (1981) reported that
the present species is only a polymorphic species
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2\, AUG. 1999
269
FRESH W A TER CLADOCERA OF TAMIL NADU
Table 1
SPECIES OF CLADOCERA RECORDED FROM SOUTHERN TAMIL NADU AND OTHER REGIONS
OF INDIA AND SOUTHEAST ASIA
270
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
FRESH W A TER CLADOCERA OF TAMIL NADU
Table 1 ( contd .)
SPECIES OF CLADOCERA RECORDED FROM SOUTHERN TAMIL NADU AND OTHER REGIONS
OF INDIA AND SOUTHEAST ASIA
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(2), AUG. 1999 271
FRESHWA TER CLADOCERA OF TAMIL NADU
Fig. 2: Daphnia longicephala , Female: PA - postabadomen; C - claw.
of D. carinata King. Michael (1973) and
Santharam (1978) described a daphnid as D.
cephalata resembling D. longicephala Hebert
from a pond near Madurai. The specimens
examined in this study agree with Michael’s and
Santharam’ s descriptions.
2. Daphnia projecta Hebert 1977 (Fig. 3)
Female: Body size 2.2 mm. Dorsoanterior
helmet; eye small; ocellus inconspicuous.
Rostrum slightly recurved and pointed. Strong
carapace spines; tail long, equal to the length of
carapace. Postabdomen with 8-12 anal spines.
Reproductive females less than 1.5 mm.
Male: Body size 1 mm. Head large with
anterior helmet; rostrum absent, dorsal margin of
head and body straight with spines. Antennules
movable; flagellum not well developed. Eye large
and ocellus inconspicuous. First pair of legs
modified to form prehensile organ with a long seta.
Postabdomen with 10-12 anal spines.
Distribution: Southern Tamil Nadu:
Madurai, Ramnad and Tirunelveli dist.
Elsewhere: Australia.
272
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
FRESHWA TER CLADOCERA OF TAMIL NADU
Fig. 3: Daphnia projecta , Female: R - rostrum; A2 - antenna; FL - first leg; PA - postabdomen.
Male: H - head.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(2), AUG. 1999
273
FRESHWATER CLADOCERA OF TAMIL NADU
Remarks: This is the first report of the
occurrence of this species outside Australia. It
was considered endemic to Australia (Hebert
1977). The present study extends its distribution
to this region. Hebert (1977) recorded this species
as one of the commonest planktonic forms in the
temperate region (Australia). So far, it has not
been recorded from tropical Asia, southeast Asia,
Africa and America. The present description of
this species extends its distribution to southern
Tamil Nadu.
3. Simocephalus serrulatus
(Koch 1841)
Female: Body size 1.35 mm. Body oval;
posterior region wide. Dorsal margin evenly
arched and ventral margin bulging in middle.
Head small; eye large. Anteriormost region of
head with a number of minute denticles. Ocellus
rhomboidal in shape. Postabdomen with 6-8 anal
denticles. Claw without pecten and setules on
concave margin.
Distribution: Southern Tamil Nadu:
Madurai. Elsewhere: Australia, Africa, China,
Europe and Southeast Asia.
Family Moinidae
4. Moina weismanni Ishikawa 1896
Female: Body size 0.9- 1.0 mm. Hairs
present on head and body. Antennules
ornamented with spines with a sensory seta at
the middle. Postabdomen with 7-9 feathered
setae. Ephippia with raised knobs at the centre.
Male: Body size 0.77 mm. Four hooks on
the antennule of male. Hook on the first leg not
well developed.
Distribution: Southern Tamil Nadu:
Madurai. Elsewhere: Cambodia, China and Japan.
Remarks: Under the genus Moina, so far
only two species, namely M. micrura and M.
macrocopa, have been reported from India. M.
weismanni is a new record for India.
Family: Macro thricidae
5. Macrothrix laticornis (Jurine 1820)
Female: Body size 0.43-0.55 mm. Head
rounded; rostrum small with two antennules.
Ventral margin of carapace with movable spines.
Postabdomen with numerous fine spines.
Distribution: Southern Tamil Nadu:
Madurai and Ramnad dist. Ijlsewhere: Nepal,
China, Bangladesh, Africa, North and South
America and Europe.
Remarks: Dumont and Van der Velde
(1977) compared the materials from Belgium (M.
laticornis ), Australia (M. spinosa) and Israel (M.
goeldii) and pointed out that M. laticornis may
occur in tropical regions as well as coexist with
M. spinosa.
Family Chydoridae
6. Pleuroxus aduncus (Jurine 1 820)
Female: Body size 0.47 mm. Head small.
Antennules with pegs near the base, reaching
the middle of rostrum. Labrum with pointed
apex. Postero ventral comer with varying number
of spines. Valves with lines on the anteroventral
region. Postabdomen with 10 denticles decrease
in length proximally. Claw with two basal
spines.
Distribution: Southern Tamil Nadu:
Madurai. Elsewhere: India - Rajasthan; Nepal,
Africa and South America.
Remarks: P. aduncus is a cosmopolitan
species. Smirnov (1974) described four
subspecies.
7. Chydorus parvus Daday 1898
Female: Body size 0.35 mm. Head
small; antennules not reaching the apex of
rostrum. Ocellus situated nearer to eye than to
the apex. Posteroventral corner without den-
ticles. Anterior margin of valves with tubercles
on the inner side. Postabdomen with 9-10
denticles.
Distribution: Southern Tamil Nadu:
Madurai. Elsewhere - Nepal, Sri Lanka, Malaysia
and Africa.
Remarks: This species can be recognised
by the presence of tubercles on the surface of
anterior margin of valves.
274
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
FRESHWA TER CLADOCERA OF TAMIL NADU
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
275
FRESHWA TER CLADOCERA OF TAMIL NADU
8. Pseudochydorus globosus
(Baird 1843)
Female: Body size 0.4-0. 7 mm. Head small
with pointed rostrum. Anteroventral margin of
valve with concentric stripes and hexagonal cells.
Postabdomen with 15 anal denticles. Claw with
two basal spines.
Distribution: Southern Tamil Nadu:
Madurai. Elsewhere: India - Rajasthan; Sri
Lanka, Malaysia, Australia, Africa and China.
Remarks: The genus Pseudochydorus was
established by Fryer (1968) on the basis of
significant differences noticed in the trunk limbs
of other species of Chydorus. This is the first
record of P. globosus in Tamil Nadu.
9. Alona cf karelica Stenroos 1897
Female: Body size 0.4 mm. Head small,
rostrum blunt. Ocellus slightly smaller than eye,
situated halfway between eye and apex of
rostrum. Labrum rounded with a slightly pointed
apex. Postabdomen with distal dorsal end
projecting beyond the base of claw; anal margin
concave; preanal comer projecting, 8-10 anal
denticles with small setae on the inner margin;
claw with a basal spine.
Distribution: Southern Tamil Nadu:
Madurai. Elsewhere: Malaysia, Germany and
Northwest Europe (erstwhile USSR).
Remarks: This species was originally
described from temperate regions. Idris and
Fernando (1981) reported this species from
Malaysia.
10. Alona sarasinorum Stingelin 1900
(Fig. 4)
Female: Body size 0.52 mm. Head small;
rostrum blunt. Antennules almost reaching the
apex of rostrum. Ocellus slightly smaller than
eye. Labrum rounded anteriorly and acutely
rounded posteroventrally. Ventral margin of
valves with a series of setae, with setules between
the setae. Postabdomen with 12 groups of
denticles. Claw with a basal spine.
Distribution: Southern Tamil Nadu:
Madurai. Elsewhere: Malaysia, Indonesia.
Remarks: Only a few specimens were
found in a pond, in the Madurai Kamaraj
University Campus, Madurai. A collection from
Murugan temple pond at Port Blair containing
A. sarasinorum in good quantity resembles the
present description. Insufficient information in
previous descriptions makes it difficult to identify
this species.
11. Graptoleberis testudinaria (Fischer 1848)
Female: Body size 0.6 mm. Head large
with the tip of rostrum semicircular. Antennules
not reaching the apex of rostrum. Labrum
rounded. Ocellus smaller than eye. Posteroventral
corner of valves with three denticles.
Postabdomen with 6-8 lateral groups of setae
present; claw without basal spine.
Distribution: Southern Tamil Nadu:
Madurai. Elsewhere: Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Nepal,
Australia and South America.
Remarks: The number of denticles present
in the posteroventral comer of the valve may
differ in number on the left or right valve or be
absent (Smirnov 1974). Sklyarova (1947)
reported five denticles, Gauthier (1928) four and
in the present study three were found. Smirnov
(1974) has described five subspecies.
12. Leydigia ciliata (Gauthier 1939)
Female: Body size 1.00 mm. Head small.
Ocellus triangular in shape; equal in size with
eye. Antennules not reaching the apex of rostrum.
Labrum undulate, with hairs on anterior margin.
Periphery of valves with rows of granules.
Postabdomen wide, with groups of lateral setae;
anal denticles small; anal margin slightly convex
with setae; claws with a small basal spine and
setae.
Male: Body size 0.65 mm. Antennule with
spear-like setae on the distal margin. Vas deferens
open at apex of a penis-like process on the dorsal
side of postabdomen. First leg with a hook.
276
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(2) AUG. 1999
FRESHWA TER CLADOCERA OF TAMIL NADU
Distribution: Southern Tamil Nadu:
Madurai, Ramnad, Tirunelveli and Kanyakumari
dist. Elsewhere: Nepal, China, Africa, Australia
and South America.
Remarks: The present material collected
at Madurai, Ramnad, Tirunelveli and
Kanyakumari dist. agrees with Harding’s (1955)
description in the size of the ocellus which is
slightly bigger than the eye, in the antennules
not reaching the tip of the rostrum, and in the
presence of a claw with a basal spine.
Discussion
The Cladoceran fauna of southern Tamil
Nadu exhibit certain features unique to the
region. A total of 46 species belonging to 5
families have been recorded in the present study,
out of which 34 are new records.
The species spectrum of limnetic Cladocera
is far more limited in the tropics than in
temperate regions (Feman'do 1980a). However,
in southern Tamil Nadu, which is located in
tropical India, as many as five species of
Daphnia , namely, D. similis, D. cephalata ,
D. longicephala , D. projecta (records in present
investigation) and D. lumholtzi (Michael 1973;
Murugan and Job 1981), all of them probably
temperate in origin, were found to occur. This is
rather unusual, as the genus Daphnia is normally
the most evident absentee from tropical
freshwaters (Fernando 1980b). However, there
are previous records of D. lumholtzi by Poppe
and Mrajek (1895) (misidentified as D. galeate,
Fernando 1980b) and three species of Daphnia
in Sarawak (Spandal, 1924) and the relatively
large number of D. similis recorded in Thailand,
which Fernando (1980b) considers as probable
introductions. Several explanations are given on
the mode of such introductions. Birds have been
considered an important agency for the
dissemination of microcrustaceans in freshwaters
(Thienemann 1950; Loffler 1963; Smirnov
1974). In fact, rice fields attract aquatic bird
migrants. Import of food grains is another
important means of transporting alien Cladocera
into the country (Mukhamediev 1951; Mizuno
and Mori 1970).
The species composition of limnetic
Cladocera of southern Tamil Nadu is typical of
tropical regions. The marked differences in the
number of limnetic species in tropical and
temperate regions is conspicuous, as pointed out
by Fernando (1980a, b). Only four species of
Cladocera, which are eury topic, occurring in a
wide range of habitats, were found to be distinctly
dominant in the limnetic zooplankton of southern
Tamil Nadu, as is the case with the entire
southeast Asian regions (Fernando 1980b). They
are Daphnia similis, Ceriodaphnia cornuta,
Moina micrura and Diaphanosoma excisum
(Table 1).
It is interesting to note that large Cladocera
found in the littoral zone of temperate regions,
namely Eurycercus and Saycia, the largest
Chydoridae, are completely absent from the
tropical region (Frey 1971 ). In the present study,
two co-occurring members of the family Sididae,
Pseudosida bidentata and Latonopsis australis
were found to dominate the littoral region.
Among the five species of the genus
Simocephalus, S. acutirostratus and S. vetulus
elizabethae occurred in most of the littoral
samples. However, they are rarer here than in
the temperate region where this genus is
abundant. Further, Scapholeberis kingi and
Dadaya macrops, the two epineustic pantropical
Cladocera, as well as Euryalona orientalis are
very common in the littoral region of southern
Tamil Nadu. Two species of the family
Bosminidae reported from Sri Lanka (Rajapaksa
and Fernando 1982) and other Southeast Asian
tropical regions were not found during the
present study.
Comparison of the species diversity and
size spectrum of Cladocera from tropical and
temperate regions reveals a marked difference,
the species size and spectrum being much smaller
in the tropics than in temperate regions. In the
present study, the lower end of the size range
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
277
FRESHWA TER CLADOCERA OF TAMIL NADU
was found to be occupied by Dadaya macrops
(0.4 mm). Two of the largest forms, Daphnia
cephalata and Daphnia longicephala reach a
maximum size of 3.5 - 5.0 mm, while the same
species reach 5.0 - 6.0 mm in temperate Australia
(Hebert 1977).
While assessing the reasons for fewer and
smaller Cladocera occurring in tropical lentic
waters, the role of various factors like evolu-
tionary history, physiology, population dynamics,
temperature, availability of food and predator
pressure should be carefully weighed (Fernando
1980b). Lack of large standing freshwaters
(lakes) in southern Tamil Nadu, both in space
and time, could account for limited Cladoceran
fauna. The uniform high temperature prevailing
in this region might have restricted niche
diversity seasonally, thus reducing the number
of species, as pointed out by Fernando (1980b).
Temperature has many direct and indirect
effects on the species diversity and size range of
Daphnia. In the present study, the small-sized
Daphnia similis (2.2 mm) appeared to dominate
the temporary ponds. However, the larger species,
D. cephalata and D. longicephala also occur in
limited numbers. In the tropics, the prevailing
temperature lowers fecundity and feeding
efficiency (Fernando 1980b), thus accounting for
the absence of larger Daphnia. Also, it has been
shown that feeding efficiency in Daphnia
increases with size (Bums and Rigler 1967), but
the optimum size decreases with the rise in
temperature (Lynch 1977).
It is generally accepted that the major
factor in reducing the size of zooplankton is
predation by fish (Harbacek 1977). In the present
study, in the river-fed man-made reservoirs with
large numbers of planktivorous fish, larger
daphnids like D. cephalata and D. longicephala
are conspicuous by their absence, or rapid
disappearance, due to this reason. This is in
conformity with the observations of many earlier
workers (Zaret and Kerfoot 1975; O’Brien, et
al. 1976; Fernando 1980a, b). In the absence of
vertebrate planktivores, larger invertebrate
predators like Anisops bouveri are found to be
the dominant feeders upon small to intermediate-
sized cladocerans.
In the present study, the tropical ( Dadaya
macrops, Dunhevedia serrata, Ceriodaphnia
cornuta, Diaphanosoma excisum, Scapholeberis
kingi) and cosmopolitan (Pleuroxus aduncus,
Pseudochydorus globosus, Moina micrura,
Pseudosida bidentata, Alona karna) forms
predominate. A fe_w endemic cladocerans such
as Alona macronyx Daday, Indialona ganapati
Petkovski and perhaps some Alona spp. found
in Southeast Asia were not recorded in this study
(Table 1). However, the more interesting
Cladocera found during the present study are
those which were earlier not expected to occur
in this region, rare forms which are being
recorded for the first time from a tropical region.
Also, Alona cf karelica Stenroos ( 1 897) believed
to occur only in Northern Europe was earlier
recorded in Malaysia (Idris and Fernando 1981)
and now in this study.
Many more Cladocerans may be found to
be widely distributed. Daday (1898) recorded
Graptoleberis testudinaria and described
Indialona macronyx from Sri Lanka. The former
species is a rare form in the tropics (Fernando
1980a). However, it is recorded for the first time
in southern Tamil Nadu.
Acknowledgements
I thank the Director, Zoological Survey of
India, for facilities. I also thank Drs K.G.
Sivaramakrishnan and N. Murugan, Madura
College, Madurai for their keen interest in this
work, Officer-in-Charge, Marine Biological
Station, Chennai, for encouragement and the late
Prof. S. Krishnaswamy, Vice-Chancellor,
Madurai-Kamaraj University for his invaluable
guidance.
278
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
FRESHWA TER CLADOCERA OF TAMIL NADU
References
Burns, C.W. & F.H. Rigler(1967): Comparison of filtering
rates of Daphnia rosea in lake water and in
suspensions of yeast. Limnol. Oceanogr. 1 2: 492-
502.
Daday, E. (1898): Mikroskopische Subwasserthiere aus
Ceylon. Anhansheft zum XXI. Bande der
Termeszetrajzi Fuzetek. Budapest, pp. 1-123.
Dumont, H.J. & I. Van der Velde (1977): Report on a
collection of Cladocera and Copepoda from Nepal.
Hydrobiologia 53: 55-65.
Fernando, C.H. (1980a): The freshwater zooplankton of
Sri Lanka, with discussion of tropical freshwater
zooplankton composition. Int. ges. Hydrobiol. 65:
85-125.
Fernando, C.H. (1980b): The species and size composition
of tropical freshwater zooplankton with special
reference to the Oriental region (Southeast Asia).
Int. Rev. ges. Hydrobiol. 65: 411-426.
Frey, D.G. ( 1 97 1 ): Worldwide distribution and ecology of
Eurycercus and Saycia (Cladocera). Limnol.
Oceanogr. 16: 254-305.
Fryer, G. (1968): Evolution and adaptive radiation in the
Chydoridae (Crustacea : Cladocera): a study in
comparative functional morphology and ecology.
Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lond. ( Ser . B)269: 137-274.
Gauthier, H. (1928): Researches Sur la fauna des eaux
continentales de I* Algeric et de la Tunic. Alger 1 -
419.
Grant, J. W.G. & I.A.E. Bayly (1981): Predator induction
of crests in morphs of the Daphnia carinata King
complex, Limnol. Oceanogr. 26: 201-218.
Harding, J.P. (1955): Percy Sladen Trust expedition. XIX.
Crustacea : Cladocera. Trans. Linnaean Soc.,
London 1(3): 329-354.
Hebert, P.D.N. (1977): A revision of the taxonomy of the
genus Daphnia in Southeastern Australia. Aust. J.
Zool.25: 371-398.
Harbacek, J. (1977): Competition and predation in relation
to species composition of freshwater zooplankton,
mainly Cladocera. In: Aquatic microbial
communities, (ed) J. Caimes, Gerland Reference
Library of Science and Technology 15: 305-353.
Idris, B. A.G. ( 1 983) Freshwater zooplankton of Malaysia
(Crustacea : Cladocera). Penerbit Univ. Pertanian,
Malaysia, pp. 153.
Idris. B.A.G. & C.H. Fernando (1981): Cladocera of
Malaysia and Singapore with new records,
redescriptions and remarks on some species.
Hydrobiologia 77: 233-256.
Loffler, H. (1963): Bird migration and the spread of
Crustacea, Verh. dt. Zool. Ges. 27: 311-316.
Lynch, M. (1977): Fitness and optimal body size in
zooplankton populations. Ecology 58: 763-77 4.
Michael, R.G. (1973): Cladocera-//? A guide to the study
of freshwater organisms, / Madurai Univ. Suppl.
7:71-85.
Mizuno, T. & S. Mori (1970): Preliminary hydrobiological
survey of some Southeast Asian inland waters. Biol.
J. Limn. Soc. 2: 77-117.
Mukhamediev, A.M. (1951): Composition and origin of
the fauna of Crustacea in paddy fields in the Fergapa
Valley, Zool. Zn. 30: 376-378. (In Russian)
Murugan, N. & S.V. Job (1981): Contributions to the
biology of Cladocera: III. Seasonality, distribution
and association of Cladocera, Salsearch 3 : 69-82.
O’brien, W.J., N.A. Slade & G.L. Vinyard (1976):
Apparent size as the determinant of prey selection
by bluegill sunfish ( Lepomis macrochirus ) Ecology
57: 1304-1310.
Poppe, A.S. & A. Mrazek (1895): Die von Herm Dr. H.
Driesch auf Ceylon gesammelten
subwasserentomostraleen, B. Jahr. Hamb. IViss.
Aust. 12: 139-142.
Raghunathan, M.B. (1983): Studies on some planktonic
Cladocera of Tamil Nadu, Ph.D. Thesis, Madras
University 32-53.
Rajapaksa, R. & C.H. Fernando (1982): The Cladocera
of Sri Lanka (Ceylon) with remarks on some
species. Hydrobiologia 94: 49-69.
Santharam, K.R. (1978): Biology of Daphnia carinata
King, Ph.D. Thesis, Madurai Kamaraj University
Madurai pp. 186.
Sklyarova, T.V. (1947): Cladocera of the Voronezh Region,
their systematics, ecology and distribution (thesis)
Voronezh pp. 195.
Smirnov, N.N. (1974): Chydoridae fauna of the world.
Fauna of USSR. Crustacea (English translation)
Israel Programme for Scientific translation,
Jerusalem 1(2): 644.
Spandal, H. (1925): Entomostraken von Bomes,4«/?. Nat.
Mus. Vienna 38: 89-95.
Thienemann, A. (1950): The transport of aquatic animals
by birds, Freshwater Biological Association
Translation 18: 156-15.
Venkataraman, K. (1983): Taxonomy and ecology of
Cladocera of southern Tamil Nadu, Ph.D. Thesis,
Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai pp. 190.
Venkataraman, K. (1992): Freshwater Cladocera of Port
Blair, South Andaman, J. Andaman Sci. Assoc.
8(2): 133-137.
Venkataraman, K. (1993): Freshwater Cladocera
(Crustacea: Branchiopoda) of southern West
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
279
FRESHWA TER CLADOCERA OF TAMIL NAPU
Bengal, / Andaman Sci. Assoc. 9: 19-24.
Venkataraman, K. (1995): Freshwater Cladocera of
Tripura. J. Andaman Sci. Assoc. 11: 15-20.
Zaret, T.M. & W.C. Kerfoot (1975): Fish predation on
Bosmina longirostris: Body size selection versus
visibility selection. Ecology 56: 234-237.
280
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
NEW SPECIES OF AGONISCHIUS CANDEZE (COLEOPTERA,
ELATERIDAE : LUDIINAE) FROM INDIA1
Pun am Garg and V. Vasu2
( With six text-figures)
Key words: new species, Agonischius Candeze, Elateridae, India.
Two new species of genus Agonischius Candeze are added to the six known species
from India. These are A. stripedius and A. piceus. A key to the Indian species of
Agonischius Candeze is provided.
Introduction
Genus Agonischius is a large group
represented by 1 70 species, the majority of which
belong to the Oriental region. Vats and Chauhan
(1993) recorded 6 species from India, of which
four were new species. We are adding two new
Indian species to the known fauna of this genus.
A key to the species from India is also provided.
Genus Agonischius consists of small to
medium-sized beetles which are generally
brilliant coloured, sometimes with metallic
lustre. It is characterized by antennal segment 2
being very small; prothorax with centered margin
deflected below the eyes; prostemopleural sutures
double; metacoxal plates narrow with linear or
emarginate inner margins, and parameres
lacking subapical processes.
The type material will be deposited at Pusa
National Collection, Division of Entomology,
Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New
Delhi, India.
Key to species of Agonischius Candeze
1 . Antenna extending beyond posterior pronotal
angles 2
Antenna at the most reaching posterior pronotal
angles 5
'Accepted May 1 997
department of Zoology,
Punjabi University, Patiala 147002, India.
2. Carinae of posterior pronotal angles equal in
length c innamomeus Candeze
Carinae of posterior pronotal angles unequal in
length 3
3. Pronotum bicoloufed, black with two lateral
ferruginous stripes; head as long as broad; elytra
pointed at extremity stripedius sp. nov.
Pronotum unicoloured, piceous or fuscous; head
longer than broad; elytra rounded at
extremity 4
4. Body fuscous; pronotum without depression;
scutellum ferruginous with black margins;
posterior angles pointed; elytra less than 3x
prothorax length
chamoliensis Vats & Chauhan
Body piceous; pronotum with median
longitudinal depression in its posterior 1/3;
scutellum uniformly piceous; posterior angles
rounded; elytra more than 3x prothorax length
piceus sp. nov.
5. Elytra with metallic reflection; head broader than
long 6
Elytra without metallic reflection; head as long
as broad 7
6. Elytra with blue reflection; head convex;
prothorax black
cyanoreflexus Vats & Chauhan
Elytra with green reflection; head depressed;
prothorax reddish with black longitudinal band
viridore/lexus Vats & Chauhan
7. Carinae on posterior pronotal angles equal
suturalis Candeze
Carinae on posterior pronotal angles unequal
chauhan i Vats & Chauhan.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
281
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Agonischius stripedius sp. nov.
(Figs. 1, 3, 6)
Colour: Body ferruginous, black are:
extreme anterior margin, 1/5 of posterior margin,
broad lateral margins and a broad medial
longitudinal band of pronotum (Fig. 3);
scutellum; entire lower surface of body. Antenna
fuscous.
Measurements: Body: length 12 mm,
width 2.25 mm; head: length 1 mm, width 1 mm;
antenna 4.25 mm; 2nd segment 0.1 mm; 3rd
segment 0.45 mm; 4th segment 0.4 mm; last
segment 0.5 mm; thorax: length 2.75 mm, width
2.25 mm; elytra 7.75 mm.
Structure: Body width less than 0.25x its
length. Head subconvex, as long as broad;
antenna extending beyond posterior angle of
pronotum; segment 3 longer than 2 as 9:2 and
also longer than 4 as 9:8. Pronotum (Fig. 3)
convex with median longitudinal glabrous line
in its posterior half, longer than broad as 11:9,
lateral margins parallel, posterior margin entire;
posterior angles rounded, bicarinate, carina short,
equal, not reaching middle of pronotum;
prostemal spine rounded, declined from its main
axis at 20°, emarginate, gradually narrowing at
base. Metacoxal plate rounded at posterior
margin (Fig.6). Scutellum flat, longer than broad
as 2: 1 , anterior margin truncate, posterior margin
arcuate. Elytra convex, 2.8x prothorax length,
pointed at extremities; striae distinct.
Metabasitarsus shorter than following 2 joints
combined as 3:4.
Sculpture: Head with simple dense, large,
hexagonal punctation; pronotum punctate like
head; propleurae with simple, dense, small,
hexagonal punctation; prostemum punctate like
head; elytral striae deep, distinct, rounded
punctation; interstriae with fine, sparse,
inconspicuous punctation.
Pubescence: Body covered with simple,
dense, slanting, whitish yellow pubescence.
Male genitalia: Fig.l. Phallobase with
rounded anterior margin; parameres without
subapical processes, posterior end rounded;
aedeagus distinctly longer than parameres,
medially slightly constricted, conical posteriorly;
furcae very short, not reaching anterior margin
of parameres.
Material examined: Holotype: Male,
Meghalaya, Cherrapunji, 1470 m, 29.iv.1994,
under light, Coll. V. Vasu. Paratypes: 1 female
with same data as holotype. Nagaland, Singtam,
1500 m, 2 males 4.V.1995, under light, Coll.
Punam.
Distribution: india: Meghalaya, Nagaland.
Diagnostic combinations: Pronotum
bicoloured (black with two ferruginous stripes),
head as long as broad and elytra pointed at
extremities are the characters which distinguish
A. stripedius from the other species of this genus.
Etymology: The species name pertains to
the black stripe on pronotum.
Agonischius piceus sp. nov.
(Figs. 2, 4, 5)
Colour: Body piceous including legs and
antenna.
Measurements: Body: length 9.5 mm,
width 1.8 mm; head: length 0.9 mm, width
0.7 mm; antenna 3 mm; 2nd segment 0.1 mm;
3rd segment 0.35 mm; 4th segment 0.25 mm;
last segment 0.4 mm; thorax: length 2 mm,
width 1.8 mm; elytra 6.25 mm.
Structure: Body width less than 0.25x its
length. Head flat, longer than broad as 9:7;
antenna extending beyond posterior angle of
pronotum; segment 3 longer than 2 as 7:2 and
also longer than 4 as 7:5. Mandible dentate.
Pronotum (Fig. 4) convex with median
longitudinal shallow depression in its posterior
one-third and a shallow, oval fovea one on each
side of median line, longer than broad as 10:9,
lateral margins subconvex; posterior angles long,
rounded, bicarinate, carinae equal, short, not
reaching middle of pronotum; prostemal spine
rounded, declined from its main axis at 35°,
gradually narrowing at base. Metasternum
truncate between mesocoxae. Metacoxal plate
angular at posterior margin (Fig. 5). Scutellum
282
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Figs. 1-2. Lancet: 1. Agonischius stripedius, 2. A. piceus; Figs. 3-4. Pronotum: 3. A. stripedius,
4. A. piceus; Figs. 5-6. Metacoxal plate: 5. A. piceus, 6. A. stripedius.
flat, longer than broad as 3:2, anterior margin
rounded, posterior margin arcuate. Elytra
convex, 3.12x prothorax length, rounded at
extremities; striae distinct. Metabasitarsus
shorter than following 2 joints combined as 5:6.
Sculpture: Head with simple, dense, small,
hexagonal punctation; pronotum and propleurae
punctate like head; prosternum with simple,
moderate, small, rounded punctation; elytral
striae with deep, distinct, small, oval punctation;
interstriae with sparse, fine, inconspicuous
punctation.
Pubescence: Body covered with simple,
dense, slanting, brownish yellow pubescence.
Male genitalia: Fig. 2. Phallobase with
concave anterior margin; parameres without
subapical processes, with posterior ends rounded;
aedeagus distinctly longer than parameres,
tubular, uniformly thick with rounded tip except
slight medial constriction; furcae short, not
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
283
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
reaching anterior margin of parameres.
Material examined: Holotype: Male,
Manipur, Ukhrul, 1700 m, 15.vi.1994, ex. forest
vegetation, Coll. V. Vasu. Paratypes: 1 female,
same data as holotype; 1 male, 1 female,
Nagaland, Satakha, 1500 m, 12.V.1994, under
light, Coll. Punam.
Distribution: india: Manipur, Nagaland.
Diagnostic combinations: A. piceus is
distinguished from A. chamoliensis by: body
piceous (fuscous in latter), pronotum medially
depressed (not depressed in latter), posterior
angles rounded (pointed in latter) and elytra more
than 3x prothorax length (less than 3x in latter).
Etymology: Species name pertains to body
colour.
Acknowledgement
We thank Prof. L.K. Vats, Chairman,
Department of Zoology, Kurukshetra University,
Kurukshetra for his valuable suggestions and
permission to compare our material with
identified specimens.
Reference
Vats, L.K. & R.L. Chauhan (1993): Species of Agonischius Candeze from North India (Elateridae: Coleoptera). Res.
Bull. Panjab Univ. 43 (i-iv): 143-150.
284
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
A NEW SPECIES OF POA L., FAMILY POACEAE FROM GARHWAL HIMALAYA, INDIA1
D.C. Nautiyal and R.D. Gaur2
( With one text-figure)
Key words: Poa garhwalensis sp. nov. Poa gammieana, Garhwal, Himalaya
Plant explorations in the Garhwal Himalaya yielded a new species Poa garhwalensis
Nautiyal et Gaur. sp. nov. This was collected at the Indo-Tibetan border of Chamoli district.
It comes close to Poa gammieana Hook. f.
During the recent plant explorations in the
remote localities of Garhwal Himalaya, we
collected some interesting specimens of the genus
Poa from an alpine zone, Leptal, at the
Indo-Tibetan border of Chamoli dist. Critical
analysis and comparison of these specimens with
the literature as well as material from the
Herbaria of Botanical Survey of India (BSD), and
Forest Research Institute (DD), Dehra Dun,
distinctly warranted a new species, which has
been described hereunder.
Poa garhwalensis Nautiyal et Gaur sp. nov.
Haec species Poa gammieana Hook. f.
affmis, a qua differt habitu minus foliaceo, cum
intemodis 1 vel 2, ligulis brevioribus, 1.5-3 mm
longis, panicula laxa, ramis inferioribus 3-5,
scabridis, spiculis ellipticis, 5-1 1 mm longis, cum
flosculis 3-7(8), rhachilla breviore, 0.5-0. 8 mm
longa, lemma acuto, 4-4.5 mm longo, paleae cari-
nis scabridis, anthera longiore, 2-2.5 mm longa.
Typus: Northwest Himalaya, Leptal
(4000m), August 4, 1996. Coll. D.C. Nautiyal,
Holotypus GUH: 13501A; Isotypus 13501B.
This species is allied to P. gammieana Hook,
f., and a comparison of both the species is given in
Table 1 with a description of the new taxon.
Perennial tufted grass; culms erect,
45-60x0-3 cm, partly terete, smooth; nodes 2.
Leaf blade linear, acute, 4-10x0.2-0.3 cm,
scabrid on both surfaces as well as margins;
sheaths keeled, 10-20 cm long; ligules
ovate-obtuse, 1.5-3 mm long. Panicles lax,
4-10x3-4 cm; branches spreading, axis
cylindrical, scabrid, lower branches 3-5, scabrid;
pedicels scabrid; spikelets elliptic, 5-11 mm
long, 3-8 flowered, pale-green or purplish.
Lower glumes oblong, acute, 3-3.2 mm long,
3-nerved, margins hyaline, surface glabrous,
keel scabrid on upper part; upper glumes
narrowly oblong, 3. 2-3. 8 mm long, 3-nerved,
Table 1
COMPARISON OF THE KEY FEATURES OF POA GAMMIEANA AND P. GARHWALENSIS
margins hyaline, surface glabrous, keel scabrid
'Accepted August 1997 above. Rhachilla 0.5-0. 8 mm long, scabrid.
:P.B. 1 7, Dept, of Botany, H.N.B. Garhwal University, Callus with ciliate hairs. Lowest lemma oblong,
Srinagar (Garhwal) 246 174, India. acute, 4-4.5 mm long, 5-nerved, surface scabrid
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
285
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Fig. 1 : A-G. Poa garhwalensis Nautiyal et Gaur sp. nov. A. Plant; B. Spikelet; C. Lower glume;
D. Upper glume; E. Lowest lemma; F. Palea; G. Anthers, ovary, styles, stigmas and lodicules.
286
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
except hyaline tip, margins hyaline, keel ciliate
on lower two-thirds, scabrid above, marginal
nerves ciliate on lower half. Paleas
elliptic-oblong, 3.2-4 mm long, keels almost
scabrid. Stamens 3; anthers 2-2.5 mm long.
Ovary with distinct styles and stigmas. Lodicules
2, 0.5-0. 8 mm long. (Figs. 1A-G).
FI. & Fr.: Aug.-Oct.
Habitat: In marshy alpine meadows.
AcKNOWLEDG EM ENTS
We thank the Botanical Survey of India,
Northern Circle, Dehra Dun and Forest Research
Institute, Dehra Dun for Herbarium and Library
facilities; Dr. N.C. Majumdar for Latin diagnosis
of the taxon and the Council of Scientific and
Industrial Research (CSIR), for financial
assistance.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
287
NOEMACHEILUS MENONI, A NEW SPECIES OF FISH FROM
M ALAPPARA, PERIYAR TIGER RESERVE, KERALA1
V .J. Zacharias2 and K.C. Minimol3
( With one text-figure)
Key words: Noemacheilus menoni sp. nov., Western Ghats, Periyar
Noemacheilus menoni is described as a new species of fish from the Periyar river of
the High Ranges of the Western Ghats of Kerala State, South India, from five specimens. It is
characterised by a complete lateral line, an irregular reticulation of dark blotches and bands
with light or creamy inter-spaces on the body, and three narrow bands on the caudal fin.
Introduction
This genus consists of a group of species
which are remarkably similar in general
morphology. Environmental conditions tend to
produce similar characters and it is probable that
the great resemblance between the various species
of this genus is due to a similarity in their
environment. The usual environment of rapid
running water of these loaches is full of stress and
the animals that live in such a habitat have to adjust
constantly to any fluctuation in the microclimate.
Their body has become more and more cylindrical,
with the fins becoming smaller and compact to
facilitate their living amongst pebbles and shingle
in swift running water (Menon, 1987).
In addition to the new species described
here, the following five species are recognised
from the Periyar River: (1) Noemacheilus
denisoni denisoni Day (2) Noemacheilus
keralensis (Rita & Nalbant), (3) Noemacheilus
triangularis Day. (4) Noemacheilus guentheri
Day and (5) Noemacheilus evezardi Day.
In the course of our studies on the fishes
of Periyar river in Kerala State, South India, five
specimens were obtained which are distinct from
other species described so far. They are described
here as a new species.
Material and Methods
The material examined in this study
'Accepted September, 1997
"Department of Zoology, St. Joseph’s College,
Devagiri, Calicut 8.
3Periyar Tiger Reserve, Thekkady 685 536, Kerala.
consists of 5 specimens measuring 46 to 54.4
mm SL collected from the fast flowing Periyar
at Malappara about 17 km above the Periyar
Lake, between 9° 16' and 9° 40' N lat. and
between 76° 55' and 77° 25' long. The description
is based on measurements with dial calipers. Data
are presented as percentages of standard length
(SL) and head length (HL), with the range
followed by the mean in parentheses. One
example, not included in the present study has
been deposited with ZSI, Madras.
Noemacheilus menoni sp. nov. (Fig. 1)
Diagnosis: A species of Noemacheilus
having 8 branched rays in the dorsal fin, lateral
line complete, 3 pairs of barbels, and dorsal and
caudal fins with dark spots (Fig. 1).
Holotype: ZSI Calicut V/F/1018, 54.4 mm
SL. Collected from Malappara in Periyar river
on March 2, 1997 by the authors.
Paratypes: 4 specimens ZSI, Calicut V/F/
1019, 46-49 mm SL. Same data as holotype. One
specimen deposited at ZSI, Madras. No. F. 5255
ZSI/SRS collected from the same locality in
February 1996.
Description: Based on 5 specimens.
D.3/8, A. 2/5, P.1/1 1, V. 1/6/1, C.19 Lateral
line complete.
Body cylindrical, eyes small, nostrils close
to each other, anterior tubular. Mouth
semicircular. Barbels well developed. Dorsal fin
inserted almost equidistant between tip of snout
and caudal fin base. Caudal fin forked.
Depth body 12.2-14.5 (M = 13.16) % SL,
length of head 19.5-23.9 (M-21.52) %, snout
288
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
NE W DESCRIPTIONS
I 1
1 cm
Fig. 1 : Lateral view of Noemacheilus menoni, sp. nov.
length 7. 3-8. 6 (M=7.96) % SL, 32.7-41.6
(M=37.24) % HL. Eye shorter than snout, its
diameter 9.9-17.7 (M=13.8) % HL and 38.4-56.6
(M=47.5) % inter-orbital width. 2 pairs of
barbels are shorter than eye, its length 8.4-14.5
(M=12.2%) % HL second pair of rostral barbels
are longer than eye, its length 20-26.7 (M=22.32)
% HL, Maxillary barbels are almost equal to
second pair of rostral barbels, its length 20-26.7
(M=22.94) % HL.
Caudal peduncle length 12.2-14.5
(M=12.94) %, its least height 40.0-50.0
(M=44.86) % HL, 71.4-76.6 (M=74.28) % of
its own length.
Squamation: Lateral line complete, well
distinguishable up to end of base of anal fin.
Scales small and imbricate except on ventral side
ofbody.
Fins: Dorsal origin between tip of snout
and base of caudal, its height less than length of
head, 14.2-15.8 (14.88) % SL, height of anal
fin 49.1-60 (M=54.34) % HL. Pectoral fin
smaller than head, length of pectoral 16.3-18.7
(M=17.12)% SL. Pelvic fin smaller than head
and pectoral fin, its length 12.5-14.5 (M=13.54)
% SL. Caudal fin forked, longer than head, lobes
somewhat pointed, predorsal distance 49.3-52.9
(M=51.34) % SL. Pre-pelvic distance 48.8-54.1
(M=51.62) % SL; distance between origin of
pectoral and pelvic fms 22.9-33.0 (M=27.9) %
SL, pelvic to anal distance 23.7-25.7 (M=24.62)
% SL.
Coloration: Body with irregular dark
blotches on back, sides marked by irregular
reticulation of dark blotches and wavy bands with
light or creamy interspaces; blotches and bands
being more prominent on the upper half. Dorsal
and caudal fins have three narrow bands each,
anal and pelvic have one each; caudal fin has a
black blotch at its base.
Distribution: The Periyar River at
Malappara, Kerala, South India.
Remarks: More than 450 species are
described under Noemacheilus (Kottelat, 1982).
These species are quite varied and diverse, and
form several recognisable groups or subgenera.
These fishes inhabit hill streams and are
restricted to South China, Southeast Asia,
Baluchistan, Western Iran, South Anatolia and
Lake Tsana in N.E. Africa.
The species N. menoni described here
appears to be closely related to N. triangularis Day
occurring in the Western Ghats of Kerala (Kallar,
Periyar, Pamba and Bharatapuzha drainage) and
Tamil Nadu (Thambrapami drainage). Both have
8 branched rays in the dorsal fin, slightly tubular
anterior nostrils without nasal barbels, forked
caudal and an irregular pattern of dark bands, bars
or blotches characteristic of the subgenus
Mesonoemacheilus. However, the new species can
be separated from N. triangularis by the irregular
reticulation of dark blotches and wavy bands with
light or creamy interspaces as against the six or
seven oblique yellow bands edged with black of
N. triangularis. N. guentheri Day, another
related species, can be separated by the 2 or 3
rows of large yellow spots edged with black on
its body.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(2), AUG. 1999
289
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
ACKNO W LEDG EM ENTS
We are grateful to Dr. A.G.K. Menon for his
help, suggestions and comments on this paper. Our
sincere thanks are due to Mr. Radhakrishnan,
Deputy Director, Mr. K.C. Gopi and Dr. P.M.
Sureshan Scientists, ZSI Calicut and Dr. K.
Remadevi, Scientist, ZSI Madras for their kind help
in preparing the paper and for their suggestions.
Help and co-operation received from Mr. O.P. Kaler,
IFS, Wildlife Preservation Officer, Periyar Tiger
Reserve is gratefully acknowledged.
References
Kottelat, M. (1982): A new Noemacheilinae loach from
Thailand and Burma, Jap. J. Ichthyol. 29(2): 169-172.
Menon, A.G.K. (1987): Fauna of India and the adjacent
countries. Pisces, 4 (Part I). Homalopteridae, Calcutta
pp. x+259.
Talwar, P.K. & Arun G. Jhingran (1991): Inland Fishes
of India and Adjacent Countries - Vol. 1 and 2, Oxford
and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
■ ■ ■
290
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(2 ) AUG. 1999
A NEW SISORID CATFISH OF THE GENUS MYERSGLANIS HORA & SILAS
1951, FROM MANIPUR, INDIA1
Waikhom Vishwanath and Laishram Kosygin2
( With one plate and one text-figure)
Key words: Catfish, Sisoridae, Myersglanis jayarami sp. nov., Manipur
A new freshwater sisorid catfish, Myersglanis jayarami is described here based on eight
specimens collected from Laniye river (Chindwin drainage) of Manipur, India. It is
characterised by a band of transverse teeth in the upper jaw which is slightly indented in
the middle anteriorly, and conical and pointed teeth in the jaws. The species is also distinct
in having 10 branched pectoral rays, 5 branched anal rays, 15-16 branched caudal rays and
an adipose dorsal fin confluent with caudal fin. A key to the species of genus Myersglanis
is also given.
Introduction
Day (1869) described Exostoma blythi
without mentioning its type locality. The species
was assigned to the genus Glyptosternum
McClelland by Hora (1923) and to Euchiloglanis
Regan by Norman (1925). Hora and Silas (1951)
proposed a new genus Myersglanis to
accommodate Day’s species as it had characters
distinct from species of other glyptostemoid
genera. Myersglanis is distinct in having conical
and pointed teeth on both the jaws, a transverse
band of teeth in the upper jaw which is not
produced backwards at the sides, and continuous
lower labial fold. Other characters include a
dorso-ventrally flattened body with laterally
compressed caudal peduncle, gill openings
restricted to the dorsal surface, weak dorsal spine,
lunate caudal fin, first ray of paired fins
corrugated ventrally in pinnate folds for adhesive
purpose and absence of thoracic adhesive
apparatus. This peculiar monotypic genus occurs
only in Nepal (Misra, 1976; Jayaram, 1979;
Talwar and Jhingran, 1991). Recently, one of us
(L. Kosygin) collected eight specimens of
'Accepted August 1997
department of Life Sciences,
Manipur University
Canchipur 795 003, Manipur.
Myersglanis during an investigation of hill
stream fishes in Ukhrul dist., Manipur, India.
They differ from M. blythi in many respects. The
fish is described here as a new species.
The specimens were fixed and preserved
in 10% formalin. Measurements and counts
followed Jayaram ( 1 98 1 ). All measurements were
made with a calliper to the nearest 0.1 mm. The
type specimens of the new species have been
deposited in the Manipur University Museum of
Fishes (MUMF).
Abbreviations: ASB, Asiatic Society of
Bengal; ZSI, Zoological Survey of India,
Calcutta; SL, standard length; HL, head length;
SD, standard deviation; M, mean.
Myersglanis jayarami sp. nov.
Material examined: Holotype : 82.0 mm
SL, Regn. No. MUMF 2138, Locality: Laniye
river at Jessami, Manipur, India (94° 32' E, 25°
38' N), Coll. L. Kosygin, 1 5 .viii. 1 994.
Paratypes : 7 exs., 54.0-75.0 mm SL, Regn.
No. MUMF 2105, 2139-2144, collection data
same as holotype.
Diagnosis: Myersglanis jayarami sp. nov.
is easily distinguished from its only congener
M. blythi in having less branched pectoral rays
(10 against 16-17); more branched caudal rays
(15-16 against 13); anal fin origin equidistant
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
291
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
C C'
Fig. 3: Nature of teeth band along with shape of tooth:
Myersglanis jayarami (A, A'),
Exostoma vinciguerrae (B, B')
Euchiloglanis sinensis (C, C')
from pelvic fin origin and caudal fin base (against
nearer caudal base) and also in having an adipose
dorsal fin which is confluent with caudal fin.
Description
The lateral view of the fish is shown in
Plate 1, Fig. 1. Morphometric data of holotype
and 7 paratypes are given in Table 1. Head and
body depressed. Ventral surface flattened from
snout to vent, caudal peduncle laterally
compressed, its depth 59.4 - 69.2% its length
(M= 63.1; SD=3.4). Head broad, width 88.9-
100.0 % HL (M= 94.7; SD= 4.1), height at
occiput 48. 1-68.3% HL (M=59.2; SD=4.9). Eye
very small, subcutaneous, not visible from ventral
surface, almost in the middle of HL, diameter
8.4 - 10% HL (M=9.3; SD=0.5). Snout obtuse,
length 44.4-49.7 % HL (M= 47.3; SD= 1.9).
Table 1
MORPHOMETRIC DATA OF MYERSGLANIS JA YARAMI
SP. NOV. HOLOTYPE (MUMF 2138) AND
7 PARATYPES (MUMF 2 1 05, 2 1 39-2 1 44)
292
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Vishwanath, Waikhom et al. : Myersglanis jayarami
PLATE 1
Fig. 1: Lateral view of Myersglanis jayarami sp. nov.
(Holotype, 82.0 mm Standard length)
Fig. 2: Ventral view of Myersglanis jayarami
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
293
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Mouth inferior, transverse, surrounded by fleshy
lips, width 34-41% HL (M=38.5; SD= 2.0).
Lower labial fold continuous. Teeth conical,
pointed and directed backwards in both jaws. The
band of teeth in the upper jaw slightly indented
in the middle and not produced backwards at
the sides (a comparison of shape of teeth and
teeth bands of Myersglanis jayarami and other
Glyptosternoid fishes is shown in Fig 3).
However, the bands are not separated into two
as in Exostoma Blyth. Teeth band in lower jaw
is divided in the centre and pointed towards the
sides. Plate edentulous. Gill openings dorso-
lateral, extending only to the opposite base of
the pectoral spine. Barbels 4 pairs, maxillary
barbels with broad base and its ventral surface
provided with pinnate folds. It extends to one-
third of the length of pectoral fin base. Nasal
barbels exceed posterior margin of orbit, outer
mandibular barbels just reaching pectoral fin
origin. Inner mandibular barbel very short. Chest
transversely striated on the sides, gradually
becoming posteriorly directed skin folds on the
extremities (Plate 1, Fig. 2).
Rayed dorsal without strong spine. It has
one simple and 6 branched rays. Its origin lies
nearer to snout tip than to caudal base. Adipose
dorsal fin low, long and confluent with caudal
fin. Paired fins are broad, rounded, their inner
half vertical and outer half horizontal in position.
The first ray of paired fins flattened and ventrally
corrugated in pinnate folds. Pectoral fin with one
simple and 10 branched rays. Pelvic fin with one
simple and 5 branched rays. Pectoral and pelvic
fins are separated by a considerable distance. Anal
fin with one simple and 5 branched rays. Its
origin lies equidistant from pelvic fin origin and
caudal fin base. Caudal fin lunate, lower lobe
slightly longer than the upper with 15-16
branched rays. Lateral line distinct. Skin soft and
smooth.
Colour of live specimen: Yellowish grey
to dingy olive brown with pale white ventral
surface. Head, dorsal streak and lateral line
darker; caudal fin dusky.
Distribution: Lainye river at Jessami,
Manipur (Chindwin drainage), India.
Etymology: The new species is named
after Dr. K.C. Jayaram who encouraged us in
this work and provided relevant literature.
Discussion
Hora and Silas (1951) classified
Glyptosternoid fishes based on the nature of teeth
and form of teeth bands in the jaws. They
considered the nature of the fold of lower lip also
as a generic character apart from dentition. The
new species has all the characteristic features of
the genus Myersglanis , i.e., the presence of (i)
all conical and pointed teeth in both jaws, (ii) a
continuous teeth band in the upper jaw, and (iii)
a continuous lower labial fold.
The species described here is similar to
Euchiloglanis Regan, in the shape of teeth and
nature of teeth bands. However, it differs in
having a continuous lower labial fold compared
to the widely interrupted fold of the latter. Hora
and Silas (op. cit.) considered this a major
character in distinguishing the two genera. The
new species has a continuous lower labial fold
as in Exostoma Blyth. But Exostoma is distinct
in having oar-shaped teeth and two clearly
separated upper teeth bands.
With this report, the genus Myersglanis
is no more monotypic and its range of
distribution extends up to Manipur, India
(Chindwin drainage).
Comparative materials: Myersglanis
blythi : ASB Cat. F 599 in ZSI, 2 ex., 55.0-57.5
mm SL, Pharping, Nepal, Coll. F. Day, no date.
Euchiloglanis kamengensis : ZSI F 2106/2, 2 ex.,
Paratype , Norgum river, Kalaktang Kameng
Frontier Division, NEFA, Coll. K.C. Jayaram,
22. iii. 1961 . Exostoma vinciguerrae - ZSI ¥6661/
1, ZSI F6671/1, 2 exs, 34.0-37.5 mm SL, Pazi,
Moughong, N. Shan States, Myanmar. Coll. J.
Coggin Brown, no date, MUMF 2356, 4 ex.,
50.6-76.7 mm SL, Adaiki stream, Manipur, Coll.
M.G. Sharma, no date; E. berdmorei, ASB cat
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
295
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
597, type, 64 mm SL., Tenasserim, Myanmar,
Coll. Maj. Berdmore, no date. E. stuarti,
Holotype, 44 mm SL, ZSI F 9742/1 , Putao plains,
Tanja, Tibetan Frontier, Myanmar, Coll.
Dr. Murray Stuart, no date.
Key to species of genus
Myers glanis Hora & Silas
Pectoral fin with 1 6-17 branched rays; Caudal fin with
1 3 branched rays Myersglanis blythi
Pectoral fin with 10 branched rays, Caudal fin with
15-16 branched rays M. jay ar ami
:
Acknowledgements
We thank Mr. T.K.Sen, Head, Freshwater
Fish Section, Dr. Karmarkar, Zoological Asst, and
Miss Lina Sarkar, Project Fellow, Z.S.I., Calcutta
for their valuable help during the junior author’s
study at the Indian Museum, and the Ministry of
Environment & Forests, New Delhi (Project No.
1141/IFD/97) for financial assistance.
References
Day, F. (1869): Remarks on the fishes of the Calcutta
Museum. Proc. Zool. Soc. London., 511-527.
Hora, S.L. (1923): Notes on the fishes of the Indian
Museum 5 . - on the composite genus Glyptosternum
McClelland. Rec. Ind. 25: 1-44.
Hora, S.L. & E.G. Silas (1951): Notes on the fishes of
Indian Museum, 47. Revision of the Glyptostemoid
fishes of the family Sisoridae, with description of
new genus and species. Rec. Ind. 49: 5-29.
Jayaram, K.C. ( 1 979): Aid to the identification of the sisorid
fishes of India, Burma, Sri Lanka, Pakistan and
Bangladesh, 3, Sisoridae. Occ. Pap. Zool. Surv.
India, No. 14: 1-62.
Jayaram, K.C. (1981): The freshwater fishes of India,
Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma and Sri Lanka - a
handbook. Zoological Survey of India, p. 475.
Misra, K.S. (1976): The Fauna of India and the adjacent
countries, Pisces 3. Zoological Survey of India,
p. 367.
Norman, J.R. ( 1 925): Two new fishes from Tonkin. Ann.
Mag. Nat. Hist. 15(9): 570.
Talwar, P.K. & Jhingran, A.G. (1991): Freshwater Fishes
of India and adjacent countries, 2. Oxford & IBH,
New Delhi pp. 543-1 158.
■ ■ ■
296
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
NEW SPECIES OF ACACIMENUS DLABOL A (HEMIPTERA: CIC ADELLID AE :
DELTOCEPHALINAE) FROM INDIA AND SRI LANKA1
C.A. VlRAKTAMATH2
( With thirty-one text-figures)
Key words: Acacimenus Dlabola, Cicadellidae, new species, India, Sri Lanka.
Genus Acacimenus Dlabola has been recorded for the first time from the Oriental region.
Five new species of this genus, namely Acacimenus deccanensis sp. nov., A. maheshai sp.
nov., A. inequalis sp. nov., A. variabilis sp. nov. (all from India) and A. zeylonicus sp. nov.
(from Sri Lanka) are described and illustrated. Their relationships with A. makranus
Dlabola, the type species of the genus from the Palaearctic region, are discussed. A key to
the species of this genus is also provided.
Introduction
Dlabola (1979) described the genus
Acacimenus from specimens collected from Iran,
Saudi Arabia and Baluchistan, feeding on a
species of Acacia (Fabaceae) with Acacimenus
makranus Dlabola as the type species. The
forewing of this species is similar to that of
Hishimonus Ishihara, and vertex similar to that
of Neoaliturus Distant and Opsius Fieber.
During field trips in India for the survey
of leafhoppers associated with sandal forests
(Subba Rao et al., 1988), the author discovered
a number of specimens resembling species of
Orosius Distant in coloration breeding on species
of Acacia (especially A leucophloea). On closer
examination, they were found to represent four
new species of Acacimenus. Another new species
of this genus from Sri Lanka was also discovered
from the collections of the U.S. National Museum
of Natural History, Washington, D.C. All five
of these species are described here as new to
science.
The holotypes of the new taxa (except A.
zeylonicus) have been deposited in the University
of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bangalore
(UAS). The paratypes are to be deposited in the
Natural History Museum, London, U.K.
'Accepted December, 1997
department of Entomology,
University of Agricultural Sciences,
GKVK, Bangalore 560 065, India
(BMNH), National Pusa Collection, Indian
Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi
(NPC) and the U.S. National Museum of Natural
History, Washington D.C. (USNM).
Genus Acacimenus Dlabola
Acacimenus Dlabola, 1979; 137. Type
species: Acacimenus makranus Dlabola, by
original designation.
In general, all species of Acacimenus are
very distinctly coloured with brown irroration
on ivory background; second antennal segment
chocolate brown; legs with broad (but variable)
brown to chocolate brown patches, the patch on
apex of hind tibia always consistent; coloration
often similar to that of the various species of
Orosius ; forewings with a medial discal spot as
in Hishimonus and Naevus Knight; head, thorax
and scutellum shagreened; vertex slightly more
elongated medially than next to eyes, anteriorly
rounded to face; ocelli placed at a distance equal
to their own diameter from adjacent eye; a cross
vein between claval veins and between outer
claval vein and claval suture; inner anteapical
cell closed behind.
Male pygofer with caudal margin
concavely excavated dorsally, with more anterior
margin produced into a sclerotized knob, the
caudal point rounded; subgenital plates
triangular with an oblique row of setae;
connective Y-shaped with bifid stem; style robust
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
297
NE W DESCRIPTIONS
with claw-like apophysis having sculptured
surface; aedeagus with a well developed, often
plate-like dorsal apodeme, shaft with apical and
subapical processes variously branched;
gonopore apical. Seventh sternum of female
rectangular with the hind margin produced into
a small lobe posteriorly.
Remarks: Though Acacimenus resembles
some of the genera of the tribe Opsiini such as
Hishimonus, Neoaliturus, Opsius and Orosius,
it can be readily recognised by its single aedeagal
shaft while all others have paired shafts.
Pruthi (1934) described Orosius santali
Pruthi from a sandal forest in south India (Tamil
Nadu: North Salem, Jawalagiri) which in the
author’s opinion also belongs to this genus.
However, the type specimens of the species are
missing from the Zoological Survey of India
collection and hence it is difficult to recognise
this species.
1. Acacimenus maheshai sp. nov.
(Fig. 1-6)
Coloration as in A. makranus, but darker;
mesal border of gena near lorum whitish.
Male genitalia: Pygofer with dorsal
margin produced into a short, digitate process,
caudal margin dorsally concave, ventral margin
slightly convex; long setae dorsally confined to
the caudal region, ventral area uniformly clothed
with microsetae; valve triangular, subgenital
plate triangular with a series of stout setae
arranged in an oblique row, connective and style
as in generic diagnosis; aedeagal shaft
cylindrical, uniformly curved, with a pair of
subapical ventrolaterally directed processes, each
process with three rami near its base; gonopore
apical; dorsal apodeme half as long as shaft.
Female genitalia: Seventh sternum
rectangular with a short, bilobed, median
projection on hind margin.
Measurements: Male 3.5 (3.4-3. 7) mm
long, 1 . 1 ( 1 .0- 1 .2) mm wide across eyes. Female
4.1 (3. 9-4.4) mm long, 1.3 (1.2- 1.4) mm wide
across eyes.
Material examined: Holotype: male,
india: Karnataka: Sulikere (near Bangalore),
30.xii.1976, Coll. C.A. Viraktamath (UAS).
Paratypes: india: Karnataka: 1 male, data as in
holotype; 3 females, 8 km S. Dharwar, l.ix.1972,
Coll. C.A. Viraktamath; 1 male, 7 km N.
Dodballapur, 18.vi.1977, Coll. C.A. Viraktamath;
1 female, 20 km NW Dodballapur, 18.vi.1977,
Coll. C.A. Viraktamath; 1 male, 8 km E. Channa-
patna, 15.vii.1977, Coll. C.A. Viraktamath; 2
males, Bidar, 14.ix.1984, Coll. Shashidhar
(BMNH, NPC, UAS, USNM).
Remarks: A. maheshai is related to A.
makranus but differs from it in having branched
aedeagal process and cylindrical rather than
compressed aedeagal shaft.
Etymology: Named after Lord Shiva.
2. Acacimenus inequalis sp. nov.
(Figs. 7-12)
Coloration as in A. variabilis sp. nov. but
more richly spotted with brown.
Male genitalia: Similar to those in
A. maheshai. Body of style with a strong lateral
excavation at the middle (arrowed in Fig. 9);
aedeagal shaft with a pair of short prong-like
processes at the anterior margin and with a pair
of longer, forked lateral processes; dorsal
apodeme slightly less than 0.5 times as long as
shaft.
Measurements: Male 3.3 mm long, 1.1
mm wide across eyes. Female 3.8 mm long, 1.1-
1.2 mm wide across eyes.
Material examined: Holotype: male,
india: Gujarat: Ahmedabad, 27. i. 1981, Coll. C.A.
Viraktamath (UAS). Paratypes: 2 males and 3
females, data as for holotype (BMNH, NPC,
UAS, USNM).
Remarks: This species can be recognised
at once by the pair of prong-like processes on
the anterior margin of the aedeagal shaft. It is
related to A. maheshai and A. variabilis , and
differs from both of them in the manner of
branching of the processes of the aedeagal
shaft.
298
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
299
Figs. 1-6: Acacimenus maheshai sp. nov.: 1. Forewing; 2. Pygofer, lateral view; 3. Connective;
4. Style; 5. Aedeagus, lateral view; 6. Aedeagus, caudal view. Scale line in Fig 1 = 1 mm; Figs. 2-6 = 0.1 mm
o«
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
300
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
Figs. 7-12: Acacimenus inequalis sp. nov.: 7. Male genitalia, lateral view; 8. Subgenital plate;
9. Connective and style; 10. Aedeagus, lateral view; 1 1. Aedeagus caudal view;
12. Apex of aedeagal shaft, ventral view. Scale line equals 0.1 mm.
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Etymology: The species name alludes to
the unequal processes of the aedeagal shaft.
3. Acacimenus variabilis sp. nov. (Figs. 13-21)
Coloration similar to that of A. maheshai
but paler; brown markings on forewing less
extensive.
Male genitalia: Similar to that in
A. maheshai; aedeagus more robust, process of
aedeagal shaft with a basal fork, the shorter being
unbranched and the longer process variably
branched.
Female genitalia: Similar to that of
A. maheshai.
Measurements: Male 3.9 (3. 8-4.0) mm
long, 1.2 (1.1 -1.2) wide across eyes. Female 4.2
(3.8-4.6)mmlong, 1.3 (1.2- 1.4) mm wide across
eyes.
Material examined: Holotype: male,
India: Karnataka: Bangalore, 916 m, GKVK,
30.iv.1976, Coll. C.A. Viraktamath, ex. Sandal
(UAS). Paratypes: india: Karnataka: 1 male data
as in holotype; 4 males, 4 females, data as in
holotype but collected on 15.x. 1978; 1 female,
Bidadi, 28.x. 1976, Coll. B. Mallik; 1 female,
Chikballapur, 17.iii. 1977; 1 male, 5 km S. Kolar,
12.iv.1977; 1 male, Devanahalli, 9.vi.l977; 2
males, 2 females, 7 km N. Dodballapur,
18.vi.1977; 1 female, 8 km E. Channapatna,
15.vii.1977; 1 male, Kollegal, 8.viii.l977; 1
male, 18 km E. Chamarajanagar, 13.viii. 1977;
1 male, Hubli, 16.xi.1977; 4 males, 2 females,
lOkmN. Hunsur, 1 6.i. 1978; 1 female, lOkmN.
Nagarhole, 16. i. 1978, all collected by C.A.
Viraktamath (BMNH, NPC, UAS, USNM).
Other material: 1 female, 8 km S. Dharwar,
Navalur Hill, l.ix.1972; 1 female, Dharwar,
x.1969, at light, Coll. C.A. Viraktamath (UAS).
Remarks: A. variabilis is the palest among
the species of Acacimenus and has highly
variable branched processes of the aedeagal shaft.
It is closely related to A. maheshai and A.
inequalis in having similar cylindrical aedeagal
shaft, but can be differentiated by the aedeagal
shaft process which is branched at the base
instead of a short distance away from the base as
in A. maheshai. From A. inequalis it is
distinguished by the absence of short projections
on anterior margin of aedeagal shaft near apex,
which are present in A. inequalis.
Etymology: The species name alludes to
the variable nature of branching of the aedeagal
processes.
4. Acacimenus deccanensis sp. nov.
(Figs. 22-24)
Coloration similar to that of A. maheshai,
but the forewing has more numerous dark brown
spots.
Male genitalia: Similar to that of A.
maheshai. Aedeagus compressed along the distal
half, in lateral view broadest near apex, shaft
with two pairs of processes, more apical process
directed anterio-laterally, robust, entire except
bifid apex, more basal process slender, deeply
forked, more dorsal process longer than the
ventral one.
Measurements: Male 3.4 mm long, 1.1
mm wide across eyes.
Material examined: Holotype: male,
india: Karnataka: Gulbarga, 25.xi.1981, Coll.
A.R.V. Kumar (UAS).
Remarks: Considering the compressed
aedeagal shaft, A. deccanensis appears to be
related to A. makranus, but differs from it in
having two pairs of aedeagal processes. It,
however, appears to be more closely related to
A. zeylonicus than to A. makranus.
Etymology: The species name alludes to
the type locality i.e. Deccan plateau of peninsular
India.
5. Acacimenus zeylonicus sp. nov.
(Fig. 25-31)
Coloration as in A. makranus but paler.
Male genitalia: Male genitalia similar to
that of A. maheshai. Apophysis of style digitate,
much less curved than in any of the Indian
species; stem of the connective broader, caudal
margin entire; aedeagal shaft widest at the middle
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
301
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
302
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
Figs. 13-21: Acacimenus variabilis sp. nov.: 13. Pygofer; 14. Subgenital plate; 15. Connective; 16. Style; 17, 18. Variation in the Aedeagus,
lateral aspect; 19. Aedeagus, caudal view; 20. Apex of aedeagus, caudal view; 21. Female seventh sternum. Scale line equals 0.1 mm.
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Figs. 22-24: Acacimenus deccanensis sp. nov.: 22. Male genitalia, lateral view; 23. Aedeagus, lateral view;
24. Aedeagus caudal view. Scale line equals 0.1 mm.
with two pairs of processes, one apically forked
pair arising near apex and the second unforked
pair arising at 0.6 length of the shaft.
Female genitalia: Seventh sternum
rectangular, with the hind margin having a
median semicircular lobe.
Measurements: Male 3.5 (3. 4-3. 6) mm
long, 1.2 mm wide across eyes. Female 3.8 mm
long, 1.2 mm wide across eyes.
Material examined: Holotype: male, Sri
Lanka: Anu. Dist., Hunuwilagama, 28 Oct.-3
Nov. 1976, Coll. G.F. Havel, R.E. Dietz IV, S.
Karunaratne, D.W. Balasooriya (USNM).
Paratypes: 4 males, 1 female, data as for
holotype (USNM).
Remarks: A. zeylonicus is not closely
related to any of the known species of
Acacimenus. It differs from the Indian species
by the shape of the apophysis of the style,
connective, the more basal process of the
aedeagus arising at 0.6 distance from the base of
the shaft and the median lobe-like projection on
hind margin of the female seventh sternum being
rounded rather than bilobed as in A. makes hai
and A. inequalis.
Etymology: From the country (Ceylon)
where the type was collected.
Key to the species of Acacimenus Dlabola
1. Aedeagus with a pair of short projections on
anterior margin of shaft near apex, in addition to
long processes (Figs. 10, 11)
A. inequalis sp. nov.
Aedeagus not as above 2
2. Aedeagus with one pair of processes to shaft
(Figs. 5, 6, 17, 18) 3
Aedeagus with two pairs of processes (Figs. 23,
24, 29, 30) 5
3. Processes of aedeagus almost 0.75 as long as
shaft, unbranched, with a triangular expansion
on the distal half A. makranus Dlabola
Process of aedeagus less than 0.5 as long as shaft,
variously branched (Figs. 6, 19) 4
4. Aedeagal shaft process forked at base, longer fork
in turn variously branched (Figs. 1 7-20)
A. variabilis sp. nov.
Aedeagal shaft process forked a short distance
away from base, with three forks (Figs. 5-6)
A. maheshai sp. nov.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
303
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
304
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
Figs. 25-31: Acacimenus zeylonicus sp. nov.: 25. Fore wing; 26. Male pygofer, valve and subgenital plate, lateral view; 27. Style;
28. Connective; 29. Aedeagus, lateral view; 30. Aedeagus, caudal view; 31. Female seventh sternum.
Scale line in Fig. 25 equals 1 mm, in Figs. 26-31 equals 0.1 mm.
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
5. Aedeagal shaft processes arising close together,
more basal process forked (Figs. 23, 24)
A. deccanensis sp. nov.
Aedeagal shaft processes wide apart; more basal
process unbranched (Figs. 29-30)
zeylonicus sp. nov.
Refe
Dlabola, J. (1979): Insects of Saudi Arabia, Homoptera.
Fauna of Saudi Arabia, I: 115-139.
Pruthj, H.S. (1934): Entomological investigations on the
disease of sandal (14) Jassidae (Homopt). Indian
Forest Rec. (Ent. Ser.) 19(16): 1-30.
Acknowledgements
I thank Dr. V.V. Belavadi, Department of
-Entomology, Regional Research Station,
Mudigere for translating Dr. Jiri Dlabola’ s paper
and Dr. R.C. Froeschner, USNM, Washington
D.C. for loan of material for the present study.
ENC ES
Subba Rao, M., C. A. Viraktamath & V. Muniyappa ( 1 988):
Incidence of leafhoppers, treehoppers and
froghopper (Homoptera) in sandal forests of
Karnataka in relation to sandal spike disease. Ann.
Entomol. 6(2): 25-34.
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2). AUG. 1999
305
REVIEWS
1. PEOPLE AND PROTECTED AREAS: TOWARDS PARTICIPATORY
CONSERVATION IN INDIA. Editors Ashish Kothari, Neena Singh, Saloni Suri. First
published 1996. pp. 276, (14.5 x 22 cm). Sage Publications, New Delhi. Hard bound
Edition Rs. 350/-.
The book is a compilation of papers
presented at the workshop on ‘Exploring the
Possibilities of Joint Management of Protected
Areas in India’, held in New Delhi in September,
1994. At the outset, the organisers rightly
acknowledge that ‘India’s enormous diversity of
wild plants and animals will not survive for long
in the absence of public support’. They note that
‘though conservation policies have succeeded to
some extent in stemming the environmental
destruction being caused by rampant industrial
and urban growth, unfortunately they have also
created enemies of the very people who have
historically been the strongest conservationists:
traditional forest and wetland dependent
communities’.
The organisers aver that the elitist (sic)
conservation programmes, which are the root
cause of alienating these communities, should
be re-examined and such communities are
empowered to become equal partners in
conservation. The contributions in the book
suggest ways and means to bring about this
change which, the protagonists acknowledge,
cannot be brought about overnight.
Human- wildlife conflicts have become one
of the most serious threats faced by our protected
areas. It is argued that a protection strategy which
alienates local communities is unjust to them and
disrespectful of their fundamental rights, as also
shortsighted for wildlife conservation. The book
examines the problems and possible solutions
from different perspectives, including Policy and
Legal Aspects, Institutional and Procedural
Aspects, and Proposals for Joint Management.
The book also contains a chapter on ‘Experiences
from other Countries and lessons for India’.
The contributors who include activists,
forest officials; scholars and wildlife experts have
focussed on the country’s Protected Area
Network which, in recent times, has also
witnessed bitter conflicts between local
communities and the authorities entrusted with
the task of protecting the network, which
comprises just about 4% of the country’s land
mass. It is unfortunate indeed that attention is
now focussed — for all the wrong reasons — on
a minuscule portion of the country’s land mass,
inspite of the other 96% being available for all
the ‘development’ activities. The conflicts in a
few cases have also been the result of activists
itching for a fight in the garb of ‘ecologists’. It
has become a fad for people to propound the cause
of systems which they understand little, but
pretend to know all! Unfortunately, most of the
issues, instead of being tackled at a pragmatic
level, are clouded by emotive views and the
resultant decisions are also less than efficient and
pragmatic. The book is recommended as a first
step towards familiarising oneself with the two
sides of a story which is inexorably heading
towards tragedy, unless saner counsel prevails.
But at Rs 350/- it is exhorbitantly priced, and
defeats the very purpose of creating public
awareness by making such publications more
easily and cheaply available.
■ S. ASAD AKHTAR
2. AMPHIBIANS OF INDIA AND SRI LANKA by Sushil K. Dutta. Odyssey Publishing
House, 1999. pp. 342 + xxii, (21.5 x 14 cm). Hard bound. Price not mentioned.
The taxonomy of Amphibians, which had of this century, entered a period of frenetic change
been somewhat uneasily stable for the major part in the eighties. Generic names, which had been
306
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
REVIEWS
traditionally considered as more or less stable,
were changed and species groups listed under a
single genus scattered under a spate of new
genera, as old generic names were revived and
new names created for species which were under
subgenera and were given generic status.
It is with something of a sigh of relief that
one receives Sushil Dutta’s efforts to bring
stability to a chaotic situation. In this book Dutta
provides a checklist of the Amphibians of India
and Sri Lanka. The two sections of this book are
complementary. The first section lists the names
which were commonly in use for species
occurring in India and Sri Lanka and their
current equivalents.
In the second section the ‘species account’
describes the synonymy, distribution, notes on
systematics, suggests further reading and lists
the species examined by Dutta in the various
museums of the world.
It is in this section that one questions the
labelling of specimens even in reputed museums.
For instance, Madras is given as a locality for a
specimen of Ichthyophis beddomii, a species
which prefers high rainfall mountainous habitat.
Similarly, Okha in Gujarat is a locality for
Indotyphlus battersbyii, a most unlikely habitat,
being a dry, seashore village. Surely there is scope
to re-examine type localities and distribution of
species as related to their habitat requirements.
Incidentally, spelling errors in the generic name
of Indotyphlus on page 33 need attention.
A most valuable section of the book is its
exhaustive Bibliography, a boon to those working
on Indian Amphibia. However, correlation
between the bibliography and species list needs
to be checked.
A very commendable effort and
recommended as the checklist for Indian
Amphibia. It will continue to be the standard
reference till the relationships of Indian
amphibians are tested by DNA studies and we
achieve a stable taxonomy. One wishes the book’s
binding had received more attention.
■ J.C. DANIEL
3. BIRDS OF THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT by Richard Grimmett, Carol Inskipp,
and Tim Inskipp. Christopher Helm of A & C Black Ltd, London, 1998. pp. 888, 153
colour plates, (24.5 x 16.5 cms). ISBN 0-7136-4004-9. Price £55.00
This is indeed a magum opus, covering
1,295 bird species, all of India, the Andaman
and Nicobar Islands, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Nepal,
Bhutan, and the Maldives, and in a literal sense
weighing just over 2.17 kg.
Everyone interested, is aware of the huge
advances in recent decades both in field
craft skills in ornithology and representa-
tional skills by wildlife artists, and this volume
epitomises these advances, drawing as it
does on 12 top bird illustrators, and the
specialised knowledge in the field of more than
33 experts (cited in the acknowledgements) with
special knowledge of different bird families, or
regions.
For those already familiar with earlier
books on the region, the sequence of bird families
and choice of English names may be a little bit
confusing, as the authors follow Sibley and
Monroe’s cladistic taxonomic sequence, and in
taxonomic nomenclature, follow the Oriental
Bird Club’s Annotated Checklist of the Birds
of the Oriental Region. Both these sources will
undoubtedly be more and more widely used and
followed, and the exhaustive index should obviate
any difficulty in locating information on a
specific bird. It would be impossible to comment
on the contribution of so many individuals, but
suffice it to say that the Inskipps are already well
known to readers from their books on Nepal
and published surveys in adjoining regions,
whilst Richard Grimmett, with extensive field
experience in the Oriental Region, and an
accomplished bird artist himself, was the first
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
307
REVIEWS
President of the Oriental Bird Club, which has
lead directly to such prolific cross fertilisa-
tion of knowledge and ideas about the region
covered. To this reviewer, the great strength of
the illustrations lies in the artists’ abilities to
convey ‘jiz’ for the different families. For
example, Craig Robson who did the plates for
the Timalidae is undoubtedly the acknowledged
expert on this family, with vast field experience
extending throughout southeast Asia, all too
apparent in the quality of the many colourful
plates of Laughing Thrushes, Wren Babblers etc.
With such a growing body of information
on difficult identification problems, plumage
variations, and newly separated sibling species,
there is going to come a time when the concept
of a Field Guide, brief and portable in the field,
as opposed to a lengthy and weighty Handbook,
are no longer distinguishable. Where do we go
from here? No doubt the serious student will
answer that ownership of several different books
is the ideal solution, but this mouth watering
book, by virtue of the quality and comprehen-
siveness of its illustrations, and its multiauthor-
ship very nearly fulfills both roles and summa-
rises much information already published to date.
Other reviewers have already criticised the
distribution maps, with very pale shading used
for seasonal distribution, which are impossible
to evaluate without use of a magnifying glass,
even for a sharp eyed birdwatcher! It would be
easy to point out other minor discrepancies
which do not detract from the enormous care
and accuracy of the whole. For example, the
Headquarters of WWF Pakistan has always been
in Lahore, currently with 133 professional staff,
not in Peshawar. Having photographed the
Tibetan snowcock in the wild (Nepal), it has a
striking belly pattern with vertical thin dark
stripes, not diagonal stripes, often missed as in
this case (Plate 1), when painting from museum
skins, because the incision down the mid-belly
often results in slight displacement of the feather
alignment. The fieldfare, Turdus iliacus, has now
been reliably recorded from the NWFP in
Pakistan, and its wing deposited some years ago
with the BNHS collection.
The authors are to be congratulated on
producing such a comprehensive volume, which
is worth every bit of its price!
■ TOM ROBERTS
■ ■ ■
308
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
1 . STATUS OF PAINTED BAT KERIVOULA PICT A (PALLAS 1767)
IN MAHARASHTRA
Recently, a painted bat Kerivoula picta
obtained at Dahanu was received at the Society.
Dahanu, situated north of Maharashtra (19.15°-
20.08° N, 72.32°-73.08° E) is almost on the
border of Maharashtra and Gujarat and it is likely
that this species is also found in Gujarat from
where there is no record as yet.
The painted bat Kerivoula picta is widely
but patchily distributed in India (Bates and
Harrison, 1997). In Maharashtra, so far there are
only two old published records, Mumbai
(Blandford, 1889-91); Ghatmatha (Wroughton,
1916). Very little is known about their current
status in Maharashtra. Bates and Harrison (1997)
gave their conservation status as “widely
distributed, but appear to be rare”. Recently, a
freshly collected specimen obtained at Dahanu
(Maharashtra) was brought to the Society. It was
skinned and added to the collection (Regn. No.
18366). Our (BNHS) collection has another
specimen (Regn. No. 18365) obtained by Mr.
Prashant Mahajan at the Conservation Education
Centre, Goregaon (East), Mumbai. The bat, a
male, was attracted to light and died in the
building premises. Another specimen (Regn. No.
17670) was collected by Ms. Ferreira on May 4,
1967 at Gorai (Borivli), Mumbai.
Ramachandran and Jayson ( 1 994) recorded
a pair of painted bats, female carrying a young
one, brought to the Kerala Forest Research
Institute on August 26, 1993. The bats were
captured from a banana plantation at Kanara,
Trichur dist., Kerala State.
The Dahanu specimen is also a male but
is smaller in size and is possibly a subadult.
The external measurements (in mm) are
as follows:
HB: head and body length - from the tip of the snout
to the base of the tail.
T: tail length - from the tip of the tail to its base
adjacent to the body.
FA: forearm - from the extremity of the elbow to the
extremity of the carpus.
E: ear from the lower border of the external
auditory meatus to the tip of the pinna, not
including any tuft of hair.
March 5, 1 999 MEGHANA GAVAND
NARESH CHATURVEDI
Bombay Natural History Society,
Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road,
Mumbai 400 023.
References
Bates, Paul J.J. & David L. Harrison (1997): Bats of the
Indian Subcontinent Harrison Zoological Museum,
pp. 258.
Blandford, W.T. (1888-91): The Fauna of British India,
Mammalia. Taylor and Francis, London, pp. 617.
Ramachandran, K.K. & E.A. Jayson (1994): Note on the
breeding period of painted bat. Kerivoula picta J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 91(3): 447.
Wroughton, R.C. (1916): Bombay Natural History
Society’s Mammal Survey of India, Burma
and Ceylon. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 24: 29 1 -
316.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
309
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
2. PANGOLIN SIGHTINGS IN WESTERN ARUNACHAL PRADESH
During field work from November 1995
to April 1996 for a project in Pakhui Wildlife
Sanctuary (92°7.5'E - 92°22'E and 26°53.7'N -
27°16.2'N), East Kameng dist. , western
Arunachal Pradesh, I sighted pangolins on two
occasions. Both sightings were in the daytime.
The first sighting was in 1995 in a reserve forest
near Balijuri in Sonitpur dist. Assam (near the
Assam-Arunachal border). The animal was
moving in the vegetation near the roadside. The
second sighting was of an animal foraging near
a perennial stream (locally called Sukan nala)
in the early morning around 8 am in December
1997. It was observed digging near the edge of
the stream, but vanished into the undergrowth
on my approach.
Two species of pangolins occur in India,
viz. the Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata)
and the Chinese pangolin (Manis pentadactyla) .
The distribution of the Indian pangolin is given
as being in peninsular India, south of the
Himalaya and in Sri Lanka, while that of the
Chinese pangolin is through northeastern India,
Nepal, Burma and south China (Grzimek 1975,
Prater 1980, Corbet and Hill 1992). The Chinese
Refer
Anon. (1992): The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 (as
amended upto 1991). Natraj Publishers, Dehra Dun.
Corbet, G.B. & J.E. Hill (1992): The Mammals of the
Indo-Malayan region: a systematic review. Natural
History Museum Publications, Oxford University
Press, pp. 488.
pangolin is somewhat smaller in size than the
Indian pangolin and has 15-18 rows of scales
around the body, while the Indian pangolin has
11-13 scales around the body (Prater 1980,
Corbet & Hill 1992). Other than these
differences, there seem to be no field characters
by which the two species can be distinguished,
though Grzimek (1975) points out that the scales
of the Chinese pangolin are blackish-brown,
while those of the Indian pangolin are large and
light yellow-brown. The animals I saw were light
brown in colour, but given the fact that the
distribution of the Indian pangolin is in
peninsular India, the animal I saw is probably
the Chinese pangolin. This species is rarely
sighted or recorded as it is nocturnal. The
Chinese pangolin is listed in Schedule 1 of the
Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It would be
interesting to know if there is any overlap in the
range of the two species.
June 29, 1 998 APARAJITA DATTA
Wildlife Institute of India
P.O. # 18, Chandrabani,
Dehra Dun 248 001.
E N C E S'
Grzimek, B. (1975): Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia,
Volume 1 1 , Mammals II. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co.
pp. 634.
Prater, S.H. (1980): The Book of Indian Animals, 3rd Edn.
Repr. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay,
p. 34.
3. SIGHTING OF RUSTYSPOTTED CAT PRIONAILURUS RUBIGINOSUS
IN TADOBA ANDHARI TIGER RESERVE, MAHARASHTRA
The rustyspotted cat was once thought to
be rare with a small range of distribution. It has
since been reported from Gir Wildlife Sanctuary
(Chellam, pers. comm.), Kuno Wildlife Sanc-
tuary (Vidya Athreya and Christy Williams pers.
comm.) and Melghat Tiger Reserve (Wankhede,
1996). Acharjyo et al. 1997, reported the
presence of this lesser cat from Phulbani dist. in
Orissa for the first time. In 1994, it was reported
from Sariska Tiger Reserve (Mukharjee, pers.
310
JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Table 1
MORPHOMETRIC MEASUREMENTS OF
THE SPECIMEN FROM BOTEJHARI VILLAGE
comm.) and one dead specimen was reported
from Udaipur (Raza, 1994). It has also been
reported from Anaimalai hills in Western Ghats
(Mudappa pers. comm.) and Central Kerala
(Kumar, pers. comm). During my field work from
April 1994 to July 1997, this lesser cat was seen
thrice (twice dead and once alive), in Tadoba
Andhari Tiger Reserve in Maharashtra.
On April 24, 1995, a dead specimen of this
cat was found at a distance of 800 m from
Botejhari village inside the Tiger Reserve. Some
morphometric measurements were taken from
this specimen (Table 1). Dental configuration and
measurement of jaws were also recorded (Table
1). In the upper jaw, the molars were fused
together. Upper canines were longer than the
lower canines.
On June 13, 1995, one individual was
sighted. This sighting was also close to human
habitation, 1 .2 km from the village of Jamni. On
January 18, 1996 another dead specimen was
found close to a village, Moharli inside the Tiger
Reserve.
It is interesting to note that all the sightings
of dead and live individuals were very close to
human habitation. Still not much is known about
the status of this lesser cat.
May 3, 1999 YOGESH DUBEY
Wildlife Institute of India
P.O. Box # 18,
Chandrabani,
Dehra Dun 248 001
Uttar Pradesh.
References
Acharjyo, L.N., K.L. Purohit & S.K. Patnaik (1997):
Occurrence of the Rustyspotted cat (Felis rubiginosa)
in Orissa. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 94(3): 554-555.
Prater, S.H. (1965): The Book of Indian Animals, Second
(revised) edition. Bombay Natural History Society,
Bombay.
Raza, T. (1994): Rustyspotted Cat sighted near Udaipur,
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 91(1): 136.
Wankhede, R.K. (1996): Re-searching them in Mel ghats,
Mel-Vyaghra, 1(1).
4. THE GAUR BOS GAURUS IN DIBANG VALLEY DISTRICT
OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH
( With a text figure)
The gaur Bos gaurus H. Smith is a very
poorly documented species in northeastern India,
although it is widely distributed in the region.
Except for a survey in north Bengal
(Bhattacharyya et ah, 1997) no specific work of
any significance solely for this bovine has been
taken up in the region. I report here of the past
and present status of the species in the entire
Dibang Valley dist., (27°59,-29°29,N,
95°13'-96036' E), Arunachal Pradesh as ascer-
tained during field visits between 1992 and 1994.
Dibang Valley dist. covers part of Mishmi Hills
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
311
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
as well as the plains of the Dibang river.
Till the early 1970s, the gaur was
widespread all over the foothills and lower areas
of Dibang Valley dist. starting from above
Nizamghat to the inter-state border with Assam,
mostly in the forests in the foothills and plains,
and chapori (riverine islets and tracts) of the
Dibang, Deopani and the Sesseri rivers. From
the late 1970s, new settlements have started to
come up in many of the plain areas, especially
between Roing and Santipur, and in Bomjir and
Bijari, destroying the forest areas. Gradually, the
logging increased in the foothills also and the
number of timber-based industries has also
increased in places like Roing, Bijari, Bomjir,
Bolung and other areas. These factors, along with
local growth of population have resulted in
degradation and alteration of the habitat. Easy
availability of fire arms has resulted in increase
in poaching for meat as the local tribes, both the
Adis and Idu Mishmi, relish it. The gaur
population has declined drastically.
At present, small populations occur in the
lower areas of Mehao Wildlife Sanctuary,
foothills above Dambuk, the lowland forest and
grassland in Dibang Reserved Forest (RF), and
Sirkee proposed RF. From Dibang RF, a few
move down to Amarpur area of Sadiya in
Tinsukia dist. (Assam), especially in winter
(Choudhury, 1994, 1998). However, this
movement has become irregular due to clearing
of grassland for agriculture in Amarpur area. It
may be mentioned here that part of Amarpur was
inside Dibru-Saikhowa Wildlife Sanctuary till
1995 (excluded at the time of final notification).
In Dibang Valley dist., the gaur occurs as far
north as 28°30'N (approx.), which is also the
northernmost limit of the world distribution of
the species.
It is difficult to make an accurate
population estimate as the animals are extremely
shy due to regular persecution and are rather
thinly distributed. However, after visiting all the
known and potential areas and interviewing local
hunters, graziers of the khutis and other tribal
Fig. 1 : Distribution of gaur in Dibang Valley dist.
villagers, it can be generally estimated that there
are less than 70 gaurs in the eastern areas of the
Dibang river, mostly in Mehao Wildlife
Sanctuary. In Dibang RF and in the foothills
towards north and west of Dambuk, 30 to 60
animals occur. The total habitat available for the
species in the district is more than 250 sq. km
(Fig-1)-
The presence of domestic buffaloes in the
khutis, especially in the lower reaches of the
Dibang river, poses problems like the potential
danger of spread of diseases like anthrax, foot
and mouth and rinderpest.
While habitat destruction continues to be
a threat, it is poaching with guns and rifles that
is taking its toll on the gaurs and unless
conservation measures are taken, the future of
these animals is bleak. Parts of Dibang RF, Kerim
RF and Sirkee proposed RF (totalling 202 sq.
km.) have been recommended for a national park
312
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
for its importance as the habitat of the Bengal
florican Eupodotis bengalensis, white-winged
wood duck Cairina scutulata, tiger Panthera
tigris, elephant Elephas maximus, wild buffalo
Bubalus arnee and as an important flyway of
migratory waterfowl including the common
crane Grus grus (Choudhury, 1996). This
proposed protected area, along with the existing
Mehao Wildlife Sanctuary, will help protect the
majority of the gaur population of Dibang Valley.
The protection measures in Mehao, however,
need to be strengthened as they are inadequate
at present.
October 27, 1998 ANWARUDDIN CHOUDHURY
Rhino Foundation for Nature in NE India,
c/o Assam Co. Ltd.
Bamunimaidan, Guwahati 781 021, Assam.
References
Bhattacharyya, S., G.G. Biswas & A.U. Choudhury
( 1 997): A collaborative study on gaurs (Bos gaurus
H. Smith) in north Bengal, West Bengal, India.
WWF-lndia Eastern Region, Calcutta.
Choudhury, A.U. (1994): A report on bird survey in
Dibru-Saikhowa Wildlife Sanctuary, Assam, India.
Report presented to the Oriental Bird Club, UK.
PP- 71.
Choudhury, A.U. (1996): Survey of the White-winged
wood duck and the Bengal florican in Tinsukia district
and adjacent areas of Assam and Arunachal Pradesh.
The Rhino Foundation for Nature in NE India,
Guwahati.
Choudhury, A.U. (1998): Mammals, birds and reptiles of
Dibru-Saikhowa Sanctuary, Assam, India. Oryx,
32(3): 192-200.
5. LESSER FRIGATE BIRD, FREGATA MINOR ALDABRENSIS MATHEWS
ON THE KERALA COAST
The lesser frigate bird breeds on the Indian
Ocean Island, Aldabra (10° S lat. 45° E long,
approx.) and on Seychelles (5° S lat. 55° E long).
It is reported as a rare straggler during the
monsoon in India (Ali and Ripley, 1968
HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN, Vol.
I p. 48). The BNHS collection has a male bird,
collected on 24.vi.1927 by L.A. Lampard, from
Quilon, Kerala. There are two female specimens
from Sri Lanka, one in the Colombo Museum
and the other in the British Museum.
In 1982, one specimen was received by
BNHS from S.N. College, Quilon, Kerala for
identification; its photographs are available at
BNHS. It seems to be a sub-adult, the dorsal side
full black and the ventral side, throat and breast
white like the female, but with a broad black band
across the chest.
On August 9, 1997 one bird was collected
(found exhausted, died later) from Kannur in
Kerala by C. Sashikumar and sent to BNHS. It
is an adult female.
Measurement of the specimens in mm:
October 27, 1 997 SARAS WATHY UNNITHAN
Bombay Natural History Society,
Hornbill House, S B. Singh Road,
Mumbai 400 023.
6. POND HERON IN PIN VALLEY NATIONAL PARK, SPITI, HIMACHAL PRADESH
The Indian pond heron or paddy bird up to an altitude of 2150 m in the Nilgiris, and
(Ardeola grayii grayii Sykes) has been recorded to about 1500 m in Kashmir and Nepal (Ali and
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
313
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Ripley 1983). This species did not figure among
the 93 confirmed species and 4 probable species
that Koelz (1937) recorded for the entire Spiti
area.
We wish to record an altitudinal extension
of this species, one individual of which was
observed in August 1995, at an altitude of 4050 m,
in Pin Valley National Park, in the Trans-
Himalayan Spiti region of Himachal Pradesh.
The bird was seen in the vicinity of a riverine
patch of willow (Salix sp.) in the Chohyam area
of the National Park. Local people also did not
recollect having seen such a bird before. The
species is not a migrant, and it is therefore
improbable that it landed in the area en route.
February 11,1997 NIMA MAN JREKAR*
PRACHI MEHTA
Wildlife Institute of India
P. B. No. 18, Chandrabani
Dehra Dun 248 001
* Present Address:
No. 1, 12th Cross, V. V. Mohalla,
Mysore 5 70 002, Karnataka.
References
Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Compact edition. Oxford University Press,
Delhi, pp. 737 + 113 colour plates.
Koelz, W. (1937): Notes on the birds of Spiti, a Himalayan Province of the Punjab. Ibis 79: 86-104.
7. THE PAINTED SPURFOWL GALLOPERDIX LUNULATA VALENCIENNES
IN RANTHAMBHORE NATIONAL PARK, RAJASTHAN
In the JBNHS Vol. 93 No. 1, there is
mention by Shantanu Kumar on the occurrence
of the painted spurfowl in the Ramgarh Sanctuary
of Bundi dist., Rajasthan, and by Ashok Kumar
Sharma on the occurrence of this bird in the
Jamwa Ramgarh Sanctuary in Jaipur dist., as also
in the Ranthambhore National Park and its
adjacent sanctuaries.
I have also watched a pair of painted
spurfowl at close quarters and was able to take a
number of photographs of them in the
Ranthambhore National Park in 1989. However,
this appears to be a disjointed occurrence of this
bird and these adjacent protected areas may
perhaps even hold a relict population of this
spurfowl, since there are no reports of it in
southern Rajasthan or eastern Rajasthan, or even
in the adjacent areas of Madhya Pradesh. The
nearest population of this bird that I know of is
in the Satpura National Park of Madhya Pradesh,
below the Pachmarhi massif. It would be
interesting to know whether any other sightings
of the painted spurfowl have occurred in
Rajasthan outside this ‘belt’ starting from
Ramgarh Sanctuary in Bundi to the Kailadevi
Sanctuary in Karauli dist., or in the forests of
northwestern Madhya Pradesh.
September 19, 1997 M.K. RANJITSINH
WWF-India,
1 72-B, Lodhi Estate,
New Delhi 110 003.
8. MORE ON THE LESSER FLORICAN SYPHEOTIDES itiDICA AT ROLLAPADU
WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, KURNOOL DISTRICT, ANDHRA PRADESH
The Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary (area:
6.14 km2), Kumool dist., Andhra Pradesh was
set up in 1982 to protect the great Indian bustard
Ardeotis nigriceps. The Sanctuary consists of
three grazing and disturbance free grassland plots
(called enclosures by the Forest Department),
which are surrounded by grazing lands and crop
fields of the villages that border it. However,
due to demands from the local graziers, only the
main enclosure (Enclosure-I: 320 ha) is well
314
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(2) AUG. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
protected. Enclosure-XI (40 ha) may be protected
for some periods or years, while Enclosure-Ill
(120 ha) is totally unprotected. For more details
regarding the Sanctuary, see Manakadan and
Rahmani (1989, 1993).
According to Sankaran and Manakadan
(1990), the lesser florican Sypheotides indica
‘winters’ in Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary (RWS)
area, and may even breed if rains fail in their
breeding grounds in Madhya Pradesh and
Gujarat. They gave further details of the
occurrence of the lesser florican at RWS. In this
paper, we provide additional information on
sightings of the lesser florican at RWS during
our studies (July 1992 to December 1994) under
the Grassland Ecology Project of the BNHS,
funded by the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service.
Habitat Preference
During the present studies, the floricans
were very partial to Enclosure-I. They were not
recorded in the grazing lands or Enclosure-Ill,
and there was one sighting in Enclosure-II, when
it was protected in 1992. Within Enclosure-I,
which is dominated by the ca. 50 cm tall
Heteropogon contortus-Eremopogon foveolatus-
Chrysopogon fulvus grass community, the birds
did not keep far from tall grass stands of Sehima
nervosum or Cymbopogon caesius (100-150 cm).
Thus, the presence of these two grass species in
patches is important for the florican at RWS,
which was also observed during the earlier study.
Seasonality population, territories and
breeding at RWS
In years when breeding did not occur at
Rollapadu (1993 and 1994), floricans arrived in
January/February in their eclipse plumage. The
birds were seen off and on, and by mid- June, the
cocks attained their full breeding plumage, and
then disappeared suddenly. During 1992, the birds
were recorded during July-December (monsoon:
southwest and northeast monsoons), which is the
breeding season of the florican in their breeding
grounds in Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh.
The number of birds recorded during 1992-
1994 varied. More males, or sightings of males,
were recorded than females for all the years.
This is probably due to the fact that males
frequent territories and attain a striking breeding
plumage during mid-May to June, and hence are
relatively more conspicuous than females
(inspite of the skulking habits of both the sexes).
The year-wise sightings are discussed below.
1992: The first signs of the florican
appeared in July with the presence of feathers in
Enclosure-I. In October, two cocks were seen
displaying on a few occasions at two sites. These
two sites were also the display sites of cocks in
1987 (when breeding was recorded). Another
cock (non territorial) was also sighted. After
30th October, there were no signs of the
displaying birds. By the end of October and early
November, four sightings of solitary females
were recorded in different areas of Enclosure-I
(3 sightings) and Enclosure-II (1 sighting). The
only sighting after that was of a male in eclipse
plumage in mid-November and a female in mid-
December.
Nests were not located, but judging by
their stay in the off-season, display activity by
males, and the fact that locating nests of floricans
is extremely difficult, it is possible that the birds
had bred that year. Also, rainfall was reportedly
deficient in their breeding grounds in Madhya
Pradesh and Gujarat that year, as was the case in
1987, when breeding was recorded at RWS.
1993: Both males and females were
occasionally flushed in January and February.
During one of these sightings, two females were
seen together. After February, there was no
sighting, except for a female in May. In June,
two cocks were seen frequenting two sites (one
of which was also used during 1992). Single
sightings of two other males were also
recorded. By the end of June, both the territorial
males had attained their breeding plumage. In
June, another bird (sex uncertain) was also
flushed once in the enclosure. We were absent
from the study area in July, and the next and
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
315
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
only sightings were in October. On two
occasions, we saw a male in eclipse plumage
frequenting a display site of 1987.
1994: The first signs were the presence of
feathers towards the end of February. There
were three sightings (sex uncertain) in March
and April. On 25th April, two cocks were
sighted. On our return in May after two weeks’
absence, nine florican males in partial breeding
plumage were seen in different parts of
Enclosure-I. Four of these sites were territories
held during 1987, and/or 1992 and 1993. At this
time, a hen was also sighted. These birds were
present till mid- June, by which time they attained
their breeding plumage, and disappeared.
Conclusion
Rollapadu appears to be a regular
wintering ground of the lesser florican. The birds
may also breed at RWS if rains fail in their
breeding grounds in Gujarat and Madhya
Pradesh, as suggested by Sankaran and
Manakadan (1990). Incidentally, the numbers of
demoiselle cranes Anthropoides virgo and
barheaded geese Anser indicus wintering in the
Rollapadu area each year was found to be
influenced by the quantum of rains in Gujarat.
Refer
Manakadan, R. & A.R. Rahmani (1989): Rollapadu
Wildlife Sanctuary, with special reference to the Great
Indian Bustard. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86: 368-
380.
Manakadan, R. & A.R. Rahmani (1993): A decade of
conservation of the Great Indian Bustard at Rollapadu
Wildlife Sanctuary, Kumool district, Andhra Pradesh
It was observed during our two study periods that
during years when rainfall was low in Gujarat,
as many as 10,000 cranes and about 500 geese
arrive (e.g. in 1992), but if the rains are good in
Gujarat, then very low numbers arrive, or the
birds may not arrive at all, as in 1994.
A few sites within the enclosure were
frequented ancT defended by cock floricans year
after year, which may serve either as their
breeding or wintering territories. Attainment of
full breeding plumage by males prior to their
migration (presumably to their breeding grounds
in Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh) was observed
during this study. In 1994, a population of not
less than 10 birds (9 cocks and 1 hen) was
recorded, which is the maximum number counted
during both the studies. Lastly, since the
observations showed that the florican is partial to
tall grass cover, and uses the area during winter
and summer, burning of the grass (whether due to
accident, vandalism or as a management tool)
would be detrimental for the lesser florican.
October 22, 1997 RAN JIT MANAKADAN
ASAD R. RAHMANI
Bombay Natural History Society,
Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road,
Mumbai 400 023.
ENCES
(pp: 1-3). Proc. Changing Scenario of Bird Ecology
and Conservation (Ed: A. Verghese, S. Sridhar &
A.K. Chakravarthy), Bangalore. Ornithological
Society of India, Bangalore.
Sankaran, R. & R. Manakadan (1990): Breeding records
of the Lesser Florican from Andhra Pradesh.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 87: 294-296.
9. THE OCCURRENCE OF COLLARED PRATINCOLE OR SWALLOW PLOVER
GLAREOLA PRATINCOLA (LINN.) IN KUTCH
We are concerned with two races of the
collared pratincole in the Subcontinent: the partly
resident and mainly migratory nominate race,
and Glareola pratincola maldivarum. This note
concerns the former, which breeds sparingly in
Pakistan and straggles into India and even to Sri
Lanka. According to Roberts (1991) it is a
common, summer-breeding visitor in lower Sind
316
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(2) AUG. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
along the border of the Great Raan of Kutch,
particularly in Badin dist. Dharmakumarsinhji
(the birds of saurashtra) considered it to be
rare in Saurashtra, with no breeding record there.
Stuart Baker ( 1 929) includes Kutch in its range
of distribution and mentions its breeding along
with G. p. maldivarum in Sind and Kutch. So
far as I know there has been no record of this
latter race in Kutch. It may also be mentioned
here that in any case its pattern of distribution is
unclear. There is only one breeding record of this
race in Sind in the 19th century (Doig, 1879).
Apart from this, there seems to be no firm recent
record of its breeding in Pakistan.
There is no scope for taxonomic discussion
in a note of this nature, but it might be mentioned
that Charles Vaurie (1965) considers the collared
pratincole a separate species, and perhaps some
others do too. This has also been commented
upon by Dr. T.J. Roberts.
The purpose of this note is to report the
occurrence of the nominate race of the collared
pratincole in Kutch. In the year 1992, there was
heavy rainfall during the rainy season. Many of
the low lying areas of Banni grassland were
inundated with shallow water and some of the
marshy areas did not dry up till the month of
October. In such years the Bhuj-Pachham road
beyond Loria village and c. 5 km short of
Bhirandiara there is water interspersed with
patches of dry and marshy ground which from
July- August onwards becomes, to use Dr. Salim
Ali’s expression, a veritable index on both sides
of the road for the incoming waders, etc. and a
few passerine birds also. It is a unique sight to
Refei
Ali S. & S. D. Ripley (1969): Handbook of the Birds of
India and Pakistan, Vol. 3, Oxford University Press,
Bombay.
Dharmakumarsinhji, R.S. (1954): Birds of Saurashtra,
India, Times of India Press, Bombay.
Doig, Scrope (1879): Stray Feathers, Vol. VIII (1879b).
see terns sitting side by side on the telephone
and electric wires with larks and bluecheeked
bee-eaters!
On October 18, 1992 while standing on
the edge of the embankment of the road, watching
birds along with Shantilal Varu and other
members of the Pelican Nature Club of Kutch, I
espied a largish swallow-like bird flying in and
settling down on the short vegetation-covered
marshy flat ground. After seeing it through
binoculars and properly studying its plumage
and so on, we made sure that it was Glcireola
p. pratincola. Soon after this, we noticed
a juvenile of the same species sitting nearby.
It was smaller in size, darkish brown and there
was no suggestion of lighter shades or white
in its plumage except the breast, which appeared
to have brownish and lighter shaded (buff)
mottling. Judging from its size and coloration,
one is inclined not to rule out the possibility of
this pratincole having bred on this side of the
border, and the conditions prevailing in the Banni
that year were ideal for the nidification of the
species.
Considering the foregoing facts, sighting
a collared pratincole in Kutch is by no means
impossible, but it is certainly a first record for
this century. For neither Hugh Palin nor Capt.
Lester listed this species and Dr. Salim Ali did
not meet with it during his initial survey and
subsequent visits to Kutch.
December 1, 1997 M.K. HIMMATSINHJI
Jubilee Ground
Bhuj, Kutch, Pin 370 001.
ENC ES
Roberts, T.J. (1991): The Birds of Pakistan, Oxford
University Press, Karachi.
Stuart Baker, E.C. (1929): Fauna of British India, Birds.
Vol. VI, Taylor and Francis, London.
Vaurie, Charles (1965): The Birds of the Palearctic Fauna,
Non Passeriformes, H.F. & G. Witherby, London.
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(2). AUG. 1999
317
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
10. SIGHTING OF THE THREETOED KINGFISHER
CEYX ERITHACUS ERITHACUS (LINN.) IN PUNE CITY
On October 1 1, 1995, a threetoed
kingfisher Ceyx erithacus erithacus was sighted
on the banks of the Mula-Mutha river in the
vicinity of one of the most crowded parts of Pune.
Mr. Deepak Shinde, a local forest guard, first
reported having seen a ‘multicoloured bird’
which I subsequently identified as the threetoed
kingfisher. I was deeply overwhelmed on
sighting this kingfisher, which usually inhabits
moist deciduous and evergreen forests and
resides close to waterbodies like streams and
rivulets. “During the monsoon this bird disperses
far and wide and usually dies by dashing against
walls or shutters of windows.” (compact
HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN, Ali
and Ripley, 1987). When I first saw this bird, it
was perched on a bamboo twig and seemed to be
completely exhausted. We tried to save the bird.
However, on that rain-soaked, breezy, cloudy
evening — an evening difficult for local
migratory birds — the kingfisher was soon found
to be dead. Mr. Ramesh Salunke, a taxidermist
of the Zoological Survey of India, while skinning
the bird, noticed fine fissures and cracks on the
skull. From these head injuries it appeared that
the bird had hit against something.
Dr. Savita Paknikar, a pathologist, found
nothing in the stomach that could have
contributed to its death. During the monsoons,
the threetoed kingfisher is occasionally seen in
the dry deciduous forests of the Sinhagad valley
about 20 km southwest of Pune.
October 27, 1 997 KIRAN PURAND ARE
62/ A, ‘Prashant’,
Erandwane Gaonthan,
Off Karve Road,
Pune 411 004.
1 1 . INFANTICIDE IN HOOPOE UPUPA EPOPS LINNAEUS
During a stay at Corbett Tiger Reserve in
Uttar Pradesh, India, I witnessed interesting
behaviour in hoopoes ( Upupa epops). I stayed at
Dhikala in a house which had a wooden floor,
with numerous crevices in it. According to the
residents, a pair of hoopoes would make a nest
in one of these holes almost every year. On March
3, 1997, the first nesting was observed . After a
few days, the female started incubating while the
male brought her food. Sometimes the male
would bring food (usually grubs, termites etc.)
almost forty times in a day. After about two
weeks, the chicks hatched and faint noises from
inside the hole could be heard. The female had
now come out of the nest and on March 20,
1 997, 1 saw a hoopoe, probably a male, constantly
pecking at the entrance of the nest. 1 saw it trying
to go inside the nest in which it finally succeeded.
It appeared to be pecking at something, as a lot
of drumming noises could be heard. After some
time, it came out with some feathers in its beak
which it promptly threw down the balcony. It went
back in, to come out with a live chick in its beak.
This chick was also thrown down the balcony. The
robbing continued, and again it managed to come
out with an egg which was also thrown down.
Such systematic killing of dependent
offspring by replacing males is widespread
among animals and has been reported in several
primate species e.g. langurs ( Presbytis entellus,
Hrdy 1977), lions {Panther a leo , Bertram 1975),
captive rodents e.g. collared lemming
{Dicrostonyx groenlandicus, Mallory and Brooks
1978) and among birds in male bam swallows
{Hirundo rustica), house wrens {Troglodytes
aedon), house sparrows {Passer domesticus) and
female Northern jacanas {Jacana spinosa) as
reported by Rowher (1986).
318
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Infanticide is most likely to benefit
replacements when the individual whose
offspring are killed has little option but to
renest with the replacing individual. Infan-
ticide by replacing males has also been viewed
as a male reproductive strategy whereby males
stop females from investing in the offspring of
other males (Rowher, 1986). In the case of
hoopoes, the time of nesting usually starts
from March and continues till May (Ali and
Ref
Ali. S. & S.D. Rjpley ( 1 987): Compact Handbook of the
Birds of India and Pakistan. 2nd edition. Oxford
University Press, New Delhi.
Bertram, B.C.R. (1975): Social factors influencing
reproduction in lions. J. Zool. Lond. 1 77: 463-482.
Hrdy (1977): The langurs of Abu: Female and male
strategies of reproduction. Harvard Univ. Press. Lond.
12. FRUGIVORY BY THE GREAT BLAC]
The diet of the great black woodpecker (or
the whitebellied woodpecker) Dryocopus javensis
consists mostly of ants, termites, and grubs and
pupae of wood-boring beetles and very rarely
honey bees (Ali and Ripley 1983). There is no
specific mention of fruit in the diet of this large
woodpecker though several woodpeckers have been
reported to consume fruit (Short 1982).
During the course of my study on
woodpeckers of the Western Ghats, I had, on two
different occasions, seen the great black
woodpecker feeding on fruit.
On April 27, 1995, 1 found a family of four
(2 adult and 2 young) great black woodpeckers
at Anakkayam near Sholayar in Kerala. They
were moving close to the Forest Station and were
not the least bothered by the presence of the forest
staff who lived in the station. I noticed the birds
on a Macaranga peltata tree just a few metres
from the buildings feeding on the dark ripe fruit.
Both the adults and the young ones were plucking
the berries and feeding on them.
The second instance of frugivory was
noticed on May 2, 1996 at the Someshwara
Ripley, 1987) hence it was still very early and
it is likely that the killer hoopoe was a
replacement male which was trying to speed
up the return of the female to sexual recep-
tivity.
December 9, 1 997 SONALI GHOSH
425, Indira Nagar Colony,
Dehra Dun 248 006,
Uttar Pradesh.
ERENCES
Mallory, F. F. & R.J. Brooks (1978): Infanticide and
other reproductive strategies in the collared lemming
(Dicrostonyx groenlcindicus). Nature 273: 144-
146.
Rowher, S. (1986): Selection for adoption versus
infanticide by replacement males in birds. Curr.
Ornithol.3: 353-395.
WOODPECKER DRYOCOPUS JA VENSIS
Wildlife Sanctuary in Dakshin Kannada district
of Karnataka. A male great black woodpecker
was seen perched on a fruiting Olea dioica tree
and feeding on the ripe purple-coloured fruit. It
was observed for over 10 minutes on this tree
and appeared to be feeding most of the time.
Short (1982) reports that about 27% of the
diet of the related pileated woodpecker
(Dryocopus pileatus) of North America consists
of various fruits, berries and nuts. However, there
is no mention of fruit in the diet of the Eurasian
black (D. martius) or whitebellied woodpeckers.
Fruit may be used by the great black woodpecker
to supplement insect food which is perhaps scarce
in the late dry season in the Western Ghats.
Acknowledgement
This study was supported by the Wildlife
Conservation Society, New York, U.S.A.
March 14, 1997 V. SANTHARAM
68, 1st Floor, Santhome High Road,
Chennai - 600 028.
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
319
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
References
Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): A Handbook of Birds of Short, L.L. (1982): Woodpeckers of the World, Delaware
India and Pakistan, Compact Edition, OUP. Museum of Natural History.
13. ATTEMPT BY RED VENTED BULBUL PYCNONOTUS CAFER TO FEED
ON A YOUNG HOUSE GECKO HEMIDACTYLUS FLA VIVIRIDIS
The food of the redvented bulbul
Pycnonotus cafer consists of fruits and berries,
flower nectar, and large insects. Among the food
brought for a nestling was a young lizard 9 cm
long which caused the death of a 5-6 days old
chick attempting to swallow it (handbook of birds
of India and Pakistan, Ali and Ripley 1983, Vol.
6, pp 85-88).
However, on May 20, 1999 around 0830
hrs, a bird was seen moving from one flower
bed to another in our residence at Durg, Madhya
Pradesh. For quite some time, the bird behaved
in this manner. Ultimately, it approached a rose
bed close to the boundary wall where it perched,
still looking here and there. Soon it flew down
to the gap between the rose plant and a bush,
and pecked at a house gecko hatchling about 40
mm long. After some attempts, it managed to
catch hold of the gecko and carried it to the wall
where it swung the victim’s head violently from
side to side and even struck it against the wall.
All through, it was very agitated, and soon the
crippled young gecko was placed on the ground.
The bird attempted to swallow it, but the morsel
appeared, unmanageable, so it was left.
Similar observations were made by my
brother in his garden at Raipur some time ago,
but in this case, the bird kept itself stationary for
quite some time before attempting to capture the
juvenile gecko.
July 15, 1997 A.M.K. BHAROS
B-101, Gayatri Nagar,
P. O. Shanker Nagar,
Raipur 492 007,
Madhya Pradesh.
14. FLOCKING AND ALTITUDINAL MOVEMENTS OF
THE BLACK BULBUL HYPSIPETES MADAGASCARIENSIS
IN THE SOUTHERN WESTERN GHATS, INDIA
The black bulbul ( Hypsipetes
madagascariensis) is one among several species
of Indian hill birds that exhibit seasonal
altitudinal movements. In the Western Ghats it
breeds between 1 000 m and the summits during
March to June, descending to the foothills in
the non-breeding season (Ali and Ripley 1983).
Being mainly dependant on fruit for food, it also
shares the penchant for short term local nomadic
movements seen among frugivorous species,
possibly tracking changes in food supply over
several localities. It has been noted in the
Himalayan subspecies ( H . m. psaroides) that
during the non-breeding season, the bulbuls
move “in parties of six to ten, but sometimes
numbering up to a hundred individuals ...” (Ali
and Ripley 1983). Here I describe some
observations on flocking behaviour and daily
altitudinal movements of black bulbuls in the
Sengaltheri area of the Kalakad-Mundanthurai
Tiger Reserve in southern Tamil Nadu.
The study area in the southern extremity of
the Western Ghats mountain range is ca. 1000 m
above msl. The vegetation is of the medium
elevation wet evergreen forest type described by
Pascal (1988). Systematic observations on 600
m long line transects and point counts (between
900 and 1350 m altitude) were supplemented
320
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(2) AUG. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
by casual observations on trails and in the
vicinity of the field station at Sengaltheri (an
abandoned estate house). The field station
is at an altitude of 1040 m in a large clearing,
offering a good view of surrounding slopes up to
c. 1150 m.
Between March and June 1997, the
encounter rate of black bulbuls (individuals or
flocks) was about 0.5/transect both in the higher
( 1 200- 1350 m) and lower (900- 1150 m) reaches.
After July, black bulbuls were increasingly
encountered in the lower reaches and on some days
in October (see below) the encounter rate was about
ten times higher than earlier (5/transect).
Some unusual daily altitudinal movements
of large numbers of black bulbuls were noted in
October after the onset of the northeast monsoon.
During the second week of October, it was
overcast, misty, and raining on most days. Every
afternoon after c. 1530 hrs (except in heavy
rain), black bulbuls were observed flying
solitarily or in flocks over the clearing around
the field station from the lower areas (at least
900-950 m) up the higher slopes (to at least
1100-1150 m) on the Neterikal side. The birds
could be counted as they flew past in the
afternoon. The following morning, casual
observations and transect data indicated
their downward movement in the reverse
directions.
An impressive number of black bulbuls
were involved in these movements. On October
14, a total of 445 individuals in 53 flocks were
counted in 80 minutes (1540-1700 hrs). The
flock size ranged from 1 (solitary) to 28 on that
day (flocks) of 30-40 birds were observed on two
subsequent occasions). Solitary individuals
flying past were most frequent (9 of 53) followed
by flocks of 3 (6), 5 (5), 12 (5), 9 (4) and 10 (4)
individuals. The distribution of flock sizes is
given below.
The average flock size observed (8.4)
during these afternoon flights was higher than
the average 2.7, range 1-7, N = 14) observed in
transects, point counts, and casual observations
in the mornings and early afternoons. Flocks
were also observed coalescing or breaking-up
while moving from tree to tree up the slopes in
the afternoon. The upward movements were
apparently undeterred by the coverage of the
higher slopes by mist, with possibly some light
rain, on some days. Besides food, differences
between lower and higher areas in climate and
availability of roosting sites may have influenced
these movements.
Acknowledgements
These observations were made as part of
my research on rainforest bird communities in
Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, funded
by the Ministry of Environment and Forests,
Govt, of India. I thank the Tamil Nadu Forest
Department for research permits.
November 10, 1997 T.R. SHANKAR RAMAN
Rainforest Birds Research Project
Sengaltheri Field Station,
P.O. Kalakad627 501,
Tirunelveli District, Tamil Nadu.
References
Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Compact edition. Oxford University
Press, Delhi.
Pascal, J.P. (1988): Wet evergreen forests of the Western Ghats of India: Ecology, structure, floristic composition and
succession. Institute Francais de Pondicherry, Pondicherry.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
321
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
15. PURPLE SUNBIRD NECTARINIA ASIATIC A (LATHAM) — A NEW PEST OF
GRAPES UNDER AGROCLIMATIC CONDITIONS OF HISSAR, HARYANA
Grape ( Vitis vinifera L.) is one of the most
popular commercial fruit crops in India. The
commercial cultivation of this crop in Haryana
State is mainly confined to its southwestern
districts i.e. Hissar, Fatehabad, Sirsa and
Bhiwani. Many birds such as the Indian myna
Acridotheres tristis (Linn.), redvented bulbul
Pycnonotus cafer (Linn.) and house crow Corvus
splendens Vieillot cause extensive damage to the
ripening grapes (Pandey and Pandey, 1990). The
purple sunbird Nectarinia asiatica Latham
(Passeriformes : Nectarinidae) has recently been •
found damaging ripe grapes in the experimental
vineyard of the Dept, of Horticulture, Haryana
Agricultural University and other vineyards of
Hissar dist. N. asiatica is a tiny, sexually
dimorphic bird. The male in non-breeding
plumage looks like the female — brown to olive
brown from above, pale dull yellow below but
with darker wings and a broad black stripe
running down the middle of its breast. Its slender,
curved bill and tubular tongue are admirably
adapted to probe into the flower tube and suck
nectar. The purple sunbird is generally found in
light deciduous or dry thorn forest, gardens and
compounds where it feeds on flower nectar
besides small insects and spiders etc. (Ali, 1979).
During summer months Hissar dist.
generally experiences a continuous spell of dry
heat, which is coupled with dust storms. The
maximum temperature fluctuates from 40-47° C,
minimum from 25-30° C. Relative Humidity is
as low as 25-35%. During these months, very
few nectar producing plants are in flower in the
area. The grapes start ripening during late May
to the end of June. This period coincides with
the dearth period of nectar for this bird.
A change in the feeding habit is observed
during these months. Since the juice of grape
contains the monosaccharides fructose and
glucose and is comparable with the nectar of
many flora, it appears to have attracted sunbirds
towards the grape crop. During the dearth period,
the purple sunbird frequents grape vineyards in
search of the sweet juice and has been observed
in remote areas where there is no other flora,
exhibiting locally migratory behaviour.
Preliminary study shows that fruit damage
by the purple sunbird ranges between 2-20%.
This bird is a primary pest as it penetrates the
ripening berries and sucks the grape juice.
However, fruitfly (Drosophila melanogaster ) and
honey bees (Apis spp) attack the puncutured
berries later on, which results in rotting of the
fruit. The whole bunch is thus rendered unfit
for human consumption, causing economic loss
to the growers. The attack of sunbird has also
been observed on vineyards which were protected
with nylon nets from birds like the bank myna,
bulbul etc. The small size of the bird helps it to
move across the net. The purple sunbird has
not been reported as a pest of grapes under
Haryana agroclimatic conditions prior to this
publication.
November 11, 1997 SUNEEL SHARMA
R.K. KASHYAP
Department of Horticulture
CCS Haryana Agricultural University,
Hissar 125 004, Haiyana.
References
Ali, Salim (1979): The Book of Indian Birds, Bombay Pandey, R.M. & S. N. Pandey (1990): The grape in India,
Natural History Society, Mumbai, p. 121 . ICAR Publication, New Delhi, pp. 87.
322
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
16. ON THE IDENTIFICATION OF LYCODON FLAVOMACULATUS WALL 1907
( With two plates)
Ly codon flavomaculatus Wall, 1907 has
been a frequently misidentified species for much
of its recorded history. This note provides a brief
account of this history and comments on
taxonomic characters of both live as well as
preserved specimens. Although gross scalation
character is similar in most respects to that of its
other Indian congeners, its dorsal pattern is
visually distinct except possibly from L. striatus
and L. fasciatus. This note is intended to aid in
the identification of this species.
Lycodon flavomaculatus is rare and of
limited distribution (Wall, 1907; Smith, 1943;
Murthy, 1991; Murthy et al., 1993). It was
initially reported only from Maharashtra (Sangli,
Kirkee, Poona, Nasik) and Karnataka (Dharwar).
Smith (1943) recorded Deolali, Oudi and Berar
(Buldana), all in Maharashtra, as additional
localities. The Bombay Natural History Society
Collection has a specimen from Bombay
(S. 1 109, Coll. F. Wall, 31. xii. 1907) and another
from Talegaon (S.1114, Coll. A.G. Chaphekar,
27. iv. 1956). Khaire and Khaire (1985) collected
four specimens from Pimpri (near Pune,
Maharashtra). The last record of L.
flavomaculatus was from the Nilgiri Biosphere
Reserve in Tamil Nadu (Murthy, 1991). There
appear to be no other records of the species.
This species has been misidentified for
much of its recorded history (Wall, 1907; pers.
obs.). At first Boulenger (Wall, 1 907) considered
L. flavomaculatus to be a variety of L. aulicus,
while Wall ( 1907) thought it was a colour variety
of L. jara. After comparing a specimen from
Dharwar with several specimens of L. jara and
L. aulicus in the British Museum, Wall convinced
Boulenger that L. flavomaculatus was a distinct
species. He attributed their errors in identification
to Boulenger’s key to the genus Lycodon (Wall,
1907). This key was formulated prior to L.
flavomaculatus being recognised as a valid
species. Recently herpetologists have mistaken
live L. flavomaculatus from Maharashtra and /
or photographs of this species for L. fasciatus ,
L. striatus and (yet again) L. jara (all pers. obs.).
These errors may well have been caused by
identifications based largely or solely on
descriptions of colour and body patterns. All
these snakes are a shade of brown or black with
yellow or yellowish markings that could be
interpreted as “yellow-spotted”. While L. striatus
is sympatric with L. flavomaculatus in certain
areas of its range, L. fasciatus is not. In India, L.
fasciatus appears to be confined to the Eastern
Himalayas (Assam and probably the other
northeastern states). As this species does not
occur in Maharashtra and southern India,
Lycodon that have been found in this region
should not be mistaken for fasciatus. L. jara,
however, has a wider distribution. It has been
reliably reported by knowledgeable herpetologists
from Dehra Dun (S. Mukherjee, pers. comm.);
Ganjam (now in Orissa); the eastern Himalayas
as far west as 85° long., Bengal; Assam (all
Smith, 1943) and Itanagar, Arunachal Pradesh
(Captain, unpubl. obs.). Even though Wall (1923)
noted that Beddome’s locality records for
specimens of jara in the British Museum labelled
“Malabar” and “Anamallays” were to be
discredited, there exists a small but distinct
possibility of jara occurring further south of
Ganjam — its southernmost recorded limit. Even
if one were to disregard this possibility, Ganjam
(Orissa) is further south than Berar (Buldana,
Maharashtra) which is the northernmost record
for flavomaculatus. This makes the southern
limit of its range possibly sympatric with that of
flavomaculatus.
However, L. jara is strikingly different in
appearance from flavomaculatus. The brownish/
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
323
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
purplish-black dorsum of jara is “uniformly
stippled with white (yellow in life), this pattern
is formed by small spots or short longitudinal
lines, two on each scale” (Smith, 1943, Captain
unpubl. obs.). Most of the dorsal scales are
distinctly “twin-spotted”. In contrast,
flavomaculatus has a black dorsum with a series
of small yellow vertebral spots, opposite which
bars of the same colour descend and broaden to
form a reticulation on the flanks (Smith, 1943,
Captain, unpubl. obs.). This gives
flavomaculatus a distinctly barred appearance
(Plate 2, Fig. 3) Ly codon jara can thus be easily
distinguished from it. The only other species
which may be “acceptably mistaken” for L.
flavomaculatus is L. striatus.
While keying out a live L. flavomaculatus
specimen, the author noticed a discrepancy
between Wall’s (1907) original description and
that provided by Smith (1943). This may have
resulted in much of the present day confusion.
The etymology of this species suggests that it
has yellow spots iflavus (L) = yellow / golden;
maculatus (L) = spotted). Wall (1907), who
actually saw live flavomaculatus, described the
pattern as “buttercup yellow roundish vertebral
spots, opposite which whitish bars descend...”
and went on to note that “the living specimen
after being put into spirit lost its brilliant yellow
in about three days, the spots being then as white
as the flank bars...”. Smith’s (1943) key to the
species of Lycodon (p. 257) almost certainly
referred to preserved material, “...back with a
series of small white vertebral spots....
flavomaculatus ...” . In his description of L.
flavomaculatus, Smith (1943) concurred partly
with Wall (1907). Contradicting his own key on
page 257 (and quoted in part earlier), Smith
(1943) described the body pattern as “. . . a series
of small roundish or triangular, yellow, vertebral
spots, opposite which bars of the same colour
descend and broaden to form a reticulation on
the flanks.” (p. 262). Thus Smith’s (1943) key,
if used in isolation on live L. flavomaculatus
specimens, would almost certainly mislead the
user. However, the same key would work perfectly
on preserved snakes! This part of the key should
read “. . .back with a series of small white (yellow
in life) vertebral spots.... flavomaculatus...".
Two live flavomaculatus from Pune (=Poona)
dist. in Maharashtra were examined by me. Both
had yellow vertebral spots, opposite which bars
of the same colour descended to form
reticulations on the sides of the body. One or two
flecks'tclosest to the ventrals) were often white.
Both Wall (1907) and Smith (1943) have
separated Lycodon flavomaculatus and L. striatus
on the basis of their supralabials (flavomaculatus
- 9; striatus - 8). This condition was found to be
valid in all the specimens examined by me (Plate
1, Figs. 1 and 2). Wall (1907) also noted that,
while in L. flavomaculatus only one supralabial
touches the nasal, two supralabials touch the
nasal in L. striatus. Smith (1943) did not
comment on this condition. Eleven
flavomaculatus and 32 striatus specimens
examined to test the veracity of Wall’s (1907)
claim. All the flavomaculatus specimens had
only the first supralabial touching the nasal (Plate
1, Fig. 1). Only 18 (56.25%) of the striatus
specimens examined had both the first and
second supralabials in contact with the nasal.
Contrary to Wall’s (1907) claim, the other 14
striatus 43.75% (Plate 1, Fig. 2) had a single
supralabial touching the nasal. Three of the
striatus specimens examined were collected by
Frank Wall. They are housed in the Bombay
Natural History Society Collection. One (S. 1093)
had only the first labial in contact with the nasal;
while S. 1094 and S. 1095 had both the first and
second supralabials touching the nasal.
Evidently, this is not a stable taxonomic character
that can be used to separate the two species.
In order to aid identification, photographs
of the lateral view of the head and the dorsal
aspect of the body of live L. flavomaculatus and
L. striatus have been included (Plate 1, Figs. 1-2;
Plate 2, Figs. 3-4). The nine preserved
324
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Fig. 1: Lateral view of head of Lycodon flavomaculatus Wall 1907, showing supralabials.
Captain, Ashok: Lycodon flavomaculatus
PLATE 1
Fig. 2: Lateral view of head of Lycodon striatus (Shaw 1802), showing supralabials
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
325
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Captain, Ashok: Lycodon flavomaculatus
PLATE 2
Fig. 3: Dorsal view of Lycodon flavomaculatus Wall 1907.
Fig. 4: Dorsal view of Lycodon striatus (Shaw 1802).
326
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
flavomaculatus specimens that were examined
have a dorsal body pattern similar to that of the
live snake in the photograph. Scalation of the
photographed flavomaculatus is given in Table
1 as some counts were marginally outside the
ranges recorded by Smith (1943).
Table 1
DATA ON MEASUREMENTS (IN MM) AND
SCALATION OF LYCODON FLA VOMACULA TUS WALL
1 907, FROM TALEGAON, MAHARASHTRA, INDIA
RECORDED ON JUNE 1 5, 1 998
In conclusion, distribution, if known, and
dorsal pattern can be used to rule out two species
of Lycodon that have been mistaken for L.
flavomaculatus. Live flavomaculatus and striatus
can be distinguished externally, by coloration and
Ref e
Gotch, A.F. (1986): Reptiles - Their Latin Names
Explained. A Guide to Animal Classification.
Khaire, A. & N. Khaire (1985): A list of Snakes in the
neighbourhood of Poona, Maharashtra with some
observations. Geobios New Reports. 4: 112-114.
Murthy, T.S.N. (1991): A rare wolf snake, Lycodon
flavomaculatus. from the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve,
South India. The Snake. 23: 104-106.
Murthy, T.S.N., D.P. Sanyal & B. Dattagupta (1 993): Rare
snakes of India. The Snake 25: 135-140.
the difference in the number of their supralabials
( flavomaculatus - 9; striatus - 8). However,
having seen several kinds of supralabial
aberrations in Amphiesma stolatum, Argyrogena
fasciolatus, Boiga sp. and Calliophis
macclellandi (Captain, unpubl. obs.) it would be
reassuring to have conclusive proof that the two
species are reproductively isolated.
Acknowledgements
Thanks are due alphabetically to: N.
Chaturvedi, J.C. Daniel, LSC, SHC, I. Das,
“Doc” Ghate, V. Hegde, J., R., and S. Kadapatti,
Anil and Neelimkumar Khaire for their snake-
lore and snakes, R. Kulkami, S. Mukherjee, S.
Paradkar, A. Patel, M. Smith, S. Thakur for
conjuring up a live flavomaculatus just when I
needed one, R. Verma for rescuing this document
from the ‘recycle bin’ on several occasions, F.
Wall, R. Whitaker whose chance remark got me
wondering and an anonymous academic who
convinced me of the need to examine primary
sources.
April 2 1 , 1 999 ASHOK CAPTAIN
117, Koregaon Park,
Pune 411 001,
Maharashtra
ENCES
Smith, M.A. (1943): The Fauna of British India, Ceylon
and Burma, including the whole of the Indo-Chinese
Sub-Region. Reptilia and Amphibia. Vol. Ill
Serpentes. Taylor and Francis, London (Indian
reprint)
Wall, F. (1907): Some new Asian Snakes. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 7 7: 6 1 2-6 1 8 + text figs.
Wall, F. (1923 - 25): A Handlist of the Snakes of the
Indian Empire. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. Part II:
598-632.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
327
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
17. PISODONOPHIS BORO (HAM.) FROM PERIYAR RIVER, KERALA
COLLECTED AFTER MORE THAN A CENTURY
( With two text-figures)
The Western Ghats form the major
watershed in Kerala and 44 rivers originate from
them. Among these rivers, 41 flow westwards
and the remaining flow east. In Kerala,
Bharathapuzha and Periyar are considered the
largest rivers. The west flowing rivers in Kerala
are short and torrential due to heavy rainfall and
steep gradient. The Western Ghats are
ecologically one of the richest regions with great
diversity of biological species. The complex
topography, high rainfall, warm humid tropical
climate, wide altitudinal variation and
biogeographic isolation have produced a variety
of ecological niches with unique plant and animal
species. Diversity as well as endemism are
equally represented in the Western Ghats. Fish
genera like Lepidopygopsis, Batasioi
Travancoria and Horabagrus are restricted to the
hills of Kerala. The hillstreams and other water
bodies located in the Western Ghats are very rich
in fish fauna. Most of the fish species in the
Western Ghats are restricted to a specific habitat.
A few of them show a short distance migration.
The rice-paddy eel, Pisodonophis boro
commonly inhabits lagoons and estuaries (Talwar
and Jhingran, 1991). Day (1865) states that it
inhabits seas and estuaries of India and Malaysia.
P. boro is distributed in seas and estuaries
throughout India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma
to Malaysia (Jayaram 1981).
Periyar river originates from the Sivagiri
hill ranges, that lie on the border of Kerala and
Tamil Nadu. At 244 km it is the longest river in
Kerala. The study area is 75 km away from the
river mouth. The specimens were collected from
a particular site where a small stream joins the
Periyar river on its right bank (Fig. 1). This
stream is seasonal, and is bordered by mahogany
and teak plantations.
The area was visited during different
328
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
seasons of the year. Fish samples were collected
from the river and nearby stream by cast nets,
gill nets, scoop nets and temporary bunding and
sieving with cloth. The rice-paddy eel, P. boro
(Fig. 2) was collected by sieving with cloth during
the monsoon season.
Water velocity was measured by an
electronic flow meter and transparency by using
Secchi disc. The other physical features of the
habitat, viz., width, depth, substrate distribution,
canopy cover and land use pattern were also
assessed at the collection localities. Water DO,
conductivity and temperature were measured in
the field using standard methods. Works of Day
( 1 865 ,1878), Jayaram (1981), Datta Munshi and
Srivastava (1988) and Talwar and Jhingran
(1991) were referred for identification.
Distinguishing Characters
D. 320-335, P. 12-13, A. 240-245.
The body of Pisodonophis boro is eel-like
or vermiform and greatly elongated. The caudal
portion is not much longer than the trunk. Head
acutely convex and cleft of mouth moderate.
Dorsal, anal and pectoral fins present but no fin
at the end of the tail. Pectoral fin well developed.
Enlarged head region; the collection site of P.
boro is shown in Fig. 1.
The first report of P. boro from Kerala was
by Day (1865) in his book fishes of malabar. It
was subsequently included in his book the fishes
of india (1878). Since then, this species has not
been reported from Kerala (Pillay 1929, John
1936, Hora and Law 1941, Hora andNair 1941,
Chacko 1948, Silas 1950, Remadevi and Indra
1986, Easa and Shaji, 1997). Though mention
was made in the books by Jayaram (1981) and
Talwar and Jhingran (1991), its only actual report
was by Day. During our recent survey, it was
collected from a small stream near the famous
mahogany grove at Mulamkuzhi (Fig. 1). This
indicates that the area adjacent to the mahogany
grove was comparatively richer in fish fauna than
the main river. A total of 9 species belonging to
Jf
/why S
.v. .
|pf
Wi
%
'1&
.4T:I
M
Fig. 2: Pisodonophis boro
•
4 families and 7 genera were collected from the
stream, while only 4 species were collected from
the main river. The following species were
collected from the stream: Puntius filamentosus,
P. melanampyx, P. ticto, Danio aequipinnatus,
Parluciosoma daniconius, Garra mullya (Family
Cyprinidae), Glossogobius giuris (Family
Gobidae), Xenentodon cancila (Family
Belonidae) and Pisodonophis boro (Family
Ophichthidae). Puntius filamentosus, P.
melanampyx, G. mullya and Glossogobius giuris
were found in the main river also. All these
species have a wide distribution in Kerala and
other parts of Western Ghats, except
Pisodonophis boro. The present report confirms
its occurrence in Kerala, indicating its
establishment in freshwaters very far from the
coastal area. Three specimens (total length 340,
360 and 406 mm) were collected from the study
area.
The physico-chemical parameters of the
main river and stream showed a low value of
total dissolved solids in the main river (10 ppm)
and a high value (30 ppm) in the stream. DO
was never found to be a limiting factor, with least
value of 4.2 mg/1. The DO value of the main
river was 6.1 mg/1. pH in the main river was
greater than in the stream (7.8). This is probably
due to the use of soap and detergents by the
populace. The water temperature was similar at
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
329
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
the two locations (26.3° C in the river and 26.9°
C in the stream). High flow rate was measured
in the river (50 cm/sec) while it was low (15 cm/
sec) in the stream. The riparian vegetation was
dominated by grasses and shrubs with little
canopy value. The stream is very narrow, having
a width of 2-3 m, while the river is 120 m wide.
Detritus, mud and sand were the dominant
substrates in the stream, whereas in the main
river the main substrate was bedrock (80%) with
mud and sand. P. boro was reported from the
lowland area. At the study site, the substratum
was dominated by detritus and mud which may
be suitable for the survival of this species.
Acknowledgements
We thank the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service and Ministry of Environment and Forests
for sponsoring the project ‘Ecology of Hillstreams
of the Western Ghats with special reference to
Fish Community’; this paper is a part of the study
carried out under the project. We thank Dr. K.
Rema Devi, ZSI, Southern Regional Station,
Chennai, for confirming the identification of the
species and the Principal and Head of the
Department of Zoology, Mar Thoma College,
Perumbavoor, Ernakulam, for laboratory
facilities and encouragement. We also thank
Mr. V.O. Varghese, laboratory assistant for his
help in the field.
December 2, 1998 M. JOHN GEORGE*
K. RAJU THOMAS
C.R. BIJU
C.R. AJITHKUMAR
Bombay Natural History Society,
Hornbill House, S B. Singh Road
Mumbai 400 023.
*Mar Thoma College for Women,
Perumbavoor, Ernakulam,
Kerala 683 542.
References
Chacko, P.I. (1948): Development of fisheries of the
Periyar lake. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 48: 191-192.
Datta Munshi, J.S. & M.P. Srivastava (1988): Natural
history of fishes and systematics of freshwater fishes
of India. Narendra Publishing House, New Delhi.
Day, F. (1865): Fishes of Malabar. Bernard Quaritch,
London, repr. Bishen Singh Mahendrapal Singh,
Dehra Dun.
Day, F. (1 878): The Fishes of India; being a natural history
of the fishes known to inhabit the seas and freshwaters
of India Burma and Ceylon. Repr. Jagmander Book
Agency, New Delhi.
Hora, S.L. & N.C. Law (1941): The freshwater fishes of
Travancore. Rec. Ind. Mus. 43: 234-256.
Hora, S.L. & K.K. Nair ( 1 94 1 ): New records of freshwater
fishes from Travancore. Rec. Ind. Mus. 43: 233-256.
Jayaram, K.C. (1981): The freshwater fishes of India,
Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma and Sri Lanka - A hand
book. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.
John, C.C. (1936): Freshwater fishes of Travancore. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 38: 702-733.
Pillay, R.S.N. (1929): Fishes of Travancore. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 33: 347-379.
Remadevi, K. & T.J. Indra ( 1 986): Fishes of Silent Valley.
Rec. Zoo/. Sur. India. 84: 243-257.
Silas, E.G. (1 949): On a collection of fish from Travancore.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 48: 792-797.
Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland fishes of
India and adjacent countries. Oxford and IBH
Publishing Co, New Delhi.
18. NEW RECORD OF HETEROPNEUSTES MICROPS (GUNTHER)
(CLARIIDAE: HETEROPNEUSTIDAE) FROM WESTERN GHATS RIVERS, INDIA
{With one text-figure)
The stinging catfish of the genus are the two known species of this genus. Among
Heteropneustes are found in rivers, ponds and these, H. fossilis has a wide range of distribution
shallow water bodies. H. fossilis and//, microps and is very common along the Western Ghats.
330
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Fig.l: A. Heteropneustes fossilis; B. Heteropneustes microps
H. microps is a Sri Lankan form which has a
very restricted distribution in India (Uttar
Pradesh and Bihar). During a recent survey under
the Western Ghats fish diversity programme, a
few specimens of H. microps were collected from
Mananthavadi puzha near Sulthan Boththery, a
tributary of Kabini river (Cauvery basin),
Wynaad, Kerala (Nilgiri Biosphere), and from a
riverine wetland of Tamiraparani river at
Thimarajapuram, Tirunelveli dist., Tamil Nadu.
H. microps was originally described by Gunther
(1864) from Sri Lanka (type locality). In India,
H. microps has been reported only from Dambuva
(near Yakvala), Uttar Pradesh and Maltidhar in
Khagaria District, Bihar (Datta Munshi and
Srivastava 1988). Current literature and reports
on Cauvery (Day, 1967; Hora, 1942; Jeyaram et
al., 1982; Menon, 1992; Easa and Shaji, 1997)
and Tamiraparani (Menon, 1992; Rema Devi,
1992; Arunachalam, 1996, Rema Devi et. al,
1997) drainage systems show that this species
was not reported from this region by earlier
workers. Till now the present distribution of this
species is Sri Lanka and Bihar and Uttar Pradesh,
India (Talwar and Jhingran, 1991). The present
record shows range extension to Western Ghats
(that to southern part of Tamil Nadu and Kerala
part of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve) and
distribution affinities between Sri Lanka and
Western Ghats, India.
Description
DI-II/5; PI/5-6; VI/6; A+C 72-74. Body
deep, elongate and compressed, its depth 5.4
times in standard length. Head more depressed,
broad and 7.4 times standard length; occipital
extending to basal bone of dorsal fin. Eyes small,
6.1 times in head length. Mouth terminal, lips
well developed. Barbels four pairs. Dorsal fin
short, inserted just behind the origin of ventral
fin. Pectoral fin with strong spine, serrated along
inner edge; the spine is 2/3 as long as head. Anal
fin with a long base, confluent with caudal fin.
There is no distinct notch between caudal and
anal fin.
Geographical distribution in India: This
species inhabits rivers, canals, ponds, tanks and
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
331
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
shallow water bodies of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
We have recorded this species from Western
Ghats for the first time.
Remarks: Heteropneustes microps differs
from the only other known species, H. fossilis,
in having a long-based anal fin which is
confluent with the caudal fin. There is no distinct
notch between anal and caudal fins (Fig. IB),
whereas in H. fossilis (Fig. 1A) anal and caudal
fins are separated by a distinct notch.
Acknowledgements
Two of the authors J. Antony Johnson (8/
297(9)/98-EMR-I-SPS) and A. Manimekalan (9/
652(7)/97-EMR-I-SPS) are grateful to Council
of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR),
New Delhi, for Senior Research Fellowship. We
are thankful to Dr. K. Rema Devi, Zoological
Survey of India, Southern Regional Station,
Chennai, for her kind co-operation.
October 3, 1 998 M. ARUNACHALAM,
J.A. JOHNSON,
A. MANIMEKALAN,
SPK Centre for Environmental Sciences,
Manonmaniam Sundaranar University,
Alwarkurichi 627 412, Tamil Nadu.
S. SRIDHAR
Centre for Aquaculture Research and
Extension,
St. Xavier’s College (Autonomous)
Palayamkottai 627 002,
Tamil Nadu.
References
Arunachalam, M. (1996): Inventory of river associated
wetlands ofTamiraparani river system, Tirunelveli
District, Tamil Nadu. Final report, Manonmaniam
Sundaranar University, pp. 96.
Datta Munshi, J. & M.P. Srivastava (1988): Natural history
of fishes and systematics of freshwater fishes of
India. Narendra Pub. House, New Delhi. 403 pp.
Day, F. (1967): On some fishes from the Wynaad. Proc.
Zool. Soc. London: 347-350.
Easa, P.S. & C.P. Shaji (1997): Freshwater fish diversity
in Kerala part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve Curr.
Sci. 73(2): 180-182.
Gunther, (1864): Car. fish. Brit. Mus. London 5:31.
Hora, S.L. (1942): Fishes of the Mysore State and
of the neighbouring hill ranges of the Nilgiris,
Wynaad and Coorg. Rec. Indian Mus. 44(2): 193-
200.
Jeyaram, K.C., T. V. Venkateswarlu & M.B. Ragunathan
( 1 982): A survey of the Cauvery river system with
a major account of fish fauna. Occ. Papers Zool.
Surv. India 36: 115 pp, 1 2 pis.
Menon, A.G.K. ( 1 992): Conservation of freshwater fishes
of Peninsular India. Final report. 136 pp.
Rema Devi, K. (1992): Fishes of Kalakad Wildlife
Sanctuary, Tirunelveli District, Tamil Nadu, India,
with a redescription of Horalabiosa joshuai Silas.
Rec. Zoo. Surv. India 92(1-4): 193-209.
Rema Devi, K., T.J. Indra, M.B. Raghunathan, M. Mary
Bai & M.S. Ravichandran (1997): Ichthyofauna
of the Tamiraparani river system, Tamil Nadu. Zoos
Print 12(7): 1,2.
Talwar, P.K. &A.G. Jhingran(1991): Inland Fishes, Vols.
I & II. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New
Delhi, India, 1097 pp.
19. ADDITIONS TO THE FISH FAUNA OF PAMBAR RIVER, KERALA
Pambar river is one of the three east
flowing rivers in Kerala. As a part of the studies
on the hill-stream fishes along the eastern side
of the Western Ghats, a survey was conducted in
the Pambar river and its tributaries in February,
1998. Earlier, Easa and Shaji (1996) studied the
freshwater fishes of the Pambar river in the
Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary area. They listed
eleven species from the sanctuary part of Pambar
river. In the present study, however, more species
were collected from the Sanctuary area itself and
other parts of the river (Tables 1 & 2).
The present survey indicated that fifteen
species belonging to three families were additions
to the fish fauna of Pambar river. Thus the total
number of species has increased to 26.
332
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Table 1
ADDITIONAL SPECIES COLLECTED FROM THE
CHINNAR WILDLIFE SANCTUARY AREA OF
THE RIVER
EWG - Endemic to Western Ghats
The number of additional species now
reach 15, of which 8 species are endemic to
the Western Ghats. Puntius melanampyx,
P. filamentosus P. aerulius, P. ticto ticto, Danio
aequipinnatus, D. malabaricus and Nemacheilus
triangularis are widely distributed in this river.
Nemacheilus monilis and Garra hughi
are a second report from Kerala. Easa et al.
(1997) recorded it from Bhavani river, Kerala.
This loach can be easily distinguished from
other species by its distinct moniliform black
band along the lateral line from tip of snout
to base of caudal fin. Type locality of G. hughi
is lower Vauguvarrai estate, Travancore, Kerala.
Since then there has not been any report on
its occurrence in any river. According to the
original description by Silas, in G. hughi scales
were absent on the mid-dorsal streak. But in
our collections, interestingly, all specimens
carry scales on the mid-dorsal streak. This
could be an important variation in this
species.
N. semiarmatus is the first report from
south of Palghat gap in Kerala. The rainbow
trout, Salmo gairdnerii was reported only
from Eraviculam stream, a tributary of Pambar
river. In Kerala, this is the only area where
trout have established Catla catla and Cyprinus
carpio communis are the introduced species
collected from the check-dam constructed at
Kanthallor area. Except at the origin of
Eraviculam, the temperature of all other
collection localities ranged between 21° - 23.9°
C. The temperature of Eraviculam stream ranged
from 13° - 16.8° C.
Silas (1953) described a new genus and
species, Horalabiosa joshuai from the Western
Ghats of Tirunelveli district, Tamil Nadu, from
the head- waters of the Tamiraparni river at
Singampatty. For the first time in Kerala, we
have collected eight specimens of Horalabiosa
joshuai from Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary area
of Pambar river. This species is characterised
by a post-labial callus structure in the mental
region. It is a small hill stream fish, the body is
moderately elongate and slightly compressed.
Its dorsal profile is more or less convex and the
ventral surface is flattened. The snout is bluntly
rounded and smooth without any trace of
tubercles.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
333
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to Dr. K. Rema Devi,
Scientist, ZSI, Southern Regional Station,
Chennai, for confirming identification of the
species.
May 30, 1 998 K. RAJU THOMAS
C.R. BIJU
C.R. AJITHKUMAR
Bombay Natural History Society,
Hornbill House, S B. Singh Road,
Mumbai 400 023.
References
Easa, P.S. & C.P. Shaji (1996): Freshwater fishes of Pambar river, Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala,
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93: 304-306.
Easa, P.S. & C.P. Shaji (1997): Freshwater fish diversity in Kerala part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. Curr. Sci.
73(2): 180-182.
Silas, E.G. (1953): New fishes from the Western Ghats, with notes on Puntius aerulius. Rec. Ind. Mus. 51: 27-37.
20. DISTRIBUTION OF FRESHWATER FISHES IN THE UPPALA RIVER,
KASARGOD DISTRICT, KERALA
Distribution of freshwater fish fauna of
Northern Kerala, north of Palghat Gap, was
studied by various workers in the past (Raj an
1955, Mukerji 1931, Remadevi and Indra 1986
and Easa and Shaji 1997). However, there was
no authentic record of the fish fauna of the rivers
flowing though Kasargod dist, Kerala till the
recent study conducted by Biju et al. (1999) in
the Mancheswaram river, Kasargod district.
The Uppala river was surveyed by the
authors in November, 1997. This river originates
from the Veerakamba hills in Karnataka State at
an altitude of 150 m above msl, it flows
southwards about 7 km, then west about 13 km
through Karnataka State. The river then flows
6 km through the Karnataka-Kerala border,
enters Kasargod district, and flows in a south-
west direction. After deviating in various
directions the river discharges into the
backwaters near Uppala, bordering the Arabian
Sea. Mancheswaram river joins the same
backwaters at the right bank. This river has a
length of 50 km and a catchment area of 250 sq.
km of which 174 sq. km belong to Karnataka
State. The area under Karnataka State was also
surveyed so as to have a complete picture of the
distribution of fishes.
Upper parts of this river dry up within a
month after the end of the southwest monsoon,
so that all the fishes in this river migrate to the
lower reaches. The main substratum of the river
has sand and pebbles in the upper parts, while
in the lower regions the bottom is muddy or
sandy. Collections were made by using cast net,
gill net and scoop net of varying mesh size. The
list of species collected from the river is given
below.
Family - Anguillidae
1. Anguilla bengalensis bengalensis
(Gray)
Family - Cyprinidae
Subfamily - Cyprininae
2. Puntius amphibius (Val.)
3 . P. melanampyx Day
4. P. filam entosus (Val.)
5. P. vittatus Day
Subfamily - Rasborinae
6. Danio aequipinnatus (McClelland)
7. D. malabaricus (Jerdon)
8. Parluciosoma daniconius (Ham. Buch.)
Subfamily - Garrinae
9. Garra mullya (Sykes)
334
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Family - Bagridae
10. Mystus gulio (Ham.-Buch.)
11. M. armatus (Day)
12. M. oculatus (V al.)
Family - Belonidae
13. Xenentodon cancila (Ham.-Buch.)
Family - Aplocheilidae
14. Aplocheilus lineatus (Val.)
Family - Syngnathidae
15. Microphis cuncalus (Ham.-Buch.)
Family - Ambassidae
16. Ambassis miops Gunther
17. Par ambassis thomassi (Day)
Family - Teraponidae
18. Terapon jarbua (Forskal)
Family - Gerreidae
19. Gerres lucidus (Cuv.)
Family - Cichlidae
20. Etroplus maculatus (Bloch)
21. E. suratensis (Bloch)
22. Oreochromis mossambica (Peters)
Family - Mugilidae
23. Mugil cephalus Linn.
Family - Gobidae
24. Glossogobius giuris (Ham.-Buch.)
Family - Belontidae
Subfamily - Macropodinae
25. Macropodus cupanus (Val.)
Most of the listed species have a wide
distribution throughout Kerala. Puntius
amphibius, Parluciosoma daniconius, Danio
malabaricus, Aplocheilus lineatus and
Glossogobius giuris were the most abundant
and uniformly distributed fishes in this river.
Because of the tidal influence existing at the
river mouths and as far as 2-5 km away from
the sea coast, marine fishes were also found in
this river. Therapon jarbua, Gerres lucidus,
Ambassis miops, Mugil cephalus, and Microphis
cuncalus were the marine species entering the
inland waters. Mystus gulio is also a migratory
species.
The fish fauna of this river shows a
distribution similar to that of Mancheswaram
river, except five additions (Biju et al., 1999).
This may be due to its connection to the
Mancheswaram river through the backwaters.
Freshwater fish diversity was much less in this
river, probably because of less habitat variety.
The sand and mud dominated areas are the
principal habitat types. Hence fishes with special
adaptations are absent, except Garra mullya.
The river mouth and areas near to river mouths
had abundant fish fauna, marine and migratory
species being more numerous here. The major
fishery in Kasargod district is contributed by
marine fishes.
May 30, 1998 C.R. BIJU
K. RAJU THOMAS
C.R. AJITHKUMAR
Bombay Natural History Society,
Hornbill House, S B. Singh Road,
Mumbai 400 023.
References
Biju, C.R., K. Raju Thomas & C.R. Ajithkumar (1999): Freshwater fish distribution in the Mancheswaram river,
Kasargod district, Kerala. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 96(1): 159-161.
Easa, P.S. & C.P. Shaji (1997): Freshwater fish diversity in Kerala part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. Curr. Sci.
73(2): 180-182.
Mukerji, D.D. (1931): On a small collection offish from the Bhavani river (South India). / Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 35:
162-171.
Rajan, S. (1955): Notes on a collection of fishes from the head waters of Bhavani river. South India. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 53(1): 45-48.
Remadevi, K. & T.J. Indra (1986): Fishes of Silent Valley. Rec. Zool. Surv. India. 84(1-4): 243-257.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
335
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
21. NEW RECORDS OF FISHES FROM GAD AN A RIVER,
KALAKAD MUNDANTHURAI TIGER RESERVE, TAMIL NADU
Gadana river originates from Alwarkurichi
and Kadyam range of Western Ghats. Three
tributaries (Pampar, Kallar and Iluppaiyar) join
to form the Gadana river. It has one major
upstream reservoir with 60 wetlands. During
flooding this river confluences with the
Tamiraparani river. Gadana river basin
constitutes a sub-basin of the major Tamiraparani
river basin. Fish survey forms a part of detailed
studies on fish habitats and communities in
streams/rivers of Western Ghats, South India. We
collected a few specimens (January 1997), of
Pseudambassis ranga, Glyptothorax
madraspatnum from Iluppaiyar stream,
Hypselobarbus dobsoni from Pampar and
Thoniyar streams of Gadana river. Puntius
sarana orphoides was collected from the outlet
of Gadana reservoir. These species have not been
recorded in Tamiraparani and its sub-basins by
earlier workers (Johnsingh and Vikram 1987,
Rema Devi et al. 1997). Hence they are new
records to Gadana river and also to Tamiraparani
river basin.
Pseudambassis ranga (Ham.-Buch. 1822)
This species was originally described by
Hamilton-Buchanan (1822) in the Gangetic
provinces. Later it was recorded by Tilak and
Tiwari (1976) from Poona dist., Maharashtra
State. Ajithkumar and Vijayan (1988) recorded
it from Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur,
Rajasthan.
D-vii/1 1-14; P-i/1 1-12; V-i/5; A-iii/13-15
Body stout, deep and compressed. Preoper-
cular hind edge almost smooth with one or two
serrations at angle. Head length 2,7 to 2.9 times
in standard length. Eye diameter 4.5 to 5 times
in head length. Lateral line 47 to 53 scales.
Glyptothorax madraspatnum (Day 1873)
This species was originally described by
Day ( 1873) from Bhavani river at the base of the
Nilgiri hills. Kulkarni and Ranade (1974)
recorded it from Maharashtra State. Later, this
species was recorded by Shaji et al., (1995) from
Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala.
D-i/6; P-i/9-10; V-i/5; A-ii-iii/8
Body elongate. Head pointed in front.
Mouth inferior, lips papillated. Adhesive thoracic
apparatus well developed. Paired fins non-
plaited; lateral line complete; Caudal fin deeply
forked; head length 3.6 times in standard length.
Eye diameter 6 times in head length.
Hypselobarbus dobsoni (Day 1876)
This species was originally described by
Day (1876) from Kurnool. Menon (1992)
recorded this species from Krishna river
drainage.
D-ii/9-10; P-i/13; V-i/8; A-ii/5
Dorsal and ventral profiles arched. Snout
obtuse. Adult male specimens have tubercles,
female without tubercles. Interorbital space
slightly concave. Mouth normal. Head length 3.3
to 3.7 times in standard length. Eye diameter 3
to 4 times in head length. Lateral line complete
with 28-31 scales. Predorsal scales 11-12.
A.G.K. Menon described Hypselobarbus
dobsoni and H. jerdoni as valid species. But
Talwar and Jhingran (1991) synonymise H.
dobsoni with H. jerdoni. Based on our collections
from streams of the Karnataka Western Ghats
and from our ongoing research projects in rivers
in the Tamil Nadu part of Western Ghats, these
two should be considered as valid species.
Puntius sarana orphoides (Val.)
This species was originally described by
Valenciennes from Java. Menon (1956) recorded
it from Manipur.
D-iv/9; P-i/1 2; V-i/8; A-ii/5
Body somewhat deep. Eye moderate.
Mouth small and terminal. Dorsal fin inserted
nearer to base of caudal fin than to tip of snout.
336
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Head length 3.9 to 4.1 times in standard length.
Eye diameter 4.3 to 4.6 times in head length.
Lateral line complete with 28-29 scales. Predorsal
scales 10-12.
Acknowledgements
One of the authors (M.A) is thankful for
financial assistance from Department of
Biotechnology, Ministry of Science and
Technology, Government of India. We thank Dr.
V.K. Melkani, Field Director, Project Tiger,
KMTR and Mr. Sornappan, ACF, for their
support. The authors are grateful to Mr. A.
Vanarajan and K. Sankar (Project assistants -
DBT) for their assistance and help during the
survey.
May 30, 1998 M. ARUNACHALAM,
A. SANKARANARAYANAN
Sri Paramakalyani Centre for
Environmental Sciences,
Manonmaniam Sundaranar University,
Alwarkurichi 62 7 412, Tamil Nadu.
References
Ajithkumar C.R. & V.S. Vijayan ( 1 988): On the fish fauna
of Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur (Rajasthan)
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85(1): 45-49.
Day (1 994): The Fishes of India; (4th ed.) Jagmander Book
Agency, New Delhi, 778 pp.
Jeyaram, K.C. (1981): The freshwater fishes of
India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma and Sri
Lanka. Handbook Zoological Survey of India, pp.
xii + 475.
Jeyaram, K.C. (1991): Revision of the genus Puntius
Hamilton from the Indian region. Rec. Zool. Surv.
India. Occ. Paper No. 135. 178 pp.
Johnsingh, A.J.T. & D. Vickram (1987): Fishes of
Mundanthurai Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu, J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84(3): 526-533.
Kulkarni, C.V. & M.R. Ranade (1974): Gazette of
Maharashtra State. Fauna: 47-63.
Menon, A.G.K. ( 1 992): Conservation of freshwater fishes
of Peninsular India. Unpublished report (Grant No.
1 4/24/8 7-MAB/RE). Ministry of Environment &
Forests, Govt, of India, pp. 136,
Raj Tilak & D.N. Tiwarj (1976): On the fish fauna of
Poona District (Maharashtra). News l. Zool. surv.
India. 2(5): 193-199.
Rema Devi, K. et al. (1977): Ichthyofauna of the
Tamiraparani river systems, Tamil Nadu, Zoos
print. 12(7): 1-2.
Shaji, C.P., P.S. Easa & S. Chand Basha (1995):
Freshwater fish diversity in Aralam Wildlife
Sanctuary, Kerala, South India. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 92: 360-364.
Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland fishes of
India and adjacent countries. Oxford & IBH
Publishing Co., Pvt. Ltd., 1 & 2, pp.l 158.
22. SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE BIOLOGY OF
THE PARASITIC BEETLE METOECUS PARADOXUS LINN.
(RHIPIPHORID AE : COLEOPTERA) ON MUD DAUBER WASP GRUBS
( With one plate)
The Rhipiphorid beetles Metoecus
paradoxus Linn, are seen in grassland vegetation
and are parasitoids on mud dauber wasp grubs
of the family Eumenidae.
The mud dauber wasps such as Eumenes
conica Fab., E. edwardsii Sauss. and Rhychium
nitidulum Fabr. belonging to Eumenidae build
small pot like cells to raise their progeny ( Ayyar,
1910). The female first selects a place such as
buildings, tree-twigs, or undisturbed human
habitats for constructing a cell. The wasp then
takes water in its mouth from a nearby water
source, goes to the mud collecting place, usually
a termitarium or dryland, regurgitates water on
the soil surface and with the help of its mandibles
and forelegs starts scraping the wet soil to make
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
337
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
a small globular, shiny mud pellet. The wasp then
takes this pellet with its mandibles and forelegs
to a previously selected place to build a small
pot like cell with a small funnel like mouth. The
female wasp inserts the abdomen tip into the
mouth and deposits an egg inside the cell. Then
the wasp goes foraging to provide paralyzed
caterpillars as food for the hatching young wasp
grub.
The Rhipiphorid beetles lay their eggs in
the surrounding vegetation. The eggs on hatching
into triungulin larvae want to catch hold of the
leg of wasps coming in their way during foraging.
The triungulin larva attaches itself to the wasp
leg and reaches the mud cell. It passes into a
period of waiting stage about 8 to 12 days inside
the cell. During this period the wasp egg hatches
and becomes a fleshy lemon yellow grub in about
8 to 10 days, forming a thin white membrane
lining the cell wall as a whole. The minute
triungulin Rhipiphorid larva at this stage loses
its legs and penetrates the wasp grub, feeds as
an endoparasitoid for 3 to 4 days. Then it is
ectoparasitoid for about 20 days, holding the
anterior part of the head of the wasp grub like a
collar (Fig. A and Fig. B). Throughout the grub
stage, the parasitoid beetle grub secretes a
digestive enzyme which it ejects at the point of
contact with the eumenid grub, keeping it from
decay for about 18-20 days. Within this period
the Rhipiphorid grub completes its feeding and
starts pupating within the same cell (Fig. C). The
pupal stages (Fig. D & E) lasts between 7 to 9
days and then slowly changes to the characteristic
fully grown red and black coloured adult in a
period of 38 to 42 days (Fig. F).
One interesting fact as far as the mud cell
is concerned is that the parasitoid Rhipiphorid
beetle, after the completion of its complicated
life cycle, cannot escape out of the cell because
it cannot gnaw out of the hard mud cell due to
the second layer of mud coated by the female
wasp brought from the termitarium. The beetle
escapes if the mud cell is broken accidentally,
otherwise it gets trapped and dies inside the mud
cell. In case of paper wasps, sand wasps and bees,
the young Rhipiphorid beetles can emerge
because their nests are open in nature hence they
survive. This is the first record of a Rhipiphorid
parasitoid beetle from the cells of the mud nests
of Eumenid wasps in India.
Acknowledgement
We thank Dr. S. Balasubramaniam,
Department of Botany, Bharathiar University
for his ready co-operation in taking the
photographs.
October 27, 1997 G. SRINIVASAN
K. SASIKALA
Department of Zoology
Bharathiar University
Coimbatore 641 046.
MOHANASUNDARAM
Professor of Entomology (Retd.)
T.N.A.U.
Coimbatore 64 1 003
Reference
Ayya.r, T.V.R. (1910): Life history notes on the caterpillar hunting wasp Eumenes conica.J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 20.
23. PREDATION BY ANTS ON FROGS AND INVERTEBRATES
On November 29, 1995, while we were
walking along a perennial stream bed in Phansad
Wildlife Sanctuary (Maharashtra), at around
1 0:30 in the morning, we noticed some army ants
moving in columns along the ground. There was
forest on either side of the stream. The ants were
about a centimetre in length and made a buzzing
sound when we blew on the densely packed
columns. Though we were unable to identify
these ants, from the descriptions given by Lefroy
338
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(2) AUG. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Srinivasan, G. et al. : Rhipiphorid parasite beetle
PLATE 1
A & B: Spiny Rhipiphorid grub feeding on Eumenid grub, r - Rhipiphorid grub, C. last instar Rhipiphorid
grub within cell after completely feeding Eumenid grub, D, just pupating Rhipiphorid,
E. Pupa of Rhipiphorid, F. just emerged Rhipiphorid beetle
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
339
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
(1984), Shivashankar and Veeresh (1987) and
Holldobler and Wilson (1990) we presume they
were army ants belonging to the genus
Leptogenys of the subfamily Ponerinae which
inhabits tropical and subtropical regions.
The ants were moving in separate columns
in the drier part of the stream bed, and no two
columns merged though they were passing only
a centimetre away. The whole column would stop,
stand still and then change direction, each and
every ant in the column turning at the same time.
This clearly showed that communication among
the ants was very well coordinated.
While the ants were moving around, one
of the columns moved towards a hole at the base
of a small boulder in the stream bed. The ants in
the column then arranged themselves around the
hole in a semicircle (10 to 15 cm radius). The
entire semicircle was filled up by ants. Most of
them stood still, while some near the mouth of
the hole went in and . attacked the frogs, which
were resting inside (holes being moist).
The frogs (Philautus sp., Euphlyctis
cyanophlyctis and Limnonectes limnocharis)
jumped out and fell amidst the waiting ants.
Within seconds, the ants in the semicircle
overpowered the struggling frogs, which were
completely covered by the ants. The ants started
biting off flesh from the live frogs and ripped
their bodies open. Within thirty minutes only the
skeletons of the frogs were left. Some ants from
this column then proceeded to another hole and
carried out the same operation. Two to three
columns were operating simultaneously on the
stream bed. One of the columns also consumed
a Mygalomorph spider (species unidentified). A
crab, which emerged out of a burrow, remained
quite unaffected by the attacking ants.
Yet another column climbed a Kadamb tree
(Anthocephalus inciica = kadamba = chinensis)
and as the ants moved up, they broke off the
termite sheeting on the trunk and preyed on the
termites. The entire episode was like a well
organised army operation. The common name
army ants is derived from this behaviour. As soon
as an ant got its prey, it turned around and started
descending while the ant behind came forward
and replaced it. The column went up the tree
trunk to a height of around 2.5-3 m and then
turned back and started descending. While they
were descending, we placed a twig with 20 to 30
Cremastogaster ants (species unidentified)
among one of the driver ant columns, expecting
them to attack and devour the Cremastogaster
ants which were much smaller (about one fourth
the size of driver ants). Surprisingly, the driver
ants avoided these Cremastogaster ants by
clearing off a circular area around the twig.
We watched the entire activity of the driver
ants for around two hours, after which they left
the stream bed and started moving into the forest.
As soon as they went in we could see
grasshoppers, frogs, crickets and other
invertebrates jump and try to move out of their
way. Certain species of birds from South America
are known to follow columns of army ants and
feed on the insects flushed out by them (Willis
and Oniki 1978). Though we saw many insects
being flushed out by the ants we did not see any
bird following the ant columns.
We have visited Phansad Sanctuary on
many occasions but never seen such an event
again. The proficiency with which the ants
went about their work was truly impressive.
January 11, 1999 SHOMEN MUKHERJEE
Wildlife Institute of India,
Post Box #18, Chandrabani,
Dehra Dun 248001.
VIVEK GOUR BROOME
J.E.Fanns, Marunji,
Pune 41 1027.
References
Holldobler, B. & E.O. Wilson (1990): The Ants. Lefroy. H. M. (1984): Manual of Entomology. Agricole
Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg. Reprints Corporation, New Delhi. 541 pp.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(2), AUG. 1999
341
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Shivashankar, T. & G.K. Veeresh (1987): Nesting and
Foraging Behaviour of the Termite Predator Leptogenys
processionalis (Jerdon) (Formicidae: Ponerinae). In:
J. Eder and H. Rembold Ads.) Chemistry and Biology
of Social Insects, Verlag J. Pepemy, MUnchen. 544pp.
Willis, E.O. & Y. Oniki. (1978): Birds and Army Ants.
Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics. 9:243 -
263.
24. MASS FEEDING OF BARONET BUTTERFLY SYMPHAEDRA NAIS FOSTE.v
ON HONEY DEW DROPS
In the month of November we observed
several individuals of Symphaedra nais feeding
on the secretion fallen on the ground from the
silk cotton tree ( Bombay ceiba ). The secretion
appeared like oil drops sprinkled on the ground
and the butterflies were rubbing their proboscis
on it. On subsequent visits, the same phenom-
enon was observed under a Bridelia retusa tree
overhanging the roof of a building. The secre-
tion had fallen from the branches growing over
the roof.
On taking a closer look, we observed that
the leaves of Bridelia were heavily infested with
various stages of nymphs and adult insects. The
insects were collected and subsequently identi-
fied as Tenaphalara acutipennis Kuwayama,
Family Psyllidae. They are known to feed on
young shoots and leaves of Bombax ceiba. The
nymphs exude a copious amount of honey dew
and also produce a waxy secretion. Usually, 4 to
5 butterflies were seen feeding, with a maximum
number upto 10 at a time. The number of indi-
viduals visiting the site was greater in the morn-
ing, and the activity continued till late noon.
We are thankful to Dr. C.A. Viraktamatl
Department of Entomology, University of Agri-
cultural Sciences, GKVK, Bangalore for identi-
fying the psyllid.
September 22, 1998 NARESH CHATURVEDI
V. SHUBHALAXMI
Bombay Natural History Society,
Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road,
Mumbai 400 023.
25. POLYMORPHISM IN THE IMMATURE STAGES
OF OTHREIS FULLONIA CLERCK
( With two plates)
Seasonal colour variation in adult
Lepidoptera is a known fact. It has also been
recorded that early instars of a few hawk moths
show seasonal colour variation (Sevastopulo,
1940).
During a survey of the lepidopteran fauna
of Sanjay Gandhi National Park (SGNP),
Mumbai, I made some remarkable observations
on the genus Othreis. The genus is well
represented in SGNP. Othreis fullonia,
commonly called the Orange Underwing, is also
well represented in this area. The adult of the
species has been described by Hampson ( 1 894),
Barlow (1981) and its early stages by Sevastopulo
(1940). However, there is no mention of its life
cycle and colour variation in different seasons.
Hence, a study of the life cycle of Othreis fullonia
was undertaken. The data was collected over a
period of two years from July 1995 to December
1997.
The early instars are common during the
peak monsoon period and feed exclusively on
Cocculus hirsutus, commonly called as Vasan
Vel. The early instars were collected from the
study site and reared at home in rearing tanks.
Detailed observations were made, which are
described later. A total of 173 larvae were reared
during the study period.
342
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
Apte, Deepak: Othreis fullonia (Male) ^ pq PLATE l
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
343
Fig. 1-4: Othreis fullonia wet form: 1. larva; 2. larva; 3. pupa; 4. adult male
Fig. 5: Othreis fullonia dry form larva
The BNHS and the author gratefully acknowledge sponsorship of the colour printing of this plate by
the Mehta Scientific Education and Research Trust
Apte, Deepak: Othreis ful Ionia (Female) PLATE 2
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
344
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
The BNHS and the author gratefully acknowledge sponsorship of the colour printing of this plate by
the Mehta Scientific Education and Research Trust
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
The larval stage of Othreis fullonia
showed sexual polymorphism. The colour
pattern of the male and female larvae varies
significantly in the dry and wet season. Thus,
the male and female of Othreis fullonia can be
distinguished at the larval stage. The adults
showed very little colour variation.
Description of larvae
The general description of the larvae is given
by Barlow (1981) and Sevastopulo (1940). The
present study shows a few variations compared to
earlier studies.
Male Larva
Wet (monsoon) form: The first three
instars are green in colour. The larvae then
become red brown and remain thus till pupation
(Plate 1, Fig. 1-2). The legs in early instars are
pale yellow and become red from 4th instar
onwards. 4th and 5th instars are profusely spotted
with white and blue spots which are fewer in
first three instars. Spiracular patches are red and
prominent and connected by discontinuous white
bands. 5th and 6th somites bear black ocelli with
yellow iris and white pupils.
Dry (post monsoon): The larvae are dark
chocolate brown in all five instars (Plate 1, Fig.
5). The colour is much darker in the first three
instars and becomes reddish brown later. Legs
are red throughout. 5th and 6th somite bear black
ocelli with yellow iris and white pupils. Body is
profusely spotted with white and blue spots.
Female Larva
Wet (monsoon) form: Colour is dark
chocolate/red brown from 1st to 5th instar (Plate
2, Fig. 4). Spiracular patches are greatly reduced
and red in colour and are not connected by white
band as in males. Body profusely spotted with
white spots. 5th and 6th somite bear brown ocelli
with white iris and white pupils. Legs red-brown
throughout.
Dry (post monsoon) form: Colour
blackish brown or chocolate brown (Plate 2, Fig.
1). Spiracular patches are greatly reduced and
red in colour. 5th somite bears brown ocelli with
yellow iris and white pupils which are greatly
reduced on 6th somite. Body profusely spotted
with white, and encircled by brown ring. Legs
chocolate brown.
Description of pupa
After 1 8 to 20 days, the larva stops feeding
thereafter and encloses itself among leaves. The
pupa forms within 36 hours and is attached to the
comer of leaves with t)i e help of silk thread. The
average pupal duration is 13 days in wet season
and 18 days in dry season. Male: Dark mahogany,
glossy, smaller than female (Plate 1, Fig. 3).
Female: Light brown, glossy, larger than male (Plate
2, Fig. 2 & 5).
Description of Adults
The detailed description of adult was given
by Sevastopolo (1941) and Hampson ( 1 894). Palpi
in both male and female are club shaped with
fluorescent blue projection. Both males and
females are slightly lighter coloured in wet season
than in the dry season.
Acknowledgement
The author gratefully acknowledges
sponsorship of the colour plates by the Mehta
Scientific Education and Research Trust,
Mumbai.
September 11,1998 DEEPAK APTE
Bombay Natural History Society,
Hornbill House, S B. Singh Road,
Mumbai 400 023.
References
Barlow, H. S. (1982): An introduction to the moths of Southeast Asia. The Malayan Nature Society, Kuala Lumpur, pp 305 with
50 plates.
Hampson, G.H. (1894): Fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burma: Moths. Volume II. pp 609.
Sevastopulo, D.G. ( 1 940) Early stages of Lepidoptera. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 42(2): 283-294.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
345
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
26. MACULOTR1TON SERRIALIS (DESHAYES IN LABORDE & LINNET 1834)
FROM OKHA, GULF OF KUTCH: A NEW RECORD
During a survey for molluscan fauna along
the Gulf of Kutch in 1995, 1 collected a couple
of tiny shells from Okha which were identified
as Maculotriton serrialis. The species has not
been previously recorded from Okha, therefore
this constitutes a new record.
intersections. Outer lip bears six denticles.
Columella is smooth. Colour of the shell is white
with two brown spiral markings on each whorl.
The species was previously recorded from
Pamban (Satyamurthi, 1952), Andaman Is. and
Lakshadweep Is. (Rao and Rao, 1991).
Description: Specimens collected range
between 8 to 12 mm. Shell with tall spires (about
7) with protoconch. Body whorl bears spiral and
trans-spiral ribs which form nodules at
Refere
Satyamurthi, T. (1 952): The mollusca of Krusadai Island-
I. Amphineura and Gastropoda. Bull. Madras Govt.
Mus. (Nat. Hist) 1(2), pt. 6.
August 3, 1998 DEEPAK APTE
Bombay Natural Histoty Society,
Hornbill House, S B. Singh Road,
Mumbai 400 023
Surya Rao, K.V. & N.V. Subba Rao (1991): Fauna of
Lakshadweep, Mollusca. State Fauna Series 2:
273-362, 3 pis.
27. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF THE PESTIFEROUS SLUGS
LAE VIC A ULIS ALTE IN JORTHAN, SIKKIM
The slug Laevicaulis alte is an
agrihorticultural pest in tropical countries
(Godan 1983, Raut and Mandal 1984, Raut and
Panigrahi 1990). In India, it is confined to the
gardens located in the plains (Subba Rao et al.
1989, Thome 1989). But in recent years, a
large number of L. alte were seen in Jorthan,
Sikkim. Jorthan is a small valley close to
Darjeeling.
These slugs are seen to be larger in size,
darker in dorsal body coloration and healthier
than those occurring in the plains of West Bengal
and other parts of India. They are active only in
monsoon months, when they come out of their
hiding places with the approach of darkness and
crawl towards the preferred food plants. They
damage different kinds of potted ornamental
plants as well as vegetable plants in kitchen
gardens. It becomes difficult to protect seedlings
and young plants of marigold, bean, gourd and
cabbage. In kitchen gardens lettuce, cabbage,
beans and gourd plants qre damaged seriously.
Adequate measures to stop further spread of L.
alte to other valleys are imperative.
I am thankful to Mr. S.C. Mitra of
Mollusca Division, Zoological Survey of India,
for identifying slug specimens and to the staff of
Zoology Department, Darjeeling Govt. College,
Darjeeling for facilities.
January 29, 1998 S.K. RAUT
Ecology and Ethology Laboratory,
Department of Zoology,
Calcutta University,
35, Bally gunge Circular Road,
Calcutta 700 019.
References
Godan, D. (1983): Pest slugs and snails. Springer-Verlag, Raut, S.K. & R.N. Mandal (1984): Natural history of the
Berlin, Heidelberg, New York. garden slug Laevicaulis alte. J. Beng. Nat. Hist. Soc.
346
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
3: 104-105. the garden slug Laevicaulis alte. Environ. & Ecol. 7:
Raut, S.K. & A. Panigrahi (1990): Feeding rhythm in the 211-214.
garden slug Laevicaulis alte (Soleolifera: Thome, J.W.( 1989): Annotated and illustrated preliminary
Veronicellidae). Malacol. Rev. 23 : 39-46. list of the Veronicellidae (Mollusca: Gastropoda) of the
Subba Rao, N.V., S.C. Mitra, S. Barua & S.K. Raut Antilles, and Central and North America. J. Med. &
( 1 989): Food preference, growth rate and fecundity of Appl. Malacol. 1 : 1 1 -28.
28. OBSERVATIONS ON THE FEEDING HABITS OF SOLIFUGAE (ARACHNIDA:
SOLIFUGAE) IN SEMARSOT SANCTUARY (M.P.), INDIA
On May 22, 1997, 1 came across about 20
solifuges. As they were constantly in motion, a
precise count was difficult. These solifuges were
observed on the border of the Semarsot Sanctuary.
They appeared to be hunting for arthropods under
a street lamp. The size of the smaller solifuges
was about 1 cm while a larger individual was
over 4 cm long.
One of the small solifuges was trying to
tear open the abdomen of a dead moth with the
help of its prominent chelicerae. While it was
feeding, all its legs were on the ground and its
pedipalps were up in the air. The distal tip of its
abdomen was raised upwards and the “head”
region was touching the ground. The solifuge
appeared to be feeding very vigorously.
The solifuges are known to be very active
runners and also rapid consumers of food, which
includes many insects such as termites. In
captivity, they accept and relish crickets. Prey is
caught with a swift snap of their enormous
chelicerae and the vigorous mastication of food
is very characteristic of the solifuges. The two
scissor-like chelicerae are enormous and project
in front of the prosoma. These chelicerae are
extremely heavy and are as long as the prosoma
in many solifuges. It is probably true to say that
Solifugae have the most powerful pair of jaws in
the animal world (Savory, 1977).
As I had no intention of collecting and
preserving them, I quickly noted down some im-
portant features that are useful in at least deciding
the genus. As the tarsus of the palp appeared
narrow at its base and articulated freely with the
tibia, these solifuges could be placed in the family
Galeodidae. In India, this family is represented by
a single genus Galeodes (Pocock, 1900).
November 28, 1997 SHOMEN MUKHERJEE
Wildlife Institute of India,
P.B. No. 18, Chandrabani,
Dehra Dun 248 001.
References
Pocock, R.I. (1900): The Fauna of British India: Vol. Savory, T. (1977): Arachnida, Academic Press, London.
Arachnida. Taylor and Francis, London. 2nd Edn.
29. RESURRECTION OF BIAPERTURA KWANGSIENSIS (CHIANG 1963) FROM
BIAPERTURA KARUA (KING 1853) (CRUSTACEA: CLADOCERA)
( With ten text-figures and one plate)
The genus Biapertura is a relatively small B. verrucosa (Sars 1901 ) have been reported from
one known so far by five species, of which B. India. Among these B. karua is commonly
affinis (Leydig 1860), B. karua ( King 1853) and distributed between 40° N lat. and 40° S lat.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
347
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Figs. 1-4: Biapertura kwangsiensis (Chiang) female: 1 - lateral view; 2 - head, enlarged;
3 - labrum and 4 - posteroventral comer and postabdomen
348
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES .
Figs. 5-10: Biapertura karua (King) female: 5 - lateral view; 6 - head, enlarged; 7 - antennule;
8 - labrum; 9 - postero ventral corner and postabdomen and 10 - postabdomen.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
349
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
(Smirnov, 1974). In India they have been reported
from Tamil Nadu (Venkataraman, 1983),
Rajasthan (Venkataraman, 1992a), Andaman
and Nicobar Islands (Venkataraman, 1992b) and
northeastern India (Patil, 1976; Sharma, 1978).
Recently, specimens of another closely related
species, B. kwangsiensis (Chiang 1963),
described from China were collected during
survey of the wetlands of West Bengal and
Tripura State. In 1974, Smirnov synonymised
B. kwangsiensis with B. karua , which was
followed by Michael and Sharma (1988).
Detailed studies using a scanning electron
microscope (SEM) and a close examination of
the two species reveal that they are different.
B. kwangsiensis is reported for the first time from
India and is being recorded for the first time since
it was originally described in 1963.
B. karua and B. kwangsiensis were
collected from freshwater ponds, lakes and man-
made reservoirs having aquatic macrophytes such
as Hydrilla sp., Najas sp. and Char a sp. Both
species were collected using a plankton net with
circular mouth of 45 cm and 70 p mesh size.
The net was dragged close to the bottom in
shallow water among vegetation and the samples
were preserved in 5% formalin in the field.
B. karua was collected from Bagnon jheel,
Khasipur Hugla jheel, Shibadaha jheel,
Santragachi Bird Sanctuary jheel of Haura
district; Dhankuni jheel, Hatgacha jheel,
Baluguri jheel and Kanakund jheel of Hooghly
district and Amta, Bon-Hooghly, Budge-Budge,
Sarisha, Mahestala and Manikpur of 24-
Parganas districts of West Bengal; also from
weedy ponds of Tilliamura, Manu, Sonamura,
Rajnagar, Amarpur and Udaipur of Tripura State.
B. kwangsiensis was collected from Gholla
Krishnanagar Dighi of Hooghly district and
Santragachi Bird Sanctuary jheel of Howrah
district, West Bengal and Gramtali, a weedy pond
of Sonamura and a roadside pond of Amarpur in
Tripura State.
Five gravid females of each species were
separated and camera lucida diagrams were made
using an ordinary monocular microscope. For
SEM studies, at least ten specimens of both the
species were separated and dehydrated using
different grades of acetone. The air-dried samples
were coated with carbon and gold, using a JEE-
4x vacuum evaporator and scanned using 10 kv
current under a working distance of 12 mm in a
JEOL JSM-840A scanning electron microscope.
Order Cladocera
Family Chydoridae
Subfamily Aloninae
Genus Biapertura
Biapertura kwangsiensis (Chiang 1963)
(Figs. 1-4 and 11-14).
Female: Body size 0.45 mm (n=6), shape
oval in outline, maximum height slightly before
middle (Figs. 1 and 11). Valves with a series of
setae, distinct lines and polygonal patterns.
Ventral margin of valves with a series of setae,
postero-ventral corner rounded with five
denticles attached marginally upto one-third of
the posterior region, followed by a row of small
spines running dorsally (Figs. 2 and 12-14).
Rostrum blunt, antennules not reaching the apex
of rostrum. Ocellus slightly smaller than eye,
situated closer to the eye than to the rostrum (Fig.
2). Labrum rounded anteriorly, blunt ventrally
without a notch on the apex (Fig. 3).
Postabdomen with distinct preanal and postanal
corners and broadly rounded dorsal margin.
About 7-8 denticles attached submarginally,
followed by three groups of spines along the anal
groove up to the preanal comer. Lateral side with
9 groups of setae, the distal-most setae being the
longest and stoutest of each group, always
projecting beyond the anal margin. Claw with
very short, basal spine close to the base of the
claw. Concave surface of claw with five setae in
two groups, those in the proximal group longer
and ending in a distinctly stouter and longer seta
before the middle; distal setae ending some
distance before the tip (Fig. 4). Head shield with
fine striations on the surface and two connected
median pores.
350
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
Venkatraman, K. : Biapertura kwangsiensis plate l
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
351
Figs. 11-14: Scanning electron micrographs of Biapertura kwangsiensis female:
11 - lateral view and 12 - 14 - postero ventral comer spines enlarged
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Biapertura karua (King 1853)
(Figs. 5-10).
Female: Body size 0.32 mm (n=23), shape
oval, maximum height slightly before middle
(Fig. 5). Rostrum blunt, antennules not reaching
the apex of rostrum (Fig. 6). Three groups of
unequal sized sensory setae present at the tip of
the antennule (Fig. 7). Plate of labrum cup-
shaped with a notch on the apex (Fig. 8). Postero-
ventral corner of valve with 2-4 denticles,
separated from each other by margin of valve
and situated at the postero-ventral corner
extending upto 1/6 of the posterior side (Fig. 9).
Valves striated, postabdomen broadly rounded
with 7-8 denticles and followed by 4-5 groups of
spines situated along the anal groove. Claw with
a very small basal spine situated slightly away
from the base. About 9 groups of lateral setae
present (Fig. 10).
B. karua and B. kwangsiensis usually occur
among aquatic macrophytes, however, they are
occasionally collected in open water. Specimens
of B. karua are relatively small, having a mean
size ranging from 0.28-0.37 mm (Venkataraman,
1992a; Michael and Sharma, 1988), while B.
kwangsiensis varies from 0.44-0.53 mm (Sieh-
chich and Nan-shan, 1979).
From SEM studies, the two species can be
differentiated in the following details: In B.
kwangsiensis , there are 5 postero-ventral comer
Refer
Michael, R.G. & B.K. Sharma (1988): Fauna of India:
Cladocera, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta,
pp. 262.
Patil, S.G. (1976): Freshwater Cladocera (Arthropoda:
Crustacea) from North-East India, Curr. Sci., 45:
312-313.
Sharma, B.K. (1978): A note on freshwater cladocerans
from West Bengal, Bang. J. Zool. 6: 149-15 1 .
Sieh-Chich, C. & Du Nan-Shan (1979): Fauna Sinica,
Crustacea, Freshwater Cladocera, Science Press,
Acadamica, Sinica, Peking, China, pp. 297.
Smirnov, N.N. (1974): Chydoridae fauna of the world.
spines which possess secondary spines (Figs. 12-
14), while ini?, karua there are only 2-4 postero-
ventral corner spines which are without
secondary spines. In addition, the two species
differ in the shape of the labmm (Figs. 3 and 8),
position of postero-ventral comer spines (Figs.
4-9, 11-14) and position of basal spine on the
claw. On the basis of the above differences, the
two species are distinct and the name
kwangsiensis is valid. This is the first record of
the occurrence of B. kwangsiensis from outside
its type locality and it is also the first record of
the species from India.
Acknowledgements
I thank the Director and Dr. S.K. Tandon,
Joint Director, Zoological Survey of India,
Calcutta for facilities provided; Officer-in-
Charge, M.B.S. Madras for encouragement and
Dr. P.T. Cherian, S.R.S. Madras for going
through the manuscript. I also thank Dr. N.C.
Nandi and Mr. S.R. Das for their help in the
field.
November 1 0, 1 997 K. VENKATARAMAN
Marine Biological Station
Zoological Survey of India
100, Santhome High Road,
Chennai 600 028.
E N C E S
Fauna of USSR., Crustacea: 1974, 644 p. (English
transl., Israel Programme for Scientific Translation,
Jerusalem).
Venkataraman, K. (1983): Taxonomy and ecology
of Cladocera of Southern Tamil Nadu, Ph.D.,
thesis, Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai, 1983,
190 pp.
Venkataraman, K. (1992a): I. Cladocera of Keoladeo
National Park, Bharatpur and its environs, J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 89: 17-26.
Venkataraman, K. (1992b): Freshwater Cladocera of Port
Blair, Andaman, / Andaman Sci. Assoc. 8: 133-137.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
353
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
30. RANGE EXTENSION FOR CEROPEGIA OCULATA HOOK.,
AN ENDANGERED SPECIES OF MAHARASHTRA
While surveying Mahabaleshwar, Satara
dist., Maharashtra, during October 1997,
Ceropegia oculata Hook. (Family Asclepiadaceae)
was collected on the way to Tapola lake. The plant
bore flowers as well as fruit. The follicles were
tender. The plant, which is a climber, had reached
a height of 2 m and was scandent on a Carissa
carandas Linn, shrub. In 1996, this species was
also sighted at Panhala, near Kolhapur by me
along with Dr. S.R. Yadav of Shivaji University,
Kolhapur.
Bole and Almeida (1984) did not record
this species while including 3 species of
Ceropegia from Mahabaleshwar namely C.
hirsuta Wight & Am., C. lawii Hook., and C.
vincaefolia Hook.f. This species was earlier
recorded by Blatter (JB NHS 3 6(3): 524-37, 1932)
from Konkan, Ansari (1984) from Maharashtra,
without any precise locality. Hooker (FBI IV,
1885) from Bombay, Chaturvedi et al. (1990)
from Pune, Ratnagiri and Raigad dist., Mistry
(1989) from Mirya, Ratnagiri dist. ( JBNHS
86(3): 478) and Santapau (Botanical Memoirs
no. 4, 1960) from Khandala, Sinhagad fort and
Purandhar.
January 29, 1998 NEELAMPATIL
B/12, Rohini, Sector 5,
Srishti, Mira road, (East),
Mumbai 401 104.
References
Ansari, M.Y. (1984): Fascicles of Flora of India, fascicle
16, Asclepiadaceae, genus Ceropegia. Botanical Survey
of India.
Bole, P.V. & M.R. Almeida (1984): Material for the Flora
of Mahabaleshwar- 5J. Bombay nat. His*. Soc. 81(2):
364-379.
Chaturvedi, S.K., D.D. Nautiyal & S. Mukherji ( 1 990):
Studies on some endangered Indian Asclepiads.
Proceedings of the International Conference on Tropical
Biodiversity, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, pp. 2 1 9-224.
3 1 . AEGINETIA PEDUNCULATA (ROXB.) WALL. (OROBANCHACEAE)
A NEW RECORD FROM BIHAR
( With one text-figure)
During a field trip to Katihar dist., Bihar,
in August 1997, we collected an interesting plant
of the Family Orobanchaceae with attractive,
colourful flowers (Fig. 1) growing in wet grassy
fields along canal sides, 2 km north of
Durgasthan, Rajendra Nagar (Katihar town).
After scrutiny of the literature and specimens
from the Central National Herbarium (CAL) the
taxon was identified as Aeginetia pedunculata
(Roxb.) Wall., and a new record for Bihar,
although it is mentioned by Haines (1921-25) as
likely to occur in this State. The voucher
specimen has been deposited in the Bhagalpur
University Herbarium (BHAG).
Aeginetia pedunculata (Roxb.) Wallich,
PI. As. Rar. 3. 13. t. 219. 1832; Hook. f. FI. Brit.
India 4: 320. 1884; Duthie, FI. Upp. Gang. Plain
2: 34. 1960 (Rep. ed).; Prain, Bengal PI. 2: 778.
1903 (Rep. ed. 2. 580. 1963), Haines, Bot. Bih.
& Ori. 2: 673. 1961 (Rep. ed.); Guha Bakshi,
FI. Murshidabad. 231. 1984. Orobanche
pedunculata Roxb. Hort. Beng. 45. 1814 and FI.
Ind. 3: 29. 1832.
FI. & Fr.: Monsoon (July - October).
Locality: About 2 km north of Durgasthan
(Canal side) Rajendra Nagar, Katihar town
(25.4° E & 87.6° N)
Ecology: Growing in wet grassy fields along
Canal, specially on the roots of
Hemarthria compressa (L.f.) R. Br. Flowers very
colourful and attractive; rare.
Material examined: Drirgasthan (Katihar town.
354
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Fig. 1: Aeginetia pedunculata (Roxb.) Wall. a-b. Habitat, c. Calyx, d. Corolla split open with stamens, e.
Stamen with anther spurred, f. stamen without spurred, pollen grains, h. Pistil,
i. Stigma with part of style
Bihar) 24. viii. 1 997, Coll. Sanjib Kumar 529.
Confirmed with C.B. Clarke no. 21793 D Jessore
(25.vi.1874) Acc No. 329511 CAL.
Acknowledgement
We are thankful to Dr. M. Sanjappa,
Deputy Director and In-charge, Central National
Herbarium, Howrah (Botanical Survey of India)
for providing herbarium and library facilities.
February 14, 1998 S.K. VARMA
University Department of Botany
T.M. Bhagalpur University,
Bhagalpur-8 1 2 007.
Bihar
SANJIB KUMAR
Department of Botany
D.S. College,
Katihar.
Bihar
32. A NEW VARIETY OF COSTUS SPECIOSUS (RETZ.) SM.
( With one plate)
Costus speciosus (Retz.) Sm. var. observed by the senior author near Film City,
dilnavazii (var. nov.) this variety was first Goregaon, Mumbai. It was growing side by side
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
355
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
with the typical variety of the species. The
specimens of both the typical and the new variety
were collected and studied by dissecting floral parts.
Except the coloration of the corolla and the basal
portion of the labellum, no other morphological
differences were observed. Therefore, this new
taxon is considered as a variation in Costus
speciosus (Retz.) Sm. and a new varietal name
Costus speciosus (Retz.) Sm. var. dilnavazii M.R.
Almeida & S.M. Almeida var. nov. is proposed in
honour of Mrs. Dilnavaz Variava, Vice President
of Bombay Natural History Society in recognition
of her contribution to the conservation movement
in India.
The main differences in the two varieties
are as follows:
Costus speciosus (Retz.) Sm.: 1. Corolla pure
white in colour. 2. Labellum with yellow centre.
Costus speciosus var. dilnavazii Almeida
& Almeida: 1. Corolla rose-pink in colour.
2. Labellum pink throughout.
Colour pictures of both the varieties which were
taken on subsequent trips are given in Plate 1 .
The rhizomes of this new variety have been
planted in the premises of the Conservation
Education Centre, Bombay Natural History
Society, Goregaon, Mumbai.
Holotype: Goregaon (M.R. Almeida -
G. - 501, BLAT).
Costus speciosus (Retz.) Sm. var. dilnavazii var.
nov. similis varietas typicus differt corolibus
roseus et cororolibus basi non flavus. Holotypus:
M.R. Almeida - G - 501, lectus at Goregaon,
mense Augusto 1997, Depositus at BLAT.
March 2, 1998 M.R. ALMEIDA,
S.M. ALMEIDA,
Blatter Herbarium
St. Xavier’s College,
Mumbai 400 001.
33. ASPARAGUS DENSIFLORUS ‘SPRENGERT ROBUSTUS - AN ADDITION TO
THE ORNAMENTAL FLORA OF ANDAMANS
The genus Asparagus, which includes the
edible vegetable A. officinalis, also has a number
of species and varieties grown indoors for their
attractive feathery foliage, consisting of finely
divided and flattened modified branchlets
resembling leaves. Indoor asparagus plants are
commonly called asparagus ferns because of their
superficial resemblance to the foliage of
pteridophyte ferns.
As far as ornamental value is concerned,
A. asparagoides (Smilax), A. densiflorus (Mayeri
and Sprengeri), A. falcatum (Sicklethom), and
A. plumosus syn. A. setaceus (Asparagus fern),
are some of the exotic species or varieties which
are of common use in gardens and as indoor
plants in Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Reports
on the flora of Andaman (Vasudeva Rao, 1986)
reveal that A. racemosus grows wild in the
Andamans.
During an exploration of horticultural flora
of Andamans, Asparagus densiflorus ‘Sprengeri’
Robustus was found growing wild on rocks in
forests of Mundapahar, Chidyatappu, South
Andaman. The present report on the occurrence
of this species in the islands is of
great phytogeographical as well as floristic
interest.
Specimen examined: South Andaman
Mundapahar, Chidyatappu on rocks near the
seashore.
The plant is of strong growing habit and
has pliable drooping stems, about a metre long.
The stems are lightly covered with 1-1.5 cm
long, soft, needle-like branchlets which usually
grow in groups of 4-5 at the node. The colour of
foliage is dull green. The stem near the joint of
branchlets or below that bears small (0.5 cm)
thorns. The plant bears 4-5 clumps at the base.
356
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2) AUG. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Almeida, M.R. et. al.\ Costus speciosus
PLATE 1
Costus speciosus (Retz.) Sm.
Costus speciosus var. dilnavazii Almeida & Almeida
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
357
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Since these plants are found growing very
near the seashore at Mundapahar, it is also
assumed that they may be an exotic introduction
brought in long ago which escaped from gardens
and naturalised. Asparagus species with
horticultural scope are widely cultivated in
tropics and sub-tropics for the appealing floristic
shape and form. This economically and
horticulturally important species could probably
be a promising genetic resource.
March 18, 1998 D.B. SINGH
SUJATHA A. NAIR
T.V.R.S. SHARMA
Central Agricultural Research Institute,
Port Blair, A&N Islands - 744101
Reference
Vasudeva Rao, M.K. (1986). A preliminary report on the Angiosperms of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Econ. Tax.
Bot. 8(1): 107-184.
34. POA HARAE RAJB. (POACEAE): A NEW RECORD FOR INDIA
( With one text-figure)
During recent plant explorations in the
alpine zone of Garhwal Himalaya, some
interesting specimens of Poa L. were collected.
After thorough checking of literature and
consultation of Herbaria at Botanical Survey of
India, Northern circle, Dehra Dun (BSD) and
Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun (DD), these
specimens were identified as Poa harae Rajb.
This species was earlier described by
Rajbhandari (1988), believed to be endemic to
E. Nepal, however, the recent collection from the
alpine zone of Garhwal Himalaya not only
represented its westward distribution but also an
addition of Poa species in India.
A description, and line diagrams of various
parts of the plant specimens are given to facilitate
identification. The voucher specimens are
deposited at the Herbarium, Department of
Botany, H.N.B. Garhwal University, Srinagar
(Garhwal), India (GUH).
Poa harae Rajb. in Acta Phytotax. Geobot.
39: 55. 1988; Rajbhandari in the Himalayan
plants (ed. Ohba & Mala) 2: 205-206. 1991.
Perennial, tall, tufted grass, with
stoloniferous base. Culms terete, erect, 20-40 x
0.1-0.15 cm, minutely scabrous below the
panicle; nodes 2-3. Leaf blades flat, linear,
acuminate, 8-12 x 0.1-0.15 cm, nerves and
margins minutely scabrid; Sheaths 6-10 cm long,
glabrous; ligules oblong, acute, 2.6-3 mm long.
Panicles oblong, 4.5-9 x 0.8- 1.5 cm; branches
spreading; axis terete, scabrid; lower branches
2-5, scabrid; pedicels scabrid; spikelets mostly
proliferating. Normal spikelets elliptic, 4-5 mm
long, with 2-3 florets. Lower glumes lanceolate,
acute, 3.2 mm long, 3-nerved, glabrous, with
scabrid keel on the upper part; Upper glumes
elliptic, acute, 4 mm long, 3-nerved, glabrous,
with scabrid keel above. Rhachillas 0.8-1 mm
long, smooth. Callus glabrous. Lowest lemmas
elliptic-lanceolate, acute, 4.2 mm long, minutely
scabrid on surface, margins hyaline, keel ciliate
on lower part to the middle, scabrid above,
marginal nerves ciliate on lower part. Paleas
elliptic-oblong, 3.5 mm long, outer surface
glabrous, with scabrid keels. Anthers 1 . 1- 1 .5 mm
long.
FI. & Fr.: Aug. -Sept.
Habitat: Along crevices, rock shelters, of
moist alpine glacier zones, 4600-4800 m,
Gaumukh (Uttarkashi).
Distribution: E. Nepal, India, NW
Himalaya; in moist habitats of alpine meadows
or along glaciers.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
359
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Fig. 1. A-H. Poa harae Rajb.
A. Plant; B. Normal spikelet; C. Proliferous spikelet; D. Lower glume; E. Upper glume;
F. Lowest lemma; G. Palea; H. Anthers, Styles, Stigmas and Ovary.
360
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(2) AUG. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Specimen examined: India, Nandanvan
(Uttarkashi), 4600-4800 m, Aug, 1997, D.C.
Nautiyal, GUH: 13504.
Acknowledgements
We thank the authorities of Botanical
Survey of India, Northern circle, Dehra Dun
(BSD) and Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun
(DD) for providing Herbarium facilities.
Financial assistance from CSIR, New Delhi is
gratefully acknowledged.
March 18, 1998 D.C. NAUTIYAL
R.D. GAUR
H.N.B. Garhwal University,
Dept, of Botany, P.B. No. 17,
Srinagar (Garhwal) 246 174
ERRATA
Vol. 96, No. 1, April 1999, p 146, line 2.
For superciliaris read parva
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(2), AUG. 1999
361
THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS
(Price to members)
The Book of Indian Animals, by S.H. Prater, 4th edition (Reprint) rs 2 1 0/-
The Book of Indian Birds, by Salim Ali, 12th edition rs 320/-
A Pictorial Guide to the Birds of the Indian Subcontinent,
by Salim Ali & S. Dillon Ripley, (Reprint with corrections) rs 278/-
Checklist of the Birds of Maharashtra, by Humayun Abdulali, 2nd edition rs. 2/-
The Book of Indian Reptiles, by J.C. Daniel (under revision)
Some Beautiful Indian Trees, by E. Blatter and W. Millard rs 225/-
Conservation in Developing Countries: Problems and Prospects,
Edited by J.C. Daniel and J.S. Serrao rs 300/-
A Week with Elephants-Proceedings of the International Seminar on Asian Elephants,
Edited by J.C. Daniel and Hemant Datye rs 338/-
A Guide to the Cranes of India, by Prakash Gole Rs. 60/-
Salim Ali’s India, Edited by A. Kothari and B.F. Chhapgar Rs. 900/-
Illustrated Flora of Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan,
by V.P. Prasad, Daniel Mason, Joy E. Marburger & C.R. Ajith Kumar Rs. 525/-
The Book of Indian Trees, by K.C. Sahni Rs. 21 0/-
The Book of Indian Shells, by Deepak Apte Rs. 225/-
Types of membership, fees and subscription for publications (As on April 1996)
Types of membership, fees and subscription for publications (As on April 1996)
IV. Institutional/Corporate
Libraries, Schools, Colleges
Universities and Forest Dept.,
Defence Institution
(Special membership within India)
(c) Outside India
£5or$ 10
£ 100 (annual)
or $ 300
Free
£ 15 or $ 50
Registered with the Registrar of Newspapers under RN 5685/57 ISSN 0006-6982
CONTENTS
EDITORIAL 185
NOTES ON THE BREEDING PLUMAGE OF THE MALE BLACKBREASTED
WEAVERBIRD PLOCEUS BENGHALENSIS NEAR HYDERABAD, ANDffRA
PRADESH
{With 2 plates)
By Aasheesh Pittie, Siraj Taher and C. Tom Hash 187
OBSERVATIONS ON THE DUGONG, DUGONG DUGON (MULLER), IN THE
ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS, INDIA
( With two text-figures )
By H.S. Das and S.C. Dey 1 95
ICHTHYOFAUNA OF ERAVIKULAM NATIONAL PARK WITH NOTES ON TROUT
CULTURE IN RAJAMALAI, MUNNAR, KERALA
( With five text-figures )
By K. Raju Thomas, C.R. Biju, C.R. Ajithkumar and M. John George 199
THE BIRDS OF GOA
( With one text figure)
By Heinz Lainer 203
POPULATION DENSITIES OF THE BLACKNAPED HARE LEPUS NIGRICOLLIS
NIGRICOLLIS AT ROLLAPADU WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, KURNOOL DISTRICT,
ANDHRA PRADESH
{With one text-figure) ■
By Ranjit Manakadan and Asad R^:*Rahmani 221
INTER- AND INTRASPECIFIGf VARIATION IN THE RESOURCE USE OF
BLOSSOMHEADED AND BLUEWINGED PARAKEETS IN SIRUVANI, TAMIL
NADU, INDIA
( With two text-figures) ■ *
By V. Gokula, C. Venkataraman, S. Saravanan and S. Swetharanyam 225
FISHES OF G ADANA RIVER IN KALAKKAD MUNDANTHURAI TIGER RESERVE
By M. Arunachalam and A. Sankaranarayanan 232
STATUS OF THE BLACK SHAHEEN OR INDIAN PEREGRINE FALCON FALCO
PEREGRINUS PEREGRINATOR IN SRI LANKA
( With one text-figure)
By Hermann Dottlinger and Thilo W. Hoffman 239
FISH FAUNA, ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION IN CHALAKUDY RIVER
SYSTEM, KERALA
( With one text-figure)
By C.R. Ajithkumar, K. Rema Devi, K. Raju Thomas and C.R. Biju 244
BIONOMICS AND BIOCONTROL EFFICIENCY OF ANA STATUS SP. (EUPELMIDAE:
HYMENOPTERA), AN EGG PARASITE OF CHORISONEURA BILIGATA
(SERVILLE) (BLATTELLIDAE: DICTYOPTERA)
( With nine text-figures)
By S. Bhoopathy 255
FOOD AND FEEDING HABIT OF PENA El D PRAWN METAPENEOPSIS STRIDULANS
(ALCOCK 1905)
By B.G. Kulkarni, V.D. Deshmukh and V.R. Kulkarni 262
FRESHWATER CLADOCERA (CRUSTACEA) OF SOUTHERN TAMIL NADU
( With four text-figures)
By K. Venkataraman 268
NEW DESCRIPTIONS 281
REVIEWS 306
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 309
Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Mumbai 400 1 03 and
published by J.C. Daniel for Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House,
Dr. Salim Ali Chowk, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai-400 023.
3
JOURNAL
OF THE
BOMBAY MT11BAL HISTORY SOCIETY
DECEMBER 1999
Vol. 96 (3)
mm
BOARD OF EDITORS
Editor
J.C. DANIEL
M.R. ALMEIDA
M.K. CHANDRASHEKARAN
B.F. CHHAPGAR
R. GADAGKAR
INDRANEIL DAS
A.J.T. JOHNSINGH
AJITH KUMAR
T.C. NARENDRAN
A.R. RAHMANI
J.S. SINGH
R. WHITAKER
Assistant Editor
GAYATRI WATTAL UGRA
INSTRUCTIONS TO CONTRIBUTORS
1. Papers which have been published or have been offered for publication elsewhere
should not be submitted.
2. Papers should be submitted in duplicate, typed double space. Preferably an additional
copy should be submitted on a floppy diskette (3.5") using Word Star.
3. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where identification has
been authentically established by comparison of specimens actually collected.
4. Photographs for reproduction must be clear, with good contrast. Prints should be at
least 9 x 12 cm and on glossy glazed paper. Text-figures, line drawings and maps
should be in Indian ink, preferably on tracing paper. Maps and figures will not be
acceptable if labelled free hand.
5. References to literature should be placed at the end of the paper, alphabetically
arranged under author’s name, with the abridged titles of journals or periodicals in
italics and titles of books or papers in roman type, thus:
Aluri, Raju J.S. & C. Subha Reddi (1995): Ecology of the pollination in two cat-mint
species. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92(1): 63-66.
Prater, S.H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay Natural History Society,
Mumbai, pp. 35-48.
6. Each paper should be accompanied by an abstract, normally not exceeding 200
words, and 6-8 key words. Key Words should include the scientific names of important
species discussed.
7. 25 reprints will be supplied free of cost to authors of main articles. In the case of
new descriptions, reviews and miscellaneous notes, authors will be sent a free
copy of the Journal.
8. The editors reserve the right, other things being equal, to publish a member’s
contribution earlier than a non-member’s.
Hornbill House,
Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,
Mumbai-400 023.
Editors,
Journal of the Bombay
Natural History Society
VOLUME 96 (3): DECEMBER 199>^^'THS0^^
Date of Publication: 1-12-1999 ( I AUG ! 7 2000
CONTENTS \
£[BRARiES
EDITORIAL
STATUS OF VULTURES IN KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK, BH ARATPUR, RAJASTHAN,
WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO POPULATION CRASH IN GYPS SPECIES
( With six text-figures)
By Vibhu Prakash 365
ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF MOTHS OF THE FAMILIES SATURNIIDAE AND
SPHINGIDAE IN SANJAY GANDHI NATIONAL PARK, MUMBAI
( With five text-figures )
By V. Shubhalaxmi and Naresh Chaturvedi 379
STATUS OF DIURNAL RAPTORS OF CORBETT NATIONAL PARK WITH NOTES ON
THEIR ECOLOGY AND CONSERVATION
( With one map )
By Rishad Naoroji 387
SMALL CARNIVORES IN TWO PROTECTED AREAS OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH
( With one text-figure)
By Aparajita Datta 399
THE BIRDS OF GOA (Part II)
By Heinz Lainer 405
OIL BAIT FISHERY OF CATFISHES IN BRAHMAPUTRA RIVER AFFECTING RIVER
DOLPHIN POPULATIONS IN ASSAM, INDIA
By S.P. Bairagi 424
C ARID IN A TYPUS H. MILNE EDWARDS 1837 FROM THE INDIAN MAINLAND — A
REPORT
(With four text-figures)
By Delphin Ebenezer and Jasmine Richard 427
POPULATION STATUS AND MALE GENITALIA OF LETHE EUROPA NILADANA AND
PARARGEEVERSMANNICASHMIRENSIS( LEPIDOPTERA : SATYRIDAE)
( With ten text-figures)
By H.S. Rose and Narender Sharma 433
A NEW RECORD OF FRESHWATER BAGRID FISH MYSTUS PULCHER CHAUDHURI
FROM INDIA
By Keishing Selim and Waikhom Vishwanath 436
AN UPDATE ON SYNOPTIC CATALOGUE OF LAC INSECTS (HOMOPTERA :
TACHARDIIDAE)
By K. Krishan Sharma and R. Raman i 438
FERN FLORA ALONG SAUNG-PINDARI TREK IN THE KUMAON HIMALAYA
By M.K. Bhattacharya 444
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
A NEW SPECIES OF COPIDOGNATHUS (HALACARIDAE : ACARI) FROM ANDAMAN
ISLANDS
( With thirteen text-figures)
By Tapas Chatterjee 447
A NEW SPECIES OF PARAPSILOGASTRUS GHESQUIERE (HYMENOPTERA :
EUCHARITIDAE) FROM THAILAND
( With five text-figures)
By T.C. Narendran
451
TWO NEW SPECIES OF FIMBRISTYLIS (C YPERACEAE) FROM WESTERN PENINSULAR
INDIA
( With two text-figures)
By V.P. Prasad and N.P. Singh 454
REVIEWS
1 . PLANT TISSUE CULTURE AND BIOTECHNOLOGY — EMERGING TRENDS
Reviewed by S.M. Karmarkar 459
2. FLORA AND FAUNA IN MUGHAL ART
Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani 459
3. SNAKES IN INDIA
Reviewed by Romulus Whitaker 460
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
MAMMALS
1. House shrew Suncus murinus (Linnaeus)
feeding on an olive keelback water snake
Atretium schistosum (Daudin)
By Ajoy Kumar Mandal 463
2. Rustyspotted cat Prionailurus rubiginosus, a
new record for Nagarjunasagar Srisailam
Tiger Reserve, Andhra Pradesh
By K. Thulsi Rao, D. Sudhakar,
V. Vasudeva Rao, V. Nagulu and
C. Srinivasulu 463
3. Sighting of the caracal Caracal caracal in
Jalore district, Rajasthan
By M.K. Ranjitsinh 464
4. Distribution of three rodent species in the hilly
tracts of Rajasthan
By Ishwar Prakash and
Hi mmat Singh 465
5. Some food plants of chital (Axis axis ) in Rajaji
National Park, India
By Shridhar D. Bhat and Gopal S. Rawat ... 467
BIRDS
6. Birds foraging on tree trunks
By V. Santharam 468
7. The noddy tern (brown noddy) A nous stolidus
off the south Konkan Coast
By Heinz Lainer 469
8. Records of greater spotted eagle ( Aquila
clanga) from southern India
By V. Santharam 470
9. Unusual sighting of an Indian black crested
baza (A viceda leuphotes)
By C. Mohan Kumar 470
1 0. Roosting behaviour of Indian peafowl Pavo
cristatus
By B.M. Parasharya and Aeshita Mukherjee 471
1 1 . Sighting of the Indian redbreasted parakeet
at Andheri
By Lilyn Kamath 473
1 2. Albino myna (Acridotheres tristis) near V ita,
in Maharashtra
By P.S. Salunkhe 473
13. Blyth’s reed warbler Acrocephalus
dumetorum feeding on nectar
By S. Balachandran 473
14. Short-toed lark Calandrella cinerea feeding
on pearl millet Pennisetum typhoides in
Rajasthan, India
By Harkirat S. Sangha 474
15. An unusual nesting site of Nectcirinia asiatica
By Harkirat S. Sangha 475
REPTILES
16. Reptiles of Keoladeo National Park,
Bharatpur, Rajasthan
By S. Bhupathy 475
17. A large brood of the green pit viper
( Trimeresurus gramineus )
ByAmitChavan 477
AMPHIBIA
18. Observation on the reproduction of
Polypedates leucomystax (Gravenhorst 1 829)
(Anura : Rhacophoridae)
By Md. Firoz Ahmed and
Bibhuti Prasad Lahkar 478
FISHES
19. Distribution of Pangio goaensis (Tilak)
Cypriniformes : Cobitidae, in Manimala river,
southern Kerala
By K. Raju Thomas, C.R. Biju and
C.R. Ajithkumar 479
20. Record of the barb Barbodus carnaticus
(Cyprinidae : Cypriniformes) from the streams
of Eastern Ghats, of Tamil Nadu.
By M. Arunachalani and J. A. Johnson 480
21. Range extension of Osteobrama cotio
peninsularis Silas to Kerala
By C.R. Biju, K. Raju Thomas and
C.R. Ajithkumar 481
22. Mystus bleekeri (Day) An addition to the
fish fauna of Kerala
By K. Raju Thomas, C.R. Biju and
C.R. Ajithkumar 482
INSECTS
23. Seasonal abundance and checklist of aquatic
bugs and beetles of Keoladeo National Park,
Bharatpur, India.
By M. John George 483
24. Congregation of common crow Euploea core
butterflies at Bannerghatta National Park
By S. Karthikeyan 486
25 . Distribution and ecology of Polyura agraria
Swinhoe (Lepidoptera : Nymphalidae) in India
By Peter Smetacek 487
OTHER INVERTEBRATES
26. New record of an arctic species Holopedium
gibberum Zaddach (Crustacea : Cladocera)
from Chhangu lake, Sikkim
By K. Venkataraman, B.N. Roy and M.P. Thapa 488
27. New record of a Patellid gastropod Amathina
tricarinata (Linn.) (Gastropoda : Amathinidae)
from the coastal waters of Digha, West Bengal
By J. Sarkar, S. Talukdar, Raniakrishna and
A. Dey 491
28. A new site record for Rapana bulbosa
(Dillwyn)
ByDeepakApte 491
BOTANY
29. Ficus superba Miq. and F fergusoni ( King)
Worthington (Moraceae). two new reports
from India
By D.R. Priyadarsanan 492
30. Cassine balae Kosterm. New to the
Celastraceae of India
By P. Daniel, U. Umamaheswari and
K. Sampath Kumar 493
31. Occurrence of Goniophlebiutn amoenum
(Wall, ex Mett.) J.SM. in Bihar
By S.N. Basu, I. Gope and
Usha Prasad 496
32. On the occurrence of Utricularia brachiata
Oliver (Lentibulariaceae) in Garhwal
Himalaya
By D.S. Rawat and R.D. Gaur 496
33. A taxonomic account of Robujuetia Gaud.
(Orchidaceae) from Bangladesh
By Moktcr Ahmed and M.K. Pasha 499
34. Bolboschoenus planiculmis ( F. Schmidt)
T. Koyama (Cyperaceae) — A new record for
south Asia from Gujarat Coast
By V.P. Prasad and N.P. Singh 502
Cover Photograph: Coral Reef
Dos Winkel / Porpoise Photostock
Editorial
Dip your head into the sea, or even look over the side of a country craft anywhere in the
Gulf of Mannar, and you will see an idyllic scene. Dense beds of turtle grass, with
turtles leisurely ambling along. A dugong or two paddling their way and nibbling the
grasses. A little distance away is a patch of bare sand littered with sea cucumbers and
sacred chanks. And spread all over are reefs of coral, with their flamboyant coloration
rivalling a rainbow. Among the corals, reef fishes flit in and out, equally gaudily painted.
The biological diversity off the 21 islands in the Gulf is so great that this region,
extending from Rameswaram Island on the north to Tuticorin on the south, between latitudes
8° 47-9° 15' N and longitudes 78° 12'-79° 14' E, has been notified as a Marine Biosphere
Reserve — India’s first.
Some two decades ago, the corals were under threat from a marine predator, the
crown-of-thoms starfish. This large sea-star, with up to 23 arms armed with long, venomous
spines has a gruesome feeding habit. Spreading its arms over a live coral, the sea-star
squirts its digestive juices over it. After some time, it sluips back the digested coral tissues
and moves on, leaving a dead mass of coral. A population explosion of the sea-star, starting
in Australia, caused a slow westward migration until they reached India and attacked our
corals. The crown-of-thorns starfish menace has fortunately subsided, but a new one has
replaced it. This is the bleaching of live corals. The vivid colours of most corals result
from hordes of microscopic symbiotic zooxanthellae. Under stress, such as unduly high water
temperature, the corals eject their zooxanthelleae from their bodies and appeal- bleached.
These are unavoidable natural disasters, but man-made stresses are also affecting
the local coral ecosystems. Especially off Tuticorin, there is thermal pollution caused by
the hot coolant water discharge from the local thermal power station, as also chemical
effluents from a marine chemicals manufacturing factory. A new threat looms over the
horizon. It is proposed to construct a canal, called the Sethu Samudram Ship Canal, to
enable large ships to cross from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal without having to go
around Sri Lanka. At present, ships cannot ply here because of the shallow 3.5 m coral reef
called Adam’s bridge at Pamban, near Rameswaram, between the southeastern coast of
India and Talaimannar at Sri Lanka. This canal will originate from Tuticorin new harbour,
extend northeast upto the Mansfield patch south of Pamban Island, cut through this island
and proceed parallel to the International Medial Line as the Bay of Bengal channel. It will
cut the existing road between Rameswaram and Dhanushkody.
The report states that “as the proposed alignment (of the canal) is more than 5 km
away from the existing 21 National Marine Parks in the Gulf of Mannar, the marine
biological resources around the islands will not be affected to any significant level." Nature
lovers counter: Is this distance of 5 km far enough as not to cause siltation, oil pollution
from ships, etc.? The official answer: “There would not be any significant change in water
quality including turbidity due to the proposed deployment of . . . dredgers ... (the) impact
... if any, cannot be assessed at this juncture.” The magnificent coral reefs along many of
the Andaman and Nicobar Islands are being choked by runoff of soil loosened by
indiscriminate logging of timber. Those of the Lakshadweep are suffering from overexposure
to tourism. Will it now be the turn of the coral ecosystem in the Gulf of Mannar?
B.F. CHHAPGAR
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are grateful to the Ministry of Science and Technology,
Govt, of India,
FOR ENHANCED FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE JOURNAL.
JOURNAL
OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
December 1999
Vol. 96
No. 3
STATUS OF VULTURES IN KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK, BH ARATPUR,
RAJASTHAN, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO
POPULATION CRASH IN GYPS SPECIES1
VlBHU PRAKASH2'3
( With six text-figures )
Key words: white-backed vulture, long-billed vulture, king vulture, population crash,
stable population, pesticide contamination, captive breeding
Seven of the eight species of vultures reported from the Indian subcontinent are recorded from
Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan. The vegetation of the Park is described as Tropical
Thorn Forest, which is very widespread in the country as it covers the entire semi-arid and parts
of the Deccan plateau bigeographical zones. The population and distribution, including the
nesting distribution, of the vultures was studied between the years 1985-88, 1990-92, and 1996-
99. A sharp decline in the population of Gyps species was recorded over a decade. A decline of
96% was recorded in the population of white-backed v ilture and 97 % in long-billed vulture.
The population of king and Egyptian vultures remained stable over the decade, as is expected in
the population of large and long lived birds. Possible reasons of the decline in vulture populations
are discussed. Circumstantial evidences suggest pesticidal contamination and disease as the most
likely causes of population decline. Detailed investigation for the cause of population decline,
like determination of pesticide load in vulture and its food, attempts to detect a possible pathogen
and genetic diversity are suggested for conserving the species. Captive breeding is suggested to
save the white-backed vulture from imminent extinction.
Introduction
Eight species of vultures are reported from
the Indian subcontinent (Ali and Ripley 1983)
of which seven species are recorded from
Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan
(Samant et al. 1995). Only the bearded vulture
'Accepted August, 1999
^Bombay Natural History Society,
Hombill House, S.B. Singh Road,
Mumbai 400023.
3 Present Address:
BNHS Research Station,
33 1 , Rajendranagar, Bharatpur 321 001 .
Gypaetus barbcitus, which is a typical mountain
species, is not recorded from the Park. Four
species are residents and three altitudinal
migrants in the Park. The residents are the
white-backed vulture Gyps bengalensis , long-
billed vulture G. indicus , Egyptian vulture
Neophron perenopterus , and king vulture
Sarcogyps calvus. The Indian griffon Gyps
fulvus , Himalayan griffon G. himalayensis , and
cinereous vulture Aegypius monachus are
altitudinal migrants.
The white-backed, king and Egyptian
vultures regularly nest in the Park, whereas the
long-billed nests at the nearest cliffs about 50 km
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3), DEC. 1999
365
ST A TUS OF VULTURES IN KEOLADEO NA TIONAL PARK
southwest of the Park. The Indian and Himalayan
griffons are uncommon winter visitors, seen in
the Park from November to March. The cinereous
vulture is seen occasionally, in winter.
All the species are scavengers and feed on
the carcasses of large mammals, both domestic
and wild. All the griffon vultures ( Gyps species,/
are communal feeders and are seen in huge
numbers on large animal carcasses (All and
Ripley 1983). They are known to occur and
breed in very high density near cities: a breeding
density of 2.7 pairs per sq. km was recorded for
the white-backed vulture in New Delhi
(Galushin 1971). Prakash (1989) recorded a
breeding density of 17 pairs per sq. km in
Keoladeo National Park. The Egyptian and king
vultures are usually solitary feeders, and feed
on carcasses of smaller mammals, reptiles and
fish.
The population of vultures was very high
in India because of the unnatural food supply
created largely by primitive methods of carcass
and slaughterhouse waste disposal (Grubh
1989).
The Park falls in the semi-arid
biogeographical zone (Rodgers and Panwar
1988). The vegetation of the area is a mixture
of xerophytic and semi-xerophytic species
consisting predominantly of Acacia nilotica,
Prosopis cinerea, Salvadora oleoides, Capparis
decidua and C. sepiaria (Prasad et al. 1996).
According to Champion (1968) the vegetation
of the Park can be described as Tropical Thorn
Forest. This type of forest occupies a large part
of western India which is not actual desert,
western Punjab, Rajasthan, Kutch and
Saurashtra, and a strip in southwest Madhya
Pradesh running south to Bombay and east to
Khandesh; Aurangabad south to northern
Mysore and east to Guntur dist. in Andhra . This
region has some of India’s most productive
agricultural areas, and a large proportion of the
total livestock population. High concentrations
of white-backed and long-billed vultures were
seen in this area.
The land use pattern around the Park and
the general landscape including vegetation type
and structure represents the typical semi-arid
agrarian ecosystem of the country. The Park
could be considered broadly representative of
semi-arid region. Hence, we could expect
population trend of the white-backed vulture and
long-billed vulture to be similar in most parts
of the country to that of the Park.
Study Area
The Keoladeo National Park is situated at
27° 7.6'-27° 12.2' N lat. and 77° 29.5’-77° 33.9' E
long., 2 km southeast of Bharatpur city and
180 km south of Delhi. It covers about 29 sq. km
of flattish terrain sloping to a slight depression
of about 8.5 sq. km in the centre. This forms the
main submersible area of the Park and has been
divided into several unequal compartments by
dykes (Ali and Vijayan 1986). The Park gets
water from an inundation reservoir situated
about 500 m from the Park during June- July.
Most of the waterspread areas dry up by March-
April and the water remains in a few perennial
water bodies. The inundation reservoir turns into
an agricultural field after the water is released
in the Park and for irrigation.
The average elevation of the area is 174 m.
Extremes of climate are experienced with
temperature varying between 1°C and 50°C.
Apart from the wetland, the Park has ca
20 sq. km of woodlands, savanna-type
grasslands and savanna with thickets. In some
of the compartments, the marshes have scattered
mounds planted with Acacia nilotica , and are
also bordered with the same species, other tree
species are Mitragyna parvifolia , S izygium
cumini and Prosopis spicigera. Agricultural
fields of about 14 villages surround the Park.
The major crops are mustard Brassica
campestris and wheat Triticum aestivum.
Pesticides are extensively used in the fields
northeast of the Park in the water scarcity areas
as they can become infested with white ants.
366
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(A) DEC. 1999
STATUS OF VULTURES IN KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK
Study Period
The work was earned out as part of a Ph. D.
programme during 1985-88, part of the project
Ecology and Status of Resident Raptors in India,
during 1990-92 and as a part of the ongoing
project on the Effect of Environmental
Contamination on Raptors during 1996-99.
Method
Population and Distribution of Vultures
The following standard methods (Fuller
and Mosher 1981) were followed for estimating
the population of vultures in the Park.
1 . Road Transect Method
Roads and bunds were taken as transects
and the birds were counted by driving slowly
along the transect in the Park. An absolute count
was attempted for all the species except for the
white-backed and long-billed vultures. Their
population was estimated during 1985-86 and
1986-87 as their number was very large and it
was difficult to actually count all the birds.
However, during rest of the years, the actual
number was counted. All the sighting locations
were marked on a map.
2. Nest Census
Nest searches were conducted once in a
month throughout the Park for various species
of vultures. The total count of the nests of white-
backed vultures was carried out during February
and March, when maximum nests are
encountered.
3. Count at Carcasses
The number of vultures at large mammal
carcasses was estimated whenever a carcass was
observed.
Results and Discussion
1. White-backed Vulture Gyps bengalensis.
Population and Distribution
The white-backed vulture is a resident of
the Park and is sighted throughout the year. The
population is usually low from June to September
when most of the Park gets flooded, and there is
hardly any habitat left for foraging. Its
population gradually builds up, with the initiation
of the breeding season in September when the
pairs start occupying their old nests, and reaches
a peak during March and April when the
nestlings fledge and there is also an influx of
birds from outside the Park. Food is available in
abundance during this period as apart from the
usual mortality of frail and old cows abandoned
in the Park by villagers, a number of domestic
cows perish on getting caught in the wet mud of
the drying marshes, when they come to drink
water.
A 96% decline in the maximum population
was observed over the last one decade. During
1985-86 the highest population of 1800 vultures
(density=62/sq. km) was recorded, whereas
maximum of only 86 vultures were recorded
during 1998-99 (density=3/sq. km) (Fig. 1).
The nesting population of the white-backed
vulture also crashed by 95% over a decade. For
instance, 353 pairs (nest density=12.17 nest / sq.
km) were recorded nesting during 1987-88 but
only 150 nests were recorded during 1996-97,
25 nests during 1997-98 and just twenty 20 (nest
density= 0.68 nest/ sq. km) in 1998-99 (Fig 2).
During 1987-88, these vultures were
observed throughout the Park, but they were seen
only on the trees near the wetland in 1998-99.
Nesting Success
A sharp decline in the nesting success of
the vulture was recorded over a decade. The
nesting success was recorded as 82% (n=244)
in 1985-86, but it was nil during 1997-98 (n=25)
and 1998-99 (n=20).
During 1997-98, 60% of the nests were
lost during nestling period (n=l 5), 20% were lost
during incubation and in 20% nests (n=5) the
birds failed to lay. During 1998-99, the birds did
not lay in 60% (n=12) nests, nestlings died in
30% nests (n=6), and there was incubation failure
in 10% (n=2) nests.
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(3). DEC. 1999
367
No. of Nests Population
ST A TUS OF VUL TURES IN KEOLA DEO NA TIONA L PA RK
OCT DEC FEB APR JUN AUG
Months
Fig. 1: Population of White-backed Vulture in KNP during various years
Years
Fig. 2: Nests of White-backed Vulture in KNP during various years
368
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(3) DEC. 1999
STA TUS OF VULTURES IN KEOLADEO NA TIONAL PARK
Mortality
It is usually difficult to locate dead vultures,
as they often die on large trees and quite often in
secluded areas. Their carcasses are frequently
seen entangled in the branches of trees or in
thickets below the trees. Jackals also feed on the
vulture carcasses. So, though vultures are big
birds, their carcasses largely go unnoticed.
The birds were usually found dead on the
nest, on trees or on the ground below the trees.
Sporadic deaths were observed. Prior to death,
individual vultures were seen perched on trees,
dozing, with the neck slowly slumping down.
They would wake up with a start, when the beak
hit the branch. The bird usually remained in this
condition for more than 30 days (n=5) and then
would fall off the branch, sometimes getting
caught in the branches of the trees and at times
falling on the ground. The birds would die within
minutes of falling down. The number of dead
vultures must be far more than were recorded,
due to various constraints.
High adult as well as juvenile mortality
was recorded during 1997-98 and 1998-99,
compared to 1985-86. Only 0.4 % mortality of
total adult population (n=T800) was recorded
during 1985-86, whereas it was as high as 1.5%
of the total adult population (n=86) during
1998-99.
Table 1
MORTALITY IN WHITE-BACKED VULTURE
RECORDED IN DIFFERENT YEARS
2. Long-billed Vulture Gyps indicus :
It is a resident and nests about 50 km
southwest of the Park. It does not breed in the
Park due to paucity of its nesting habitat, i.e.
cliffs (Ali and Ripley 1983). The birds are.
1000
oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Apri Jun Aug
Months
Fig. 3: Population of Long-billed Vulture in KNP during various years
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3), DEC. 1999
369
STATUS OF VULTURES IN KEOLADEO NA TIONAL PARK
however, seen in the Park throughout the year.
Their number starts building up from November
and the population reaches a peak in March- April.
The population of the long-billed declined
by over 97% over a decade. A maximum of 8 16
birds (density =2 8 birds/sq. km) were recorded
during 1985-86 but only 25 birds (0.86 birds/
sq. km) were recorded in 1998-99 (Fig. 3).
During 1985-86, on an average 80 vultures
were sighted on a cattle carcass (n=13) of which
69% (n=79) were white-backed and 31% were
long-billed. None of the carcasses were observed
without vultures. However, during 1998-99, a
total of 100 carcasses were sighted from
November till May, but 92% were without any
vulture and only eight (8%) had vultures feeding
on them. On an average, 19 vultures were
sighted on a carcass (n=8), of which 63% (n=12)
were white-backed vultures and 37% (n=7) were
long-billed vultures.
It appears that both the species have
shown a drastic decline, but it is more
pronounced in the white -backed vulture.
3. Indian Griffon Gyps fulvus :
It is a winter migrant to the Park. 25-30
birds were observed wintering in the Park every
year (Fig. 4). The population has shown a
downward trend over the last decade. Only two
birds were observed during 1997-98 and none
during 1998-99. Despite the availability of food
and much reduced competition from con-
generics, the population of this species did not
increase, but showed a drastic decline. Although
the griffon is known to winter at a number of
places in the Indian subcontinent, the drastic
decline in population when food and habitat is
available in abundance, could indicate a decline
in its overall population.
Months
Fig. 4: Population of Indian Griffon in KNP
370
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3) DEC. 1999
STA TUS OF VULTURES IN KEOLADEO NA TIONAL PARK
4. Himalayan Griffon Gyps himalayensis:
It is an uncommon winter migrant to the
Park. A few juveniles regularly wintered in the
Park since 1985-86 (Fig. 5). No bird has been
seen since 1996-97. The absence of the species
from the Park, despite availability of food and
habitat and near absence of competition for food
from the congenerics, possibly indicates decline
in the population of the species. A survey of the
species in its known range will give a better
overall picture.
5. Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus :
The population of Egyptian vultures
fluctuated throughout the year in the Park. The
highest population of vultures was seen during
the months of April and May, when the water
dried up and the birds came to feed on dying
fish and turtle.
The breeding population of these birds has
remained stable in the Park over the last ten
years. Up to five pairs were recorded nesting
during 1987-88, 90-91, 96-97 and 98-99. The
vulture is largely a cliff nester and occasionally
nests on trees. Absence of its preferred nesting
habitat could be a limiting factor for its nesting
population in the Park.
The population of the Egyptian vulture
has also shown a decline, although there is very
limited data on the population. Between 350
to 400 vultures were estimated during April
1986, whereas only 100-120 vultures were
recorded during April 1998 and 25 vultures
during April 1999. Their fall in number could
be largely because of difference in food
availability. Their number increases due to the
drying up of water, as they come to feed on dead
fish. However, the low breeding success of the
bird is a cause of concern. Breeding has been
nil during 1996-97 and 1997-98, while 50%
success was recorded between 1985 and 1988.
However, during 1998-99, 70% success was
recorded.
■ 85-86
| 1 86-87
^90-91
Egg 96-97
■ 97-98
■ 98-99
Fig. 5: Population of Himalayan Griffon in KNP in various years
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3), DEC 1999
371
STATUS OF VULTURES IN KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK
Table 2
NESTING PAIRS OF EGYPTIAN VULTURE
IN KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK DURING
VARIOUS YEARS
6. King Vulture Sarcogyps calvus :
This is a resident species, seen in the Park
throughout the year. Most of the adults and the
fledged birds move out of the Park during the
monsoon (July to September). The population
starts building up and becomes highest in
December- January. A fairly stable population of
this species is seen in the Park. Over the last
decade 4-5 pairs were observed (Fig. 6), and 3-4
pairs nest regularly (Table 3). Very few first year
birds are sighted: perhaps all the young disperse
out of the Park.
The nesting success has been erratic, but
has been recorded low since 1991.
Table 3
NESTING PAIRS OF KING VULTURE IN
KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK
7. Cinereous Vulture Aegypius calvus :
It is a rare winter visitor to the Park. Three
birds were recorded during 1991-92 and were
seen throughout the winter. The bird is a common
visitor to western Rajasthan in the desert areas.
Observations and Discussion
Population Crash in Gyps species
All species of Gyps vultures have shown a
sharp decline in their population. All the species
c
o
IS
3
CL
o
CL
Oct Dec Feb Apr Jun Aug
Months
Fig. 6: Population of King Vulture in KNP during various years
372
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3) DEC. 1999
STATUS OF VULTURES IN KEOLADEONA TIONAL PARK
are communal feeders and are known to feed on
the carcasses of the larger mammals.
There has been a very steep decline in the
population of white-backed and long-billed
vultures. The population of white-backed has
declined by 96% and that of long-billed vulture
by 97% over a decade in the Park. (Figs. 1 & 3).
High adult mortality (Table 1 ) and total breeding
failure have caused the population decline.
Vultures are long-lived birds and together
with the albatross have the lowest reproductive
rate of any bird species in the world (Lack 1 968).
It follows that their mortality rates must be
among the lowest of any bird species. The studies
on large tropical seabirds suggest that the adult
survival rates of 95 to 97% may not be
uncommon (Houston 1979). If adult mortality
becomes heavier the birds cannot compensate
by increasing their rate of reproduction, and
the species slowly declines to extinction.
Computer models show that for vulture
populations it takes only a relatively small
annual increase in adult mortality to lead to rapid
population decline (Houston 1987). The crash
in vulture population by over 96% due to high
adult mortality and almost zero breeding success
can well lead the white-backed vulture to
extinction.
The population of all the Gyps vultures
appears to have crashed. The population of long-
billed vulture has also declined by 97% (Fig. 3).
This was the second most abundant species in
the Park. The bird does not breed in the Park,
so there is no data on its breeding. The presence
of 25-30 carcasses every month and the absence
of Gyps species, 92% of the time (n=100), both
during summer and winter, suggest a crash in
population of both the residents i.e. white-backed
and long-billed vultures and migratory i.e.
Indian griffon and Himalayan griffon vultures.
There has been complete absence of Indian
griffon and Himalayan griffon in the Park during
1998-99, even though food was available in
abundance. The Himalayan griffon was also not
seen during 1997-98.
The breeding population of the king and
Egyptian vultures has remained fairly stable over
the years. This appears to be the normal situation
elsewhere, with the population of large and long
lived raptors (Newton 1979). Large birds,
especially raptors, have greater immunity from
predation and an increased ability to survive
temporary food shortages. The larger the bird,
the more consistently is its population likely to
remain close to the level that the environment
will support (Newton 1979). The stability of the
population does indicate stable ecological
conditions for the species. Incidentally, both the
king and Egyptian vultures feed more on smaller
carcasses and occasionally on large mammal
carcasses. They usually remain either solitary
or in pairs. They are seldom seen feeding in
flocks.
To investigate the major causes of decline
in the population of Gyps vultures, the ecological
factors, which could have caused major changes
in the population, were examined:
1 . Food Supply. Reduction in the size of
the food supply has undoubtedly been a major
factor in the recent decline of some vulture
populations, particularly the European and South
African species (Houston 1974). Food does not
appear to be a cause of decline as it is still
available in abundance. Every month 20-25
carcasses are seen in the Park, with very few or
no vultures on them. It takes days to finish off a
carcass. There has been no change in the method
of carcass disposal by the villagers around the
Park. The carcasses of cattle are skinned and
thrown out into the open.
2. Nesting and Perch Site : Raptors are
among the few groups of birds whose numbers
and nest success are in some region clearly
limited by the availability of nesting places
(Newton 1979). Reduction in the availability of
perch and nesting sites can cause population
decline. The paucity of good nesting sites can
severely reduce breeding success. The vultures
are big birds, which weigh about 4-5 kg and
hence need big and strong trees for nesting. There
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(3). DEC. 1999
373
ST A TUS OF VULTURES IN KEOLADEO NA TIONAL PARK
has been a general decline in the number of old
and mature trees, but not so severe as to cause a
crash in vulture population. Although we do not
have hard data on the nesting tree availability,
there has been no marked decline in number
of big trees for nesting. Anyway, it cannot lead
to the steep decline seen in white-backed
vultures.
3. Effect of Pesticides and Insecticides :
The sharp fall in raptor population with the
increase in the use of pesticide is well known
(Ratcliff 1967, Hickey and Anderson 1968,
Hickey 1969). Persistent, high fat solubility and
sub lethal effects are the main qualities, which
lead organochlorine pesticides to cause decline
in bird population. Predators and scavengers at'
the top of the food chain are among the most
affected species (Newton 1984) as they are
especially liable to accumulate organochlorines
in large amounts. At sublethal levels of only a
few ppm in tissues, organochlorines can disrupt
the breeding of certain birds (Newton 1984).
In India, organochlorine pesticides are
extensively used in agriculture. This group
includes DDT and cyclodienes such as aldrin,
dieldrin, endrin and endosulphan. A survey of
pesticide use around the Keoladeo National Park
revealed extensive use of organochlorine
compounds including aldrin, dieldrin,
endosulfan and heptachlor. The use of aldrin has
become very restricted as it is banned and is not
available in the market. DDT, which has been
banned for use in agriculture, is still extensively
applied after being diverted from the National
Malaria Control Programme. Lethal levels of
DDE, aldrin and dieldrin were detected in the
tissues of sarus crane Grus antigone and ring
dove Streptopelia decaocto, but negligible levels
were found in greylag geese Anser anser in
Keoladeo National Park (Vijayan 1991). DDE,
the main metabolite of DDT, causes shell
thinning and egg breakage as well as embryo
death in intact eggs. Different species of raptors
show little variation in their response to DDE,
but raptors in general are more sensitive to a
given level of DDE than birds in other families.
Aldrin and dieldrin are more toxic than DDT,
and cause mortality of both adults and embryo.
Increased mortality led to very rapid population
declines of sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus and
peregrines Falco peregrinus in Britain (Newton
1979).
Circumstantial evidence suggests that the
population decline in vultures could have been
caused by the lethal and sublethal intake of
pesticide through food. The vulture population
has shown symptoms of pesticide contamination
like breeding failure due to non-hatching,
breaking of eggs in the nest, failure to lay and
death of nestlings. High adult mortality is also
recorded.
It is, however, not clear how vultures ingest
such a high dose of pesticide, which causes direct
mortality and total breeding failure. The white-
backed and long-billed vultures feed mainly on
the carcasses of large mammals. Among the
raptors in any given area, mammal eaters
invariably contained lower organochlorine levels
than bird eaters or fish eaters (Conrd 1 977, Henry
1977, Newton 1979). In addition, mammals in
general are better able to metabolise organo-
chlorines than are birds. Birds and fish have
higher levels of contamination than herbivorous
mammals (Cooke 1973, Shekel 1975). There
was less concern for raptors or avian scavengers
which feed mainly on mammals, since it was
presumed that they would not accumulate as high
a body burden of organochlorine (Lockie et al.
1969).
There has been no noticeable decline in
the breeding success of fish eating birds or their
population in the Park. The population of other
raptors including vultures other than Gyps
species, which largely feed on fish, amphibians
and reptiles, has also not shown any drastic
decline. As should be expected, based on the
studies carried out elsewhere (e.g. Cooke 1973,
Conrd 1977), fish eaters and bird eaters should
get affected earlier than the raptors feeding on
mammals. It may be that vultures metabolise
374
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3) DEC 1999
ST A TUS OF VUL TURES IN KEOLADEO NA TIONAL PA RK
pesticides differently than other groups of birds,
resulting in greater concentration. The Andean
condors Vultur gryphus collected in Peru had
much higher concentration of chlorinated
hydrocarbons than other local species including
the brown pelican Pelecanus occidentalism which
is known to concentrate pesticide. In contrast,
golden eagles, with a food source similar to
condors, have shown no significant eggshell
thinning (Hickey and Anderson 1968) or bodily
concentration of pesticides (Reichel et al. 1969).
Due to a different metabolism, the vulture
accumulates pesticides faster than other species
(Snyder 1986). Gyps vultures could also have
accumulated pesticide faster than other bird
species in a similar process. High residual level
of DDE was detected in the eggs of California
condor Gymnogyps californianus (Jarman and
Risebrough 1986), Eurasian griffon
(Mendelssohn 1972), and cape vulture Gyps
coprotheres (Wyk et al. 1993) but the source of
DDT is still not confirmed (Kiff 1 989). All three
species also scavenge mammalian carcasses like
the white-backed vulture. The few vulture tissue
samples from the Park analysed so far have,
however, not shown any significant load of
pesticide. (Bhagwat, A.M., C. B. Patel Institute,
Vile Parle, Mumbai, pers. comm. 1999).
Breeding failure could be due to organo-
chlorine contamination in the tissue, but the
cause of adult mortality is still not clear. There
have been no observations of large-scale deaths
of vultures after feeding on a carcass. Mortality
has been sporadic and widespread.
4. Poisoning : Vultures are far more
susceptible to poisoning than any other bird of
prey, for the obvious reason that they may not be
able to distinguish a dead animal that contains
poison (Houston 1987).
Carcass poisoning in and around the Park
was not observed. No large-scale mortality has
been observed in vultures after consuming meat
from the carcass. There have been instances of
village cows dying after deliberately being fed
on rodenticide zinc phosphide by hide collectors.
No mortality was seen after vultures fed on the
poisoned carcasses. Thus poisoning does not
seem to be a major cause of decline in vulture
population. Strychnine poisoning of carcasses
by farmers was identified as a major cause of
population decline of Cape vulture (Dobbs and
Benson 1984). There have been reports of
deliberate poisoning of carcasses to kill wild
animals such as jackal Canis aureus , wolf Canis
lupus , leopard Panthera pardus, tiger Panthera
tigris and lion Panthera leo, whenever these
animals are suspected to have attacked the cattle
and sheep in different parts of the country.
Mortality of vultures after feeding on poi-
soned carcasses has been reported (Grubh 1 974).
Such incidents are few and far between and
cannot be the cause of population crash in
vultures.
5. Changes in Genetic Diversity of the
Population : All biologically important
characteristics of populations including their
size and reproductive efficiency are determined
by historically established gene pool (Wyk et al.
1993). Depression of fitness traits, such as
survival and fecundity, which are components
determining breeding success may be associated
with low levels of heterozygosity (Leberg 1990).
Fluctuation in the size of breeding populations
can be accompanied by a reduction in the genetic
variability (Eitniear 1989) which in turn reduces
the ability of a species to adapt to environmental
changes (Meffe 1990). In the current situation,
the lack of genetic heterozygosity could be
indicative of the abovementioned negative
factors for white-backed vulture. Low levels of
genetic variability were reported in Gyps
coprotheres in South Africa and this was
considered to be a major reason for the drastic
population decline in the once abundant G.
coprotheres in South Africa (e.g. Wyk et. al.
1993). No studies have been carried out on the
Gyps species on genetic variability in India. Low
level of genetic variability, coupled with some
other factors, could be a cause of population
decline.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3), DEC. 1999
375
STA TUS OF VUL TURES IN KEOLA DEO NA TIONAL PA RK
6. Outbreak of Disease : According to
Newton ( 1 979) disease plays an insignificant role
in the control of raptor populations, and accounts
for only a small part of the total mortality.
However, disease is not rare in raptors and has
caused mortality. The typical symptoms displayed
by birds suffering from pesticide contamination
like increased aggression, reduced discriminatory
behaviour and alertness, poor incubation and
reduced territorial activity were not evident in
the sick vultures in the Park. Vultures also have
unusual resistance against disease (Kalmbach
1939, Singh, R. B. pers. comm.) There is still a
possibility of a viral disease, which has probably
caused the widespread mortality in the adults and
juveniles. The birds appear sick before they die.
They perch on a branch, appear drowsy and
frequently doze off with the neck limp and
hanging. The vulture wakes up with a start and
pulls up the neck. After a while, the neck becomes
limp again, and the same sequence is repeated.
The bird remains at the same place for about 32
days (n=5) and then falls on the ground and
dies. They can fly short distances while they are
sick.
7. Calcium Deficiency : Calcium deficiency
is thought to cause problem in the chick skeleton
development and causes chick mortality. Evans
and Piper (1981) estimated that approximately
20 % of all cape vulture chicks were affected by
nutritional bone disease. The authors postulated
that the necessary calcium for chick development
was inadequate and directly related to the
declining population of bone crunching hyenas
(Mundy and Piper 979). The population of
hyenas has also declined with the spread of
human population in India. Some chick mortality
in the country could be due to calcium deficiency.
But this needs to be investigated further. Dobbs
and Benson (1984), however, found that bone
abnormalities in growing cape vulture were not
caused by inadequate calcium intake and the
vulture gets adequate calcium from the food. So
calcium may not be a cause of decline in vulture
population.
Conclusions
There has been a crash in population of
Gyps vultures in Keoladeo National Park over a
decade. The white-backed vulture has suffered
large-scale adult mortality and total breeding
failure. The long-billed vulture has also suffered
a population decline of over 97%. The Indian
griffon and Himalayan griffon have also
experienced drastic fall in numbers. The non-
Gyps species of vultures have maintained fairly
stable population over the years.
The exact cause of the population crash is
not clear. Circumstantial evidence suggests
pesticide contamination to be the major cause of
decline. However, the high adult mortality could
not be explained by pesticidal contamination
alone. The decline in genetic variability could
have made the vulture population susceptible to
disease, which caused high adult mortality and
breeding failure. Intensive efforts are required
to determine the cause of decline in vulture and
effective conservation measures should be taken
to save the species from extinction.
Recommendations for saving Gyps species
from imminent extinction
The population of white-backed vulture has
declined because of adult mortality and almost
total breeding failure. The population of other
Gyps species vultures is feared to be facing a
similar fate. There is no definite clue to the causes
of adult mortality and total breeding failure. The
following steps should be taken to save these
vultures from imminent extinction:
i. Pilot survey of vulture populations all
over the country especially in areas where data
on vulture populations exists, to find out the
extent of population decline.
ii. Tissue samples of vultures and their
food should be analysed on a large scale in
different parts of the country to estimate the load
of organic pesticides, specially organochlorines
in the tissues.
iii. Genetic studies should be initiated to
see if there is decline in genetic diversity.
376
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(3) DEC. 1999
STATUS OF VULTURES IN KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK
iv. Pathological studies should be initiated
immediately to find out if any disease is
responsible for the crash in vulture population.
v. Captive breeding programme should
immediately be taken up to save the species from
extinction. A 96% decline in population and total
breeding failure can certainly cause extinction.
Acknowledgements
I thank the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service
for funding, Ministry of Environment and
Forests, Govt, of India, for sponsoring the study
Refer
All S. & S. D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of
India and Pakistan, Compact edition, Oxford
University Press, Bombay.
Ali, S. & V. S. Vijayan ( 1 986): Keoladeo National Park,
Ecology Study. Summary Report 1 980-85. Bombay
Natural History Society, Bombay.
Champion, H. G. (1 968): A revised survey of forest types
of India. Government of India, New Delhi.
Conrd, B. (1977): Die Giftbelastung der Vogelwelt
Deutschlands. Vogelkundliche Bibliothek 5: 1-68
Cooke, A. S. (1973): Shell thinning in avian eggs by
environmental pollutants. Environ. Pollu. 4\ 85-152
Dobbs, J. C. & P. C. Benson ( 1 984): Calcium requirements
and Bone abnormalities in Cape Vulture. In:
Proceedings of the second symposium on African
predatory birds. Eds. Mendelsohn J.M. and Sapsford
C. W. Natal Bird Club. Durban, South Africa.
Eitniear, C. J. ( 1 989): Guest editorial: Vulture populations
in a changing world. Vulture news (21): 2-3
Evans, L. B. & S. Piper (1981): Bone abnormalities in
Cape Vulture (Gyps coprotheres). J. S. A. Vet Ass.
52: 67-68.
Fuller, M. R. & J. A. Mosher (1981): Methods of detecting
and counting raptors. A review. Studies in Avian
Biology 6: 235-248.
Grubh R. B. (1974): The Ecology and Behaviour of
Vultures in Gir Forest. Ph. D. thesis, Bombay
Univeristy. Bombay
Grubh R. B. (1989): Ecological Study of Bird Hazard at
Indian Aerodromes: Phase 2. Final Report. Bombay
Natural History Society, Bombay.
Galushin, V. M. ( 1 97 1 ): A huge urban population of birds
of prey in Delhi, India (preliminary note) Ibis 1 13:
522.
and the Rajasthan forest department for
permission to work in the Park. I am thankful
to David Ferguson, SFC coordinator, U. S. Fish
and Wildlife Service, William Clark, U. S.
advisor to the projects, and Dr. V. S. Vijayan,
Director, SACON, for help and guidance during
the study. I thank Mr. J. C. Daniel. Honorary
Secretary and Dr. A. R. Rahmani, Director,
BNHS for encouragement and critical assessment
of the paper. I thank Ms. Gargi, Research Fellow,
BNHS for help in field and referencing. I had
the excellent field assistance of Mr. Brijendra
Singh, local assistant, BNHS.
E N C E S
Henry C. J. (1977): Birds of prey, DDT. & Tussock Moths
in Pacific Northwest. Trans. N. Amer. Wild. & Nat.
Res. Conf 42: 397-41 1 .
Hickey, J.J. (1969): Peregrine Falcon populations, their
biology and decline. Uni. Wisconsin Press.
Madison. Milwaukee and London.
Hickey, .1. J. & D. W. Anderson (1968): Chlorinated
hydrocarbon and eggshell changes in raptorial and
fish eating birds. Science. 162: 271-3.
Houston, D. C. (1 974): The role of Griffon Vultures Gyps
africanus and Gyps ruppelli as scavanger.
./. Zool., Loud. 172: 35-76.
Houston, D.C. (1979): The adaptations of scavengers. In:
Serengetti: dynamics ol'an ecosystem (eds. Sinclair,
A R E. and M. North Griffiths), pp. 263-286.
Chicago University Press.
Houston D. C. (1987): Management Techniques for
vultures- Feeding and Release, hi: Breeding and
Management of Birds. Ed. D. J. Hill.
Jarman, W. M. & R. W. Risebrough (1986): Chlorinated
hydrocarbons in the lipid of the shell of a crushed
egg of a California Condor. 1986. 1 lp (unpubl.).
Kiff L.F. (1989): DDE and the California Condor
Gymnogyps californianus: the end of a story? In:
Meyburg, B.-U. & R. D. Chancellor eds. Raptors
in Modern World WWGBP: Berlin. London. Paris.
Kalmbach, E. R. (1939): American vulture and the toxin
of Clostridium botulinum.J. Amer. Vet. Med. Ass.
94: 187-91.
Lack, D. (1968): Ecological adaptations for breeding in
birds. Methun and Co. Ltd. London.
Leberg, P. L. (1990): Influence of genetic variation on
population growth: implications for conservation.
J. Fish Biol. 37:193-195.
177
JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(3), DEC. 1999
STA TUS OF VUL TURESIN KEOLADEO NA TIONAL PARK
Lockif., J. D., D. A. Ratcuffe & R. Balharry (1969):
Breeding success and dieldrin contamination of
Golden Eagles in West Scotland. J. apl. Ecol. 6 :
381-9.
Mendelssohn, H. (1972): The impact of pesticides on
birdlife in Israel. ICBP Bull. //: 775-104.
Meffe, G. K. ( 1 990): Genetic approaches to conservation
of rare fishes: example from North American desert
species, / Fish Biol. 37: 105-1 12.
Mundy. P. J. & S. Piper, (1979): Calcium requirements of
nestling vultures. Abs. International symposium on
Vultures, Santa Barbara Museum of Natural
History. March 23 to 26.
Newton, I. (1979): Population Ecology of Raptors. T. and
A. Poyser, England, pp. 399.
Newton, 1.(1 984): Effects of Organochlorine pesticides
on Birds. In: Proceedings of the second symposium
on African predatory birds. Eds. Mendelsohn
J. M. and C. W. Sapsford. Southern African
Ornithological Society, Durban Natural History
Museum, Natal.
Prakash, V. (1989): The General Ecology of raptors in
Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan.
Ph. D. Thesis. Bombay Natural History Society,
Bombay University, Bombay.
Prasad, V. P., D. Mason, J.E. Marburger & C. R. Ajith
Kumar (1996): Illustrated Flora of Keoladeo
National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan. Bombay
Natural History Society, Mumbai.
Ratcliff, D. A. (1967): Decrease in eggshell weight in
certain birds of prey .Nature 21 5: 208-210.
Rodgers, W. A. & H. S. Panwar (1988): Planning a
Wildlife Protected area network in India, Vol. 1,
Wildlife Institute of India, New Forest. Dehra Dun.
Reichel, W. L., E. Cromartie, T G. Lamont, B.M.
Mulhern&R. M. Prouty(1969): Pesticide residue
in eagles. Pestic. Monit. J. 3: 142-4
Samant, J. S., V. Prakash & R. NaOroji ( 1 995): Ecology
and Behaviour of Resident Raptors with special
reference to Endangered Species. Final Report.
Bombay Natural History Society. Mumbai.
Snyder, N. F. R. (1986): California Condor recovery
programme. In: Raptor Research Reports No. 5.
Raptor Research Foundation, pp 56-7 1 .
Stickel, W. H. (1975): Some effects of pollutants in
terrestrial ecosystem, pp. 25-74. In: A. D. McIntyre
and C. F. Mills (eds), Ecological. Toxicology
Research, Plenum Publ. Corp , New York.
Vijayan, V. S. ( 1 99 1 ): Keoladeo National Park Ecology
Study. Final Report 1980-90. Bombay Natural
History Society. Bombay.
Wyk E. V.. F. H. V. D. Bank & G.H. Verdoom (1993):
The Cape Griffon Gypscoprotheres — A
conservation priority. Vulture news 29: 4- 1 8.
378
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3) DEC 1999
ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF MOTHS OF THE FAMILIES SATURNIIDAE
AND SPHINGIDAE IN SANJAY GANDHI NATIONAL PARK, MUMBAI1
V. Shubhalaxmi and Naresh Chaturvedi2
( With five text-figures)
Key words: Satumiidae, Sphingidae, Lepidoptera, abundance, distribution,
Sanjay Gandhi National Park
In order to study the ecology of moths belonging to Families Saturniidae and Sphingidae, a three-
year study was conducted in Sanjay Gandhi National Park, Borivali, Mumbai. During the study,
two species of Saturnids and sixteen of Sphingids were recorded. Range extension for four species
of Family Sphingidae was recorded. Abundance ratio of Sphingids and Saturnids was found to be
80:20. It was observed that the activity of moths begins in the early monsoon, reaches a peak in
mid-monsoon, and is slowly reduced by the end of post-monsoon. The abundance of these moths
was greatly dependent on the availability of the foodplants. During monsoon, all the foodplants
were in full foliage; therefore the maximum abundance of all the species was recorded in this
season.
Introduction
Species richness of moths in India is
related to heavy rainfall, high floristic diversity,
whereas arid and semi-arid regions with low
floristic diversity have a smaller number of
species. Hence, some of these moths can be
termed as Indicator Species. Earlier studies on
moths emphasized their taxonomy, and very little
is known about their ecology, except for some
pest species.
Sanjay Gandhi National Park (SGNP), the
study area is among the very few national parks
in India which are surrounded by a metropolis
like Mumbai. It is constantly under heavy biotic
pressure from humans. This national park forms
part of the Western Ghats, a crucial area with
rich biodiversity. Though most of the flora and
fauna is well documented, very little is known
about the insect fauna of the park area.
Family Satumiidae
The Satumiidae are known as Emperor
Moths or Non-mulberry silkmoths (Arora and
Gupta, 1979). The Atlas moth is the largest moth
Accepted December, 1998
^Bombay Natural History Society,
Hombill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Marg,
Mumbai 400 023.
in the world, having a wingspan of 33 cm
(Kehimkar, 1 997). Others like Tussar, Muga and
Eri moths are known for their silk producing
capacity and are commercially exploited by the
silk industry.
Nearly 40 species are found in India (Arora
and Gupta, 1979), mostly confined to the moist
forests and plains. The adults are brightly
coloured with hyaline patches on their wings.
The males are smaller than the females and have
feathery antennae, while females have narrow
antennae. The caterpillars are robust, distinctly
segmented, often with sparse hairs and tubercles.
The cocoons are large, of fine or coarse silk,
either oval, attached to a twig by a silken
peduncle, or elongated, woven loosely among the
foliage.
Family Sphingidae
The Sphingidae are known as Hawk
moths. They are known to travel long distances
on migration; some have even been encountered
at mid-sea by ships (Kehimkar, 1997).
According to Imnis (1957) there are 1000
species existing throughout the world. Nearly 200
species are recorded from India (including
Andamans), Myanmar and Sri Lanka, out of
which 134 species are known to occur in the
Eastern Himalaya alone (Beeson, 1941). The
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3), DEC. 1999
379
A B UN DA NCE A ND DISTRIB UTION OF MOTHS
stout, cigar-shaped body and long, narrow
fore wings of the adults are distinctive. The very
long proboscis makes hawk moths ideal
pollinators for flowers with long tubular corolla
(Barlowr, 1982).
Study Area
The SGNP is situated in Greater Bombay
and Thane districts, occupying 44.50 sq. km and
58.64 sq. km respectively. The total area of the
park is approx. 103 sq. km. It is situated about
40 km to the north of Mumbai city and about
8 km from the Arabian Sea. It has four types of
habitats ranging from mangroves to the
evergreen forests of Western Ghats. Most of
the trees are deciduous and at places evergreen.
The forest has a diversity of flora ranging from
the tallest trees to ground layer shrubs and
herbs.
Apart from the SGNP area, the study was
also earned out on the adjoining 1 .5 sq. km land
of the Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS)
at Goregaon. The vegetation of the BNHS land
is of southern moist-mixed deciduous type, and
the topography is mainly hilly intersected with
rocky streambeds. There are seasonal rainfed
streams.
Materials and Methods
Weekly field visits were conducted from
January 1994 to December 1997 in different parts
of the study area. Besides observing the
caterpillars in the wild, a few caterpillars of each
species were reared in captivity.
The caterpillars were usually located on
their foodplants. Half-eaten leaves or fully
defoliated branches gave clues to their presence.
In some species, caterpillars were found on the
underside of the leaf, whereas some were seen
resting alone on the defoliated branch. Newly
hatched caterpillars were found on clusters of
young leaves of the foodplant. Frass particles
below the foodplant were also helpful in spotting
caterpillars. The size of the frass particles was
useful in estimating the approximate instar of
the feeding caterpillar.
Eggs and caterpillars collected from wild
were reared in the laboratory. The egg bearing
leaf was kept fresh by removing all other leaves
from the stem and then it was placed in a bottle
with water. The narrow neck of the bottle was
plugged with cotton. The stem was then covered
by a plastic bag secured by a rubber band at the
neck of the bottle.
Newly hatched caterpillars were
transferred to fresh foodplants with tender leaves,
placed in plastic containers having perforated
lids. Tissue paper was placed at the bottom of
the container to absorb moisture from frass
collected in the jar. This kept the jar dry for longer
periods, preventing fungal, bacterial and viral
infections. Fresh leaves were given every
morning and evening. Usually the container was
cleaned every morning. However, when
caterpillars were nearing final instar, they
became voracious feeders and the containers had
to be cleaned twice a day. In order to provide
protection from ants, the containers were placed
in a plate filled with water. While the foodplants
were collected, a careful search was made to
remove predators like spiders and ants, and the
plants were stored in a refrigerator.
Detailed notes on the appearance of the
caterpillar and measurements were taken of each
instar. Behavioural aspects and effects of climatic
factors were also studied and noted. As the
caterpillar reached maturity, pupation sites were
prepared for those pupating under the soil or
amongst the leaf litter inside a big plastic jar. In
case of doubt, both options were provided. A few
twigs were placed in the jar f<5r the emerging
moth to climb up and dry its wings. To make a
representative collection, adults of each species
were killed in a killing jar using ethyl acetate.
To study the species’ attraction to light and
also to make a checklist of moths, light traps
were set up in the study area. However, due to
rainfall and unsuitable locations, these attempts
380
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(3) DEC. 1999
ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF MOTHS
were not very successful. Based on the specimens
collected and field observations, the abundance
and distribution have been studied.
Results
A. Moth Activity
It was observed that moth activity was
greater during the monsoon and post-monsoon
period, when larval foodplants were available in
abundance. With ample food resources, egg
laying was at a peak. Abiotic factors such as
rainfall, temperature and humidity played a vital
role in influencing the distribution and
abundance. Moth activity began by early
monsoon season and reached a peak level in mid-
monsoon season, slowly decreasing, by the end
of post-monsoon period.
1. Rainfall: In Mumbai, normal precipi-
tation reaches about 2600 mm p.a. as per data
obtained from the Meteorological Department,
Santacruz, Mumbai, (Table 1). The mean
monthly rainfall for three years showed that
maximum rainfall was received during July,
while the monsoon begins from June and ends
in October. A correlation was drawn between the
rainfall and moth activity (Fig. 1 ). It showed that
though the maximum rainfall (87 mm) was
received in July, the moths were found to be active
from April onwards. The moth activity
progressively increases till August, and reached a
peak, while the rainfall had reduced to 43 mm.
From September onwards there was a gradual
decrease in the moth activity till the coming April.
2. Temperature: It was observed that
fluctuation in maximum temperature was nearly
4°C, whereas the fluctuation in minimum
temperature was approximately 10°C, more than
twice that of maximum temperature (Table 1 ). Rise
in temperature was observed from March onwards
till November except in August and September.
The correlation between the moth activity and the
temperature (Fig. 2) showed that fluctuation among
maximum and minimum temperature was low
during August and September, which leads to a
peak level in moth activity.
MONTHS
M
O
T
H
A
C
T
I
V
I
T
Y
RAINFALL □ MOTH ACTIVITY
Fig. 1 : Rainfall / activity of moths (1994-96)
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3), DEC 1999
381
ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF MOTHS
Table 1
MEAN MONTHLY CLIMATIC FACTORS (1994-97)
3. Humidity: Being close to the Arabian
Sea, the study area is always humid. The data on
humidity (Table 1) showed that the maximum
humidity was never less than 85% and the
minimum humidity was always more than 25%.
The rise in humidity was observed from June to
October whereas the decline was from November
to May. The effect of humidity on moth activity
was analysed (Fig. 3). It showed that fluctuation
between maximum and minimum humidity was
low during July and August. Moths preferred
high humidity levels for their activity.
Hence, it was concluded that for peak level
in moth activity, the optimum requirements were
rainfall 43 mm, humidity 92% and temperature
30 °C. These conditions were achieved in August.
This relation has been drawn from Figs. 1, 2 & 3.
B. Abundance
Out of the 40 recorded species of Satumiidae
and 181 species of Sphingidae in India, 2
Satumids and 14 Sphingids were studied. The
analysed data on moth species (Figs. 4 and 5)
MONTHS
M
0
T
H
A
C
T
V
1
T
Y
Min Temp
Max Temp
I i Moth Activity
Fig. 2: Temperature / activity of moths (1994-96)
382
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(3) DEC 1999
A B UN DA NCE A ND DISTRIB UTION OF MO THS
MONTHS
M
O
T
H
A
C
T
I
V
I
T
Y
Min Hum Max Hum L I Moth Activity
Fig. 3: Humidity / activity of moths (1994-96)
shows the abundance of individual species
as well as the abundance component of each
Family as percentage of the total number of
species.
From Fig. 4, it was concluded that among
the Saturnids, Antheraea paphia was more
abundant than Actias selene. However among
Sphingids, Macroglossum gyrans had the highest
Maruma
Fig. 4: Abundance of moths species-wise
abundance. The next species among Sphingids
was Theretrci lycetus , which has the second
highest abundance, but within restricted period.
This was followed by Nephele didyma, Marumba
dyras and Cephanodes hylas, and the remaining
ten species (1 Saturnid, 9 Sphingids) form a
minor share, hence they are categorized as
‘Others’ in Fig. 4.
Fig. 5: Abundance of moths family-wise
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3), DEC 1999
383
ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF MOTHS
Table 2
MONTHLY DISTRIBUTION OF MOTHS (1994-97)
Moth Species No.of Moths Months
Jul, Aug
Jun,Jui,Aug, Sep, Oct
Jul, Aug
Apr
Jun, Jul
Oct, Dec
Jul, Aug, Sep
Jun, Jul, Aug, Sep
Jun, Jul, Aug, Sep, Oct, Nov, Dec
Jun, Aug, Oct
Jan, Apr, May, Jun, Jul, Aug, Sep, Oct, Nov, Dec
Jan, Jun, Jul, Sep, Dec
Sep
Jul, Aug, Sep
Aug
Jul, Aug, Sep, Oct
Jun
Sep
From Fig. 5, it was concluded that the
abundance of Sphingids was much higher than
that of Satumiidae, the abundance ratio being
80:20.
C. Range Distribution and Occurrence
The range distribution and occurrence
period of moth species is mentioned below. The
range distribution pertaining to the Indian
subcontinent is as described by Hampson ( 1 892-
96), Beeson (1941), Arora and Gupta ( 1 979) and
Barlow (1982). The details of occurrence are as
per the data collected and presented in Table 2.
a. Family Saturniidae
The Saturnids are widespread over the
moist hill forest areas in India, often at low
elevations, but they are typically subtropical and
only occasionally are they plains species (Beeson,
1941). Out of the 40 recorded species from India,
two species were recorded from the study area.
1. Actias selene (Hubner)
Distribution: The species is widely
distributed throughout India, Nepal, Bhutan,
Bangladesh, Myanmar, Sri Lanka. Occurrence
period: July-August. Foodplant: Lannea
coromandelica, a deciduous tree that bears new
leaves in monsoon.
2. Antheraea paphia (Linnaeus)
Distribution: The species is restricted to
moist hill forest areas and plains. Found throughout
India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal,
Bhutan, Myanmar in suitable habitat. Occur-rence
period: June-October. Foodplant: Zizyphus
mauritiana, Terminalia crenulcitci, T. bellericci,
Anogeissus latifolia and Bridelia retusci.
b. Family Sphingidae
The Sphingids are mostly confined to hilly
areas and plains. Out of the 181 species recorded
384
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3) DEC 1999
ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF MOTHS
for India, 16 were recorded from the study
area.
Subfamily Sphinginae
1. Acherontia lachesis (Fabricus 1798)
Distribution: Throughout India, Sri Lanka.
Occurrence period: July and August. Foodplant:
Ipomea carnea, a perennial climber.
2. Acherontia styx (Butler 1876)
Distribution: Throughout India, Sri Lanka.
Occurrence period: April. Foodplant: Ipomea sp.
3. Clanis phalaris (Hubner 1818)
Distribution: It is mainly found in eastern
India, in Sikkim and extralimitally in Malaya. The
present record from Mumbai is a range extension.
Occurrence period: June and July. Foodplant:
Pueraria tuberosa, a perennial climber.
4. Polyptychus dentatus (Cramer 1818)
Distribution: Old Bombay State, West
Bengal, Eastern and Northwest Himalaya.
Occurrence period: October and December.
Foodplant: Cordia dichotoma, a deciduous tree.
5. Marumba dyras (Butler 1875)
Distribution: The known distribution range
was Northwest and Eastern Himalaya, Assam,
Karnataka, Andamans and Sri Lanka, and the
present record is a westward range extension.
Occurrence period: July- September. Foodplant:
Bombax ceiba, Firmania colorata, Helicteres
isora and Grewia tiliaefolia.
Subfamily Macroglossinae
1. Cephanodes hylas (Linnaeus 1771)
Distribution: Throughout Indian
subcontinent. Occurrence period: June to
September. Foodplant: Mitragyna parvifolia,
Hymenodictyon orixense, Haldina cordifolia,
Gardenia lucida, G. grandiflora and Pavetta
indica.
2. Nephele didyma (Fabricius 1775)
Distribution: Throughout India, Sri Lanka.
Occurrence period: June to December. Foodplant:
Carrisa carandas, an evergreen shrub.
3. Gurelca hyas (Walker 1856)
Distribution: This record is a range
extension and a new record for Mumbai. The
known habitat range was Sikkim and
Bangladesh. Occurrence period: June to August.
Foodplant: Morinda tinctoria var tomentosa , an
evergreen tree.
4. Macroglossum gyrans (Walker 1856)
Distribution: Throughout India, Sri Lanka.
Occurrence period: June to September.
Foodplant: Morinda tinctoria var tomentosa , an
evergreen tree.
5. Macroglossum belis (Cramer)
Distribution: Throughout India, Sri Lanka,
China. Occurrence period: January, June,
September, and December. Foodplant: Morinda
tinctoria var tomentosa , an evergreen tree.
6. Theretra nessus (Drury 1773)
Distribution: Throughout India, Sri Lanka,
Myanmar. Occurrence period: September.
Foodplant: Dioscorea sp.
7. Theretra clotho (Drury 1773)
Distribution: Throughout India (including
Andamans), Sri Lanka, Myanmar. Occurrence
period: June to September. Foodplant:
Ampelocissus latifolia , a seasonal monsoon
climber.
8. Theretra alecto (Linnaeus 1758)
Distribution: Throughout India, Sri Lanka,
China. Occurrence period: August. Foodplant:
Ampelocissus latifolia , a seasonal monsoon
climber.
9. Theretra lycetus (Cramer 1775)
Distribution: This record is a range
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3), DEC. 1999
385
ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF MOTHS
extension for Mumbai; the earlier records were
from Mussoorie, Sikkim, Sri Lanka. Occurrence
period: July to October. Foodplant: Leea asiatica
and L.macrophylla , a seasonal monsoon herb.
10. Theretra oldenlandiae (Fabricius 1775)
Distribution: India. Occurrence period:
June. Foodplant: Ampelocissus latifolia , a
seasonal monsoon climber.
11. Rhyncholaba acteus (Cramer 1779)
Distribution: India. Occurrence period: Sep-
tember. Foodplant: Amorphophallus commutatus,
Leea asiatica , seasonal monsoon herbs.
Discussion
Environmental factors such as rainfall,
temperature and humidity are important as they
influence the distribution and abundance of
insects and their food plants under study
(William, 1987). The study showed that two
families of moths have considerable ecological
variations. The moths of family Sphingidae are
eight times as abundant as the family Satumiidae.
This coincides with the overall pattern recorded
in India, Satumiidae as such comprises of fewer
species i.e. 40 and Sphingidae has nearly 181
species. It was also observed that while the
distribution range and occurrence of the two
R EFE
Arora G.S & I.J. Gupta (1979): Taxonomic studies on
some of the Indian non-mulberry silkmoths
(Lepidoptera of Satumiidae and Salssinae), Mem.
Zool. Sur. India, Calcutta: xvi (I)
Barlow, H.S. (1982): An introduction to the moths of
South East Asia. The Malayan Nature Society,
Kuala Lumpur, p 305 with 50 plates
Beeson, C.F.S (1941): The ecology and control of the forest
insects of India and neighbouring countries. Govt,
of India, Dehra Dun.
Hampson, G.H. (1896): Fauna of British India including
families vary, there is some overlapping of
distribution range. Satumids are mostly confined
to moist hill forests, whereas Sphingids occur in
forests as well as in plains. This being a
subtropical group, it is distributed widely in
diverse habitats. It was found that four species
of Sphingidae had range extension for the study
areas, as the earlier known range for Clanis
phalaris, Marumba dyras, Gurelca hyas and
Theretra lycetus was only northeast India.
Acknowledgements
We thank the Director, Bombay Natural
History Society, for allowing us to use the office
and the BNHS land. We are grateful to Mr. J.C
Daniel, Hon. Secretary, BNHS for going through
the manuscript. Our sincere thanks to Mr. Isaac
Kehimkar, Public Relations Officer, BNHS for
providing valuable suggestions, photographing
specimens and for co-operation in the fieldwork.
We also thank Mr. M.R. Almeida, Plant
Taxonomist, Ms. Neelam Patil, Ex-Botanist of
BNHS for identification of foodplants. Also to
Mr. Prashant Muley, Ex-Statistician of BNHS
for analysing the data. Lastly we thank Mr. Vithal
Hegde, Field Assistant, BNHS for taking care of
the collected specimens.
ENCES
Ceylon and Burma: Moths, Vol.I, Taylor and
Francis, London.
Kehimkar, I.D. (1997): Moths of India- An introduction,
NCSTC-Hombill Series, Mumbai.
Scott, F.B. (1933): Notes on the foodplants of Indian
Hawkmoths, J. Bombay, nat. Hist. Soc. 36: 938-
943.
Imms. A.D (1957): A general textbook of entomology,
Chapman and Hall. London
William, G. (1987): Techniques and fieldwork in ecology,
Collins Educational Publishers, London.
386
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3) DEC. 1999
STATUS OF DIURNAL RAPTORS OF CORBETT NATIONAL PARK
WITH NOTES ON THEIR ECOLOGY AND CONSERVATION1
RishadNaoroji2
(With one map)
Key words: Raptors, status, conservation, checklist,
Corbett National Park, Uttar Pradesh, India.
Out of a total of 69 species of diurnal raptors reported from the Indian subcontinent, 51 were
recorded from Corbett National Park (CNP) in Uttar Pradesh, India, over a 6 year period. The
status of these raptors and the conservation problems which could be faced by some of the resident
species are discussed. With the exception of the lesser fish eagle Ichthyophaga humilis , none of
the resident species appear threatened, but continued alteration of the habitat through deforestation
and habitat degradation outside the Park is likely to have an adverse effect on the future status
and distribution of many species. The Park’s overall high avian (and raptor) diversity arises from
its immediate proximity to the Himalayan foothills, and represents a wide array of Himalayan
avifauna, partly as a result of altitudinal movement. Many raptor species in CNP are either
resident or local summer migrants to the Himalayan foothills up to at least 2000 m. A number of
high altitude raptors are winter visitors or vagrants to the Park. As the Park and adjacent foothills
form one ecosystem, facilitating movement of species from the middle Himalayan foothills to the
Bhabar tract and vice versa, the status of the species listed for the Park is also applicable to the
foothills.
Introduction
It is surprising that in an area as rich as
Corbett National Park in biotic diversity
supporting probably the richest variety of bird
species in India, no major ornithological studies
have been conducted. No extensive literature
(except on flora, Pant 1976, Pant et al. 1981)
exists, though it has long been a favourite locale
with birdwatchers. For a long time, the emphasis
has been on tiger protection and conservation,
and only during the last few years has the great
diversity of birds in the area been appreciated.
The forest department, whose activity revolves
mainly around managing the tiger, is now aware
of CNP’s unique ornithological heritage, and the
great range of birds of prey that it supports.
Regular birdwatching and identification camps
'Accepted June, 1998
:Godrej & Boyce Mfg. Co. Ltd
Godrej Bhavan, 4A, Home Street, Fort,
Mumbai 400 001 .
organised by the forest department are now a
yearly feature, and the guides and staff have
become more aware of the importance of raptors.
A three month survey for raptors in
protected areas covering most of the ten principal
biogeographical zones (except the northeast)
identified by Rodgers and Panwar (1988) was
conducted by William Clark, Dr. Vibhu Prakash
and I from January to March 1990. The high
numbers of many lesser known resident and
migratory raptors observed in CNP influenced
our choice of the Park for breeding studies on
the rarer resident species.
Study Area
Location and Habitat
Corbett National Park, comprising an area
of 920 sq. km extends across two sub-Himalayan
districts of Pauri in Garhwal and Nainital in
Kumaon, Uttar Pradesh, (Map 1) (29°31' to
29°35’N lat. 78°46' E long.). It is situated in the
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3), DEC. 1999
387
D I URN A I RAPTORS OF CORBETT N A TIONAL PARK
388
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3) DEC 1999
Fig. 1 : Map of the Corbett National Park
DIURNAL RAPTORS OF CORBETT N A TIONAL PARK
lower Central Himalayan foothills immediately
north of the terai, known as the Sivaliks, which
form part of the Bhabar tract. The topography is
undulating and varied with temporary marshy
depressions, ravines and plateaus, (also referred
to as Path Dun), varying in altitude from 250 to
1040 m above msl. A series of more or less
parallel ridges run northwest to southeast,
decreasing in height southwards towards the
plains. The middle reaches of the Ramganga
river (the only perennial source of water) flow
westwarcj through most of the Park along an
elevated plateau (Path Dun) until the river turns
southwards at an abandoned village named Boxar
(see map). The central portion of the Park is
located partly along the Path Dun, between the
lesser Himalaya to the north and the Sivalik
ranges to the south. About 10% of the Park area
(mainly prime grassland habitat) has been
submerged by the damming of the Ramganga
river at Kalagarh, forming a large reservoir
80 sq. km in the western comer of the Park, of
which 42 sq. km is within the Park. A number of
sots (springs) emerge from the numerous ridges
which comprise the secondary source of water
in the Park.
Climate and Vegetation
There are three distinct seasons: winter
(November to February), with often frosty nights
and periodic rains, is coldest in January when
temperatures can drop to as low as 2.5°C,
maximum average during the day is 25°C.
Summers (March to June) are warm and sultry,
with temperatures as high as 44°C during May/
June, and relative humidity around 57%.
Thunder showers and hailstorms are not unusual
during this period. The monsoon extends from
July to September, with an average annual
rainfall about 1650 mm. It is warm, with
humidity at about 80 to 90%.
Three main vegetation zones exist. Forest,
grassland (locally called chaur ) and riparian
forests. The main forest types are a mixture of
deciduous, tropical and subtropical. Sal Shorea
robusta dominates the moist deciduous biotope
in the northern region of the Park, forming
almost pure forest stands. In the southern half of
the Park, the biotope is dry deciduous, especially
along the Sivalik hills which, though low, are
extremely rugged and steep, and furrowed in
every direction by monsoon erosion and seasonal
streams. These three zones, together with the
varied topography, account for the biotic richness
of the area. The chaurs occupy a significant
ecological status in the Park. They were originally
man-made clearings for cultivation and
settlements long since abandoned, and support
a rich dense growth of medium to tall grasses.
There are seven major grasslands: Dhikala,
Fulay, Khinnanauli, Paterpani, Mohanpani,
Bhadhai and Bijrani, and many smaller ones.
Of these, the largest are Dhikala, Fulay and
Khinnanauli.
In all, more than 1 10 species of trees (57
common) 88 of shrubs, 39 of climbers, 42 of
grasses and 1 5 of sedges have been listed for the
Park (Pant 1976, Pant et al. 1981). The river
valley, high banks, and islands are dominated
by sheeshum Dalbergia sissoo. Lcui tan a camara
(a south American exotic) is spreading
unchecked in many areas and suppressing the
regeneration of sal and other herbaceous species.
Cannabis sativa (bhang) grows profusely in parts
of the grassland and in open areas. Bamboo
clumps occur frequently on the higher hill slopes.
Chir Pinus roxburghii is confined in small
numbers on some of the highest ridges (around
the Sultan watch tower) and in compartment No.
9/10 at Ghilmodya sot. For details on flora see
Pant (1976), Pant et al (1981).
Avifauna
The diverse habitat types, contiguity with
reserved forest to the west and the east
(facilitating lateral avifaunal movement and
dispersal for breeding species), and its location
at the base of the lower Himalaya account for
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(3), DEC. 1999
389
DIURNAL RAPTORS OF CORBET!' NATIONAL PARK
the high species richness and diversity of CNP.
The region is a meeting ground for high altitude
and plains species. Over 500 species of birds
which include long distance and altitudinal
migrants have been reported by certain
ornithologists. The area richest in raptor diversity
is along the Ramganga river from Gairal to
Khinnanauli, Dhikala and Fulay chaurs and
Gethia Rao, where riverine, grassland and forest
habitat together create the heterogeneity
preferred by many species (see Map 1 ). The river
and lake attract a variety of water birds, a valuable
food source for migratory raptors.
Methods
From 1990-93, breeding studies mainly on
the mountain hawk-eagle Spizaetus nipalensis ,
collared falconet Microhierax caerulescens and
the lesser fish-eagle Ichthyophagci humilis
(Samant et al. 1 995) and Naoroji ( 1 997a, b) were
carried out under a joint Bombay Natural History
Society and US Fish and Wildlife Service project
on Birds of Prey from February 1 to June 1 5 after
which the Park closes for the monsoon.
Occasional visits were made during the winter
months. These observations form part of breeding
studies of lesser known species. During 1993-96
independent studies were conducted by me each
year from April to June. Fulay and Dhikala
chaurs , Gethia Rao, and Gairal to Dhikala were
covered by jeep. Kanda (the highest look-out
point on the northern boundary of the Park) was
regularly surveyed for breeding raptors, and was
approached by jeep and the ridge traversed on
foot. Hilly, inaccessible regions such as the Sultan
watch tower were covered on foot. From
Dhangarhi to Marchula, Tolyo and Ranikhet,
regular surveys were made by jeep. The checklist,
with notes on resident and seasonal species,
habitats and general behaviour was prepared
during extensive searches for nests throughout
the Park, through what could be called sustained
opportunistic observations. Reserved forest to the
V
east of the Park was regularly surveyed for
breeding raptors as well as the high hills
contiguous with the north and northeast
boundary of the Park by jeep and on foot.
Intensive surveys were conducted in Fulay and
Dhikala chaurs and Gethia Rao, the area was
extensively covered by vehicle and spot counts
were conducted in these areas for periods upto
five hours. High, elevated points commanding a
wide view of the Park were used for spot count
surveys (usually during peak raptor activity
periods e.g. displays and soaring from 0930 to
1330 hrs), which helped determine the presence
of species in the area, and also facilitated nest
searches.
Results
A total of 5 1 species of diurnal raptors were
recorded in the Park, representing over 70% of
the total number of species recorded for the
Indian subcontinent. Whenever observed,
breeding dates only for CNP are given. The status
of each of these species in the Park (250-1 100 m
above msl) and the hills (1200-2000 m above
msl) is given below:
Status Of Diurnal Raptors In The Park
Legend
@ - Not recorded by me but by reliable
observers. Species recorded in similar
habitat in Nepal (Inskipp 1989).
# - Foraging up to 2500 m.
* - Breeding in oak forest at 2400 m.
C - Common (regularly seen).
FC - Fairly common (less than above).
SB - Straggling Breeder.
? - Status or abundance uncertain.
R - Resident
M - Migrant
V - Vagrant
B - Breeding
LM - Local Migrant
PM - Passage Migrant
— - Not Present
UnC - Uncommon (rarely seen)
390
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(3) DEC. 1999
DIURNAL RAPTORS OF CORBETT N A TIONAL PARK
Osprey Pandion haliaetus : Migrant,
commonly observed along the Ramganga river
and in the vicinity of the dam from October to
April. Earliest arrivals sighted by end September.
A few individuals observed each year staying on
at least till the Park closes in mid June. When or
whether they leave the Park is not known.
Status: Park - M; Hills - PM.
Black Baza Aviceda leuphotes @:
Possible vagrant. Not seen during the study but
one sighting reported by a reliable observer
(Harak Singh, pers. comm. Dy. Ranger, Dhikala).
Status: Park - V; Hills .
Oriental Honey-buzzard Pernis
ptilorhynchus : Resident. Commonly seen
throughout the Park. Displays observed through
March and April, pairs incubating mostly in May.
Appears to be a summer visitor to the hills up to
2000 m where breeding appears unlikely as the
area is now mostly denuded, except where the
southern slopes of forested foothills and reserved
forest in the Bhabar tract are contiguous.
Status: Park - C,R,B; Hills - LM,R?.
Black-shouldered Kite Elanus caeruleus :
Fairly common in the grassland. Numbers
fluctuate annually, possibly in relation to prey
availability and accessibility. A few pairs may
breed, but most exploit the grassland for foraging
and appear to breed outside the Park. No nest
was located.
Status: Park - R?,LM,FC; Hills - LM,UnC.
Black Kite Milvus migrans : Uncommon,
found mainly around tourist centres such as
Dhikala and Bijrani. One pair nest annually at
Dhikala, commencing breeding in March.
Status: Park - UnC,B; Hills - R.
Black-eared Kite M.m. lineatus :
Migratory and uncommon.
Status: Park - M,UnC; Hills - UnC.
Brahminy Kite Haliastur indus.
Uncommon, restricted mainly to the dam area.
One pair observed nesting at Dhikala during
February /March 1992.
Status: Park - UnC,B; Hills - — .
Pallas's Fish-eagle Haliaeetus
leucojyphus: Visits the Park from mid-September
to May to breed. Common along the Ramganga
river where pairs take up residence along
stretches of the river, repairing and re-using their
traditional nests each year. Often observed
pirating fish from large cormorants
Phalacrocorax carbo , osprey and lesser fish-
eagle Ichthyophaga humilis. The immediate
nesting area is actively defended. Foraging and
nesting territories probably vary with the food
supply. A pair nesting outside the Park along
the Kosi river between Mohan and Kumeria at
around 300 m (where food was apparently scarce)
foraged over longer distances than pairs within
the Park. The adults were occasionally observed
flying over Bhounkhal village (1400 m) atop a
ridge whose eastern face rose directly above the
Kosi to the Ramganga river (below the western
face), a few kilometres upstream of Marc hula.
Within the Park pairs foraged along 4 to 7 km
stretches of river, intruding into the peripheral
territories of other pairs. Most birds leave by May.
the odd adult or subadult observed staying on at
least till the Park closes in June.
Status: Park - M,B,C; Hills - PM.
White-tailed Eagle Haliaeetus albicilla:
Occasional, individuals (adults and mainly
juveniles) visit the Park for a few days in winter.
Usually seen along the Ramganga, mostly in
Dhikala and Fulay chaurs feeding on carrion or
pirating food from the Pallas’s fish-eagle. Ac/uila
and other smaller raptors. Also reported from
Loha Chaur along the Mandal river on the
northern boundary of the Park ( Shahid Ali, pers.
comm.).
Status: Park - M.O; Hills .
Lesser Fish-eagle Ichthyophaga humilis:
One of the most endangered raptors in India and
the species most at risk in Corbett. It is restricted
to the Ramganga riverine habitats where it is fairly
common. It feeds exclusively on fish and favours
forested habitat adjacent to fast flowing streams
and rivers at altitudes from 300 to 2400 m
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(3). DEC. 1999
391
DIURNAL RAPTORS OF CORBET1 NATIONAL PARK
(Ali and Ripley 1987, Baker 1932). Recent
surveys by me in the Kumaon hills have indicated
that viable habitat above 1 000 m has shrunk in
the middle Himalaya, and that the species now
mainly ranges between 300 m and 1300 m. Much
of its former habitat in the middle Himalayan
fanges has been denuded and additionally
contaminated by pesticides.
The direct effects of deforestation and
changing land use patterns which have polluted
the Himalayan riverine ecosystem threaten the
species’ survival. Besides Kumaon and Garhwal,
Nepal’s river systems have similarly been affected
(Ormerod, 1990), and the species may be under
similar threat in other parts of its range. Thinner
than normal egg shell fragments collected from
one nest analysed by Dr. Robert Risebrough of
USA contained significant levels of DDT and
dieldrin (Naoroji 1997b). In 1993, no nest was
located. Courtship commences by February,
incubation by mid March. Nests were closely
spaced, often not more than 2 km apart. This
specialised feeder is shy and easily disturbed at
the nest, and successful breeding is further
limited by nest predation by the common langur
Presbytis entellus, yellow-throated marten
Martes flavigula and food pirating by the Pallas’s
fish-eagle. Incubation was unsuccessful in seven
nests located at Corbett. Two pairs hatched
young, which did not survive for more than four
to five days. One nest was located at Garjia on
the Park’s eastern boundary but incubation was
unsuccessful. Observed occasionally along the
Mandal river at the northern boundary of the Park
and along the upper reaches of the Ramganga in
the north-eastern buffer zone of the Park from
Domunda to Marchula. Its breeding behaviour
will be described in a separate paper under
preparation. The species is now rare outside the
Park with only two sightings in six years along
the highly disturbed Kosi river.
Status: Park - FC,R,B; Hills - R,B,UnC.
Bearded Vulture Gypaetus barbatus. A
rare vagrant to the Park in winter. A single
individual observed flying over Dhikala across
to Kanda (Harak Singh, pers. comm. ). Relatively
common from 1 500 m above msl and above, even
more abundant at higher altitudes. The massive
denudation of the middle ranges has enabled this
open habitat species to expand its foraging range
to lower altitudes (around 1000 m) wherever
suitable hill habitat is available. Outside the Park,
individuals (adults and immatures) sporadically
observed by the author during winter and also
April/May flying over degraded reserved forest
at Bhalon (600 m), east of the Kosi river adjacent
to high ranges. One immature observed from the
Claridges resort along the Kosi river (Shahid Ali,
pers. comm. ). As long as food and safe nesting
sites are available, the species will continue to
prosper.
Status: Park - V; Hills - FC,R,B.
Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus :
A fairly common resident in the Park. Nests both
on trees and on high eroded mud banks of the
Ramganga and Kosi rivers. Nests are
traditionally used each year if undisturbed.
Nesting period stretches from end February/
March to early or mid June. Newly hatched
downy nestlings have been observed from early
to mid May. Breeds in the hills up to at least
2000 m.
Status: Park - FC,R,B; Hills - R,B.
Indian White-backed Vulture Gyps
bengalensis : Commonest vulture in the Park,
breeding in winter. Also summers (no evidence
of breeding) in the middle foothills up to about
2000 m. Breeds from November to March.
Status: Park - C,R,B; Hills - R,LM,C.
Long-billed Vulture Gyps indicus : The
race G.i nudiceps (resident in the foothills) is
observed mainly in the northern sector of the
Park, pairs breeding singly and solely on trees.
Young fledge by early May but are nest dependent
till early June.
Status: Park - R; Hills - R.
Himalayan Griffon Gyps himalayensis :
Commonly seen local winter migrant to the Park
from the surrounding hills where it breeds in
summer. No nests observed in the hills
392
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(3 ) DEC 1999
DIURNAL RAPTORS OF CORBETT NA TIONAL PARK
immediately to the north up to 1 800 m.
Status: Park - LM,C; Hills - C,R,B.
Eurasian Griffon Gyps fulvus :
Uncommon, seldom seen. Occurs singly in the
Park and in adjoining reserved forest, mainly
during the winter months. No evidence of
breeding in the Park or adjoining foothills.
Status: Park - M,R?,UnC; Hills - — .
Cinereous Vulture Aegypius monachus :
Migrant, mostly seen singly or in small groups
of 3 to 4 on carcasses in the relatively open areas
of the Park during the winter months from
November to early March. Frequently observed
in the chaurs around Dhikala (N and S of the
Ramganga river) .*and along the northern
boundary of the Park at Marchula, Chimtakhal
to Tolyo and along the Kumeria - Ranikhet road.
Status: Park - M; Hills - M,UnC
Red-headed Vulture Sarcogyps calvus #:
Common throughout the Park and observed
foraging up to 2500 m. It is equally at home in
moist-deciduous forest or in the mix of degraded
open country, pine and oak in the middle ranges.
Status: Park - C,R,B; Hills - R,B,FC.
Short-toed Snake-eagle Circaetus
gallicus : A vagrant, opportunistic visitor to the
Park for foraging. It was sighted only twice in
six years during winter. The individuals foraged
in the chaur for a few days and then left the Park.
The species is fairly common in the agricultural
areas beyond the Park’s southern boundary where
the habitat is more suitable. Occasionally seen
quartering barren hill slopes up to 2000 m, where
it is a local migrant.
Status: Park - V; Hills - LM.
Crested Serpent-eagle Spilornis cheela #:
One of the commonest raptors in the Park — an
opportunist and adaptable species (Naoroji,
1994b). Found throughout the lower and middle
Himalaya up to 2600 m and probably higher in
its northeastern range. Though the species
usually builds its own nest, three pairs were
observed over three consecutive seasons breeding
in unused nests of the Indian white-backed
vulture, changeable and mountain hawk-eagles.
In Corbett, the prey varied from the usual snakes,
lizards and rodents (Naoroji and Monga 1983,
Naoroji 1985), occasionally to birds e.g. jungle
babbler Turdoides striatus , common myna
Acridotheres tristis , and once a flying squirrel
Hylopetes fimbricitus (Naoroji, 1994b). A pair
were observed fishing for fingerlings in shallow,
tarsus-deep water. Inspite of its commonness,
none of the eggs in the three nests located hatched
successfully. The species is easily driven off the
nest by the common langur which, along with
the yellow-throated marten, feed on the eggs.
Courtship displays were observed from February
to early March, incubation by end March through
April or variably later in the Park. Unsuccessful
nesting may be due to the high rate of nest
predation, and possibly the cumulative effect of
pesticides ingested from the food chain through
predation on water snakes. Nesting success was
higher outside the Park, in relatively unprotected,
degraded reserved forest close to human
habitation, and this was probably due to a lower
density of natural predators.
Status: Park - C,R,B; Hills - R,B,LM.
Harriers: are migratory (mainly passage
migrants), seen sporadically, either individually
or in twos and threes, in open chaurs during winter.
Western Marsh Harrier Circus
aeruginosus : A few individuals can be observed
quartering the chaurs along the banks of the
Ramganga river and near the reservoir.
Status: Park - M; Hills - PM.
Eastern Marsh Harrier Circus
spilonotus : A rare vagrant. The only confirmed
sighting of a juvenile quartering the Dhikala
chaur and Gethia Rao in March is a range
extension, as it has not been previously recorded
west of Assam (Ali and Ripley, 1987), and a
record for the Park (Naoroji, 1994a).
Status: Park - V; Hills .
Hen Harrier Circus cyaneus:
Infrequently observed, does not stay continuously
throughout the winter, but stops over in the Park
for short periods. More common in the hills.
Status: Park - M,UnC; Hills - M,FC.
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3), DEC. 1999
393
D/URNA L RA PTORS OF CORBE IT NA TIONA L PA RK
Pallid Harrier Circus macrourus.
Infrequent winter migrant. Stops over in the Park
for short periods, probably on passage.
Status: Park - M; Hills - PM.
Montagu’s Harrier Circus pygargus:
Status same as Pallid Harrier.
Status: Park - M; Hills - PM.
Crested Goshawk Accipiter trivirgatus
@: Uncommon, not observed by me, but probably
resident and has been reliably reported (Harak
Singh, pers. comm.).
Status: Park - UnC,R; Hills .
Shikra Accipiter badius. The commonest
resident Accipiter , frequently observed
throughout the Park. Breeds in the hills up to
1400 m (All and Ripley 1987) but frequently
observed during summer at 2000 m.
Status: Park - C,R,B; Hills - R,LM.
Besra Accipiter virgatus : Mainly a local
migrant from the higher foothills, where it
breeds.
Status: Park - LM; Hills - R,B.
Eurasian Sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus :
Migratory in the Park, the resident race probably
breeds at higher altitudes above 2000 m.
Status: Park - LM; Hills - R?B?
Northern Goshawk Accipiter gentilis :
Migratory. Rare, one adult seen in May at Kanda
(1000 m). A record of the species nesting in
Garhwal at 1000 m (Baker, 1932), lends credence
to the belief that sporadic breeding may occur in
the lower foothills.
Status: Park - LM; Hills - LM,B?.
White-eyed Buzzard Butastur teesa:
Uncommon, only seen occasionally in the open
grassland, which it exploits for foraging. It
probably breeds outside the Park. A vagrant to
the hills up to 2000 m (in summer) where
excessive deforestation has probably extended its
foraging range.
Status: Park - UnC; Hills - V.
Common Buzzard Buteo buteo: Both
races are migratory and infrequently observed
in the Park. The Steppe buzzard Buteo buteo
vulpinus is commoner; the Eurasian race Buteo
buteo japonicus is uncommon and usually
observed over degraded hill slopes to the north
of the Park.
Status: Park - M; Hills - M,PM.
Long-legged Buzzard Buteo rufinus :
Migratory and though not common, it is more
frequently seen in the Park than the common
buzzard.
Status: Park - M; Hills - PM.
Black Eagle Ictinaetus malayensis #*:
Partial to hill forest. Found at low density
throughout the Park, mainly north of the
Ramganga river. Occasionally seen on the lower
slopes of the hills (once observed at Gairal) but
more frequently along the higher ridges such as
at Kanda. It is also commonly associated with
Oak forest up to 2500 m. Its status in the hills
varies from area to area, determined mainly by
the level of habitat degradation.
Status: Park - UnC,R,B; Hills - FC,R,B.
Lesser Spotted Eagle Aquila pomarina:
Status within the Park is rare, with only one
recorded sighting. A pair seen outside the Park
in September 1991 near Kaladunghi along the
margin of forest and cultivation (preferred
habitat), were probably breeding. Two
unidentified Aquila observed soaring and
hunting at a distance over barren hill slopes
interspersed with Oak ( Quercus ) and Chir
Pinus roxburghii forest at Chaubattia, Ranikhet
(1800 m) in end May 1993 and 1994 appeared,
from a photograph, to be this species, according
to William S. Clark, (pers. comm.). A single bird
seen by Shahid Ali (pers. comm.) in reserved
forest outside the Park near Chopda in March.
Status: Park - LM,?,R?,0; Hills - V.
Greater Spotted Eagle Aquila clanga.
Uncommon migrant to the Park. Mainly observed
around the Dhikala chaur perched on trees in
the vicinity of the river and reservoir. A few
juveniles, occasionally an adult, observed
stopping over sporadically during winter.
Status: Park - UnC,M; Hills - PM.
Eurasian Tawny Eagle Aquila vindhiana:
Rare both within and outside the Park. Not
394
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3) DEC. 1999
DIURNAL RAPTORS OF CORBETT NA TIONAL PARK
observed by me but two sightings within and
outside the Park (Samant et al. , 1995) indicate
its presence in the area. Two Aquila, possibly
this species, were seen by me in early June,
quartering the barren slopes below Almora at
around 1200 m.
Status: Park - 0,LM?; Hills .
Steppe Eagle Aquila nipalensis :
Uncommon migrant, though seen more
frequently than greater spotted, during stop overs.
Mostly juveniles observed, and very occasionally
adults. In the hills, hundreds of steppe eagles
were observed on passage from end September
to early November. Large numbers of steppe
eagles were observed stopping over in November-
December on onward migration and from mid-
March and early April on return migration at
municipal garbage dumps at Ranikhet and
Nainital.
Status: Park - UnC,M; Hills - C,M,PM.
Imperial Eagle Aquila heliaca :
Uncommon migrant, less frequently observed
than the greater spotted and steppe eagles.
Status: Park - 0,M; Hills - PM.
Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos : A rare
winter vagrant to the Park. One individual
observed in January by William Clark (pers .
comm.) the main entrance at Dhangarhi. Two
birds, an adult and an immature seen at Domunda
on February 15, 1998 (Shahid Ali, pers. comm.).
Occasionally seen foraging from 1 800 m to 3000
m, where the increasing human population and
resultant disturbance coupled with the
degradation of the middle foothills have
decimated its natural prey and safe nesting sites.
It is commoner at higher altitudes (3000 m to
the snow line) where inaccessible rock ledges
provide safe nesting sites above the preferred mix
of high-altitude meadows and coniferous forest
where it procures its food.
Status: Park - V; Hills - O.
Bonelli’s Eagle Hieraaetus fasciatus.
Fairly common resident in the Park, commoner
in the hills north of the Park from 1000 m to
2000 m, where extensive degradation appears to
have favoured the species. Three nests observed
between Bhounkhal and Tolyo on chir pine.
Though not observed, the species may also be
nesting on suitable rocky ledges. Incubation
begins by February, young usually hatch by end
March and fledge by mid May.
Status: Park - FC,R; Hills - C,R,B.
Booted Eagle Hieraaetus pennatus : A
sporadic winter visitor and passage migrant in
the Park. Not very common, mostly observed
soaring.
Status: Park - M; Hills - PM.
Rufous-bellied Eagle Hieraaetus kienerii:
A forest dependent species favouring hilly tracts.
Fairly common resident throughout the Park,
both adults and juveniles seen up to 1000 m
mostly observed soaring, rarely perched.
Unfortunately, no nest was located. Found at
comparatively low densities, and continued
shrinking of its forested habitat could pose a
threat to the species outside the Park.
Status: Park - FC,R,B; Hills .
Changeable Hawk-eagle Spizaetus
cirrhatus. Common throughout the Park, mainly
south of the Ramganga river; more frequently
seen than the mountain hawk-eagle. Breeding
coincides with that of the mountain hawk-eagle,
variably from end February through March, when
incubation commences, till the end of May, up
to mid June when young fledge. Observed
breeding outside the Park in degraded and
disturbed forest habitat near human habitation,
and also in undisturbed forest areas.
Status: Park - C,R,B; Hills .
Mountain Hawk-eagle Spizaetus
nipalensis : A fairly common resident, mostly
heard or seen perched in forest at the edge of a
clearing. Rarely observed soaring. More
commonly observed in hill forest in the northern
section of the Park than in the southern portion.
Nesting females of the northern race are
extremely aggressive in nest defence,
unhesitatingly making contact with intruders
climbing trees within a radius of 20 to 30 m of
the nest. Conflict usually arises when villagers
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3), DEC. 1999
395
DIURNAL RAPTORS OF CORBETT N A TIONAL PARK
lop trees in the vicinity of nests near villages,
inviting determined attacks, sometimes resulting
in the villagers destroying the nests. There are
two known instances outside the Park near
Chopda where women lopping branches were
attacked without warning, fell and succumbed
to their injuries. The species was also observed
to be pugnacious and aggressive in nest defence
against the numerous natural predators, mainly
the yellow-throated marten Martes flavigiila and
the common langur Presbytis entellus. Within
the Park it takes a greater number of the large
Galliformes such as kalij pheasant Lophurci
leucomelana and red junglefowl Gallus gallus
(which are more easily available), and smaller
prey like parakeets, doves, mynas and tree pies.
Outside the Park it subsists primarily on small
birds, taking a lesser percentage of the scarcer
Galliformes. The species’ original countrywide
distribution (Ali and Ripley 1987, Baker 1932)
in the middle Himalayan foothills from 1400 m
to 2500 m has shrunk due to massive
deforestation and resultant scarcer prey. The
available habitat may not be able to sustain a
viable population except in certain pockets. In
Kumaon, the species is now more commonly seen
in the predominantly sal dominated Bhabar tract
from 600 m to 1200 m, and only occasionally in
the higher foothills. The only unmistakable
sighting I have had in the Kumaon hills was at
Munsiari, Pithoragarh dist. With continuing
human pressure on the depleted forests of the
Sivaliks and Duars — changing land use practices
and repeated summer burnings — the mountain
hawk-eagle may soon run out of habitat except
in suitable protected areas within its former
range. Breeds variably from Feb. /Mar. to May.
Status. Park - FC,R,B; Hills - UnC,R,B.
Collared Falconet Microhierax
caerulescens : Observed mostly during winter
(October-January), hunting at the edge of natural
or man-made clearings in forest. Seen frequently
at Dhikala watch tower. High Bank and at
Dhangarhi. Outside the Park, observed during
winter at Sitabani and once at Chopda village in
May. Rarely observed in summer when it nests.
Breeding status vague, perhaps a straggling or
rare breeder in the Park. Only one nest was
located over a three year study period and
incubation was unsuccessful (Naoroji, 1997a).
The species breeds in disused nest-holes of the
large green barbet Megalaima zeylanica or the
lineated barbet M. lineata. Breeding extends from
end February to May.
Status: Park - R,SB?,LM7; Hills - — .
Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni: Passage
migrant, observed at Kumeria outside the Park
(W.S. Clark pers. comm.).
Status: Park - PM, Hills - PM.
Common Kestrel Falco tinnunculus :
Passage migrant, seen around September/
October, foraging in open grassland. The resident
race F.t. interstinctus is a common breeder in
the hills (Ranikhet) from 1500 to 3500 m.
breeding recorded by me from March to June.
Status: Park - LM; Hills - C,R,B.
Amur Falcon Falco amurensis: Very
occasional winter passage migrant. Observed
once in April 1976 at Dhikala chaur by Shahid
Ali (pers. comm.). In 1997, a flock of about 150
to 200 observed in Dhikala chaur (Rajiv Bhartari,
pers. comm.).
Status: Park - 0,PM; Hills
Eurasian Hobby Falco subbuteo.
Migrant, mainly observed in the Park during
winter in the Dhikala chaur but doubtless
frequents similar open spaces within the Park.
Over two seasons three adults were observed in
April, May and June, perched on small boulders
about 20 cm high in open grassland. From these
look-out perches, they would hawk insects and
hunt warblers and larks. Breeds in the hills north
of the Park. A breeding pair located at Ranikhet
at 1800 m in June.
Status: Park - LM; Hills - R,B.
Oriental Hobby Falco severus : On April
4, 1995, a pair was seen hawking insects in the
late evening at Gethia Rao. Only one sighting
in six years.
Status: Park - 0,PM; Hills .
396
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(3 ) DEC. 1999
DIURNAL RAPTORS OF CORBETT NA T/ONAL PARK
Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus :
Migrant, a few individuals occasionally seen
during winter, perched on dead trees and stumps
in open areas within the Park in the vicinity of
the Ramganga river, Dhikala chaur and the
reservoir.
Status: Park - M,UnC; Hills - PM.
The resident Shaheen F.p. peregrinator is
a forest dependent falcon, seen throughout the
Park especially from high vantage points. Breeds
on cliffs on the upper slopes of steep forested
hills and up to at least 2000 m in the Himalaya
(Ali and Ripley, 1987). Outside the Park seen
between Chimtakhal and Kartkinow and
frequently between Kumeria and Panua Deokhun
on the main Dhangarhi - Ranikhet road.
Status: Park - FC,R,B; Hills - R,B.
Summary
Except for the lesser fish-eagle (status
threatened in Garhwal/Kumaon) whose limited
range in the lower Himalaya has shrunk and is
still under pressure from pesticides, human
encroachment and disturbance along its riverine
habitat, the status of the raptors at Corbett
appears to be secure at present.
Due to its geographical location, Corbett
Park harbours a high diversity of resident, long
distance and altitudinal migrant raptor species.
There is a high rate of natural predation affecting
some of the less aggressive species, but most
raptors remain vulnerable mainly to loss of forest
cover and chemical contamination of the riverine
ecosystem and agricultural areas outside the Park.
Each of the species listed is susceptible to these
changes, some more than others. Constant
population monitoring is essential, and if
numbers are on the decrease, the cause and effect
on that particular species could be ascertained
before the trend becomes irrevocable.
The most successful nesters were found to
be the hawk-eagles, which had the largest terri-
tories and were more successful in fledging young
than other large raptors within and outside the
Park. However, habitat loss and fragmentation,
coupled with human persecution throughout the
Bhabar tract could seriously affect their future
status. Open habitat species such as the various
vultures, Bonelli’s Eagle, Common Kestrel and
the harriers have benefited from the severe
denudation of the lower foothills, with adverse
consequences to the forest dependent species.
Acknowledgements
The study was part of a collaborative
Bombay Natural History Society and United
States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) project
sponsored by the Ministry of Environment and
Forests, Government of India.
Mr. R.S. Bhadauria (1FS) C.C.F. Uttar
Pradesh readily gave permission to work in the
field. Mr. A.S. Negi, Dr. R.L. Singh and Mr. R.C.
Gautam, Field Directors CNP, provided all
facilities and co-operation. Rajiv Bhartari Dy.
Field Director and Brijender Singh, Hon Wildlife
Warden helped out in many ways. S.R. Nayak
project secretary, and Isaac Kehimkar librarian,
BNHS, promptly responded with follow-up
assistance. Special thanks to the Park staff viz..
Suresh Pant, Kulve, Ishtiakh, S.P. Dhaka, rangers
Nautiyal and Narendra Singh Choudhury. D.F.O.
Ramnagar, C.S. Nainwal and ranger V.C. Sanwal
assisted me in the reserved forest adjoining the
Park. William S. Clark identified (from my
photograph) the eastern marsh harrier. Dr. Asad
Rahmani, Dr. Ranjit Manakadan, Dr. Y. N. Rao,
Dr. T. J. Roberts, Mr. J.C. Daniel and Mr. Shahid
Ali made useful comments. David Ferguson,
USFWS, provided financial assistance and
advice.
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3). DEC. 1999
397
D/URNAL RAPTORS OF CORBETT NATIONAL PARK
Refer
Ali, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1987): Handbook of Birds of India
and Pakistan, Vol I. Oxford University Press, Delhi.
Baker, E.C.S. (1932): Nidification of the Birds of the
Indian Empire, Vol. I, Taylor and Francis, London.
Inskipp, C. ( 1 989): Nepal’s Forest Birds: Their Status and
Conservation. I.C.B.P. Monograph No. 4.
Cambridge, U.K.
Naoroji, R.K. & S.G. Monga (1983): Observations on the
Crested Serpent-Eagle ( Spilomis cheela) in
Rajpipla Forests, South Gujarat. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 80 (2): 273.
Naoroji, R.K. ( 1 985): Notes on some Common Breeding
Raptors of the Rajpipla Forest. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 82(2): 278.
Naoroji, R.K. ( 1 994a): Occurrence of the Eastern Marsh
Harrier Circus aeruginosus spilonotus Kaup in
Corbett National Park: A range extension.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 91(1): 140.
Naoroji, R.K. (1994b): Observations on the courtship,
nesting and hunting behaviour of the Crested
Serpent-eagle, Spilomis cheela. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 91(2): 311.
Naoroji, R.K. (1997a): First breeding record of the
Collared Falconet Microhierax caemlescens for the
E N C E S
Indian subcontinent in Corbett National Park, Uttar
Pradesh../. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 94(2): 267-272.
Naoroji, R.K. (1997b): Contamination in egg shells of
Himalayan Greyheaded Fishing Eagle
lchthyophaga naga plumbea in Corbett National
Park, India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 94(2):
398-400.
Naoroji, R.K. Breeding of the Lesser Fish-eagle (in
preparation).
Ormerod, S. (1990): Riverine birds and land use in Nepal.
Oriental Bird Club Bulletin. II: 13-17.
Pant, P.C. (1976): Plants of Corbett National Park. Uttar
Pradesh, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 73 (2):
287-295.
Pant, P.C., B.P. Uniyal & R. Prasad (1981): Additions to
the plants of Corbett National Park, U.P.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc 78(1): 50-53.
Rodgers, W.A. & H.S. Panwar ( 1988): Planning a Wildlife
Protected Area Network in India. Vol. 1 . Wildlife
Institute of India, Dehra Dun.
Samant, J.S., V. Prakash & R.K. Naoroji ( 1 995): Ecology
and Behaviour of Resident Raptors with Special
Reference to Endangered Species. Final Report.
Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.
398
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3) DEC. 1999
SMALL CARNIVORES IN TWO PROTECTED AREAS OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH'
Aparajita Datta2
( With one text-figure)
Key words: small carnivores, Arunachal Pradesh, Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary,
Namdapha Tiger Reserve
A survey of the small carnivores in Arunachal Pradesh was conducted in the Pakhui Wildlife
Sanctuary and the Namdapha Tiger Reserve from November 1995 onwards. All direct sightings
in the wild, captive individuals, dead specimens and reports by local tribals during the study
period have been documented in this paper. A total of fifteen different species belonging to the
Families Viverridae, Mustelidae and Herpestidae were recorded during this survey.
Introduction
As in most taxonomic groups, Arunachal
Pradesh (A.P.) is home to a high diversity of small
carnivores. In a recent review of small carnivores
in A.P., Choudhury (1997) outlines the known
and probable distribution of all species within
protected areas there. He has given a detailed
account of species occurrence in either individual
protected areas or districts in A.P.
I sighted several small carnivores in Pakhui
Wildlife Sanctuary (WLS) during a study on
squirrels and primates from November 1995 to
April 1996 and a four year study on hombills
which commenced from February 1997. I also
made two visits to Namdapha Tiger Reserve
(TR), which forms a second study site for the
hombill study. The note is a documentation of
all direct sightings in the wild, captive
individuals, dead specimens and reports by local
tribals during this period. As Choudhury (1997)
points out, no study on small carnivores has been
undertaken in this region and information on
their conservation status, abundance and
distribution is scanty. Some anecdotal
information on the diet and habits of the few
species sighted is also presented here.
Study sites
Pakhui WLS (92° 7.5'-92° 22’ E and 26°
53.7'-27° 16.2'N) is located in East Kameng dist.
'Accepted September, 1998
-Wildlife Institute of India, Post bag# 18,Chandrabani,
Dehra Dun 248 001 , U.P. India
in western Arunachal Pradesh (Fig. 1). The
sanctuary covers an area of 862 sq. km and is
bounded to the north and west by the River
Bhareli, to the east by the Pakke river and to the
south by the Nameri WLS and reserve forests of
Assam.
Pakhui is mainly a tropical semi-evergreen
forest (Champion and Seth 1968) with altitude
ranging from 200 m to 1500 m above msl. It lies
in the foothills of the Himalaya and the terrain
is steep and inaccessible in the higher reaches to
the north. More than 230 plant species
(angiosperms) have been recorded from here with
a high representation of species from the
Euphorbiaceae and Lauraceae families (Datta
and Goyal, in press). The sanctuary is drained
by a number of small rivers and perennial streams
of the Bhareli and Pakke rivers, both of which
are tributaries of the Brahmaputra. Cane
extraction on a commercial basis occurred here
till 1991. Occasionally, cane-cutters enter the
forests here from the adjacent reserve forests of
Assam. A small part of the forest near the
southern boundary had also undergone some
felling in the past before the area was declared a
sanctuary in 1978.
A vast portion in the central and northern
part of the sanctuary is quite inaccessible due to
the dense vegetation, hilly terrain and the lack
of trails. The only village, Mabusa, to the south
FN: However, Choudhury JBNHS, 94( 1 ) (1 997) has reported
the red panda from higher areas of Balpakram ( 1 023 m) and
Nokrek (1412 m) National Parks in Garo Hills, the lowest
elevation recorded.
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(3), DEC. 1999
399
SMALL CARNIVORES IN TWO PROTECTED AREAS
400
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(3) DEC. 1999
Fig. I : Map showing locations of study sites in Arunachal Pradesh
SMALL CARNIVORES IN TWO PROTECTED AREAS
of the sanctuary has been relocated outside. One
or two settlements are present near the northern
boundary. The Bhareli river is a barrier to human
disturbance. Therefore, most of Pakhui WLS,
except for a small strip to the south, has
undisturbed primary forest.
Another study site is in Namdapha TR
(27° 23'-27° 39’ N and 96° 15’-96° 58’ E) in
Changlang dist., eastern A.P. The Namdapha TR
covers an area of 1,985 sq. km, with a core area
of 1 ,808 sq. km of primary evergreen forest which
forms the national park (Fig. 1). The altitudinal
range, from 200 m to above 4500 m, has resulted
in the presence of diverse and rich fauna within
this area. Many small streams and rivers drain
into the Noa-dihing, a tributary of the
Brahmaputra which flows through the reserve.
There are three major forest types, viz. the
northern Tropical Evergreen forests, north Indian
Tropical Moist Deciduous forests and
Miscellaneous forests (Champion and Seth
1 968). It is bordered on the north by the Kamlang
Wildlife Sanctuary, to the west of the Noa-dihing
river lie the reserve forests of Lohit dist. To the
south and southeast lie high mountain ranges
and the international border with Myanmar. It
is contiguous with reserve forests and sanctuaries
to the south and west, which act as buffer zones,
though the reserve forests and unclassed state
forests across the Noa-dihing in Lohit dist. are
severely degraded. There are settlements of
Mishmi, Khamti and Tangsa tribes as well as
cultivated land. Chakma settlements and their
farmlands occur just adjacent to the border of
the National Park on the banks of the Noa-dihing
river as one approaches Deban from Miao by the
Miao-Vijoynagar road. This road runs right
through the sanctuary, though it is motorable only
upto Deban and 17th mile camp.
VlVERRIDAE
Of the nine civet species known to occur
in India, seven occur in Arunachal. Two of these
are restricted to the northeast in India. The
binturong and spotted linsang are listed in
Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972,
while other civet species are listed in Schedule
II. Choudhury (1997) reports the occurrence of
the small-toothed palm civet ( Arctogalidia
trivirgata) in eastern A.P., a species not reported
earlier within Indian limits.
1. Common palm civet
(Paradoxurus hermaphroditus )
I sighted the palm civet on four occasions.
All the sightings were on trees. On one occasion,
the animal was resting among the branches and
a mass of basket ferns and lianas about 15 m up
a tree during the day in Tipi (Pakhui WLS). The
other three sightings were around 7-8 pm in
Seijusa and Khari (Pakhui WLS). Two sightings
were on a fruiting tree of Gynoecardia odorata
(Chalmugra in Assamese), a cauliflorous species.
Civet droppings with seeds of G. odorata are very
commonly seen along forest trails in Pakhui
WLS.
2. Himalayan palm civet or Masked palm
civet ( Paguma larvata )
The Himalayan palm civet was not sighted
at all, nor did I come across any indirect evidence
of the species, but it is reportedly common and
occurs all over A.P. (Choudhury 1997).
3. Spotted linsang or tiger-civet
(Prionodon pardieolor )
Even though the tiger-civet was not
sighted, a local assistant when shown the plates
in Prater (1980) insisted that he had seen the
animal in a plantation in the adjacent Papum
Reserve Forest, East Kameng dist., near a fig
tree. This species is considered the rarest of the
small carnivores (Choudhury 1997).
4. Large Indian civet ( Viverra zibetha )
This was never sighted in the sanctuary,
though a skin of the animal was seen at
Bhalukpong (Assam-Arunachal border town,
West Kameng dist.). It had been used for covering
the dao of a Nishi tribal.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3), DEC. 1999
401
SMALL CARNIVORES IN TWO PROTECTED AREAS
5. Small Indian civet ( Viverricula indim)
The small Indian civet reportedly raids
houses to kill poultry (Prater 1980, Choudhury
1997). In Pakhui WLS, tribals employed by the
Forest Department had kept some chickens in a
bamboo enclosure in Khari area. One evening in
May 1997, there was a big commotion and we
found a small Indian civet inside the enclosure. It
had killed two hens and some of the chicks had
been bitten, while others had died, probably of
shock. On our opening the enclosure, the animal
ran off and did not return. The second sighting I
had of the species was on the Miao-Vijoynagar
road on the way to Deban in Namdapha TR at
around 7 pm on November 20, 1997.
6. Binturong or bear-cat
(Arctictis binturong )
I have had two confirmed sightings of this
species, two other glimpses of a black animal
could not be confirmed. Both sightings were in
Tipi, and both on a fruiting fig ( Ficus
macclellandi). On the first occasion in 1996, on
hearing us, the binturong moved into a tangle of
lianas and was only partly visible. In December
1997, we observed it for about 15 minutes,
moving slowly on the tree and periodically
feeding on the ripe figs. It did not shy away,
though there were eight of us watching from
about 20 m away. I photographed it, however,
the pictures are not clear. Nitin D. Rai (a
colleague) also sighted it sleeping curled up on
a tree in June 1995 near Seijusa. My local assistants
have also seen it during the daytime on a fruiting
tree of Ficus lamponga (Dimoru), a free-standing
cauliflorous fig. The binturong may be more
diurnal than previously supposed. A skin of the
animal was also seen with a Nishi tribal in Seijusa
village. The species has been photographed using
camera traps in Namdapha TR by Vidya R.
Athreya (Athreya and Johnsingh 1995).
Indirect evidence
Though civet sightings were not frequent,
droppings on fallen logs, rocks and stones were
very common. Besides figs, the food species of
civets include fruits of Vitex pentaphylla,
Elaeocarpus ganitrus (Rudraksh), Gynoecardia
odorata, and the palm Livistonici jenkinsii
(Tokko pat). From December 1997 to January
1998, most civet droppings contained seeds of
Vitex pentaphylla. Seeds of some climbers were
also found in the droppings. Gynoecardia odorata
seeds collected from civet droppings were viable
and germinated successfully (87% germination
success). Civets are hence probably important
dispersers of some of their food plants in this area.
Mustelidae
Among mustelids, only the hog-badger and
the clawless otter are listed under Schedule I of
the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. Ferret
badgers, martens and the two other otter species
are listed under Schedule II.
1. Weasels ( Mustela spp.)
Of the three weasel species reported to
occur in Arunachal Pradesh, both the
stripedbacked weasel (Mustela strigidorsa) and
the yellow-bellied weasel ( Mustela kathiah ) may
occur in the higher inaccessible areas of Pakhui
WLS since their known altitudinal distribution
ranges from 1000 to 2000 m above msl. The tail
of an animal trapped by tribals in Seijusa might
have been that of a weasel. A specimen of the
stripedbacked weasel from Namdapha TR was
seen in the Miao Museum collection maintained
by the A.P. Forest Department.
2. Yellowthroated marten
(Martes flavigula)
Martens were sighted on three occasions
in Pakhui WLS, all during daytime. A pair was
sighted running down a huge fruiting strangler
fig in Tipi (undisturbed primary forest). The
second sighting was that of a solitary animal on
a trail less than 100 m from the Forest
Department camp and habitation at Seijusa. The
animal was sighted at dusk and was moving
under a nest tree of the wreathed hornbill. On
402
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(3) DEC. 1999
SMALL CARNIVORES IN TWO PROTECTED AREAS
becoming aware of my presence on a machan
near the tree, the marten scampered off into the
undergrowth. Yellowthroated martens are
reported predators of hornbill chicks at nests
(Poonswad et al. 1987). A third sighting was of
a solitary animal on a forest trail. The other
individual of the pair was nearby. It was coming
from the direction of a large fruiting strangler
fig tree. This area was also in secondary forest
frequented by people in Seijusa. It made some
peculiar calls on sighting me. I sighted a pair of
martens in Namdapha TR on the stretch of road
between Hornbill camp and Haldibari in
November 1997. The pair were calling
continuously from the ground, but they
clambered up a tree trunk on being disturbed.
Two animals, probably martens, also entered into
the wooden camp at Hornbill (Namdapha TR)
in the middle of the night, probably in search of
food near the smouldering fire where food had
been cooked. Though I did not get to see them
properly, from the calls they made, it was likely
that they were martens. I also saw a solitary
yellowthroated marten foraging on a large
fruiting Ficus tree near Deban, in the late
afternoon on a cloudy, rainy day in April 1996.
3. Ferret-badgers (Melogale spp.)
A stuffed specimen of a ferret-badger was
recovered from a local tribal in Seijusa (Pakhui
WLS). The specimen had a pungent musky
odour. Apparently, these creatures are commonly
seen only along small streams or rivers at dusk.
Since two species reportedly occur in A.P., I got
the specimen identified at the Zoological Survey
of India, Calcutta. The main difference between
the two species is in the molar teeth. In the
Burmese ferret-badger ( Melogale personata ), the
molars are massive and wide-crowned, while in
the Chinese ferret-badgers (M. moschata ), they
are small and narrow-crowned (Prater 1980). The
Burmese ferret-badger also has a narrow white
stripe running from the crown of the head to the
middle of the rump, which in the Chinese ferret-
badger usually extends only till the shoulders.
The specimen I had obtained was identified as
the Burmese ferret-badger.
4. Hog-badger (Arctonyx collaris)
There was no evidence or sighting of the
hog-badger in Pakhui WLS. In Namdapha TR,
one was reportedly sighted by Mr. P.K. Biswas,
a Forest Department employee.
5. Otters (Lutra spp.)
All three otter species from India occur
within A.P. Though otters were never sighted,
otter tracks and fresh spraints were very
commonly seen along the Bhareli river in Tipi,
the smaller perennial streams of Khari and
Lalung nala, towards Upper Dikrai nala beyond
Khari, and also along Juli and Diju nala near
Seijusa. Pakhui is criss-crossed by innumerable
perennial streams, besides being bounded by two
large rivers, therefore there is extensive otter
habitat here. An otter skin was seen in 1996 with
a local who was going to sell it in a local market.
6. Red panda or cat-bear ( Ailurus fulgens)
Even though Choudhury (1997) mentions
that the presence of red panda in Pakhui remains
to be confirmed, I feel it is unlikely that the
species would occur within Pakhui WLS. The
elevation is above 1500 m in some places, but
the general elevation is rarely above 1000 m and
the vegetation is mainly tropical semi-evergreen
forest. The red panda is found in subtropical and
moist temperate forest with bamboos, and in
subalpine forest. These vegetation types do not
seem to occur within the sanctuary, even though
the northern higher areas of the sanctuary still
remain unexplored. I have seen tracks of the red
panda in the snow in Eagle’s Nest Sanctuary
(which adjoins Pakhui WLS to its west) where a
certain thin bamboo (reportedly its food species)
predominates, but such vegetation is absent from
Pakhui WLS. Corbet and Hill (1992) report an
altitudinal range of 2200 to 4800 m for the
species. In Eagle’s Nest Sanctuary, red panda
habitat occurs from 2400 to 2800 m (especially
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3), DEC 1999
403
SMALL CARNIVORES IN TWO PROTECTED AREAS
the area between Lama camp and Sunderview
camp). This area is snow-bound in winter. No
part of Pakhui is snow-bound in winter.
Herpestidae
All species of herpestids are listed in Schedule
IV of the Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972.
1. Small Indian Mongoose
(Herpestes auropunctatus )
The small Indian mongoose was sighted
Refer
Anon (1992): The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 (as
amended up to 1991). Natraj Publishers, Dehra
Dun.
Athreya V.R. & A.J.T. Johnsingh (1995): Survey of the
clouded leopard ( Neofelis nebulosci ) in Northeast
India. Unpublished report. Wildlife Institute of
India, Dehra Dun.
Champion, H.G. & S.K. Seth (1968): A revised survey of
the forest types of India, Manager of Publications,
Govt, of India, New Delhi.
Choudhury, A. (1997): Small carnivores (Mustelids,
viverrids, herpestids and one ailurid) in Arunachal
Pradesh, India, Small Carnivore Conservation
Newsletter, No. 1 7, pp. 7-9.
Corbet, G.B. & J.E. Hill (1992): The Mammals of the
IndoMalayan region: a systematic review. Natural
in open areas around habitation several times.
One was kept as a pet by my assistant for some
time till it was killed by a dog.
2. Common mongoose (Herpestes edwardsi )
The common mongoose was not sighted
at all.
3. Crab-eating mongoose (Herpestes urva )
The crab-eating mongoose was reported
in Namdapha TR by Athreya and Johnsingh
(1995).
NCES
History Museum Publications. Oxford University
Press, pp. 488.
Datta, A. & S.P. Goyal (in press.): Response of arboreal
mammals to selective logging in western Arunachal
Pradesh. Report submitted to Wildlife Institute of
India, Dehradun.
Poonswad, P. Tsuji, & C. Ngampongsai (1987): A
comparative study on breeding biology of sympatric
hombill species (Bucerotidae) in Thailand with
implications for breeding in captivity. Proc. Jean
Delacour/IFCB Symposium on breeding birds in
captivity: 250-3 1 5. North Hollywood, California:
International Foundation for the Conservation of
Birds.
Prater, S.H. ( 1 980): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay
Natural History Society, 3rd ed. pp 324.
404
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3 ) DEC. 1999
THE BIRDS OF GOA' (Part II)
Heinz Lainer2
( continued from JBNHS 96(2))
167. (546) Alexandrine Parakeet
Psittacula eupatria (Linn.)
Uncommon resident (?) in very small
numbers. Singles and groups of up to 5 birds
occasionally seen at coastal villages of North
Goa. Possibly, escaped cage-birds.
168. (550) Rose-ringed Parakeet
P. krameri (Scopoli)
A common breeding resident in large
numbers, from seaside coconut groves to the base
of the Ghats.
169. (558) Blossom-headed Parakeet
P. cyanocephala (Linn.)
A common resident, in large numbers, of
the coastal belt, wooded valleys in the midland
region and of the base and lower slopes of the
Western Ghats. Breeding was noted in February
and December.
170. (564) Blue-winged Parakeet
P. columboides (Vigors)
Fairly common resident, in moderate to
considerable numbers, of the lower slopes of the
Sahyadris and some of their outlying hillocks.
Only small numbers remain during the monsoon.
171. (566) Indian Lorikeet
Loriculus vernalis (Sparrman)
Common resident and local migrant in
considerable to large numbers. More common
in the coastal belt at the tail-end of the monsoon,
August to October, and in the Ghats during the
winter (November to March); uncommon in both
zones in the monsoon.
172. (571) Pied Crested Cuckoo
Clamator jacobinus (Boddaert)
A not uncommon but capricious visitor, in
small numbers, to the coastal lowlands and
'Accepted February, 1 998
Praias de St. Antonio
Anjuna403 509
Goa
plateaus of the midlands up to the base of the
Western Ghats, from early June to end November.
173. (573) Common Hawk-Cuckoo
Cuculus varius Vahl
Uncommon summer visitor in small
numbers. Essentially a bird of the plateaus, their
scarps and the base and foothills of the Western
Ghats. Usually present from mid-March to early
November.
174. (576) Indian Cuckoo
C. micropterus Gould
Rare visitor. Recorded by Grubh and Ali
(1975) at Cotigao WS, in November-December,
and myself at the base of the Sahyadris, from
March to May.
175. (578) Cuckoo C. canorus Linn.
Up to 1996, I had only three records, all
from slightly hilly parts of the coastal belt.
Curiously, I came across the cuckoo on October
9, 10 and 11, with two years intervening between
each date. This strongly suggests a short and
extremely punctual passage migration. However,
1996 seems to have been an ‘invasion year’:
suddenly, from early October till the first days of
November, dozens of these cuckoos dotted
electric lines all over Goa, from just behind the
seashore to the foot of the Western Ghats.
176. (582) Indian Banded Bay Cuckoo
C. sonneratii (Latham)
Rare resident in very small numbers.
Occurs on scarps of midland plateaus and at the
base of the Ghats. Breeding, with the common
iora as host, was recorded in October.
177. (584) Indian Plaintive Cuckoo
C. passerinus (Vahl)
A fairly common summer visitor, in small
numbers, to all three zones. Starts to arrive in
early May and fades away towards mid-
November with an occasional stray being
recorded in January, March to April.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3), DEC. 1999
405
THE BIRDS OF GOA
178. (588) Drongo Cuckoo
Surniculus lugubris (Horsfield)
An uncommon summer (monsoon) visitor
in small numbers, preferring well- wooded scarps
of midland plateaus and the base and outlying
hills of the Ghats, from late May to early October.
179. (590) Koel
Eudynamys scolopacea (Linn.)
Common resident, in large numbers, from
the coast to Ghats. Fledglings were recorded from
November to May.
180. (595) Small Green-billed Malkoha
Rhopodytes viridirostris (Jerdon)
Uncommon dry season visitor in small
numbers. This cuckoo inhabits cashew-covered
plateaus, midland as well as coastal, and their
scarps. Though it seems to avoid the Western
Ghats strip, I have come across a sizeable
population on Vagheri ( ca 760 m), an outlying
hill in Sattari taluka, where it occurs even on
the summit. Not yet recorded from mid-June to
early September.
181.(600) Coucal
Centropus sinensis (Stephens)
Common, ubiquitous (wherever cover is
found) and numerous resident from the coast to
the Ghats. Fledglings were seen in October.
182. (605) Lesser Coucal
C. toulou (P.L.S. Muller)
Davidson (1898) felt ‘certain I have also
seen it at Anshi. Mr. Aitken has also seen it at
Castle Rock still further north’. Both locations
are on the crest of the Sahyadris, just a few km
from the Goa border. I have only one
unambiguous sight record of a single bird on the
fringes of a cashew plantation surrounded by
evergreen and moist deciduous forest in the
BMWS, hardly 7 km from Castle Rock.
183. (606) Barn Owl Tyto alba (Scopoli)
Breeding resident in small numbers. The
few records I know of are all from Panaji, Goa’s
capital, and surrounding villages.
184. (623) Collared Scops Owl
Otus baccamoena Pennant
A not uncommon resident, in small
numbers, of the coastal belt; rare at the base and
slopes (up to 250 m) of the Ghats.
185. (628) Forest Eagle Owl
Bubo nipalensis Hodgson
I have seen this owl only thrice, in March
1985 and 1989, and in May 1996, each time
within a radius of half a km of the Devil’s
Canyon, in the BMWS.
186. (630) Dusky Horned Owl
B. coromandus (Latham)
There are two records, dated June 1986 and
January 1996, from densely forested gullies on
the scarp of plateaus in close proximity to the
coast, at Tirakol (Pernem) and Arpora (Bardez).
187. (631) Brown Fish Owl
B. ceylonensis (Gmelin)
Uncommon resident, in small numbers, of
remnant semi-evergreen forest on the slope of
plateaus facing the coastal strip (from where this
owl forays into estuaries and disused saltpans).
It also inhabits well-watered forests on the lower
slopes of the Ghats. One bird was shot by an
irate fisherman, less than 200 m from the sea, at
Tirakol (Pernem).
188. (636) Jungle Owlet
Glaucidium radiatum (Tickell)
A common, moderately numerous resident
of the coastal belt and midlands up to the base of
the Western Ghats. Fledglings were seen in May
and July.
189. (642) Brown Hawk Owl
Ninox scutulata (Raffles)
I have three diy season records, spread over
5 years, from outlying hillocks of the Sahyadri
foothills.
190. (652) Spotted Owlet
Athene brama (Temminck)
A common and numerous resident
throughout Goa; seems to favour the coastal belt.
Fledglings were seen in March.
191. (659) Brown Wood Owl
Strix leptogrammica Temminck
A pair bred and successfully reared one
young between February and June 1986, in a
patch of remnant semi-evergreen forest on a
406
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(3) DEC. 1999
THE BIRDS OF GOA
plateau scarp close to the coast, at Arpora
(Bardez). Not recorded before or since.
192. (669) Great Eared Nightjar
Eurostopodus macrotis (Vigors)
Grubh and Ali (1975) ‘regularly heard
(them) at dusk’ around Valpoi (Sattari) in
November-December 1972. 1 heard this nightjar
at Pali, near Valpoi, in February 1985.
193. (671) Indian Jungle Nightjar
Caprimulgus indicus Latham
Common, moderately numerous resident
(or dry season visitor, there are no records
between mid-May and mid-September) of
plateaus near the coast to the base of the Ghats.
194. (675) Long-tailed Nightjar
C. macrurus Horsfield
Grubh and Ali ( 1 975) collected a specimen
in or around the Cotigao WS, in November-
December 1972. I remember having heard one
in the late seventies from a then undisturbed
valley of remnant semi-evergreen woods at
Bambolim (Tiswadi), in the plateau region.
195. (682) Franklin's Nightjar
C. affinis Horsfield
A specimen was collected in Cotigao WS
by Saha and Dasgupta( 1992), in Feb. 1978. Frost
sighted one on the wooded slope of a plateau at
Arpora (Bardez), close to the coast, in Feb. 1997.
196. (685) Indian Edible-nest Swiftlet
Collocalia unicolor (Jerdon)
A common, year-round visitor in large
though wildly fluctuating numbers. May be
encountered anywhere in Goa, but most
frequently in a ca. 5 km deep strip along the
coast. Their two-directional flight pattern
(southward at dawn and northward at dusk)
strongly suggests that they originate from the vast
breeding colony on Burnt Island off Malwan
(Sindhudurg dist., Maharashtra), ca. 30 km north
of Goa. Flock size peaks in December- January
with up to 1500 birds, while between May and
September singles and small groups prevail.
Numbers have declined sharply since 1989, when
commercial exploitation of the Burnt Island
colony recommenced.
This swiftlet used to breed in caves which
have now collapsed, on Anjediva, a small island
to the southwest off Karwar (North Kanara)
which is Goan territory. There might still be a
small breeding population in the Goan Western
Ghats.
197. (691) Large Brown-throated Spinetaii
Swift Chaetura gigantea (Temminck)
In March 1985, 1 saw 5 birds cruising over
an outlying hillock of the Sahyadris, at Kalay
(Sanguem). Visiting British birdwatchers claim
to have sighted up to 25 birds at Chandranath
hill (Quepem) and the Dudhsagar waterfalls
intheBMWS, inNov. 1994 (Willoughby 1996).
198. (692) White-rumped Spinetaii
C. sylvatica (Tickell)
Uncommon visitor or resident, in small
numbers, of the BMWS (up to 24 birds) and
Cotigao WS (up to 8). Unrecorded from July to
November.
199. (693) Alpine Swift
Apus melba (Linn.)
Straggler. There are 5 winter records
spanning 7 years, of rabbles of up to 40 birds
from two localities where midland plateaus
border on the coastal belt.
200. (699) Large White-rumped Swift
A. pacificus (Latham)
Davidson (1898) found ‘This is the
common Kanara swift ... I have seen it in
considerable numbers on the ridge of the Ghats
close to the Dudh Sagar station of the Portuguese
railway at all seasons
At the end of Oct. 1996 and again a week
later, a group of at least 4 birds put in several
fleeting appearances at the Carambolim
(Tiswadi) lake and the nearby Cumbarjua canal.
201. (703) House Swift A. affinis (J.E. Gray)
A common, considerably numerous
resident from the coast to the crest of the Ghats,
this swift breeds throughout the year in towns,
under bridges and in the numerous tunnels
piercing the steep escarpments along the
Braganza Ghat section of the former Western
India Portuguese-guaranteed Railway.
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3), DEC. 1999
407
THE BIRDS OF GOA
202. (707) Palm Swift
Cypsiurus parvus (Lichtenstein)
Not uncommon, but very local resident, in
moderate numbers. Found mainly in the coastal
belt wherever a sprinkling of borassus palm
occurs, often in municipal gardens. Breeds in
September.
203. (709) Crested Tree Swift
Hemiprocne longipennis (Rafinesque)
A rather uncommon, considerably
numerous resident of the base of the Western
Ghats and plateau scarps in the midlands. Roving
singles and small groups may appear anywhere
between the seashore and the crest of the
Sahyadris. Breeding was recorded in April.
204. (712) Malabar Trogon
Harpactes fasciatus (Pennant)
Uncommon resident, in considerable
numbers, of the Western Ghats. Evenly
distributed from the moist deciduous forests at
the base through the wet evergreen jungle slopes
to the crest.
205. (719) Lesser Pied Kingfisher
Ceryle rudis (Linn.)
Not uncommon, moderately numerous
resident of various water-bodies in the coastal
belt and river basins; rare along the coast and
marshes at the base of the Ghats.
206. (722) Common Kingfisher
Alcedo atthis (Linn.)
A common, considerably numerous
resident, found throughout the area from rocky
seashore to the crest of the Sahyadris. Breeds in
the coastal belt between May and July, in the
Ghats probably in October.
207. (725) Blue-eared Kingfisher
A. meninting Horsfield
Small numbers of this rather scarce
resident occur on not too fast flowing stretches
of rivers and streams in the foothills and on the
crest of the Sahyadris.
208. (727) Three-toed Kingfisher
Ceyx erithacus (Linn.)
Status uncertain; possibly a very rare
monsoon visitor to the base and lower slopes of
the Western Ghats. Rane (1982) recorded it
between April and June 1982 at Collem and
Modern (Sanguem). There are two July records,
in 1988 and 1996, from the same area.
209. (730) Stork-billed Kingfisher
Pelargopsis cape it sis (Linn.)
Not uncommon, moderately numerous
resident, from rocky seashore, creeks and
saltpans to rivers in the Ghats foothills up to
150 m.
210. (735) White-breasted Kingfisher
Halcyon smyrnensis (Linn.)
A common, ubiquitous resident in
considerable to large numbers. Occurs from the
seashore to the Ghats foothills. Breeding was
noted in April and in the monsoon.
211. (739) Black-capped Kingfisher
H. pileata (Boddaert)
Small numbers of this rather uncommon
resident (?) or dry season visitor are found along
the seashore, mangrove-lined creeks, inland
estuaries and on the upper reaches of the rivers
where they penetrate the Western Ghats (several
records from the bottom and top of the Dudhsagar
waterfalls, at ca. 170 and 520 m). It is absent
from June to September.
212. (740) White-collared Kingfisher
H. chloris (Boddaert)
Status uncertain. Visiting British bird-
watchers on crocodile-watching trips to the
Cumbarjua canal, a natural, mangrove-fringed
creek linking the inland estuaries of the Zuari
and Mandovi rivers, reported sightings of this
kingfisher from 1993 onwards. Frost, Manville
and I confirmed these reports in November 1996.
Another sighting of two birds dates from April
1997.
213. (744) Chestnut-headed bee-eater
Merops leschenaulti (Vieillot)
Not uncommon, considerably numerous
resident of the base and lower slopes of the
Western Ghats and of the eastern rim of the
midland plateau. The numbers of this bird are
in a steep and steady decline since the mid-
eighties, especially at BMWS, where till 1985
408
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3) DEC. 1999
THE BIRDS OF GOA
up to 200 individuals could be found at a night-
roost just outside Collem village (Sanguem).
214. (748) Blue-tailed Bee-eater
M. philippinus Linn.
Fairly common, dry season visitor in large
numbers that wildly fluctuate annually. Patchily
distributed from river mouths to clearings in the
forests of the lower Ghats, from early September
to the first days of May.
215. (750) Green Bee-eater
M. orientalis Latham
A very common, very numerous dry season
visitor to the entire state, from beaches to the
crest of the Sahyadris. Numbers start dwindling
in March, augmented shortly by passage
migrants in May. Only a few remain over the
heavy monsoon in June to August. Return mig-
ration in early September. Every dry spell in the
monsoon brings an influx of these birds,
indicating that they had not migrated farther
than the Deccan plateau, just across the ridge of
the Sahyadris.
216. (753) Blue-bearded Bee-eater
Nyctiornis athertoni (Jardine & Selby)
Rare resident in very small numbers. There
are 7 records, covering all seasons, from the lower
reaches (up to 200 m) and outlying hills of the
Western Ghats.
217. (754) European Roller
Coracias garrulus Linn.
A record by Davidson ( 1 898) from Majali
(N. Kanara), just a few km south of Goa, seems
to be the southernmost of this species in India.
Grubh and Ali (1975) procured a specimen from
the almost adjoining Cotigao WS, in November-
December 1972. A bird killed in a collision with
an aircraft, 30 nautical miles off Goa, in October
1987, was reported by Satheesan (1988).
October-November 1996 saw a veritable
invasion of this species into Goa: up to 4 birds
were recorded from an alluvial plain at Divar
(Tiswadi) Island in the inland estuary of the
Mandovi, and from a grassland between Modern
and Collem (Sanguem), at the base of the
Ghats.
218.(759) Indian Roller
C. benghalensis (Linn.)
Common, considerably numerous winter
visitor from just behind the seashore to the foot
of the Sahyadris, from mid-October to early April
Numbers are declining steadily.
219. (763) Hoopoe Upupa epops Linn.
Moderate to considerable numbers of this
not uncommon winter visitor are spread over the
whole area, from offshore islands (during
migration) to the base of the Ghats, between mid-
October and late April.
220. (768) Malabar Grey Hornbill
Tockus griseus (Latham)
A fairly common, considerably numerous
resident of the Sahyadris, from the outlying
hillocks to the crest; apparently never strays from
this rather restricted habitat.
221. (775) Malabar Pied Hornbill
Anthracoceros coronatus (Boddaert)
Moderate numbers of this not uncommon
resident occur mainly in the Western Ghats and
the eastern part of the midlands. Roving birds
occasionally appear even at the coast.
222. (776) Great Pied Hornbill
Buceros bicornis Linn.
Status uncertain; possibly a very rare
resident. The fact that Grubh and Ali (1975)
noted this bird at the BMWS and saw three
specimens at the Cotigao WS within two weeks
in late 1 972, while I encountered it just four times
in 1980-1997 shows how endangered this species
has become. Three of my sightings are from the
BMWS, one (of 6 birds) is from the coastal
village of Tirakol (Pemem).
223. (782) Large Green Barbet
Megalaima zeylanica (Gmelin)
Uncommon resident in small to moderate
numbers. Sporadically found all over the area,
but mainly at the base of the Western Ghats.
224. (785) Small Green Barbet
M. viridis (Boddaert)
Common resident in large numbers.
Evenly distributed over the entire study area,
from seaside palm groves to the dense wet
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3), DEC. 1999
409
THE BIRDS OF GOA
evergreen forests on the upper slopes and crest
of the Sahyadris. Breeding in February.
225. (790) Crimson-throated Barbet
M. rubricapilla (Gmelin)
Considerable numbers of this fairly
common resident occur along the eastern rim of
the midland region and the base and lower slopes
of the Western Ghats.
226. (792) Crimson-breasted Barbet
M. haemacephala (P.L.S. Muller)
A common, numerous resident from the
coast to the forests on the lower slopes of the
Sahyadris up to ca. 150 m. Breeding in January.
227. (796) Wryneck Jynx torquilla Linn.
Stray. Recorded in November 1986 by
myself and in March 1993 by Willoughby (1996),
both from the same area in the coastal belt of
North Goa.
228. (798) Speckled Piculet
Picumnus innominatus Burton
Stray (?). A single bird was observed in
bamboo clusters at the foot of the Anmod Ghat
(BMWS), in November 1996, by me and Frost.
229. (804) Rufous Woodpecker
Micropternus brachyurus (Vieillot)
Fairly common, considerably numerous
resident of the coastal belt and the midland
region, up to the base of the Ghats.
230. (816) Small Yellow-naped Woodpecker
Picus chlorolophus Vieillot
A scarce resident, in very small numbers,
of the Sahyadris, from the base to the ridge.
231. (819) Lesser Golden-backed
Woodpecker Dinopium benghalense (Linn.)
This common, considerably numerous
resident is distributed through all three zones,
from palm groves at the shore to the upper
reaches of the Ghats. Breeding in April and
December.
232. (825) Indian Golden-backed Three-toed
Woodpecker D. javanense (Ljungh)
Not uncommon, moderately numerous
resident of moist deciduous and wet evergreen
forest of the Western Ghats, from the foothills to
the crest.
233. (830) Indian Great Black Woodpecker
Dryocopus javensis (Horsfield)
Very small numbers of this scarce resident
are found in moist deciduous and semi-evergreen
forest at the base of the Sahyadris.
234. (847) Yellow-fronted Pied Woodpecker
Picoides mahrattensis (Latham)
Uncommon resident, in small numbers, of
the foothills and lower slopes of the Western
Ghats. Occasional visitor to remnant patches of
semi-evergreen woods near the sea.
235. (851) Pigmy Woodpecker
P. nanus (Vigors)
Not uncommon resident, in moderate
numbers. Restricted to the moist deciduous and
semi-evergreen forests of the Sahyadris foothills
up to ca. 150 m.
236. (856) Heart-spotted Woodpecker
Hemicircus canente (Lesson)
Moderate numbers of this fairly common
resident occur in the entire Western Ghats of Goa.
Breeding in January.
237. (861 ) Larger Golden-backed Woodpecker
Chrysocolaptes lucidus (Scopoli)
Fairly common, considerably numerous
resident of the Western Ghats base and foothills
up to ca. 250 m).
238. (867) Indian Pitta
Pitta brachyura (Linn.)
A fairly common, considerably numerous
dry season and breeding visitor. Found from the
hinterland of the seashore to the lower slopes of
the Ghats, from end April to early September.
There is an irregular, enigmatic appearance of a
few passage migrants between early January and
mid-March.
239. (878) Ashy-crowned Finch-Lark
Eremopterix grisea (Scopoli)
A fairly common, considerably numerous,
dry season visitor to coastal and riverine lowlands
and lateritic plateaus not far from the coast. Absent
from the first days of June to late September.
240. (882) Rufous-tailed Finch-Lark
E. phoenicunis (Franklin)
Uncommon dry season visitor, possibly
410
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3) DEC. 1999
THE BIRDS OF GOA
resident, in small numbers, at a few places in
the Mandovi river basin. Not recorded in the
rains.
241. (886) Short-toed Lark
Calandrella cinerea (Gmelin)
A locally common, winter visitor in very
large numbers, typically on alluvial lowlands of
the coastal belt and river basins, lateritic plateaus
in proximity to the sea and grasslands at the
foot of the Sahyadris. This migrant starts
arriving in late September and disappears by
early April.
242. (901) Malabar Crested Lark
Galerida malaharica (Scopoli)
A common, monsoon-shirking resident, in
large numbers, of the coastal belt and midland
region; uncommon winter visitor in small
numbers to the base of the Western Ghats.
Monsoon evasion begins in April, by late May
the last birds have left; return movement peaks
in end- August. Breeding was noted in October-
November on a coastal plateau.
243. (902) Sykes’s Crested Lark
G. deva (Sykes)
Stray. There were a number of sightings
over a 10-day period in early Dec. 1996, on
wasteland and pastures near tidal creeks in
coastal N. Goa, by Frost, Manville and myself.
244. (907) Eastern Skylark
Alauda gulgula Franklin
A fairly common resident in considerable
numbers. Prefers lateritic plateaus in close
proximity to the sea and alluvial land in the river
basins. There is much seasonal shifting.
245. (910) Collared Sand Martin
Riparia riparia (Linn.)
Stray. One or two birds were seen hawking
over a barren laterite plateau of the coastal belt,
near a freshwater reservoir, at the end of
September 1997.
246. (913) Crag Martin
Hirundo rupestris Scopoli
Small numbers of this scarce winter visitor
(mid-November to March) occasionally seen at
cliffs on the upper slopes of the Sahyadris.
247. (914) Dusky Crag Martin
H. unicolor Sykes
A not uncommon, moderately numerous
resident of the Western Ghats and, to a lesser
degree, the eastern midlands. Hundreds of
migrants appear in some years during November.
Rane (1982) recorded this martin in June at
Panaji, Goa, at the mouth of the Mandovi.
Breeding was recorded in February and August-
September
248. (916) Swallow H. rustica Linn.
Not uncommon, moderately numerous
winter visitor to the coastal belt and river basins,
between mid-September and late March.
249. (919) House Swallow
//. tahitica Gmelin
Vagrant. Frost and Manville (pers. comm. )
observed a single bird perched along with
H. dauricci on an electric line over pastureland
at the coastal village of Candolim (Bardez), on
two consecutive days in late March 1997.
250. (921) Wire-tailed Swallow
H. smithii Leach
This common, moderately numerous
resident is found all over the territory, from
offshore islands to rivers in the foothills of the
Ghats. Breeding was recorded in February-March
in the Ghats and during August in the coastal
belt.
251. (922) Indian Cliff Swallow
H. fluvicola Blyth
An uncommon, somewhat irregular winter
visitor, in very moderate numbers, to the coastal
belt. Most records fall between late October and
mid-March.
252. (923) Red-rumped Swallow
H. daurica Linn.
An uncommon resident in small numbers,
but very common winter visitor in very large
numbers. Distributed over the entire study area.
The winter visitors disappear by mid-April,
leaving a tiny resident population in the coastal
region, where nest-building was noticed in late
April. Large flocks of the migratory population
reappear in mid-October.
41 !
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(3). DEC. 1999
THE BIRDS OF GOA
253. (930) House Martin
Delichon urbica (Linn.)
Straggler. Between late Dec. 1995 and mid-
Feb. 1 996, 1 saw up to 4 birds on three occasions,
at coastal headlands and the base of the Ghats.
254. (946) Rufous-backed Shrike
Lanins schach Linn.
A common, considerably numerous, dry
season visitor to all zones, from just behind the
seashore to the lower slopes of the Sahyadris. It
moves out by end- April (most probably up to
the Deccan, where it is common during its
absence from Goa) and returns in mid- September
when the rains are almost over.
255. (949) Brown Shrike L. cristatus Linn.
Small numbers of this rather scarce winter
visitor are found between mid-October and early
February in an amazing variety of habitats, from
stands of beach-side casuarinas over gardens,
pasture land, fallow rice-paddies and mangroves,
along creeks, to dense evergreen forest on the
scaip of the Ghats.
256. (952) Golden Oriole
Oriolus oriolus (Linn.)
A common dry season visitor in large and
passage migrant in very large numbers. Spread
all over, from just behind the sea-shore to the
lower reaches of the Sahyadris, between early or
mid-September and mid-May.
257. (954) Black-naped Oriole
O. chinensis Linn.
Stray. A pair was sighted in November
1985 in BMWS and a single female twice in
December 1996 in the Cotigao WS.
258. (958) Black-headed Oriole
O. xanthomus (Linn.)
This common, numerous resident inhabits
plateau-scarps (even close to the sea) and the belt
of moist deciduous forests at the foot of the Ghats,
where it outnumbers all other bird species in May.
Breeds in April, possibly August-September.
259. (963) Black Drongo
Dicrurus adsimilis (Bechstein)
A common, numerous resident and local
migrant. Occurs in all zones, from rice-paddies
behind the seashore to village outskirts at the
foot of the Ghats. The greater part of the
population moves out (presumably up to the
Deccan) in late May and returns towards end
July.
260. (965) Grey Drongo
D. leucophaeus Vieillot
Common winter visitor in large numbers,
from seaside mango orchards to the ridge of the
Sahyadris. This most punctual of all winter
visitors arrives in the first week of October and
has left by early April.
261. (967) White-bellied Drongo
D. caerulescens (Linn.)
A not uncommon, moderately numerous
resident of the midland region and the base and
lower slopes of the Ghats. Breeding in April.
262. (971)Bronzed Drongo
D. aeneus Vieillot
Common resident, in considerable
numbers, of the entire Western Ghats and in
moderate numbers of many remnant pockets of
semi-evergreen forest on plateau scarps, even
close to the sea. Breeds in April-May.
263. (973) Hair-crested Drongo
D. hottentotus (Linn.)
Scarce winter visitor in very small
numbers. There are three records each from the
Cotigao WS and BMWS and one from Valpoi
(Sattari), all in November to January.
264. (977) Greater Racket-tailed Drongo
D. paradiseus (Linn.)
A common, considerably numerous
resident of the Western Ghats and their outlying
hills and better-wooded valleys of the midland
region; also occasional visitor to patches of
evergreen woods on the west facing scarps of
plateaus near the coast. Breeds April to June.
For a discussion of the validity of a
specimen of the Ceylon subspecies D. p.
lophorinus (Vieillot), collected in Goa, see Ripley
( 1 98 1 ) . More recently, Saha and Dasgupta (1992)
procured a specimen of this race from
Poinguimm (Canacona) and describe it as 'not
common in sal and cashew plantations’.
412
JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(3) DEC. 1999
THE BIRDS OF GOA
265. (982) Ashy Swallow-Shrike
Artamus fuscus Vieillot
Not uncommon but capricious resident in
moderate numbers, monsoon visitor in consi-
derable numbers. Found in all zones. Absent
from large tracts during the dry season. Most
common at the foot of the Sahyadris, where loose
flocks of more than 80 are not uncommon at
villages like Mollem and Collem (Sanguem).
266. (987) Grey-headed Myna
Sturnus malabaricus (Gmelin)
Fairly common, dry season visitor in
varying, often large numbers, from the sea-
shore (where they prefer night roosts in coconut
palms) to the secondary forests of the lower
reaches of the Ghats. The coastal belt is
frequented almost exclusively by the nominate
race, with a few specimens of S. m. blythii
(Jerdon) showing up during autumn migration,
Aug. to Oct. Further inland and along the Ghats,
subsp. blythii is predominant, with pure flocks
of S. m. malabaricus (Gmelin) appearing only
in May. Hybrids of the two races are common in
all zones.
261. (994) Black-headed Myna
S. pagodarum (Gmelin)
Rather scarce and irregular winter visitor,
in very small numbers, to coastal villages of
N. Goa, between early October and March.
268. (996) Rosy Pastor S. roseus (Linn.)
Not uncommon winter visitor in annually
fluctuating numbers, from a few smallish groups
in some years to flocks up to 2000 in others.
Found on coastal lowlands and plateaus, rarely
at the base of the Ghats, from end-October
(unusual in mid- September) to mid-March.
269. (1006) Common Myna
Acridotheres tristis (Linn.)
The only moderately numerous resident
population is augmented in mid-May by local
migrants; every spell of heavy rainfall in June-
July brings a new influx till it is almost as
common and numerous as A. fuscus , in July-
August. These summer visitors disappear by early
October.
270. (1008) Bank Myna
A. ginginianus (Latham)
In the early eighties, a shanty town sprang
up at Zuarinagar (Marmagoa) and with it a
population of bank mynas, probably spawned by
escaped cage-birds. The population peaked with
over 400 birds in 1985-86; by the end of 1996 it
had dwindled to less than 10.
271. (1009) Jungle Myna
A. fuscus (Wagler)
Very common, ubiquitous resident, in large
numbers, of the coastal belt and the midland
region right up to the Western Ghats foothills.
Breeds from April to June.
272. (1015) Hill Myna
Gracula religiosa (Linn.)
Scarce, very local resident in small
numbers. One group of less than 15 individuals
frequents the dense evergreen forest around a tiny
hamlet in the BMWS, at ca 160 m; another clan
of over 20 birds roams the riverine forests of the
Cotigao WS.
273. (1032) Indian Tree Pie
Dendrocitta vagabunda (Latham)
Roving groups of this common,
considerably numerous resident are encountered
from coastal villages to the base of the Western
Ghats.
274. (1049) House Crow
Corvus splendens Vieillot
Very common, ubiquitous resident in very
large numbers from offshore islets to hill tribe
hamlets in the jungles at the foot of the Ghats.
Breeds throughout the year, except in the monsoon.
275. (1054) Jungle Crow
C. macrorhynchos Wagler
An uncommon, moderately numerous
resident, liable to turn up anywhere from just
behind the beaches to the tiniest clearing in the
dense evergreen forests on the ridge of the
Sahyadris.
276. (1065) Pied Flycatcher-Shrike
Hem ip us picatus (Sykes)
Not uncommon, moderately numerous
resident of remnant semi-evergreen woods at the
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3), DEC. 1999
413
THE BIRDS OF GOA
scarp of plateaus and of the lower reaches of the
Western Ghats (up to ca 180 m). Breeding in
March- April.
277. (1068) Large Wood Shrike
Tephrodomis virgatus (Temminck)
An uncommon resident in considerable
numbers (less during monsoon). Found on the
outlying hills and lower slopes (up to ca 250 m)
of the Ghats.
278. (1070) Common Wood Shrike
T. pondicerianus (Gmelin)
In its rather restricted woodland habitat, a
not uncommon bird; resident, in considerable
numbers, from coastal villages to the base of the
Sahyadns.
279. (1072) Large Cuckoo-Shrike
Coracina novaehollandiae (Gmelin)
This rather uncommon resident is thinly
spread over all three zones, from coastal villages
to the lower slopes of the Ghats.
280. (1078) Black-headed Cuckoo-Shrike
C. melanoptera (Ruppell)
This not uncommon, moderately numerous
resident is mainly found in valleys on the scarp
of plateaus in the midland region, rarely on the
slopes of the Western Ghats.
281. (1081) Scarlet Minivet
Pericrocotus flammeus (Forster)
Common, considerably numerous resident
of the Western Ghats, from outlying hillocks and
foothills to the crest.
282. (1089) Rosy Minivet
P. roseus (Vieillot)
Stray. A specimen was collected by Grubh
and Ali (1975) in Canacona taluka, S. Goa, in
November-December 1972.
283. (1093) Small Minivet
P. cinnamomeus (Linn.)
A not uncommon, considerably numerous
resident of woodlands in all three zones; rather
scarce on the upper slopes of the Ghats. Breeding
in October and December.
284. (1098) Common Iora
Aegithina tiphia (Linn.)
Generally common resident in consider-
able numbers. Distributed throughout the
territory; uncommon in the forests of the
Sahyadris.
285. (1103) Goldfronted Chloropsis
Chloropsis aurifrons (Temminck)
Fairly common, considerably numerous
resident of all zones, from wooded coastal
villages to the upper slopes of the Ghats.
Breeding in January-Febmary.
286. (1108) Gold-mantled Chloropsis
C. cochinchinensis (Gmelin)
A fairly common resident, in considerable
numbers, of well- wooded localities, ranging from
mango groves in seaside villages to evergreen
forest on the scaip of the Ghats. Breeding in July
and September.
287. (1109) Fairy bluebird
Irena puella (Latham)
Common, considerably numerous resident
of the Western Ghats foothills to crest. Also found
on some hillocks on the eastern rim of the
midland region (e.g. Mayem lake) and hardly
50 m from the sea, at Cabo de Rama (Canacona),
where a spur of the Sahyadris juts into the
Arabian Sea. At the height of the monsoon, the
fairy bluebird is often the dominant bird species
of the Ghat forests.
288. (1114) Grey-headed Bulbul
Pycnonotus priocephalus (Jerdon)
A common resident, in considerable
numbers, of the scarps of coastal headlands and
plateaus of the midlands, and of the entire Ghats
up to the crest.
289. (1116) Black-headed Yellow Bulbul
P. melanicterus (Gmelin)
The ruby-throated race P. m. gularis
(Gould) is a common, considerably numerous
resident, found in the Western Ghats from
outlying hills and the base to ca 550 m; not yet
recorded from the crest. Grubh and Ali (1975)
collected 4 specimens of this bird in the BMWS
in 1972 which, according to them, confirmed the
occurrence of this bulbul in Goa (doubted in the
Handbook Vol. 6: 73). Meanwhile, the Goa
Government went a step further and promoted
414
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3) DEC. 1999
THE BIRDS OF GOA
this beautiful and unobtrusive bulbul to the
questionable status of ‘State Bird’ of Goa.
290. (1120) Red-whiskered Bulbul
P. jocosus (Linn.)
Very common, resident in large to very
large numbers. Ubiquitous in all zones. Breeding
season in the Ghats May- June, in the midland
region July-October.
291. (1128) Red-vented Bulbul
P. cafer (Linn.)
Common resident in large numbers, found
throughout the plateau region up into the foothills
of the Ghats. Breeding in May.
292. (1138) White-browed Bulbul
P. luteolus (Lesson)
A fairly common, considerably numerous
resident of the midland region, from sea-facing
plateaus to the base of the Ghats. This bulbul,
essentially a bird of scrub and cashew-covered
plateaus and their scarps, is occasionally also
found in mangroves lining coastal creeks.
293. (1 144) Yellow-browed Bulbul
Hypsipetes indicus (Jerdon)
Very common, ubiquitous resident, in large
numbers, of the entire Goan Western Ghats,
foothills to crest. By far the most common bird
there, in all forest types.
294. (1148) Black Bulbul
H. madagascariensis (P.L.S. Muller)
A common, numerous dry season visitor
on the ridge of the Ghats. Roving groups descend
frequently to the lower reaches. This monsoon
fugitive absents itself from mid-May to end-
October, presumably by moving further inland.
295.(1154) Spotted Babbler
Pellorneum ruflceps Swainson
Fairly common, considerably numerous
resident of well-wooded localities in all zones,
from gardens in seaside villages to the ridge of
the Ghats. Breeds in June- July.
296. (1173) Slaty-headed Scimitar Babbler
Pomatorhinus horsfieldii Sykes
Uncommon resident. Singles and small
groups of up to 5 birds were noted, in all seasons,
on the crest of the Sahyadris and, occasionally,
down to an altitude of ca 70 m. Davidson ( 1 898)
had ‘obtained fully incubated eggs in October
at Castle Rock’, a few km from the Goa border.
297. (1222) Rufous-bellied Babbler
Dumetia hyperythra (Franklin)
A rather scarce, erratic visitor in all seasons.
Roving groups of up to a dozen were seen between
1981 and 1986 on the scarps of plateaus facing
the coastal strip. They resurfaced again in March
1995, when Frost ( pers . comm.) had several
sightings of small groups in the same locality.
298. (1224) Black-headed Babbler
Rhopocichla atriceps (Jerdon)
Common, considerably numerous resident
of the Western Ghats slopes and outlying hills;
rarely encountered at the base. Breeding in Dec.
299. (1231) Yellow-eyed Babbler
Chrysomma sinense (Gmelin)
A minuscule, but apparently steady,
resident population of probably less than 10 birds
exists on a coastal lateritic plateau at Tirakol
(Pernem), Goa’s northernmost village.
300. (1259) Rufous Babbler
Turdoides subrufus (Jerdon)
An uncommon resident, in small numbers,
of the upper slopes and the ridge of the Ghats,
occasionally descending to ca 150 m.
301. (1265) Jungle Babbler
T. striatus (Dumont)
A common resident, in large numbers, of
the coastal and midland regions up to the foothills
of the Sahyadris.
302. (1287) Rufous-vented Laughing Thrush
Garrulax delessevti (Jerdon)
An uncommon resident (?) in moderate
numbers, on the crest of the Western Ghats. I
have seen flocks at and around the top of the
Dudhsagar waterfalls (in the BMWS) in January,
February, April and October Davidson (1898)
‘found it only ... along the Goa frontier, from
Castle Rock to Anshi, where it goes about in large
flocks’.
303. (1309) White-breasted Laughing
Thrush G. jerdoni Blyth
Recorded at the Dudhsagar waterfalls by
JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3), DEC. 1999
415
THE BIRDS OF GOA
Rane (1982) in June. He also noted ‘large flocks
of 30 to 40 at Castle Rock’, just across the
border.
304. (1390) Quaker Babbler
Alcippe poioicephala (Jerdon)
Common resident in large numbers.
Roving flocks may turn up at any well-wooded
locality, from seaside villages to the ridge of the
Ghats. Breeding in May.
305. (1407) Brown Flycatcher
Muscicapa latirostris Raffles
A not uncommon, moderately numerous
winter visitor, from mid-October to end-April
Found in all zones, from rocky offshore islets
(during autumn migration) to mango groves in
coastal villages and dense forest on the crest of
the Ghats. A few records from June indicate the
possibility of this flycatcher being also a resident
in the Western Ghats section.
306. (1408) Brown-breasted Flycatcher
M. muttui (Layard)
Scarce, irregular winter visitor in very
small numbers. Recorded in the Sahyadris, from
the foothills to the crest, between Dec. and Feb.
307. (1409) Rufous-tailed Flycatcher
M. ruficaudata Swainson
Rare winter visitor, in very small numbers,
to remnant semi-evergreen forest on plateau
scaips facing the coastal strip, and to the base
and ridge of the Ghats, between October- January.
308. (1411) Red-breasted Flycatcher
M. parva Bechstein
A fairly common and considerably
numerous winter visitor to all zones. Extremely
punctual, regular arrival in mid-October; it leaves
by the first week of April at the latest.
309. (1421) White-browed Blue Flycatcher
M. superciliaris Jerdon
Grubh and Ali (1975) collected a specimen
in BMWS, in November-December 1972. There
are no other records.
310. (1435) White-bellied Blue Flycatcher
M. pallipes Jerdon
Uncommon resident in small numbers,
occurs exclusively in the Western Ghats, from
the foothills to the crest. Breeds between April-
August.
311. (1440) Blue-throated Flycatcher
M. rubiculoides (Vigors)
A specimen was collected by Grubh and
All (1975) in the Valpoi (Sattari) area, in
November-December 1972. Frost {pers. comm.)
observed a pair in a patch of remnant semi-
evergreen forest bordering the coastal strip, at
Arpora (Bardez), in early January 1997.
312. (1442) TickelPs Blue Flycatcher
M. tickelliae (Blyth)
Common resident in large numbers, from
gardens and groves in coastal villages to moist
deciduous forests at the base of the Sahyadris;
rare on the higher slopes. Breeding in September.
313. (1445) Verditer Flycatcher
M. thalassina Swainson
Rather scarce, but regular winter visitor
in small numbers. Ranges from patches of
remnant semi-evergreen woods in coastal
villages to the heavy forests on the ridge of the
Ghats. Appears at the beginning of November
and has left by February-end.
314. (1449) Grey-headed Flycatcher
Culicicapa ceylonensis (Swainson)
Stray. In January 1986, 1 observed one bird
at a stream in dense evergreen forest, at the base
of the Dudhsagar waterfalls, in the BMWS.
Willoughby (1996) noted a single in the Bondla
WS, in November 1995.
315. (1455) White-browed Fantail
Flycatcher Rhipidura albicollis (Vieillot)
The subspecies R. a. albogularis (Lesson)
is a common, considerably numerous resident of
most wooded localities in all three zones, from
seaside gardens and mangrove forest in the river
basins to the slope of the Sahyadris, where it is
rare.
316. (1461) Paradise Flycatcher
Terpsiphone paradisi (Linn.)
Fairly common winter visitor in
considerable numbers. Found from seaside
gardens to the top of the Western Ghats, between
mid-October and mid-April.
416
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3) DEC. 1999
THE BIRDS OF GOA
317. (1465) Black-naped Flycatcher
Hypothymis azurea (Boddaert)
A common, considerably numerous resident
of the Western Ghats, and a common visitor, in all
seasons, to semi-evergreen woods in the coastal
and midland regions. Breeding in May- June.
318. (1498) Streaked Fantail Warbler
Cisticola juncidis (Rafinesque)
A seasonally and locally common resident
in considerable numbers, occurring mainly in the
coastal belt and river basins, occasionally at the
foot of the Ghats. Closely linked to the two paddy-
growing seasons (rain-fed: June to October,
irrigated: December to March); uncommon
during the remaining months. Breeding in June.
319. (1503) Ashy-grey Wren Warbler
Prinia hodgsonii Blyth
A fairly common resident in large
numbers, from seaside villages to the foothills
of the Western Ghats. Breeding in September.
320. ( 1 5 1 1 ) Plain Wren Warbler
P. subflava (Gmelin)
Not uncommon, patchily distributed
resident in moderate numbers. Occurs in a wide
range of habitats, from seaside creeks to
cultivation at the base of the Sahyadris. Breeding
in November.
321. (1517) Ashy Wren Warbler
P. socialis Sykes
A capriciously distributed resident;
common and numerous in its preferred habitat
of mangroves and sea-holly. Smaller numbers are
found in the most diverse places, from beach
creepers just above the high water line to the
outskirts of villages at the foot of the Ghats.
322. (1538) Tailor Bird
Orthotomus sutorius (Pennant)
Very common, numerous, ubiquitous
resident from coast to Ghats (on the base only).
Breeds during the SW monsoon.
323. (1549) Thick-billed Warbler
Acrocephalus aedon (Pallas)
Rather scarce winter visitor, in small
numbers, to the coastal belt, from mid-November
to mid-April.
324. (1550) Indian Great Reed Warbler
A. stentorius (Hemprich & Ehrenberg)
A not uncommon, moderately numerous
winter visitor to the coast, where it favours creeks
and saltpans, and rarely to freshwater bodies of
the midlands. Arrives in mid-November and has
left by mid-March.
325. (1556) Blyth’s Reed Warbler
A. dumetorum Blyth
A very common winter visitor in very large
numbers. Occurs from seaside gardens to the
densest wet evergreen forests on the slopes of
the Sahyadris, from end-October to mid-April.
326. (1557) Paddyfield Warbler
A. agricola (Jerdon)
Numerous and, in the appropriate habitat,
common winter visitor between mid-October and
mid-April. Found in the coastal belt and river
basins.
327. (1562) Booted Warbler
Hippolais caligata (Lichtenstein)
Straggler. There are 5 records, between late
Oct. and end Dec., from the base of the Ghats
and semi-evergreen woodlands of the coastal belt.
328. (1567) Lesser White-throat
Sylvia curruca (Linn.)
Stray. Rane (1982) noted this bird at the
Bondla WS, in April 1982. I have seen it once,
in late Oct. 1985, in a remnant pocket of semi-
evergreen forest at the foot of a plateau near the
sea.
329. (1574) Chiffchaff
Phylloscopus colly bita (Vieillot)
Straggler. Up to a dozen birds were
recorded on 5 dates (October to March) in the
Western Ghats and remnant forest patches on
plateau-scarps facing the coastal strip.
330. (1578) Tytler’s Leaf Warbler
P. tytleri Brooks
Grubh and Ali ( 1 975) collected a specimen
in the Cotigao WS, in Nov. -Dec. 1972, the
identification of which was disputed by Price
(1979). I believe I have seen very small numbers
of this confusing leaf warbler twice in the winter
of 1985-86, in the Ghats and the coastal belt.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3), DEC. 1999
417
THE BIRDS OF GOA
331. (1581) Olivaceous Leaf Warbler
P. griseolus Blyth
A specimen was collected by Grubh and
Ali (1975) in the BMWS, in November-
December 1972. 1 am quite sure of having had
5 sightings in the same area, between
November and February.
332. (1601) Large-billed Leaf Warbler
P. magnirostris Blyth
Scarce winter visitor, in moderate
numbers, to the Western Ghats and their outlying
hills. Roving groups of up to a dozen birds are
seen irregularly from early November to late
March.
333. (1605) Greenish Leaf Warbler
P. trochiloides (Sundevall)
Very common winter visitor, found in very
large numbers in all wooded localities, from
immediately behind the seashore to the top of the
Sahyadris. Between mid-September and mid-
April, it is probably Goa’s most common bird.
334. (1606) Large Crowned Leaf Warbler
P. occipitalis (Blyth)
Not uncommon, moderately numerous
winter visitor to the Western Ghats, especially
the higher slopes and the crest, between October
and mid-March. During passage, in November,
it is considerably numerous, found even in
remnant forest-patches on plateau-scarps
bordering the coastal strip.
335. (1644) Bluethroat
Erithacus svecicus (Linn.)
Uncommon, slightly irregular winter visitor
in small numbers. Occurs in the coastal belt and
river basins from early November to mid-February.
336. (1650) Blue Chat
E. hrunneus (Hodgson)
Writing about the adjoining N. Kanara
dist., Karnataka, Davidson (1898) found this
bird ‘a rare straggler to the line of the Ghats’.
In November-December 1994, P.J. Willoughby
(1996), a visiting British birder, observed a male
in the Bondla WS, while I have two records of
males from the top of the Dudhsagar waterfalls
in the BMWS, in April and December.
337. (1661) Magpie Robin
Copsychus saularis (Linn.)
A common and plentiful resident from the
coast to the Ghats. Breeding in May- June.
338. (1665) Shama C. malabaricus (Scopoli)
A not uncommon, moderately numerous
resident of the lower reaches (up to ca 150 m)
and the crest of the Ghats. An attempt by this
species to expand into valleys and gullies on the
scarp of plateaus bordering the coastal belt,
during 1984 to 1986, was apparently abandoned
in the following years.
339. (1671) Black Redstart
Phoenicurus ochruros (Gmelin)
Scarce and irregular winter visitor, in very
small numbers, to the coastal region. Grubh and
Ali (1975) noted one at the base of the Ghats.
340.(1697) Stone Chat
Saxicola torquata (Linn.)
Not uncommon winter visitor. Being partial
to saline and brackish fallow lands, this bird is
found in the coastal belt, river basins and,
occasionally, on barren plateaus not more than
20 km from the sea. Present in very moderate
numbers (except in ‘invasion years’ like 1996
and during passage, when numbers rise
considerably) from late September to mid-March.
341. (1700) Pied Bush Chat S. caprata (Linn.)
A common, considerably numerous, monsoon
fugitive and local migrant. Found in the coastal
belt and margins of plateaus bordering
cultivation. Departs in the first week of June,
just a few days ahead of the onset of the monsoon,
and returns in mid-September.
342. (1706) Isabelline Chat
Oenanthe isabellina (Temminck)
Vagrant. There are four sightings of up to 5
birds on a barren lateritic plateau near the coast,
at Sancoale (Marmagoa), in November-December
of three consecutive years in the mid-eighties.
343. (1720) Indian Robin
Saxicoloides fulicata (Linn.)
Common resident, in considerable
numbers, of the midland plateaus and valleys on
their scaips.
418
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3) DEC. 1999
THE BIRDS OF GOA
344. (1723) Blue-headed Rock Thrush
Monticola cinclorhynchus (Vigors)
Rather uncommon winter visitor in small
numbers. Occurs at all elevations in the Western
Ghats and their outlying hills, occasionally also
in gullies on the scarp of midland plateaus.
Arrives before 10th November, and departs in
early April.
345. (1726) Blue Rock Thrush
M. solitarius (Linn.)
A not uncommon winter visitor in
moderate numbers, found on offshore islets, steep
rocky seashore, headlands and cliffs on the scarp
of the Sahyadris, from early October to early
April. Davidson ( 1 898) saw one on 4th May (! !)
1893, at Marmagoa harbour.
346. (1728) Malabar Whistling Thrush
M. horsfieldii (Vigors)
The ‘idle schoolboy’ is a common,
considerably numerous resident of the Western
Ghats and, to a slightly lesser degree, their
foothills. During the rains, the breeding season,
it is the most common bird at altitudes of 100 to
500 m. In the non-breeding season, it is
occasionally found in well- wooded valleys of the
plateau zone. For several years, a pair used to
overwinter at the confluence of a perennial
stream and the backwaters behind Velsao
(Marmagoa) beach, hardly 150 m from the sea.
347. (1733) Orange-headed Ground Thrush
Zoothera citrina (Latham)
The white-throated subspecies Z. c.
cyanotus (Jardine and Selby) is a common and
considerably numerous year-round resident and
a summer visitor in large numbers. Occurs in
the plateau zone and the Western Ghats at all
elevations. The resident population is augmented
in end-March by large numbers of migrants that
depart again by mid- September Breeding from
June to August.
348. (1752) Blackbird Turdus merula Linn.
Status unclear, probably resident (though
records from July to September are lacking) of
the midland plateau region and the lower reaches
and crest of the Western Ghats. Locally common,
in moderate numbers. The irregularity of local
occurrences and the confusing array of subspecies
and intergrades, as far as they are identifiable in
the field, suggest that many of them pass through
Goa only on migration.
349. (1794) Grey Tit Parus major Linn.
Stray. Rane (1982) noted it at the Bondla
WS, in April-June 1982. I sighted a group of
three in my garden, at Anjuna (Bardez), in May
1988.
350. (1809) Yellow-cheeked Tit
P. xanthogenys Vigors
A not uncommon, moderately numerous
resident of the midland region. Roving bands of
up to 10 birds are liable to turn up in any wooded
locality, except in wet evergreen forest.
351. (1830) Chestnut-bellied Nuthatch
Sitta castanea Lesson
Stray. Noted by Rane (1982) between April
and June 1982, in the BMWS. This species is
known to occur in the almost adjacent Dandeli
WS of N. Kanara, Karnataka.
352. (1838) Velvet-fronted Nuthatch
S. frontalis Swainson
Fairly common, considerably numerous
resident of the lower slopes of the Sahyadris and
the outlying clusters of hills; more common
during the monsoon.
353. (1852) Indian Tree Pipit
Anthus hodgsoni Richmond
Grubh and Ali ( 1 975) collected a specimen
in the BMWS, in November-December 1972. I
have identified this bird with certainty only once,
in January 1985, in the same sanctuary.
354. (1854) Tree Pipit A. trivialis (Linn.)
A not uncommon winter visitor, in
considerable to large numbers, to coastal
lowlands and grasslands on the base and ridge
of the Ghats. Arrival in early November,
departure before March 10.
355 (1858) Paddyfield Pipit
A. novaeseelandiae Gmelin
Uncommon resident and common winter
visitor. The small resident population, possibly
only oversummering non-breeding birds, is
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3), DEC. 1999
419
THE BIRDS OF GOA
found in the coastal region, where it seems to have
a penchant for the belt of beach creepers
immediately behind the high tide line. Large
numbers of winter visitors arrive in two distinct
thrusts (usually in early September and again at
the beginning of October) and occupy all three
zones up to the base of the Ghats. The more diffuse
outward movement lasts through April into May.
356. (1861) Tawny Pipit
A. campestris (Linn.)
Rare winter visitor in very small numbers.
The 5 records, of up to 1 1 birds in a group, from
coastal headlands date from Nov. and Feb.
357. (1864) Red-throated Pipit
A. cervinus (Pallas)
Vagrant. Frost and Manville (pers. comm.)
observed a single male in full spring pre-breeding
plumage, on fallow pastures at Candolim
(Bardez), a coastal village of North Goa, in early
March 1997.
358.(1874) Forest Wagtail
Motacilla indica Gmelin
This uncommon, moderately numerous
winter visitor occurs mainly in the moist
deciduous forests at the base and in sholas on
the crest of the Sahyadris, avoiding the wet
evergreen forest of the scarp. It arrives in mid-
October (when one was sighted in a patch of
remnant semi-evergreen woods hardly 2 km from
the seashore) and leaves by end-March.
359. (1876) Yellow Wagtail M. flava Linn.
Common winter visitor in considerable to
large numbers. Found from beaches to the foot of
the Western Ghats, from mid-Nov. to late March.
360. (1883) Yellow-headed Wagtail
M. citreola Pallas
Rather scarce, but regular winter visitor
to the coastal belt, rarely to the foot of the Ghats.
Small to moderate numbers are present from
late Nov. onwards; flocks of >500 birds seen
in some years, before departure in end-March.
361. (1884) Grey Wagtail
M. cinerea T unstall
Common, moderately numerous winter
visitor to all zones, from late Sept, to mid- April
362. (1885) White Wagtail M. alba Linn.
Scarce but regular winter visitor, in
moderate numbers, to all three zones from mid-
October to mid-Mar. Has a penchant for irrigated
rice-paddies at the foot of the Ghats.
363. (1891) Large Pied Wagtail
M. maderaspatensis Gmelin
Common, considerably numerous resident
from just behind the seashore to the base of the
Sahyadris.
364. (1892) Thick-billed Flowerpecker
Dicaeum agile (Tickell)
Uncommon, dry season visitor in moderate
numbers; from the coastal belt (rare) to the slopes
of the Ghats. Absent from mid-May to early Nov.
Breeding in March at ca 300 m, in the Ghats.
365. (1899) Tickell’s Flowerpecker
D. erythrorhynchos (Latham)
Rather uncommon, moderately numerous
resident, from the coastal belt to the foot of the
Western Ghats. Numbers drop sharply during
monsoon.
366. (1902) Plain-coloured Flowerpecker
D. concolor Jerdon
Common, very numerous resident of the
midland and Ghats; rarely advances into the
coastal belt. Breeding in May and October.
367. (1907) Purple-rumped Sunbird
N. zeylonica (Linn.)
Very common, ubiquitous resident in very
large, wildly fluctuating numbers. Found from
the immediate hinterland of the seashore to the
base of the Sahyadris. Breeding from Jul. to Oct.
368. (1909) Small Sunbird
1\. minima (Sykes)
Common, very numerous resident from
gardens in seaside villages to the ridge of the
Ghats. For most of the year, this is the most
common and numerous bird in the forests of the
Western Ghats. Numbers drop sharply in the
monsoon. Breeding was noted in Feb. -March.
369. (1911) Loten’s Sunbird
V. lotenia (Linn.)
Rather uncommon resident, in moderate
to considerable numbers. Occurs in the midland
420
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3) DEC 1999
THE BIRDS OF GOA
region and on the lower reaches of the Ghats.
Breeding in Febmary-March.
370. (1917) Purple Sunbird
N. asiatica (Latham)
A common, considerably numerous
resident of the plateaus and Western Ghats; rarely
found in the coastal lowlands. Breeding in Nov.
371. (1927) Yellow-backed Sunbird
Aethopyga siparaja (Raffles)
Not uncommon resident, in moderate to
considerable numbers, fluctuating with the
seasons. Occurs exclusively in gardens and
orchards of the coastal region and in the remnant
semi-evergreen woods on the scarp of plateaus
facing the coastal strip. Davidson (1898) found
it ‘very rare in Kanara’ and thought himself lucky
to have seen ‘a specimen from the train below
Castle Rock’ (on the ridge of the Ghats, at the
Goa border). Incidentally, this and a recent
sighting at Surla (Sattari), also on the ridge, are
the only records outside the coastal strip.
372. (1931) Little Spiderhunter
Arachnothera longirostris (Latham)
An uncommon, moderately numerous
resident of the Western Ghats, encountered
mostly in dense evergreen and semi-evergreen
forest at 100-200 m.
373. (1933) White-eye
Zosterops palpebrosa (Temminck)
Apparently common enough in adjacent
N. Kanara above the Ghats, strays rarely into
Goa. I have only a handful of records from the
border areas along the ridge of the Ghats. Rane
(1982), however, sighted it at the Bondla WS, a
cluster of high foothills separated by several km
from the main Sahyadris.
374. (1938) House Sparrow
Passer domesticus (Linn.)
Common resident, in large numbers, of
towns and villages. This species began to colonise
coastal villages only around 1985. Breeds
practically throughout the year.
375. (1949) Yellow-throated Sparrow
Petronia xanthocollis (Burton)
Common, dry season, breeding visitor, in
large numbers, to all zones up to the foothills of
the Western Ghats where it is numerous in moist
deciduous forests (with night roosts of over 1000
birds). Breeding December to May. Absent
between late May and mid-October.
376. (1957) Baya Ploceus philippinus (Linn.)
Resident from coastal lowlands to the foot
of the Sahyadris. Uncommon in the dry season
from mid-November to late March when Bayas
breed around irrigated winter paddy; common, very
numerous during the monsoon, when they nest
near the much more extensive rain-fed kharif crop.
377. (1968) White-backed Munia
Lonchura striata (Linn.)
Common, resident in large numbers. Spread
almost evenly from the coastal strip to the lower
slopes of the Ghats. Breeding Feb. to Sep.
378. (1973) Rufous-bellied Munia
L. kelaarti (Jerdon)
Stray. Up to 5 birds of the subspecies L. k.
jerdoni (Hume) were sighted on three occasions
on the higher scarps of the Western Ghats where
the railway line leads up to Castle Rock (N.
Kanara, Karnataka).
379. (1974) Spotted Munia
L. punctulata (Linn.)
Scarce visitor, in flocks of up to 20 birds,
to coastal lowlands, from February to June.
380. (1978) Black-headed Munia
L. ntalacca (Linn.)
Scarce, irregular visitor, in very small
numbers, to coastal lowlands and foothills of the
Ghats (once). Recorded between late August and
end-October.
381. (2013) Common Rosefinch
Carpodacus erythrinus (Pallas)
Uncommon, irregular, winter visitor in
moderate numbers. Found mainly in the foothills
of the Western Ghats, to a lesser degree in the
plateau zone, from early December to early April.
382. (2043) Black-headed Bunting
Emberiza melanocephala Scopoli
Sporadic winter visitor, in singles and
pairs, to grasslands at the foot of the Ghats,
scrubby plateaus and coastal headlands.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(3), DEC. 1999
421
THE BIRDS OF GOA
Appendix
Unconfirmed records of birds that are
difficult to identify in the field and of records
within 5 km beyond Goa’s borders:
1. (11) Audubon’s Shearwater Procellaria
Iherminieri (Lesson)
I had a sighting of one bird off the coast at
Anjuna (Bardez), in mid- June 1984, after severe
cyclonic squalls.
2. (31) Lesser Frigate Bird Fregata minor
(Gmelin)
In mid-September 1990, I saw a female
over Anjuna Beach (Bardez).
3. (332) Banded Crake Rallina
eurizonoides (Lafresnaye)
Davidson ( 1 898) 4 . . .noticed this bird in the
neighbourhood of Karwar ... I obtained a single
specimen however at Sadasheogarh, which took
refuge in the bungalow there on 6lh June, 1 894,
during a severe thunderstorm.’
4. (410) Jack Snipe Gallinago minima
(Brunnich)
I flushed a single from an irrigation ditch
near the base of Dudhsagar waterfalls in BMWS,
in Mar. 1988.
R EFE
Ali, S. & S. D. Ripley ( 1 983): Handbook of the Birds of
India and Pakistan, Compact Edition. Oxford
University Press, New Delhi.
Ali, S. & S. D. Ripley (1995): A Pictorial Guide to the
Birds of the Indian Subcontinent. Bombay Natural
History Society /Ox ford University Press, New Delhi,
p. 165.
Alvares, C. ( 1 993): Fish, Curry and Rice — A Citizens’
Report on the Goan Environment. ECOFORUM, The
Other India Press, Goa.
Claydon, K., M. Claydon, D. Blakely & P. Fordham
(1993): Goa -November 1993. Private print, U.K.
Daniel, J. C. (Ed.) (1988): Wetlands and Waterfowl
Newsletter 1(1): 7, A 12.
Davidson, J. ( 1 898): The Birds of North Kanara. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 11:652-79, 12:43-71.
Dharmakumarsinhji, K.S. & K.S. Lavkumar(1956): The
Whitebellied Sea Eagles of Karwar. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 53: 569-80.
5. (581) Small Cuckoo Cuculus
poliocephalus Latham
In November 1988, 1 saw a single bird at
Kalay (Sanguem), at the base of an outlying
hillock of the Western Ghats.
6. (598) Sirkeer Cuckoo Taccocua
leschenaultii Lesson
‘This is a very rare bird in Kanara. Aitken
obtained a specimen north of Karwar...’
(Davidson 1898).
7. (627) Eagle Owl Bubo bubo (Linn.)
4 A pair are generally to be found at the
side of the hill at Sadasheogarh, north of
Karwar.’ (Davidson 1898).
8. (1521) Jungle Wren Warbler Prinia
sylvatica Jerdon
I observed a single bird in a fragment
of semi-evergreen forest on a plateau scarp
facing the coastal strip, at Arpora (Bardez), in
December 1995.
Acknowledgement
I thank Mr. Gordon Frost for going through
part of the typescript with a corrective pen and
for assistance in preparing the map.
ENCES
Dharmakumarsinhji, K.S. (1961): Rufousbellied Hawk-
Eagle, Lophotriorchis k. kienerii , in North Kanara.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 58(2): 514.
Grubh. R. B. & S. Ali (1975) Birds of Goa. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 73(1): 42-53.
Gune, V. T., ed. ( 1 979): Gazetteer of the Union Territory
of Goa, Daman and Diu, Part I: Goa. Government
Printing Press, Panaji.
Hume, A. O. ( 1 876): The Laccadives and the West Coast.
Stray Feathers 4:41 3-83.
Koelz, W. (1942): Notes on the birds of the Londa
neighbourhood, Bombay Presidency. .1. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 43(1): 11-33.
Lainer, H. (1990): On the Status of the Sandwich Tern
Sterna sandvicensis on India’s West Coast. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 87(2): 298-9.
Lainer, H. (1991): Greyheaded Lapwing Vanellus cinereus
in Goa. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 88(1): 111.
Madsen, S. T. (1988): Some birds in the marine and
422
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(3) DEC. 1999
THE BIRDS OF GOA
estuarine systems of Uttara Kanara. Karnataka.
Newsletter for Birdwatchers 28(3-4): 10.
Madsen, S. T. ( 1 990): Skuas Stercorarius sp. On the West
Coast. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 87(2): 297.
Price, T.D. (1979): On the occurrence of Tytler’s Leaf
Warbler Phylloscopus tyt/eri Brooks in Goa.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 76(1) : 143.
Rane, U. (1982): Goa. Hornbill 1982(2): 29-32.
Rane. U. (1983): Additions to ‘Birds of Goa’ by Robert B.
Grubh and Salim Ali, JBNHS 73(I).J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 80(3): 638-40.
Rane, U. (1984): Occurrence of Whitebreasted Laughing
Thrushes ( Garrulax jerdoni Blyth) in Goa.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81(2): 474-5.
Ripley, S.D. (1982): A Synopsis of the Birds of India and
Pakistan. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.
Ripley, S.D. . ( 1981 ): Occurrence of Dicrurus paradiseus
lophorinus Vieillot in Goa (India) - a comment. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc 78(1): 168-9.
Saha, B.C. & J.M. Dasgupta (1992): Birds of Goa. Rec
Zoo. Soc. of India. Occasional Paper No. 143
Satheesan, S. M. (1990): Bird-aircraft collision at an
altitude of 2424 m over the sea. .). Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 87(1): 145-6.
Telles, R. M. (1938): Fortaleza de Angediva. O Oriente
Portugues 19-21: 31 1-27.
Vidal, G. W. ( 1 880): First List of the Birds of the south
Konkan. Stray Feathers 9: 1 -96.
Willoughby, P. J. (1996): Birds of Goa. Private print.
U.K.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(3), DEC, 1999
423
OIL BAIT FISHERY OF CATFISHES IN BRAHMAPUTRA RIVER AFFECTING
RIVER DOLPHIN POPULATIONS IN ASSAM, INDIA1
S.P. Bairagi2
Keywords: Platanista gangetica , dolphin oil, bait fishery, gillnets, Binn, gharuwa
fishing, Brahmaputra
Threats to the Ganges river dolphin ( Platanista gangetica ) in River Brahmaputra were studied.
Dolphin oil bait fishery (locally called as gharuwa fishing) was determined to be the major threat
to this animal. ‘Binn’ - the migrant community from the neighbouring state Bihar, are the only
trappers of river dolphins. Dolphin oil is used as a strong lure to catch catfishes in the Brahmaputra.
It is mixed with an equal quantity of rape seed oil and applied on roasted sheep guts to prepare
the bait. Clupisoma garua, Eutropicthys vacha are the catfish species caught by this type of
fishing. A boat composed of 3 fishermen, ‘Gharuwa’ fishing unit, can fish up to 20-25 kg of
fishes per night with 1-1 .5 litres of oil. Dolphins were killed either with harpoons or under water
gillnets. 20-25 litres of oil is obtainable from a moderately sized dolphin. Dhubri and Goalpara
are the two main areas where this business is prevalent. A substitute for dolphin oil, a fish oil
(waste product of fish based industries) from coastal India was tested with success as an alternative.
Introduction
A highly threatened aquatic mammal, the
Ganges river dolphin ( Platanista gangetica) has
a discontinuous distribution, being found only
in a few small pockets of the Indian subcontinent
- in River Ganges, Brahmaputra, Meghna and
Karnaphuli and their major tributaries. The river
dolphin population is under multiple threats
throughout its range of distribution due to large
scale poaching and habitat loss. The population
in Ganges is about to be wiped out mainly due to
habitat degradation. During the last 5 years, the
population in River Brahmaputra, once the safest
place for river dolphins, has also declined
drastically due to large scale poaching.
From a study on the status and threats to
the river dolphins (Bairagi et al. 1993), it is
known that the main causes of depletion are the
loss of habitat and now, more importantly,
commercial exploitation of the animal in the
Brahmaputra river. Construction of dams and
barrages along its major tributaries has isolated
the population into some small pockets which
'Accepted December, 1996
'-do Dolphin Conservation Society,
Eilue Hill, Jyotinagar,
Guwahati 78 1 02 1 , India.
gradually disappear. The exact mortality rate is
not known, as the river systems are vast and
remote. Moreover, for this type of work, extensive
monitoring of the river system involving huge
fund allocation is required.
The commercial exploitation of river
dolphins in the Brahmaputra and Ganges is
mainly for the oil from its blubber, which
accounts for about 30% of its total body weight.
This fat is used for medicinal purposes
(aphrodisiacs) and, more importantly, as an
effective fish lure.
Some catfishes ( Clupisoma garua and
Eutropicthys vacha ) are fished with the help of
strong smelling dolphin oil bait, which attracts
them. These fishes have a moderate market value,
but large numbers of fishes can be caught by this
method, therefore, large amounts of dolphin oil
are used. A great demand for dolphin oil in these
areas has resulted in indiscriminate killing of
the dolphins. Serious measures will have to be
taken immediately if the river dolphins of
Brahmaputra are to be saved from extinction.
Material and Methods
This paper describes a study undertaken
in 1993-94, in the Brahmaputra river system.
424
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(3) DEC. 1999
OIL BAIT FISHER Y OF CA TFISHES IN BRAHMAPUTRA RIVER
Information about the dolphin oil bait fishery and
killing of river dolphins was collected from the
fishermen along the river bank. Killing methods
at all concerned places were studied. Fishermen
communities practising oil bait fishery were
identified. Various methods applied for the
extraction of oil were studied. Spot surveys were
carried out along the river to locate the important
places of fishing. Businessmen involved in the
sale of dolphin oil were interviewed.
The procedure and effectiveness of dolphin
oil as bait was studied by conducting surveys with
a fishery worker for on-the-spot verification. A
substitute for dolphin oil, crude fish oil, was
introduced to test its suitability. A known quantity
of fish oil was given to the fishermen. The fish
catch data collected was later compared with the
dolphin oil fish catch. Market feasibility was
studied to commercialise the fish oil in the local
markets of the areas.
Procedure of dolphin oil bait fishing:
This nocturnal fishing method varies from place
to place. Three fishermen and a boat constitute a
Gharuwa fishing unit. One of them is engaged
solely in the preparation of the bait. Roasted
sheep gut is chopped into small pieces and mixed
with charcoal. This helps the material to float.
Equal quantities of rape seed oil and dolphin oil
are then mixed with the chopped gut. A small
quantity of this bait is spread over the water.
Within a few seconds, catfishes attracted by the
strong smell accumulate near the boat, and are
caught with “hook and line” using the same
material in the hook as bait. In some places,
dolphin oil is applied on big pieces of roasted
duck meat.
Results and Discussion
Reliable information on the killing of
dolphins in Brahmaputra river was obtainable
from fishermen not involved in this practice.
There are two methods of killing river dolphins,
harpoons or by gill nets. Surfacing dolphins are
struck with a harpoon having a long rope tied to
retrieve it. The nets are generally made of strong
monofilament nylon and placed in the migrating
routes of the dolphins. As the material is very
fine, the dolphins’ echolocating mechanism
cannot detect the net; they get trapped and die of
suffocation.
At times, dolphins are accidentally caught
in the gill nets meant to catch fish and die. These
dolphins are sold to dolphin oil bait fishermen.
This is an indirect mode of killing.
Binns, a local community that migrated
from the neighbouring state of Bihar, are the
main trappers of river dolphins and are
exclusively involved in dolphin oil bait fishery.
They are locally called Gharuwa fishermen and
the method of fishing is called Gharuwa fishing.
In the Brahmaputra, about 500 fishermen use
this method of fishing throughout the river
stretch. Some of them are involved exclusively
in killing of dolphins and supply of dolphin oil.
To extract oil, the dolphin is first cut into
small pieces and kept in tin containers ( 1 5 kg
capacity). These containers are secretly buried
under sand at the river bank in remote areas.
After a few days, the oil separates out of the flesh.
7-8 litres of oil is obtained from a container of
flesh and fat. Depending on the size of the
animal, each dolphin requires 3 to 4 containers.
Throughout the length of River
Brahmaputra in northeast India, there are 2 major
and 3 minor sites where this business is
prevalent. The major sites are Dhubri and
Goalpara located on the lower stretch of the river.
The Binn community resides here and conducts
dolphin oil bait fishing throughout the
Brahmaputra. The 3 minor sites are Chandrapur,
Tezpur and Dibrugarh on the lower, middle and
upper stretch of Brahmaputra respectively.
The businessmen involved in dolphin oil
sale do it on the side, as this type of fishing is
practised only in the lean seasons i.e., when water
becomes clear and its level goes down. A
container of dolphin flesh and fat costs about
Rs. 300-400 from which 7 to 8 litres of oil
(at Rs. 40-45 per litre) can be extracted.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(3), DEC. 1999
425
OIL BAIT FISHERY OF CA TF1SHES IN BRAHMAPUTRA RIVER
Depending on the availability of fishes, a
boat can fish up to 20 kg per night. 1 to 1.5 litres
of oil are required by a boat per night. From a
moderate sized dolphin, only 20 to 25 litres of
oil is extracted. In Dhubri and Goalpara, there
are about 100 fishing boats engaged in Gharuwa
fishing. Hence, the chance of indiscriminate
killing of the animal in these areas is very high.
Fish oil was tested as a substitute, to save
the river dolphins of Brahmaputra. This fish oil
was brought from the coast as a sample and
introduced here. It was found that fish oil is as
effective as dolphin oil, as the same quantity
of fish can be caught using this oil. The fishermen
are also happy with this new oil. If the required
quantity of fish oil can be supplied at the same
price as dolphin oil, the fishermen will stop
killing the dolphins. This alternative must be
considered for the conservation of
the threatened river dolphins of the Brahmaputra.
Reference
Bairagi. S.P., S.C. Dey & R.S. Lal Mohan (1997): The ( Platanista gangetica) in Kulsi river of North East
status of a resident population of Ganges river dolphin India. Tiger Paper Vol. 24, No. 2 Apr-.fune.
426
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3 ) DEC 1999
CARIDINA TYPUS H. MILNE EDWARDS 1837 FROM
THE INDIAN MAINLAND — A REPORT'
Delphjn Ebenezer- and Jasmine Richard* * 3
( With four text-figures)
Key words: Caridina typus, Crustacea, Atyidae, Appendix masculina, Appendix interna
Freshwater prawns of the family Atyidae enjoy wide distribution in India. Nearly a century ago,
Henderson ( 1 893) first recorded the occurrence of an atyid prawn from India, of the genus Caridina ,
which he identified as C. wyckii (Hickson), from Chennai. In subsequent years, several
carcinologists contributed towards the taxonomy of the Atyidae of India. Yet, the type species of
the genus Caridina viz. Caridina typus. H. Milne Edwards 1837, though widely distributed in
the Indo-Pacific area, was recorded only from Andaman Islands (Tiwari & Pillai 1971) and not
from the Indian mainland. The present note records the occurrence of C. typus from four streams
in the fringing localities of Kanyakumari district of Tamil Nadu and extends its distribution to
the Indian mainland.
Introduction
As part of a research project, the first
author surveyed the freshwater bodies of
Kanyakumari dist. for the presence of freshwater
prawns. Numerous specimens of several species
of the atyid genus Caridina were collected.
C. typus was collected for the first time from
the Indian mainland, from the streams in
Methukammal, Kunchacode, Manavalakurichi
and Manakal Odai (Fig. 1). Samples of the
collected specimens are deposited in
Rijksmuseum Van Natuurlijke Histone Leiden,
The Netherlands - Reg No. Crust. D. 46659.
Caridina typus H. Milne Edwards 1837.
(Figs. 2-4)
Description
Maximum length of the prawn is 39 mm.
Males 14-24 mm; Females 32-39 mm. Rostrum
short, reaching the tip of the 2nd segment of the
‘Accepted July, 1997
Presidency College,
Chennai 600 004.
3Bharathi Women’s College,
Chennai 600 1 08.
antennular peduncle; upper margin entire; lower
margin interrupted with 1-3 teeth.
0
Rostral formula =
1-3
Antennal spine is at the lower orbital angle.
The pteiygostomian angle is rounded. Stylocerite
reaches 3/4th of the basal segment of the
antennular peduncle.
Carpus of the 1st pereiopod deeply
excavated, equal to merus and shorter than chela,
1.38 to 1.5 times as long as its breadth. Carpus
of the 2nd pereiopod not deeply excavated, 4.06
to 5.10 times as long as its breadth and longer
than merus and chela. Finger longer than palm;
propodus of 3rd pereiopod 8.30 to 10.30 times as
long as its breadth, 3.98 to 4.0 times the dactylus
and bears 5 to 7 spines. Propodus of the 5th
pereiopod 13.10 to 14.50 times as long as its
breadth, 3.70 to 4.20 times the dactylus. Dactylus
4.03 to 4.50 times its breadth and bears 45 to 60
minute spinules arranged in a comb-like fashion.
Pereiopods 1 to 4 bear epipodites. The first
pleopods of the males bear a distinct appendix
interna on their endopod. The 2nd male pleopod
bears appendix masculina.
Telson bears 5 to 6 pairs of dorsal spines.
Its posterior margins bear a median spine and
JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(3). DEC. 1999
427
CARID1NA TYPUS H. MILNE EDWARDS 1837
428
JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3) DEC. 1999
Fig. 1: Caridinci typus H. Milne Edwards 1837. Lateral vie'
CARIDINA TYPUS H. MILNE EDWARDS 1837
a to f
1 mm
Fig. 2: Caridina typus H. Milne Edwards, 1837. a - c: Pereiopods J-II1; d. Pereiopod V; e. Pleopod I of male;
f. Pleopod II of male; g. Telson.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3), DEC. 1999
429
vv
CARIDINA TYPUS H. MILNE EDWARDS 1837
430
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(3) DEC. 1999
CAR1DINA TYPUS H. MILNE EDWARDS 1837
Fig. 4: Map of Kanyakumari district showing locations of occurrence of Caridina typus
6 to 10 long spines. The lateral spines are slightly
shorter than the median ones which are almost
equal in length.
Uropod diaeresis spines are 16 to 21
(mostly 19). Eggs numerous; in one berried
female there were 3708. Each egg measures 0.24
to 0.29 mm x 0.42 to 0.47 mm.
Discussion
Caridina typus has a wide distribution in
the Indo-west Pacific area, ranging from East
Africa to Japan and Polynesia (Holthuis, 1965).
Johnson (1960, 1963) dealt with C. typus and
emphasized the insular distribution of the
species, being restricted to a few fringing
localities never far from the sea and never in
major river systems. Tiwari & Pillai (1971)
described C. typus from freshwater streams of
Andaman Islands. So far, C. typus had not been
reported from the Indian mainland, even though
it was reported from neighbouring Sri Lanka
by De Silva (1982) and Benzie & De Silva
(1984).
The present report of C. typus from the
freshwater streams of Kanyakumari dist.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3), DEC. 1999
431
CARIDINA TYPUS H. MILNE EDWARDS 1837
confirms the presence of the species on the
Indian mainland for the first time. The pattern
of distribution along the shore conforms with
the observation of Johnson (1963). The present
record of this species along the fringing localities
of Kanyakumari dist. may lead to further reports
from the Indian subcontinent.
Refer
Benzie, J.A.H. & P.K. De Silva (1984): The taxonomic
relationship of the Atyidae (Decapoda : Caridea) of Sri
Lanka determined by electrophoretically detectable
protein variation. Journal of Crustacean Biology 4:
632-644.
Bouvier, E.L. (1925): Researchers sur la morphologie, les
variations, la distribution geographique des crevettes de
la familliedes Atyides. Encycl. Ent., Ser-A 4: 1-370.
De Silva, K.H.G.M. ( 1 982): Studies on Atyidae (Decapoda,
Caridea) of Sri Lanka. On a new species, a new
subspecies and two species new to Sri Lanka.
Crustaceana 43(2): 127 - 135.
Henderson, J.R. (1893): A contribution to Indian
Carcinology. Trans. Linn.Soc. London, 5: 325-458.
Holthuis, L.B. (1965): The Atyidae of Madagascar Mem.
Mus. Nat. Hist. Paris, 33: 1-48.
ACKNOW LEDG EM E NTS
We thank Prof. L.B. Holthuis for
taxonomic consultation and for depositing the
specimens in the Rijksmuseum Van Naturrlijke
Historic, Leiden, Netherlands. We gratefully
remember late Dr. D.R. Jalihal for the constant
support given by him.
iNCES
Johnson, D.S. (1960): Some aspects of distribution of
freshwater organisms in the Indo- Pacific area and their
relevance to the concept of an Oriental region in
Zoogeography. Proc. Cont. Bicent. Congr. Biol.
Singapore: 170-181.
Johnson, D.S. (1963): Distributional and other notes on
some freshwater prawns (Atyidae and Palaemonidae)
mainly from Indo-west Pacific region. Bull. Nat. Mus.
Singapore: 32: 5-30.
Milne Edwards, H. (1837): Histoire Naturelle des
Crustac’es, Comprenant 1’anatomie, la physiologie et
la classification de ces animaux. 2: 1 -532.
Tiwari, K.K. & R.S. Pillai (1971): Atyid shrimps of the
genus Caridina H. Milne Edwards, 1837, from the
Andaman Islands (Decapoda, Caridea) Crustaceana
27:79-91.
432
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3) DEC. 1999
POPULATION STATUS AND MALE GENITALIA OF LETHE EUROPA NILADANA
AND PARARGE E VERSMANNI CASHMIRENSIS
(LEPIDOPTERA: SATYRIDAE)1
H.S. Rose and Narender Sharma2
(With ten text-figures)
Key words: Lethe, Pararge, Satyridae, population, male genitalia, Wildlife Act.
Male genitalia of two rare subspecies, i.e., Lethe europa niladana Fruhstorfer and Pararge
eversmanni cashmirensis Moore have been studied. The females of both the species could not be
collected during recent surveys undertaken between 1992 to 1996. Owing to their rarity and
restricted distribution, it is proposed that they may be included in the Wildlife (Protection) Act,
1972.
Introduction
Under two ICAR sponsored projects, we
studied fifty-four Satyrid species from northwest
India. Out of these, two species have been
identified as Lethe europa niladana Fruhstorfer
and Pararge eversmanni cashmirensis Moore on
the basis of one male specimen each. Like most
other Indian butterfly species, the external
genitalia of these two had not been studied so
far. Accordingly, an illustrated account of the
male genitalia is provided. Their status has also
been reviewed in the light of the Wildlife
(Protection) Act, 1972.
Observations
Bamboo treebrown Lethe europa (Fabricius)
Fabricius, 1775, Syst. Ent.: 500 (Papilio).
Lethe europa niladana Fruhstorfer
Fruhstorfer, 1911, Fauna Indo- Austral 9:315
(Lethe)
Male genitalia (Figs. 1-5): Uncus longer
than tegumen, curved ventrally, broad at base,
beak-like, with distal end rounded, setae absent;
brachia wanting; tegumen somewhat oval,
narrow ventrally; appendices angulares long,
'Accepted April, 1999
department of Zoology,
Punjabi University,
Patiala 147 002, Punjab, India.
blunt distally, slightly curved inwardly, broad
at base; vinculum longer than tegumen, thin
strip-like; saccus moderately long, broad
proximally, distal end rounded; valva with
proximal half boat-shaped, distal half narrow,
distal end slightly swollen, pilose; juxta
U-shaped, strongly sclerotised; aedeagus long,
tubular, subzone and suprazone almost equal
in length, ductus ejaculatorius entering
dorsad.
Female genitalia: Not examined.
Length of Forewing: Male: 32.0 mm.
Material examined: Uttar Pradesh: ld\
26.vi.1992, Bhimtal, Nainital.
The species europa Fabricius is the type-
species of the genus Lethe Hiibner and is
represented by twelve subspecies. Out of these,
europa niladana (Northern India to Burma),
europa nudgara Fruhstorfer (Andaman Islands)
europa tamuna de Niceville (Nicobar Islands)
and europa ragalva Fruhstorfer (Southern
India) belong to India (D’Abrera, 1985). The
former subspecies, whose range has been
given from Kumaon to Burma by Bingham
(1905) has been dealt with here. According to
Talbot (1947), the range of this subspecies
extends from the erstwhile Punjab to Burma,
Siam and Tong-King. Relying upon present
surveys, the subspecies under reference is
apparently very rare in the Kumaon Himalaya
now.
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(3). DEC. 1999
433
MALE GENITALIA AND POPULA TIONSTA TUS
Figs. 1-5. Lethe europa niladana Fruhstorfer: 1. Male genitalia (lateral view), 2. Valva (inner view),
3. Juxta, 4. Aedeagus (dorsal view), 5. Aedeagus (lateral view);
Figs. 6-10. Pararge eversmanni cashmirensis Moore: 6. Male genitalia (lateral view),
7. Valva (inner view), 8. Juxta, 9. Aedeagus (dorsal view), 10. Aedeagus (lateral view).
434
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3) DEC. 1999
MALE GENITALIA AND POPULA TIONSTA TUS
Yellow Wall Pararge eversmanni Eversmann
Eversmann, 1847, Moscow Bulletin 2: pi. 2
figs 5, 6 (Pararge).
Pararge eversmanni cashmirensis Moore
Moore, 1874, Proc. zool. Soc. Lond.: 265, pi.
43 (Pararage).
Male genitalia (Figs. 6-10): Uncus shorter
than tegumen, broad, narrow distally, beset with
a few setae at base dorsally, a deep notch present
between tegumen and uncus; brachia very
slender, extending half the length of uncus, distal
end upturned dorsally; tegumen long, broad;
appendices angulares inwardly curved with blunt
distal end; vinculum and tegumen subequal;
saccus small with rounded distal end; valva
roughly triangular, distal end pointed, digitate,
pilose; juxta squarish, plate-like; aedeagus small,
tubular, subzone smaller than suprazone, ductus
ejaculatorius entering dorsal.
Female genitalia: Not examined.
Length of Forewing: Male: 27.0 mm.
Material examined: Himachal Pradesh:
lcT, 2 1 .vii. 1992, Pangi, Chamba.
Marshall and de Niceville (1883) while
enlisting the above species as Pararge
cashmirensis Moore has recorded its distribution
from Goolmurg [Kashmir] (= Gulmarg) and
Pangi, besides stating it to be a rare and very
local butterfly. The species is quite different from
all other Indian species of this family. There are
no ocelli on the dorsal surface of the forewings.
Bingham (1905) followed Marshall and de
Niceville (1883) but Evans (1932) has clarified
Bingham, C.T. (1905): The Fauna of British India, including
Ceylon and Burma. Butterflies. Volume-I. Taylor and
Francis, London: 1-1 15, Pis. 1-10.
D’ Abrera, B. ( 1 985): Butterflies of the Oriental Region.
Part-11. Nymphalidae, Satyridae and Amathusiidae. Hill
House. Victoria: 295-534.
Evans. W.H.( 1932): The Identification of Indian butterflies.
Second edition revised. Bombay Natural History
Society, Bombay x+454 pp. 32 Pis., 9 figs.
■ ■
that cashmirensis Moore is a subspecies of
eversmanni Eversmann. Talbot (1947) has also
mentioned this subspecies to be rare from Chitral
to Kashmir.
Remarks: The present surveys (1992-
1 996) further support that the two species studied
are becoming rarer. So much so, that in spite of
our best efforts, the females could not be collected
and their importance in conservation of a species
need hardly be emphasised. It is proposed here
that these subspecies be closely monitored from
the conservation point of view and included in
the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, under an
appropriate schedule. It may be mentioned that
Lethe europa tamuna de Niceville reported from
Nicobar Islands is included in Schedule 1 (Part
IV) of the Act.
Abbreviations used
AED: Aedeagus, APX.ANG: Appendix
angularis, BR: Brachium, CO: Costa, DU.EJ:
Ductus ejaculatorius, SA: Saccus, SBZ: Subzonal
portion of aedeagus, SL: Sacculus, SPZ:
Suprazonal portion of aedeagus. TEG: Tegumen,
UN: Uncus, VIN: Vinculum, VLV: Valva.
Acknowledgement
We thank the Indian Council of
Agricultural Research, New Delhi, Govt, of
India, for financial support.
NCES
Marshall, G.F.L. & L. de Niceville (1883): The
Butterflies of India, Burmah and Ceylon. A descriptive
handbook of all known species of Rhopalocerous
Lepidoptera inhabiting that region, with notices of allied
species occurring in the neighbouring countries along
the border; Vol. I. Calcutta Central Press: 327 pp.
Talbot, G. (1947): The Fauna of British India including
Ceylon and Burma. Butterflies Vol. 2. Taylor and
Francis, London: 506 pp.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3), DEC. 1999
435
A NEW RECORD OF FRESHWATER BAGRID FISH
MYSTUS PULCHER CHAUDHURI FROM INDIA1
Keishing Selim2 and Waikhom Vishwanath
Key words: Mystus pulcher, new record, India.
A freshwater Bagrid fish Mystus pulcher Chaudhuri originally known from Myanmar, has been
recorded for the first time from India. The species was collected from Chatrickong river in the
Indo-Myanmar border, which is one of the watersheds of the Chindwin river system. The species
is characterised by two pale whitish brown longitudinal stripes, one above and another below the
lateral line. A dark spot on the shoulder, another on the base of the caudal fin. A detailed description
of the species is provided.
Introduction
The genus Mystus Scopoli (1777) belongs
to the family Bagridae and is distinguished from
other genera in the following characters:
intemeural shield between basal bone of dorsal
fin and occipital process absent; anal fin short
with 9-16 rays (Jayaram 1981). Talwar and
Jhingran (1991) described eighteen species, of
which fifteen are distributed in India and the rest
in neighbouring countries. Datta and Laishram
(1984) mentioned the possibility of Mystus
pulcher in Chindwin drainage, hence they
included the species in the fish zoogeography
list, but without a description. Recently we
collected 12 specimens in Chatrickong river. This
river is formed of two important streams viz.
Sanalok and Khunukong. Sanalok flows on the
eastern side and Khunukong on the western side;
both the streams, after flowing for about 100 km,
meet at Dha-ado. The river then flows as
Chatrickong for about 5 km in an easterly
direction into Myanmar and finally joins the
Chindwin drainage. The species is reported for
the first time from India and is a new record.
Mystus pulcher Chaudhuri
Mystus pulcher Chaudhuri, 1911, Rec.
Indian. Mus., 6: 20 pi. 1, fig 4 (type locality:
Bhamo, Myanmar). Mystus (Mystus) pulcher,
Jayaram 1929, Rec. Indian Mus. 51: p. 332
'Accepted October, 1998
:Department of Life Sciences, Manipur University
Canehipur 795 003, Imphal, Manipur
Material examined: MUMF/ 1100/12
55.1-69.9 mm standard length, coll. Keishing
Selim, Chatrickong River, 6.vi.l996.
Description
D. i, 7; i, 8; V. i, 5; A. ii, 10; C 17. Body
elongate and compressed. Head depressed,
occipital twice as long as broad, reaching basal
bone of dorsal fin; median longitudinal groove
on head not extending to base of occipital process.
Mouth terminal, transverse, upper jaw longer and
eyes moderate. Barbels four pairs, maxillary
barbels extend posteriorly beyond the anal fin
origin, outer mandibulars beyond middle of
pectoral spine, inner mandibular barbels to
pectoral base. Dorsal spine weak and finely
serrated; origin much nearer to adipose dorsal
origin than to snout tip. Pectoral fin with a strong
spine longer than dorsal spine, finely serrated
externally and 10-12 denticulations internally.
Pelvic fins do not reach anal; their origin opposite
last dorsal ray, much nearer to anal origin than
to pectoral base. Anal fin origin just below middle
of adipose dorsal, nearly equidistant between
pelvic fin origin and caudal fin base. Adipose
fin long, inserted close behind dorsal fin. Skin
smooth, caudal fin forked.
Proportional Measurements (in %):
Body depth 26.07-26.26, Head length 28.33-
29.47, caudal length 26.64-28.93, predorsal
length 39.39-41.31, dorsal fin height 19.29-
21.20, pectoral fin length 20.35-21.91, pelvic fin
length 13.77-17.62, anal fin height 17.36-19.91,
436
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3) DEC 1999
MYSTUS PULCHER CHAUDHURI FROM INDIA
caudal peduncle length 15.56-16.61, caudal
peduncle depth 11.02-12.72 in standard length.
Head width 70.81-75.75, head height at occiput
66.48-72.08, eye diameter 19.79-21.08, inter-
orbital space 36.36-39.08, snout length 33.50-
35.35, mouth width 41.08-42.42 in head length.
Colour: Dark brown above, lighter below;
two pale whitish brown longitudinal stripes, one
above and the other below the lateral line. A
dark spot on shoulder, another on the base of
caudal fin.
Distribution: india: Chatrickong River,
Ukhrul dist., Manipur; Myanmar.
Discussion
The specimens examined agree with the
original description of the species from
Myitkyina, Myanmar described by Chaudhuri
(1911). Though slight difference is seen in the
morphometric measurements, these are small and
within the range of Mystus pulcher.
The present specimens were collected in
June 1996, when the water was quite muddy. The
species was usually found in this muddy bottom.
This note extends the distribution of Mystus
pulcher (Chaudhuri 1911) from its original
drainage in Myanmar to the Chindwin
watershed in Manipur, India and is thus a new
record for India.
Acknowledgement
We thank the Ministry of Environment &
Forests, Department of Environment, Forest &
Wildlife, Govt, of India (Sanct. No. 14/36/95-
MAB/RE,) for financial assistance during the
course of this investigation.
COMPARISON OF MYSTUS PULCHER CHAUDHURI WITH SPECIMEN FROM CHATRICKONG MANIPUR, INDIA.
References
Chaudhuri, B.L. (191 1): Part II, Fishes. Rec. Indian. Mus..
Calcutta, 6, pp. 13-24, pi. 1.
Datta N.C. & I.S. Laisharam (1984): Zoogeograph ical
significance of the ichthyofauna of Manipur, India.
Inti. J. Acad. Ichthyol. (Proc. IV AISI) 5: 83-93,
1984.
Jayaram, K.C. ( 1 977): Aid to the identification of siluroid
fishes of India, Burma, Sri Lanka, Pakistan and
Bangladesh. 1 Bagridae. Occ. papers. Zool. Surv.
India , No. 8, 4 1 pp.
Jayaram, K.C. (1981): The freshwater fishes of India,
Pakistan, Bangladesh. Burma & Sri Lanka — a
hand book. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.
437-444.
Scopoli, J.A. ( 1 777): Introductio ad historiani naturalem
sistens genera lapidium platarum et animalium
hactennus detecta, careeterribus essenliablibus
donata introbus divisa subinde adleges nature.
Pragae, x+506 pp.
Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland fishes of
India and adjacent countries. Oxford & IBH
Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi.
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(3). DEC. 1999
437
AN UPDATE ON SYNOPTIC CATALOGUE OF LAC INSECTS
(HOMOPTERA : TACHARDIIDAE)1
K. Krishan Sharma and R. Ramani2
Key words: Homoptera, Tachardiidae, lac insects
Members of the family Tachardiidae (= Kerri idae) produce lac and certain species are exploited
for their economically important products viz., resin, dye and wax. An updated checklist of world
species is provided. It includes two subfamilies, nine genera and eighty-seven species. The
systematic list provides name of species, author, year of description, synonym(s) if any, and
country (state/region) of occurrence. Taxa and species are listed in alphabetical order. The
bibliography includes citations of each taxa for
Introduction
Lac insects are degenerate scale insects,
belonging to the family Tachardiidae and are well
known for their commercially important products
viz. resin, dye and wax. Kerr (1782) was the first
to study a species of lac insect in detail and named
it Coccus lacca which is now known as Kerria
lacca (Kerr). A separate identity to lac insects
was given by Oken (1815) who placed them
under genus Laccifer. The taxonomic aspects of
lac insects, however, remained obscure, till
Chamberlin (1923) gave the first description of
lac insects of the world which he later
supplemented (Chamberlin, 1925). Kapur (1958)
prepared a catalogue of lac insects and Varshney
( 1977) described all the oriental species in detail.
Varshney ( 1 990) also published a brief catalogue
of lac insects, reporting eight genera and 77
species as well as a world list of lac insects
(Varshney, 1993) in which some of the taxa have
been mentioned as nomen nudum. Later, Zhang
(1993) described some more species. The list
recently updated by Varshney (1997) contains no
bibliographic references to the newly discovered
taxa and the species which were earlier described
as nomen nudum. Moreover, the list is
incomplete, Thus, at present, lac insects are
represented by two subfamilies, nine genera and
'Accepted December, 1997
:Division of Transfer of Technology,
Indian Lac Research Institute,
Namkum, Ranchi 834 010.
reference and taxonomic purposes.
eighty-seven species. The updated systematic list
given here provides: name of species, author, year
of description, synonym(s) if any and country
(state/region) of their occurrence in that order.
A consolidated list of bibliographic references
to all the taxa reported in the checklist has been
provided.
Checklist
Family: Tachardiidae Green 1896 [Syn.
Lacciferidae Cockerell. 1924; Kerriidae
Lindinger 1937]
Subfamily: Tachardiinae (Nominate)
[Syn. Lacciferinae Chamberlin 1925].
Tribe. Austrotachardiini Chamberlin
1925 [Syn. Austrotachardinina Balachowsky
1950].
I. Austrotachardia Chamberlin 1923.
[Type species: Tachardia angulata Froggatt].
1. A. acaciae (Maskell 1891). Australia
(Central Australia and New South Wales).
2. A. angulata (Froggatt 1911). Australia (New
South Wales).
3. A. australis (Froggatt 1899). Australia
(Queensland).
4. A. convexa (Fuller 1 899). Australia (Western
Australia).
5. A. melaleucae (Maskell 1891). Australia
(New South Wales, Victoria and Western
Australia).
438
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3) DEC 1999
SYNOPTIC CA TALOGUE OF LA C INSECTS
Tribe Tachardiini (Nominate) [Syn.
Lacciferinina Balachowsky 1950]
Subtribe Tachardielii Chamberlin 1925
[Syn. Tachardiellina Williams 1969].
II. Austrotachardiella Chamberlin 1923.
[Type species: Tachardia rotundata Cockerell].
6. A. bodkini (Newstead 1917). Guyana.
7. A. cydoniae (Hempel 1900). [Syn. Tachardia
rosae Hempel 1900; Tachardia caerulea
Hempel 1904]. Brazil.
8. A. gemrniferra (Cockerell 1893). Jamaica.
9. A. nigra (Townsend & Cockerell 1898).
Mexico (Vera Cruz and Jalisco).
10. A. rotundata (Cockerell 1903). Mexico.
11. A. rubra (Hempel 1900). Brazil.
12. A. trilobata (Mendes 1936). Brazil.
III. Tachardiella (Cockerell 1901).
[Type species: Tachardia cornuta Cockerell].
13. T. argentina (Dominguez 1906). Argentina.
14. T. artocarpi (Hempel 1921). Brazil.
15. T. condaliae (Leonardi 1911). [Syn.
Tachardia cordaliae Leonardi 1911].
Argentina.
16. T. cornuta (Cockerell 1894). U.S.A. (New
Mexico and Texas) and Mexico.
17. T. ferrisi Chamberlin 1923. Mexico.
18. T. fulgens (Cockerell 1895). U.S.A.
(Arizona) and Mexico.
19. T. glomerella (Cockerell 1905). [Syn. T.
glomerella var. baccharidis Chamberlin
1923]. U.S.A. (California, New Mexico and
Texas).
20. T. ingae (Hempel 1900). Brazil.
21. T. larreae (Comstock 1 882). [Syn. T. larreae
var. californica Chamberlin 1923]. U.S.A.
(Arizona, California and Nevada) and
Mexico.
22. T. lycii (Leonardi 1911). Argentina.
23. T. mexicana (Comstock 1882). [Syn.
Tachardia fulvoradiata Cockerell 1898;
Tachardiella texana Chamberlin 1923].
U.S.A. (Texas) and Mexico.
24. T. nigra Fonseca 1975. Brazil (Sao Paulo).
25. T. ourinhensis Hempel 1937. Brazil.
26. T. pawa (Hempel 1900). Brazil.
27. T. pustulata (Cockerell 1895). U.S.A.
(Arizona and California).
Subtribe Tachardii (Nominate) [Syn.
Lacciferi Chamberlin 1925].
IV. Kerria Targioni-Tozzetti 1884.
[Syn. Laccifer Oken 1815; Carteria Signoret
1874; Tachardia Blanchard 1886; Lakshadia
Mahdihassan 1923].
[Type species: Coccus lacca Kerr],
i. Subgenus Kerria (Nominate).
28. K. (K.) albizziae (Green 1911). India (Bihar,
Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal) and Sri
Lanka.
29. K. (K.) brancheata Varshney 1966. India
(Bihar).
30. K. (K.) chamberlini Varshney 1966. India
(Rajasthan).
3 la./v. (K.) chinensis chinensis (Mahdihassan
1923). [Syn. Laccifer longispina Misra
1930; Laccifer siamensis Takahashi 1941].
Bhutan, China (South China), Cambodia,
India (N.E. India), Myanmar (^Burma),
Nepal, Thailand and Vietnam.
3 lb.AT. (K.) chinensis kydia (Misra 1930). India
(Assam).
32. K. (K.) communis (Mahdihassan 1923).
India (Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka,
Kerala, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu).
33. K. (K.) ebracheata (Chamberlin 1923).
India (Bihar and Karnataka), and Pakistan.
34a. K. (K.) fici fici (Green 1903). China, India
(Bihar, Delhi, Jammu & Kashmir,
Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal),
Pakistan and Thailand.
34b. K. (K.) fici jhansiensis (Misra 1930). India
(Uttar Pradesh).
35. K. (K.) indicola (Kapur 1958). [Syn.
Laccifer indica Misra 1930]. India
(Bihar).
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(3). DEC. 1999
439
SYNOPTIC CA TALOGUE OF LAC INSECTS
36a. K. (K.) lacca lacca (Kerr 1782). [Syns. Coccus
ficus Fabricius 1787; Lakshadia indica
Mahdihassan 1923]. Bangladesh, China,
Georgia, India, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal,
Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Taiwan and Thailand.
36b. K. (K.) lacca ambigua (Misra 1930). India
(Uttar Pradesh).
36c. K. (K.) lacca mysorensis (Mahdihassan
1923). India (Karnataka).
36d.K. (K.) lacca takahashii Varshney 1977.
Thailand.
37. K. (K.) mengdingensis Zhang 1993. China
(Yunnan).
38. K. (K.) nagoliensis (Mahdihassan 1923).
India (Madhya Pradesh).
39. K. (K.) nepalensis Varshney 1977. India
(Bihar) and Nepal.
40. K. (K.) pusana (Misra 1930). India (Bihar).
41. K. (K.) ruralis (Wang, Yao, Teui & Liang
1892). China (Yunnan).
42. K. (K.) sharda sp. nov. Mishra and Sushil
2000.
43. ' K. (K.) sindica (Mahdihassan 1923).
Pakistan (Sind).
44. K. (K.) yunnanensis Ou & Hong 1 990. China
(Yunnan).
ii. Subgenus Chamberliniella Varshney 1987.
[Syn. Chamberlinia Varshney 1984].
[Type species: Tachardia greeni Chamberlin].
45. K. (C.) greeni (Chamberlin 1923).
Philippines, Taiwan and Thailand.
46. K. (C.) javana (Chamberlin 1925).
Indonesia (Java) and Malaysia.
47. K. ( C .) meridionalis (Chamberlin 1923).
Australia (New South Wales and Victoria).
48. K. (C.) rangoonensis (Chamberlin 1925).
India (Assam) and Myanmar.
V. Metatachardia Chamberlin 1923.
[Type species: Tachardia conchiferata Green].
49. M. conchiferata (Green 1922). Sri Lanka.
50. M. fukienensis Zhang 1993. China (Fukien).
51. M. hunanensis Zhang 1 993 . China (Hunan ).
52. M. myrica Tang 1974. China (Chekiang).
53. M. sinensis Zhang 1993. China (Changyan-
Yunnan).
54. M. yunnanensis Zhang 1992. China
(Changy an- Y unnan ) .
Subfamily Tachardininae Chamberlin
1925. [Syn. Tachardini and Tachardinina of
Balachowsky 1950; Type genus: Tachardina
Cockerell 1901].
VI. Afrotachardina Chamberlin 1923.
[Type species: Tachardia longisetosa
Newstead].
55. A. brachysetosa Chamberlin 1923. Uganda.
56. A. longisetosa (Newstead 1911). Uganda.
VII. Albotachardina Zhang 1992a.
[Type species: Albotachardina yunnanensis
Zhang].
57. A. sinensis Zhang 1992a. China (Yunnan).
58. A. yunnanensis Zhang 1992a. China
(Yunnan).
VIII. Paratachardina Balachowsky 1950.
[Type species: Carteria decorella Maskell].
59. P. capsella Wang 1986. China (Yunnan).
60. P. decorella (Masked 1892). Australia (New
South Wales and Victoria).
61a.P. lobata (Green 1922). [Syn. Tachardia
minuta Green 1922 (nec Morrison)]. India.
(Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil
Nadu) and Sri Lanka.
61b. P. lobata var. schmidti (Mahdihassan 1946).
India (Karnataka).
61c. P. lobata var. walczuchae (Mahdihassan
1946). India (Karnataka).
62. P. minuta (Morrison 1920). Philippines.
63. P mithilae Varshney 1968. India
(Meghalaya).
440
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3 ) DEC. 1999
SYNOPTIC CA TALOGUE OF LAC INSECTS
64. P. morobensis sp. nov. New Papua Guinea.
65. P. silvestrii (Mahdihassan 1923). India
(Karnataka).
66. P. ternata (Chamberlin 1923). India
(Kerala).
67 . P. theae (Green & Mann 1 907). India (Sikkim
and West Bengal) and Taiwan.
IX. Tachardina (Cockerell 1901).
[Type species: Tachardia albida Cockerell].
68. T. actinella (Cockerell & King 1901 ). [Syn.
Tachardina digitata Munting 1965].
Mozambique (?), South Africa and
Zimbabwe.
69a. T. affluens (Brain 1920). Saudi Arabia and
South Africa.
69b. T. affluens var. coagulata Hall 1935. South
Africa (Transvaal).
69c. T. affluens var. natalensis Hall 1935. South
Africa (Natal).
70. T. africana Hall 1935. Mozambique (?),
South Africa and Zimbabwe.
71. T. albida (Cockerell 1901) South Africa and
Zimbabwe.
72. T. aurantiaca (Cockerell 1903). Indonesia
(Java), Singapore and Thailand. Varshney
Refer
Balachovvsky, A. (1950): Sur deux Tachardina Ckll.
(Coccoidea-Lacciferinae) nouveaux du Sahara
Ceniral. Eos. 26(1): 7-17.
Blanchard, R. ( 1 886): Zoologie Medicate Vol. I: 1 .
Brain, C.K. ( 1 920): The Coccidae of South Africa-1 V. Bull.
Ent. Res.. 10(2): 95-128.
Chamberlin, J.C. ( 1 923): A systematic monograph of the
Tachardiinae or lac insects (Coccidae) Bull. Ent.
Res. 14(2): 147-212.
Chamberlin, J.C. (1925): Supplement to a monograph of
the Lacciferidae (Tachardiinae) or lac insects
(Coccidae). Bull. Ent. Res. 1 6(1): 31-41.
Cockerell, T.D. A. ( 1 893): A new lac insect from Jamaica.
Canad. Ent. 25: 181-183.
Cockerell, T.D. A. (1894): A check list of the nearctic
Coccidae. Canad. Ent. 26: 31-36.
Cockerell, T.D. A. ( 1 895): New North American Coccidae.
(1990 and 1993) has cast doubt over its
taxonomical placing.
73. T. bernardi Balachowsky 1950. ‘Central
Sahara’ [Algeria].
74. T. brachystegiae Hall 1935. Zimbabwe.
75. T. diclipterae Hall 1935. Zimbabwe.
76. T. gripha Munting 1966. South Africa.
77. T. karroo (Brain 1920). South Africa (Cape).
78. T. leredei Balachowsky 1950. ‘Central
Sahara’ [Algeria].
79. T. minor (Brain 1920). South Africa (Cape).
80. T. oligopora Munting 1966. South Africa.
81. T. perplexa Munting 1973. South Africa.
82. T. protrudens Munting 1965. South Africa.
83. T. psiadiae Mamet 1953. Madagascar.
84. T. recurva Munting 1973. South Africa
(Cape).
85. T. sclerosa Munting 1965. South Africa.
86. T. spinosa Munting 1966. South Africa.
87. T. tismbazazae Mamet 1953. Madagascar.
Acknowledgements
We thank the Director, ILRI for
encouragement and Dr. R.K. Varshney, the then
Additional Director, Zoological Survey of India
for going through the list of species.
ENCES
Psyche. Camb. Mass. 7 (Suppl.) : 1-4.
Cockerell, T.D. A. (1898): New Coccidae from Mexico.
Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. (7,h ser.j 1: 426-443.
Cockerell, T.D. A. (1901): South African Coccidae.
Entomologist 34: 248-250.
Cockerell, T.D. A ( 1 903): Two remarkable new Coccidae.
Canad. Ent. 35: 64-66.
Cockerell, T.D. A. (1905): A new lac insect. Ent. News.
16: 52.
Cockerell, T.D.A. (1924): The name of the lac insects.
Psyche 31(1) : 47-48 .
Cockerell, T.D.A & G.B. King (1901 ): A new lac insect
from South Africa. Entomologist 34: 342.
Comstock, J.H. ( 1 882): Report of the Entomologist, United
States Department of Agriculture. Lac insects. In:
U.S. Dept. Agr., Comnr. Agr. Report 1881-1882:
209-214.
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(3). DEC. 1999
441
SYNOPTIC CA TA LOGUE OF LA C INSECTS
Dominguez in Eugenio Autran (1906): Las Cochenillas
Argentines. Trab. Mus. Farm No. 1 8: 14.
Fabricius, J.C. ( 1 787): Mantissa Insectorum 2: 3 1 8-3 1 9.
Fonseca, J.P. da (1975): Three new species of coccoids
from Brazil. Sao Paulo Inst. Biol. Arq. 42\ 79-84.
Froggatt, W.W. ( 1 899): A descriptive catalogue of the scale
insects (Coccidae) of Australia. Agri. Gaz. N.S. W.
10: 1160.
Froggatt, W.W. (1911): Description of a new lac-coccid
(Genus Tachardia ) from New South Wales. Proc.
Linn. Soc. N.S. W. 36: 154.
Fuller, C. ( 1 899): Notes and descriptions of some species
of Western Australian Coccidae. Trans. Ent. Soc.
Lond. 1899: 435-473.
Green, E.E. ( 1 896): Coccidae of Ceylon 1 . Dulau & Co.,
London: 3, 16-17.
Green, E.E. (1903): Remarks on Indian scale insects
(Coccidae) with descriptions of new species. Indian
Mus. Notes 5(3): 93-103.
Green, E.E. (191 1): On some Coccidae affecting rubber
trees in Ceylon, with descriptions of new species.
J. Econ. Biol. 6: 27-37.
Green, E.E. (1922): Sub-family Tachardiinae. Coccidae
of Ceylon 5. Dulau & Co.. London: 402-4 1 6.
Green, E.E. & H.H. Mann ( 1 907): The Coccidae attacking
tea plants in India and Ceylon. Mem. Dept. Agr.
India (Ent. ser.) 1(5): 337-355.
Hall, W.J. ( 1 935): The genus Tachardina (Lacciferidae,
Coccidae) in Southern Africa. Bull. Ent. Res. 26(4):
475-486.
Hempel, A. (1900): As Coccidas Brazileiras. Rev. Mus.
Paul. 4: 465-527.
Hempel, A. (1904): Bol. Agr. Sao Paulo 5: 314. ( vide
Chamberlin, 1923).
Hempel, A. ( 1 92 1 ): Trio novos coccideos. Arch. Esc. Agri.
Med. vet. (Nictheroy) Rio de J. 5(1-2): 143-146.
Hempel, A. (1937): Novas especies de coccideos
(Homoptera)do Brazil. Arch. Inst. biol. Def agric.
anim., S. Paulo 8: 5-36.
Kapur, A. P. (1958): A Catalogue of Lac insects
(Lacciferidae, Hemiptera). Indian Lac Cess Comm.,
Ranchi: 47 pp.
Kerr, J. (1782): Natural history of the insect which
produces the gum lacca. Phil. Trans. R. Soc.
London. 71 [1781] (2): 374-382.
Leonardi, G. (191 1): Contributo alia conoscenza della
Cocciniglie della Republica Argentina. Boll. Lab.
Zool. Portici 5: 256-258.
Lindinger, L. (1937): Verzeichnis der Schildlaus -
Gattungen (Homoptera - Coccoidea Handlirsch
1903). Ent. Jahrb. 46: 178-198.
Maiidihassan, S. ( 1 923): Classification of lac insects from
physiological standpoint. J. Sci. Asso Maharajah s
College, Vizianagaram !(2&3): 47-99.
Mahdihassan, S. (1946): Two varieties of Tachardina
lobata. Curr. Sci. 15: 135-136.
Mamet, R. ( 1 953): Notes on the Coccoidea of Madagascar.
III. Mem. Inst. Sci. Madagascar (E) 4: 1-86.
Maskell, W.M. (1891): Further coccid notes: with
descriptions of new species and remarks on coccids
from New Zealand, Australia and elsewhere. Trans.
Proc. N.Z. Inst. 24: 1-64.
Maskell, W.M. (1892): Further coccid notes: with
descriptions of new species from Australia, India,
Sandwich Islands, Demerara and South Pacific.
Trans. Proc. N.Z. Inst. 25: 201-252.
Mendes, D. (1936): Uma nova especie do genero
Tachardiella Cock. (Honiopt.. Coccidae). Rev. de
Ent. 6: 374-376.
Misra, A.B. (1930): On a collection of lac insects from
Northern India. Bull. Ent. Res. 21: 161-164.
Mishra. Y.D. & S.N. Sushil (in press): A new trivoltinc
species of Kerria Targioni-Tozzetti (Homoptera :
Tachardiidae) on Schleichera oleosa ( Lour. ) Oken
eastern India Oriental Ins.
Morrison, H. (1920): The nondiaspine Coccidae of the
Philippine Islands, with descriptions of apparently
new species. Philippine J. Sci 17(2): 147-202.
Munting, .1. (1965): Lac insects (Homoptera : Lacciferidae)
from South Africa. J. Ent. Soc. S. Africa. 28: 32-
43.
Munting, J. (1966): Lac insects (Homoptera n n n:
Lacciferidae) from South Africa - II. Rev. Zool. Bot
Africanes. 74(1-2): 121-134.
Munting, J. (1973): Further descriptions of African lac
insects. Phytophylaclica 5: 59-64.
Newstead, R. (1911): Observations on African scale-
insects (Coccidae). Bull. Ent. Res. 2: 85-104.
Newstead, R. (1917): Observations on scale-insects
(Coccidae). Bull. Ent. Res. 8: 1-34.
Oken, L. (1815): Lehrbuch der Naturgeschichte. Sect. 3
(Zool. I ) : 430.
Ou, B. & G. Hong (1990): Description of a new species
Kerria in Yunnan Province. Entomotaxonomia
12(1): 15-18.
Signoret, V. (1874): Essai stir les Cochenilles ou
Gallinsectes (Homopteres: C'occides). Ann Soc
Ent. France (5) 4: 101-105.
Takahasiii, R. (1941): Lacciferidae of Siam (Homoptera).
Trans. Nat. Hist. Soc. Formosa 31: 138-141.
Tang, F.T. (1974): A preliminary report on the lac insect
fauna with description of a -new species. Acta Ent
Sinica 17(2): 205-209.
Targioni-Tozzetti, A. ( 1884): Relazione intornoai Lavori
442
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3) DEC. 1999
SYNOPTIC CA TA LOGUE OF LA C INSECfS
della R. Stazione di Entomologia Agraria di Firenze
perGli anni 1870-80-81-82. Article V-Omotteri.
Ann. di Agr. 1884, Min. di Agr. Ind. e. Com. Italy
(86-89): 383-414.
Townsend, C.H.T. & T.D. A. Cockerell ( 1 898): Coccidae
collected in Mexico by Messrs Townsend and
Koebele in 1 897. J.N. Y. cut. Soc. 6: 1 72- 1 73.
Varshney. R.K. (1966): Two new insects from India
(Homoptera : Thachardiidae). (Abstract) Proc. 53r"
Indian Sci. Congr. Ill: 356-357.
Varshney, R.K. ( 1 968): Revision of the systematics of lac
insects (Tachardiidae, Homoptera), Part I-
Subfamily Tachardininae. (Abstracts.). Proc. 55"'
Indian Sci. Congr. W: 488-489.
Varshney, R.K. (1977): Taxonomic studies on lac insects
of India. Oriental bis. Suppl. No. 5(1976): 97 pp.
Varshney, R.K. (1984): A review of the family
Tachardiidae (Kerridae) in the Orient. Oriental Ins.
18: 361-384.
Varshney, R.K. (1987): New name for the preoccupied
Chamberlinia Varshney. Oriental Ins. 21: 361-362.
Varshney, R.K. ( 1 990): A synoptic catalogue of lac insects
(Homoptera : Coccoidea : Tachardiidae). Proc. 6"'
International Symp. of Scale Insect Studies,
Cracow, 1990 (Pt. 2j: 71-74.
Varshney. R.K. (1993): World list of lac insects. Indian
Shellac. Annual number (1992-93): 13-15 ( Publ.
March, 1993).
Varshney, R.K. (1997): An up-to-date list of the lac insects
of the world. Proc. of the National Seminar on Lac
Industry - Challenges and Solutions, pp. 27-31.
held on 14-15 June, 1996 at Indian Lac Research
Institute, Namkum. Ranchi (India).
Wang, T.C. (1986): A new species of Paratacliardina
Balachowsky. Acta Ent. Sinica 29(2): 196-198.
Wang, T.C., T.F. Yao., S.Y. Teui & Z.J. Liang (1982): A
new species of Laccifer with preliminary studies
on the biological characteristics. Scientia Silvae
Sinicae 18(1): 53-57.
Williams, D.J. (1969): The Family-group names of the
scale insects (Hemiptera : Coccoidea). Bull. Br. Mu's.
Nat. Hist. (Ent.) 23(8): 3 1 7-34 1 .
Zhang, Z.S. (1992): A new species of Metatachardia
(Chamberlin) from Yunnan. China. Oriental Ins.
26: 383-385.
Zhang, Z.S. ( 1 992a): Description of a new genus and two
new species of lac insects (Homoptera:
Tachardiidae). Oriental bis. 26: 386-390.
Zhang, Z.S. ( 1 993): Four new species of lac insects of the
genera Metatachardia and Kerria from China
(Homoptera: Tachardiidae). Oriental Ins. 27: 273-
286.
■ ■ ■
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3). DEC. 1999
443
FERN FLORA ALONG SAUNG-PINDARI TREK IN THE KUMAON HIMALAYA1
M.K. Bhattacharya2
Key words: fern flora, enumeration of species, Saung-Pindari Trek, Kumaon Himalaya
Fern flora along the Saung-Pindari trek in the Kumaon Himalaya (U.P.) was studied during an
expedition at Pindari and Kafni glaciers in June-July, 1 989. A total of 30 species belonging to 23
genera have been reported. Field notes have been given on each species.
Introduction
The Kumaon Himalaya lies from 28° 45'
to 30°44' N lat. and 78° 45' to 81° 5’ E long. The
112 km trail from Saung to Pindari and Kafni
glaciers runs mainly along the gorge formed by
Pindari river through the lower ranges of Mounts
Nanda Kot and Nanda Khat on the northern
periphery of Kumaon Himalayas. Pindari and
Kafni glaciers are situated 4,265 and 3,820 m
above msl respectively.
The following account presents data
regarding fern flora collected from the Saung-
Pindari trek route.
Review of Literature: Beside the
pioneering publication of Clarke (1880) and
Beddome ( 1 865), Duthie (1906) and Hope ( 1 902)
published literature on Kumaon ferns. More
recently, Dhir (1980), Pangtey and Punetha
(1987) provided information about Pteridophytic
flora of different parts of Kumaon Himalayas.
Khullar (1987), Pande and Pande (1991)
published taxonomic accounts of the genus
Polystichum of the Kumaon Himalaya. These
works refer to the fern specimens collected from
different sites along the Pindari trek.
Material and Methods
During this study, the Saung-Pindari route
was visited in the last week of June 1989 to the
first week of July 1989. The plants have been
listed in alphabetical order. Reference has been
‘Accepted June, 1999
: Department of Botany, Karimganj College,
Karimganj 788 710, Assam.
made to Clarke (1880), Beddome (1883),
Copeland (1947) and Holttum (1954) for
taxonomy and related features.
Phytogeographical resume: The Kumaon
Himalaya, like other parts of the western
Himalaya, is wet in outer southern ranges and
slightly dry in inner northern ranges. The region
can be divided into three subzones.
i. Tropical and sub-tropical zone: This zone
ranges between 300 m and 1500 m above msl.
The natural monsoon forest extends well in this
region. At higher elevations pine trees are
common. Saung (1400 m above msl), the base
camp of the trek, has this type of forest.
ii. Temperate zone: It commonly ranges
from 1500 m to 3500 m above msl. On the trek
route, Loarkhet (1759 m), Dhakuri (2690 m),
Ulma (2210 m) etc. represent this zone,
characterised by coniferous trees and herbs. Khati
(2575 m above msl) is a small village with
cultivated trees and flowering shrubs.
iii. Alpine zone: From 3500 m above msl
up to the snowline, lies the alpine zone. The
shrubby rhododendrons mixed with alpine
pastures represent this zone. The alpine zone in
the study area is represented at Phurkia (3260 m
above msl).
List of Species
Adiantum capillus-veneris L. Sp. PL. 2.
1096, 1753. Loarkhet; Bhattacharya. 138; June
1989; lithophyte.
Araiostegia hymenophylloides (Blume)
Copel in Philip. J. Sci. 34: 241. 1927. Dhakuri:
Bhattacharya, 158, June 1989; not common.
444
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(3) DEC. 1999
FERN FLORA ALONG SAUNG-PIN DARI TREK
Asplenium trichomanes L. Sp. PL. 2. 1080.
1753. Dhakuri; Bhattacharya, 137, June 1989;
epiphyte; rare.
Athyrium drepenopterum (Kunze) A. Br.
ex Milde. Fil. Fur. 49. 1 867. Ulma; Bhattacharya,
155, June 1989; common.
Ceterachopsis dalhousiae (Hook.) Ching.
Bull. Fan. Mem. Inst. Biol. Bot. 10: 8. 1940.
Dawali; Bhattacharya, 135; June 1989; on humus
covered moist soil, shade loving.
Cheilanthes farinosa (Forsk.) Kaul. Enum.
Fil. 212. 1824. Ulma; Bhattacharya, 139, June
1989; lithophyte.
Cheilanthes tenuifolia (Burm. f.) Sw. Syn.
Fil. 129: 332. 1806. Khati; Bhattacharya, 144;
June 1989; grows on moist shady rocks; common.
Coniogramme caudata (Wall ex.
Ettingsch) Ching. inC. Chr. Ind. Fil. 3: 56, 1934.
Phurkia; Bhattacharya, 162; June 1989; rare.
Cyathea brunoniana (Hook.) Clarke et
Baker in J. Linn. Soc. 24; 409. 1888. Dawali;
Bhattacharya, 151, June 1989; not common.
Cyrtomium caiyotideum (Wall. ex. Hook,
et Grev.) Presl., Tent. Pterid. 86.L26. 1836.
Dawali; Bhattacharya, 159; June 1989; rare.
Dtyopteris sparsa (D. Don) O. Kuntze Rev.
Gen. PL. 2: 613. 1891. Loarkhet; Bhattacharya,
148; June 1989; common.
Lepisoi'us kashyapii (Mehra) Mehra in Bir,
Res. Bull. Punjab Univ. (N.S.) Sci., 13: 24. 1962.
Loarkhet; Bhattacharya, 136; June 1989;
epiphyte; not common.
Lepisonis leiopteris (Kunze) Bir & Tirkha,
Amer., Fern. Joum. 64: 54. f. 21-26. 1974. Khati;
Bhattacharya, 140; June 1989; lithophyte; rare.
Lepisorus nudus (Hook.) Ching. Bull. Fan.
Mem. Inst. Biol. Bot. 4: 83. 1933. Saung;
Bhattacharya, 125, June 1989 lithophyte;
common.
Loxogramme involuta (D. Don) Presl.
Tent. Pterid. 213, 1836. Dawali; Bhattacharya,
16; June 1989; epiphyte; rare.
Lunathyrium allantoides (Bedd.) Ching.
Acta. Phytotax. Sin. 9: 72. 1964. Dhakuri;
Bhattacharya, 16; June 1989; common.
Micro tepia speluncae (Linn.) Moore, Ind.
Fil. 93, 1857. Saung; Bhattacharya, 142; June
1989; common.
Microlepia strigosa (Thb.) Presl. Epim.
Bot. 95. 1849. Phurkia; Bhattacharya. 127: June
1989.
Onychium japonicum (Thb.) Kunze Bot.
zeit, 6: 507. Ulma; Bhattacharya, 141; June 1 989;
rare.
Osmunda claytoniana L. Sp. PL. 2: 1066.
1753. Phurkia; Bhattacharya, 128; June 1989;
not common.
Osmunda regalis L. Sp. PL. 2: 1065. 1753.
Ulma; Bhattacharya, 129; June 1989; rare.
Polypodioides amoena (Wall.) Ching.
Acta. Phytotax. Sin. 16(4): 27. 1978. Khati:
Bhattacharya, 154, June 1989 epiphyte; rare.
Polypodioides micro-rhizoma (Clarke)
Ching. Acta. Phytotax. Sin 16(4): 27, 1978.
Loarkhet; Bhattacharya, 132; June 1989;
epiphyte.
Polypodiastrum argutum (Wall ex. Hook.)
Ching. Acta. Phytotax. Sin 16(4): 28. 1978.
Ulma; Bhattacharya, 143; June 1989; epiphyte;
rare.
Polystichum mehrae F. Jenkins & Khullar.
Indian Fern J. 2 (1&2), 10, 1985. Ulma:
Bhattacharya, 149; June 1989: not common.
Polystichum squarrossum (D. Don) Fee.
Gen. Fil. 278. 1850-52. Dawali; Bhattacharya,
161; June 1989; abundant in some places.
Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn. V. Deck
Reis 3(3): 11. 1 879. Dhakuri: Bhattacharya, 153;
June 1989; common.
Pteris cretica L. Mant. PL. 7 130. 1967.
Ulma; Bhattacharya, 133; June 1989; in open
sunny places.
Sphenomeris chinensis (L) Taxon. Journ.
Wash. Acad. Sci. 3: 144. 1913. Dhakuri;
Bhattacharya, 148; June 1989: common.
Woodwardia unigemmata (Makino) Nakai.
Bot. Mag. Tokyo 39: 103, 1925. Ulma:
Bhattacharya, 145; June 1989; not common.
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3), DEC. 1999
445
FERN FLORA ALONG SA UNG-PINDARI TREK
Discussion
A total of 30 species belonging to 23 genera
have been collected on the Saung-Pindari trail.
The only species of tree fern recorded in the
present survey is Cyathea brunoniana, which is
well distributed in western Himalaya (Dixit,
1984). Other important ferns recorded in the
survey include Asplenium trichomanes ,
Cyrtomium caryotideum , Loxogramme involuta,
Onychium japonicum , Osmunda claytoniana,
and O. regalis. Osmunda regalis is very common
in South India and Western mountains and is
recorded also in Kumaon (Beddome, 1883). In
the present investigation too, the fern was found
only at high elevation at Ulma (2210 m).
Osmunda claytoniana which is recorded from
Kashmir to Bhutan at still higher elevations
(Beddome, 1883), has been recorded from Phurkia
(3260 m) during the present study. Polystichum
mehrae reported earlier from Dhakuri, Khati,
Dawali (Pande and Pande, 1991), has been found
at Ulma (2210 m) during the present survey.
Acknowledgements
I thank my daughter Miss Swatoleena for
help in preparing the herbarium; the C.O., 4
Assam BN N.C.C., Karimganj, for selecting me
for the Saung-Pindari trekking expedition. I also
thank the authorities of B.S.I., Howrah for
herbarium facilities.
References
Beddome, R.H. (1865-70): The ferns of British India,
Madras.
Beddome, R.H. ( 1 883): Handbook of the ferns of British
India, Ceylon and the Malaya Peninsula, Thacker
& Spink Co., Calcutta.
Clarke, C.B. (1880): A review of the ferns of Northern
India. Trans. Linn. Soc. Ser. 2 (Bot.) /; 425-61 1 .
Copeland, E.B. (1947): Genera Filicum. Chronica
Botanica Co.. Waltham, USA.
Dhjr. K.K. (1980): Ferns of North Western Himalaya.
Bibilio Pteridologica. Bank I. J. Cramer
Publication; Vaduz.
Dixit, R.D. (1984): A census of the Indian Pteridophyta
(Series 4 of Flora of India); B.S.I., Howrah.
Duthie, J.F. ( 1 906): Catalogue of the plants of Kumaun
and adjacent portion of Garhwal and Tibet.
Compiled by Richard Strachey.
Holttum, R.E. (1954): Ferns of Malaya (in revised Flora
of Malaya Vol. 2). Govt. Printing Press, Singapore.
Hope, C.W. (1902): The ferns of North Western India.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 14: 467-475.
Khullar, S.P. (1987): A taxonomic note on Polystichum
Roth in the western Himalayas. Indian Fern. J. 4\
28-32.
Pande, P.C. & P.C. Pande (1991): The Polystichum of
Kumaun Himalaya (W. Himalaya), hr. Perspectives
in Pteridology: Present and Future (Eds. T.N.
Bhardwaj and C.B. Gena). Today and Tomorrow
Publishers, New Delhi (Aspects in Plant Sciences
J3: 305-324).
Pangtly, Y.P.S. & N. Punetha ( 1 987): Pteridophytic flora
of Kumaun Himalaya - An updated List. In : Western
Himalayas (Eds: YRS Pangtey & S.C. Joshi)
Gyanodaya Prakashan, Nainital, /: 390-412.
446
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(3) DEC. 1999
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
A NEW SPECIES OF COPIDOGNATHUS (HALACARIDAE : ACARI)
FROM ANDAMAN ISLANDS'
Tapas Chatterjee2
( With thirteen text-figures)
Keywords: Halacaridae, Acari, Copidognathus , new species, Andaman Islands
A new species of Halacaridae (Acari), Copidognathus greeni is reported here from Chiriatapu
and Chatham Island, Andaman Is.
Copidognathus greeni sp. nov.
Locality: Males and females are
encountered among intertidal algal samples
collected from Chiriatapu and Chatham Island
of Andaman Islands.
Type: Holotype (E) and allotype (G) will
be deposited in the National Pusa Collection,
Entomology Division, IARI, New Delhi.
Abbreviations used in the text: AD -
Anterodorsal plate, AE - Anterior epimeral plate,
OC - Ocular plate, PD - Posterodorsal plate,
PE - Posterior epimeral plate; GA - Genitoanal
plate, GO - Genital opening, PGS - Perigenital
seta, SGS - Subgenital seta, PAS - Parambulacral
seta, EPI - Epimeral process I.
Description
Female: Idiosomal length ranged between
220 mm and 250 mm. All dorsal plates are
separate and sculptured with both rosette pores
and fovea (Fig. 1), AD with one anterior and
one posterior areola. Anterior areola very small,
bearing only a few (5-6) small rosette pores.
Posterior areola rectangular bearing 8-14 rosette
pores (Fig. 7). AD with first pair of dorsal setae
located anterior to posterior areolae. The ds2 on
the membranous area between AD and OC.
Ocular plate bears two distinct corneae and an
'Accepted November, 1 997
:Dept. of Biology, Indian School of Learning,
ISM Annexe, Dhanbad 826 004, Bihar.
areola comprising a few rosette pores, posterior
cornea subdivided into two. OC with a strong
elevated crescentic ridge extending from the
lateral bar apodeme to the posterior end of the
plate (Fig. 6). Posterior portion of OC tapers
acutely, extending beyond the insertion of leg
III. A few foveae are present on the posterior
portion of OC. PD is wider posteriorly. PD
narrow and conical anteriorly with a blunt
truncated anterior margin. A faint ridge is present
on the posterior margin of AD (just above the
cuticular membrane).
All ventral plates are separate (Fig. 2). AE
without areolae but with pycnotic pores. AE with
three pairs of setae. PE with one dorsal seta and
three ventral setae. EpI well developed and coxal
in origin (Fig. 4 j. PE bears rosette pores dorsally,
GA with paragenital areolae. GO guarded by a
pair of sclerites bearing a single pair of subgenital
setae near the anterior end. Three pairs of PGS
present in the anterior, middle and posterior
regions of GA respectively.
Gnathosoma strong, stout with rostrum tip
reaching 2/3 of the palpal femur. Tectum short
and acute (Fig. 5). Dorsally, gnathosoma is
sculptured with fovea and ventrally with dense
compact porose panels at the base on lateral
margin (Figs. 5, 8), canaliculi are present in
between the porose panels. A pair of proto-,
deuto-, trito- and basirostral setae are present.
Palp is 4-segmented. Palpal trochanter (P, ) and
patella (P^) devoid of setae, palpal femur (P2) with
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3), DEC. 1999
447
lOOP
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Figs. 1-9: Copidognathus greeni sp. nov. 1. Idiosonia dorsal (E), 2. idiosoma ventral (E), 3. GA of G,
4. Magnified view of Epimeral process, 5. Gnathosoma, dorsal view, 6. OC, 7. Magnified view of AD,
8. Gnathosoma, ventral view, 9. Chelicera.
448
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3) DEC. 1999
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Figs. 10-13: Copidognathus green i sp. nov. 10. Leg. I, 1 1. Leg II, 12. Leg. IV,
13. Leg. Ill (Telofemur-tarsus).
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(3). DEC. 1999
449
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
one dorsal seta and palpal tibiotarsus (P4)
with three basal setae and one distal singlet
eupathidia.
Tarsus (discussed in the text)
Trochanter III clavate with a minute spine
on postero-dorsal side. Telofemora I and II with
ventro-distal lamellae. Distal lamellae on
telofemora III and IV are feebly developed.
Telofemora III and IV devoid of ventral setae.
Patella I-IV and tibiae I-IV with distal lamellae.
Tibiae I and II bear 4 dorsal and 3 ventral setae
(two thick spine-like setae and one slender seta).
Ventral margin of tibia II is highly inflated and
greatly expanded, rendering the margin highly
convex, while the dorsal margin of the segment
is almost straight.
Tarsus 1 with 3 ventral setae (one basal
filiform seta and two distal eupathidia), 3 dorsal
long setae, one solenidion, one profamulus and
four PAS (two double eupathidia (Fig. 10).
Tarsus II with 3 dorsal long setae, 1 solenidion,
4 PAS, (Fig 11). Tarsi III and IV with 3 dorsal
fossary setae, 1 proximo-dorsal seta and 2 PAS
(Figs. 12, 13).
Male: Idiosomal length 208 mm to 250
mm. Male resembles the female, except for the
genito-anal plate. Eight to eleven PGS are
present on each side of the genital foramen. Four
pairs of SGS (two pairs located anteriorly and
two pairs posteriorly in the GO area) are present.
The distance between GO and anterior margin
of GA is almost equal to the length of GO.
Paragenital areolae are present (Fig. 3).
Etymology: The species is named after
Dr. J. Green, Queen Mary College, UK.
Discussion
This species is closely related to Newell’s
key goup 5100 (Newell, 1984) because of the
presence of a well developed EpI coxal in origin,
ds2 on membranous area between AD and PD;
ds3 on PD; a single pair of basirostral setae in
both males and females, and telofemora III and
IV devoid of ventral seta.
C. greeni sp. nov. has many similarities
with C. oblongus Newell 1984, of the key group
5100. In both the species, dorsal and ventral
ornamentation are almost alike. Both the species
have an almost rectangular posterior areola, two
costae (2 pores wide) on PD, telofemora III and
IV devoid of ventral setae. EpI well developed
and ds2 on membranous area. But C. greeni
differs from C. oblongus in that the former has a
subdivided posterior cornea on OC; rostrum
extending upto 2/3 of palpal femur, three dorsal
setae and one proximo-dorsal seta on tarsi III and
IV, ventral margin of tibia II greatly expanded (Fig.
11). PD relatively narrow anteriorly and the
distance between GO and anterior margin of GA
is almost equal to the length of GO in males,
while in C. oblongus the rostr um extends beyond
the palpal patella; tarsi III and IV bear 4 and 3
dorsal setae respectively; PD widest anteriorly,
GO placed more posteriorly and the distance
between GO and the anterior margin of GA is
more than twice the length of GO.
Reference
Newell, I.M. (1984): Antarctic Halacaroidea. Antarct. Res. Ser. 40: 1-284.
■ ■ ■
450
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3) DEC. 1999
A NEW SPECIES OF P^^PS/ZOG^^^GHESQUIERE
(•HYMENOPTERA : EUCHARITIDAE) FROM THAILAND1
T.C. Narendran2
( With five text-figures )
Key words: new species, Parapsilogastrus , Eucharitidae, Thailand
A new species of Parapsilogastrus Ghesquiere viz. P heratyi is described from Thailand and
compared with its nearest relative P.fausta (Walker).
Introduction
Ghesquiere (1946) gave the replacement
name Parapsilogastrus for the genus
Parapsilogaster Girault (1915). Girault gave this
name Parapsilogaster as a replacement name for
his genus Parapsilogastroides which he (Girault
1913) based on the type species Eucharis fausta
Walker from Horbart Town, Van Diemen’s land,
Australia. Later Hedqvist (1978) synonymised
Parapsilogastrus with Epimetagea Girault
(Girault, 1913). However Boucek ( 1 988) did not
agree with this synonymy and he revalidated the
genus Parapsilogastrus. He also synonymised
Epimetagea with Chalcura Kirby (Boucek,
1988). The genus is so far reported only from
Australia (4 species) and from Philippines (1
species) (Boucek, 1988). In this paper, the genus
Parapsilogastrus is reported for the first time
from Thailand by describing a new species. This
report is in continuation of the studies on
Eucharitidae by the author (Narendran 1985,
1986a, b, 1994; Narendran and Sheela, 1995).
Parapsilogastrus heratyi sp. nov.
Holotype Male: Length 3 mm. Dark
metallic green with following parts otherwise:
eye pale blackish brown; antenna brown; lateral
ocellus reddish brown; front ocellus yellowish
brown; mouth parts pale yellowish brown; legs
except coxae pale yellowish brown with femora
'Accepted February, 1998
department of Zoology, University of Calicut
Kerala 673 635, India
slightly darker; all coxae concolorous with
thorax; wings with brownish tinge; veins and
pilosity of wings brown.
Head: width in front view (Fig. 2) 1.4x its
length, in dorsal view (Fig. 3) 5.6x its shortest
median length; POL 1.3x OOL; vertex, frons,
scrobe and genae finely striated; lower face
depressed below scrobe; area below antennal
toruli and upto distal margin of clypeus (face)
smooth and shiny; gena and lateral portions of
clypeus (except malar space) minutely punctate;
one mandible with three and other with two teeth;
clypeus entire with a row of eight spines; eyes
bare, separated by 2x its height in front view;
eye length: width = 15:12 in profile; eye length:
malar space = 15:9.5. Antenna 12 segmented;
scape short, stout, cylindrical, not reaching front
ocellus, its length 2. lx its width; pedicel
subequal, relative proportions of length divided
by width of flagellar segments: FI = 2, F2 = 1 .8,
F3 = 1.6, F4 = 1.5, F5 = 1.5, F6 = 1.4, F7 = 1.4,
F8 = 1.3, F9 = 1.3, F 1 0 = 2. 1 ; length of flagellum
1.8x height of head in profile.
Thorax: dorsal side of mesoscutum with
fine transverse wavy striations, dorsolateral
portions rugose; metanotum longitudinally
rugose; area between base of scutellum and
SSS longitudinally striate, posterior vertical part
of scutellum with long sparse pubescence (clearly
visible from dorsal side); scutellum with
U-shaped striations, interstices with shallow
irregular pits; apex of scutellum truncate;
length: width of middle lobe of mesoscutum ::
21:35; length from SSS to apex of scutellum 1 .3x
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3), DEC. 1999
451
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Figs. 1-5: P ar apsi logastrus heratyi sp. nov. Male: 1 . Body profile, 2. Head anterior view,
3. Head dorsal view, 4. Thorax dorsal view, 5. Propodeum.
452
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3) DEC 1999
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
basal width of scutellum; callus and anterolateral
region of propodeum with long, sparse, brownish
hairs; propodeum coarsely sculptured (Fig. 5)
sides of thorax finely rugulose; front and hind
coxae subequal in length; hind coxa length 1 .3x
its width; coxae and hind femora with scattered
brown pubescence; forewing length: width ::
35:14. Lengths of forewing veins: SMV=22;
MV=13; PMV=6; STV=3.
Abdomen: Petiole with longitudinal
carinae on all sides; gaster smooth, shining
dorsally, depressed at anterior half near petiolar
margin, globose posteriorly; gastral tergites
smooth and shiny.
Female: Unknown.
Remarks: This new species resembles the
Australian species Parapsilogcistrus fausta
(Walker) in general appearance. However,
P. fausta differs in having a short, upturned,
Refer
Boucek, Z. (1988): Australian Chalcidoidea
(Hymenoptera), a biosystematic Revision of Genera of
Fourteen Families with a reclassification of species.
CAB International, Wallingford. 1 -832.
Ghesquire, J. (1946): Contribution a l’etude des
microhymenopteres du Congo beige X.-Nouvelles
denominations pour quelques generes de Chalcidoidea
et Mymaroidea- Rev. Zool. Bot. Afr. 39: 367-373.
Girault. A. A. (1913): Some new Australian genera in the
Hymenopterous families Eurytomidae, Perilampidae,
Eucharitidae and Cleonymidae. Can. Enl. 45: 220-228.
Girault, A. ( 191 5) Australian Hymenoptera Chalcidoidea-
X. The family Eucharitidae with descriptions of new
genera and species. - Mem. Qd Mus. 4: 225-237.
Hedqvist, K.J. (1978): Some Chalcidoidea collected in the
Philippines, Bismark and Solomon Islands.
2. Eucharitidae with Keys and Checklists to Indo-
Australian Genera (Insecta, Hymenoptera).
fmger-like carina immediately behind the frenal
groove; ovate scutellum and cupreous abdomen.
Holotype: male, Thailand, Saturn, Thale,
Ban NP, Coll. Madl, 10-16.iii.1993 Deposited
in Naturhistorisches Museum, Wien (Vienna),
Austria.
Abbreviations used: F1-F10 = Flagellar
segments 1 to 10. POL = Post ocellar line; OOL
= Ocellocular line; MV = Marginal vein; PMV
= Post marginal vein; STV=Stigmal vein; SSS
= Scutoscutellar sulcus.
AcKNOW LEDG EM ENTS
I thank Dr. Michael Madl of the Natural
History Museum, Vienna, Austria for sincere
cooperation in my studies. Help rendered by my
student Dr. S. Sheela, Research Associate (CSIR)
is also acknowledged.
NCES
Steenstrupia 4: 227-248.
Narendran, T.C. (1985): Family Eucharitidae (Review)
Oriental Insects 1 9: 1 74- 1 78.
Narendran, T.C. (1986a): Family Eucharitidae
(Catalogue). Oriental Insects 20: 51-55.
Narendran, T.C. (1986b): Descriptions of three new
species of Schizaspidia Westwood (Hymenoptera :
Eucharitidae) with a key and a check-list to the species
of Indian Subcontinent. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
82(3) : 606-610.
Narendran, T.C. ( 1 994): Description of a new Eucharitid
genus ' Cherianella' and a new species 4 narayani ’ of
Chalcidoidea from India. Geiobios New Reports 13:
94-96.
Narendran, T.C. & S. Sheela ( 1 995 ): A systematic study
of the Oriental genus Ancylotropus Cameron
(Hymenoptera : Eucharitidae). Uttarpradesh J. Zool.
1 5(1): 43-47.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3), DEC. 1999
453
TWO NEW SPECIES OF FIMBRISTYLIS (CYPERACEAE) FROM
WESTERN PENINSULAR INDIA1
V.P. Prasad2 andN.P. Singh3
( With two text-figures)
Keywords: new species, Fimbristylis , peninsular India, Maharashtra, Karnataka
Two new species of Fimbristylis from western peninsular India are described and illustrated;
F. ambavanensis from Maharashtra state and F. simpson ii from Karnataka state.
While working on the genus Fimbristylis Vahl in western peninsular India, some specimens
were found to be of doubtful identity, as they did not match with the specimens and descriptions
of any of the known species. The specimens were sent to Kew, where these could not be
matched or identified either, and were returned to the authors. Based on these specimens, two
new species are described here.
Fimbristylis ambavanensis V.P. Prasad &
N.P. Singh sp. nov. (Fig. 1)
F. capilliculmis Ohwi affinis, sed foliis
latioribus, stamine singulari, stylo breviore et
nuce magniore differt.
Glabrous annuals with fibrous roots, ca 25
cm high. Stems tufted, slender, compressed, more
or less flat below the inflorescence, ca 0.5 mm
thick, striate. Leaves shorter than or as long as
the stem, flat, linear, abruptly acuminate at apex,
6-18 cm long, ca 1 mm wide; margins infolded
and thickened on the upper surface, smooth;
sheaths chartaceous, striate, up to 6 cm long;
ligule a fringe of short hairs; orifice membranous,
oblique, minutely ciliate. Inflorescence simple
or compound, lax, 0.8- 1.5 cm long and as wide,
with 3-12 spikelets. Involucral bracts 2-3; lowest
overtopping the inflorescence, linear, 1-2.5 cm
long. Primary rays 2-7, unequal, compressed,
striate; longest 0.3-1 cm long. Spikelets solitary,
rarely paired, ovoid to oblong-lanceolate, acute
at apex, faintly angled, 3-4 x 1.5-2 mm, brown,
few flowered; rachilla winged. Glumes spiral,
membranous, ovate, mucronulate, keeled, ca 2
x 1.5 mm, brown, not prominently hyaline
towards the margin. Stamen 1 ; filament hyaline,
elongate up to 1.5 mm; anther linear-oblong,
'Accepted June, 1998
:Botanical Survey of India, Western Circle,
7, Koregaon Road, Pune 41 1 001 .
^Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta 700 001
acute at apex, ca 0.5 mm long. Ovary oblong, ca
0.5 mm long, stipitate; style trigonous,
pyramidally thickened at base, ca 1 mm long,
glabrous; stigmas 3, slightly shorter than or as
long as the style, scabrous. Nuts trigonous,
obovoid, umbonulate, ca 1 x 0.6 mm, shortly
stipitate, smooth, creamish-white; epidermal
cells transversely oblong, in 6-8 vertical rows
on each face.
FI. & Fr.: September
Habitat: Material was collected from the
top of a fort where it was common.
Holotype: india, Maharashtra State, Pune
dist., Mulshi Taluka, Ambavane, 6.ix. 1964, Coll.
B. Venkatta Reddi 99049 (CAL).
Isotypes: 99049A & 99049B (BSI).
Fimbristylis ambavanensis is allied to
F. capilliculmis Ohwi, a Malesian species, but
differs in a few characters which are shown in
Table 1.
Table 1
Note'. The specimens were compared with the illustration and
description of Ohwi ( 1 955) and Kern ( 1 974) for Fimbristylis
capilliculmis Ohwi.
454
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3 ) DEC. 1999
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Fig. 1 : Fimbristylis ambavcinensis V.P. Prasad & N.P. Singh, sp. nov.
A. Habit; B. Spikelet; C. Glume; D. Flower; E. Nut; F. Epidermal cells on the nut.
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(3), DEC. 1999
455
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Etymology: The species name is derived
from Ambavane, the collection site of the
holotype.
Fimbristylis simpsonii V.P. Prasad &
N.P. Singh sp. nov. (Fig. 2.)
Fimbristylis bispicula Govind. affinis, sed
inflorescentia spicula 1-3, staminis 3, anther is
et stylis longioribus differt.
Glabrous annuals with fibrous roots, ca 9
cm high. Stems tufted, slender, trigonous below
the inflorescence, deeply furrowed below, 0.2-
0.5 mm thick. Leaves numerous, half to V* the
length of the stem, flat, uniformly linear, abruptly
acuminate at apex, 2. 5-6. 5 cm long, 0.7-1. 2 mm
wide, with slightly thickened margins; sheaths
chartaceous, up to 1.5 cm long; ligule a fringe of
short hairs. Orifice membranous, ciliate.
Inflorescence simple, with 1-3 spikelets, 5-8 mm
long, 6-13 mm wide. Involucral bracts 1 or 2,
much shorter than or as long as the inflorescence,
short laminate or glume-like with an awn,
2-7 mm long. Rays if present trigonous, striate,
2-4 mm long. Spikelets solitary, ovoid to oblong-
lanceolate, acute at apex, slightly angled, 3-4 x
1-1.5 mm, brown, few-flowered. Rachilla
winged. Glumes spiral, ovate, acute-mucronate
at apex, strongly keeled, 1.8-2 x 1.2- 1.5 mm,
hyaline towards margins but brown lineolate.
Stamens 3; filaments hyaline, elongate up to
2 mm; anthers linear-oblong, subacute at apex,
ca 0.6 mm long. Ovary linear-oblong, ca 0.5 mm
long; style triquetrous, slightly thickened towards
the base, ca 1.2 mm long, brownish, glabrous;
stigmas 3, about half the length of the style,
scabrous. Nuts trigonous with 2 convex faces and
1 flat face, obovoid, minutely umbonulate, shortly
stipitate, 0.8-1 x 0.6-0. 7 mm, smooth or
verruculose, creamish-white; epidermal cells
transversely elongated, in ca 4 vertical rows on
each face.
FI. & Fr.: August
Habitat: Rocky slopes near rivulets. Very
common.
Holotype: india, Karnataka state, Shimoga
dist., Tirthahalli, Kanagalgudda. 1 9. viii. 1 963 .
Coll. R. Sundara Raghavan 90025 (CAL).
Isotype: 90025 A (BSI).
Fimbristylis simpsonii shows close affinity
to F. bispicula Govind. in many respects but
differs in the following characters (Table 2).
Table 2
F. simpsonii can also be compared with
F. tenera R. & S., which has no ligule but has
more spikelets, larger involucral bracts, rays,
spikelets and glumes, smaller number of stamens
and hexagonal epidermal cells in 8-10 vertical
rows on the nut.
Etymology: This species is named after Dr.
David Simpson, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew in
honour of his valuable work on aquatic
angiosperms and on family Cyperaceae.
With the addition of these 2 species, the
total number of endemic species of Fimbristylis
in peninsular India has increased to 39, and for
the whole of India 48. It may be mentioned that
Prasad & Singh (1997a) reported 30 endemic
species of Fimbristylis from peninsular India and
37 from the whole country, and later on updated
the numbers as 37 and 46 respectively (Prasad
& Singh 1997b).
Acknowledgements
We thank Dr. P.K. Hajra, ex-Director,
Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta for facilities
and encouragement. We also thank Dr. V.J. Nair,
ex-Deputy Director, B.S.I. Coimbatore for the
latin translation of the diagnostic characters;
Dr. David Simpson, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew
456
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3) DEC 1999
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Fig. 2: Fimbristylis simpsonii V.P. Prasad & N.P. Singh, sp. nov.
A. Habit; B. Spikelet; C. Glume; D. Flower; E. Nut; F. Epidermal cells on the nut.
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3), DEC. 1999
457
05mm
NE W DESCRIPTIONS
for his expert opinion on the identifications and at Kew for his keen interest in getting these
Dr. Sri Krishna Murti, ex-Indian Liaison Officer specimens identified and for the literature.
References
Kern. J.H. (1974): Cyperaceae. In: van Steenis. Flora
Malesiana 1,7: 549.
Ohwi, J. (1955): Florae Malesianae precursors IX. New
Malesian species of Fimbristylis. Blumea 8( I): 99.
Prasad, V.P. & N.P. Singh (1997a): Notes on the
distribution and endemism of Indian Fimbristylis
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 94(1): 22-26.
Prasad, V.P. & N.P. Singh ( 1 997b): Two new species of
Fimbristylis (Cyperaceae) from Maharashtra, India.
J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 21(3): 671-675.
458
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3) DEC. 1999
REVIEWS
1. PLANT TISSUE CULTURE AND BIOTECHNOLOGY — EMERGING
TRENDS, edited by P.B. Kavi Kishore. Published by Universities Press (India)
Ltd., Hyderabad, 1999, hardbound price Rs. 525/-, pp. xiii+314. (24 x 16 cm).
The book provides a very broad spectrum
of research presently being undertaken in plant
tissue culture in the various University
Departments throughout India as well as in a
few research institutions and national research
laboratories.
The book is a compilation of 50 research
papers presented at a symposium on ‘Emerging
Trends in Plant Tissue Culture and Biotechnology’
held at Hyderabad in 1997.
From the various articles, it is apparent that
the major thrust of research on plant tissue
culture in India is on micropropagation, for as
many as 20 out of the 50 papers included in this
volume deal with this topic, while only 5 papers
deal with secondary metabolite production. The
remaining papers dwell on a vast range of topics
such as: somaclonal variations, anther culture,
stress tolerance, nodule initiation, and hairy root
culture. In fact, there are only 2 papers on
molecular biology. The volume also includes 4
papers of general interest to researchers in this
field; these papers provide essential information
on seed proteins, plant growth regulators,
oxidative stress, calcium channel blockers, etc.
Nevertheless, this publication has its own
place in current literature on plant tissue culture,
as it provides first hand information on problems
associated with tissue culture of a very wide range
of plant species extending from ornamentals to
the more useful commercial varieties, be they
medicinal ( Withcinici , Boswellia , Alpinnici ,
Bacopa ), fruit bearing ( Achras , papaya, litchi,
cashew), aromatic (vanilla) or even wheat and
pulses. The information, particularly on tree
species, will be of great use to prospective
researchers as there are enumerable problems
associated with their culture techniques which
plant tissue culturists generally avoid because of
the difficulties involved in raising such plantlets
in the laboratory.
In summary, this volume will be a good
addition to reference sources for scientists and
students engaged in plant tissue culture.
■ S.M. KARMARKAR
2. FLORA AND FAUNA IN MUGHAL ART, edited by Som Prakash Vemia.
Marg Publications, Mumbai, 1999, hardbound price Rs. 1950/- (US$ 60),
pp. 164+8 (33 x 25 cm).
Ever since I read Dr. Salim Ali’s papers in
JBNHS (Vols. 31 & 32, 1926-27) and Prof. S.M.
Alvi and A. Rahman’s book jehangir the
naturalist, nearly 25 years ago, I wanted to know
more about wildlife during the Mughal period.
Marg Publications wins praise for bringing out
a magnificent book flora and fauna in mughal
art. This 33 x 25 cm coffee-table book is lavishly
illustrated by some of the best painters of the
Mughal period, including the legendary Mansur.
The description of paintings is illuminating and
helps in identifying minute details which one
would otherwise miss.
To enjoy the details, many paintings are
published full-scale (e.g. p. 104, 105) but some
paintings are small. For example, on page 39,
Akbar watching elephant catching near Sipri is
so awesome that I wish it was published full scale
to appreciate the beauty of this work of art by
Keshav Khwurd. Interestingly, the original
painting is 32 x 20 cm, but unfortunately, it has
been miniaturized in this book.
I was particularly saddened to know that
most of the paintings are not present in Indian
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3), DEC. 1999
459
REVIEWS
museums. Out of the 118 paintings illustrated in
this book, only 14 are present in India. Eighteen
are the property of the Victoria and Albert
Museum, 24 are in private collections outside
India, 30 are in various other museums, 1 1 each
in New York and Tehran, 5 in Los Angeles, and
so on.
While most of the chapters are interesting,
I was specially fascinated by the importance of
the elephant in Mughal paintings by Asok Kumar
Das. Another erudite chapter is on mythical
animals, their images, symbols and allusions, by
Philippa Vaugham. Scenes of hunting in Mughal
paintings are described by Divyabhanusinh, who
has recently written a highly readable book on
the cheetah in India.
It is difficult to describe the beauty and
scientific accuracy of each painting in this brief
review. Go and get this book. You will enjoy it.
It is worth two thousand rupees.
■ ASAD R. RAHMANI
3. SNAKES IN INDIA, edited by B.D. Sharma, Asiatic Publishing House, 1998,
Hardbound price Rs. 995 (US$95), pp. xvi+352, 33 fig., 33 plates, (22 x 14 cm)
According to the not so subtle subtitle, this
book is “An indispensible (sic) book on Indian
snakes, their ecology, conservation and clinical
study”. This volume is, in this reviewer’s opinion,
almost wholly dispensable. The first draft of this
review was a blow by blow (actually chapter by
chapter) account of this disastrous production but
it ran to 6 long pages. This is an edited version
which samples some of the classic blunders.
With a few exceptions, the illustrations are
either poor to begin with, printed badly or both.
Many pictures are twisted, preserved specimens;
one is sideways (PI. 37), several are misidentified
(Pis. 17, 19, 20 and 21) and one is actually a
negative image (Fig. 30)! The pictures serve little
purpose since they are so unclear as to render
them useless in helping to identify the random
collection depicted, and as a result also render
the associated Chapter 8 worthless. Fig. 3 on
page 29 shows the profile of a cobra’s head, but
with its eye situated where the nostrils ought
to be. Fig. 5 on page 3 1 is the crosssection of a
cobra fang, not a viper fang. The Russell’s
viper photo in Fig. 21 was taken by me, not my
friend Dr. Vad as credited. That’s just the
illustrations!
The Preface informs us that “the up-to-
date” bibliography of 666 references contains
“almost all published works on Indian snakes.”
Of these, I found only 5 references dating to the
1990’s. The real number of published works on
Indian snakes is probably about ten times the
number in this bibliography.
Chapter 1 (by Anil Khaire) is one of the
few that stand out. It is a nice, simple description
of snakes in general, obviously written by
someone who likes and knows them well.
Chapter 9 by T.S.N. Murthy is also a well written
but dated piece, dealing with the venom systems
in snakes. Perhaps the most important fact
brought to the fore is that snakebite is rarely fatal
and that fast administration of antivenom serum
is of prime importance. Advice, however, for
avoiding snakebite is “just avoid snakes”! The
editor is responsible for Chapters 2 to 8 (except
6) and though you can find some useful facts
therein, you must read through a lot of poorly
edited shoddy writing, rife with confused facts.
Need a few examples? Try page 9, where the
author states that ‘in India alone 1 5,000 to 30,000
people die of snakebite’ and a few sentences later
says that “deaths due to snakebites in India alone
tune to two million per year”! And in Chapter 3
the casualties come down to a lakh of people each
year. On page 14, the author repeats an error
started by P.J. Deoras in his book snakes of india
that in a cobra fang “the venom simply trickle
(sic) down the groove of the fang”.
460
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 960) DEC. 1999
REVIEWS
Chapter 3, item 20 states that the author
feels that people die from snakebite mostly due
to “fear of death”, I don’t think many medical
doctors would subscribe to this oft-repeated myth.
It’s not that easy to die of fright unless you have
a weak heart or faint over the edge of a cliff.
Scientific fact no. 39 is titled “Cobras and
the kind (sic) cobras are the hooded terrors
among the venomous snakes.” In a book
purporting to “dispel the fear and detest in the
minds of the people”, the purpose is defeated by
such statements.
Table 4 of Chapter 4 infers that the
Himalayan pit viper is an ant eater. Did it not
occur to the researcher that the ant remains were
from the stomach of much more likely food items
(digested earlier) namely lizards and
amphibians?
Chapters 6 and 16 are ones I’m partly to
blame for. Both were written 30 and 20 years
ago respectively. While the first isn’t worth much,
the second (on snake conservation) is not too bad
but very out of date.
Impatiently going down the checklist of
Indian snakes in Chapter 11,1 noted at least 20
omissions ( Ahaetulla prasina , Lycodon laoensis ,
Lycodon capucinus , Eryx whitakeri - my single
claim to immortality!) and several errors. Since
1990, the three Indian cobras have been given
full species status. Vipera russellii is now Daboia
russelli and several pit vipers have been renamed.
In Chapter 12, besides wrong statements
like “cobra venom is the most potent venom
known”, it is stated that Russell’s vipers cause
more deaths than cobras “due to its unflinching
fatal bites”. A humorous choice of words but
untrue; cobras, just by being so common, almost
certainly cause more bites, and deaths, than any
other Indian snake.
The checklist of the snakes of the northeast
in Chapter 14, by R. Mathew, omits Najci
kaouthia (monocellate cobra). I didn’t go through
the list carefully but no doubt several more are
missing.
Chapter 15 by S.K. Talukdar is on the
ecology and conservation of snakes. He put me
off immediately by calling snakes “repulsive
creatures” in the first paragraph. Repulsive
authors is more like it! And moreover he tries to
credit me for more than I deserve - I seem to
have “recorded” a 33 foot long reticulated python
in the Nicobar Islands! Having not set foot on
the islands, I wonder how I was bestowed the
honour of “recording” this mythical creature.
Then he says that this python is “the most
threatened amongst the Indian serpents” which
is way off the mark.
The meaty, fairly current stuff comes from
the highly respected American snakebite and
venom expert, Sherman Minton. Although it is
only 4 pages long. Chapter 17 deals with the
relationships of Asian venomous snakes as
evidenced by comparing proteins in snake blood
serum. We’re so used to looking at snakes as
evidenced by comparing proteins in snake blood
serum. We’re so used to looking at snakes and
aligning them by their external characteristics
that the results of this kind of study (and DNA
comparisons) are sometimes a jolt. Dr. Minton
moves on to a generalized discussion of snakebite
in Chapter 18. Though brief, it brings us up to
date and discusses some of the obsolete (and
sometimes dangerous) first aid measures. In
Chapter 19, Dr. Minton lists the species of snakes
generally considered to be non-venomous but
which actually have toxic saliva and can cause
serious bites. Several of them have relatives here
in India and he cautions that we should be careful
with snakes like the checkered keelback, olive
keelback and some of the cat snakes. Chapter
20, also by Dr. Minton introduces the venom
detection test using ELISA which is available in
American and Australian hospitals and can be
used to confirm envenomation (useful when the
snake is not seen or symptoms are slight). This
system is not in use in India but it would be very
helpful. Chapter 21 is on rattlesnakes. Though
interesting, why is it in this book on Indian
snakes?
Chapter 22 is a lengthy discourse by
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(3), DEC. 1999
461
REVIEWS
Australian snakebite authority Dr. Straun
Sutherland. The only problem is, it’s about the
treatment of bites by Australian snakes! Useful
for the Indian tourist planning to visit Australia,
I suppose.
By this time the reviewer is very weary with
this tome and sure enough my apprehensions are
justified. Here’s a quote from Chapter 23 by N.P.
and S.C. Misra: “the tapering part of the body
(of a snake) has greater capacity of movement
has been called tail”. And how about this howler:
“these sea snakes cause more deaths in America
than any other variety... Most of the snakes in
sea non-poisonous. Various types of rattlesnakes
belong to this variety,” (Phew! And omigod!) In
fact, dear reader, only one species of seasnake
occasionally ventures as far as Central America
(Pelamis plciturus). All seasnakes are highly
venomous and rattlesnakes are certainly not
related to seasnakes!
Chapter 25 is engagingly titled ‘Snakebite
Disease in Jammu’ by R.N. Bhatt. I won’t
comment on the minor blunders but just read
this one for flavour: “one strong lucky man gave
history that a large cobra, which he had brought
along after killing it, had pursued the person from
his own compound to a nearby house.” And the
author ends with this advice: “People living in
tents must built (sic) snake trenches around the
tents which prevent snakes from crossing over
shaip stones.” Make of it what you will.
Chapter 26 has this advice, “even a thin
layer of clothing may afford great protection”
from snakebite - don’t ever try it! Chapter 27 by
I. Jena and A.P. Dash is on snakebite in Orissa
and is not a re-hash but quite an interesting, brief
analysis of the situation in that very snakey state.
Deaths by cobra and krait are high and it could
partly be because the antivenom used there is
made from snake venoms from other parts of the
country — venoms in the same species can differ
that much!
Readers may think this review is a bit hard
on the Editor and some authors. I think that it is
a crime to produce such books in the name of
Indian science and to shamelessly publish
decades old facts as if they were current. This is
especially dangerous when publishing first aid
measures for snakebite that are obsolete. In
scientific circles abroad, this book will make us
a laughing stock and anyone overseas paying
US$ 95 for it (that’s Rs. 4,000! ) would certainly
not trust scientific publications from India
anymore. If there is no law already against
producing such low-grade work, the Indian
scientific community should make one!
■ ROMULUS WHITAKER
■ ■ ■
462
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(3 ) DEC. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
1 . HOUSE SHREW SUNCUS MURINUS (LINNAEUS) FEEDING ON
AN OLIVE KEELBACK WATER SNAKE A TRETIUM SCHISTOSUM (D AUDIN)
The house shrew Suncus murinus is known
to be aggressive to animals much larger than it
in size, like the house crow, domestic dog or large
bandicoot rat, and is capable of defending itself
(Mandal 1984, Biswas and Mandal 1984,
Pradhan 1980). It is also reported to attack frogs
and toads (Dharmakumarsinhji 1946, Sharma
1992, Tiwari 1994), snake (Behura 1958),
gerbille (Saini and Parshad 1994). But there is
no record of its feeding on a snake. Behura (1958)
observed a house shrew dragging a keelback
water snake Natrix stolata into his house. I had
the opportunity of observing a house shrew
feeding on an olive keelback water snake
Atretium schistosum.
On November 9, 1998, at about 1725 hrs.
I observed that a male house shrew had seized a
snake (approximately 25 cm long) by its lower
jaw and dragged it towards a small bush by the
side of a pond, in front of Beledanga Primary
R E F E
Behura, B.K. (1958): A Musk Shrew attacking a snake
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55: 552.
Biswas, D.K. & A.K. Mandal (1984): Aggressive
behaviour of the House Shrew, Suncus murinus
(Linnaeus) towards Domestic Cat. Bull. Zool. Surv.
India , 6(1-3): 333-334.
Dharmakumarsinhji, K.S. (1946): Musk Shrew ( Suncus
caemleus) attacking Bull Frog ( Rana tigrina).
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 46: 180.
Mandal, A.K. ( 1 984): Defensive behaviour of the House
Shrew, Suncus murinus (Linnaeus) towards House
Crow, Corvus splendens Vieillot. Bull. Zool. Surv.
India. 6(1-3): 331-332.
School, Shakuntala Park, Calcutta. As this snake
has a very sluggish nature, it did not make any
violent movement. When I approached, the shrew
left the snake and hid itself among the bushes. I
retreated a few steps and watched the scene from
a distance of about 4 m. The snake moved its
head, body and tail slowly. After a while, the
shrew came out of the bush, seized the snake
again by its lower jaw, and dragged it inside the
bush. Within two minutes, I heard the crushing
sound of some hard parts from the bush. After
half an hour, I approached the site with a torch,
and found that the shrew had eaten about 3-4
cm of the snake, starting from its head region.
May 3, 1999 A JOY KUMAR MANDAL
Zoological Survey of India,
'M ' Block, New Alipore,
Calcutta 700 053,
West Bengal, India.
ENCES
Pradhan, M.S. (1980): Interspecific relationship amongst
the urban commensal species In: Ghosh. A.K. [Ed.].
Studies on rodents and their control . The Meghalaya
Science Society, Shillong, pp. 32-36.
Saini, M.S. & V.R. Parshad ( 1 994): Do shrews prey upon
rats? J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 91(3): 446.
Sharma, S.K. (1992): Frog-eating habit of longeared
hedgehog Hemiechinus auritus and grey musk
shrew Suncus murinus. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
88(1): 109.
Tiwari, J.K. (1994): Unusual feeding behaviour of the
Grey Musk Shrew, Suncus murinus (Linnaeus).
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 91(2): 305.
2. RUSTYSPOTTED CAT PRION AIL UR US R UBIGINOSUS, A NEW RECORD FOR
NAGARJUNASAGAR SRISAILAM TIGER RESERVE, ANDHRA PRADESH
On April 30, 1998, a fresh carcass of a cat Amrabad Plateau of the Nagarjunasagar
was seen around 0630 hrs on the road near Srisailam Tiger Reserve. Closer observation
Buredupally Bhavi towards Vatavarlapally on the revealed a soft tawny coat with a rufous tinge
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3), DEC 1999
463
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
that was patterned with transverse lines of
small rusty-brown spots forming solid stripes
along the back of the head. The chin and the
undersides of the forearms had dark brown
stripes. The white underside had black spots.
Based on these characteristics, the animal was
identified as the rustyspotted cat Prionailurus
rubiginosus (I. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1831) -
a new record for the Nagarjunasagar Srisailam
Tiger Reserve.
IUCN (1996) and Acharjyo et al. (1997)
report it to be widespread in southern India, but
nowhere is it common* considering the patchy
and infrequent collections and observations of
Gee (1964), Prater (1971), Chakraborty (1978),
Pathak (1990), Chavan et al. (1991). Tehsin
(1994) and Digveerendrasinh (1995).
Acknowledgement
C. Srinivasulu acknowledges the financial
assistance granted to him as a Senior Research
Fellowship by the CSIR, New Delhi.
February 1 , 1 999 K. THULSI RAO,
D. SUDHAKAR,
V. VASUDEVA RAO,
V. NAGULU,
Nagarjunasagar Srisailam Tiger Reserve,
Sunnipenta, Srisailam,
Kurnool District, Andhra Pradesh.
C. SRINIVASULU,
Wildlife Biology Section,
Department of Zoology’,
Osmania University, Hyderabad 500 007.
References
Acharjyo, L.N., K.L. Purohit & S.K. Patnaik (1997):
Occurrence of the rustyspotted cat ( Felis
rubiginosa ) in Orissa. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
94(3): 554-555.
Chakraborty, S. (1978): The rustyspotted cat, Felis
rubiginosa I. Geoffroy, in Jammu and Kashmir.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75(2): 478-479.
Chavan, S.A., C.D. Patel, S.V. Pa war, N.S. Gogate & N.P.
Pandya ( 1991 ): Sightings of the rustyspotted cat,
Felis i~ubiginosa Geoffroy in Shoolpaneshwar Sanc-
tuary, Gujarat. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 88(1): 107-
108.
Digveerendrasinh ( 1 995): Occurrence of the rustyspotted
cat ( Felis rubiginosa) in Madhya Pradesh.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92(3): 407-408.
Gee, E.P. (1964): The Wildlife of India. Collins, London,
pp. 149.
IUCN (1996): Wild Cats: Status Survey and Conserva-
tion Action Plan. Eds. K. Nowell and P. Jackson.
IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, pp. 382.
Pathak, B.J. (1990): Rustyspotted cat, Felis rubiginosa
Geoffroy: A new record for Gir Wildlife Sanctuary
and National Park. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 87(3):
445
Prater, S.H. (1971): The Book of Indian Animals. Revd.
Edn. Bombay Natural History Society and Oxford
University Press, Bombay, pp. 324.
Tehsin, R. (1994): Rustyspotted cat Felis rubiginosa
Geoffroy sighted near Udaipur. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 91(1): 136.
3. SIGHTING OF THE CARACAL CARACAL CARACAL
IN JALORE DISTRICT, RAJASTHAN
Shri Pradeep Singh, Pradhan Panchayat
Samiti, Jalore, Rajasthan, informs me that he has
seen two caracal near village Takhatpura, tehsil
and district Jalore, in February, 1998 and that
he was able to watch them for a good twenty
minutes. Shri Pradeep Singh affirms that he is
certain that what he saw were not jungle cats
{Felis chaus). “The black tufts on the ears were
very distinctive and the short tail assured me that
what I was watching were not jungle cats.
Unfortunately, I did not have a camera with me
that day.” I have known Shri Pradeep Singh for
some years and can vouch for his veracity and
ability to distinguish a jungle cat.
March 4, 1999 M.K. RANJITSINH
WWF-India,
1 72-B Lodhi Estate, New Delhi 1 10 003.
464
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(3) DEC 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
4. DISTRIBUTION OF THREE RODENT SPECIES IN
THE HILLY TRACTS OF RAJASTHAN
{with one text-figure)
Three genera of rodents, Millardia,
Golunda and Bandicota are Oriental in origin
and geographical distribution. During the last
century, their distribution was recorded as
restricted in peninsular India, mostly in mesic
environment, specially in better-watered tracts
(Blanford, 1888-91; Jerdon 1874). Very little
information is, however, available about their
occurrence in the hilly tracts of Rajasthan except
in Report No. 12 of the BNHS Mammal Survey
of India. The report was based on a series of
mammals collected by Crump at Mt. Abu located
in the extreme south of the Aravalli range (Ryley,
1913). According to this report, G. ellioti was
found to be ‘common’ and B. bengalensis as
‘rare’ in the Archaean granite rock system.
Eighty years later, we undertook a study of the
small mammals at Mt. Abu more or less at the
same spot as described by Crump. It has been
revealed that the relative abundance of these two
rodents has drastically altered. Golund are found
to be ‘very abundant’ and the bandicoot
‘common’. This change has been attributed to
the drastic denudation of the forests, alteration
in the landuse pattern and recent introduction of
irrigated agriculture on the hills. Millardia
meltada was not reported by Ryley (1913), but
was collected by us during 1993 and 1994 from
the foothills of the Abu hill (Prakash et al 1995).
A comparison of the data on small
mammal abundance from earlier studies in the
desert districts adjoining the Aravalli range
(Prakash 1955, 1962, Prakash et al 1971) with
data on the main Aravalli range (Prakash et al,
1995) revealed that the peninsular rodents are
gradually invading the Aravallis and the
southeastern Thar desert (Prakash, 1995). They
have not been collected in districts away from
the Aravalli.
Later, we extended our studies on the
ecology of small mammals to the low Aravallis
of Udaipur - Dungarpur and the Kota-Bundi-
Ranthambore zones, the Vindhyan rock system
in Banswara section in southern, and Jhalawar
in southeastern Rajasthan (Fig. 1). Small
mammals were trapped at 19 localities by laying
two trap lines with 30 snap traps each, in six
habitats at each locality. Since the number of
traps varied at each habitat and locality, we have
transformed the capture data to 700 traps to bring
about similarity in trapping effort. Fig. 1 shows
the abundance of the three rodent species in the
two study zones. In both the zones, these rodents
are unevenly distributed and their occurrence is
discontinuous. M. meltada was collected at
Banswara and Shahbad, both located near the
peninsular region and south of rivers Mahi and
Chambal (Fig. 1). G. ellioti occurred north and
south of the rivers (Table 1), but in the northern
region its abundance was considerably low. In
the southeastern region, the variance was
statistically significant (X2(t) = 5 1 .94, P < 0.001 ).
In southeastern region B. bengalensis was also
trapped south of the Chambal river though in
the Udaipur - Banswara zone it was caught at
Table 1
DISTRIBUTION OF THREE RODENT SPECIES IN
THE HILLY TRACTS OF
SOUTH AND SOUTHEASTERN RAJASTHAN
* The number of specimens of each species has been corrected
for equal number of traps (700).
JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(3), DEC. 1999
465
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Bansi and Udaipur located north of the River
Mahi (Fig. 1).
The wider distribution of bandicoot is due
to its aggressive and exploratory behaviour, and
adaptability. It can alter its ecological niche from
that of a wild rodent to a peri-domestic rodent,
and it is well known to shift even to godowns as
a residential pest of foodgrains (Spillet, 1968).
The gradual decline in the abundance of
these species in a south-north direction in
southern and southeast Rajasthan upholds the
conjecture that these peninsular elements are
gradually moving northwards. A plausible
explanation for their range expansion may be
that it is a consequence of man’s intervention in
the natural ecosystem. Forests have been
drastically denuded and have been transformed
into irrigated crop fields. Since 1951, the
irrigated area has increased more than twelve
times (Moghe, 1994). Consequently, adequate
soil moisture regime is available to these
burrowing rodents for the whole year, and this is
conducive to these mesic species. Prior to
expansion of irrigation, the soil used to be moist
only during the monsoon.
Our studies also suggest that the rivers
Mahi and Chambal may be functioning as
barriers in their northward migration.
May 20, 1 999 ISH WAR PRAKASH
HIMMAT SINGH
Desert Regional Station,
Zoological Survey of India,
Jodhpur 342 009, India.
466
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(3) DEC 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
References
Blanford, W.T. (1888-1891): The Fauna of British India,
including Ceylon and Burma, Mammalia (Vols, 1
& 2). Taylor & Francis, London.
Jerdon, T.C. (1874): The Mammals of India. John
Wheldon, London.
Moghe, V.B. (1994): Resource Atlas of Rajasthan. Raja
Offset Printers, Jodhpur, pp. 1-231.
Prakash, I. ( 1 955): A checklist of mammals of Rajasthan
desert. J. Bengal nat. Hist. Soc. 28: 1-17.
Prakash, I. (1962): Ecology of gerbils of the Rajasthan
desert, India Mammalia 26: 3 1 1 -33 1
Prakash, I. ( 1 995): Invasion of peninsular small mammals
towards the Aravalli ranges and the Thar desert.
Inti. J. Ecol. and Environmental Sci. 21: 17-24.
Prakash, I., R.K. Gupta, A.P. Jain, B.D. Rana & B.K.
Dutta (1971): Ecological evaluation of rodent
populations in the desert biome of Rajasthan.
Mammalia 35: 384-423.
Prakash, I., P. Singh & A. Sara vanan (1995): Ecological
distribution of small mammals in Aravalli ranges.
Proc. Indian nail. Sci. Acad. (B) 61: 137-148.
Spillet, J.J. (1968): The Ecology of the Lesser Bandicoot
Rat in Calcutta. Bombay Natural History Society
and John Hopkins University. Calcutta, pp. 223.
Ryley. K.V. (1913): Bombay Natural History Society’s
Mammal Survey of India. Report No. 12, Palanpur
and Mt. Abu. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 26: 955-
967.
5. SOME FOOD PLANTS OF CHITAL {AXIS AXIS)
IN RAJAJI NATIONAL PARK, INDIA.
While studying chital habitat use in
and around Dholkhand, Rajaji National Park,
India, during November 1992 - May 1993, we
observed some plant items fed upon by chital.
Observations were either direct (i.e. seen in the
chital’ s mouth) or indirect (i.e. fresh signs where
the chital had just fed). Binoculars (8 x 30) were
used. We report our findings, which,
incidentally, seem to be the northwestern-most
record on chital food preferences in India.
The species and plant parts eaten are listed
in Table 1. We did not see, but strongly believe
from our observations on chital behaviour, that
leaves of Acacia catechu , Terminalia bellirica ,
Adina cordifolia, Carissa opaca, and fruits of
C. opaca and Bauhinia racemosa were also eaten.
Of the 35 species we have listed, 9 are being
reported for the first time (Table 1), while 26
have already been documented in one or more of
seven earlier reports in India. Our observations
also suggest that food preferences of chital
differed with seasons, availability and
palatability.
Acknowlegdgements
We are very grateful to the Uttar Pradesh
Forest Department, the Director and the staff of
Table 1
SOME FOOD PLANTS OF CHITAL IN THE PARK
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(3), DEC. 1999
467
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Table 1 ( contd .)
SOME FOOD PLANTS OF CHITAL IN THE PARK
(stm = stem, If = leaf, nf = new flush, ft = fruit, p = petals,
inf = inflorescence); * First record, to our knowledge.
Rajaji National Park who kindly facilitated our
study; WCU (IUCN) funded it through Wildlife
Institute of India.
July 27, 1999 SHRIDHAR D. BHAT
Forestry College,
Banavasi Road,
Sir si (N.K. ) 581 401,
Karnataka,
India.
GOPALS. RAW AT
Wildlife Institute of India,
Chandrabani,
G.P.O. P.B. No. 18,
Dehra Dun 248 001,
Uttar Pradesh,
India.
6. BIRDS FORAGING ON TREE TRUNKS
On several occasions, while studying
woodpeckers at the Peechi - Vazhani Wildlife
Sanctuary (Thrissur dist., Kerala), I came across
birds other than woodpeckers foraging on tree
trunks either in association with woodpeckers
Table 1
BIRDS SEEN FORAGING ON TREE TRUNKS
or all by themselves. I report here some of these
observations. It may be stated that there was no
systematic effort to gather this data as it was not
the focus of my studies.
Eleven species of birds from eight families
Table I {contd.)
BIRDS SEEN FORAGING ON TREE TRUNKS
(Note: T -Termites; 1-Insects; S-Spiders)
468
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(3) DEC. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
were seen foraging on tree trunks in 30 instances
during the period September 1991 -May 1993
(excluding the three months June- August 1992).
The results are summarized in Table 1 .
Birds were seen foraging on tree trunks
in all months except November. Many of the
birds were noticed feeding on termites, and quite
a few were also seen feeding on other insects
and spiders. Some of the birds were seen
following the goldenbacked ( Dinopium
benghalense) or little scalybellied woodpeckers
( Picus xanthopygaeus ), often only a few
centimetres away. Woodpeckers were seen
displacing or attacking these birds on four of
the thirteen instances when they were seen
together. While six of the eleven bird species
are known to forage on tree trunks, the others
(marked with asterisk in the table) are not known
to do so.
Whitten ( 1 982) reported spangled drongos
(Dicrurus hottentotus) taking ants from tree
trunks on Siberut Island, Indonesia, where
woodpeckers are absent and taking insects
from a dead tree on North Sulawesi, where just
one woodpecker species occurs. He could not
find instances of such behaviour in the Sunda
Region where at least seven woodpecker species
live sympatrically, and so he suggested that
where woodpeckers are absent, the spangled
drongo is able to occupy part of the vacant
niche.
It is, therefore, interesting to find at least
1 1 species, in addition to the velvetfronted
nuthatch (Sitta frontalis ), foraging on tree
trunks in my study plots in Peechi -Vazhani
area, where eight woodpecker species also
occur.
Acknowledgement
This study was supported by the Wildlife
Conservation Society, New York, USA.
October 27, 1997 V. SANTHARAM
68, First Floor
Santhome High Road
Chennai 600 028, India.
Reference
Whitten, A.J. ( 1 982) Possible niche expansion of the Spangled Drongo Dicrurus hottentotus on Siberut Island. Indonesia.
Ibis 124: 192-193.
7. THE NODDY TERN (BROWN NODDY) ANOUS STOLIDUS
OFF THE SOUTH KONKAN COAST
On September 9, 1997, during one of my
infrequent visits to the Vengurla Rocks, which lie
about 9 nautical miles off Malwan, Sindhudurg dist.,
Maharashtra, I observed 1 8 noddy terns on Burnt
Island, the landward-most rock of the tiny
archipelago. Perched in small groups on rock ledges
and on boughs of stunted vegetation on the leeward
side of the rock, they showed little inclination to take
part in the frenzied feeding activity of an estimated
more than 4000 roseate terns Sterna dougallii , over
300 brown winged (bridled) tems Sterna anaethetus
and over 200 large crested tems Sterna bergii that
were milling around the island. On a follow-up visit
on September 30, 1 997, G. Frost, N. Manville and I
had a short sighting of a single noddy tern on the
wing, while there was no sign of any during a pre-
monsoon visit on June 5, 1997.
The noddy, a purely pelagic tern, is known
to breed in the Lakshadweep (Laccadive) Islands,
specially on Pitti Atoll, about 570 km SSW of the
Vengurla Rocks. It has been recorded as a straggler
on the coasts of Sri Lanka and Pakistan (handbook
3:71 ). The sightings on Burnt Island appear to be
the closest to the Indian mainland yet, and might
be an indication of a possible extension of the
breeding range of the noddy tern.
February 3, 1 998 HEINZ LAINER
Praias de St. Antonio,
Anjuna 403 509, Goa, India.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3), DEC. 1999
469
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
8. RECORDS OF GREATER SPOTTED EAGLE (. AQUILA CLANGA)
FROM SOUTHERN INDIA
On a visit to the Vedanthangal Bird
Sanctuary in the Chengai MGR dist., 80 km south
of Chennai (=Madras), on February 14-15, 1996,
we noticed two large raptors. They were larger
than a kite, with short tail, thickset build and
dark coloration. I could clearly see their white
upper tail coverts and two rows of whitish spots
on the wings which helped in their identification
as greater spotted eagle ( Aquila clanga). They
were perched on trees within the tank, close to
the nesting waterbirds. Each time they flew, they
caused great commotion among the nesting birds,
presumably as they posed a threat to the young
ones.
From my past records, it appears this bird
may be a rare winter visitor to Chennai. I have
four sightings from the Guindy National Park
[16.i.82; 13.xi.82; 28.xi.82 and 18.iii.90 (2 birds),
once from Manali in North Chennai (30.i.83)
and once at Vedanthangal on 23.iii.85. Besides,
I have seen this bird twice at Kaliveli Tank near
Pondicherry (3 1 .i.88 and 29.X.88). My only other
sighting of this species in southern India has been
at Kogila Tank near Bangalore (2 birds) on
14.i.l990. Besides, Perennou (1989) has also
reported this species from Kaliveli Tank in 1986-
1987 and more recently Chandrasekhar (1996)
has seen a bird at Vedanthangal in November,
1995.
Ali and Ripley (1983) mention that there
are no recent records of this species from the
Carnatic coast and the southernmost record is
from Londa (N. Karnataka) by Koelz (1941).
Over 100 years ago, Jerdon (1862) considered
this species as “tolerably common in the Carnatic,
and Malabar Coast, rare in the table land”.
However, the above records prove the species is
still found in southern India, particularly in the
Carnatic Coast, though it no longer appears to
be common.
July 1 9, 1 999 V. SANTHARAM
68, 1st Floor,
Santhome High Road,
Chennai 600 028,
Tamil Nadu, India.
References
Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): A Handbook of Birds of Blackbuck 12: 27-28.
India & Pakistan. Compact Edition: Oxford Jerdon, T.C. (1862): Birds of India Vol. 1 . p. 59.
University Press, New Delhi, p 70. Perennou, C. ( 1 989): Southern wintering range of some
Chandrasekar, S. ( 1 996): A new record for Vedanthangal waterbirds J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86: 247-248.
9. UNUSUAL SIGHTING OF AN INDIAN BLACK CRESTED BAZA
{AVICEDA LEUPHOTES)
This is to report the sighting and
observation of an Indian black crested baza
(Aviceda leuphotes) in a habitat not normally
associated with it. The bird was observed on
January 5, 1997 at 0830 hrs, in bright and clear
weather, from the backwaters of Akkulam, a large
brackish water lake, roughly 6 km northwest of
Trivandrum city, within 1.5 km from the
seacoast, 8° 31' 30" N, 77° 54' 23" S. This lake is
overgrown with water hyacinth and other weeds
and is highly polluted with the city’s refuse. It is
suiTounded by coconut groves.
The bird was perched on a pole at a
distance of 70 to 75 m from land, amidst dense
water hyacinth and matted growth of mixed
aquatic plants and grass, on water. The black
470
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3) DEC. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
crest and distinguishing white breast with the
dark border below were clearly visible. In flight,
2 to 3 white patches were noticed in the area of
the secondaries, on both sides of the black rump.
The bird was solitary and feeding from the
pole, it would glide into the weeds, land for a
few seconds, pick up the prey and fly back to the
pole with two or three lazy wingbeats. The whole
action was highly reminiscent of an Indian roller.
Eating of the prey could not be observed nor its
identification made. The bird was observed for
nearly half an hour. Other birds sharing the
habitat were purple herons (Ardea purpurea )
cormorants ( Phalacrocorax sp. ) whiskered terns
(Chlidonias hybrida ), pond herons ( Ardeola
grayii) eastern swallows ( Hirundo rustica) and
brahminy kites (Haliastur indus).
February 3, 1998 C. MOHAN KUMAR,
NP 6/386. Kaimanom PO,
Trivandrum 695 040,
Kerala, India.
10. ROOSTING BEHAVIOUR OF INDIAN PEAFOWL PA VO CRISTA TUS
Roost site selection plays a pivotal role in
the nesting success of any species. Judicious
selection of the roosting site may enhance the
survival of birds, by virtue of reduced heat loss,
information sharing, accountability of
population, and better protection from predators.
(Tast and Rassi 1973, Gyllin et al. 1977, Gadgil
and Ali 1975, Gadgil 1972).
The Indian peafowl (Pavo cristatus ), a
common bird in India, is known to roost in trees
and large buildings at night. Though several
papers have been written on the roosting
behaviour of peafowl, detailed studies on roost
site selection have only recently been carried out
by Trivedi and Johnsingh (1996) in Gir forest.
On July 27, 1997, during our move to
Sasan from Malanka village, near Madhuvanti
dam on a 5 km stretch of road, we observed 28
electric poles of which 20 (71.42%) were
occupied by Indian peafowl for roosting. To
study the significance of this height as a
preferable roost on the periphery of the Gir
National Park, detailed observations were made
on the birds roosting on the poles.
All the poles were examined carefully and
the top part of each pole was categorised under
3 different roosting subsites i.e. (1) peak of the
pole (2) top of the wire (3) three layers of
horizontal bars. The number of peafowl occurring
in each roosting site were recorded from 1915 to
2000 hrs till it became completely dark. On either
side of the road there were a few crop fields and
fallow land, but most of the area had forest cover.
Out of 16 poles used for roosting by 22
long trained (LT) birds, 13 (59.09%) roosted on
top of the wire, 3 ( 1 3.64%) on the pole top and 6
(27.27%) over horizontal bars (Table 1). This
top position of roosting was significantly
preferred over horizontal bars (X2 = 8.08, P <
0.005).
Out of total 45 short trained (ST) birds
occupying 9 poles, 26 (57.77%) roosted on
horizontal bars, whereas 17 (37.80%) roosted on
wire and only 2 (4.44%) on pole peak (Table 1).
This shows that there was no preference for
horizontal bars (X2 = 1.08, 0.25 < P < .50).
Seven poles were occupied by a single LT
bird exclusively, whereas on 6 poles one LT bird
and other ST birds were recorded. On the other
hand, on only two poles were 2 or more LT males
roosting with ST birds.
Distribution of LT birds on a greater
number of poles might be a behavioural
adaptation to avoid predation risk. On the other
hand, ST birds never roosted singly on a single
pole. Furthermore, 4 poles were occupied only
by ST birds.
Trivedi and Johnsingh (1996) have
established that within the Gir National Park,
peafowl preferred high trees. In view of then-
findings, we presume that all peafowl of the area
should be roosting on the poles (the safest site in
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3), DEC. 1999
471
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Table 1
PEAFOWL COUNTON ELECTRIC POLES
view of the height). The leopard Panthera pardus
is an important predator of peafowl in Gir forest
(Trivedi and Johnsingh 1996). Preference for
high trees for roosting was attributed to the
danger from this ground predator, which can
climb trees. Roosting on high tension electric
poles is much safer, as leopards and other
predators cannot climb on to them.
The data shows that long trained birds were
more safety conscious than short trained ones,
as they preferred wire against horizontal bars.
For an LT bird it is extremely difficult to maintain
a balance against high winds at heights of 50 m.
During July, wind speed in this area ranges from
1 5-20 km/hr. To roost on wire rather than on the
horizontal bars of the poles expends greater
energy. Despite this, most of the LT peafowl
preferred the wires indicating that predation
pressure in the periphery of the sanctuary must
be very high. The predation pressures on LT birds
could be much more than on ST birds, as is
reflected in site preference on the poles.
Further, this behaviour indicates
adaptability of the species to a modified habitat.
Such man-made structures, if installed within a
sanctuary, would protect peafowl from predators
like the leopard, which ultimately may have
certain management implications. We do not
know whether some peafowl were also roosting
on the trees in the same area.
The observed roosting behaviour provides
safety against predators but makes the peafowl
vulnerable to local hunters known as ‘Dafers’,
as birds on the pole are easy to shoot (P.P. Raval,
pers. comm.). It seems that peafowl require
protection from ground predators (not necessarily
leopards) as we have seen them roosting on
electric poles in some parts of Kheda dist. and
also near Samakhiyali (Kachchh) on September
28, 1992 along with black ibises Pseudibis
papillosa. Neither in Kheda nor in Kachchh does
the leopard exist, yet these two species were
roosting on poles. The advantage of a high roost
site is obvious (Yom-Tov 1979).
On July 26, 1997, we saw peafowl roosting
on khejri Prosopis cineraria within a cattle egret
heronry along the state highway at Bagodara
(Ahmedabad dist.). All roosting behaviour
described (including pole roosting) were recorded
from the road side where there is always vehicular
traffic. It seems that in the selection of roosting
sites, safety against predators is more important
than the disturbance due to vehicular traffic.
Acknowledgements
We thank the Indian Council of
Agricultural Research, New Delhi for financial
assistance, Dr. D. N. Yadav, officer in charge,
for constant encouragement and J.J. Jani for his
critical suggestions on the manuscript.
March 3 1 , 1 999 B.M. PARASHARYA
AESHITA MUKHERJEE
AINP on Agricultural Ornithology \
Gujarat Agricultural University,
Anand 388 1 10.
Gujarat, India.
472
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3) DEC 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
References
Gadgil, M. (1972): The function of Communal roost:
relevance of mixed roosts. Ibis 114: 531-533.
Gadgil, M. & S. Ali (1 975): Communal roosting habits of
Indian birds. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72(3): 1 1 6-
727.
Gyllin, R., H. Kallander & M. Sylven ( 1 977): The micro
climate explanation of town centre roosts of
Jackdaws Corvus monedula. Ibis 119: 358-361 .
Tast, J. & P. Rassi (1973): Roost and roosting flights of
Jackdaws Corvus monedula at Tampere, Finland.
Ornis Feen. 50: 29-45.
Trivedi, P. & A.J.T. Johnsingh (1996): Roost selection by
the Indian Peafowl ( Pavo cristatus Linn.) in Gir
forest, India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93(1): 25-
29.
Yom-Tov, Y. (1979): The disadvantage of low position in
colonial roosts: an experiment to test the effects of
droppings on plumage quality. Ibis 121: 33 1 -333.
1 1 . SIGHTING OF THE INDIAN REDBREASTED PARAKEET AT ANDHERI
On the evening of December 7, 1997 at
1630 hrs, I was at the residence of a friend at
Andheri (West) Mumbai, when I heard an
unusual call among the calls of the rose ringed
parakeet. On investigation, I found it to be a
parakeet quite unlike any I had seen before. I
watched the bird through my binoculars. With
the help of a field guide, I was able to identify it
as the male of the Indian redbreasted parakeet
Psittacula alexandri.
The bird was perched on top of a tree along
with three other males of the same type. I
observed them for a total of 10 minutes, after
which they flew away. I spotted them again at
about 1730 hrs, flying about in the same region.
They were moving in a group making loud calls.
They flew independent of the rose ringed
parakeets, though there were plenty of the latter
in the region.
These must have been escaped caged birds.
January 5, 1998 LILYN KAMATH
World Wide Fund for Nature - Indict
National Insurance Building,
204 . Dr. D.N. Road,
Mumbai 400 00/. India.
Reference
Ali, S (1996): The Book of Indian Birds, Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai, 12th edn, pp 354.
12. ALBINO MYNA ( ACRIDOTHERES TRISTIS) NEAR VITA, IN MAHARASHTRA
Near Vita in Sangli dist., Maharashtra, I
saw a nest of the common myna ( Acridotheres
tristis) with two eggs. Both eggs hatched, and
one was a pure albino. Both the chicks were
successfully raised. The beak and legs were
yellow.
A number of insects were successfully
devoured by the albino myna. After fledging, the
entire family flew away to a neighbouring hill
(Sulkai).
September 24, 1998 P.S. SALUNKHE
Department of Zoology'
Sadgunt Gadage Maharaj College,
Karad, Satara Dist. Pin 4/5 103,
Maharashtra, India.
13. BLYTH’S REED WARBLER ACROCEPHALUS DUMETORUM FEEDING ON NECTAR
During my field visit to Ponmudi in Ghats on February 8, 1996, I observed several
Trivandrum forest division of Kerala Western species of birds, namely grey drongo Dicrurus
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3), DEC 1999
473
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
leucophaeus, common rosefinch Carpodacus
erythrinus and Blyth’s myna Sturnus
malabaricus blythii feeding on nectar from the
flowers of an Erythrina indica tree, which stood
on the Merchinston Tea estate fence. Interes-
tingly, on close observation, I saw a Blyth’s reed
warbler Acrocephalns dumetorum feeding on
nectar in the same tree. As the bird dipped its
beak inside the flowers for a relatively long time
and raised it up to swallow, it is evident that it
drank nectar. The insectivorous Blyth’s reed
warbler was observed to feed on Salvadora
persica fruits at Point Calimere Wildlife and Bird
Refer
Ali. S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the birds of
India and Pakistan, (compact edition), Oxford
University Press, New Delhi.
Balasubramanian, P. (1996): Interactions between fruit-
eating birds and bird-dispersed plants in the
Sanctuary (Balasubramanian, 1996). Ali and
Ripley (1983), and Cramp (1992) mentioned only
insects as the food of Blyth’s reed warbler. It is
interesting to note that nectar also forms a food
of this species. Among the plant materials, seeds
of Umbelliferae and Cruciferae and black berry
Rubus were recorded as food (Cramp 1992).
July 13, 1999 S. BALACHANDRAN
Bombay Natural History Society,
Hornbill House,
Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,
Mumbai 400 023, India.
iNCES
Tropical Dry Evergreen Forest of Point Calimere.
South India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93(3): 428-
441.
Cramp, S. ( 1 992): Birds of the Western Palcarctic Vol. VI.
Oxford University Press, London.
14. SHORT-TOED LARK CALANDRELLA CINEREA FEEDING ON PEARL MILLET
PENNISETUM TYPHOIDES IN RAJASTHAN, INDIA.
Short-toed lark is a common and abundant
winter visitor throughout the northwest desert
and semi-desert portions of India (Ali and Ripley
1986). They are gregarious in winter, preferring
to feed in bare fallow fields in relatively arid
desert tracts, avoiding cropland (Roberts 1992).
On October 3, 1993 while surveying the
avifauna of the Desert National Park, Rajasthan,
near Bama village, just outside the boundary of
the park, I saw a farmer driving away ‘clouds’
of short-toed lark Calandrella cinerea from his
small field of pearl millet Pennisetum typhoides
by beating a metal box. Apparently his efforts to
drive away the birds were unsuccessful, as the birds
were not leaving the field but merely settling some
distance away from the farmer to resume their
feeding activity. On closer investigation, unusual
feeding behaviour was observed.
There were 7-8 large flocks of birds hovering
near the pearl millet panicles. The average height
of the millet plants was about 2 m. The birds
were pecking at the panicles while flying/
hovering to dislodge the grain. After each bout
of pecking activity lasting 5-10 seconds, they
would descend to the ground to feed on fallen
grains. One or two birds were sitting on half bent
stems to pluck grains from the panicles.
Considerable damage was done to the panicles and
a large number of fallen grains were found on the
ground, due to the feeding activity of these birds.
February 23, 1998 HARKIRAT S. SANGHA
B-27, Gautam Marg,
Hanuman Nagar,
Jaipur 302 021,
Rajasthan, India.
References
All S. & S.D. Ripley (1986): Handbook of the Birds of Roberts, T.J. (1992): Birds of Pakistan, Vol. 2. Oxford
India and Pakistan, Vol. 5. 2nd Edn. OUP, Delhi. University Press, Karachi.
474
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3) DEC. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
15. AN UNUSUAL NESTING SITE OF NECTARINIA ASIATIC A
The nest of the purple sunbird Nectarinia
asiatica is usually suspended on a twig and
placed a metre or two from the ground, hanging
under a bough or bush. Some unusual nest sites
are also mentioned in the available literature.
On April 14, 1996, a nest of Nectarinia
asiatica was noticed in Hanuman Nagar, Jaipur,
suspended from an electric pole. It was about 8 m
above the ground and fully exposed. Interestingly,
in the vicinity of the nest there were many po-
tential nesting sites. I am not sure why the elec-
tric pole was selected for nesting. The nest was
complete when I discovered it and the pair was
busy feeding the chicks. The pair was successful
in raising the two chicks. A photograph was
taken, but it is not of reproducible quality.
January 23, 1 998 HARKIRAT S. SANGHA
B-27, Gautam Marg,
Hanuman Nagar.
Jaipur 302 021.
Rajasthan, India.
16. REPTILES OF KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK, BHARATPUR. RAJASTHAN
The present paper is based on an inventory
made in Keoladeo National Park (KNP),
Bharatpur during 1986-90. The KNP (27° 7.6'
to 27° 2.20' N and 77° 29.5' to 77° 33.9’ E) lies
in the Indo-Gangetic flood plains. Total area
of this National Park is 29 sq. km, of which
8.5 sq. km is a seasonal wetland. The present
report is significant as eastern Rajasthan was not
adequately surveyed for reptiles in the past
(Biswas and Sanyal 1977). Altogether, 29 species
of reptiles, which represent 1 1 families and 24
genera (Table 1 ) were recorded during the present
study.
Seven species of freshwater turtles
consisting of four hardshells and three softshells
were recorded from KNP (Table 1). The record
of the Indian peacock softshell turtle is a range
extension (Bhupathy and Ajithkumar 1988).
Information on the ecology of Indian flapshell
turtle in this National Park is available (Bhupathy
and Vijayan 1993, 1994). Eight species of lizards
including three species of geckos, two agamids,
two skinks and one species of monitor lizard were
recorded. Among them the Indian garden lizard
and Bengal monitor lizard were common. Fan-
throated lizard, a common species found
elsewhere in Rajasthan was observed only twice
outside KNP, and it may be found inside this
National Park. Fourteen species of snakes were
recorded, of which the Indian saw-scaled viper
was observed once outside KNP. Indian rock
python was the most common snake in the
terrestrial, and checkered keelback water snake
in the aquatic area. It was estimated that about
150 pythons inhabit KNP; information on some
aspects of its general ecology is available
elsewhere (Bhupathy and Vijayan 1989).
The number of reptile species found in
KNP is high considering its size. This could be
due to its strategic placement bordering dry semi-
arid, and wet Gangetic flood plains. All seven
species of turtles, recorded from the KNP are
found in the Ganges system. It is to be noted
that during the monsoon, KNP receives water
from the River Gambhir, a tributary of River
Yamuna. Species such as the Pakistan ribbon
snake, Indian saw-scaled viper and fan-throated
lizard are typical of arid regions. Absence of the
Indian star tortoise Geochelone elegans in KNP
may be due to wet conditions and inundation
during the monsoon. High densities of the Indian
rock python in KNP could be mainly due to the
protection rendered by the Rajasthan Forest
Department and abundant food.
ACKNOWLEDG EM ENTS
The present research was a part of a
collaborative project of the Bombay Natural
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(3). DEC. 1999
475
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Table 1
REPTILES RECORDED IN KEOLADEO NATIONAL
PARK DURING 1986-90.
Table 1 ( contd .)
REPTILES RECORDED IN KEOLADEO NATIONAL
PARK DURING 1986-90.
Scientific name Common name Status
Family: Varanidae (Monitor lizards)
15. Varamis
bengalensis Bengal monitor Common
Family: Typhlopidae (Worm snake)
16. Ramphotyphlops
Family: Viperidae (Vipers)
28. Daboia nisselii Russell’s viper Rare
29. Echis carinatus Indian saw-scaled viper Rare
Sightings >25, 1 0<25, and <1 0 were considered as common, uncommon and rare respectively; nomenclature follows Das ( 1 997)
History Society (BNHS) and U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service on the Ecology of Keoladeo
National Park sponsored by the Ministry of
Environment and Forests, Government of India.
I thank the Rajasthan Forest Department for
permission to work in Keoladeo National Park
and for logistical support. I am grateful to J. C.
Daniel, BNHS, and Dr. V.S. Vijayan, Salim Ali
Refer
Biswas, S. & D.P. Sanyal (1977): Fauna of Rajasthan,
India: Reptilia. Rec. Zool. Surv. India 73: 247-269.
Bhupathy, S. & C.R. Ajithkumar ( 1 988): On the identity
and occurrence of the Peacock softshell turtle
Centre for Ornithology and Natural History
(SACON) for encouragement.
July 1 9, 1 999 S. BHUPATHY
SACON',
Anaikatty PO,
Coimbatore 641 107.,
Tamil Nadu, India.
NCES
( Trionyx hut'um) in Rajasthan. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 85 (3): 624.
Bhupathy, S. & V.S. Vijayan ( 1 989): Status, distribution
and general ecology of the Indian Python (Python
476
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(3) DEC. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
molurus molunis Linn.) in Keoladeo National Park,
Bharatpur, Rajasthan. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
86(3): 381-387.
Bhupathy, S. & V.S. Vijayan (1993): Aspects of the feeding
ecology of Lissemys punctata (Testudines :
Trionychidae) in Keoladeo National Park,
Bharatpur, India. Hamadryad 18: 13-16.
Bhupathy, S. & V.S. Vijayan ( 1 994): Aestivation of turtles
in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur with special
reference to Lissemys punctata. J. Bombay nat
Hist. Soc. 91(3): 398-402.
Das, I. (1997): Checklist of the reptiles of India, with
English common names. Hamadryad 22(1):
32-45.
17. A LARGE BROOD OF THE GREEN PIT VIPER ( TRIMERESURUS GRAMINEUS)
A green pit viper (Trimeresurus
grcimineus) was caught on May 7, 1997, close
to Nere village, Panvel, Navi Mumbai, at
2330 hrs. The snake was brought to the Indian
Herpetological Society, Raigad branch. Upon
closer observation and palpation, it was found
to be gravid. It measured 105 cm (TBL) and
was parrot green dorsally and yellow ventrally.
The maximum recorded length for this species
is 1 1 1.7 cm (Daniel 1983).
The snake was kept in a wooden cage
measuring 0.9 m x 0.6 m x 0.6 m, with two
netting windows for ventilation and glass on one
side for observation. A potted plant kept in the
cage was instantly accepted by the female. On
approaching the cage, the female adopted a
defensive posture and threw the forebody into a
large ‘S’, resting the mid-body on the plant.
Unusually rapid movements of the tail tip were
observed, similar to snakes of Boiga species.
The following day the snake was presented
with a house gecko ( Hemidactylus sp.), which
was not consumed. When the cage was checked
on May 10, at about 0200 hrs, no neonates were
seen. But at 0900 hrs on the same day, 20
neonates were observed in the cage. Since the
literature (Daniel 1983, Mattison 1995, Khaire
1996) does not mention time taken for birth it
would be relevant to state that all 20 young were
bom within 6-7 hours.
Post-birth membrane was present on 15
neonates. Of these 1 1 were bottle green dorsally,
while nine were parrot green, with a yellow
tinge. All had a prominent black streak on either
side of the head, extending from the eye to the
neck. Distinct, irregular, dark cross-bars were
also visible on the dorsum of all neonates. The
size ranged from 11-13 cm (TBL). All the young
were healthy and active. The female was
motionless, and rested for about three hours on
the plant.
The house gecko introduced on May 8,
1999 was still alive in the cage. On May 10,
three additional juvenile house geckos, two
juvenile frogs ( Rana sp.) and three juvenile toads
{Bufo sp.) were introduced in the cage. All
neonates sloughed three days after birth. One
fed on a juvenile house gecko after moulting.
No feeding was observed in the cage for the next
three days. There is little information about the
young of this species having fed in captivity
(Barooa 1951, Kinnear 1912). On May 16, all
neonates and the female were released in a
forested tract near Panvel.
From the literature surveyed, the largest
previously recorded brood consisted of 1 5 young
(Kinnear 1912). This observation appears to be
the largest brood size for the species.
May 3 1 , 1 999 AMIT CHA VAN
Indian Herpetological Society,
Raigad Branch, 75 Sneh,
Opp. Pioneer Co-op. Hsg. Society.
Panvel 4/0 206,
Dist. Raigad.
India.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3), DEC. 1999
All
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Rrferences
Barooa, J.N. (1951): Breeding of the green pit viper
( Trimeresurus gramineus). J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 39: 414.
Daniel, J.C. ( 1 983): The Book of Indian Reptiles. Bombay
Natural History Society, Bombay.
Khaire, N. (1996): Indian Snakes. Indian Herpetological
Society, Pune, pp 106.
Kinnear, N.B. (1912): Breeding of common green viper
(Laches is gramineus). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
21: 1339.
Mattison, C. ( 1 995): The Encyclopedia of Snakes. Facts
on File Inc., New York. 256 pp.
1 8. OBSERVATION ON THE REPRODUCTION OF
POL YPEDA TES LEUCOMYSTAX (GRAVENHORST 1829)
(ANURA : RHACOPHORIDAE)
On June 6, 1998, at 1945 hrs, we spotted a
pair of Polypedates leucomystax in amplexus
inside a newly built tank (180 cm x 240 cm x
180 cm) with 150 cm deep rainwater. Five other
males were also observed calling around the same
tank. At 1951 hrs the female (SVI 60 mm)
discharged a colourless gel and started to work
her hindlimbs slowly in a sideways fanning
motion from her ankles, touching the cloaca. At
the same time the male (SVL 48 mm) too
followed the female in moving its hindlimbs from
the ankles, between the cloaca and ankles of the
female. A white frothy mass was formed which
adhered to the wall of the tank. After a few
minutes, the female started discharging a few
ova at a time into the foam at intervals of 10-20
seconds, the intervals increased to maximum one
minute. Between intervals both male and female
stopped moving their hindlimbs. Every time the
female moved the hindlimbs, the male did the
same. Finally, the foam reached a size of c. 6 x
7.5 cm.
As the female stopped laying eggs at 2030
hrs, the male withdrew its feet from the foam
and slowly dismounted from the female. During
the foam-nest construction the female kept her
eyes closed only once at 2029 hrs and stopped
moving her feet. She moved her hindlimbs only
once after the male dismounted. At 2030 hrs,
she sat 2 cm above the foam, withdrawing her
feet, stood stationary for 5 minutes in the same
position and jumped into the water at 2035 hrs,
swimming to the far side of the tank. In the
meanwhile, the foam covering became
reddish-brown, the centre remaining white.
Just before ovulation, the pair was observed
taking a dip in the water immersing up to
two-thirds of their bodies. Then they climbed
about 6 cm above the level of the water. The
female held firmly on to the wall, taking the
support of a dried remnant of old foam. The male
held the female firmly under her shoulder.
During ovulation, the femur of the female was
at right angles to her body. Distinct pulsation
was observed in her abdomen while discharging
ova.
The event described was observed under a
charge light. Although the observation was very
close, the nearest was 25 cm, the pair was
apparently not disturbed. In fact, the male jumped
to the light source after dismounting.
The same tank had been used by 1 0 pairs
of Polypedates leucomystax, including the
observed pair, since April 11, 1998, within a
period of 56 days.
July 22,1999 MD. FIROZ AHMED
BIBHUTI PRASAD LAHKAR
Department of Zoology,
Gauhati University,
Guwahati 781 014 ,
Assam, India.
478
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3) DEC. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
19. DISTRIBUTION OF PANGIO GOAENSIS (TILAK)
CYPRINIFORMES : COBITIDAE, IN MANIMALA RIVER,
SOUTHERN KERALA
( With one text-figure )
Loaches of the genus Pangio are
considered to be good aquarium fishes due to
their small size and vivid colour patterns. The
range of distribution of Pangio is from
Indonesia, through Vietnam, to India (Talwar
& Jhingran, 1991). According to Easa and Basha
(1995), the genus Pangio is represented in India
by four species viz., Pangio pangia (Ham.),
P. longipennis Menon, P. goaensis (Tilak) and
P. bashai Easa and Shaji.
Tilak (1973) originally described Pangio
(Acanthophthalmus) goaensis based on a single
specimen collected from Colem river Goa. This
species is commonly known as the Indian coolie-
loach. Subsequently Rema Devi et al. (1996)
reported this species from Chaliyar river,
northern Kerala. Thus Pangio goaensis is so far
known only from Goa and northern Kerala (north
of the Palghat gap). According to Rema Devi
(pers. comm.) this species is similar to Pangio
bashai from Chaliyar river.
Recently 12 specimens (31 to 33 mm
in total length) of this species were collected
by us from Manimala river of southern Kerala
(south of the Palghat gap). Specimens were
collected from Mallapally (8 specimens) and
Kottangal (4 specimens) areas of Pathanamthitta
dist. Detritus, mud, sand and gravel are the main
substrates in the collection sites, of which sand
constituted about 65% of the total. Land use
pattern is mainly rubber plantations with
Fig. 1: Lateral view of Pangio goaensis (Tilak)
settlements.
Pangio goaensis can be easily distin-
guished from other species by its elongated and
fairly compressed body and head. The dorsal fin
is inserted in the posterior half of the body,
between the pelvic and anal fins. Caudal fin
truncate. Scales are very minute and are
embedded in the skin; lateral line is absent.
Three dark bands run from the tip to the base of
the caudal fin, one is on the mid-dorsal line and
the other two are on the sides of the body. The
two outer bands end in a blotch at the base of
the caudal fin. The median band is wider and
darker than the others (Fig. 1).
The present record of this species from
Manimala river is the first report from southern
Kerala, extending its range of distribution to
southern Kerala.
ACKNO W I . EDG EM ENTS
We are grateful to Dr. K. Rema Devi,
Scientist, Zoological Survey of India, Southern
Regional Station, Chennai, for confirming our
identification of the species. This study was
financed by the US Fish and Wildlife Service
under the Project: Ecology of Hillstreams of
Western Ghats with special reference to
fish community, and was sponsored by the
Ministry of Environment & Forests. Govt, of
India.
September 15, 1998 K. RAJU THOMAS
C.R. BIJU
C.R. AJITHKUMAR
Bombay Natural History’ Society,
Hornbill House,
Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,
Mumbai 400 023 , India.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3), DEC 1999
479
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
References
Easa, P.S. & S.C. Basha (1995): A survey on the habitat
and distribution of stream fishes in the Kerala part
ofNilgiri Biosphere Reserve. KFRI Research report
No. 104, Peechi, Thrissur.
Rema Devi, K., K.G. Emiliyamma & R.S. Lalmohan (1996):
Extension of range of Pangio gociensis
(Cyprini formes : Cobitidae) to the Chaliyar drainage
of Kerala. J. South Asian nat. Hist. 3(1): 19-22.
Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland fishes of
India and adjacent countries. Oxford & IBH
Publishing Co., New Delhi.
Tjlak, R. (1973): A study of the freshwater and estuarine
fishes of Goa. 1 . Acanthophthalmus gociensis , A
new Cobitid from Goa, with notes on
Zenarchopterus striga (Blyth ). J. Inland Fish. Soc
India 4: 61-68.
20. RECORD OF THE BARB BARBODUS CARNATICUS
(CYPRINIDAE : CYPRINIFORMES) FROM THE STREAMS
OF EASTERN GHATS, OF TAMIL NADU.
The large barb Barbodus carnaticus is
endemic to Western Ghats, being known only
from the Cauvery drainages at the base of the
Nilgiris, Wynaad and also from Karnataka
(Talwar and Jhingran, 1991; Menon, 1992;
Arunachalam et al., 1998). It grows to a
maximum size of about 60 cm in length and
12 kg in weight (Menon, 1992); in our ongoing
Western Ghats biodiversity programme we
recorded specimens from 25 cm to 40 cm in
length (0.5-3 kg in weight). During a recent
survey, we collected a fair number of speci-
mens of B. carnaticus from an unnamed stream
near Arapaleeswar temple, and also some
unnamed streams in Kolli hills of Eastern Ghats,
Tamil Nadu. The literature on Eastern Ghats
(Talwar and Jhingran, 1991; Misra, 1938;
Lazarus et al., 1988; Rema Devi, 1992) shows
that this species was not reported from this
region by earlier workers. Till now, the
distribution of the species was Cauvery drainage
systems of Western Ghats (Molur and Walker,
1998). The present record shows its extension
to Eastern Ghats, indicating affinities between
Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats of Tamil
Nadu.
Description
D IV/8 ; P 1 5 ; V 9 ; A II/5 ; C 1 9 ; Ltr . Scales
5, 3 '/L Body elongate, dorsal profile more
convex than ventral; its depth 2.8 to 3.2 times
in standard length. Head length 4.0 to 4.25 times
in head. Mouth subterminal; lips moderately
fleshy. Barbels two pairs, maxillary pair longer
than rostral pair. Dorsal fin inserted midway
between tip of snout and caudal base. Last
undivided dorsal ray osseous, strong. Lateral line
complete with 30-32 scales. Colour in live
specimens dark olivaceous green on back, fad-
ing to dull white with gold on flanks and
abdomen. After preservation in formaline, light
brown on dorsal side and flanks, abdomen pale
yellow.
Habitat and Ecology
B. carnaticus prefers large pools and riffle
habitats of rapid rivers and streams. Adults prefer
pools, hiding in undercutting of bedrock and
boulders, while juveniles prefer riffle habitats. It
feeds mostly on benthic substrates. It has been
introduced into reservoirs of Periyar and Cauvery
drainage systems.
Distribution
Found in Cauvery, Bhavani, Moyar rivers
in Tamil Nadu; Periyar reservoir (introduced)
in Kerala (Menon, 1992) and Hemavathi river
of Karnataka (Arunachalam et al., 1998). We
collected this species for the first time from an
unnamed stream near Arapaleeswar temple in
Kolli hills of Eastern Ghats, Tamil Nadu.
480
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3 ) DEC. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Acknowledgements
The second author (JAJ) is grateful to the
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research
(CSIR), New Delhi, for financial support.
Refer
Arunachalam, M., J.A. Johnson, S.N. Sathyanarayanappa.
A. Sankaranarayanan & R. Soranam (1998):
Economically important cultivable/omamental fishes
from Hemavathi and Ekachi rivers in South Karnataka.
Workshop report on Germplasm inventorisation and gene
banking of freshwater fishes, National Bureau of Fish
Genetic Resources, Lucknow.
Lazarus, R.J., V. Arivudai Nabmi & P. Sitarami Reddy
( 1 988): A checklist of the fishes from the streams of
Javadi Hills, with notes on the unique catching method.
‘Pari’. Matsya 14: 47-52.
Menon, A.G.K. ( 1 992): Conservation of freshwater fishes
of peninsular India. Final report submitted to Ministry
of Environment and Forests (unpubl.). 3 1 pp.
December 26, 1998 M. ARUNACHALAM
J.A. JOHNSON
Sri Paramakalyani Centre for
Environmental Sciences, Manonmanium
Sundaranar Univ., Alwarkurichi 627412, 77V.
NC ES
Misra, K.S. (1938): On a collection of fish from the
Eastern Ghats. Rec. Indian Mus. XL(3): 255-264.
Molur, Sanjay & Sally Walker ( 1 998): Report of the
Workshop on ‘Conservation assessment and
management plan for freshwater fishes of India' . Zoo
Outreach Organisation. Conservation Breeding
Specialist Group, India. 156 pp.
Rema Devi, K. (1992): On a small collection offish from
Javadi Hills, North Arcot district, Tamil Nadu. Rec.
Zool. Surv. India 91(3-4): 353-360.
Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991 ): Inland fishes of
India and adjacent countries. Oxford & IBH
Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Vols. I & II, 1 1 58
pp.
21. RANGE EXTENSION OF OSTEOBRAMA COTIO PENINSULARIS
SILAS TO KERALA
The genus Osteobrama is found in the
Oriental region and is restricted to Pakistan,
India, Bangladesh, Myanmar and China (Talwar
and Jhingran, 1991). This genus is characterised
by having a dorsal fin inserted slightly behind
pelvic fins with 1 1 or 12 rays (8 or 9 branched),
a strong serrated spine and a long anal fin with
14-36 rays (11-13 branched). The present report
of Osteobrama cotio peninsularis is based on two
specimens collected from Periyar river, Central
Kerala.
Osteobrama cotio peninsularis Silas
Distinguishing characters: D iii-iv 8-9;
A iii 28-31; PI 12-14; Vi 9.
Body trapezoid and considerably
compressed, its depth 2.2 to 2.9 times in standard
length; abdominal edge trenchant from base of
pelvic fins to anal fin, but rounded in front of
pelvic fins. Mouth small; barbels absent. Dorsal
spine weak and serrated. Scales small; lateral
line with 55 to 60 scales; scale-rows IVi to 9/4
between lateral line and base of pelvic fins;
predorsal scales 21-24.
Osteobrama cotio peninsularis can be
easily identified from its closely related
subspecies by the presence of fewer branched
rays in the anal fin, less than 10 ‘A scale-rows
between lateral line and pelvic fin, greater
number of lateral line scales and lesser number
of pre-dorsal scales. It can be distinguished from
O. cotio cotio in the lesser number of branched
rays in the anal fin, less than lO’A scale-rows
between lateral line and pelvic fin; and it can
also be distinguished from O. cotio cunma by
the presence of greater number of lateral line
scales and fewer pre-dorsal scales.
Geographic distribution: Peninsular
India: Maharashtra, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and
Kerala.
Remarks: The genus Osteobrama is
represented by seven species in India, of which
O. bakeri is endemic to Kerala. O. bakeri is the
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3), DEC. 1999
481
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
only species reported so far from Kerala under
this genus. Menon (1997) considers O. bakeri
as rare in Kerala. Except O. cotio peninsularis
the two other subspecies of O. cotio are
commonly distributed in North India, while the
former is only distributed in the rivers of
peninsular India: Maharashtra, Orissa, Andhra
Pradesh (Talwar and Jhingran, 1991). Type
locality of O. cotio peninsularis is Pune. There
was no authentic record on the occurrence of
this species from the freshwaters of Kerala.
While conducting a survey in Periyar river in
central Kerala, we collected the species from
Aluva region. The species is very rare in the
collections, as only two specimens were obtained
along with some other Puntius spp. The present
report thus extends its distribution to the rivers
of Kerala.
Acknowledgements
We are thankful to Dr. K. Rema Devi,
Scientist, Zoological Survey of India, Southern
Regional Station, Chennai for confirming our
identification of the species.
August 6, 1998 C.R. BIJU
K. RAJU THOMAS
C.R. AJITHKUMAR
Bombay Natural Histoiy Society,
Horn bill House , S.B. Singh Road,
Mumbai 400 023, India.
References
Menon, A.G.K. (1997): Rare and endangered fishes of Malabar, India. Zoo ‘s Print. 97(12): 6-19.
Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland fishes of India and adjacent countries. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co..
New Delhi.
22. MYSTUS BLEEKER1 (DAY) — AN ADDITION TO
THE FISH FAUNA OF KERALA
Bleeker (1846) originally described
Bagrus keletius ( Mystus bleekeri) from Bengal.
In 1877 Day modified the taxon as Macrones
bleekeri (Talwar & Jhingran, 1991). It is
characterised by a depressed head and an
elongate, compressed body. Barbels four pairs,
the maxillary barbels extend posteriorly to the
anal fin. A large adipose fin is present. Body
colour in life is brownish above and lighter
below. Two longitudinal bands present above and
below the lateral line. There is also a dark
shoulder spot on either side below the lateral
line.
Mystus bleekeri is generally confined to
northern India and, according to Hora (1940),
the southernmost limit is the Mahanadi
headwaters. It inhabits lakes, tanks and rivers.
There has been no report of this species from
Kerala. While conducting a survey on the
distribution of freshwater fishes in Neyyar River,
we collected two specimens of Mystus bleekeri
(of 5.4 and 6.0 cm total length) from Ottasekara-
mangalam thodu in Thiruvananthapuram dist.
The collection site has a mixed substrate of
detritus, mud, sand, cobble and bedrock, sand
being the most dominant.
The diagnostic characters are the same as
those given in the original description, except
for some minor differences.
D. 1/7-8, P. 1/9-10, A. 9-10, C. 17
The present record extends the range of
distribution of the species to Kerala.
Acknowledgements
We thank Dr. K. Rema Devi, Scientist,
Z.S.I. Southern Regional Station, Chennai, for
confirming the identification of our species. We
also thank the Kerala Forest Department for their
482
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3) DEC. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
assistance. This report is a part of the study on
the Project: Ecology of Hillstreams of Western
Ghats with special reference to fish community
financed by the US Fish and Wildlife Service,
and sponsored by the Ministry of Environment
& Forests, Govt, of India.
October 6, 1998 K. RAJU THOMAS
C.R. BIJU
C.R. AJITHKUMAR
Bombay Natural History Society,
Hornbill House, S B. Singh Road,
Mumbai 400 023, India.
References
Sleeker, (1846): Nat. Geneesk. Arc. Ned. Indie. 3(2): C.P. Rec. Indian Mus. 42(2): 365-374.
135. Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland fishes of
Hora, S.L. (1940): On a collection of fish from the India and adjacent countries. Oxford & IBH
headwaters of the Mahanadi River, Raipur District. Publishing Co., New Delhi.
23. SEASONAL ABUNDANCE AND CHECKLIST OF AQUATIC BUGS AND
BEETLES OF KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK, BHARATPUR, INDIA
( With two text-figures )
The Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur is
known for the large congregation of waterfowl and
other aquatic birds which feed mainly on aquatic
insects and fishes (Ali and Vijayan, 1983). Even
though some preliminary studies were carried out
on the aquatic insect fauna of the Park (Mahajan
et al., 1982), a complete and authentic checklist is
not available. Most of the insects were identified
up to family level. (Ali and Vijayan 1986, and
Vijayan 1991). The present report covers the
NUMBER/LITRE
MONTHS
— -1986 “ P-1986 -*-1987 1988
ABUNDANCE OF BEETLES: 1985-1988
Fig. 1 : Average number of beetles collected from Keoladeo National Park
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(3). DEC. 1999
483
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
NUMBER/LITRE
ABUNDANCE OF BUGS: 1985-1988
Fig. 2: Average number of bugs collected from Keoladeo National Park
seasonal abundance and list of aquatic bugs and
beetles from Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur,
(KNP) collected during 1985-1988.
Study area and Methodology: Keoladeo
National Park, Bharatpur (27° 7.6’ to 27° 12.2’
N and 77° 29.5' to 77° 33.9’ E) is situated 50 km
west of Agra and 180 km south of New Delhi.
The total area of the park is 29 sq. km, of which
8.5 sq. km is wetland. The water depth in the
aquatic area varies from 0-200 cm. The water
inside the park is drawn during monsoon every
year through a canal from Ajan bund, an
inundation reservoir situated half a kilometre
south of KNP. The Park dries up in May- June,
leaving some pools in the deeper area. Insects
were collected fortnightly between 0600 hrs and
1000 hrs from 23 stations, using an insect
sampler as described by Ali and V ijayan (1983).
Seasonal Abundance: The total number
of insects collected per litre of water were
recorded. The average number of insects
collected during each month is summarised in
Figs. 1 and 2. The general trend in population
fluctuation of beetles and bugs showed almost
the same pattern. They were more numerous
during the summer when the water availability
in KNP was less. Their numbers were minimum
during the winter and the monsoon, when the
availability of water was more. However, the
species composition showed wide fluctua-
tions during different seasons within a year and
between the years. A significant negative corre-
lation was noticed with water depth (r = - 0.713,
p < 0.001). The availability of insects in the park
showed a significant negative relation with water
depth and dissolved oxygen. Both CO, and Methyl
orange alkalinity showed a significant positive
relation (Vijayan, 1991).
During summer, the aquatic area of the
park dries up, leaving small puddles. The peak
in the availability of insects during summer was
mainly due to their aggregation in these puddles.
Smaller species like Canthydrus laetabilis and
Plea sp. survived in the puddles in large numbers.
484
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3) DEC. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Table 1
BUGS AND BEETLES RECORDED IN THE PARK
(Note: * = Common, ** = Not common and *** = Rare)
Larger species left the puddles for crevices in
the mud, and also beneath the dry thick
vegetation in the aquatic area.
Refe
Ali, S. & V.S. Vijayan (1983): Hydrological (Ecological)
Research Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, First
Interim report, Bombay Natural History Society,
Bombay.
Ali, S. & V.S. Vijayan (1986): Keoladeo National Park
Ecological study summary Report 1980-1985.
One of the factors determining the
abundance of insects was recruitment from
outside the Park (Ajan bund) during monsoon.
Gerris spinolae, Anisops cavifrons , Cy bis ter
limbatus larvae were collected along with the
water from Ajan bund. Another factor
determining insects in the Park appears to be
related to the fluctuations in the biomass of
aquatic macrophytes. The peak in the availability
of aquatic insects seemed to be associated with
the aquatic plants (Vijayan, 1991). Similar
association was also reported by Tonapi and
Ozarkar (1969) and Roy (1982).
Acknowledgements
This report is part of the long-term
ecological study undertaken by the Bombay
Natural History Society, sponsored by the
Department of Environment and Forests, Govt,
of India and financed by the US Fish and
Wildlife Service through a PL - 480 scheme. I
am greatly indebted to Dr. V.S. Vijayan, Project
Scientist, for his valuable guidance and con-
stant encouragement. I also thank Dr. Ipe M.
Ipe, and other staff members of School of
Entomology St. John’s College, Agra; all the
staff members of Division of Entomology IARI,
New Delhi and experts of Commonwealth
Institute of Entomology, London for help in the
identification.
January 11, 1999 M. JOHN GEORGE
Mar Thoma College for Women
Perumbavoor,
Ernakulam 683 542,
Kerala, India.
ENCES
Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.
Mahajan, C.L., Sharma & N.K. Arora (1982) Benthic
fauna in a Wetland Ecosystem (Ghana Bird
Sanctuary, Bharatpur) subjected to drought areas.
In: Wetlands Ecology and Management (Part II).
International Scientific Publications and National
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3), DEC. 1999
485
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Institute of Ecology, pp 145-148.
Roy, S.P. ( 1 982): Seasonal variations and species diversity
of aquatic Coleoptera in a freshwater pond at
Bhagalpur, India. Oriental Ins. 16(1): 55-62.
Tonapi, G.T. & V.A. Ozarkar (1969): A study on the
aquatic Coleoptera of Poona (Maharashtra). J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 66(3): 533-538.
Vijayan, V.S. (1991): Keoladeo National Park Ecology
Study, Final Report, 1980-1990. Bombay Natural
History Society, Bombay.
24. CONGREGATION OF COMMON CROW EUPLOEA CORE BUTTERFLIES
AT B ANNERGHATTA NATIONAL PARK
Some adult danaids like Danaus limniace,
D. chrysippus, and Euploea core have been
observed to feed on Heliotropium indicum
(Amladi, 1975) and Crotalaria retusa
(Chaturvedi & Satheesan, 1979) to acquire
pyrrolizidine alkaloids contained in them.
Trichodesma (Chaturvedi, 1994) and
Paracaryum coelestinum (Haribal, 1992) were
subsequently added to this list.
In Bannerghatta National Park, 25 km
from Bangalore city, Lantana camara and
Chromolaena odorata grow profusely in many
parts of the park. These plants were cleared
along the main road leading into the park,
both by cutting down branches and by uprooting
them and leaving them along the roadside.
I visited the National Park twice, on
August 23 and August 30, 1998, and on both
occasions it had rained the previous evening and
through the night.
On both days many Common Crow
Euploea core butterflies were noticed
congregating only on dry roots of Chromolaena
odorata and not on those of Lantana. However,
none of the other Danaids were seen doing so,
though the Striped Tiger Danaus genutia and
the Dark Blue Tiger D. melissa were seen in the
area (except possibly for the Double-banded Crow
Euploea coreta, a forewing of which was found
in the vicinity).
In the past, I have noticed many danaids
visiting Heliotropium spp. and Crotalaria. It is
for the first time that I have seen a congregation
of Common Crow on the exposed roots of
Chromolena odorata.
Is it possible that Euploea core acquire
some alkaloids from the roots of Chromolaena
odorata like they do by visiting Heliotropium
indicum and other plants?
January 19, 1999 S. KARTHIKEYAN
24, Opp. Banashankari Temple,
8th Block Jayanagar P. O.
Bangalore 560 082, India.
Editor’s note: The author’s assumption is
correct. Males of many danaine butterflies including
members of Euploea are strongly attracted to withered
or damaged plants of Asteraceae, to which they apply
fluid by means of their proboscids and reimbibe it
with dissolved pyrrolizidine (PAs). These PAs in
danaine butterflies serve a dual function: as male
pheromone precursors and as protective chemicals. It
has also been reported that females are also attracted
to PA plants and PAs have been observed in females
of several danaines. It may be useful to census the sex
of adults of Euploea core aggregating in Chromalaena
odorata to find out if females are also attracted to the
damaged plants, for females are supposed to gather
PAs from nectar of flowers of Asteraceae and
Boraginaceae.
References
Amladi, S.R. (1975): Danaid Butterflies attracted to
Heliotropium indicum (Boraginaceae), an alkaloid
containing plant. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72(2):
585-587.
Chaturvedi, N. & S.M. Satheesan (1979): Attraction of
Butterflies to Crotalaria retusa (Papilionaceae) at
Khandala, W. Ghats. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 76:
534-535.
Haribal, Meena (1992): The Butterflies of Sikkim
Himalaya and their Natural History. Sikkim Na-
ture Conservation Foundation (SNCF), Gangtok,
Sikkim.
486
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(3) DEC. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
25. DISTRIBUTION AND ECOLOGY OF POLYURA AGRARIA SWINHOE
(LEPIDOPTERA : NYMPHALIDAE) IN INDIA
The taxon Polyura agraria Swinhoe was
treated as a form of Polyura athamas Drury until
its elevation to species rank by Smiles (1982).
Evans (1932) treated it as Polyura athamas
agrarius Swinhoe from south India, while the
north Indian population of agraria was placed
under athamas athamas , with the qualification
that it was very variable. Subsequent authors also
followed this arrangement.
P. agraria can be distinguished from
P. athamas by the more acute apex of the
forewing, the broader pale area and the two sub-
apical pale spots on the forewing. Larsen (1987)
notes that agraria is smaller and paler than
athamas. While it may appear paler due to the
broader pale area, males of agraria may be
marginally smaller than the average athamas,
but many small athamas are smaller than
agraria. Larsen {op. cit.) also notes that in some
areas, it is more difficult to separate the two than
in the Nilgiris.
As a result of the taxonomic confusion,
there is not much information available on the
distribution, habits and habitat preferences of P.
agraria. According to D’Abrera (1985), the
global distribution of agraria is over most of the
Oriental Region, to Java, Sulawesi and the Flores
and that of athamas , also over most of the
Oriental Region, from India to the Philippines
and Java.
Within India, agraria is known from the
Western Ghats southwards from Maharashtra
(Gaonkar, 1996), the Nilgiri Hills (Larsen, 1987),
the Nagari Hills of the Eastern Ghats north of
Chennai (Madras) (Alan Sharman, in litt .), Kulu
(Smiles, op. cit.) and from Kumaon in the
Himalaya (pers . obs.). Its appearance in the last
two localities, together with its extralimital
distribution, can be interpreted to mean that this
insect also occurs in Nepal, the eastern Himalaya
and northeast India, though there do not seem to
be any records so far. Given its resemblance to
athamas and the confusion of the past, this is
not surprising and there is every likelihood that
a thorough investigation will reveal the presence
of this butterfly. Larsen’s observation that these
two species are more difficult to separate in some
areas might have special reference to the eastern
Himalaya.
Polyura athamas , which seems to be
sympatric, is also found in Gujarat (Gaonkar op.
cit.) and in Sri Lanka, where agraria has not
been found so far. In the Himalaya, both athamas
and agraria have been recorded as far west as
Kulu in Himachal Pradesh.
Larsen {op. cit. ) notes that agraria seems
to be rare in the Nilgiris, even at low elevation.
He obtained only three of them out of well over a
hundred athamas sightings. The three agraria
were recorded from Kallar, at 457 m above msl.
The Nagari Hills north of Chennai, where
agraria was also recorded, do not rise above 1 000
m elevation.
In Kumaon, it appears to be well established
in the Terai, around 450 m above msl where I have
recorded it in October. There are two records from
1500 m near Bhimtal in Nainital dist. where it is a
rare straggler. Both the records are from April in
different years. Therefore, it seems to be bivoltine
in northern India.
P. athamas seems to have a wider altitudinal
distribution. It is found from low elevation to 1900
m in the hills of south India and up to 2700 m
above msl in the Himalaya (Wynter-Blyth, 1957).
P. athamas is as common up to 1 500 m above msl
as it is in lower hills while agraria does not seem
to be established in the hills.
It follows that although athamas is known
to breed in the hills, where I have recorded it in
April and from June to October agraria does not,
given its scarcity at 1500 m above msl and the
tattered condition of the two specimens recorded.
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(3). DEC. 1999
487
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
further prove that they are merely stragglers from
lower elevations.
Wynter-Blyth (op. cit.) records eleven
confirmed larval host plants of athamas, all
belonging to Leguminosae. Given the recent
distinction of agraria, it must be clarified
whether both species feed on the same plants or
whether some of the eleven recorded host plants
are exclusively fed upon by either species.
Both species evidently like warm areas in
regions of heavy rainfall, with athamas also
colonising regions of moderate rainfall such as
Gujarat. P. agraria seems to be essentially a low
elevation species, while athamas is more flexible.
Both species have been recorded at over-ripe fruit
and faeces (pers. obs.) and there is every
likelihood that agraria will also be attracted to
other decomposing substances favoured by the
genera Charaxes Ochsenheimer and Polyura
Billberg, including P. athamas. Wet sand will
probably prove an attractant, as it is to other
members of the genus.
Other behaviour of agraria seems to be the
same as athamas , e.g. aggressive territoriality
in males, rapid flight, and the fondness for
basking on prominent perches.
Larsen (op. cit.) proposes the trivial name
Anomalous Common Nawab for P. agraria.
Given its relative scarcity, the ‘Common’ is
misleading, so it would be best to drop it leaving
‘Anomalous Nawab’. It seems the ‘Common’
was retained to imply its close relation with the
Common Nawab P. athamas, but this relationship
is in any case so obvious that it hardly requires
to be included in the trivial name.
In conclusion, I would like to point out
that although P. agraria appears to be scarce in
certain localities, the main reason that so little
is known about it is that it has been overlooked
among the commoner P. athamas. It is not in
any sense ‘threatened’, ‘endangered’ or on the
verge of extinction.
Acknowledgement
I am grateful to the anonymous referee for
picking out the flaws in the paper.
May 18, 1999 PETER SMETACEK
Jones Estate,
P.O. Bhimtal, Nainital,
Uttar Pradesh 263 136, India.
References
D’Abrera, B. (1985) Butterflies of the Oriental Region,
Part 2, Nym. Sat. & Amat., Hill House, Victoria.
Evans, W.H. (1932): The identification of Indian
Butterflies, 2nd ed., Bombay Natural History Society,
Bombay.
Larsen, T.B. (1987): The Butterflies of the Nilgiri
Mountains of Southern India, J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 84(3): 560-584.
Smiles, R.L. (1982): The Taxonomy and Phylogeny of the
Genus Polyura, Bull. Brit. Mus. Nat. Hist. (Ent.)
44(3): 1 16-237.
Gaonkar, H. (1996): Butterflies of the Western Ghats.
India, including Sri Lanka. Indian Institute of
Science, Bangalore.
Wynter-Blyth, M.A. (1957): Butterflies of the Indian
Region, Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.
26. NEW RECORD OF AN ARCTIC SPECIES HOLOPEDIUM GIBBERUM
ZADDACH (CRUSTACEA : CLADOCERA) FROM CHHANGU LAKE, SIKKIM
(With three text-figures)
The family Holopedidae is so far known two species, Holopedium gibberum and
to occur only in the mountain lakes of Europe H. amazonicum have been recorded so far. The
and North America. From this family only occurrence of Holopedium gibberum Zaddach in
488
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3) DEC. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Figs. 1-3: Holopedium gibberum, female: 1. lateral view; 2. antenna; 3. postabdomen.
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3), DEC. 1999
489
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
the lakes of Sikkim is a new record for Asia.
A survey of zooplankton was conducted by
one of us (BNR) in Chhangu lake, East Sikkim
from July 1993 to July 1995. Collections were
made at frequent intervals and the water and
plankton samples were analysed for physico-
chemical parameters and zooplankton
biodiversity. The present species was collected
from Chhangu lake, 38 km from Gangtok, East
Sikkim. The size of the lake is 91,393.5 sq.m, at
an altitude of 3,779 m above msl. The physico-
chemical parameters of the lake water are as
follows: pH 6. 1-6.8; dissolved oxygen 3.75-8.6
mg/1; calcium 0.802-2.204 mg/1; sodium 0.007-
0.022 mg/1; potassium 0.006-0.22 mg/1; nitrate
0.467-1.375 jng/1 ; phosphate 0.13-1.180 mg/1
and total solids 32.592-116.875 mg/1.
Holopedium gibber um Zaddach 1855
Material Examined: Seven females from
Chhangu lake, May 1995, coll. B.N. Roy, East
Sikkim.
Female: Body size 1.247±0.03 mm
(without gelatinous mantle). Ventral margin of
valves with fine spines. Six pairs of foliaceous
legs. Head small, enclosing a small compound
eye (Fig. 1). Antennule small, situated ventrally.
Rostrum absent. Antennae long, biramous and
almost twice the size of the body (Fig. 2).
Postabdomen elongated and tapering, anal spines
numerous, up to 20 (Fig. 3). Claws setulated
along the concave surface with one basal spine.
Remarks: The species of the genus
Holopedium are enclosed in a large gelatinous
Refer
Hamilton, J.D. (1958): On the biology of Holopedium
gibberum Zaddach (Crustacea : Cladocera). Verh.
int. Verein. theor. angew. Limnol. 13: 785-788.
Michael, R.G. & B.K. Sharma (1988): Fauna of India,
Indian Cladocera (Crustacea : Branchiopoda :
Cladocera). Ed. Director, Zoological Survey of
mantle, which is shed during ecdysis but
regenerated within two hours (Hamilton, 1958).
They are known to swim ventral side up, an
adaptation mainly necessary to trap the
suspended organic matter present in the water
column. H. gibberum has been found by other
workers mostly in waters with not more than 20
and often less than 10 mg/1 calcium++ (Hamilton,
1958; Thienemann, 1926; Smyly, 1968) and this
is also found true in the present study where the
calcium levels of the lake water were very low
(2.204 mg/1).
Michael and Sharma (1988) have reported
eight families from India. The present study adds
one more family and the total number of families
of Cladocera of India now increases to nine.
Except for China (nine families), all the
neighbouring countries of India have only six
families each.
We thank the Director, ZSI, Calcutta and
the Officer-in-charge, MBS, ZSI, Chennai for
the facilities provided.
January 13, 1998 K. VENKATARAMAN
Zoological Survey of India,
1 00, Santliome High Road,
Chennai 600 028,
Tamil Nadu, India.
B.N. ROY
M.P.THAPA
Department of Zoology,
Sikkim Government College,
Tadong, Gangtok 737102,
Sikkim, India.
ENCES
India, Calcutta. 262 pp.
Smyly, W.J.P. ( 1 968): Observations on the planktonic and
profundal Crustacea of the lakes of the English Lake
District, / Anim. Ecol. 37: 693-708.
Thienemann, A. (1926): Holopedium gibberum in Holstein.
Z. Morph. Okol. Tiere. 5: 755-776.
490
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(3) DEC. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
27. NEW RECORD OF A PATELLID GASTROPOD AMATHINA TRICARINATA
(LINN.) (GASTROPODA : AMATHINIDAE) FROM THE COASTAL WATERS
OF DIGHA, WEST BENGAL
During a study of marine invertebrates
from the coastal waters of Digha, we collected a
single specimen of Amathina tricarinata (Linn.)
from the outer surface of a living pearl oyster
shell.
In their account of molluscan fauna of
West Bengal, Subba Rao et al (1992) do not
mention this patellid gastropod from this area.
A brief description of the species is given below.
Family: Amathinidae
Amathina tricarinata (Linnaeus)
1767. Patella tricarinata Linnaeus., Syst.
Nat. (ed 12): 1250.
Diagnostic characters: Shell solid, dull,
roughly oval in outline, narrower posteriorly;
protoconch heterostrophic; apex with 3 strong,
rounded and occasionally scaly ribs radiating to
the anterior edge where they project slightly; low,
wavy, axial ribs occupy posterior slope.
Colour: Pale yellow.
Morphometric measurements: Length:
20 mm, diameter: 15 mm, height: 6 mm.
Distribution: india: Andaman & Nicobar
Islands, Orissa, Tamil Nadu. Digha (West Ben-
gal) is now a new locality of the species. Else-
where: Persian Gulf, Gulf of Oman.
Material examined: 1 ex. Digha mohana;
coll. J. Sarkar & S. Talukdar, 17.ii.97, Regn. No.
1892.
Acknowledgement
We thank Dr. J.R.B. Alfred, Director, Zoo-
logical Survey of India for facilities.
October 6, 1998 J. SARKAR
Marine Aquarium & Research Centre,
Zoological Survey of India,
Digha, Midnapore 721 428, W. Bengal.
S. TALUKDAR
RAMAKRISHNA
A. DEY
Zoological Survey of India,
‘M’ Block, New Alipore,
Calcutta 700 053, India.
Reference
Subba Rao, N.V., A. Dey & S. Barua (1992): Estuarine and marine Molluscs. State Fauna Series 3. Fauna of West
Bengal. Pt 9: 129-268, 3 pic.
28. A NEW SITE RECORD FOR RAP ANA BULBOSA (DILLWYN)
During a survey of molluscan fauna along
the Alibag coast (Raigad dist., Maharashtra), I
collected a specimen of Rapana bulbosa. Initially
I thought it was an accidental occurrence, but
during subsequent visits I have observed more
live specimens on the same beach which confirm
the occurrence.
Locality: Sasvane (Alibag, Maharashtra).
Description: Size 75 mm, large, thick and
heavy shell. Shape globose. Spires low and
grooved. Surface finely striated with weakly
developed or blunt spines. Siphonal canal very
short.
Colour: Chestnut.
Habitat: Sandy or rocky shore, also in
coral sand in mesolittoral zone.
Distribution: The species has been
previously reported from both the west and
east coast but there are no records of the
species from Maharashtra in the available
JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(3), DEC. 1999
491
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
literature. It is also recorded from Philippines,
Japan, China, Persian Gulf, Aden, Pakistan, Sri
Lanka and Hong Kong.
August 5, 1998 DEEPAK APTE
Bombay Natural History Society
Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road,
Mumbai 400 023, India.
29. FICUS SUPERB A MIQ. AND F. FERGUSONI (KING) WORTHINGTON
(MORACEAE), TWO NEW REPORTS FROM INDIA
( With two text- figures )
Ficus (Moraceae) is one of the largest plant
genera of the tropics which enjoys a cosmopolitan
distribution. It includes an estimated 900-950
species (750 known) in 4 subgenera viz.
Urostigma (Gasp.) Miq. Pharmacosycea Miq.,
Sycomorus (Gasp.) Miq and Ficus (Corner,
1965). India has a Ficus flora of 59 spp. (Corner,
1967). Two more species, Ficus superba Miq.
and F.fergusoni (King) Worthington belonging
to the subgenus Urostigma are now reported from
India.
Ficus superba Miq., Ann. Mus. Lugd. Bot.
iii - 287, 1867. PI. Jungh. 46; fl. Ind. Bot. I, pt. 2
- 334. (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1: Ficus superba Miq., a. leafy twigs
b. cluster of figs
Large glabrous stranglers, without aerial
roots, up to a height of ca 20-25 m.; leaves in
alternate helix, towards the tip of 0.5-0. 7 cm wide
twigs; stipules short, blunt, villous and caducous;
petiole 5-9 cm long, always longer than the width
of the lamina; lamina elliptic, acutely acuminate
at apex, acumen 0.8-1 cm long, obtuse at base,
10-25 x 5.8 cm, dark green, glabrous, slightly
coriaceous, entire, slightly undulating on the
margin, 3 ribbed at the base, 8- 1 0 pairs of lateral,
slender, prominent nerves, middle ones at an
angle of 60-80° to the midrib, brochidodromous,
tertiaries percurrent, forked and convex. Figs in
cauliflorous clusters of 2-6 (Fig. lb), usually
produced on short, perennial tubercles (small
lateral shoots) borne on the older twigs well below
the node, pedunculate, peduncle 0.5- 1.0 cm,
globose, 1.0- 1.2 cm when ripe, green with pale
spots in early stages, creamy white with pink
spots in phase D and turning purple and
becoming succulent in phase E; basal bracts 3,
triangular and deciduous; male flowers ostiolar,
sessile, monandrous, with double anther sacs and
perianth of 3 tepals fused at the base.
Status: Indigenous, rare.
Distribution: Japan, China, Southeast
Asia to Australia.
Exsiccates: HZDC (Herbarium, Dept, of
Zoology, University of Calicut) - 1/1, Kerala,
Palghat, Shornur, coll. DRP. 6.ii. 1991 ; HZDC -
1/2, Kerala, Wynaad, Vaithiri, coll. DRP.
7. v. 1991; HZDC - 1/3, Kerala, University of
Calicut, coll. DRP. 8.iii. 1 993.
F. fergusoni (King) Worthington, Ceylon
trees f. 407. 1959; Corner, Gard. Bull. Singapore
21: 14. 1968.
492
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(3) DEC. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Ficus altissima Blume var. fergusoni
King. Ann. R. Bot. Gard. Calcutta 1: 31, pi. 31,
1887; Trimen, Hand b. FI. Ceylon 4 : 87, 1898.
(Fig. 2).
Fig. 2: Ficus fergusoni (King) Worthington;
leafy twig with figs
Large, spreading, glabrous tree with many
aerial roots. Leaves in helix on 0.5-0. 8 cm wide
twigs; stipulate lanceolate, acuminate, 1.5-2 cm
long; petiole stout, 3-5 cm long; lamina thickly
coriaceous, elongate - elliptic, acuminate at apex,
obtuse at base, 8-18 x 6-9 cm, entire, 3 ribbed at
base with 8-10 pairs of lateral nerves, those
towards the middle at an angle of 50-70° to the
midrib, anastomosing submarginally. Figs
sessile, paired in the leaf axils towards the tip,
ellipsoid, 15-20 cm long, early stages not
enveloped in calypteriform bracts, pale green in
phase A-C, reddish yellow in phase D and orange
red in phase E; male flowers dispersed,
pedicellate, perianth of 4 tepals; gall and female
flowers with gamophyllous perianth.
Status: Naturalised (?), rare
Distribution: endemic to Sri Lanka.
Exsiccate: HZDC - III/l Kerala, Trivan-
drum, Ponmudi, coll. DRP, 9.x. 1990.
Note: This is the first report of this species
outside Sri Lanka.
Acknowledgements
I thank Dr. C.C. Berg, Norwegian
Arboretum, Store Milde, Norway, for help in
identifying the specimens; Prof. N. Ravi,
Scientist Emeritus, TBG & RI, Thiruvanan-
thapuram, Kerala, for kindly reviewing the
manuscript and Prof. U.C. Abdurahiman,
Department of Zoology, University of Calicut,
Kerala, for constant encouragement. I also thank
University of Calicut, Kerala for financial
assistance.
March 4, 1999 D.R. PRIYADARSANAN
Department of Zoology.
University of Calicut,
Kerala, India 673 635.
Present address: A TREE, II. 4th Main,
MSH layout, Anand Nagar,
Bangalore 560 024, India.
References
Corner, E.J.H. (1965): Checklist of Ficus in Asia and Corner, E.J.H. (1967): Ficus in Solomon Islands and its
Australasia with keys to identification. Gdns’ Bull. bearing on the post-Jurassic history of Melanesia.
Singapore 21: 1-186. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London (B) 253: 23-159.
30. CASSINE BALAE KOSTERM. — NEW TO THE CELASTRACEAE OF INDIA
( With a text-figure )
Cassine balae , described as a new species material which was earlier retained as a part of
from Ceylon by Kostermans (1986) based on Elaeodendron glaucum (Rottb.) Pers. (= Cassine
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3), DEC. 1999
493
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
]
mm
Fig. 1: Cassine balae Kosterm: A. Twig; B. Flower.
494
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3) DEC. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
glauca (Rottb.) Kuntze ( vide nomenclatural
citations; also vide Kostermans 1986: 181-185)
and reportedly endemic to Sri Lanka is added to
the Indian flora from the Gulf of Mannar coast
in Tamil Nadu. The interpolation of Roxb., PI.
Coromandel 2: 2. 1799, after the misapplied name
Cassine glauca by Kostermans (1986) in the
nomenclatural citations, however, is inadvertent.
As an explanation for the asterisk at Schrebera
swietenioides in the footnote, Roxburgh (1799)
inter alia stated that Schrebera albens Retz.
( Celastrus glaucus Vahl) is a species of
Elaeodendrum, which does not constitute valid
publication of the combination (Art. 33.1).
A detailed description is provided as also
an illustration. Notes are added on the phenology,
habitat, probable route of entry among others.
Cassine balae Kosterm. In Gard. Bull.
Singapore 39: 185. 1986. - Type: Sri Lanka
Habantotta, along the coast, Sept., fr., Coll.
Balasubramaniam 2213 (AAU, K, L holotype).
Trincomalee, Jan. 1940, Coll. T.B. Worthington
742 (PDA paratype, photocopy!).
Elaeodendron glaucum auct. non (Rottb.)
Pers. 1805: Roxb., FI. Ind. 2: 639. 1832, excl.
syns. Mangifera glauca Rottb. 1783, Celastrus
glaucus (Rottb.) Vahl 1791 & Schrebera albens
Retz. 1791 (as ‘ Elaeodendrum ’); Voigt, Hort,
Suburb. Calcut. 167. 1845, p.p., quoad cit.
Ceylon; Lawson in Hook, f., FI. Brit. India 1:
623. 1875, p.p., quoad cit. Ceylon; Trimen,
Handb. FI. Ceylon 1: 271. 1893, p.p.
Bushy shrub, c 1.5 m high, glabrous;
branches many, slender; bark furrowed. Leaves
simple, opposite, ovate or elliptic-oblong, cuneate
at base, deeply serrate with pungent serrations
along margins, acute or obtuse-subacute at apex,
3-7 x 1 .5-4 cm, coriaceous, glabrous, dark green;
lateral nerves 5-7 (up to 9) on each side,
prominent; petioles 0.4-1 cm long, glossy;
stipules minute, scaly. Panicles axillary, loose,
c. 4x4 cm; cymes dichotomous, few-flowered;
peduncles slender, 1-2 cm long; bracts and
bracteoles minute, subulate; pedicles filiform,
c. 3 mm long. Sepals 5, broadly ovate, obtuse at
apex, c. 1 mm long, green, valvate. Petals 5,
oblong, obtuse at apex, concave, c 3 mm long,
pale green, valvate. Stamens 5; filaments short,
c. 1 mm long, inserted in disk, curved down when
mature; anthers globose. Ovary immersed in
cushion-like disk; style short, conical, stigma
simple. Drupes oblong, c. 2 cm long, greenish.
FI. & Fr.: January - ?
Habitat: Coastal scrub jungle, on sandy
soil, under shade of Acacia planifrons trees; rare,
only about 10 plants seen.
Distribution: Sri Lanka and southern India
(Tamil Nadu).
Notes: The Sri Lanka plant is a tree, up to
20 m tall and up to 90 cm dbh, older trees massive
and the leaves shallowly and remotely serrate.
However, under Note Kostermans (1986 : 186)
stated that in northeast Sri Lanka on dunes and
sterile sandy coastal areas, the plant is a many-
short-boled bushy shrub. Its leaves are sharply
serrated along margins, and he never saw it in
flower. The Indian plant has similar habit and
leaves. It was also found to occur in a sterile sandy
coastal area under the shade of Acacia planifrons
trees which are almost ubiquitous throughout the
Gulf of Mannar coast in Tamil Nadu. Despite
our continuous monitoring for almost three years,
we managed to collect material in flower and
fruit only once. The factors that govern flowering
and fruiting in this habitat on either side of the
Gulf of Mannar need further investigation.
The putamen splits into two halves after a
prolonged period of soaking and rotting
(Kostermans, 1986). The fruits are green to boot,
and unlikely to be picked up by birds, so the seeds
might have reached the Indian shores by
seawater. That the plant might have reached
India through a human agency (the Tamil
refugees from Sri Lanka) may not be ruled out.
Specimens examined: India. Tamil Nadu,
Ramanathapuram dist . , Mandapam Camp,
CMFRI Campus, under Acacia planifrons trees,
on loose sandy soil, 1 0.i. 1 996, P. Daniel & P.
Umamaheshwari 106696 (MH). Kalpituya, Jan.
1882, C.D. Vigros s.n. (PDA photocopy!).
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3), DEC 1999
495
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Acknowledgements June 13, 1998
We thank the Director, BSI, Calcutta, for
facilities and Dr. U. Dhanasekera, Curator
(PDA), for confirming the identity of our material
and sending photocopies of a paratype and the
other specimen cited. The junior authors thank
the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt,
of India, for a fellowship.
P. DANIEL
U. UMAMAHESWARI
K. SAMP ATH KUMAR
Botanical Survey of India,
Southern Circle,
Coimbatore 641 003,
Tamil Nadu ,
India.
Kostermans, A.J.G.H. ( 1 986): Notes on Asiatic Cassine L. (Celastraceae). Gcird. Bull. Singapore 39: 177-191.
31. OCCURRENCE OF GONIOPHLEBIUM AMOENUM (WALL. EX METT.) J.SM. IN BIHAR
While exploring the flora of Singhbhum
dist., Bihar during 1993-94, we collected a
specimen of Goniophlebium amoenum (Wall, ex
Mett.) J.Sm. at Meghahatuburu (1200 m above
msl). A critical review of the existing literature
(Haines 1924; Mooney 1950; Chowdhury 1973
and Dixit 1984) reveals that this species has not
so far been recorded from the state and is being
reported for the first time.
Goniophlebium amoenum (Wall, ex
Mett.) J.Sm. in Hook. Gen. Fil. t.5 1 . 1 840; Bedd.
Ferns Brit. India t. 5. 1965; Handb. Ferns Brit.
India 317. 1883. Polypodium amoenum Wall, ex
Mett. Abh. Senckneb. Naturf. Ges. 2: 80.1857.
Lamina devoid of stellate hairs, glabrous
or sparsely scaly, simple to pinnate. Veins
forming regular rows of areoles along either sides
of costae, free outwards, included veinlets
solitary, simple, lamina pinnatisect, lowest pair
R EFE
of pinnules slightly reduced, deflexed
downwards; rachis sparsely scaly on ventral
surfaces; sori at the tip of included veinlets,
biseriate along the costae.
The plant was an epiphyte as well as rarely
growing on the forest floor.
Specimen examined: Bihar, Singhbhum
district, Meghahatuburu (1200 m), S.N. Basu.
The specimen is deposited in the Department of
Botany, Ranchi University, Ranchi.
June 13, 1998 S.N. BASU
I. GOPE
Kendriya Vidyalaya,
P.O. Tatanagar, Jamshedpur 83 J 002.
USHA PRASAD
P.G. Department of Botany,
Jamshedpur Co-operative College,
Jamshedpur, Bihar.
ENCES
Haines, H.H. (1924): The Botany of Bihar and Orissa, Vol. Chowdhury, N.P. (1973): The Pteridophyte Flora of the
III, Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta. Upper Gangetic Plain, Navayug Traders, New Delhi.
Mooney, H. (1950): Supplement to the Botany of Bihar Dixit, R.D. (1984): A Census of the Indian Pteridophytes.
and Orissa, Catholic Press, Ranchi. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta.
32. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF UTRICULARIA BRACHIATA OLIVER
(LENTIBULARIACEAE) IN GARHWAL HIMALAYA
( With one text-figure)
During routine plant collections from collected a few specimens of the genus
remote localities of Garhwal Himalaya, we Utricularia from Rudranath area, Chamoli dist.
496
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3 ) DEC. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Fig. 1 : A. flowering plant, B. flower, C. flower partially dissected to show stamen and carpel,
D. bracts and bracteoles, E. stamen and carpel, F. carpel from different angles, G. traps.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3), DEC. 1999
497
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
After a thorough checking of the specimens at
the herbarium of Forest Research Institute, Dehra
Dun and study of recent literature on Indian
Utricularia (Janarthanam and Henry 1992;
bladderworts of india) they proved to be the
extremely rare species U. brachiata Oliver,
hitherto unrecorded from Western Himalaya.
The species was considered as endemic to
the Eastern Himalaya 2400 m above msl and was
described from Sikkim by Oliver, with one sheet
having three specimens collected in 1849. Later
it was collected from Zemu Valley of Sikkim in
1909 and from Suburkum, West Bengal in 1906.
After these collections, the species has not been
collected from Indian territory. It is meagrely
represented in herbaria (Janarthanam and Henry
1 992). The present collection of this species from
Garhwal Himalaya is of phytogeographical
interest, and indicates the range of variation in
its morphology. The stamens and pistil are
described and drawn here for the first time.
A short description of the species, and
illustrations have been provided to facilitate
further collection and easy identification. The
voucher specimens are deposited in the
Herbarium of the Department of Botany, H.N.B.
Garhwal University, Srinagar, U.P., India (GUH)
and Central National Herbarium, Calcutta.
(CAL).
Utricularia brachiata Oliver in J. Proc.
Linn. Soc. Bot. 3: 189. 1859; Clarke in Hook. f.
FI. Brit. India 4: 333. 1884; Smith and Cave in
Rec. Bot. Surv. India 4: 230. 191 1; Smith in Rec.
Bot. Surv. India 12: 117. 1938; Basak in Bull.
Bot. Surv. India 17: 105. 1975 (1978); Taylor in
Hara et al ., Enum. FI. PI. Nepal 3: 132. 1982;
Taylor in Kew. Bull. Add. Ser. 14: 462. 1989;
Janarthanam and Henry, Bladderworts of India
41. 1992.
Small, slender, delicate herb, 2. 0-5.0 cm
long, with a tuber at the base. Stolons spreading,
unbranched. Foliar organs 2-3, rosulate;
expanded portion ca. 2. 0-3.0 mm, orbicular.
Traps on stolons ovoid, mouth lateral with
radiating hairs. Racemes 1-2 flowered. Flowers
white with hairy yellow throat. Stamens 2, 1.0-
1.75 mm, attached very close to pistil on upper
lip; filament strap-shaped, usually obscurely
twisted; anther smaller than filaments, thecae
obscure, usually touching the stigma. Pistil equal
to stamen, 1. 5-2.0 mm; ovary ovoid, ovules
numerous on axile flask-shaped placenta; style
much reduced, thick; stigma bilipped, spreading,
larger lip oblong-ovate (Fig. 1A-G).
Flowering: July-August.
Distribution: Nepal, Bhutan, southwest
China. In India recorded from Arunachal
Pradesh, Sikkim, West Bengal. For the first time
collected from Western Himalaya (Garhwal) by
the authors.
Habitat: In the Himalaya, more'than
2,400 m above msl, epiphytic on moss covered
trunks; present collection from a moss covered,
moist, vertical rock face.
Material examined: india, Sikkim, Zemu
Valley, 23.vii.1909, Smith and Cave, 1733 (DD);
India, U.P. Garhwal Himalaya, Rudranath alpine
zone (Chamoli dist . ), 3300 m above msl
?.vii.l995 D.S. Rawat, 26201 (GUH).
ACKNOWLEDG EM ENTS
We thank Dr. M.K. Janarthanam, Goa
University and Dr. A.N. Henry, ex-Jt. Director
Southern Circle, BSI, Coimbatore for confirming
the identification, and the authorities of Forest
Research Institute, Dehra Dun for herbarium
facilities.
April 20, 1999 D.S. RAWAT
Department of Botany,
M.L.K. (PG) College,
Balarampur 271 201 ,
Uttar Pradesh , India.
R.D. GAUR
Department of Botany,
H.N.B. Garhwal University,
Srinagar (Garhwal) 246 174,
Uttar Pradesh,
India.
498
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3 ) DEC. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
33. A TAXONOMIC ACCOUNT OF ROBIQUETIA GAUD. (ORCHID ACEAE)
FROM BANGLADESH
( With two text-figures )
Robiquetia is an epiphytic Orchidaceous
genus of about 20 species, distributed in India,
southeast Asia, Malaysia, Solomons and Fiji
(Airy-Shaw 1973, Hunt and Grierson (1973).
Only two species R. succisa (Lindl.) Seidenf. &
Garay and R. spathulata (Bl.) J.J. Sm. have been
reported from India by Pradhan (1979). He
mentioned that R. succisa (Lindl.) Seidenf. &
Garay was also found in Bangladesh. Jayaweera
(1981) recorded four species from Sri Lanka. On
the other hand. Hooker ( 1 890) included the genus
under Saccolabium and reported R. succisa
(Lindl.) Seidenf. & Garay from the Sylhet area
now in Bangladesh. So far no systematic study
has been done on the genus in Bangladesh. The
present work is a study of this genus from
Bangladesh. One more species Robiquetia
spathulata (Bl.) J.J. Sm., is reported from
Bangladesh as a new record.
The preserved and living specimens are
housed in the Botany Department Herbarium and
Orchidarium respectively, at Chittagong
University, Chittagong, Bangladesh.
Key to the species of Robiquetia
1. Leaves 12.0-20.0 cm long and 3. 0-5.0 cm broad,
inflorescence regularly simple and ± 20.0 cm
long R. spathulata
I . Leaves 6. 5-9.0 cm long and 1 .0-2.0 cm broad,
inflorescence often branched and ± 1 0.0 cm long
R. succisa
Enumeration of the species
1. R. spathulata (Bl.) J.J. Smith. Smith,
J. J. Bull. Jard. Bot. Buitenzorg 2. Ser. 8. (1912),
In Pradhan, Ind. Orch., 2: 554 (1979). Syn.
Cleisostoma spathulatum Bl. Blume. C.L.
Bijdragen tot. de FI. van Nedert. Indie-Batavia.
434 (1825), In Pradhan, Ind. Orch., 2: 631
(1979); C. spicatum Lindl. in Bot. Reg. t. 32
(1847); Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind., 6: 72 (1890);
Grant, Orch. Burma, 311 (1895); Bruhl, Orch.
Sikkim, 138 (1926); Bose & Bhattacharjee, Orch.
Ind., 148 (1980); Saccolabium densiflorum
Lindl. Gen. & Sp. Orch., 220 (1833). (Fig. 1)
Inflorescence rarely branched and is one of
the long lasting inflorescences where flowers are
continuously blooming for about two months. The
species is very similar to Pradhan’s (1979)
descriptions and drawings. Flowers 8x8 mm
across, yellow with reddish-brown patches on the
outer side. Sepals subequal, broadly elliptic. Petals
connately obovate. Lip yellowish, adnate wholly
to sides of the column and ending in an
infundibular spur, dilated, compressed and 3-
notched at the apex; side lobes obscurely erose,
obtuse and rounded; midlobe thick, triangular-
ovate; interior of spur contracted at two points by
calli in front and back walls, the back wall callus
divided into 2 recurved teeth. Pollinia 2, 0.5 x 0.5
mm, globular, bipartite, attached with 2 mm long
slender strap and a small sagittate viscidium.
Stigmatic surface 0.5 x 0.5 mm. Capsule not found.
Flowering scape initiation: mid April.
FI.: Mid May-late July
Fr.: Unknown.
Geographical distribution: Throughout
Southeast Asia including Bangladesh.
Material examined: Cox’s Bazar dist.
Ramu, Dechua palong, 13.x. 1986 (collected at
vegetative stage, subsequently flowered next year,
cultured in Orchidarium), Mokter 56; Ukhia,
Kotopalong, 20.x. 1986, Mokter, 67.
2. R. succisa (Lindl.) Seidenf. & Garay.
Seidenfaden & Garay, Contrb. Orch. FI. Thai. 4.
Bot. Tidsskr. 67, (1972), In Pradhan, Ind. Orch.,
2: 553 (1979) Basionym of Lindl. Saccolabium
buccosum Reichb. f. in Gard. Cliron., 938 (1871);
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3), DEC. 1999
499
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Fig. 1: Robiquetia spathulata (Bl.) J.J. Sm.: (a) habit with inflorescence (x 1/2);
(b) flower from semi-side (x 2); (c) pedicellate ovary, column and lip from semi-side x 2);
(d) floral bract (x 3); (e) sepals, petals and lip spread out, column from inside (x 2); (f) pollinia (x 10);
(g) operculum from front (x 10); (h) operculum from inside (x 10).
500
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3) DEC 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
d V
Fig. 2: Robiquetia succisa (Lindl.) Seidenf. & Garay: (a) habit sketch with inflorescence (x 1);
(b) pedicellate ovary, column and lip from side (x 2); (c) floral bract (x 3);
(d) sepals, petals and lip spread out (x 3).
Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind., 6: 58 (1890); Bruhl, Orch.
Sikkim, 135 (1926); Bose & Bhattacharjee, Orch.
Ind., 472 (1980). (Fig. 2)
The species was collected by Moyeen from
Kaptai forest of Chittagong Hill Tracts,
Bangladesh, growing as an epiphyte on Tectona
grandis L. f. I carefully examined this single
specimen preserved in the herbarium of the
Botany Department, Chittagong University,
Chittagong, which closely matches Pradhan’s
(1979) description and drawings. Unfortunately,
I could not find the operculum and pollinia in
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3), DEC 1999
501
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
the dry specimen. Flowers yellowish-red. Sepals
subequal, broadly ovate. Petals slightly smaller
than sepals, cuneately obovate. Lip 3-lobed with
bottle-shaped spur at the base, apex of the spur
globose, didynamous; side lobes rounded and
midlobe oblong. Stigmatic surface 1 x 1 mm.
Capsule not seen.
FI.: Late June-late July
Fr.: Unknown.
Geographical distribution: India, Assam,
Sikkim, Bangladesh, Bhutan and Thailand.
Specimen examined: Chittagong Hill
Tracts (Ragamati); Kaptai, lO.ii. 1 98 1 (collected
at vegetative stage, subsequently flowered next
year, cultured in the Botanical garden,
Chittagong University, Chittagong, Bangladesh),
Moyeen 404.
April 22, 1998 MOKTER AHMED
M.K. PASHA
Department of Botany,
University of Chittagong,
Chittagong 433 1,
Bangladesh.
References
Airy-Shaw, H.K. (Ed.) 1 973: A Dictionary of the Flowering
Plants and Ferns by J.C. Willis (Ed.) 8. Cambridge
University Press, England, pp 1001 .
Blume, C.L. (1825): Bijdragen tot. de FI. Van Nedert. Indie-
Batavia. p. 434.
Bose, T.K. & S.K. Bhattacharjee (1980): Orchids of India,
Naya Prakash, Calcutta, India, pp. 148, 472.
Bruhl, P. (1926): A Guide to the Orchids of Sikkim. Calcutta
and Simla, Thacker, Spink & Co. pp. 1 53-138.
Grant, C.B. (1895): Orchids of Burma (including the
Andaman Islands). Hanthawady Press, Rangoon,
p. 31 1 .
Hooker, J.D. (1890): Flora of British India. 6: 58, 72, Reeve
& Co., Kent, England.
Hunt, P.F. & M.A. Grierson (1973): Orchidaceae. The
Bourton Press, London, p. 25.
Jayaweera, D.M.A. (1981): Orchidaceae. In:
Dassanayake, M.D. and F.R. Fosberg (eds). A
revised handbook to the flora of Ceylon 2.
Smithsonian Inst., and the Nat. Sci. Foundation,
Washington, D.C. by Amerind Publishing Co. Pvt.
Ltd. New Delhi, India, pp. 25 1 -258.
Pradhan, U.C. (1979): Indian Orchids: Guide to
Identification & Culture. 2: 552-554, 631. U.C.
Pradhan, Rishi Road, Kalimpong, India.
Seidenfadan, G. (1972): Contrb. Orch. FI. Thai. 4. Bot.
Tidsskr. 67.
Smith, J.J. (1912): Bull. Jard. Bot. Buitenzorg 2. Ser. 8.
34. BOLBOSCHOENUS PLANICULMIS (F. SCHMIDT) T. KOYAMA
(CYPERACEAE) — A NEW RECORD FOR SOUTH ASIA
FROM GUJARAT COAST
( With two text-figures)
While working on Cyperaceae specimens
from the West Coast of the country, two interesting
specimens were found labelled as Scirpus
maritimus L. var. affinis Clarke. As some striking,
superficial differences were found in these
specimens, a detailed study was made
and the specimens were subsequently identified
as Bolboschoenus planiculmis (Schmidt) Koyama
which is not yet reported from India and the
neighbouring countries, except from the Chinese
coast. A detailed description of the species along
with illustrations and distribution is given below.
Bolboschoenus planiculmis (F. Schmidt)
T. Koyama, FI. Taiwan 5: 207. 1978. Scirpus
planiculmis F. Schmidt, Reisen Amerlande U.
Ins. Sachalin 190, t. 8, f. 1-7. 1868; Koyama in
Journ. Fac. Sci. Univ. Tokyo 3, 7(6): 330, f. 13.
1958. Fig. 1.
Perennials with long stolons, 30-50 cm
high, stramineus when dry. Stolons slender, 1-
1.5 mm thick, covered by brownish sheaths,
ending in small tubers; tubers ovoid to
oblong-ellipsoid, 1 0- 1 2 x ca 3 mm, rooting and
producing new stems. Stems solitary from the
502
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3) DEC 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Fig. 1 : Bolboschoenus planiculmis (Schmidt) Koyama (A) Habit; (B) Spikelet; (C) Glume;
(D) Flower in later stage; (E) Stamen; (F) Nut.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3), DEC. 1999
503
4 mm
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
tuberous base, narrow, erect, trigonous with flat
sides, 1-2 mm thick in the middle portion, nodose
towards base, striate, glabrous, few-leaved in the
basal half. Leaves cauline, shorter than stem,
triangular, almost 3 -winged towards apex, linear,
acute at apex, 1.5-2 mm wide; basal leaves almost
bladeless; sheaths tightly closed, truncate at
mouth; ligule absent. Inflorescence a single
pseudolateral spikelet. Involucral bracts 1 or 2;
main bract erect, as if continuation of the stem,
trigonous, 7-15 cm long; smaller one 1.5-4. 5 cm
long, flat. Spikelets ovoid to broadly ovoid,
subacute at apex, 8-20 x 6-10 mm, ferrugineus,
densely flowered. Glumes scarious, broadly
ovate, emarginate at apex, ca 8 x 4-6 mm,
puberulous in the upper half; midrib very
prominent, extending to a long awn; side veins
0-4. Perianth bristles 4-6, slender, unequal,
shorter than or overtopping the nut, retrorsely
scabrous.
Stamens 3; filaments flat, hyaline, elongate
up to 8 mm; anthers linear, oblong-lanceolate,
with a prominent bristly connective appendage
at apex, 4-5 mm long. Style ca 4 mm long,
slightly narrowed to base; stigmas 2, 2.5-3 mm
long. Nuts planoconvex, broadly obovate, cuneate
to base, apiculate at apex, 3. 5-4.5 x 2.5-3 mm,
smooth, creamish-brown to blackish brown;
epidermal cells isodiametric, usually not clearly
visible in mature nuts.
FI. & Fr.: October
Habitat: Seashore.
Distribution: So far reported in East and
Far East Asia, from the coasts of China, Taiwan,
Korea, Japan (including Ryukyus Archipelago)
and Sakhalin. Therefore, its present report from
south Asia (Gujarat coast in western India) is
phytogeographically interesting.
Specimen examined: Aliahet-Hansot,
Gujarat, Toor 25817. 18.X.1957 (BSI).
According to Koyama (loc. cit),
Bolboschoenus planiculmis varies in the number
of spikelets and also in the shape and size of the
nuts, though it is clearly distinct from the
closely related, B. maritimus complex especially
to the subspecies affinis (Roth) Koyama. The
differences between these two taxa are based on
the Indian specimens available in BSI.
B. planiculmis can be distinguished easily
by its pseudolateral inflorescence of a single
B. maritimus ssp. dffinis (Roth) Koyama B. planiculmis (Schmidt) Koyama
Stolons thick and woody
Tubers stout, 10-25 x 6-9 mm.
Stems 2.5-6 mm thick near the base
(including the sheaths).
Leaves flat, 2.5-5 mm wide.
Inflorescence a terminal cluster of 2-6 sessile
spikelets, at times reduced to a single spikelet.
Involucral bracts 2-3, flat, foliaceous.
Glumes oblong-lanceolate, 7-10 x 2.5-3 mm;
side veins usually absent.
Perianth bristles shorter than the nut.
Staminal filaments elongate up to 6 mm;
anthers oblong, ca 2 mm long.
Style ca 2 mm long.
Nuts ca 2.5 x 2 mm.
Stolons slender, not woody
Tubers thin, 10-12 x ca 3 mm.
Stems 1 .5-3 mm thick near the base
(including the sheaths).
Leaves triangular, 1 .5-2 mm wide.
Inflorescence a single, pseudolateral spikelet.
Involucral bract 1 or 2; the main bract trigonous, looks
like continuation of the stem.
Glumes broadly ovate, ca 8 x 4-6 mm;
side veins 0-4.
Perianth bristles shorter than or overtopping the nut.
Staminal filaments elongate up to 8 mm; anthers linear
or oblong-lanceolate, 4-5 mm long.
Style ca 4 mm long.
Nuts 3. 5-4. 5 x 2.5-3 mm.
504
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 96(3 ) DEC. 1999
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
spikelet and triangular nature of the leaves and
the main bract. Slender stolons which are not
woody, also characterise the species. Moreover,
it is found only along seashores.
ACKNOWLEDG EM ENTS
We thank Dr. P.K. Hajra, Director,
Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta for facilities
and encouragement and Dr. Sri Krishna Murti,
Indian Liaison Officer at Royal Botanic Gardens,
Kew for literature.
March 18, 1998 V.P. PRASAD
N.P. SINGH
Botanical Survey of India,
Western Circle, Pune 41 1 001,
Maharashtra,
India.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 96(3), DEC 1999
505
ERRATA
Vol. 96, No. 1, April 1999, read the following graph
Fig. 2: Trends in the lion total counts in Gir between 1963 to 1995. The inset reports regression results for
log transformed total counts between 1 968 and 1 995
Vol. 96, No. 1, April 1999 p. 14 Acknowledgements:
The name of J.D. Nicholson was inadvertently omitted
THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS
(Price to members)
The Book of Indian Animals, by S.H. Prater, 4th edition (Reprint) Rs. 2 1 0 /-
The Book of Indian Birds, by Salim Ali, 1 2th edition rs 320/-
A Pictorial Guide to the Birds of the Indian Subcontinent,
by Salim Ali & S. Dillon Ripley, (Reprint with corrections) Rs. 278/-
Checklist of the Birds of Maharashtra, by Humayun Abdulali, 2nd edition Rs. 21-
The Book of Indian Reptiles, by J.C. Daniel (under revision)
Some Beautiful Indian Trees, by E. Blatter and W. Millard Rs. 2257-
Conservation in Developing Countries: Problems and Prospects,
Edited by J.C. Daniel and J.S. Serrao Rs. 300/-
A Week with Elephants-Proceedings of the International Seminar on Asian Elephants,
Edited by J.C. Daniel and Hemant Datye Rs. 338/-
A Guide to the Cranes of India, by Prakash Gole Rs. 60/-
Salim Ali’s India, Edited by A. Kothari and B.F. Chhapgar Rs. 900/-
Illustrated Flora of Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan,
by V.P. Prasad, Daniel Mason, Joy E. Marburger & C.R. Ajith Kumar Rs. 525/-
The Book of Indian Trees, by K.C. Sahni Rs. 210/-
The Book of Indian Shells, by Deepak Apte Rs. 225/-
Types of membership, fees and subscription for publications (As on April 1996)
Types of membership, fees and subscription for publications (As on April 1996)
Registered with the Registrar of Newspapers under RN 5685/57 ISSN 0006-6982
CONTENTS
EDITORIAL 363
STATUS OF VULTURES IN KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK, BHARATPUR,
RAJASTHAN, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO POPULATION CRASH
IN GYPS SPECIES /
( With six text-figures )
By Vibhu Prakash L 365
ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF MOTHS OF THE FAMILIES
SATURNIIDAE AND SPHINGIDAE IN SANJAY GANDHI NATIONAL
PARK, MUMBAI
( With five text-figures)
By V. Shubhalaxmi and Naresh Chaturvedi 379
STATUS OF DIURNAL RAPTORS OF CORBETT NATIONAL PARK WITH
NOTES ON THEIR ECOLOGY AND CONSERVATION
( With one map)
By Rishad Naoroji 387
SMALL CARNIVORES IN TWO PROTECTED AREAS OF ARUNACHAL
PRADESH
( With one text-figure)
By Aparajita Datta 399
THE BIRDS OF GOA (Part II)
By Heinz Lainer 405
OIL BAIT FISHERY OF CATFISHES IN BRAHMAPUTRA RIVER AFFECTING
RIVER DOLPHIN POPULATIONS IN ASSAM, INDIA
By S.P. Bairagi 424
CARIDINA TYPUS H. MILNE EDWARDS 1 837 FROM THE INDIAN MAINLAND
— A REPORT
( With four text-figures)
By Delphin Ebenezer and Jasmine Richard 427
POPULATION STATUS AND MALE GENITALIA OF LETHE EVROPA
NIL AD AN A AND PARARGE EVERS MANN I CASHMIRENSIS
(LEPIDOPTERA : SATYRIDAE)
( With ten text-figures)
By H.S. Rose and Narender Sharma 433
A NEW RECORD OF FRESHWATER BAGRID FISH MYSTUS PULCHER
CHAUDHURI FROM INDIA
By Keishing Selim and Waikhom Vishwanath 436
AN UPDATE ON SYNOPTIC CATALOGUE OF LAC INSECTS (HOMOPTERA :
TACHARDIIDAE)
By K. Krishan Sharma and R. Ramani 438
FERN FLORA ALONG SAUNG-PINDARI TREK IN THE KUMAON HIMALAYA
By M.K. Bhattacharya 444
NEW DESCRIPTIONS 447
REVIEWS 459
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 463
Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Mumbai 400 103 and
published by J.C. Daniel for Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House,
Dr. Salim Ali Chowk, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai-400 023.
Heckman
BINDERY, INC.
Bound-To-Please®
OCT 00
N. MANCHESTER, INDIANA 46962
V '