JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

APRIL 2002

Vol. 99 (1)

BOARD OF EDITORS

Editor

J.C. DANIEL

M.R. ALMEIDA

M.K. CHANDRASHEKARAN

B.F. CHHAPGAR

R. GADAGKAR

INDRANEIL DAS

A.J.T. JOHNSINGH

AJITH KUMAR

T.C. NARENDRAN

A.R. RAHMANI

J.S. SINGH

R. WHITAKER

Assistant Editor

GAYATRI WATTAL UGRA

INSTRUCTIONS TO CONTRIBUTORS

1 . Papers which have been published or have been offered for publication elsewhere

should not be submitted.

2. Papers should be submitted in duplicate, typed double space. Preferably an additional

copy should be submitted on a floppy diskette (3.5") using MS Word.

3. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where identification has been

authentically established by comparison of specimens actually collected.

4. Photographs for reproduction must be clear, with good contrast. Prints should be at

least 9 x 12 cm and on glossy glazed paper. Text-figures, line drawings and maps

should be in Indian ink, preferably on tracing paper.

5. References to literature should be placed at the end of the paper, alphabetically arranged

under author’s name, with the abridged titles of journals or periodicals in italics and

titles of books or papers in roman type, thus:

Aluri, Raju J.S. & C. Subha Reddi (1995): Ecology of the pollination in two cat-mint

species. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92(1): 63-66.

Prater, S.H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay Natural History Society,

Mumbai, pp. 35-48.

6. Each paper should be accompanied by an abstract, normally not exceeding 200 words,

and 6-8 key words. Key words should include the scientific names of important species

discussed.

7. 25 reprints will be supplied free of cost to authors of main articles and new descriptions.

Authors of miscellaneous notes, will be sent a free copy of the Journal.

8. The editors reserve the right, other things being equal, to publish a member’s contribution

earlier than a non-member’s.

9. For the standardised common and scientific names of the birds of the Indian subcontinent

refer to Buceros Vol. 6, No. 1 (2001).

Hornbill House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Mumbai 400 023.

Editors,

Journal of the Bombay

Natural History Society

VOLUME 99 (1): APRIL 2002

^S\\thso

l

Date of Publication: 1-4-2002

CONTENTS

EDITORIAL

THE HONEY BEES OF INDIA, HYMENOPTERA: APIDAE

( With one text-figure )

By Michael S. Engel

STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF TWO BIRD COMMUNITIES IN THE SOUTHERN

WESTERN GHATS

( With five text-figures )

By E.A. Jayson and D.N. Mathew 8

INDIVIDUAL VARIATION AND SEXUAL DIMORPHISM IN THAMNOECHA UNIFORMIS

(BUTLER 1875), LEPIDOPTERA: SPHINGIDAE

By Peter Smetacek 26

PETA JJRISTA NOBILIS SINGHE1 — FIRST RECORD IN INDIA AND A NOTE ON ITS

TAXONOMY

( With one text- figure)

By Anwaruddin Choudhury 30

THE INITIAL COLONISATION OF THE YAMUNA FLOOD PLAIN BY THE SIND

SPARROW PASSER PYRRHONOTUS

( With two text-figures and one plate )

By Bill Harvey and Suresh C. Sharma 35

EDIBLE OYSTERS OF THE GENUS CRASSOSTREA SACCO 1897, ALONG THE

RATNAGIRI COAST, MAHARASHTRA, INDIA

By M.S. Sawant and A.M. Ranade 44

FRESHWATER FISHES OF SOUTHERN KERALA WITH NOTES ON THE DISTRIBUTION

OF ENDEMIC AND ENDANGERED SPECIES

By K. Raju Thomas, M. John George and C.R. Biju 47

CHARACTERISTICS AND SIGNIFICANCE OF SONG IN FEMALE ORIENTAL MAGPIE-

ROBIN, COPSYCHUSSA V LARIS

( With one text-figure )

By Anil Kumar and Dinesh Bhatt 54

PSYCHOPHJLY AND EVOLUTIONARY CONSIDERATIONS OF CADABA FRUTICOSA L.

(CAPPARACEAE)

By J.S.R. Aluri and S.P. Rao 59

A DICHOTOMOUS KEY FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION OF THE ORDERS OF INDIAN

DIPLOPODA

( With ten text-figures)

By Kubra Bano 64

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

STUDIES ON OXYSYCHUS DELUCCHI, HYMENOPTERA: CHALCIDOIDEA:

PTEROMALIDAE, FROM INDIA WITH THE DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES

( With fifteen text-figures)

By P.M. Sureshan and T.C. Narendran 72

A NEW GENUS AND TWO NEW SPECIES OF ARCTIINAE, ARCTIIDAE: LEPIDOPTERA

FROM INDIA

(With eighteen text-figures)

By Jagbir S. Kirti and Amritpal S. Kaleka 79

A NEW BARILINE CYPRINID FISH OF THE GENUS BARILIUS HAMILTON, FROM

MANIPUR, INDIA

( With two text-figures)

By Waikhom Vishwanath and Wahengbam Manojkumar 86

TWO NEW SPECIES OF SCHIZOMIDS FROM INDIA WITH RANGE EXTENSION FOR

SCHIZOMUS TIKA DERI ( ARACHNID A : SCHIZOMIDA)

( With twenty-six text-figures )

By D.B. Bastawade 90

A NEW SPECIES OF DESMODIUM DESVAUX., FABACEAE, FROM GARHWAL

HIMALAYA, UTTARANCHAL, INDIA

( With one text-figure )

By L.R. Dangwal and R.D. Gaur 96

REVIEWS

1 . SAVING WILD TIGERS

Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani 100

2. LIFE’S DEVICES: THE PHYSICAL WORLD OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS

Reviewed by Gayatri Ugra 101

3. BIRDS OF PUNE

Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani 102

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

MAMMALS

1. High-tension electric poles used as night

roost by troops of Hanuman langur Pres bytes

entellus at Nahargarh Wildlife Sanctuary,

Jaipur

By Satish Kumar Sharma 103

2. Abnormal weight and length of the Indian

pangolin Manis crassicaudata Gray, 1827,

from Sirohi district, Rajasthan

By Satish Kumar Shanna 103

3. Scavenging by stripenecked mongoose

Herpestes vitticollis on a tiger kill in Periyar

Tiger Reserve, Kerala

By Baby Sajan and A. Veeramani 104

4. Notes on the food habits of striped hyena

Hyaena hyaena Linn. 1758 in Sariska Tiger

Reserve, Rajasthan

By K. Sankar and Bharat Jethwa 104

5. Attitudes towards Wildlife Conservation in

Ranchi district — a case study

By H.S. Gupta 105

BIRDS

6. Some clarifications regarding the lesser

flamingo Phoenicopterus minor and the crab

plover Dromas ardeola

By Lavkumar Khacher 106

7. Occurrence of Galloperdix spp., Family

Phasianidae in northwestern Madhya

Pradesh

By Rajiv Saxena 108

8. Observations on the mating behaviour of the

Indian sarus crane Grus antigone in the wild

By Aeshita Mukherjee 108

9. A heronry at Traj in Kheda district, Gujarat

By Abdul Jamil Urfi 1 13

10. Interaction between Siberian crane Grus

leucogeranus and checkered keelback snake

Xenochrophis pis ca tor in Keoladeo National

Park, Bharatpur

By Gargi 114

1 1 . Two interesting avian records from Kutch,

Gujarat State

By M.K. Himmatsinhji and S.N. Varu 115

12. Occurrence of the Ceylon frogmouth

Batrachostomus moniliger (Family

Podargidae) in Radhanagari Wildlife

Sanctuary, Maharashtra

By Varad B. Giri 1 16

13. Jungle crow Corvus macrorhynchos and its

ingenuity with dry roti

By Raza H. Tehsin 117

14. More evidence of red-vented bulbul

Pycnonotus cafer feeding on house gecko

Hemidactylus flaviviridis

By Samiran Jha 118

15. Brown crake Amaurornis akool Sykes

feeding on the eggs of the large pied wagtail

Motacilla maderaspatensis Gmelin

By Kiran Purandare 119

16. Status of the purple-rumped sunbird

Nectar inia zeylonica in Gujarat State

By B.M. Parasharya and Raju Vyas 119

u

17. A supplementary note on the avifauna of the

Thar desert (Rajasthan)

By Harkirat Singh Sangha 120

REPTILES

18. Strange behaviour in the rat snake Ptyas

mucosus, Family Colubridae

By Priti Sawant and

Anuradha Rajagopalan 126

AMPHIBIA

19. First record of Boulenger’s tree frog

Chirixalus vittatus (Anura: Rhacophoridae)

from Mizoram, northeast India

By Kaushik Deuti and Sushil Dutta 126

FISHES

20. On the distribution of Oreonectes

( Indoreonectes ) evezardi Day and O. (I)

keralensis Rita, Banarescu and Nalbant

(Pisces: Balitoridae)

By K. Rema Devi, T.J. Indra and S. Krishnan 127

21. Rediscovery of critically endangered air

breathing catfish Clarias dayi Hora, Pisces:

Claridae, at Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary,

Tamil Nadu

By A. Manimekalan and M. Arunachalam .... 129

22. Some ingenious methods of fishing

By Venkatesh N. Hegde 131

INSECTS

23. A new record of Brachymeria lasus Walker

(Hymenoptera: Chalcididae) on Euchromia

polymeria Linnaeus (Lepidoptera:

Syntomidae)

By Vinayan P. Nair 132

24. Oviposition behaviour of Palexorista

solennis Walker, Diptera: Tachinidae, a

tachinid parasitoid of teak defoliator,

Hyblaea puera Cramer

By J. Loganathan and P.M.M. David 132

25. Further contribution on the Diptera (Insecta)

fauna of Andaman and Nicobar Islands

By P. Parui, B. Mitra, M. Mukherjee and

R.S. Mridha 135

26. Seasonal occurrence of Melanitis leda

ismene (Cramer), Satyridae: Lepidoptera,

with comments on its dry and wet season

forms

ByV.K. Walia 137

OTHER INVERTEBRATES

27. Molluscan fauna and its distribution in the

Wild Ass Sanctuary

By V.C. Soni, K.P. Bhalodia, S.M. Dave and

V.J. Bhuva 139

28. First record of Bosmina tripurae Korinek

et al., 1999, Crustacea: Cladocera:

Bosminidae, from Assam

By Bikramjit Sinha 141

29. On the damage caused to the green mussel

Perna viridis by Pinnotherid crab

Pinnotheres casta Antony & Kuttyamma,

1971 along the Calicut coast

By R.S. Lai Mohan, George Varghese and

Ernesto Campos 142

30. Preliminary studies on spider diversity and

their webs in selected sacred groves in Kerala

By C. Sivaperuman, P.S. Easa and

S. Swetharanyam 144

BOTANY

3 1 . Notes on Clematis bourdillonii Dunn (Family

Ranunculaceae)

By G.V.S. Murthy 148

32. Presence of Commiphora gileadense, Family

Burseraceae, in Rajasthan

By Satish Kumar Sharma 152

3 3 . Ventilago bombaiensis Dalz., Rhamnaceae —

a new distributional record for Tamil Nadu

By V.S. Manickam, C. Murugan,

V. Sundaresan and G. Jeya Jothi 153

34. On the occurrence of Pogostemon

travancoricus Family Labiatae and Argyreia

choisyana, Family Convolvulaceae in Tamil

Nadu

By V.S. Manickam, V. Sundaresan,

C. Murugan and G.J. Jothi 155

35. Occurrence of Habenaria longicorniculata

Grah. Family Orchidaceae in Mount Abu

Wildlife Sanctuary, Rajasthan

By Satish Kumar Sharma 156

36. Doum palm at Bhangarh, Rajasthan?

By Satish Kumar Sharma 157

37. Typhonium Jlagelliforme (Roxb. ex Ludd.)

Blume, Family Araceae: an addition to the

flora of Orissa

By P.C. Panda 157

38. Observations on the genus Radiococcus,

Family Chlorophyceae, a new record for India

By Pawan K. Dadheech and

Pushpa Srivastava 158

Cover Photograph: Karvi Carvia callosa

by Ashok Kothari

Editorial

Karvi or the common conehead was first described and named Strobilanthes

callosus , by the German botanist Nees in Nathaniel Wallich’s rare plants of

asia published in 1 832. Karvi belongs to the group of plants called pliestosials, which

flower once in several years. Bamboos are another example. John Graham, the

Presidency Postmaster of Bombay, quoting local tribals in his catalogue of Bombay

plants recorded that karvi flowers every ten years. Duthie (JBNHS 5: 417-8, 1890)

quoting natives of the Tapti Valley says that its flowering cycle was three years, but

his observations on plants of Western Ghats placed it between 8 and 9 years. Its

flowering cycle, once in seven years at Khandala, during April-May, was first noted in

1928 by Charles McCann, then Asst. Curator of the BNHS. Thereafter, this record

was confirmed from the same area by Rev. Fr. H. Santapau in 1 942 and again in 1 949.

Bremekamp raised the species to monotypic generic status, based on the absence of

bracteoles in the flowers, naming it Carvia callosa (Nees) Bremekamp, using its local

common name karvi for the generic epithet. Lisboa in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic

Society Bombay { 1883), and the European traveler Clement Markham in travels in

peru and India (1984) have praised this beautiful flowering plant of the Western Ghats.

Constable commented on its pleasant, sweet, resinous, aromatic odour scenting the

air, and the scent lingering on the hands after touching the bracts, even after washing

them thrice over. He published a beautiful colour plate of the flowers in Curtis’ Botanical

Magazine (plate no. 7538) in 1897. Since then, it has attracted and inspired many

artists and photographers at various places like Amboli, Borivli National Park,

Khandala, Mahabaleshwar and Matheran in Maharashtra.

Rev. Fr. Santapau described the plant as the King of the Khandala slopes. The

flower is generally white on the tube and purple on the petals. However, like many

other Acanthaceae, the petals sometimes vary in colour from pink or blue to pure

white, depending upon the colour-gene carrier insect pollinators.

Karvi is rich in honey, which is valued for its medicinal properties, and the

gregarious flowering provides exceptionally high yield. Observations during the 1 960

flowering season at Mahabaleshwar showed that the concentration of the nectar in

flowers, which is 20-25% around 8 a.m., increases to 37% around noon, and remains

static until 3 p.m. before declining. The leaves are toxic and non-palatable for cattle

and humans, causing vomiting and inflammation of the mucous membrane of the

stomach. However, the plant is esteemed for its insect repellent properties and in

Junagadh, it is reported to have been used to protect woollens from insect pests. The

bark is used in the preparation of an external application in parotitis, and the flowers

are considered vulnerary. Its straight stems are used by the local tribals for the

construction of house walls, plastered together with mud and cow-dung.

M.R. ALMEIDA

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are grateful to the Ministry of Science and Technology,

Govt of India,

FOR ENHANCED FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE JOURNAL.

CITATION OF IC/EC NUMBERS FOR GENETIC MATERIALS

It is brought to our notice by the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR),

Pusa Campus, New Delhi 110 012, India, that authors writing papers on particular plant

materials (genetic materials) should indicate IC numbers for Indigenous collections and

EC numbers for Exotic collections. Authors can directly procure these single accession

numbers for each genetic material from NBPGR. In the present Intellectual Property

Rights regime, it is in our national interest that all the germplasm material possess a

single national accession number.

Authors are therefore requested to procure IC/EC numbers from NBPGR and state them

on the manuscript, without which papers will not be accepted for publication.

Editors

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

April 2002 Vol. 99 No. 1

THE HONEY BEES OF INDIA, HYMENOPTERA: APIDAE'

Michael S. Engel2

( With one text-figure)

Key words: Apis , Apoidea, honey bees, key, systematics

A summary is given for the honey bee species {Apis Linnaeus) indigenous to India. Four indigenous

species are recognized from the region; Apis cerana, A. dorsata, A. florea and A. andrenifcrmis .

All are commonly found in India except for A. andreniformis, which is only known from a few

specimens collected in the northeastern boundaries of the country. A dichotomous key is presented

to aid the identification of these species and notes given on how to separate them from the

Most authors today agree upon at least

six species: Apis mellifera Linnaeus (1758),

A. cerana Fabricius (1793), A. dorsata Fabric i us

(1793), A. florea Fabricius (1787),

A. andreniformis Smith (1858), and

A. koschevnikovi Enderlein (1906: not Buttel-

Reepen [1906], see Engel [1999]). The Sulawesi

bee, A. nigrocincta Smith (1861) is also

deserving of specific rank, as has been

demonstrated by Hadisoesilo et al. (1995) and

Hadisoesilo and Otis ( 1 996, 1 998). Although this

taxon was in the past not considered specifically

distinct (Engel 1998) it has since been added to

the list of valid honey bee species (Engel 1999).

Currently, the giant Himalayan honey bee,

A. laboriosa Smith (in Moore et al. 1871), is

considered a subspecies of A. dorsata (e.g., Engel

1999), but continued work on this taxon may later

reinstate it as a separate species. A similar

argument can be made for the Bornean honey

bees known as A. nuluensis Tingek et al. ( 1 996)

but they are for now best classified as a subspecies

of A. cerana.

Most recently, Engel (1999) has listed the

species in the genus, both recent and fossil, with

introduced western honey bee, A. mellifera.

Introduction

The honey bees (genus Apis Linnaeus) are

by far the most famous of all insects owing to

their production of honey, pollination of crop

plants, and advanced eusocial behaviour, which

has attracted much attention from biologists.

Unfortunately, the systematics of this small and

highly visible group is not clearly understood.

This is partly owing to the high levels of variation

within species and to the recent divergence times

between taxa. Surprisingly, few modern

monographs have been produced to clarify the

taxonomic confusion within this important group

of bees. The last monograph for the genus was

undertaken by Maa (1953); however, his extreme

classification recognized 24 species and

subspecies in three genera. It is sometimes

difficult when utilizing his keys and classification

to reconcile names with the seven species

generally recognized today.

‘Accepted September, 1999

2Division of Entomology, Natural History Museum,

Snow Hall, 1 460 Jayhawk Boulevard, University of Kansas,

Lawrence, Kansas 66045-7523, USA

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 99(1), APR. 2002

3

THE HONEYBEES OF INDIA

detailed taxonomic histories for all species and

subspecies. He has provided revised diagnoses

for the genus and its subgenera, and detailed a

phylogenetic hypothesis of their relationships.

Table 1 outlines the classification of honey bees

as it is presently conceived.

Herein I provide a key to the indigenous

species presently known from India. The

dichotomous key is primarily designed for the

worker bees, since this is the caste most often

encountered in the field. However, characters for

drones and queens are also included, and these

castes can be identified with the key. For detailed

taxonomic histories of each species refer to Engel

(1999).

Key to the Indian tribes of Corbiculate Apinae

1. Jugal lobe of hind wing present (Fig. lb);

metatibial spurs absent; arolia present; outer

grooves of mandible absent 2

— Jugal lobe of hind wing absent; metatibial spurs

present; arolia absent or reduced; outer grooves

of mandible present (Bumble bees; genus

Bombus Latreille) Bombini

2. Forewing with reduced distal wing venation,

marginal cell frequently open at apex; claws

simple; penicillum present in worker; auricle

absent; sting reduced (Stingless bees; numerous

genera) Meliponini

— Forewing with complete distal wing venation,

marginal cell long and completely bordered by

veins (Fig. la); claws cleft; penicillum absent

in worker; auricle present; sting well developed

(Honey bees; genus Apis Linnaeus) Apini

Genus Apis Linnaeus

The genus can be distinguished from other

corbiculate members of the Apinae by the

following combination of characters (see also

diagnosis presented by Engel 1999): compound

eyes with long, fine hairs; metatibia lacking

penicillum; metatibial spurs absent; claws cleft;

arolia present; wing venation strong and

complete; marginal cell long, bluntly rounded at

apex, not tapering along its length; jugal lobe

present; compound eyes of drones meet at top of

head. Three extant subgenera are recognized

(Engel 1999); the giant honey bees, subgenus

me

Fig. 1: Diagrammatic wing venation of Apis {Apis) cerana Fabricius

a. Forewing showing the elongate marginal cell (me) typical of Apis, b. Hind wing showing distal abscissa

of the Median (M) vein; arrow indicates jugal lobe.

4

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

THE HONEYBEES OF INDIA

Megapis ; the dwarf honey bees, subgenus

Micrapis; and the typical honey bees, subgenus

Apis s. str. All three subgenera natively occur in

India. Both species of the stibgenus Micrapis are

recorded from India while only a single species

of Apis s str. is native to the country. The

subgenus Megapis is monotypic and represented

by A. dorsata. The indigenous species in India

all nest in the open, except for A. cerana which

nests in cavities.

The western honeybee, A. mellifera , has

been introduced into India for agricultural

purposes. This introduced species is not included

in the key below. It can be separated from the

native species before attempting to use the key,

by the following combination of characters: distal

abscissa of vein M in hind wing absent; size

moderate (7-10 mm); wings hyaline; drones

without metabasitarsal process.

Key to the native Apis of India

(Workers, queens, and drones)

1 . Distal abscissa of vein M in hind wing present;

worker size variable, moderate to large,

forewing length 7-15 mm (subgenera Apis and

Megapis ) 2

Table 1

HIERARCHICAL CLASSIFICATION

OF HONEY BEES (ENGEL, 1999)

Table 1 (contd.)

HIERARCHICAL CLASSIFICATION

OF HONEY BEES (ENGEL, 1999)

GENUS APIS LINNAEUS

Subgenus Apis Linnaeus

A. cerana Fabricius*

A. c. cerana Fabricius*

A. c. heimifeng Engel

A. c. indica Fabricius*

A. c.japonica Radoszkowski

A. c.javana Enderlein

A. c. johni Skorikov

A. c. nuluensis Tingek et al.

A. c. skorikovi Engel

A. koschevnikovi Enderlein

A. mellifera Linnaeus

A. m. adami Ruttner

A. m. adansonii Latreille

A. m. anatoliaca Maa

A. m. artemisia Engel

A. m. Eschscholtz

A. m. carnica Pollmann

A. m. caucasia Pollmann

A. m. cecropia Kiesenwetter

A. m. cypria Pollmann

A. m. iberiensis Engel

A. m. intermissa Maa

A. m.jemenitica Ruttner

A. m. lamarckii Cockerell

A. m. ligustica Spinola

A. m. iitorea Smith

A. m. macedonica Ruttner

A. m. meda Skorikov

A. m. mellifera Linnaeus

A. m. monticola Smith

A. m. remipes Gerstacker

A. m. ruttneri Sheppard et al.

A. m. sahariensis Baldensperger

A. m. scutellata Lepeletier de Saint Fargeau

A. m. siciliana Grassi

A. m. sossimai Engel

A. m. syriaca Skorikov

A. m. taurica Alpatov

A. m. unicolor Latreille

A. nigrocincta Smith

subgenus Cascapis Engel j

A. armbrusteri Zeuner t

subgenus Megapis Ashmead

A. dorsata Fabricius*

A. d. binghami Cockerell

A. d. breviligula (Maa)

A. d. dorsata Fabricius*

A. d. lab or i os a Smith

subgenus Micrapis Ashmead

A. andreniformis Smith*

A.florea Fabricius*

subgenus Prior apis Engel t

A. vetusta Engel |

subgenus Synapis Cockerell f

A. henshawi Cockerell t

A. longtibia Zhang t

A. miocenica Hong |

A. petrefacta (Riha) f

(f ) indicates fossil taxa,

(*) indicates taxa natively occurring in India.

Several of the subspecies presently recognised in A. mellifera should probably be synonymized (e.g. A. mellifera taurica).

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

5

THE HONEYBEES OF INDIA

— Distal abscissa of vein M in hind wing absent;

worker size small, forewing length 6-7 mm.

(subgenus Micrapis) 3

2. Forewing hyaline; scutellum yellow-brown,

rarely black; drone with tarsi unmodified;

worker size moderate, forewing length 7-9 mm.

(subgenus Apis s. str.) A. cerana

— Forewing fuscous; scutellum black; drone with

dense frond-like setae on meso- and metatarsi;

worker size large, forewing length 12-15 mm

(subgenus Megapis ) A. dorsata

3. Metatibia and dorsolateral margin of

metabasitarsus with black setae; metasomal

terga 1-2 black, infrequently with reddish-

brown hints apically on tergum 1 or basally on

tergum 2; drone metabasitarsal process short,

less than one-half metabasitarsus length

A. andreniformis

— Metatibia and dorsolateral margin of

metabasitarsus with white setae; metasomal

terga 1-2 reddish-brown; drone metabasitarsal

process long, more than two-thirds

metabasitarsus length A. florea

1. Apis (Apis) cerana Fabricius, Eastern

honey bee: This is the species most often kept in

apiaries and used for agricultural purposes as has

been done for nearly 5 millenia in India (Joshi

et al. 1980), although to a lesser degree since

the introduction of A. mellifera. Feral colonies

typically nest in tree hollows, unlike the other

three Indian species, which nest openly.

Apis cerana is genetically diverse in India

with a distinctive western and eastern

mitochondrial DNA type (Smith and Hagen

1996). These genetic haplotypes correspond to

the “plains bee” and “hills bee” morphs of

Ruttner (1988) respectively. The plains bee

taxonomically corresponds to the subspecies

A. cerana indica Fabricius (1798) while the hills

bee appears to be A. cerana cerana. Eight

subspecies of A. cerana are recognized, although

only two are presently understood to occur in

India (Engel 1999; Table 1).

2. Apis (Megapis) dorsata Fabricius, Giant

honey bee: This species is commonly referred to

as the giant honey bee owing to its large body

size. Workers of A. dorsata can be quite vicious

when the colony is disturbed and their sting is

probably the most painful of any honey bee

species. Much of the wax and honey harvested

in India comes from this species (Thakar and

Tonapi 1961, Singh 1980). It builds nests most

often high in trees usually affixed to the underside

of strong limbs.

Four subspecies are presently recognized

in A. dorsata (Table 1), but only the nominate

subspecies is found in India.

3. Apis (Micrapis) florea Fabricius, Red

dwarf honey bee: These tiny bees are relatively

docile and can be worked with little difficulty;

however, some nest disturbances can cause the

colony to abscond and rarely are A. florea

colonies managed by beekeepers. As noted by

Otis (1991, 1996), in northeastern India where

A. florea and A. andreniformis overlap,

A. andreniformis occurs at higher elevations

while A. florea occurs in the lowlands.

4. Apis (Micrapis) andreniformis Smith,

Black dwarf honey bee: Unlike its sister species,

A. florea , which occurs throughout India,

A. andreniformis is presently restricted to the

northeastern regions of the country and is

exceedingly uncommon. Otis (1996) gives the

distribution for A. andreniformis over the entirety

of its range and records the few localities from

Meghalaya, Sikkim and West Bengal, where it

has been captured. The species is probably more

common in Bhutan and Nepal, but no collection

records have yet been made. Apis andreniformis

was only recently reinstated as a valid species of

the genus by Wu and Kuang (1986, 1987) and

further confirmed by Wongsiri et al. (1990).

References

Buttel-Reepen, H., von. (1906): Apistica Beitrage zur geographischen Verbreitung der Ho

Systematik, Biologie, sowie zur geschichtlichen und nigbiene (Apis mellifica L.), ihrer Varietaten und der

6

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

THE HONEYBEES OF INDIA

uberigen Apis Arten. Mitt. Zool. Mus. Berlin 3: 117-

201.

Enderlein, G. ( 1 906): Neue Honigbienen und Beitrage zur

Kenntnis der Verbreitung der Gattung Apis. Stett.

Entomol. Ztg. 67: 331-344.

Engel, M.S. (1998): Fossil honey bees and evolution in

the genus Apis (Hymenoptera: Apidae). Apido/ogie

29: 265-281.

Engel, M.S. (1999): The taxonomy of recent and fossil

honey bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae, Apis). J. Hym.

Res. 8: 165-196.

Fabricius, J.C. (1787): Mantissa insectorum sistems eorum

species nuper detectas adiectis characteribus

genericus, differentiis specificis, emendationibus,

observationibus, Vol. 1. Proft, Copenhagen,

pp. xx+348.

Fabricius, J.C. (1793): Entomologia systematica emendata

et aucta. Secundum classes, ordines, genera, species

adiectis synonymis, locis, observationibus,

descriptionibus, Vol. 2. Proft, Copenhagen,

pp. viii+519.

Fabricius, J.C. (1798): Supplementum Entomologiae

Systematicae. Proft, Copenhagen, pp. [2]+572.

Hadisoesilo, S. & G.M. Otis (1996): Drone flight times

confirm the species status of Apis nigrocincta Smith,

1861 to be a species distinct from Apis cerana F,

1793, in Sulawesi, Indonesia. Apidologie 27: 36 1 -

369.

Hadisoesilo, S. & G.W. Otis (1998): Differences in drone

cappings of Apis cerana and Apis nigrocincta.

J.Apic. Res. 37: 11-15.

Hadisoesilo, S., G.W. Otis & M. Meixner (1995): Two

distinct populations of cavity nesting honey bees

(Hymenoptera: Apidae) in South Sulawesi, Indonesia.

J. Kans. Entomol. Soc. 68: 399-407.

Joshi, M.A., V.V. Diwan & M.C. Suryanarayana (1980):

Bees and honey in ancient India. Pwc. Int. Conf. Apic.

Trop. Climate 2: 143-149.

Linnaeus, C. (1758): Systema naturae per regna tria

naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species,

cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis, ed.

10, vol. 1 Reformata. Salviae, Stockholm, pp. 824.

Maa, T.C. (1953): An inquiry into the systematics of the

tribus Apidini or honeybees (Hym). Treubia. 21: 525-

640.

Moore, F., F. Walker & F. Smith (1871): Descriptions of

some new insects collected by Dr. Anderson during

the expedition to Yunan. Proc. Zool. Soc. London

1871: 244-249.

Otis, G.W. (1991): A review of the diversity of species

within Apis. Diversity in the Genus . Westview Press,

Boulder, pp. 29-49.

Otis, G.W. (1996): Distributions of recently recognized

species of honey bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae; Apis)

in Asia. J. Kans. Entomol. Soc., snppl. 69: 3 1 1 -333.

Ruttner, F. (1988): Biogeography and taxonomy of honey

bees. Springer Verlag, Berlin, pp. xxii+284.

Singh, Y. (1980): Bee-keeping in Uttar Pradesh — a review.

Proc. Int. Conf. Apic. Trop. Climate 2: 211-226.

Smith, D.R. & R.H. Hagen (1996): The biogeography of

Apis cerana as revealed by mitochondrial DNA

sequence data. J. Kans. Entomol. Soc., snppl. 69:

294-310.

Smith, F. (1858): Catalogue of the hymenopterous insects

collected at Sarawak, Borneo; Mount Ophir, Malacca;

and at Singapore, by A.R. Wallace. Proc. Linn. Soc.,

London 2: 42-130.

Smith, F. (1861): Descriptions of new species of

hymenopterous insects collected by Mr. AR. Wallace

at Celebes. Proc. Linn. Soc., London 5: 57-93.

Thakar, C.V. & K.V. Tonapi (1961): Nesting behaviour

of Indian honey bees. 1. Differentiation of worker,

queen and drone cells of the comb of Apis dorsata

Fabr. Bee World 42: 61-62, 71.

Tingek, S., G. Koeniger & N. Koeniger (1996):

Description of a new cavity nesting species of Apis

{Apis nuluensis n. sp.) from Sabah, Borneo, with

notes on its occurrence and reproductive biology.

Senck. biol. 76: 115-119.

Wongsiri, S., K. Limbipichai, P. Tangkanasing, M.

Mardan, T. Rinderer, H.A. Sylvester, G. Koeniger

& G. Otis ( 1 990): Evidence of reproductive isolations

confirms that Apis andreniformis (Smith, 1 858) is a

separate species from sympatric florea (Fabricius,

1787). Apidologie 21: 47-52.

Wu, Y. & B. Kuang ( 1 986): A study of the genus Micrapis

(Apidae). Zool. Res. 7: 99-102.

Wu, Y. & B. Kuang (1987): Two species of small honey

bee — a study of the genus Micrapis. Bee World 68:

153-155.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

1

STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF TWO BIRD COMMUNITIES

IN THE SOUTHERN WESTERN GHATS1

E.A. Jayson2 and D.N. Mathew3

( With 5 text-figures)

Key words: Bird community, tropical forest. Western Ghats, Kerala, India

The structure and composition of bird communities was studied in the Tropical Evergreen and

Moist Deciduous forests of Silent Valley and Mukkali in the Western Ghats of south India from

1988 to 1993. Variable width line transects were employed to assess the bird community each

month. To correlate the structure and composition of bird community to the vegetation type,

parameters like girth class distribution of trees, maturity index of 'vegetation and vegetation

profile diagrams were prepared. A total of 9,921 birds were recorded during the period of study,

and altogether 137 taxa of birds were identified from the two vegetation types. Species richness

of birds was similar in both the habitats. The yellow-browed bulbul ( Hypsipetes indicus ) was the

most common and dominant species at Silent Valley (Tropical Evergreen), whereas at Mukkali

(Tropical Moist Deciduous) black drongo ( Dicrurus adsimilis) was the most common and jungle

babbler ( Turdoides striatus ) was the dominant species. No significant difference in bird species

richness between years was found in the Tropical Evergreen forests, whereas significant difference

in species richness was obtained between different years in the Tropical Moist Deciduous Forest.

The study showed that a high diversity index of vegetation (IT) is an indication of increased

density of birds in tropical forests.

Introduction

The structure and composition of bird

communities are known to vary in different

vegetation types (Wiens 1989). The pioneering

studies of MacArthur and MacArthur (1961)

established the relationship between bird

diversity and vegetation structure. MacArthur et

al. (1962), and MacArthur et al. (1966),

supported the above hypothesis, but some studies

showed negative relationship also (Wiens 1983).

Studies on forest bird communities mainly

examined parameters like the structure of forest

bird communities (Nilson 1983), distributions

(Howe et al. 1981) and community organization

(Landers and MacMahon 1980). Yorke (1984)

and Terborgh et al. (1990) described the

community structure of tropical forest birds.

Many workers have demonstrated the

relationship between bird communities and forest

'Accepted February, 2001

2Division of Wildlife Biology, Kerala Forest Research Institute,

Peechi 680 653, Kerala, India.

3Plot No. 1 234, West End Colony, Mogappair, Padi PO,

Chennai 600 050, Tamil Nadu, India.

structure (Karr 1971, Karr and Roth 1971, Beedy

1981 and Rice et al. 1984). The roles of

vegetation structure, competitors and

productivity were described by Cody (1981) and

the relation between total crown volume and bird

diversity by Verner and Larson (1989). Similarly,

patchiness of shrub distribution to diversity (Roth

1976), species richness to plant taxa (Terborgh

1985), tree species richness (James and Warmer

1982) and birds in plantations and indigenous

forest were described by Carlson (1986).

Even though many aspects of birds were

studied in the Western Ghats of south India,

(Vijayan and Balakrishnan 1977, Vijayan 1978,

Zacharias and Gaston 1993, Srivastava et al.

1993, Nair et al. 1997) community studies of

birds are few in number. Earlier workers (Anon.

1990) also carried out many faunal studies in

the Evergreen Forests of Silent Valley. While

studying the bird communities in the forests of

northern Kerala, Ramakrishnan (1983)

examined certain aspects of birds of Silent Valley.

The relationship between birds and vegetation

in New Delhi was revealed by Gaston (1979).

8

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

STR UCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF BIRD COMMUNITIES

Gandhi (1986) compared the bird community

structure of scrub jungle and monoculture

plantations. Diversity and community structure

of birds were also studied by Daniels (1989),

Daniels et al. (1990), Katti (1989) and

Sundaramoorthy (1991).

The objective of the study was to evaluate

and compare the structure and species

composition of bird communities at two

ecologically different habitats. Three characters

of vegetation were analysed to compare and find

out the relationships between the vegetation and

bird community. The study forms part of a major

investigation (Jayson 1994), which determined

many ecological aspects of two bird communities.

Seasonal changes in these bird communities were

reported earlier (Jayson and Mathew 2000).

Diversity and species abundance and distribution

were also published (Jayson and Mathew 2000a).

Study Area

The study area is located in Palakkad

district, Kerala State, 45 km north of

Mannarghat, the nearest town, in the Western

Ghats of south India between 11° 3'- 11° 13' N

and 76° 25’-76° 35' E. After evaluating the entire

area, two study sites were selected: a Tropical

Evergreen Forest, Silent Valley, and a Moist

Deciduous Forest at Mukkali. The detailed

description of the study areas with a map has

been given earlier (Jayson and Mathew 2000).

The first site is partially degraded and most of

the disturbance happened in the late seventies

and early eighties, in the course of felling trees

and pre-construction work of an abandoned dam.

The elevation of the tract varies from 500 m to

1,500 m above msl and the topography is

undulating. These two study sites are separated

by about 20 km, but the vegetation types differ.

Anthropomorphic pressures were severe at

Mukkali due to the proximity to human

habitations. There was also a difference of

400 m in elevation between the two sites. There

are two distinct seasons in the study area,

monsoon season from end of May up to mid-

November, and the dry summer season from

December to April. There is no clearly marked

winter. Fast southwesterly winds blow from the

western side during the monsoon. Ombrothermic

diagrams of Silent Valley and Mukkali are given

in Figs 1 and 2.

1400

1200

1000

c 800

• H

£ 600

400

200

0

J FMAMJ J ASOND

Months

Fig. 1: Ombrothermic diagram of Silent Valley (1988-1993)

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

9

STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF BIRD COMMUNITIES

600

Months

Rainfall -+-Temp.

Fig. 2: Ombrothermic diagram of Mukkali (1988-1993)

Methods

Vegetation: The vegetation structure,

vegetation structure profile and the girth class

distribution of trees in the study area were

analysed. In addition to this, percentage

composition of trees at the two areas was also

measured.

Vegetation structure profile: A schematic

diagram, which resembles the physiognomy of the

stands of forest, is shown in the form of a profile

diagram. It depicts a representative forest stand

pictorially, size to scale. A 5 m x 50 m strip of

forest stand was demarcated, and the position of

each tree in it was marked on graph paper. Girth

at breast height (GBH) and total height were

recorded using a range finder. Crown shapes of

individual trees were drawn on graph paper in the

field. Using these pictorial and quantitative data,

a profile diagram with measurements to scale

(Richards 1952) was constructed.

Girth class distribution: Girth of trees at

breast height (GBH) with more than 10 cm was

measured randomly on both sides of the transect

within a width of 30 m from the central line at

Silent Valley and Mukkali. Altogether, 795 trees

were measured at Silent Valley and 552 trees were

enumerated at Mukkali. From this data, girth

class distribution was plotted.

Percentage composition of trees: One

hundred plots of 5 m radius each in Silent Valley

and 200 such plots in Mukkali were enumerated.

Plots were enumerated on both sides of the

transect line, the minimum distance between

plots was 25 m. Among the 200 plots at Mukkali,

100 were in natural forest and the rest were in

the coffee estate. All the trees above 10 cm in

GBH were identified and recorded. The diversity

and percentage composition of trees were worked

out using the following formulae (Phillips 1 959).

Total number

of individuals

Density (D) =

Total number

of quadrats studied

Total number

of individuals

Abundance (Ab) =

Number of quadrats

of occurrence

10

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF BIRD COMMUNITIES

Number of quadrats

of occurrence

% Frequency = x 100

(% F) Total number

of quadrats studied

Number of individuals

of the species

Relative density = x J 00

(RD) Number of individuals

of all species

Relative

frequency

(RF)

Number of occurrence

of the species

in the quadrat

x 100

Number of occurrence

of all species

The following formula is used to estimate

maturity index value from the two study areas

(Pichi-Sermolli 1948).

Total % frequency

of a locality

Maturity index =

(Ml) Total number

of species present

Diversity was calculated using Shannon-

Wener Index (H’= - Z (pi In pi) with the program

spdivers.bas developed by Ludwig and Reynolds

(1988).

Birds: After considering all the available

methods, the Variable Width Line Transect

Method described by Burnham et al. (1980) was

adopted, in which the observer walks through a

fixed path, counting the birds seen or heard on

both sides of the path. Whenever a bird was

spotted, it was identified up to species and details

like the number of birds, and habitat were noted.

Birds were identified using a binocular (10 x 30)

and with the help of field guides and reference

books (Ali 1969, Ali and Ripley 1983).

Additionally, whenever a bird was sighted in the

study period, it was identified and recorded.

Two line transects, each 4 km in length,

were selected, one at Silent Valley and another

at Mukkali. The transects covered representative

habitats of the area, the first transect covered

Evergreen Forest, burnt areas, and the second

transect covered Moist Deciduous Forest, rocky

patches, and burnt Moist Deciduous Forest.

Observations were started 30 minutes after

sunrise in all the months, and no census was done

on days with very heavy rain and fog. Two

observations were carried out in each area in a

month. Altogether 150 samples of line transects

were collected from the study area between May

1988 and April 1993. Among these, 80 line

transects were from Silent Valley and 70 were

from Mukkali spread over 45 months. There was

a gap of 8 months from May 1991 to December

1991 in the collection of data.

To find out the common bird species of

each area the Commonness Index of the two areas

was computed. Commonness Index is the average

frequency of sighting of a species in one sampling

at a site. The relative dominance of each bird

species in the two areas was determined by

calculating the Dominance Index. The following

formula was used for calculating Relative

Dominance.

Relative Dominance = ni x 100/N

Where ni = number of individuals of the

species.

N = The total number of individuals of all

the species seen during the study period.

Results

Vegetation

Vegetation structure profile : Vegetation

profile diagram of the Evergreen Forests showed

trees in three canopy layers (Fig. 3). Trees having

a height of more than 30 m were quite common;

the trees were densely packed. One peculiarity

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

11

STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF BIRD COMMUNITIES

Fig. 3: Vegetation profile (5 m x 50 m) of Silent Valley showing different canopy levels

at Silent Valley was the presence of shola forests.

The vegetation profile diagram of Mukkali

showed only two distinct canopy levels (Fig. 4).

Trees having a height of more than 30 m were

very rare; the individual trees were very loosely

packed.

Girth class distribution'. Girth class

distribution of trees (more than 10 cm GBH)

recorded from Silent Valley and Mukkali is

shown in Fig. 5. Being a wet Evergreen Forest,

trees having more than 270 cm GBH were

common at Silent Valley; but at Mukkali trees of

large GBH were absent. Newly introduced trees

in Mukkali were less than in Silent Valley (10-

30 cm class). The prospect of new introductions

in Mukkali was also poor, mainly due to the

illegal removal of poles for household purposes

and firewood by locals. Most of the natural tree

growth in the estate was maintained to provide

shade to the coffee and pepper. The vegetation

of this area was degraded and burnt clumps of

bamboo were seen intermittently.

The following trees and shrubs were

recorded from Mukkali: Terminalia bellerica ,

Eucalyptus, Dalbergia lanceolaria, D. latifolia ,

Leucaena leucocepha/a, Erythrina suberosa,

Grevillea robusta, Calotropis gigantea, Bambusa

bambos , Ficus carica , Cassia fistula , Carica

papaya , Grewia tiliaefolia , Bauhinia racemosa,

Acacia concinna, Albizzia lebbeck , Tamarindus

12

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF BIRD COMMUNITIES

0 10 20 30 40

Fig. 4: Vegetation profile (5 m x 50 m) of Mukkali showing different canopy levels

50 m

indica, Emblica officinalis , Pterocarpus

marsupium, Solanum sp., Lantana camara,

Antiaris toxicaria , Cycas sp. and Calophyllum

inophyllum. Other tree species included

Lagerstroemia flos-reginae , Litsea zeylanica ,

Cenchrus inhirini , Psychotria sp., Cipadessa

baccifera, Xylia xylocarpa , Haldina cordifolia,

Lagerstroemia microcarpa and Macaranga

peltata. Common shrubs recorded from the area

were Abutilon indica , Crotalaria sp., Pimpinella

heyneana. Hibiscus sp., Impatiens flaccida and

Heliotropium scabrum. Grasses recorded were

Pennisetum, Thomeda and Cymbopogon.

Percentage composition of trees: Silent

Valley. Fifty-three species of trees were recorded

from the plots at Silent Valley (Table 1).

Macaranga peltata with 140 individuals had the

greatest abundance (2.85), highest density (0.70)

and frequency (24.50) among the vegetation

recorded (Table 1). Its relative density and

frequency was also higher than the other

vegetation. Maturity index of the vegetation at

Silent Valley was 2.85 and Shannon-Wener

diversity index was 2.91.

Mukkali : Twenty-two tree species

numbering about 256 individuals were recorded

from the plots (Table 2). Albizzia had the greatest

density and frequency, while Terminalia chebula

was the most abundant among the other

vegetation recorded.

Coffee Estate : Terminalia paniculata was

the most dense and frequent, while Erythrina

suberosa was the most abundant (Table 3). The

maturity index of the natural forest was 10.00

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

13

STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF BIRD COMMUNITIES

Table 1

ABUNDANCE OF TREE SPECIES AT SILENT VALLEY (TROPICAL EVERGREEN FOREST)

14

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF BIRD COMMUNITIES

Table 2

ABUNDANCE OF TREE SPECIES AT MUKKALI (TROPICAL MOIST DECIDUOUS FOREST)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

15

STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF BIRD COMMUNITIES

Silent Valley

30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 >301

Girth (cm)

Mukkali

160

30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270

Girth (cm)

Fig. 5: Girth class distribution of trees at Silent Valley and Mukkali

and that of the estate was 1 1 .28. Shannon- Wener

diversity index of trees at Mukkali was 2.57.

Occurrence of bird species: Silent Valley.

Ninety-nine taxa from 10 Orders and 3 1 Families

were recorded from Silent Valley. Occurrence of

birds in different months over the study period

is given in Table 4. Six species were recorded in

all the months, namely blossom-headed parakeet

16

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STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF BIRD COMMUNITIES

Table 4

OCCURRENCE OF BIRDS AT SILENT VALLEY IN DIFFERENT MONTHS (1988-1993)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

17

STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF BIRD COMMUNITIES

Table 4 (contd.)

OCCURRENCE OF BIRDS AT SILENT VALLEY IN DIFFERENT MONTHS (1988-1993)

18

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STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF BIRD COMMUNITIES

( Psittacula roseata), lesser golden-backed

woodpecker ( Dinopium benghalense), white-

bellied treepie (Dendrocitta leucogastra ), yellow-

browed bulbul ( Iole indica) and Malabar

whistling-thrush ( Myiophonus horsfieldii). The

most common species found at Silent Valley was

the yellow-browed bulbul followed by the white-

cheeked barbet ( Megalaima viridis), pied

bushchat {Saxicola caprata) and common hill-

myna (Gracula religiosa). The Commonness and

Dominance Index of 10 selected species at Silent

Valley is given in Table 5. The dominant species

in the community at Silent Valley were yellow-

browed bulbul, black-crested bulbul ( Pycnonotus

melanicterus ), common hill-myna, jungle

babbler ( Turdoides striatus) and pied bushchat.

Thirty species recorded only from the Silent

Valley are indicated with an asterisk in Table 4.

Eight endemic species restricted to the Western

Ghats: Nilgiri wood-pigeon ( Columba

elphinstonii), bluewinged parakeet ( Psittacula

columboides ), Malabar grey hornbill ( Ocyceros

griseus), Indian scimitar-babbler ( Pomatorhinus

schisticeps), Nilgiri flycatcher ( Eumyias

albicaudata), whitebellied blue flycatcher

( Cyornis pallipes), small sunbird ( Nectarinia

minima ) and white-bellied treepie were recorded

from the area. Among these, the Nilgiri wood

pigeon is a globally threatened species. Number

of individuals of each species recorded from the

Table 5

COMMONNESS AND DOMINANCE INDEX

OF SELECTED SPECIES AT SILENT VALLEY

(TROPICAL EVERGREEN FOREST)

No. Species Commonness Dominance

Index Index

transect is given in Appendix 1.

Mukkali : Ninety-six taxa from 10 Orders

and 30 Families were recorded from Mukkali.

Monthly distribution of various species is given

in Table 6. Seven species, namely spotted dove

Streptopelia chinensis , white-cheeked barbet

( Megalaima viridis) lesser golden-backed

woodpecker, greater racket-tailed drongo

( Dicrurus paradiseus), red-whiskered bulbul,

redvented bulbul ( Pycnonotus jocosus ) and

jungle babbler were recorded in all the months.

The most common species were the black drongo

{Dicrurus macrocercus), white-cheeked barbet,

jungle babbler, redvented bulbul and greater

racket-tailed drongo. Jungle babbler, red-

whiskered bulbul and black drongo were the

most dominant species. The Dominance and

Commonness Index of 10 selected species is

given in Table 7. Twenty-one species recorded

only from Mukkali are marked with an asterisk

in Table 6. Altogether 137 taxa of birds were

recorded from both the vegetation types in this

study. Number of individuals, from the transect,

in each species is given in Appendix I.

Changes in bird species richness : Distinct

changes in the species composition was recorded

among the birds of the Silent Valley and Mukkali

over different months. During the monsoon

months, the number of species present in Silent

Valley was low. But as the rain stopped, new

species arrived and a maximum of fifty-five

species were recorded in January (Table 8).

Reduction in species richness during the

monsoon season was observed throughout the

study period. Similarly, a surge in species

richness was recorded during summer, in all the

years. A similar trend was observed in Mukkali.

No significant difference in bird species

richness, between years in monsoon (X2 = 4.28;

P=<0.05) and summer (X2 =8.92; P=<0.05) was

seen at Silent Valley. But at Mukkali, a

significant difference was observed between

years in monsoon (X2 = 38.97*; P=<0.001) and

summer (X2 = 14.64; P=<0.001) seasons.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

19

STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF BIRD COMMUNITIES

Table 6

OCCURRENCE OF BIRDS AT MUKKALI IN DIFFERENT MONTHS (1988-1993)

20

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STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF BIRD COMMUNITIES

Table 6 (contd.)

OCCURRENCE OF BIRDS AT MUKKALI IN DIFFERENT MONTHS (1988-1993)

* = Recorded only from Mukkali, P = Present, (-) Not recorded; Serial numbers correspond to Handbook of Ali and Ripley (1983)

Discussion

Vegetation: The higher rate of recruitment

of new seedlings at Silent Valley was mainly

due to the protection afforded to the National

Park and adjacent forests, and its distance from

human settlements. Fire and tree felling

appeared to have thinned this tract. One hundred

and one dead trees were recorded on both sides

of the transect, within a width of 1 0 m at Silent

Valley, whereas only 1 0 such were recorded from

Mukkali. However, at Mukkali, the forests being

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

21

STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF BIRD COMMUNITIES

Table 7

COMMONNESS AND DOMINANCE INDEX

OF SELECTED SPECIES AT MUKKALI

(MOIST DECIDUOUS FOREST)

Moist Deciduous, trees with a height of more

than 30 m were less and due to selective felling

in this area in earlier periods, trees of more than

270 cm GBH were few. As the quadrats assessed

for percentage tree composition were on both

sides of the transect line, it is quite natural that

pioneer species like Macaranga peltata and M

indica were abundant in the area. This tract had

a history of fire during early 1980s, i.e. before

the area was declared a National Park. Maturity

Index showed a lower value, which is usually

obtained in the stages of succession. Diversity

of tree species was high, which is correlated with

the bird density.

At Mukkali, no major difference was seen

in the occurrence of tree species in the forest

areas and estate. Both areas had the same

number of tree species.

Birds: Composition and diversity of trees

have a great influence on the occurrence of birds.

During this study, birds were observed 4,500

Table 8

MONTHLY VARIATION

IN THE BIRD SPECIES RICHNESS

AT SILENT VALLEY AND MUKKALI (MEAN)

times, in which a total of 9,921 birds were

counted. Of the 137 species identified from the

two vegetation types, 21 migrant species were

from Silent Valley and 1 1 were from Mukkali;

others were residents. Fifty-six species were

common to both the vegetation types, while 30

species were found only in the Evergreen and

21 only in the Moist Deciduous Forest. This

indicates the importance of Evergreen forests in

the conservation of birds. Most of the species

showed only local movements. The migrants,

which were recorded from Silent Valley, were

the wagtails ( Motacilla sp.), common rosefinch

(Carpodacus erythrinus) and red-winged crested

cuckoo ( Clamator coromandus). Distinct

changes in species composition were recorded

among the birds of the Silent Valley and Mukkali

over different months. During monsoon, the

number of species present in the Silent Valley

was low.

Most of the doves, pigeons, parakeets and

black bulbuls ( Hypsipetes madagascariensis)

were not recorded in the monsoon at Silent

Valley, but were seen returning to the area with

the retreat of the rain. The yellow-browed bulbul

is the most common and dominant species at

Silent Valley. The second common species, the

white-cheeked barbet comes only sixth in

dominance. From the Dominance Index, it is

clear that barring a few species, all are very rare.

Due to the heavy mist and low activity of birds

during monsoon, it was difficult to detect them,

which may be one reason for the lower numbers

recorded. Also, local movement of species like

the black bulbul to the Evergreen Forest was

observed during summer.

A major difference between the two bird

communities lay in the composition of the bird

species. The study suggests that the high

diversity index of vegetation is an indication

of increased bird density in tropical forests

(Table 9). More unique and endemic species

were recorded from the Evergreen Forest, which

showed the influence of vegetation on species

22

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF BIRD COMMUNITIES

Table 9

COMPARISON OF BIRD COMMUNITY PARAMETERS WITH DIVERSITY INDICES OF VEGETATION

*Jayson and Mathew (2000a)

composition of birds. It seems that rare species

like the great pied hornbill (Buceros bicornis )

and the great black woodpecker ( Dryocopus

javensis) were affected severely during the pre-

survey period of the abandoned hydroelectric

project, because most of the dry trees were burnt

for firewood and the great pied hombill was hunted

for its flesh (Vijayan and Balakrishnan 1977).

Presence of endemic and globally threatened

species showed the conservation value of Tropical

Evergreen forests at Silent Valley.

Acknowledgements

Funds for the project were provided by the

Department of Environment and Forests, Govt,

of India, and statistical analyses were carried out

with the help of Dr. K.A. Mercey, Asst. Prof,

Kerala Agricultural University. Dr. Lalitha

Vijayan and Dr. Ramakrishnan Palat provided

valuable suggestions in the initial phase of the

study. We thank the field staff of Silent Valley

National Park for their help.

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Daniels, RJ.R. ( 1 989): A conservation strategy for the birds

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James, F.C. & N.O. Warmer (1982): Relationships between

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on certain species of forest birds. Ph.D. Dissertation,

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species-abundance distribution of birds in the tropical

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Karr, J.R. & R.R. Roth (1971): Vegetation structure and

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STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF BIRD COMMUNITIES

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Appendix 1

TOTAL NUMBER OF EXAMPLES SEEN IN EACH BIRD SPECIES AT SILENT VALLEY AND MUKKALI

24

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR . 2002

STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF BIRD COMMUNITIES

Appendix 1 (contd.)

TOTAL NUMBER OF EXAMPLES SEEN IN EACH BIRD SPECIES AT SILENT VALLEY AND MUKKALI

Species Abundance Species Abundance

Zosterops palpebrosus

Dendrocitta vagabunda

Dinopium benghalense

Carpodacus erythrinus

Perdicula erythrorhyncha

Pomatorhinus schisticeps

Pericrocotus Jlammeus

Pants xanthogenys

Psittacula cyanocephala

Treron phoenicoptera

Dicrurus paradiseus

Treron pompadora

Cyornis tickelliae

Psittacula columboides

Motacilla flava

Zoothera citrina

Chalcophaps indica

Phylloscopus sp.

Ocyceros griseus

Sitta frontalis

Ducula badia

Dicrurus aeneus

Pellorneum ruficeps

Pycnonotus cafer

Elanus caeruleus

Loriculus vernalis

Arachnothera longirostra

Lonchura punctulata

Dicaeum erythrorhynchos

Dryocopus javensis

Ictinaetus malayensis

H ir undo daurica

Buceros bicornis

Streptopelia chinensis

Nectarinia lotenia

Lonchura malabarica

Terpsiphone paradisi

Hemicircus canente

Turdoides affinis

Columba elphinstonii

Spilornis cheela

Oriolus oriolus

Turdoides subrufus

Motacilla cinerea

Dicaeum agile

Oriolus chinensis

Galloperdix spadicea

Parus major

Merops leschenaulti

Accipiter badius

Silent Valley Mukkali

Copsychus saularis

Chloropsis aurifrons

Haliastur indus

Columba livia

Cyornis pallipes

Nectarinia zeylonica

Zoonavena sylvatica

Ducula aenea

Lanius sp.

Acridotheres tristis

Turdus merula

Ardeola grayii

Falco sp.

Dendrocitta vagabunda

Clamator coromandus

Eumyias albicaudata

Dinopium javanense

Pycnonotus melanicterus

Picumnus innominatus

Rhopocichla atriceps

Anthus hodgsoni

Hirundo sp.

Centropus sinensis

Dicrurus caerulescens

Picumnus innominatus

Corvus macrorhynchos

Aegithina tiphia

Irena puella

Muscicapa latirostris

Asio flammeus

Harpactes fasciatus

Muscicapa muttui

Streptopelia chinensis

Eudynamys scolopacea

Halcyon smyrnensis

Upupa epops

Picus chlorolophus

Lanius vittatus

Dicntrus hottentottus

Acridotheres fuscus

Corvus splendens

Chloropsis cochinchinensis

Ficedula nigrorufa

Eumyias thalassina

Dendronanthus indica

Orthotomus sutorius

Monticola solitarius

Petronia xanthocollis

Silent Valley Mukkali

3

3 55

2

2 41

2

2 7

2 5

2 53

2 12

2

1 1

1

2 7

1 1

1

2

66

1 6

1 3

1

1 1

1 2

61

3

7

2

10

9

1

7

47

12

1

5

18

1

- = Not recorded

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

25

INDIVIDUAL VARIATION AND SEXUAL DIMORPHISM

IN THAMNOECHA UNIFORMIS (BUTLER 1875),

LEPIDOPTERA: SPHINGIDAE1

Peter Smetacek2

Key words: Lepidoptera, Sphingidae, hawkmoths, Thamnoecha uniformis

Existing information about Thamnoecha uniformis (Butler 1875) is examined and the range of

individual variation and sexual dimorphism in the species discussed.

Introduction

The hawkmoth Thamnoecha uniformis

(Butler 1875) is a Himalayan endemic. The

genus is monobasic and little is known about

the species. Since the original description by

Butler in 1875, only males of the species were

known until Dierl (1970) described a single

female from Narkanda (Himachal Pradesh).

Although Dierl (op. cit.) observed some

differences between the sexes, he did not appear

to have more than a single pair to hand on which

he based his observations. The present study

developed out of the need to place the sexes

correctly without resorting to genitalic

examination, a task that has caused some

confusion in the past. The confusion was caused

by the relatively great individual variation in

such a sparingly marked species.

This moth has been recorded from Sabathu

near Shimla, which is the type locality, and

Narkanda in Himachal Pradesh; Katarmal and

Bhimtal in Kumaon and Nagarjong and

Godaveri in Nepal. It ascends to 2,700 m

(Narkanda) and has been recorded from as low

as 1 ,280 m (Katarmal). It will probably be found

even lower in suitable localities, i.e. chir pine

( Pinus roxburghii Sarg.) forests.

The larval food plant of Thamnoecha

uniformis is thought to be chir pine by a process

of elimination. Dierl (op. cit.) found a larva with

the characteristic form and stripe of a conifer-

feeding hawkmoth close to the Sphinx L. genus

on chir pine in Nepal.

'Accepted March, 2000

2Jones Estate, Bhimtal, Nainital, Uttaranchal 263 136, India.

This larva was subsequently parasitised

and no moth developed out of it. Since no Indian

hawkmoth was known to feed on conifers and

uniformis was, at the time, the only known

representative of this group in the area, and

lastly, a male uniformis was found by Dierl (op.

cit.) in the daytime settled on a chir pine trunk

in Nagarjong, it was assumed that the larva was

that of uniformis. This has, however, not been

confirmed by actual breeding experiments.

Although there is little reason to doubt that chir

pine is the larval food plant of uniformis , it is

pertinent that Sphinx ligustri L. has been

recently reported from Kumaon (Smetacek

1994). While ligustri is not known to feed on

conifers, the point is that uniformis is not the

only representative of the group in the western

Himalaya.

In the present study, T. uniformis has been

recorded in every month from March through

August. It is always extremely scarce, no more

than one individual appearing at a time. The

southwest monsoon, which dictates the flying

period of most hawkmoths in this area, does not

perceptibly affect the emergence pattern of

uniformis. Nor has this moth been found to be

affected by climatic anomalies such as drought

or unusually warm winters. It has always been

very scarce, even though its presumed larval food

plant, chir pine, covers vast tracts in Kumaon.

It may be added that the assessment of its scarcity

is based on its attendance at artificial light,

rather than actual examination of chir pine

forests at appropriate times.

The only factor which seems to affect

populations of this moth, besides larval

26

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

INDIVIDUAL VARIATION AND SEXUAL DIMORPHISM IN TH AMNOECHA UNIFORMIS

parasites, is forest fire, which is an almost

regular phenomenon in chir pine forests. None

were recorded after major fires. However, the

same can be said for all other hawkmoths and

insects that happen to live in or near chir pine

forests.

Both sexes are attracted to mercury vapour

lamps of 125-160 W. They are active at dusk

and during the early hours of darkness, almost

never appearing after 2030 hrs in summer. Their

activity at dawn has not been assessed. Unlike

most hawkmoths that are active and nervous for

some time after being attracted, both sexes of

uniformis settle directly upon arrival and rarely

change position. Usually, they select a dark

surface to settle upon, but will do so on a white-

washed pillar if no other convenient perch is

available. They rarely settle under the glare of

the lamp, preferring a shady comer. At rest, they

hold their wings draped laterally over the

abdomen, the short abdomen and blunt wings

giving them the appearance of Notodontids rather

than hawkmoths. They closely resemble the

European Sphiwc pinastri L., especially at rest.

Although pinastri is known to visit flowers at dusk,

uniformis has never been seen visiting flowers.

The following is a description of the sexes:

Thamnoecha uniformis (Butler)

1875. Hyloicus uniformis Butler. Proc.

zool. Soc. Lond .: 261.

1903. Thamnoecha uniformis Rothschild

& Jordan. Rev. Sphing.: 153.

Male: Length of forewing: 23-25 mm

(mi hi).

Expanse: 50 mm (Dierl op. c it . ;

Hampson 1892; Bell & Scott 1937) to 54 mm

(Hampson 1892).

Forewing to antenna ratio: 1.76: 1.

Material Examined: 2 exs.: 5 .vii. 1 989,

Katarmal 1 ,280 m Leg. R Smetacek; 2 1 .iii. 1 994,

Jones Estate, Bhimtal, 1,500 m Leg. P.

Smetacek.

Diagnosis: Palpi, vertex of head, thorax

and abdomen brownish-grey. The sides of head

black. Vertex of thorax cinereous grey. Collar

and tegulae proximally fringed with black.

Antennae fasciculate, terminally swollen into a

club and narrow at base. Antennae more than

half the length of the forewing.

Forewing grey with a proximally curved

ferruginous medial band and two similar

postmedial bands. The bands are distinctly

marked in some individuals, nearly obsolete in

others. One prominent black streak in the

interspace between veins 2 (Cu2) and 3 (Cu,)

and another above it in the interspace between

veins 4 (M3) and 3 (Cu,). Rarely, there is a short

black streak in the interspace between veins

5 (M2) and 4 (M3) as in the Nepalese specimen

figured by Allen (1993). These marks are

variable, one or the other might be longer or

more heavily marked or one might be altogether

obsolete. Dark points on the cilia at the veins.

Hindwing reddish-brown, cilia grey. The verso

surface is uniform grey, the cilia as on

the recto surface except that on the hindwing,

there are faint dark points discernible at the

veins.

In the Katarmal specimen, the medial area

of the fore wing recto, between the rufous bands,

is darker than the rest of the wing.

Female: Length of forewing: 23 - 29 mm

(mi hi).

Expanse: 53 mm (Dierl op. cit.) to 66 mm

(mihi).

Forewing to antenna ratio: 2.15: 1 to 2.4:

1.

Material Examined: 6 exs.: 2.vi.l974;

18.V.1989; 6.iv.l982; 5.vi.l998; 22.viii. 1997,

all collected at Jones Estate, Bhimtal, 1,500 m,

Coll. P. Smetacek; 7.vi.l925 Bhimtal, Maxwell

Coll., BM 1967-553 (Coll. Natural History

Museum, London) (Photograph of recto surface

examined)

Diagnosis: Palpi pale grey, sometimes

nearly white, contrasting with the rest of the

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

27

INDIVIDUAL VARIATION AND SEXUAL DIMORPHISM IN TH AMNOECHA UMIFORMIS

head. Vertex of head, vertex of thorax and

abdomen grey. Collar and tegulae brownish-grey

and defined proximally by a narrow black fringe.

Antennae simple, narrow, terminally swollen into

a prominent club, the tip tapering to a point but

not hooked. Antennae less than half the length

of the forewing.

Forewing uniformly grey, the inner area

faintly ferruginous or darker grey. Traces of one

medial and two postmedial ferruginous bands on

the costa of some individuals. These bands never

reach below vein 4 (M3). The two black streaks

in the interspaces between vein 4 (M3) and vein

2 (Cu2) are usually faint and often one or both

are entirely obsolete. Cilia of forewing with

prominent dark points at the veins. Hindwing

uniformly brownish-grey in some individuals,

grey in others. Verso surface uniformly grey with

a fine marginal dark line to both wings.

Discussion

From the above, it is evident that there are

modest but consistent differences between the

sexes, both in the external structure as well as in

the pattern. The structure and length of the

antennae are the most evident external structural

differences. Died (1970) noted that the antennae

of the female are thinner than those of the male.

This is due to the fascicles on the male’s antennae

rather than their actual thickness, which is more

or less the same as those of the female. Dierl

also stated that the antennae of the female are

shorter than the male, reaching only a little over

half the length of the forewing costa. In the

specimens examined in the present study, the

antennae of the female are less than half the

length of the forewing costa, while those of the

male are more than half the length of the

forewing costa.

Contrary to Dierl’s (op. cit.) observation,

size is not a distinguishing factor between the

sexes. The usual expanse given for males by most

authors is 50 mm. However, in Hampson’s (1892)

description of Protoparce uniformis Butler, he

gives an expanse of 54 mm for the material

examined by him. Since only males were known

at the time, it follows that this measurement

applies to males. In the same work, Hampson

described Pseudosphinx concolor for the first

time and gave a measurement of 50 mm.

P. concolor turned out to be a synonym of

uniformis. Bell & Scott (1937) used Hampson’s

(1892) description of concolor in their

description of uniformis and apparently

overlooked the measurement of 54 mm given by

Hampson (op. cit.) for Protoparce uniformis.

This presumption is strengthened by the fact that

Protoparce uniformis is not mentioned in the

synonymy by Bell & Scott (op. cit.), although

Pseudosphinx concolor is included.

It is noteworthy that in Hampson’s (op.

cit.) description of Protoparce uniformis males,

there is no mention of the horizontal black

streaks on the fore wing recto between vein 2

(Cu2) and vein 4 (M3). Kitching {in litt.) notes

that there are three males and four females in

the collection of the Natural History Museum

in London (UK). All are somewhat worn and

faded, with the pattern difficult to distinguish.

A specimen from this collection has been figured

by D’Abrera (1986), and it is of interest that, on

the basis of the characters of the antennae, the

specimen is likely to be a female, not a male as

stated. The specimen in the same collection from

Bhimtal, of which a photograph was examined,

is slightly worn, particularly on the distal half

of the forewing recto. It lacks the horizontal

black streaks on the forewing recto. Rothschild

& Jordan (1903) note that in all the specimens

examined by them, which are the three male

specimens mentioned above, the tips of the

antennae were broken off.

The ferruginous bands on the forewing

recto are usually more strongly developed in

males than in females. Besides this, only females

appear to have the black marginal line on the

verso surface of both wings.

28

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

INDIVIDUAL VARIATION AND SEXUAL DIMORPHISM IN TH AMNOECHA UNIFORMIS

The black streaks on the forewing are

variable, but despite Hampson’s (op. cit.)

description of male Protoparce uniformis

mentioned above, which lacks these streaks, I

am of the opinion that these streaks are

prominent in males, while in females, they may

be present, or one or more might be absent. I

have a female in good condition, which entirely

lacks both the black streaks.

Refer

Allen, M. (1993): Marvellous Moths of Nepal. Know

Nepal Series, No. 6. Rohit Kumar, Lashkar, Madhya

Pradesh. Pp. 13; pi. 10.

Bell, T.R.D. & F.B. Scott (1937): The Fauna of British

India including Ceylon and Burma. Moths Vol. V,

Sphingidae. Taylor & Francis, London. Pp. xviii +

537; xv pi.; 1 map.

D’Abrera, B. (1986): Sphingidae Mundi. E.W. Classey,

Faringdon, U.K. Pp. 8 + 226.

Dierl, W. (1970): Grundzuge Einer Okologischen

Tiergeographie der Schwaermer Ostenepals. Khumbu

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to Ian J. Kitching of the Natural

History Museum, London (UK) for his kind help

which made this paper possible. I am also grateful

to J.M. Cadiou for literature and the photograph

of the specimen from Bhimtal, in the collection of

the Natural History Museum, London and to the

anonymous referees for their valuable suggestions.

ENCES

Himal Ergebn. Forsch.-Unt. Nep. Him. 3/3: 319-320.

Hampson, G.F. ( 1 892): The Fauna of British India including

Ceylon and Burma, Moths Vol. I. Taylor & Francis,

London. Pp. xxiii + 527.

Rothschild, W. & K. Jordan (1903): A Revision of the

Lepidopterous Family Sphingidae. Nov. Zool. 9

( Supp .): 972 pp., 67 pis.

Smetacek, P. ( 1 994): An Annotated List of the Hawkmoths

(Lepidoptera: Sphingidae) of Kumaon, N. India: A

Probable Case of Faunal Drift. Rec. zool. Surv. Ind.,

Occ. Paper 156 : 1-55.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

29

PETA URISTA NOBILIS SINGHEI — FIRST RECORD IN INDIA

AND A NOTE ON ITS TAXONOMY1

Anwaruddin Choudhury2

( With one text-figure)

Key words: Giant flying squirrel, Petaurista nobilis singhei, Arunachal Pradesh,

West Kameng, northeastern India, distribution

The giant flying squirrel Petaurista nobilis singhei is known only from Bhutan. Recently, some

skins were examined and live animals observed in the wild in Arunachal Pradesh in northeastern

India. This is the first record for the subspecies singhei in India, and the first record for the

species P. nobilis, in northeastern India. Habitat

the animal. Protected areas having this species

Orchid Sanctuary, both in Arunachal Pradesh.

Introduction

Petaurista nobilis (Gray) is a poorly known

giant flying squirrel, described from specimens

obtained from Darjeeling, West Bengal. It is also

found in the hills and mountains of Nepal and

Sikkim (Ghose and Saha 1981). A new

subspecies of Petaurista nobilis was described

from specimens obtained in Bhutan. This new

race was named singhei (Saha 1977). Larger size,

richer colour and the absence of a pale mid-dorsal

stripe distinguishes it from the nominate

subspecies.

During field survey in western Arunachal

Pradesh, I came across both live animals as well

as many preserved skins, which happened to be

first records for the subspecies in India with an

eastward range extension. Locally, the

Sherdukpen people call it Khiaw.

Study area and Methods

The study area covered West Kameng

district (26° 56'-27° 50’ N, 92° 01'-92° 56' E) of

Arunachal Pradesh. The area was formerly

'Accepted February, 2001

2The Rhino Foundation for Nature in NE India,

c/o Assam Co. Ltd. Bamunimaidam,

Guwahati 781 021, Assam, India.

loss and hunting are the main problems faced by

are the Eaglenest Wildlife Sanctuary and Sessa

referred to as part of the Balipara Frontier Tract

of Assam, and the Kameng Frontier Tract of

NEFA (Northeast Frontier Agency). The terrain

is hilly and mountainous (part of the Eastern

Himalaya) with elevation varying from 100 m

in the south to more than 7,000 m at some of the

peaks in the Great Himalaya. The field work was

carried out from 100 to 4,000 m. North-south

and east-west flowing rivers dissect the district,

making long narrow valleys (Tenga, Rupa,

Shergaon, Dirang and Sangti). The highest

ranges are towards the north, while the lowest

elevation is in the riverbeds near the Assam-

Arunachal Pradesh border (around 1 00 m above

msl.). The annual rainfall ranges from less than

2,000 mm in the north to more than 3,000 mm

in the south.

Several field trips were made to West

Kameng (November 1997, April, July, August

and November 1998, July, October and December

1 999, and April, May and October 2000) to study

its wildlife. Some preserved skins were examined

in the tribal villages, and the local villagers and

hunters were also interviewed. The skins

available in the village helped them to describe

sightings. For direct observation, we made foot-

transects along existing and new paths and trails,

and vehicle-transects along roads and motorable

tracks. Observations were aided with a pair of

30

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

FIRST RECORD OF PETAURISTA NOBILIS SINGHEI IN INDIA

10 x 50 binoculars and 10 x 46 telescope.

Photographs were taken with a Canon T50

camera with 200 mm tele lens and a Nikon FM2.

Results

External measurements and coloration:

Most of the specimens seen in different villages

(skins) were examined using standard methods

and photographed. The measurements are listed

in Table 1 . The length of head and body ranged

from 47 to 69 cm while that of tail, 51 to 61 cm.

All the specimens examined have thick,

woolly, glossy hair. The saddle is a rich maroon-

brown. The shoulder patches extend along the

sides of the body, and in some specimens may

join at the lower back (behind the dark saddle).

Colour varies from rich orange-buff to rich

brownish-buff. Parachute varies from orange-

yellow to ochraceous-brown. Tail-tip deep

blackish or black. Underside light yellow-buff,

almost uniform except near abdomen, which is

richer. The dark saddle may join the dark area

on head by a broad patch or a thin line. Mid-

dorsal stripe present in one skin, but it is broken.

Distribution and Habitat: Specimens

were examined at Morsing, Tenzinggang,

Shergaon, Thungre, and Tenga Valley, while live

animals were observed between Lamacamp and

Ramalingam, just outside Eaglenest and Sessa

Orchid Sanctuaries (Fig. 1). Coordinates and

elevations are given in Table 1 . The animals were

found to occur in the wild in subtropical and

temperate broadleaf forests, in the mountains

from 1,500 m up to 2,300 m. The habitat near

Tenzinggang nullah, from where a few were shot

Fig. 1 : Map of the study area showing the places mentioned in the text

(SOS Sessa Orchid Sanctuary, ENS Eaglenest Sanctuary)

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

31

FIRST RECORD OF PETAURISTA NOBILIS SINGHEI IN INDIA

by hunters from Shergaon, is subtropical broadleaf.

It may also occur in mixed broadleaf and coniferous

forests (e.g., near Tenga Valley, Thungre).

Ecology: Very little is known. Like other

giant flying squirrels, singhei is also nocturnal.

The specimens seen live, as well as those shot

by local hunters, were all sighted at night. The

live animals were seen feeding on the ground,

on dirt road after dusk. They preferred new

roadside cuttings. On examination of the feeding

sites, nothing on the ground indicated that they

were taking salt or minerals directly from the

earth (primates and ungulates often haunt such

new cuttings or slides for salt).

A squirrel feeding on the ground almost

came under our vehicle. It was rather unafraid

and moved away slowly. At another site, one was

by the side of the road and went down as we

approached.

Conservation issues: It is apparent that

habitat loss and hunting for the pot are the main

threats faced by singhei. The number of skins in

just a few villages indicates that many are shot

every year. Many hunters do not keep the skins.

Also, there is apparently no trade, save for a few

skins sold to visitors or army officials. Habitat loss

is mainly due to felling. However, in view of the

Supreme Court judgement, large-scale cutting has

currently been stopped. In the 1980s and early

1 990s, most of the forest around Rupa, Thungre,

and between Rupa and Shergaon was destroyed.

The habitat near Shergaon and Tenzinggang is still

good. But there is no future for these areas, as the

community forests have been saved temporarily

by a court judgement and villagers are waiting for

the clearance from the court in future. The

protected areas having singhei are Eaglenest

Wildlife Sanctuary (217 sq. km) and Sessa Orchid

Sanctuary (100 sq. km).

Discussion

The range of the species is now extended

eastwards by more than 100 km. This is also the

first record, for India, of the subspecies singhei

which was known only from Bhutan (Saha 1977)

where it has been recorded at Gomchu Valley

( c . 2,240-2,288 m), Paro (c. 2,440 m) and

Mithangarh (c. 1,676 m). In the holotype and

seven paratypes, tail length is always more than

that of head and body, the difference being

marginal (49:51 cm) to significant (48.7:59 cm).

In the present study, in four skins, the head-body

and tail were intact (Table 1). In only one case

was the tail longer, while in the rest, the head

and body were longer than the tail. The

specimens of the present study were also larger

than in previous records. The longest head and

body length in Saha (1977) is given as 48.7 cm,

and that of tail 59.0 cm (same specimen). In our

study, all but one are larger in size (head and

body max. 69 cm). However, in case of the tail

only one exceeded 60.0 cm (61.0 cm). The largest

specimen (overall: head-body and tail) in Saha

(1977) was 107.7 cm while in the present case,

it is 126.8 cm. Our records also show that there

could be significant variations in the length of

the tail and coloration in the species.

The nominate subspecies P. n. nobilis

(Gray) is known from Darjeeling, Sikkim and

Nepal (Ghose and Saha 1981).

The taxonomic status of nobilis was

the subject of some controversy. The giant

flying squirrels with prominent yellow shoulder

patch, originally described as Sciuropterus

[= Petaurista] magnificus Hodgson 1836, and

Sciuropterus [= Petaurista ] nobilis Gray 1842

were synonymised by most authors. Blyth ( 1 863)

treated Petaurista nobilis and Hodgson’s giant

flying squirrel Petaurista magnificus as

conspecific, likewise Ellerman (1963), and

Ellerman and Morrison-Scott (1966). However,

Wroughton (1911, 1919) treated nobilis as a

separate species, but as a race of Petaurista

albiventer (Gray). Corbett and Hill (1992) also

treated it as a separate species.

P. magnificus and P. nobilis have been

isolated from their congenerics by the presence

32

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

FIRST RECORD OF PETAURISTA NOBILIS SINGHEl IN INDIA

Table l

MEASUREMENTS AND DETAILS OF LOCALITIES OF PETAURISTA NOBILIS SINGHEl

of distinct shoulder patches. Even Ellerman

(1963) concluded that the two forms were

seasonal variants. One obvious reason was lack

of material. Ghose and Saha (1981) showed that

besides coloration, there is significant difference

in the skull.

I suggest a common name “orange giant

flying squirrel” for the species/subspecies.

Acknowledgements

For encouragement and support, 1 thank

Ms Emily Chowdhary, Commissioner &

Secretary to the Govt of Assam. For assistance

during field survey in Arunachal, I thank S.N.

Kalita (CCF-wildlife), M.K. Palit (former DFO-

wildlife, Seijosa), C. Loma (DFO-wildlife,

Seijosa), A.K. Singh (Range Officer,

Ramalingam), S.K. Shome (i/c Range Officer,

Ramalingam), B. Ali and B.C. Dey (both

Foresters, Ramalingam), B.C. Hazarika, FG

(WL), Ramalingam; T. Hazarika, FG (terr.)

Ramalingam; Anupam Sharma, botanist;

Moniram Gogoi, Rajesh Pachung, Dorji Raptan,

Pemba Tamang (all retrenched Sanctuary

Watchers); Srimanta Tamuli and Gajen Tamang.

I also thank for their help and support,

R.K. Das, DFO (wildlife) at Tezpur, Pankaj

Sharma, Range Officer, Nameri National Park;

N. Bhuiyan, brother-in-law of B.C. Hazarika;

Nitu Phukan of Eco-camp, wife of B.C. Hazarika

(FG-WL, Ramalingam), army posted at

Ramalingam, Bisoy Boro, Moniram Boro, Painu

Phiyang, Gajen Tamang, Bablu Dey, Mithun

Sarkar, Lei Khandu Thungon of Shergaon, and

the later Ledo Thungon of Extra-Assistant

Commissioner’s Office at Kalaktang.

Special thanks are due to Bir Bahadur

Gurung and Hakeem, for accompanying me on

many of the trips, and K.N. Thungon (teacher)

of Shergaon, who was my virtual host in that

area.

References

Blyth, E.K. (1863): Catalogue of the Mammalia in the Corbet, G.B. & J.E. Hill (1992): The mammals of the

Museum of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Bengal Indomalayan Region: a systematic review. Oxford

Ptg. Co. Ltd., Calcutta. Pp. 187, xiii. University Press, London. Pp. 488, viii

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 99(1), APR. 2002

33

FIRST RECORD OF PETAUR1STA NOBILIS SINGHEI IN INDIA

Ellerman, J.R. (1963): The fauna of India including

Pakistan, Burma and Ceylon. Mammalia, 3

(Rodentia) (1). Govt, of India, Delhi. Pp. 482, xxx.

Ellerman, J.R. & T.C.S. Morrison-Scott (1966):

Checklist of the Palaearctic and Indian mammals,

2nd edn. British Museum, London.

Ghose, R.K. & S.S. Saha (1981): Taxonomic review of

Hodgson’s giant flying squirrel Petaurista

magnificus (Hodgson) (Sciuridae: Rodentia), with

description of a new subspecies from Darjeeling

district. West Bengal, India. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 78: 93-102.

Saha, S.S. ( 1 977): A new subspecies of the flying squirrel,

Petaurista nobilis (Gray), from Bhutan. Proc. Zool.

Soc., Calcutta 28(1975): 27-29.

Wroughton, R.C. (1911): Oriental flying squirrels of the

‘ Pteromys ' group. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 20:

1012-1023.

Wroughton, R.C. (1919): Summary of the results from

the Indian Mammal Survey of the Bombay Natural

History Society. Part 3. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

26: 338-379. '

34

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

THE INITIAL COLONISATION OF THE YAMUNA FLOOD PLAIN

BY THE SIND SPARROW PASSER PYRRHONOTUS 1

Bill Harvey2 and Suresh C. Sharma3

( With two text-figures and one plate)

Key words: Passer pyrrhonotus, Sind sparrow, Acacia nilotica , Haryana, canal,

colonisation

The Sind sparrow Passer pyrrhonotus appears to be spreading out of its traditional range in the

Indus Basin in Pakistan and extreme northwest India. Birds were found in twelve sites near

canals in eastern Haryana and north Delhi during January- August 2001 and successful breeding

was first proved in June. Details of the sightings, observed habits and nesting are given with

descriptions of the plumage.

Introduction

The Sind sparrow Passer pyrrhonotus was

largely restricted to the Indus flood plain in

Pakistan and its tributaries just extending into

Punjab, in India. It was first described in 1844,

but then lost to ornithologists until 1880. It took

a further 50 years for it to be fully accepted as a

full species; many earlier writers considered it

to be a sub-species of the house sparrow Passer

domesticus (Summers-Smith 1988). The synopsis

(Ripley 1982) describes its range as “the plains

of the Indus from Nowshera (c. 34 °N), the

Jhelum district, Gurdaspur, Ferozepore and

Ludhiana ... south to Sadhani, Hyderabad

( c . 25 °N) and the Nara canal in Sind.” Summers-

Smith (1988) gives more detail for its Indian

range; “into the Indian Punjab on the Beas river

near Gurdaspur and along the Sutlej to Ladhowai

(10 km north of Ludhiana)” and “found it regular

along the Sutlej from Harike, east to the bridge

on the main road between Ludhiana and

Jullunder (Jalandhar), but not further upstream

at Rupar.” There are old records from

Baluchistan and neighbouring Iran (Summers-

Smith 1988). Bapat (1993) records sightings in

'Accepted November, 2001

2N50 Panchsheel Park, New Delhi 110 017, India.

''Gokul Nagar, Rohtak Road, Sonipat 131 001 , Haryana, India.

1990 from Khari Nadi, c. 3 km west of Bhuj in

Kutch, Gujarat, but gives very little detail. With

our present knowledge of range and habitat

requirements, this report requires substantiation.

Apparently, the species has had a restricted range

since it was discovered, with only circumstantial

evidence of even short distance migrations. It is

reportedly locally common within its range, but

decidedly restricted to aquatic environments with

trees, particularly the banks of large canals and

rivers. This dependence on trees by or in water

seems consistent, and claims for the species in

other habitats need tabe reviewed with great care.

First recorded occurrences in the Yamuna

flood plain in 2001

SCS has birdwatched in Haryana for over

25 years. He has focused particularly on the

waterways and marshes. On January 3, 2001 he

found a male and two female Sind sparrows in a

babul tree ( Acacia nilotica) along the village road

between Chitana and Juan villages (15 km north

of Sonipat), about 100 m from the Delhi canal.

He had never encountered this species before in

Haryana. On February 21 and 23, 2001 he found

a flock of eight birds (three males and five

females), again in babuls, near the village of

Rohat, 8 km south of Sonipat, on the banks of

the Delhi canal. He saw about the same number,

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

35

SIND SPARROW IN THE YAMUNA FLOOD PLAIN

at the same location, on March 1 1 and 3 1 , and

three birds on April 6 and 22. On April 8, he

found a male near Mohamedabad village, 1 1 km

south of Sonipat, on the Delhi canal banks. At

the same site, he observed a mating pair in the

first week of May and a male on June 3. Thus,

three sites within 26 km in Sonipat district held

around 15 individuals, from January-June 2001.

In addition, SCS briefly saw one male

accompanied by a possible female at the

Bhindawas Sanctuary 80 km west-southwest of

Delhi on April 22, 2001. This represents a

considerable range extension from the Sonipat

area. It is probably significant that both the

Jawaharlal Nehru Feeder canal, which is

connected with Bhindawas Lake via an escape

channel, and the Delhi canal originate from the

Western Yamuna canal at Sardhana Water

Regulator in the Sonipat district. The Sardhana

regulator is nearly 25 km north of Sonipat.

Evidence of colonization of the Yamuna

flood plain in 2001

On May 13, Bill Harvey (WGH) joined

SCS and others to visit his Sonipat sites. At the

Mohamedabad site, at least five individuals were

seen and a nest located about 3 m high near the

trunk of a babul. This nest was still active on

May 15, but on May 20 it was deserted. However,

its discovery prompted new efforts. After negative

results along several kilometres of the Najafgarh

drain on May 15, WGH found a singing male at

Bhindawas on June 14 and a colony of at least

eight active nests, with 1 1 males and 6 females,

on the edge of an incipient water bird colony on

an island in the lake, on June 15. On June 28,

Nikhil Devasar (a bird watcher from Delhi) and

WGH visited the site again to take photographs.

They found around 30 birds, half of which were

newly fledged juveniles. There were also about

ten adult males and five females, some of which

were associated with four new nests. The colony

probably held a minimum of 1 0- 12 breeding pairs

(the active heronry, which occupies two-thirds

of the babuls on the island, was not examined to

avoid disturbance, so the total could be two or

three times that). Thus, in 2001 we obtained

evidence for the first time that young Sind

sparrows fledged successfully in Haryana.

SCS found the first birds in Delhi region

on June 23, with a male and two females in a

babul on the Delhi canal bank between Harewali

and Jhinjholi villages. At one of the original sites

(Juan) he found four nests and associated birds

within 100 m of the Delhi canal on June 24. On

June 26, 2001, SCS found individuals at two

different locations along the JLN Feeder Canal,

again on babuls. The latter two locations are at

least 30 km northwest of Sonipat and about

15 km apart. One was in Sonipat district and the

other was in Rohtak district. New nest sites were

found at Tehri on the JLN Feeder Canal (2 nests)

on July 3, Kakroi (5 nests) on July 6 and Fatehpur

(1 nest) on July 14. On July 29 and August 12,

up to 5 birds were found along the Delhi Canal

near Garhi Bala. Thus, the species has been

recorded in twelve separate places in Haryana

State and the Delhi region, with nests located at

six of them, and at least 50 individuals, excluding

fledged young. This suggests that colonisation

is established and records from further sites near

the canals and other waterways can be expected.

The distribution of these new sites is indicated

in Fig. 2.

The current and historical distributions as

on August 31, 2001 are indicated in Fig. 1.

Field Descriptions

Although the descriptions of this species

available in various field guides are generally

accurate, we did observe additional features. No

individual variation has been noticed within the

sexes. The species is usually initially identified

by its subtly different voice, although visual

features are striking in males at least, if every

sparrow is examined. The species is not, in our

36

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

SIND SPARROW IN THE YAMUNA FLOOD PLAIN

JAMMU

KASHMIR

HI MACH ALA

PRADESH

PUNJAB

UTTARANCH.

HARYANA

RAJASTHAN

UTTAR PRADESH

MADHYA PRADESH

40 N —

35 N —

30 N —

25 N —

70 E

75 E

80 E

Fig. 1 : The world range of the Sind sparrow (light grey) and the area of new colonisation (dark grey)

view, obviously smaller than all house sparrows

(often seen with or near Sind sparrows), but it is

certainly slimmer, smaller headed and perhaps

longer tailed. The bill is neater than that of a

house sparrow with a finer, more pointed tip.

The male has a distinctive, quite high-

pitched and “rocking” song chitta chitta chitta,

which is distinct from the chirruping song of

house sparrows. Both sexes have a soft cheep

cheep call, not markedly different from that of

house sparrows but quieter. The call and the song

are interspersed with a quite distinct, repeated

tswep tswep call reminiscent of a white wagtail

Motacilla alba.

The males have a dove-grey forehead,

crown and nape; paler grey on the collar and

cheeks, contrasting with fairly broad sweeping

stripes, from the eyes to half way round the

cheeks, which are a distinct bright, russet

chestnut, paler and brighter than the similar

markings on male house sparrows. The mantle

is rich brown with both darker and paler feather

edgings, and merging into a distinctly brown

back and rump, which in turn merges into

narrow, grey upper tail coverts (in contrast to a

male house sparrow which has the whole back,

rump and upper tail coverts distinctly grey). The

lesser coverts are distinctly chestnut and there

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

37

SIND SPARROW IN THE YAMUNA FLOOD PLAIN

are obvious white tips to the median coverts,

adding to the bird’s overall bright appearance.

The cheeks are uniform pale grey, merging

with limited or no contrast into a grey throat,

breast and belly (most published illustrations

show a strong contrast between the cheeks and

the underparts, but this is not always obvious in

the plumages we have been observing). The

distinctive black bib is quite long and narrow

with straight, clean-edged sides (thus rather

38

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

NIKHIL DEVASAR NIKHIL DEVASAR

SIND SPARROW IN THE YAMUNA FLOOD PLAIN

Harvey, Bill et al.\ Sind sparrow Passer pyrrhonotus

Plate 1

Fig. 1: Male Sind sparrow removing material from old nest to construct new one

Fig. 2: Female Sind sparrow

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

39

SIND SPARROW IN THE YAMUNA FLOOD PLAIN

rectangular in shape) and quite unlike the round

bib (whether small or large and blotched) of male

house sparrows of any age. It is not the size of

the bib that is important for identification, but

the shape. The bills in May- June at least have

all been blackish, indicating breeding condition.

The female, although superficially like a

female house sparrow, is more distinctive than

the field guides suggest (Plate 1, Fig. 2). The

broad sweeping pale whitish supercilia run back

from the eyes and contrast much more with the

plain, pale brown crown and very distinct

concolorous grey cheeks. These, unlike in the

male, contrast quite markedly with the more

house sparrow-like buffish-white throat, breast

and belly. The other striking feature is the distinct

pale chestnut lesser wing coverts, very similar

to those of yellow-throated sparrow Petronia

xanthocollis . The bill is greyish horn on the upper

mandible and yellow on the lower.

The juveniles are similar to the females,

but with obvious yellow gapes and fresh plumage.

Young males had started developing the male

head markings in late June (within two weeks of

fledging at most).

Habits

Almost all observations have been of birds

calling and/or singing in babul trees. Birds have

frequently been observed picking food off babul

leaves (or even, perhaps, eating the young leaves)

and twice apparently feeding on the ground. A

female has been observed feeding on a babul

trunk in the manner of a tit ( Parus ). Birds have

been seen collecting dry grass from the ground

and feathers (from other birds' nests) in the

course of nest building, and flying into reed-beds,

perhaps with the same purpose. Eucalyptus and

other tree species have been used as perches, but

the dependence on babuls seems quite marked.

There also seems to be a need to be within easy

reach of reasonably natural wet grassland and

reeds. Groves of babuls on canal banks, with no

such marshland vegetation close by (as at

Najafgarh) do not seem to be sufficient. As yet,

we have only limited observations on their

feeding habits and most prolonged observations

have been at nest sites.

Nesting

All nests found (25 to date) have been in

babul trees. The nest is untidy, oval or semi-oval,

made of dry, yellowish grasses (often

intermingled with feathers) and lined with finer

grasses and feathers. The entrance hole is a

quarter way down from the top. It resembles a

house sparrow’s nest built in the open. Both sexes

contribute to the building, although the males

spend much time singing and calling while

perched close to the nest. In Bhindawas, it was

thought that the females were inside incubating

or brooding in some cases. All the Sonipat area

nests were “free-standing” and close to babul

trunks in thick foliage (made so by pruning for

fodder). Two nests were in one tree, but the other

three were in their own trees.

Nine of the nests at Bhindawas were in

the base of other birds’ nests. We can find no

reference to such breeding sites in the literature,

although Summers-Smith (1988) mentions that

Jones (1912) recorded them breeding in the old

nests of baya weavers Ploceus philippinus. The

old egret nests at Bhindawas provided the roof

and the nest shape was less domed as a result.

Seven were in old, probably egret, nests and two

were in the base of nests of Asian pied starlings

Sturnus contra. The starlings may still have

occupied one of these nests, as one bird constantly

visited and sat on top of the nest, calling. It did

not enter the nest, however. This may have been

no more than an interest in the new tenants. Two

nests were free standing (as in the Sonipat area)

and one was built on top of an old (probably egret)

nest. A male was observed taking dry grasses

from a much reduced used nest, from which

young had recently fledged, and contributing

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

41

SIND SPARROW IN THE YAMUNA FLOOD PLAIN

them to a new free-standing nest, presumably

for a second brood.

Each nest was in its own babul, 4-5 m

above the ground in the canopy. The trees

occupied were 10-20 m apart, so that all the

calling and singing males were audible to each

other. No interactions between different pairs

were observed at Bhindawas during the two short

visits. However, at the first nest found on May

13 near Mohamedabad, the nesting pair

determinedly drove off other Sind sparrows that

landed in the nest tree.

Discussion

Circumstantially, the evidence is that the

Sind sparrow only colonised parts of Haryana

(and Delhi) in 2001, but it has to be admitted

that knowledge of the species and coverage of

the area has always been extremely limited. It is

feasible that colonisation has been progressing

for a number of years and it may be that 2001

saw its first consolidation, thus making the

species more obvious. But it is still extremely

scarce and local everywhere. SCS has been very

active in Haryana for many years, and it seems

likely that the records from his area (and north

Delhi) since January 2001 are genuinely new. In

Bhindawas, given the generally inaccessible and

inaudible nature of the colony (a wade through

nearly 1 m of mud and water is required during

the monsoon breeding season, and the birds are

usually only audible from the bund at daybreak),

it is possible that they have been overlooked by

the infrequent birding visitors. SCS visited

Bhindawas regularly from 1985-91, so any

colonisation is likely to have begun after that

date.

Whatever the date of the initiation, and we

are certainly talking of the 1990s at the earliest.

In a relatively short time, the Sind sparrow, a

hitherto largely sedentary and localized species,

has crossed a major geographical divide and

successfully established a breeding population.

The main route into Haryana was probably the

Western Yamuna Canal, which divides into the

Delhi and Jawaharlal Nehru Feeder Canals at

Sardhana. All records to the end of August 200 1

have been along or close to these two canals and

their link canals. This may have involved

crossing no more than a 100 km gap from the

upper Sutlej to the Yamuna flood plain, most

likely in the region of Ludhiana. Thus, the

intricate system of canals, feeders and drains in

the Punjab and Haryana has enabled the species

to spread because of the eminently sensible

practice of planting native babul trees along the

bunds to stabilise the soil. Apart from the

proximity of water, the major constant in the Sind

sparrows’ ecological requirements appears to be

the babul tree.

Fig. 2 shows the main arteries of the system

and the way they connect the established and new

sites of the Sind sparrow in India. The species,

if it continues to prosper, is on the threshold of

the whole Gangetic system. It will be interesting

to see if it takes advantage of the great waterways

and their tributaries; or whether climatic and

other ecological limitations hinder its spread

much further. We need to find out much more

about the species’ diet, social structure, breeding

regime and habitat requirements. But it remains

a delightful and much underestimated species,

well able to co-exist with the house sparrow (its

erstwhile, claimed conspecific), and clearly on

the move.

Acknowledgement

We are grateful to Dr. Asad Rahmani for

encouraging us to write this paper and for

commenting constructively on the initial draft.

42

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

SIND SPARROW IN THE YAMUNA FLOOD PLAIN

Refer

Bapat, N.N. (1993): Sind sparrow Passer pyrrhonotus

Blyth in northwest Gujarat J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc, 89: 378.

Jones, A.E. (1912): Notes on birds from Lahore. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 21: 1073-1074.

e n c e s

Ripley, S.D. (1982): A Synopsis of the Birds of India

and Pakistan. Bombay Natural History Society.

Pp. 538.

Summers-Smith, J. Denis (1988): The Sparrows. T + A.D.

Poyses, Calton. Pp. 194-198.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

43

EDIBLE OYSTERS OF THE GENUS CRASSOSTREA SACCO 1897,

ALONG THE RATNAGIRI COAST, MAHARASHTRA, INDIA1

M.S. Sawant and A.M. Ranade2

Key words: Edible oysters, Crassostrea gryphoides , Crassostrea madrasensis ,

Crassostrea rivularis , Ratnagiri coast

The edible oysters, which provide subsistence level fishery along the Indian coastline, are

represented in the Ratnagiri region, Maharashtra State, by three species, namely Crassostrea

gryphoides , C. madrasensis and C. rivularis. Based on an extensive series of material, a simple

key for their identification is formulated. Information is also given on major synonymy and local

distribution. C. madrasensis is reported for the first time from the northwest coast of India.

Introduction

Edible oysters are one of the major seafood

delicacies along the Indian coastal belt. They also

form a subsistence level of fishery, almost

throughout the year. Yet, surprisingly little

information is available on their species

composition, seasonal abundance and ecology,

particularly for the Konkan coast of Maharashtra

State (west coast of India). Investigation was,

therefore, initiated in and around Ratnagiri town,

which is one of the major molluscan fishery

centres along the Konkan coast. It was revealed

that the study area harbours only one oyster genus

i.e. Crassostrea Sacco, which is described

hereunder:

Germs Crassostrea Sacco

Diagnostic features: Shell valves rather

elongate and dissimilar in shape and size; left

valve, representing the lower side, attached to

the substratum, right valve almost flat, covering

the left from above. Hinge without teeth, and

ligament partly external. Adductor scar situated

dorsolaterally. Sexes separate, but occasional

instances of sex reversal and hermaphroditism

not uncommon. Oviparous with external

fertilization.

'Accepted September, 1998

2College of Fisheries, Konkan Agricultural University,

Shirgaon, Ratnagiri 415 629, Maharashtra, India.

Remarks: The known eleven species of

Indian edible oysters are all egg laying forms

(= oviparous) and included presently under the

genus Crassostrea : Durve (1967, 1973), Jones

(1968), Imai (1971), Rao (1974, 1987). Early

workers (Hornell 1910, 1918; Awati and Rao

1931) had erroneously placed them under

genus Ostrea , which includes only larvae-

releasing (= larviparous) forms. Of the 11

species, only 3 were recorded during our

investigation, and can easily be distinguished

by the following key:

Key to the species of genus Crassostrea

from the Ratnagiri coast

1. Shell valves more or less uniformly round; left

valve rather shallow and attached to substratum

with its entire outer surface. Umbonal cavity

quite shallow. Adductor muscle scar (oblong)

whitish. Almost entire inner surface of shell

whitish .... Crassostrea rivularis (Gould 1861)

— Shell valves rather irregular in shape; left valve

considerably deep, cup-like and attached to

substratum by only a small portion towards hinge.

Umbo cavity quite deep. Adductor muscle scar

(round or kidney shaped) either deep purplish-

black or distinctly creamish 2

2. Shell oblong with purplish-black coloration along

the margins of the valves. Adductor muscle scar

round and distinctly purplish-black

Crassostrea madrasensis (Preston 1916)

44

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

EDIBLE OYSTERS, CRASSOSTREA, ALONG THE RATNAGIR1 COAST

— Shell oval with almost entire inner surface

creamish. Adductor muscle scar kidney shaped

and distinctly creamish

Crassostreagryphoid.es (Schlotheim 1813)

1. Crassostrea gryphoides (Schlotheim 1813)

Ostracites gryphoides Schlotheim, 1813:

6 (Type locality: Bay of Bengal).

Ostrea gryphoides Vredenburg, 1904: 174;

Awati & Rao, 1931: 6.

Crassostrea gryphoides Durve & Bal,

1961: 70; Durve, 1967: 173; Rao, 1974: 27;

1987: 1.

Common English Name: Indian backwater

oyster (West coast oyster).

Local, Marathi Name: Kaalav

Material examined: About 500 specimens,

size 3.70-16.0 cm, collected from various creeks

in and around Ratnagiri, namely Bhatya,

Sakhartar, Miry a, Purnagad, Saithawada, Jaitapur

from June 1995 to May 1996.

Remarks: Crassostrea gryphoides is

essentially an euryhaline species inhabiting bays,

lagoons, backwaters and creeks. In the open

waters, it is found to penetrate up to a depth of

7 m. It is the most common species of oyster in

the Ratnagiri region of the district, forming about

77% of the total oyster catch, with extensive beds

along the creeks. The shell colour tends to vary

with local ecological conditions.

2. Crassostrea madrasensis (Preston 1916)

Ostrea madrasensis Preston, 1916 (Type

locality: Ennur backwater, Madras) Awati and

Rao, 1931: 111; Gravely, 1941: l;Paul, 1942: 1;

Satyamurthi, 1956: 68.

Ostrea cucullata Homell, 1910: 25.

Ostrea virginica Annandale & Kemp,

1916: 329.

Ostrea virginiana Hornell, 1922: 97.

Ostrea virginiana var. madrasensis Moses,

1928: 548

Ostrea arakanensis Winckworth, 1931:

188.

Ostrea ( Crassostrea ) madrasensis Rao,

1956: 332.

Crassostrea madrasensis Rao, 1958: 55;

1974: 14; 1987: 1; Durve, 1967: 173.

Common English Name: Indian backwater

oyster (East coast oyster).

Local, Marathi Name: Kaalav.

Material examined: About 100

specimens, size: 3.7-16.2 cm, collected from

Bhatya, Sakhartar and Mirya creeks near

Ratnagiri from June 1995 to May 1996.

Remarks: Despite being an euryhadne

species like Crassostrea gryphoides , C.

madrasensis exhibits greater penetration into

open waters, to a depth of 17 m. So far, it was

known only from east and southwest coasts of

India (Alagarswami and Narasimham 1973).

This is, therefore, the first record of

C. madrasensis along the northwest coast of

India. The species is second in abundance along

the Ratnagiri waters, forming about 14% of the

total oyster catch. Large to medium size beds of

this species are known to occur in Bhatya,

Sakhartar and Mirya creeks. Their shell

coloration varies according to different localities.

3. Crassostrea rivularis (Gould 1861)

Ostrea rivularis Gould, 1861: 178 (Type

locality: China seas); Cahn, 1950: 12.

Ostrea discoidea Awati & Rao, 1931 : 3.

Crassostrea discoidea Rao, 1958: 55;

Alagarswami & Narasimham, 1973; 654; Rao,

1974: 36.

Crassostrea rivularis Imai, 1971: 125;

Rao, 1987: 1.

Common English Name: Chinese oyster.

Local, Marathi Name: Kaalav.

Material examined: About 60 specimens,

size 5.4-11.5 cm, collected from Bhatya and

Sakhartar creeks near Ratnagiri from June 1995

to May 1996.

Remarks: Crassostrea rivularis appears

to be the least common of ad local species,

forming about 9% of the total oyster yield of the

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

45

EDIBLE OYSTERS, CRASSOSTREA, ALONG THE RATNAGJRJ COAST

region. Its beds are located at Bhatya and

Sakhartar creeks and in open waters it has

restricted distribution, to a depth of 7 m only.

Conclusion: From the foregoing account, it

appears that the Indian west coast backwater oyster

Crassostrea gryphoides is the most common

species inhabiting the Ratnagiri waters, followed

by C. madrasensis and C. rivularis in order of

abundance. This is also the first record of the Indian

east coast backwater oyster C. madrasensis along

, Refer

Alagarswami, K. & K.A. Narasimham (1973): Clam,

Cockle and Oyster resources of the Indian coast. Proc.

symp. Living resources of the seas around India,

648-658.

Annandale, N. & S. Kemp (1916): Fauna of Chilka lake

Mollusca, Gastropoda and Lamellibranchiata. Mem.

lnd. Mus. 5: 329-366.

Awati, RR. & H.S. Rao (1931): The Indian Zoological

Memoirs on Indian Animal Types. 3. Ostrea cucullata

(The Bombay oyster): 1-104.

Cahn, A. C. ( 1 950): Oyster culture in Japan. Published by

Gen. H.Q. Supreme Commander for the Allied Forces,

Natural Resources Section Report , 134, Tokyo, pp.

80.

Durve, V.S. (1967): On the nomenclature of two Indian

backwater oysters. J. Mar. biol. Ass. India. 9(1): 173-

178.

Durve, V.S. ( 1 973): Malacological differences between the

oyster Crassostrea gryphoides (Schlotheim) and

Crassostrea madrasensis (Preston). Indian J. Fish.

20(2): 624-625.

Durve, V.S. & D.V. Bal (1961): Studies on the chemical

composition of the oyster, Crassostrea gryphoides

(Schlotheim). J. Mar. biol. Ass. India 13: 70-77.

Gould, A. A. (1861): Proc. Boston. Soc. nat. Hist. 8: 39,

repr. in Otia Conchologia p: 178.

Gravely, F.H. (1941): Shells and other animal remains

found on the Madras beach. 1 . Groups other than

snails etc. (Mollusca, Gastropoda). Bull. Madras

Govt. Mus. N.S. Nat. Hist., 5(1): 1-112.

Hornell, J. (1910): The practice of oyster culture at

Arcachon, Madras Fish. Bull. 5: 1-90.

Hornell, J. (1918): The edible molluscs of the Madras

Presidency. Madras Fish. Bull. 11: 1-51.

Hornell, J. (1922): The Common Molluscs of South India.

Madras Fish. Bull. 14:91-215.

Imaj Takeo (1971): Aquaculture in shallow seas: Progress

in Shallow sea culture: 1 25- 1 26, 205-260.

the northwest coast of India.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Dr. RC. Raje, Associate

Dean, College of Fisheries, Ratnagiri and the

Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth, Dapoli, Ratnagiri

for facilities. Our special thanks to the Late Dr.

D.R. Jalihal for help in taxonomic identification

and valuable suggestions.

E N C E S

Jones, S. (1968): The molluscan fishery resources of India.

Proc. Symp. Mollusca (3): 906-918.

Moses, S.T. (1928): A preliminary report on the anatomy

and life history of the common edible backwater

oyster Ostrea madrasensis. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

32: 548-552.

Paul, M.D. ( 1 942): Studies on the growth and breeding of

certain sedentary organisms in the Madras harbour.

Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. Pp. 1-42.

Preston, H.B. (1916): Report on a collection ofMollusca

from the Cochin backwaters. Rec. Indian Mus., 12:

27-39.

Rao, K. Satyanarayana (1974): Edible bivalves: mussels

and oysters In: The Commercial Molluscs of India,

R.V. Nair & K.S. Rao. (Eds.) CMFRI bulletin no. 25:

4-39.

Rao, K. Satyanarayana (1987): Taxonomy of Indian

Oysters. CMFRI bulletin no. 38 Oyster culture Status

and Prospects. 1-6.

Rao V irbhadra, K. ( 1 956): Seasonal changes in the adult

backwater oyster Ostrea (Crassostrea) madrasenis

(Preston) from Ennur near Madras. Proc. Indian

Acad. Sci. 44b: 332-356.

Rao V irbhadra, K. (1958): Molluscan Fisheries. In:

Fisheries of West Coast of India (Ed.: Jones, S.). Pp.

55-59.

Satyamurthi, S.T. (1956): The Mollusca ofKrusadai Island

(in Gulf of Mannar) 2. Scaphopoda, Pelecypoda and

Cephalopoda. Bull. Madras Govt. Mus. (New Ser.).

Nat. Hist. Sect., 1(1): Pt. 7: 202.

Schlotheim (18 13): Beitr. Natur. Verstein. Geogn. Hinsicht,

Taschenbuch Mineralogies 7: 52 (Reprinted in the

Records of the Geological Survey of India 42: Part 1 ,

1912 1-15).

Vredenburg, E.W. (1904): Recent and subrecent marine

beds in Calcutta. Rec. Geol. Surv. India 31: 174-176.

Winckworth, R. (1931): Mollusca from the Pulicat lake.

Proc. Malacol. Soc. London 19: 188-189.

46

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

FRESHWATER FISHES OF SOUTHERN KERALA WITH NOTES

ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF ENDEMIC AND ENDANGERED SPECIES'

K. Raju Thomas* 2, M. John George3 and C. R. Biju2

Key words: Freshwater fishes, southern Kerala, distribution, endemic, endangered

Freshwater fishes were collected from rivers of southern Kerala from November 1996 to April

2000. A total of 117 species belonging to 58 genera, 27 families, and 10 orders were recorded.

The most abundant order was Cypriniformes, followed by Perciformes and Siluriformes. The

distribution of 36 endangered and 1 1 endemic species is also included. Most of the endangered

fish are restricted to one or two rivers.

Introduction

The Western Ghats are one of the selected

biodiversity hotspots in the world. According to

the distribution of hill-stream fishes, Bhimachar

(1945) has divided the Western Ghats into three

major regions. These geographic regions are

northern division (Surat to Goa), central division

(Goa to Nilgiri mountains) and southern division

(south of Palghat Gap). The Western Ghats form

the major watershed in Kerala and 44 rivers

originate from it. Of these, 19 rivers and a

portion of Bharathapuzha river flow through the

southern part of Kerala. The freshwater fishes

collected from these rivers and the distribution

of endemic and endangered species are given in

this paper.

The first monumental work on fishes of

malabar was by Francis Day (1865). The next

ichthyofaunal study in southern Kerala was by

Pillay ( 1 929) followed by John ( 1 936). Hora and

Law (1941) published a comprehensive list of

freshwater fishes from Travancore. Other

intensive freshwater fish fauna studies were

conducted in southern Kerala by Raj (1941),

Herre (1942), Silas (1950, 1951, 1954, 1958),

'Accepted August, 2001

2Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House,

S B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India.

Present address: Mar Thoma College, Thiruvalla689 103,

Kerala, India.

’Mar Thoma College for Women, Perumbavoor,

Ernakulam 683 542, Kerala, India.

Menon (1950, 1951), Rita et al. (1978), Rema

Devi and Indra (1984), Rema Devi and Menon

( 1 992), Pethiyagoda and Kottelat ( 1 994), Menon

and Rema Devi (1995), Menon and Jacob (1996),

Easa and Shaji (1996), Zacharias et al. (1996),

Biju et al. (1999), Ajith Kumar et al. (1999) and

Raju Thomas et al. (1999, 2000a, b).

Though there are a number of publications

on freshwater fish fauna from southern Kerala,

studies on fish assemblages have been carried

out only in a few river segments. We provide an

updated assessment of the conditions and status

of the freshwater fishes in southern Kerala, with

special reference to species regarded as endemic

and endangered.

Study Area

Kerala is situated in the southwest corner

of India (8° 17' 30"-12° 47 40” N and 74° 51'

57". 77° 24’ 47" E). The Western Ghats, as a

natural wall on the eastern side, and the Arabian

Sea on the western side, flank the State. The

Western Ghats protect the State from the dry

winds of the eastern plateau and provide steady

rainfall during the monsoon. This range has only

one major discontinuity — the Palghat Gap in

Kerala, dividing the state into two parts: north

and south of Palghat Gap. We selected the

southern part as our study area. Natural

topographic features such as mountain ridges

and valleys divide southern Kerala into a number

of divisions: Agasthyamalai Range, Pandalam

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

Al

FRESHWATER FISHES OF SOUTHERN KERALA

Hills, Cardamom Hills, The High Ranges, and

the Nelliampathy and Anaimalai Hills (Nair

1991). The land resources of these areas generally

fall into four well defined natural divisions: 1)

Lowland (< 75 m above msl), 2) Midland (75 to

500 m above msl), 3) Highland (500 to 750 m

above msl), and 4) High Ranges (> 750 m above

msl).

The highest peak in the Western Ghats,

the Anamudi (2,690 m above msl) is situated in

the study area. Most of the reserve forests and

sanctuaries of the study area are in the Highland

region. Eravikulam is the only national park in

this area. The study area includes the following

sanctuaries: Neyyar, Chendurni, Peppara,

Periyar, Idukki, Thattekkad, Chimmony,

Parambikulam, and Peechi-Vazhani. In the

present study, fishes were collected from

19 rivers and also from a portion of the

Bharathapuzha river. Specimens were collected

from all the rivers except Peppara Sanctuary area

of Karamana river, Chendurni Sanctuary of

Kallada river, and Periyar Sanctuary area of

Periyar river.

Methods

A survey was carried out during November

1996 to April 2000 in the rivers flowing through

southern Kerala. Studies were mainly done in

the post-monsoon periods. However, some

collections were made during pre-monsoon and

monsoon periods. 1 : 50,000 topographical maps

of the Survey of India were used to trace the

river system and pinpoint the collection sites.

Samples were collected from several

approachable areas of each stream of the main

river. As our study period was post-monsoon,

the water was rarely turbid. Fish samples were

collected by using cast net, scoop net, gill net,

and a circular net with very small mesh size and

sinkers on the edge. Constant efforts were made

to reduce statistical bias. Samples were preserved

in 10% formaline and kept in the field station

for identification and further studies. The works

of Jayaram (1981, 1999), Datta Munshi and

Srivastava (1988), Talwar and Jhingran (1991),

and Menon (1998) were followed for the

identification of fishes.

According to the IUCN criteria, the fishes

of Kerala can be grouped into two categories:

Threatened and Non-threatened. The category

Threatened is further divided into (1) Critically

Endangered (CR), (2) Endangered (EN), and (3)

Vulnerable (VU). The Non-threatened category

is divided into (1) Low Risk-nearly threatened

(LR-nt) and (2) Low Risk- of least concern (LR-

lc). These criteria are more applicable to a single

river. Since we had covered 20 rivers, we adopted

the IUCN criteria with some modifications. In

our analysis, we classified the species based on

restricted distribution of the species, area of

occupancy of the species, and the number of

species recorded. The criteria adopted are as

follows:

Critically Endangered: (a) species with

distribution restricted to a single river, (b) area

of occupancy limited to a single location in that

river, and (c) the number of species estimated to

be less than five in the collection site.

Endangered: (a) species with distribution

restricted to 1 -3 rivers, (b) area of occupancy of

less than 5 collection sites in the rivers from

where they are recorded, and (c) the number of

species estimated to be less than 10 in the

collection sites.

Vulnerable: (a) species with distribution

restricted to 4-8 rivers, (b) area of occupancy of

less than 10 collection sites in the rivers from

where they were collected, and (c) the number

of species estimated to be less than 10 in the

collection sites.

Low Risk-nearly threatened: (a) species

with wide distribution in 8-15 rivers, (b) area of

occupancy of more than 20 collection sites in

the rivers from where they were recorded, and

(c) the number of species estimated to be less

than 15 in the collection sites.

48

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

FRESHWATER FISHES OF SOUTHERN KERALA

Low Risk-least concern: (a) species with

wide distribution in more than 15 rivers, (b) area

of occupancy of more than 20 collection sites in

the rivers from where they were recorded, and

(c) the number of species estimated to be more

than 15 in the collection sites.

Results and Discussion

A total of 1 1 7 species of freshwater fishes,

belonging to 58 genera of 27 families and 10

orders were recorded from the rivers flowing

through southern Kerala (Table 1). The most

abundant order was Cypriniformes, followed

by Perciformes and Siluriformes. The family

with the maximum number of representatives

was Cyprinidae. The most abundant genus

was Puntius followed by Mystus and

Nemacheilus.

The list of Critically Endangered and

Endangered species is given in Table 2. Under

these categories, 26 species were recorded from

a single river alone. All these species are

considered threatened, as their distribution is

restricted and there is an alarming decrease in

their numbers. The following are considered as

endemic species: Puntius denisonii (Day),

Osteobrama bakeri Day, Garra

surendranathanii Shaji et al, Osteochilus

longidorsalis Pethiyagoda and Kottelat, Chela

fasciata Silas, Travancoria jonesi Hora,

Nemacheilus pambarensis Rema Devi and Indra,

N. keralensis Rita and Nalbant, Horabagrus

brachysoma (Gunther), H. nigricollaris

Pethiyagoda and Kottelat, and Batasio

travancoria Hora and Law. Distribution of most

of these species is given in Table 2. Puntius

denisonii inhabit Bharathapuzha, Chalakudy,

Periyar, Pamba and Achankovil rivers,

Osteobrama bakeri inhabit Bharathapuzha,

Karuvannur, Chalakudy, Periyar, Muvattupuzha,

Meenachil, Achankovil and Manimala rivers,

while Horabagrus brachysoma is distributed in

almost all the river systems of southern Kerala.

Table 1

SYSTEMATIC LIST, ABUNDANCE AND STATUS

OF FRESHWATER FISHES COLLECTED

FROM SOUTHERN KERALA

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

49

FRESHWATER FISHES OF SOUTHERN KERALA

Table 1 (contd.)

SYSTEMATIC LIST, ABUNDANCE AND STATUS OF FRESHWATER FISHES COLLECTED

FROM SOUTHERN KERALA

50

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

FRESHWATER FISHES OF SOUTHERN KERALA

Table 1 (contd.)

SYSTEMATIC LIST, ABUNDANCE AND STATUS OF FRESHWATER FISHES COLLECTED

FROM SOUTHERN KERALA

CR - Critically Endangered; EN - Endangered; VU - Vulnerable; LR-nt - Low Risk-nearly threatened;

LR-lc - Low Risk-least concern; INTR - Introduced; + = Very rare; ++ = Rare; +++ = Common;

++++ = Very common; * = Critically endangered / Endangered species

Table 2

LIST OF CRITICALLY ENDANGERED AND ENDANGERED FISHES AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION IN

SOUTHERN KERALA

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

51

FRESHWATER FISHES OF SOUTHERN KERALA

Table 2 (contd.)

LIST OF CRITICALLY ENDANGERED AND

ENDANGERED FISHES AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION

IN SOUTHERN KERALA

Refer

Ajithkumar, C.R., K. Rema Devi, K. Raju Thomas & C.R.

Biju ( 1 999): Fish fauna, abundance and distribution

in Chalakudy river, Kerala. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

96(2): 244-254.

Bhimachar, B.S. (1945): Zoogeographical divisions of the

Western Ghats, as evidenced by the distribution of

the hillstream fishes. Curr. Sci. I: 12-16.

Biju, C.R., K. Raju Thomas & C.R. Ajithkumar (1999):

Fishes of Parainbikulam Wildlife Sanctuary, Palakkad

District, Kerala. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 96(1):

82-87.

Datta Munshi, J.S. & M.R Srivastava (1988): Natural

History of Fish and Systematics of Freshwater Fishes

of India. Narendra Publishing House, New Delhi.

Day, F. (1865): The fishes of Malabar. Bernard Quaritch,

London. Repr. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh,

Dehra Dun.

Easa, P.S & C.P. Shaji. (1996): Freshwater fishes of

Pambar river, Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93: 304-306.

Gadgil, M. & V.M. Meher-Homji (1990): Ecological

Diversity. In: Conservation in Developing Countries

— Problems and Prospects (Eds. Daniel, J.C. and

J.S. Serrao). Bombay Natural History Society,

Mumbai. Pp. 175-198.

Acknowledgements

We thank the U. S. Fish and Wildlife

Service and the Ministry of Environment and

Forests for sponsoring the project on ‘Ecology

of hill streams of the Western Ghats with special

reference to fish community’ this paper is an

outcome of the project. We are grateful to Mr.

J. C. Daniel, Honorary Secretary, Dr. Asad R.

Rahmani, Director and Dr. B.F. Chhapgar of the

BNHS for encouragement and the State Forest

Department of Kerala for permission and help

to carry out collections. We thank Dr. Neil B.

Armantrout, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and

Dr. K. Rema Devi, Scientist, Zoological Survey

of India, Chennai for discussions, Dr. R.

Sugathan, Scientist, Salim Ali Wild Wings

Trust, Thattakad Bird Sanctuary and Dr. N.D.

Inasu, Department of Zoology, Christ College

Irinjalakkuda, for help.

E N C E S

Herre, A.W.C.T. (1942): Glyptothorax honsei, a new

Sisorid catfish from South India. Stanford Ichth. Bull.

2(4): 117.

Hora, S.L. & N.C. Law (1941): The freshwater fishes of

Travancore. Rec. Ind. Mus 43: 234-256.

Jayaram, K.C. (1981): Freshwater fishes of India. A

handbook of the Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta,

pp. 475.

Jayaram, K.C. (1999): Freshwater fishes of the Indian

Region. Narendra Publishing House, Delhi, India.

Pp. 551.

John, C.C. (1936): Freshwater fishes of Travancore.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 38: 702-733.

Menon, A.G.K. ( 1 950): On a remarkable blind Sisorid fish

of the Family Clariidae from Kerala (India). Rec. Ind.

Mus. 48: 59-69.

Menon, A.G.K. (1951): Notes on fishes in the Indian

Museum XLVL: On a new fish of the genus Labuca

from Cochin. Rec. Ind. Mus. 49: 14.

Menon, A.G.K. & K. Rema Devi (1995): Hypselobarbus

kurali (Pisces: Cyprinidae), a new large barb from

the southwestern rivers of Peninsular India.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92(3): 389-393.

Menon, A.G.K. & P.C. Jacob (1996): Crossocheilus

periyarensis , a new Cyprinid fish from Thanikkudy

52

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 99(1), APR. 2002

FRESHWATER FISHES OF SOUTHERN KERALA

(Thekkady), Kerala, India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

93(1): 62-64.

Menon, A.G.K. (1998): Checklist of freshwater fishes of

India. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

Nair, S.C. (1991): The Southern Western Ghats - A

Biodiversity Conservation Plan, INTACH, New Delhi.

Pethiyagoda, R. & M. Kottelat (1994): Three new species

of fishes of the genera Osteochilichthys (Cyprinidae),

Travancoria (Balitoridae) and Horabagrus

(Bagridae) from the Chalakudy River, Kerala, India.

J. South Asian nat. Hist. I : 97-116.

Pillay, R.S.N. ( 1 929): A list of fishes taken in Travancore.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 33: 347-379.

Raju Thomas, K., C.R. Biju, C.R. Ajithkumar & M. John

George ( 1 999): Ichthyofauna of Eravikulam National

Park with notes on trout culture in Rajamalai,

Munnar, Kerala. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 96(2):

199-202.

Raju Thomas, K., C.R. Biju, C.R. Ajithkumar & M. John

George (2000a): Fishes of Chimmony and Peechi-

Vazhani Wildlife Sanctuaries, Thrissur district,

Kerala .J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 97(2): 289-292.

Raju Thomas, K., C.R. Biju. & M. John George (2000b):

Fish fauna of Idukki and Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuaries,

southern Kerala, India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

97(3): 443-446.

Raj, S.B. (1941): A new genus of Schizothoracine fishes

from Travancore, South India. Rec. Ind. Mus. 43: 209-

214.

Rema Devi, K. & T.J. Indra (1984): Noemacheilus

pam bare ns is, anew loach (Cyprinoidei: Balitoridae:

Noemacheilinae) from Western Ghats, Idukki, Kerala.

Rec. zool. Surv. India 94 (2&4): 207-210.

Rema Devi, K. & A. G. K. Menon (1992): Horadandia

atukorali brittani, a new subspecies of Rasborinae

(Pisces: Cyprinidae) from Kerala, South India. Trop.

Fish Hobbyist 65: 175-176.

Rita, S.D., P. Banerescu & T.T. Nalbant (1978):

Oreonectes ( Indoreonectes ) keralensis , a new

subgenus and species of loach from Kerala, India

(Pisces: Cobitidae). Trav. Mus. Hist. Nat. 19: 185-

188.

Silas, E.G. ( 1 950): On a collection of fish from Travancore.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 48: 792-797.

Silas, E.G. (1951): On a collection of fishes from the

Anamalai and Nelliampathi hill ranges (Western

Ghats) with notes on its zoogeographical significance.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 49: 670-681.

Silas, E.G. (1952): Fishes from the High Ranges of

Travancore. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 50: 323-330.

Silas, E.G. (1954): Garra hughi, anew Cyprinidfish from

the Western Ghats, Peninsular India, with notes on

its bionomics. Rec. Ind. Mus. 52: 1-14.

Silas, E.G. (1958): Studies on the Cyprinid fishes of the

genus Chela Hamilton. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

55(1): 54-99.

Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland fishes of

India and adjacent countries. Oxford & IBH

Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.

Zacharias, V. J., A.K. Bharadwaj & PC. Jacob (1996):

Fish fauna of Periyar Tiger Reserve. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 93 (1): 39-43.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

53

CHARACTERISTICS AND SIGNIFICANCE OF SONG

IN FEMALE ORIENTAL MAGPIE-ROBIN, COPSYCHUS SA ULARIS 1

Anil Kumar2’ 3 and Dinesh Bhatt2

( With one text-figure)

Key words: Copsychus saularis, song of female, communication,

territorial defence, spectrograms

Singing behaviour of the female Oriental magpie-robin, Copsychus saularis was studied. The

female sings occasionally for a short period in the presence of the male. The song consists of

phrases made up of different elements. The minimum, maximum and range of frequencies were

found to be 2.42 ±0.03, 5.03 ±0.08 and 2.6 1 ±0.02 kHz, respectively while the duration of the

phrases were 1.38 ±0.02 sec, followed by an interval of 1 .49 ±0.03 sec. It appears that the female

magpie-robin’s song helps to stimulate the male

Introduction

Bird song performs a variety of functions

(Ali 1996). In most passerine species, song is

the characteristic of the male and is used for

territorial defence through advertisement and

mate acquisition (Cooney and Cockburn 1995,

Bhatt et al. 2000). Besides these two functions,

birds also use the song to synchronize breeding

behaviour, mate guarding, mate recognition,

parent-offspring recognition and neighbour-

stranger discrimination (Weary et al. 1992,

Lambrechts and Dhondt 1995). The song in the

female has also been studied in many passerine

species. In some species it is rare, while in others

the females normally sing duets with males

(Ridgely and Tudor 1989). The major functions

of the song of the female include territorial

defence, prevention of polygyny and intra-pair

communication (Flood 1990).

In the present study, an attempt has been

made to investigate physical characteristics and

functional significance of the song in the female

Oriental magpie-robin, Copsychus saularis.

'Accepted November, 2001

department of Zoology and Environmental Science,

Gurukul Kangri University, Haridwar 249 404,

Uttaranchal, India.

■Present address: Wildlife Institute of India,

Post Box No. 1 8, Chandrabani, Dehra Dun 248 00 1 ,

Uttaranchal, India.

to sing.

Methodology

The Oriental magpie-robin breeds during

March to August in northern India (Ali 1996,

Roberts 1992, Kumar 1999). Songs of five

females were recorded from March 1997 to

August 1998, at Haridwar (29° 55’ N, 78° 8’ E),

using a JVC Zoom MZ-500 unidirectional

microphone and a SONY CFS 1030S tape

recorder. Most signals were recorded at a

distance of 2-5 m. Pre- and post-signalling

behaviour and circumstances in which

signalling occur were observed to infer the

meaning of the song. After editing, cuts of

high quality recordings (a few seconds duration)

were used for physical analysis (charac-

teristics based on frequency and duration).

In the present study, we used minimum

frequency, maximum frequency, range of

frequencies, duration of phrases and interval

between phrases, to define the physical

characteristics of the songs. The analysis was

made with the help of Scientific 25 MHz

Digital Storage Oscilloscope HM205-3,

interfaced with a PC (Pentium) and signal

analyzer software SP 91 (Bhatt et al. 2000).

Spectrograms were generated with the help of

DSP Sonagraph™ 5500 machine using

SIGNAL™, a software package for sound

generation and analysis.

54

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

SONG IN FEMALE ORIENTAL MAGPIE-ROBIN

Results

The female Oriental magpie-robin

occasionally sings a short, low amplitude song

in the presence of the male. In most cases (n=7),

they were observed singing alone. However, male

and female were once seen singing a duet at a

distance of about 25 cm. The female song consists

of phrases, either similar (repetition of same

phrase) or dissimilar in structure as observed in

male birds. Minimum, maximum and range of

frequencies were found to be 2.42 ±0.03, 5.03

±0.08 and 2.61 ±0.02 kHz respectively, while the

duration of phrases was 1.38 ±0.02 sec followed

by an 1.49±0.03 sec interval (Fig. 1). Since the

female sings rarely, only a few song samples

could be recorded and the analysis is restricted

to a few select phrases. Analysis of the data

reveals that the female uses almost the same

frequency pattern as the male birds do (Table 1).

Interestingly, the female started singing before

the male. Thus, it appears that in C. saularis ,

onset of breeding is indicated by female song.

However, in some males (n=4), the singing was

initiated on listening to the song of neighbouring

males. In two cases, the female was found singing

at the time of the second brood, just before the

mating. It appears that the function of the female

song in magpie-robin is to stimulate the male

for (i) initiation of breeding activities (i.e.

formation of breeding territory), and (ii)

courtship.

Discussion

Our results reveal that the female

Copsychus saularis sings rarely, and uses almost

same frequencies as male birds. However, the

maximum frequency, range of frequencies and

relative amplitude was found to be higher in

males (Table 1 ). The female rarely sings. It seems

that the biological significance of the female’s

song is restricted to initiating the males to sing,

while in males the song is common during

breeding and is used for territorial defence and

mate acquisition (Bhatt et al. 2000).

In many species of birds and mammals,

both the sexes live together throughout the year

but courtship takes place when a female gives

signs of readiness in the form of olfactory/vocal/

visual cue(s). In the magpie-robin group, females

normally use singing for this purpose. In the

polygynous redwinged blackbird-, Agelaius

phoeniceus of North America, Beletsky (1983)

Table 1

COMPARATIVE ACCOUNT OF THE PHYSICAL AND ASSOCIATED CHARACTERISTICS OF SONG

OF MALE AND FEMALE, ORIENTAL MAGPIE-ROBIN COPSYCHUS SAULARIS

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

55

SONG IN FEMALE ORIENTAL MAGPIE-ROBIN

i — — i — 1 ”i r

h. to U) ^ «

(ZHM) Aouanbajj

"« - - — b o

CM r-

56

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR 2002

Fig. 1: Spectrogram of the song of the female Oriental magpie-robin Copsychus saularis showing the different physical characteristics,

namely maximum frequency, minimum frequency, range of frequency, duration of phrases and interval between phrases.

SONG IN FEMALE ORIENTAL MAGPIE-ROBIN

found two types of female song with varied

functions. These songs probably help in

communication between the mated pair and are

aggressive signals. As in the Oriental magpie-

robin, the song of the female European robin,

Erithacus rubecula is shorter and simpler than

the male song (Lack 1946). Female white-

crowned sparrow, Zonotrichia leucophrys also

produce a song, which is structurally similar to

that of the male, but usually shorter in duration

(Baptista et al. 1993).

In the European robin, Erithacus rubecula

the female song is clearly related to the winter

territorial behaviour (Hoelzel 1986), while in

Oriental magpie-robin the female generally does

not exhibit territorial behaviour. However, during

breeding if a predator appears in the territory,

the female helps the male to chase it away, both

producing threat calls. The female was never

observed chasing conspecifics during this study.

In Northern cardinals, Richrnondena cardinalis,

Ritchison (1986) found that females sang during

a particular phase of the breeding cycle, just

before nesting, and there was no evidence from

field observations or playback experiments that

female song helped to establish or defend

territory, just as in the Oriental magpie-robin.

Refer

Ali, S. (1996): The Book of Indian Birds, 12"' edition.

Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai.

Baptista, L.F., P. W. Trail, B.B. DeWolfe & M.L Morton

(1993): Singing and its functions in female white-

crowned sparrows. Anim. Behav. 46: 51 1-524.

Beletsky, L.D. (1983): Aggressive and pair bond

maintenance songs of female red-winged blackbirds

(Agelaius phoeniceus). Z. Tierpsychol. 62: 47-54.

Bhatt, D., A. Kumar, Y. Singh & R.B. Payne (2000):

Territorial songs and calls in oriental magpie-robin,

Copsychus saularis. Curr. Sci. 78(6): 722-728.

Cooney, R. & A. Cockburn (1995): Territorial defence is

the major function of female song in the superb

fairy-wren ( Malurus cyaneus). Anim. Behav. 49:

1635-1647.

Flood, N.J. (1990): Aspects of the breeding biology of

Audubon’s oriole. J. Field Ornithol. 61: 290-302.

Hoelzel, A.R. (1986): Song characteristics and response

The song of the Northern cardinal seemed to

stimulate the males to join in and sing as well. It

is suggested that female song in cardinals might

function in pair bonding or synchronising

reproductive physiology (Ritchison 1986, Moller

1991).

The present study indicates that the

magpie-robin is a good model to study the

functional significance of song of female birds.

It provides basic information on the song of the

female magpie-robin. A detailed study is required

to know the repertoire of female song and its

functional significance.

Acknowledgments

We thank Dr. A.K. Chopra, Head, Dept,

of Zoology and Environmental Sciences, Gurukul

Kangri University, Haridwar, for facilities,

Dr. Sandra L. L. Gaunt and Dr. Hitesh Khanna,

Department of Zoology, Ohio State University,

USA for the preparation of spectrograms. We are

thankful to Dr. Q.H. Baqri, Officer-in-Charge,

Desert Regional Station, Zoological Survey of

India, Jodhpur, for his valuable comments.

Financial assistance from DST (Govt, of India)

is also gratefully acknowledged.

N C E S

to playback of male and female robins, Erithacus

rubecula. Ibis 128: 115-127.

Kumar, A. (1999): Characteristics and significance of

calls, songs and visual displays in two avian

species viz. Copsychus saularis and Pycnonotus

cafer. Ph.D. thesis. Gurukul Kangri University,

Haridwar.

Lack, D. ( 1 946): The life of the Robin. London: Witherby.

Lambrechts, M.M. & A. A. Dhondt ( 1 995): Individuals

voice discrimination in birds. In: Current

Ornithology (Ed.: Power, D.M.). Vol. 12: 115-139,

Plenum Press, New York.

Moller, A.P. (1991): Why mated songbirds sing so much,

mate guarding and male announcement of mate

fertility status. Amer. Nat. 138: 994-1014.

Ridgely, R.S. & G. Tudor (1989): The Birds of South

America, Vol. /: University of Texas Press, Austin,

Texas.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 99(1), APR. 2002

57

SONG IN FEMALE ORIENTAL MAGPIE-ROBIN

Ritchison, G. (1986): The singing behaviour of female

northern cardinals. Condor 88: 156-159.

Roberts, T.J. (1992): The Birds of Pakistan (Vol. 2),

Passeriformes: Pittas to Buntings. Oxford

University Press, Karachi, Pakistan.

Weary, D.M., R.E. Lemon & S. Perrault (1992): Song

repertoire do not hinder neighbour-stranger

discrimination. Behav. Ecol. Socibiol. 31: 441-447.

58

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

PSYCHOPHILY AND EVOLUTIONARY CONSIDERATIONS

OF CADABA FRUTICOSA L. (CAPPARACEAE)1

J.S.R. Aluri and S.P. Rao2

Key words: Cadaba fruticosa , androgynophore, nectarial tube, Colotis eucharis,

C. danae, psychophily, co-evolution

Cadaba fruticosa is a perennial shrub, which flowers almost round the year. Floral characters,

such as the opening of the flower during early hours of the day, green colour of the flower, a

nectarial tube with good amount of nectar, and this tube along with the androgynophore and

petals serving as landing place for the probing flower visitors, conform to psychophily.

C. fruticosa breeds through geitonogamy and xenogamy only, and the pollination is effected

exclusively by pierid butterflies, namely Colotis eucharis, C. danae and Anaphaeis aurota. This

study concludes that Cadaba and Colotis have

bound to affect both.

Introduction

Certain plant species possess highly

specialized floral forms and structures associated

with particular species of insect pollinators.

Specialization nearly always tends towards

enabling the plant to adapt to a limited range of

pollinating insects. The specialized forms of

plants develop through morphological

adaptations over a period of time.

The specialized floral forms adapted to

butterfly-pollination have been scantily reported

in literature (Cruden and Hermann-Parker 1979,

Dronamraju 1960, Dronamraju and Spurway

1960, Hawkswood 1985, Ilse and Vaidya 1956,

Jennerston 1984, Khare 1975, Levin 1972, Reddi

and Meerabai 1984). These workers showed that

the butterflies could serve as efficient pollinators,

because the floral forms are specialized for

foraging exclusively by them.

In the present study, it was found that an

adaptive relationship existed between the flowers

of Cadaba fruticosa and the pierid butterflies

i.e. both partners exhibit interdependency.

Structural and functional aspects of C. fruticosa

'Accepted November, 2001

department of Environmental Sciences,

Andhra University, Visakhapatnam 530 003,

Andhra Pradesh, India.

co-evolved and any disturbance in the habitat is

flower and the foraging details of pierid

butterflies are presented and discussed from the

perspective of psychophily and co-evolution.

Material and Methods

Cadaba fruticosa plants growing wild near

the Indira Gandhi Zoological Park at

Visakhapatnam (17° 42' N and 82° 18' E) were

observed periodically. The phenology of their

flowering was recorded. To study the flower

production and life of an inflorescence, the

opening of flowers of 20 marked inflorescences

were recorded every day. Floral events, such as

flower opening and anther dehiscence were

recorded through continuous observation. The

nectar, accumulated in flowers covered with

butter paper bags, was quantified using graduated

micropipettes. Its sugar concentration and

composition were determined by a refractometer

and paper chromatography respectively. Presence

of proteins and amino acids was determined by

spot tests as per Baker and Baker ( 1 973) Method.

Number of pollen grains per anther, pollen

viability, stigma receptivity and mode of

reproduction, natural fruit set, seed set and

fecundity were determined as per Aluri and Reddi

(1994) and Aluri et al. (1998). butterflies of

the Indian region (Wynter-Blyth 1957) was used

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

59

PSYCH0PH1LY AND EVOLUTION OF CAD ABA FRUTICOSA L.

to identify butterflies captured at flowers of C.

fruticosa. The number of foraging visits made

in a single foraging bout was recorded for each

butterfly species, and number of visits per minute

were counted using a stopwatch. The relative

frequency of visits of different butterfly species

was determined through censuses on different

days at different plants. The behaviour of

butterflies at the flowers was also noted carefully.

The floral characters and foraging behaviour of

butterflies were thoroughly examined for their

adaptive relationship.

Results

Flowering Phenology: It is a perennial

shrub which flowers almost round the year.

Flowering of different conspecific individuals is

largely synchronous during the rainy season from

June to September, and asynchronous during the

rest of the year. Intense flowering occurs during

the rainy season. The inflorescence is a fascicle

with solitary and axillary flowers, and bears an

average of 9 flowers that mature over 14-30 (x =

22) days. The mature flower buds that arise from

the axial point do not all mature on the same day.

Flower Morphology: Flowers pedicellate,

oriented horizontally. Thalamus elongated into

a slender structure on which floral parts occur at

different levels. Androphore is a part of the

thalamus between the perianth and the stamens,

whereas gynophore is present between the

stamens and the gynaecium. The entire structure

is known as an androgynophore. Additionally,

there is a nectar-secreting tubular structure

separated from the base of the androgynophore.

Four free sepals arranged in two whorls of two

each (two median sepals in the outer whorl and

two inner sepals transverse). Four free, clawed

petals arranged in one whorl alternate with the

four stamens. Gynaecium raised up on a

prominent gynophore, bicarpellary, syncarpous,

unilocular, with an average of 1 1 ovules arranged

on the parietal placentation.

Floral Events: Flowers begin to open

slowly from 0130 hrs and proceed to unfold the

sexual organs in about 2!4 hours. The flowers

with exposed sex organs are available from

0345 hrs onwards on sunny days and an hour

later on cloudy and rainy days. Anther dehiscence

occurs after sunrise at 0730 hrs in flowers under

sunshine, and an hour later in flowers which are

in shade. The pollen grains are spheroidal with

psilate exine, separable into two size classes,

28 pm and 19.4 pm. Their number per anther

ranged from 7,870-8,240 (x - 8,080). In vivo

tests showed that the pollen grains remain viable

for 27 hours after anther dehiscence; the grains

stored for 1 5 hours have 80% fruit set. Pollen-

ovule ratio is 3000:1. In the early flower-life,

the style and stigma are curving while the

dehisced anthers stand erect. Gradually, the

stigma uncurves, stands erect and attains equal

height with the stamens at 1100 hrs and remains

so till the flower withers. In vivo tests showed

that the stigma receptivity lasts for 89 hours. The

nectar secreting tubular structure secretes 5 pi

of nectar during the life of the flower. The sugar

concentration of the nectar varied from 18 to

26%. It contained three common sugars —

sucrose, glucose and fructose, in that order of

dominance. The nectar also contained amino

acids with a histidine score of 5.5 and proteins.

The stamens dropped off after 36 hours, sepals

and petals after another 36 hours. Then the

stigma gradually withered and dropped off 20

hours later. The nectar harbouring tubular

structure remained throughout fruit formation

and fell off subsequently.

Breeding behaviour: Hand-pollination

tests for the modes of breeding showed that the

plant does not breed through autogamy but

through geitonogamy and xenogamy;

geitonogamy is less successful than xenogamy

(Table 1). The fruiting success rate in open-

pollinated flowers is limited, compared to the

success rate of hand-pollinated flowers

(Table 2).

60

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

PSYCHOPHILYAND EVOLUTION OF CAD ABA FRUTICOSA L.

Table 1

RESULTS OF BREEDING EXPERIMENTS FOR CADABA FRUTICOSA

Table 2

NATURAL FRUIT, SEED AND FECUNDITY RATES

IN CADABA FRUTICOSA

Table 4

PROBOSCIS LENGTH OF DIFFERENT BUTTERFLY

SPECIES VERSUS NECTARIAL TUBE LENGTH

OF CADABA FRUTICOSA

Flower-visitors and pollination: The

pierid butterflies Colotis eucharis, C. danae and

Anaphaeis aurota are the exclusive foragers on

Cadaba fruticosa. They foraged for nectar from

0630-1500 hrs, with intense activity between

0900 and 1200 hrs. Of these, Colotis eucharis is

the most frequent and regular forager and made

an outstanding percentage of visits during the

study period. C. danae came second, and made

more visits than A. aurota (Table 3).

Colotis eucharis and C. danae, with an

average proboscis length of 17 mm each and A.

aurota with an average proboscis length of 20

mm probed and succeeded in obtaining the

nectar from the nectarial tube (Table 4). To

obtain the nectar, butterflies land on the nectarial

tube itself or the androgynophore or petals. In

this case, they landed mostly on the

androgynophore. Contact between anthers and

stigma, and the wings of foraging butterflies

takes place if they use the androgynophore or

nectarial tube; even this contact is achieved only

when the gynaecium is erect and stands parallel

to the level of the anthers. No such contact is

made if the butterflies land on the petals.

Examination of the 119 foraging visits of

butterflies to the 20 open flowers indicated that

wing contact with the anthers and stigma was

made in only 66 and 47 visits respectively, while

in 6 visits no contact was made with either. The

butterflies visited an average of 2-4 flowers per

foraging bout. C. eucharis foraged more flowers

per minute compared to C. danae and A. aurota

(Table 5). All three butterfly species foraged

flowers of different conspecific plants very

frequently. Only those visits where there was

contact between the stigma and anthers resulted

in pollination. Since the plant lacks autogamy,

such visits are required to bring about either

geitonogamy or xenogamy.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

61

PSYCHOPHILYAND EVOLUTION OFCADABA FRUTICOSA L.

Table 5

TIME SPENT BY THE BUTTERFLIES AT THE

FLOWERS OF CADABA FRUTICOSA

Discussion

Butterfly pollination has been reported in

Rhianthus hirsutus (McLean and Cook 1956),

Asclepias syriaca (Percival 1965), Phlox species

(Grant and Grant 1965, Levin and Berube 1972),

Dianthus and Gymnadenia (Proctor and Yeo

1972), Anguria (Gilbert 1975), Platanthera

ciliaris (Smith and Snow 1976), Caesalpinia

pulcherrima (Cruden and Hermann-Parker

1979), Cnidoscolus urens (Bawa et al. 1 983) and

Tridax procumbens (Balasubramanian 1989). In

Cadaba fruticosa also, floral characters such as

opening of the flower during daytime, production

of a good amount of nectar, a separate nectar-

hosting tubular structure, and a nectarial tube,

androgynophore and petals providing a platform

for landing, all conform to psychophilous

pollination syndrome sens u Meeuse and Morris

(1984).

C. fruticosa exhibits weak protandry and

the anthers are viable for a short period when

compared to the lengthy duration of stigma

receptivity. This floral sexual behaviour

facilitates autogamy for a brief period; but hand

pollination tests showed the absence of autogamy.

Further, the hand pollination tests performed for

geitonogamy and xenogamy showed that the

plant is capable of breeding through these two

modes of reproduction, xenogamy being more

successful. The study of breeding behaviour

reveals that pollen flow between flowers of the

same or conspecific plants is imperative for

geitono- or xenogamous pollination.

The flowers of C. fruticosa with

psychophilous characters have been observed to

be foraged and pollinated exclusively by three

pierid butterfly species, namely Colotis eucharis ,

C. danae and Anaphaeis aurota. The foraging

behaviour, mobility rate and foraging frequency

of these three butterflies were seen to effect

geitono- and xenogamous pollination, and on this

basis, these butterflies may be treated as exclusive

pollinators. However, C. eucharis with its greater

foraging frequency is a dominant pollinator. The

nectarial tube of the flower is perfectly tailored

to the length of the butterfly’s proboscis, enabling

C. eucharis to withdraw the nectar easily while

excluding other flower-visitors. Although the

flower is exclusively suited for butterfly

pollination, butterflies do not effect pollination

in each visit. Of the total visits, only 40% effect

pollination, 55% carry pollen and 5% simply

deplete nectar. The butterflies contact the stigma

and anthers with their wings only, and this

contact is directly related to the place of landing

on the nectarial tube, androgynophore and petals,

and also to the relative position between them.

The butterflies effect pollination or carry pollen

only if they use either the nectarial tube or the

androgynophore. Even this pollination is effected

only when the gynaecium is erect and stands

parallel to the level of the anthers. These

limitations, and the observed foraging frequency

of butterflies, are bourrd to influence natural

reproductive success. The natural fruit set, seed

set and fecundity rates recorded in the study are

in tune with the above observations.

Nevertheless, and whatever be the limitations,

C. fruticosa is an excellent example of

psychophilous pollination syndrome.

C. fruticosa flowers almost throughout the

year and the butterflies forage on this plant all

through the year for their nectar requirement,

while occasionally foraging on associated plant

species such as Tridax procumbens , Justicia

62

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

PSYCHOPHILY AND EVOLUTION OF CAD ABA FRUTICOSA L.

procumbens , Borreria hispida and Lantana

camara, which flower largely in the rainy season.

The study clearly indicates that Cadaba fruticosa

is the adult’s principal nectar host plant. Further,

it is found that the two Colotis butterflies oviposit

on the leaves and flower buds of C. fruticosa

and their larvae feed on the same leaves. On the

other hand, Anaphaeis aurota does the same on

Capparis spinosa , which occurs in the same study

area. Therefore, the study considers the plant

Cadaba and the pierid butterflies belonging to

Refer

Aluri, J.S.R., Reddi, C.S. & K. Rama Das (1998):

Temporal dioecism and pollination by wasps and bees

in Allophylus serratus (Roxb.) Radik. (Sapindaceae).

PI. Sp. Biol. 13: 1-5.

Aluri, J.S.R. & C.S. Reddi (1994): Pollination ecology and

mating system of the weedy mint Leonotis nepetaefolia

R. Br. in India. Proc. Indian natn. Sci. Acad. B60: 255-

268.

Baker, H.G. & I. Baker (1973): Some antheco logical

aspects of the evolution of nectar producing flowers,

particularly amino acid production in nectar. In:

Taxonomy and Ecology (Ed.: Heywood, V.H.).

Academic Press, London. Pp. 243-264.

Balasubramanian, M.V. (1989): Studies on the ecology

of butterfly pollination in South India. Ann. Entomol.

7:31-41.

Bawa, K.S., C.J. Webb & A.F. Tuttle (1983): The adaptive

significance of monoecism in Cnidoscolus urens

(Euphorbiaceae). Bot. J. Linn. Soc. 85: 213-223.

Cruden, R.W. & S.M. Hermann-Parker (1979): Butterfly

pollination of Caesalpinia pulcherrima with

observations on psychophilous syndrome. J. Ecol. 67:

155-168.

Dronamraju, K.R. (1960): Selective visits of butterflies to

flowers: A possible factor in sympatric speciation.

Nature 186: 178.

Dronamraju, K.R. & H. Spurway (1960): Constancy to

horticultural varieties shown by butterflies and its

possible evolutionary significance. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 57: 1-8.

Gilbert, L.E. (1975): Ecological consequences of a

coevolved mutualism between butterflies and plants.

In: Coevolution of animals and plants (Eds.: Gilbert,

L.E. & PH. Raven). University of Texas Press, Austin.

Pp. 210-240.

Grant, V. & K. A. Grant ( 1 965): Flower pollination in the

Phlox family. Columbia University Press, New York.

Colotis as a co-evolved system. The A. aurota -

C. fruticosa system appears to be a one sided

adaptation, as the plant allows only butterflies

of A. aurota to feed on its nectar and pollinate it,

and not the larvae.

The C. fruticosa-Colotis relationship

appears to be a specialized system and any

disturbance in the habitat is bound to affect the

existence of both. It is imperative to protect the

habitats where these two partners occur, in order

to ensure their perpetuation.

ENCES

Pp. 248.

Hawkswood, T.J. (1985): The role of butterflies as

pollinators of Acacia bidwillii Benth. (Mimosidae) at

Townsville, Northern Queensland (Australia). Aust. J.

Bot. 33: 167-174.

Ilse, D. & V.G. Vaidya (1956): Spontaneous feeding

response to colours in Papilio demoleus. Proc. Indian

Acad. Sci. 43: 23-31.

Jennerston, O. (1984): Flower visitation and pollination

efficiency by some north European butterflies.

Oecologia (Berl.) 68: 80-89.

Khare, V.S. (1975): Some observations on the pollination

of certain Asteraceae. Geobios 24: 115-117.

Levin, D.A. (1972): The adaptedness of corolla colour

variants in experimental and natural populations of

Phlox dr ummondi. Amer. Nat. 106: 57-70.

Levin, D.A. & D.E. Berube (1972): Phlox and Colias: The

efficiency of a pollination system. Evolution 6: 242-

250.

McLean, R.C. & W.R.I. Cook (1956): Textbook of

Theoretical Botany, Vol. II. Longmans Green & Co.,

London. Pp. 1345.

Meeuse, B. & S. Morris (1984): The Sex Life of Flowers.

Facts on File, New York. Pp. 147.

Percival, M. (1965): Floral biology. Pergamon Press,

Oxford, London. Pp. 152.

Proctor, M. & P. Yeo (1 972): The Pollination of Flowers.

Taplinger Publishing Co., New York. Pp. 458.

Reddi, C.S. & G. Meerabai (1984): Butterflies and

pollination biology. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 93: 391 -

396.

Smith, G.R. & G.E. Snow (1976): Pollination ecology of

Platanthera ( Hebeneraia ) ciliaris and P.

blephariglottis (Orchidaceae). Bot. Gaz. 137: 133-140.

Wynter-Blyth, M.A. (1957): Butterflies of the Indian

Region. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. Pp.

505.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

63

A DICHOTOMOUS KEY FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION

OF THE ORDERS OF INDIAN DIPLOPODA1

Kubra Bano2

( With ten text-figures)

Key words: Taxonomy, Diplopoda, Identification, Dichotomous Key,

Orders, Families

This paper is intended as a guide for identification of Indian diplopods, at least to their Orders.

The Indian diplopod fauna, so far known, consists of 11 orders, 20 families, and 100-120

genera, with approximately 500 species. Many more might be unlisted because of lack of

expertise. A key for identification has been provided.

Introduction

Diplopods are some of the most frequent

fauna of Tropical, Subtropical, Temperate Forest

floors and other ecosystems. Despite their

frequent occurrence, they have evinced very little

interest among zoologists, even less among

systematists, especially in India. They are the

most neglected group compared to the Insecta

and Arachnida, and are scarcely studied, perhaps

due to lack of expertise.

Hoffman (1979) reported Diplopoda of the

world, comprising 10,000 species under 15

orders, 115 families and over 1,700 genera.

Studies on Indian diplopods date back to the pre-

independence era, and since then have not been

updated. Attems (1936) reported 290 species

from Indian Territory. Carl (1941) added 15

species. In the last 3 decades, a few sporadic

reports that appeared were those of Demange

(1961, 1969, 1970, 1975, 1977a, b, 1983 and

1989), Jeekel (1968 and 1980), Hoffinan (1977),

Hoffman and Burkhalter (1978), Golovatch

(1983, 1992 and 1993), and Golovatch and

Martens (1996). The Indian diplopod fauna

known today consists of 1 1 orders, 20 families

and about 100-120 genera with around 500

'Accepted April, 2000

department of Zoology, University of Agricultural Sciences,

Bangalore 560 065, Karnataka, India.

species. A note on their general characters,

collection and preservation has already been

published elsewhere (Bano 1999).

During the last 3 years, the author,

while working on the systematics of Indian

diplopod families, Harpagophoridae and

Paradoxosomatidae felt the need to update the

key, and has now attempted to bring out a concise

and illustrated key for their identification. A brief

account of the characters and distribution is

added.

Class Diplopoda

Characters: Diplopods are commonly

called millipedes, meaning ‘thousand legs’,

although no individual of this group bears a

thousand legs, their many legs and wave-like

motion has given them the name millipede.

Diplopods are defined as many-segmented,

many-legged, terrestrial, tracheate, mandibulate,

antennate, progoneate, oviparous and

anamorphic arthropods. They are long,

cylindrical or sub-cylindrical, excepting a few

dorsoventrally flattened forms (Polydesmida and

Chodeumatida). Body measures from 2.0 mm

(Polyxenida) up to 200 mm in length

(Spirostreptida, Spirobolida and Julida). The

outer body covering is a hard chitinous, shiny

and beautifully coloured exoskeleton, except in

64

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

DICHOTOMOUS KEY FOR FIELD IDENTIFICA TION OF INDIAN DIPLOPODA

Polyxenida. The body consists of an anterior head

capsule, bearing one pair of 8-jointed antennae.

Just behind the antennae, at the sides or more

rarely on the middle of the forehead, are a group

of simple eyes or ocelli. Ocelli may be numerous

or reduced to 5, 3 or even 1 on each side, or

completely absent as in the case of Polydesmida,

Siphonophorida and in some cave-dwelling

forms. Between the eyes and the antennae is a

small sensory pit. The frontal margin of the head

is the labrum or the clypeus, which is notched at

the middle, usually bearing three teeth.

Underneath are a pair of mandibles carrying

powerful cutting edges, at the base of which are

placed a pair of maxillae which are fused,

forming a plate called gnathochilarium acting

as a labium, or floor of the buccal cavity.

Diplopoda is unique among arthropods in

possessing a gnathochilarium.

The head is followed by a long, segmented

trunk. The segment immediate to the head

capsule is the colium, large, devoid of legs and

with paired stemites. Following this are three

segments bearing three pairs of legs. The

remaining body segments are made up of two

somites each (diplosomite), the anterior prozonite

and the posterior metazonite. The diplosomites

carry two pairs of legs. The last segment lacks

legs and is called the telson or the pygidium.

The telson ends in a long or short, sharp or blunt

spine, bent upward, or downward, or straight.

Most of the millipedes are equipped with defence

glands, the repugnatorial glands or the ozadenes,

opening through ozopores located laterally on

the metazonites and distributed on most of the

body segments, except a few anterior and tail

segments. The secretions of these glands are

odoriferous, highly volatile compounds of

hydrogen cyanide, phenols, iodides, terpenoids,

quinones and aldehydes, which act as a deterrent

to other animals.

All the diplopods are progoneate; the

genital ducts of both sexes open on ring iii. In

males of spirostreptids, spirobolids, julids

stemmiulids and polyzonids, the paired deferent

canals open into a median penis or paired penes

behind the second pair of legs. In glomerids,

chordeumatids and polydesmids, the deferent

canals perforate the coxae of the second pair of

legs. In females of all orders, each oviduct opens

separately into a vulva or cyphopod behind the

second pair of legs. Each vulva consists of a

bivalve bursa with an anterior opening covered

by an operculum. Within the bursa is the

apodermatic tube terminating with one or two

ampullae, which function as seminal receptacles

or spermathecae. Each vulva lies in a sac sunk

into the lumen of the ring behind the second pair

of legs. The sac and the vulva are everted during

copulation.

Distribution: Diplopods are abundant in

warm humid tropics and all temperate broad leaf

forest regions of the world (Hoffman 1990). They

occur from the snow line down to sea level, and

some are cave and sand dune dwellers. They are

primarily inhabitants of forest floors and the relic

fauna is found to have established in plains,

cultivated lands, grasslands, and gardens. Their

distribution is contiguous; they are found in large

aggregates, small numbers or in singles, crawling

aimlessly on the verges of roads or in open fields

and plain lands, or lying spirally coiled under

litter or mineral soil. They are active on the

surface during the monsoon after one or two

showers (April to June and October to

December).

Systematic and faunistic knowledge of

Indian Diplopoda is poor, archaic and

incomplete. The fauna reported so far is chiefly

from the northern Himalayan regions and

southern Peninsula. The majority of the

Himalayan fauna is localized in distribution,

restricted to certain altitudes, and very few

species are widespread (Golovatch and Martens

1996). Among the diplopods, worldwide

distribution is very rare. According to Attems

(1936), the Indian diplopod fauna is largely

endemic, and bears a close relationship to the

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

65

DICHOTOMOUS KEY FOR FIELD IDENTIFICA TION OF INDIAN DIPLOPODA

African, and to a certain extent to the Australian

fauna. But the majority of the fauna is endemic

and localized. Among the Harpagophoridae, the

genus Gonoplectus is specially restricted to the

northern Himalayan region, whereas the other

genera such as Harpurostreptus , Carlogonus,

Gnomognathus , Organognathus, Ktenostreptus

and Phyllogonostreptus are largely of Peninsular

India. Sphaerotherids are reported from both the

regions, but are restricted to high altitudes. The

millipedes of the Orders Chordeumatida, Julida

and the genera of Family Furhamonodesmidae,

Order Polydesmida, are reported only from

Himalayan ranges, whereas the other three

families of Polydesmida are reported from both

the regions. Thus, diplopods exhibit

biogeographic affinities.

Dichotomous icey for the Orders

of Class Diplopoda

1. Body wall membranous without sclerotisation.

Body soft, consists of 1 1 segments with 13 pairs

of legs, covered with tufts or clusters of setae or

bristles. Males without copulatory organs

(gonopods). Minute animals of 2-3 mm length.

Found in dry places. Commonly called ‘bristly’

millipedes (Fig. 1) Polyxenida.

Family: Polyxenidae

( 1 species reported from Kashmir, 1 species reported

from South India)

— Body wall sclerotised. Body hard, composed of

13 or more segments. Setae, if present, always

single and simple, never in tufts or clusters.

Adults with 1 7 or more pairs of legs. Tarsal claw

simple and acute. At least one pair of legs

modified into copulatory organs (gonopods) in

males 2

2. Dorsal surface of body slightly convex. Adults

with 13 or 22 segments. Segmental sclerites

loosely attached (pentazoneate, Fig. 2a). No

plural keels. Last pair of legs modified into

copulatory organs 3

— Body flat or sub-cylindrical. Adults with 19 or

more segments. Segmental sclerites completely

fused to form a tight ring (monozoneate, Figs 2b,

2c and 2d) or attached with membranous joints.

Paired legs on 7th segment modified into

gonopods in males 5

3 . Body composed of 1 3 segments. Head with a row

of ocelli (eyes). Animals capable of rolling into

tight balls or spheres. Males stridulate by rubbing

last pair of legs with sides of last tergite 4

— Body composed of 22 segments. Head without

ocelli. Animals not capable of rolling into a ball

or sphere, males do not stridulate

Glomeridesmida

Family Glomeridesmidae

(2 species known from South India)

4. Animals large, up to 8 cm. Body surface smooth,

grey to black in colour without any

ornamentation, called ‘giant pill millipedes’ (Figs

3a and 3b) Sphaerotheriida.

Families Sphaerotheriidae and Sphaeropoeidae

(More than 30 species reported from India)

— Animals small, up to 2 cm. The 2nd and 3rd body

segments fused to form a broad plate (Fig. 3c)

laterally, accommodates the lateral tip of the

following terga during ball formation. Cuticle jet

black, sometimes with brightly coloured spots

Glomerida

Family Glomeridae

(3 species reported from North India)

5. Body flattened, sub-cylindrical, with 19

segments. Segmental sclerites fused into a

single solid ring, usually without traces of

sutures (Fig. 2b). Ocelli always missing.

Gonopod formed from only the anterior pair

of legs of the 7th segment, posterior pair of

legs absent (Fig. 4) Polydesmida

Families Paradoxosomatidae,

Fuhrmannodesmidae, Pyrgodesmidae and

Cryptodesmidae

(More than 60 species known from India)

— Adults with 26 or more segments, not

completely coalesced. Sterna and pleura

joined by a membrane, or with a

distinguishable suture (Figs 2b and 2c).

Both pairs of legs of 7th segment modified

into gonopods. If the gonopod is modified

from a single pair of legs, the sterna not

coalesced with pleuroterga, and the latter

ornamented with longitudinal ridges (Figs

5b and 5c) 6

66

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

DICHOTOMOUS KEY FOR FIELD IDENTIFICA TION OF INDIAN DIPLOPODA

Figs 1-4: 1. Polyxenus (Dorsal View), 2. Cross sections of segments of: a. Glomerid, b. Polydesmid,

c. Chordeumatid, and d. Spirostreptid. (s: sternite; p: pleurites; t: tergites),

3. Arthrosphaera (Sphaerotheriida): a. extended animal, b. rolled into a ball,

3c. Glomeris (Glomerida) curled up, 4. Anoplodesmes tanjoricus (Polydesmida)

5. Head variable in form, usually as broad as

the collum, without ocelli, anteriorly

produced into a beak or rostrum. Body

setose, thin and long. Large number of

segments (180-190), with simple gonopods.

Antennae straight, distal article enlarged.

Article 5 with sensory pit (Fig. 6). Metaterga

without longitudinal suture. Sterna and

pleura flexibly articulated by connective

tissue Siphonophorida

Family Siphonophoi;idae

(2 species from South India and 1 from North

India)

— Head smooth, rounded, without beak or

rostrum. Body straight, arched or

cylindrical, with 26 or more segments.

Antennae without sensory pits. Sterna,

pleura and terga completely coalesced into

rigid cylindrical rings 7

7. Body with 26-30 segments in adults. Arched

or sub-cylindrical. Sternites not coalesced

(Fig 2c). Ozopores absent. Ninth and tenth

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

67

DICHOTOMOUS KEY FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN DIPLOPODA

Figs 5-10: 5a. Phyllogonostreptus nigrolabiatus (Spirostreptida), 5b. Body segment (ventral view)

spirobolid, c. Body segment (ventral view) Spirostreptid, 6. Head with collum (lateral view)

Siphonophorid, 7. Head with a few segments (lateral view) Stemmiulid, 8. Head (front view) with clypeal

suture Spirobolid, 9. Head (front view) with occipital suture Spirostreptid, 10. Gnathochilarium:

a. spirobolid, b. julid, c. spirostreptid, d. cambalid, (s. stipes, 1. linguales, m. mentum, p. prementum)

68

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

DICHOTOMOUS KEY FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN DIPLOPODA

pairs of legs with coxal sacs in males.

Metaterga with 3+3 macrochetae and with

external swellings or keels. Epiproct with

spinnerets Chordeumatida

Family Cleidogonidae and Kashmireumatidae

(2 species known from North India)

— Body with more than 30 segments,

cylindrical. Metaterga without keels and

macrochaetae. Epiproct without spinnerets,

but with or without a simple spine 8

8. Head with one or two large ocelli on each

side (Fig. 7). Pleurites and tergites fused.

Metatergal suture prominent

Stemmiulida

Family Stemmiulidae

(3 species known from South India)

— Head with numerous ocelli in ocular field,

or ocellaria. Ocular field triangular /

reniform or oval. Segmental sclerites fused

into a complete ring 9

9. Ocular field rounded or oval. No occipital

suture between them, but clypeal suture

evident (Fig. 8). Pleural sclerites distinct

(Fig. 5b). A single pair of legs up to 5th

segment. Gnathochilarium with a broad

mentum separating the bases of the stipes

and lingulae from each other (Fig. 10a) ...

Spirobolida

Families Spirobolidae, Pachybolidae and

Physobolidae

(More than 30 species reported from South India)

— Ocular fields reniform or subtriangular,

usually with a fine occipital suture between

them (Fig. 9), clypeal suture absent. Pleural

sclerites completely fused with the lower end

of terga. No suture in between (Fig. 5c).

R E F E

Attems, C. (1936): Diplopoda of India. Mem. Ind. Mus.

Il\ 133-323.

Bano, K. (1999): General account, habitat, collection and

preservation of millipedes. Bugs ‘R’ all. 13(1):

(Newsletter of the Invertebrate Special Interest Group.

SBSG. India).

Segment 4 without legs. Gnathochilarium

variable 10

10. Large millipedes up to 15-20 cm in length,

with up to 90 segments (Fig. 5a). Occipital

suture evident. Pleural sclerites indistinct.

4th segment without legs. Male gonopods

consist of both pairs of legs of 7th segment,

anterior pair more active. Stipes of the

gnathochilarium always widely separated by

a large median mentum (Figs 10c and lOd)

Spirostreptida

Families Spirostreptidae, Harpagophoridae,

Cambalidae (Fig. lOd) and Adiaphorostreptidae

(More than 70 species known from India)

— Small cylindrical millipedes. Bases of the

stipes of gnathochilarium broadly in contact

medially. Small prominent sclerites, a

promentum isolates the stipes from the

linguales. Mentum, a transverse large plate

(or 2 plates) present at the bases of the stipes

(Fig. 10b) the male gonopods formed from

both pairs of legs on the 7th segment

Julida

Family Julidae

(1 species reported from North India)

Acknowledgements

I thank Dr. J.M. Demange, Dr. S.I.

Golovatch, and Dr. R.L. Hoffman for their

research papers, and other literature, which

immensely facilitated my work. I am highly

indebted to my husband Mr. Mushtaq Ahmed

for the translation of French papers of

Dr. Demange, without which it would not have

been possible to produce this paper.

ENCES

Carl, J. (1941): Diplopoden aus Sudindien und Ceylon 2.

Teil Nematophora und Juliformia. Revue Suisse de

Zool. 48(22): 569-714.

Demange, J.M. (1961): Materiaux pour servir a une

revision des Harpagophoridae (Myriapodes-

Diplopodes). Mem. Mus. Nat. Hist. Natur., Ser. A.

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

69

DICHOTOMOUS KEY FOR FIELD IDENTIFICA T10N OF INDIAN DIPLOPODA

24: 1-274.

Demange, J.M. (1969): Materiaux pour servir a une

revision des Harpagophoridae IV - Collection

d’indetermines du Museum de Hambourg. Entom.

Mitt. Zool. Museum Hambourg 4(67): 50-65.

Demange, J.M. (1970): Materiaux pour servir a une

revision des Harpagophoridae V. Collection du

Museum de Hambourg: Deutsche Indien - Expedition

1955-1957. Ent. Mitt. Zool. Museum Hamburg.

4(68): 79-82.

Demange, J.M. (1975): Materiaux pour servir a une

revision des Harpagophoridae VII. Caracterisation

nouvelle du genre Phyllogonostreptus Carl 1918,

description d’une nouvelle espece indienne du genre

et etude morphologique complementaire du type de

Thyropygus (?) negotiosus Carl 1942. Revue Suisse

Zool. 82(1): 157-162.

Demange, J.M. (1977a): Harpagophoridae (Myriapodes,

Diplopodes) de I’lnde nouveaux ou peu connus. Bull.

Mus. Natn. Hist. Nat. Paris. 3e Ser. 431. Zoologie

301:231-235.

Demange, J.M. (1977b): Description de trois nouvelles

especes de Spirostreptoidea (Myriapodes,

Diplopodes) de ITnde dont une appartenant a un

genre typiquement africain. Mus. Natn. Hist. Nat.

Paris. 3e Ser. 431. Zoologie 301: 237-242.

Demange, J.M. (1983): Donnees nouvelles sur la famille

des Harpagophoridae (Myriapoda, Diplopoda).

Bull. Mus. Natn. Hist. Nat., Paris. 4e Ser. 5(2): 56 1 -

584.

Demange, J.M. (1989): Sur queiques Harpagophoridae du

Sud Est Asiatique et de I’lnde (Myriapoda,

Diplopoda, Spirostreptidae). Bull. Mus. Natn. Hist.

Nat, Paris. 4e Ser. 11: 773-781.

Golovatch, S. I. (1983): Two Paradoxosomatidae from the

Kashmir Himalayas (Diplopoda) - Senckenberg Biol.

63(3/4): 297-302.

Golovatch, S.I. (1992): Diplopoda from the Nepal

Himalayas. Some additional Paradoxosomatidae.

Senckenberg Biol. 72(1/3): 183-203.

Golovatch, S.I. (1993): On several new or poorly known

Oriental Paradoxosomatidae (Diplopoda,

Polydesmida). Arthropoda Selecta 2(1): 3-14.

Golovatch, S.I. & J. Martens (1996): On the distribution

and faunogenesis of Himalayan Millipede

(Diplopoda). Preliminary results. Mem. Mus. Natn.

Hist. Nat. 169: 163-174. In: Acta Myriapodologica

(Ed.: Geoffroy, J.J., J.P. Mauries and M.N.D.

Jacquemin).

Hoffman, R.L. (1977): Studies on Spirostreptid millipedes

XIII. Adiaphorostreptus, a remarkable new genus

from India, Type of a new family in Spirostreptidae.

Ent. Mitt. Zool. Mus. Hamburg. Vol. 5, No. 98, pp.

137-143.

Hoffman, R.L. (1978): Studies on Spirostreptoid millipedes

XIV. A new species of Gonoplectus from Thailand,

with notes on the status and distribution of the genus

(Spirostreptida: Harpagophoridae). J. Nat. Hist. 12:

413-422.

Hoffman, R.L. (1979): Classification of the Diplopoda.

Museum D’Histoire Naturelle, Geneve. Pp. 1-237.

Hoffman, R.L. (1990): Diplopoda. Pp. 835-860. In: Social

Biology Guide (Ed: Dindal, D.L.). Wiley Interscience,

New York, pp. 1349.

Jeekel, C.A.W. (1968): On the classification and

geographical distribution of the Family

Paradoxosomatidae (Diplopoda: Polydesmida).

Acad. Proefschr., Rotterdam. 1-168.

Jeekel, C.A.W. (1980): On some little known

Paradoxosomatidae from India and Ceylon, with the

description of four new genera (Diplopoda:

Polydesmida). Beaufortia. 30(8): 163-178.

Appendix

Field Identification of Orders of Class Diplopoda

1 . Body soft, with tufts of setae Polyxenida

— Body hard, no tufts of setae 2

2. Adults at most with 13-22 body segments .... 3

— Adults with 26 or more body segments 6

3. Body flat. Adults with 20 segments. Segmental

sclerites fused into a complete ring

(monozoneate), tergites usually with lateral

wings or keels Polydesmida

— Body subcylindrical, each segment with a tergite,

two pleurites and two coxosternites freely

attached (pentazoneate); no lateral keels 4

4. Adults with 22 segments. Head without ocelli,

animals unable to roll into a ball

Glomeridesmida

— Adults with 13 segments. Head with a row of

ocelli, animals roll into a ball 5

5. Large animals, grey to black in colour, without

ornamentation (giant pill millipedes)

Sphaerotheriida

— Small animals, jet black colour, some with bright

coloured spots, 2nd and 3rd body segments fused

into a broad plate Glomerida

70

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DICHOTOMOUS KEY FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN DIPLOPODA

6. Head without ocelli, anteriorly produced into a

beak or rostrum. Body densely hairy (pilose), —

thin, long with large number of segments

Siphonophorida

— Head smooth, rounded, without beak or rostrum, 9.

ocelli normally present. Body smooth 7

7. Body arched, with 26-30 segments without —

ozopores, metaterga with keels 3+3

macrochaetae, epiproct with spinnerets 10.

Chordeumatida

— Body cylindrical, with more than 30 segments,

metaterga without keels, no macrochaetae, —

epiproct with simple spine, no spinnerets 8

8. 1 or 2 big ocelli on each side of head,

pleurotergites with middorsal suture

Stemmiulida

Several small ocelli, ocular fields triangular,

reniform or oval, segmental sclerites fused into

a complete ring (monozoneate) 9

Head with a median clypeal suture, ocular fields

rounded or oval Spirobolida

Head with occipital suture, ocular fields

triangular or reniform 10

Large millipedes, head with occipital suture,

stipites of the gnathochilarium separated by a

large mentum Spirostreptida

Small millipedes, body up to 1.5 cm long,

stipites of the gnathochilarium meeting in

midline, mentum small transverse plate or 2

plates at the bases of the stipites Julida

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

71

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

STUDIES ON OXYSYCHUS DELUCCHI, HYMENOPTERA: CHALCIDOIDE A :

PTEROMALIDAE, FROM INDIA WITH THE DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES1

P.M. SURESHAN2 AND T.C. NARENDRAN3

( With fifteen text-figures)

Key words: Chalcidoidea, Pteromalidae, Oxysychus, O. macregaster sp. nov.

The species of Oxysychus Delucchi, namely, O. coimbatorensis (Ferriere), O. nupserhae (Dutt &

Ferriere), O. sphenopterae (Ferriere) from India are reviewed and one new species O. macregaster

sp. nov. is described. A key to the species of Oxysychus from India is also provided.

Introduction

The genus Oxysychus Delucchi is well

known from the Ethiopian, European and

Oriental Regions. In India, this pteromalid

genus is represented by O. sphenopterae ,

O. coimbatorensis , O. nupserhae and a new

species O. macregaster which is described here.

The observations on some character variations

of propodeum, and number of tibial spurs are

discussed. The diagnostic characters and

illustrations of the species known from India are

also provided.

The terminology in this paper generally

follows Graham (1969). The antennal funicular

segments are numbered F1-F5 and the gastral

tergites T1-T6, beginning with the first after the

petiole and the last before the epipygium. The

following abbreviations are used: OOL-Ocello-

ocular distance; POL - post-ocellar distance; SMV-

submarginal vein; MV- marginal vein; PMV - post

marginal vein and STV - stigmal vein.

The type specimens have been deposited

with the Zoological Survey of India, Calicut.

Oxysychus Delucchi

Oxysychus Delucchi, 1956. Z. angew. Ent.

'Accepted March, 1999

Zoological Survey of India,

Western Ghats Field Research Station,

Calicut 673 002, Kerala, India.

’Department of Zoology, University of Calicut,

Pin 673 635, Kerala, India.

39: 240. Type species Dinarmus silvestri Masi,

by original designation.

This plesiomorphic genus of Pteromalidae

has a sessile gaster, extensive pilosity on the

dorsal thorax and two spurs on the hind tibia

(Boucek 1988). The other generic characters are:

carinate pronotal collar; propodeum between

spiracles almost flat or weakly convex; antenna

in female with 3 anelli and 5 funicular segments,

and in male 2 and 6 respectively. But our

observations on the type specimen of Oxysychus

sphenopterae revealed some variations in the

above characters, such as hind tibia with one spur

and propodeum with a weak median carina

obliterated in the middle by an obscure cross

ridge. We have not seen further material of

Oxysychus sphenopterae , hence refrain from

commenting on these variations. The hind tibial

spurs are usually double and one may become

rudimentary in Oxysychus sphenopterae as

given by Mani (1989). Some specimens of

Oxysychus macregaster sp. nov. also show

variation in possessing a weak and complete

median carina on propodeum, which is either

absent or only slightly indicated anteriorly.

Key to the Indian species

of Oxysychus Delucchi

1 . Gaster with hind margins of T 1 -T3 medially

produced and distinctly notched in the

middle (Fig. 14); antennae slender (Fig. 12);

forewing with PMV 2x STV; all femora

testaceous macregaster sp. nov.

72

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NEW DESCRIPTIONS

— Gaster with hind margins of T1-T3 not

produced or notched as above; antennae not

very slender (Figs 2, 5, 8); PMV shorter,

less than 2 x STV; femora brown to blackish-

brown (prominent on hind femora) 2

2. Hind tibia with one spur; scutellum almost

flat (Fig. 7); antennae with scape not

reaching above level of vertex; propodeum

(Fig. 10) with a weak median carina

obliterated in the middle by an obscure cross

ridge; forewing with STV slightly curved

sphenopterae (Ferriere)

— Hind tibia with two distinct spurs; scutellum

convex; scape reaching above level of vertex;

propodeum without median carina and cross

ridge; STV not curved 3

3 . Gaster elongate, pointed at tip and distinctly

narrower than thorax (Fig. 1); scutellum

highly convex, almost as long as broad;

antenna (Fig. 2) with club shorter than two

preceding segments combined; STV shorter,

only one third of MV

coimbatorensis (Ferriere)

— Gaster oval (Fig. 4), not narrower than

thorax; scutellum less convex, shorter than

broad; club a little longer than two preceding

segments combined; STV longer, almost

half of MV .... nupserhae (Dutt & Ferriere)

Oxysychus coimbatorensis (Ferriere)

(Figs 1-3)

? Dinarmus sauteri Masi, 1926. Konowia

5: 360. Farooqi & Subba Rao, 1986: 296

(Synonymy).

Dinarmus coimbatorensis Ferriere, 1939:

164. Boucek et al. (1979): 449 (New

combination).

Farooqi & Subba Rao (1986) placed

Dinarmus sauteri Masi under O. coimbatorensis

with a question mark. We have examined the

lectotype of O. coimbatorensis (Ferriere) and

several freshly collected specimens. As the

original description by Ferriere is fairly good,

only diagnostic characters of the species are given

here. Female: Length 2.5-5 mm. Head and thorax

dark bluish-green; gaster aeneous, shining green

at base; body stout, covered with distinct white

pubescence; head and thorax reticulate punctate.

Antennae (Fig. 2) with length of FI being 2x

length of pedicel; club stout, oval, shorter than

two preceding segments combined. Thorax

(Fig. 1) convex; scutellum broadly rounded at

tip, almost as long as broad; propodeum without

median carina; forewing (Fig. 3) with MV 3x

STV; PMV almost 2x STV. Gaster (Fig. 1)

elongate, longer than head plus thorax, narrower

than thorax. Some specimens have the last

tergites less elongate and the gaster scarcely

longer than head plus thorax.

Male: Length 1.5-3 mm. Smaller, differs

from the female in having antennae more

elongate, with 2 anelli and 6 fiinicle segments;

gaster oval, depressed, shorter than thorax, with

a broad yellow spot reaching the middle.

Biology: Parasitic on Hypolixus

truncatulus (Fabricius), Pempherulus affinis

(Faust) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) ex. Stem of

Amaranthus viridis (Farooqi & Subba Rao

1986).

Distribution: India (Kerala, Tamil Nadu,

Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Delhi) and Pakistan.

Material examined: Lectotype: Dinarmus

coimbatorensis Ferriere, 1939, 9; S. India:

Coimbatore, iv, vii, viii. 1939, Coll. P.N. Krishna

Ayyar, ex. Pempheres affinis (British Mus. type.

Hym. 5.673).

Other material: 5 9, India: Kerala:

Calicut University Campus, 14.ii.1985, v.1985,

ix. 1 985 and x.1985, Coll. Narendran & party;

14 9,6 d*, Calicut University Campus, Coll.

P.M. Sureshan 1986-1989; 1 9, Thekkady,

11. v. 1986; 3 9, Parambikulam Wildlife

Sanctuary, 22.xii.1985; 2 9, Peechi, 29.x. 1985,

Coll. Narendran & party; 15 9 and 2 d, Coll.

P.M. Sureshan, different parts of Kerala 1986-

1989; 2 9, Andhra Pradesh: Tenali, 28.ix.1986,

Coll. Narendran & party.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

73

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

1 mm

4

1

1 mm

\

Figs 1-3: Oxysychus coimbatorensis (Ferriere), Female: 1. Body in profile,

2. Antenna, 3. Fore wing

Figs 4-6: Oxysychus nupserhae (Dutt & Ferriere), Female: 4. Body in dorsal view,

5. Antenna, 6. Forewing

74

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

•*ii fii'

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Oxysychus nupserhae (Dutt & Ferriere)

(Figs 4-6)

Neocatolaccus nupserhae Dutt & Ferriere,

1961. Indian J. Agr. Sci. 31: 139. Boucek et al.

1979: 450 (New combination).

Diagnostic characters: Female: Length 3-

6 mm. Flead and thorax dark blue, almost black;

gaster aeneous with coppery shine; head with

frons swollen; cheeks large; vertex narrow; POL

greater than OOL. Antennae (Fig. 5) inserted a

little above lower ocular border; scape extends a

little above vertex level; third anellus a little

longer than others; club a little longer than two

preceding segments together. Thorax (Fig. 4)

rugulose punctate; pronotum very short;

scutellum less convex, shorter than broad;

propodeum with lateral folds less prominent;

median carina absent. Forewing (Fig. 6) with MV

almost half of SMV, STV half of MV. Legs

strong; distal tibial ends and tarsi almost whitish.

Gaster (Fig. 4) oval, pointed behind, not narrower

than thorax, longer than head plus thorax.

Male: Length 2.3-3 mm, smaller than

female; antennae with 2 anelli and 6 funicular

segments; gaster oval, equal to thorax,

depressed, with a brown spot at the base reaching

a little beyond middle.

Biology: Parasitic on Cerambycid beetle

Nupserha bicolor Thomson girdling the stem

of Jute (Boucek et al. 1979).

Distribution: India (Kerala, W. Bengal,

Delhi)

Material examined: 2 9,1 d, India:

Kerala: Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary,

22.xii.1985, Coll. Narendran and party; 1 9,

Wynad (Nanchal), 1 0.xii. 1 994, Coll. P.M.

Sureshan; 1 d, Kazhakuttom, 25. ii. 1989, Coll.

P.M. Sureshan; 11 9 and 7 d, Calicut University

Campus, Coll. P.M. Sureshan 1986-1989.

Oxysychus sphenopterae (Ferriere)

(Figs 7-10)

Neocatolaccus sphenopterae Ferriere,

1931. Bull. Ent. Res. 22: 130. Boucek et al.

1979: 450 (New combination).

We have examined the holotype of this

species, the observed diagnostic characters are

given below:

Female: Length: 3.3 mm. Head and thorax

dark blue, almost black; gaster aeneous with a

little greenish reflection on Tl; head punctate;

lower face swollen; cheeks large. Antennae

(Fig. 8) inserted in the middle of face, scape not

exceeding above vertex level; third anellus little

longer; flagellum thick; club a little shorter than

two preceding segments combined. Thorax

(Fig. 7) punctate; pronotum very short;

mesoscutum flat above; scutellum as long as

broad, almost flat; propodeum (Fig. 10) with an

obscure median ridge and a weak median carina

indicated only anteriorly. Forewing (Fig. 9) with

MV half of SMV; STV half of MV, slightly

curved. Legs strong, fore femora somewhat

thickened; hind tibia with one strong spur.

Gaster (Fig. 7) oval, pointed at apex, longer than

thorax.

Biology: Reported parasitic on larvae of

the Buprestid beetle Sphenoptera gossypii from

Sudan, Africa (Ferriere 1931). Mani (1938)

reported it from the same host from Punjab,

India.

Distribution: India (Punjab) and Africa

(Sudan).

Material examined: Holotype: 9 in

BMNH having data as follows: B.M. type Hym.

5.692. British Sudan: Wad Medani, 23. i. 1925,

H.B. Johnston, ex. Sphenoptera gossypii Cotes.

Oxysychus macregaster sp. nov.

(Figs 11-15)

Female: Length 2. 9-4.0 mm (Holotype 3.7

mm). Head and thorax bluish-black; gaster

aeneous with bluish reflection on Tl; antennae

testaceous, except club, FI and F5 brownish;

coxae concolorous with thorax, except middle

coxae brown, remainder of legs testaceous except

tips of tarsi brown; tegulae brown; wings hyaline;

veins pale brown.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

75

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

y'iEN. T

1 mm

v— H

1 mm

Figs 7-10: Oxysychus sphenopterae (Ferriere), Female: 7. Body in profile, 8. Antenna,

9. Forewing, 10. Propodeum in dorsal view

Figs 11-15: Oxysychus macregaster sp. nov., Female: 11. Body in profile, 12. Antenna,

13. Head in dorsal view, 14. Gaster in dorsal view, 15. Male antenna

76

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Head (Figs 11, 13): Moderately reticulate;

clypeus striated. In dorsal view, head width 2. lx

length and in front view width 1.3x height;

temple length 0.2x. eye length; POL 1.5x OOL;

eye length 1 ,5x width in profile; malar space half

of eye length; clypeus bidentate. Antennae (Fig.

12) inserted a little below middle of face; scrobe

deep; antennae slender; scape 0.9x eye length;

pedicel length 2x width; third anellus a little

longer than others; club as long as two preceding

segments together. Relative lengths of FI to F5 :

: 10:7: 6.5 : 6.5 : 6.

Thorax (Fig. 11): Raised reticulate;

pronotum finely margined. Mesoscutum width

2x length; notauli reaching up to middle.

Scutellum convex, a little wider than long (20.5

: 18.5). Propodeum with no median carina (some

specimens have a weak median carina which is

also either incomplete or absent). Prepectus finely

reticulate. Forewing (Fig. 11) with basal vein

pilose; costal cell with upper half hairy. Relative

lengths of SMV, MV, PMV and STV : 36.5 :

22.5 : 16.5 : 8. Legs slender; hind femora length

3.5x width and shorter than tibia (0.9x); hind

tibia with two spurs.

Garter (Figs 11, 14): Elongate, acuminate,

longer than head plus thorax (60 : 44.5); hind

margins of T1-T3 slightly produced and notched

in the middle.

Male (Fig. 15): Length 3.1 mm. Smaller

than female; differs from female in having

antenna with 2 anelli and 6 funicle segments;

ocelli larger and gaster shorter, compressed,

shorter than head plus thorax with a broad yellow

spot reaching the middle.

Distribution: India (Kerala).

Refer

Boucek, Z. (1988): Australasian Chalcidoidea (Hymenop-

tera). C.A.B. International Wallingford, U.K. 1-83 1 .

Boucek, Z., B.R. Subba Rao & S.I. Farooqi (1979): A

preliminary review of Pteromalidae (Hymenoptera) of

India and adjacent countries. Oriental Ins. J2(4): 433-

466.

Material examined: Holotype: 9, india:

Kerala: Calicut University Campus, 24.x. 1986,

Coll. P.M. Sureshan; Allotype: d\ Peechi,

28.x. 1 989, Coll. Narendran and party; Paratypes:

1 9, Peechi, 5.ii. 1 989, Coll. P.M. Sureshan; 2 9,

Shertallai, 27. ii. 1989; 19, data as that of

holotype; 16 9, Calicut University Campus, Coll.

P.M. Sureshan from 1986-89.

Remarks: This species resembles O. ferus

(Girault) in having slender antenna with FI length

2.5x width, F2 and F3 length 2x width, F5 equal

to pedicel; forewing with PMV elongate, length

2x STV, less robust body, tegulae and general

coloration yellow, but differs from ferus in having

scape less than twice the club; propodeum without

an obscure cross ridge before middle; gaster with

T2 a little shorter than T3 and antenna reddish

except reddish-black on scape and pedicel (in ferus

scape length twice the club, propodeum with an

obscure ridge before middle, T2 equal to T3 and

T4, and antennae except scape and pedicel reddish-

black).

Acknowledgements

P.M. Sureshan thanks the Director,

Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata and the

Officer-in-charge, Zoological Survey of India,

Western Ghats Field Research Station, Calicut,

Kerala for providing facilities and encouragement.

We are grateful to Dr. John S. Noyes and Miss

Suzanne Lewis, British Museum of Natural

History, London, for kindly arranging the loan of

type specimens. We thank Dr. Burwell Chris,

Queensland Museum, Australia for providing some

valuable literature on Pteromalidae.

ENCES

Delucchi, V. (1956): Beitrage Zur kenntnis der

Pteromaliden (Hym. Chalcidoidea). Z angew. Ent. 39:

229-257.

Dutt, N. & C. Ferriere ( 1961 ): On the Chalcidoid parasites

of the Jute stem girdler from West Bengal. Indian J.

agric. Sci. 31(2): 139-142.

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

77

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Farooqi, S.I. & B.R. Subba Rao (1986): Family

Pteromalidae. In: The Chalcidoidea (Insecta:

Hymenoptera) of India and the adjacent countries. Part.

II. A catalogue (Eds.: Subba Rao & Hayat). Oriental

Ins. 20. Pp. 279-306.

Ferreere, C. (193 1): Notes on African Chalcidoidea. Bull,

ent. Res. 22: 127-135.

Ferriere, C. (1939): Chalcid flies attacking noxious

beetles in India and New Guinea. Bull. ent. Res. 30:

163-168.

Graham, M.W.R.Dev (1969): The Pteromalidae of North

Western Europe (Hymenoptera : Chalcidoidea). Bull.

Brit. Mus. Nat. Hist. Ent. Suppl. 16: 1-908.

Mani, M.S. (1938): Catalogue of Indian Insects. Part 23-

Chalcidoidea. Pp. 170, Delhi.

Mani, M.S. (1989): The fauna of India and the adjacent

countries. Chalcidoidea (Hymenoptera) Part I & II.

Zool. surv. India. Pp. 1067.

Masi, L. (1926): H. Sauter’s Formosa- Ausbeute.

Chalcididae (Hym.) I. Teil, Konowia 5: 325-381.

78

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

A NEW GENUS AND TWO NEW SPECIES OF ARCTIINAE,

ARCTIIDAE: LEPIDOPTERA, FROM INDIA1

Jagbir S. Kirti and Amritpal S. Kaleka2

( With eighteen text-figures)

Key words: Juxtarctia, J. monospinuatus sp. nov., J. bispinuatus sp. nov., genitalia, scales

Two new species monospinuatus and bispinuatus referable to a new genus Juxtarctia are reported

from India. The new genus is closely related to Spilarctia as far as general maculation and wing

pattern are concerned. However, its unique, large juxta on the male genitalia makes it different

from Spilarctia. The shape of valva and alar expanse are some of the other important features of

the new genus. Both the new species can also be separated easily on the basis of aedeagus

armature.

Introduction

During the surveys undertaken for the

collection of Arctiid moths from various states

of northeast and northwest India, a complex

phena consisting of seven representatives, was

collected from Jatinga (North Cachar Hills)

Assam and Nauni (Solan district) Himachal

Pradesh. All these individuals possessed a

similar type of maculation and wing pattern, and

their tentative sorting led to the inference that

they belong to two closely allied species under

genus Spilarctia Butler. However, both of them

could not be identified from the relevant

literature (Hampson 1894, 1901; Arora and

Choudhary 1982) or from material available in

the National Museums and the Natural History

Museum, London. Hence, both these species are

new and closely allied with each other on the

basis of maculation and genitalia. These

undescribed species are also closely related to

Spilarctia multiguttata (Walker) on the basis of

ground colour and general maculation, but are

clearly different with respect to different genital

structures and certain other morphological

features. Comparison of the genital features of

these two species with those of the type species

of Spilarctia Butler and the congenerics, S.

‘Accepted August, 1999

department of Zoology, Punjabi University,

Patiala 147 002, Punjab, India.

multiguttata (Walker), S. casignata (Kollar), S.

rubilinea (Moore), S. erythrozona (Kollar), S.

leopardina (Kollar), S. comma (Walker), S.

niceta (Stoll), and S. obliqua (Walker), reveal

that the two species are unique. Nor can they be

placed in the allied genera Thanatarctia Butler,

Spilosoma Stephens and Diacrisia Hubner. The

type species of these genera are clearly different

and Koda (1988) has already differentiated all

these genera in his paper entitled, “Generic

classification of Subfamily Arctiinae of the

Palaearctic and Oriental regions based on male

and female genitalia”. He examined the genitalia

of twenty-two species of genus Spilarctia , along

with species of Thanatarctia. He also erected a

new genus Cladarctia Koda on the basis of the

unique male genitalia of an Indian species.

The large and unique juxta, which is not

seen in any other genus, the large alar expanse,

and two pairs of semicircular signa in the corpus

bursae of female genitalia distinguish the genus

under consideration from the abovementioned

i.e. Spilarctia, Spilosoma, Thanatarctia,

Diacrisia and Cladarctia genera. Hence, a new

genus Juxtarctia is proposed here to

accommodate the two new species. The species

bispinuatus is designated as the type of the new

genus.

The types are deposited in the Museum of

Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata (Regn. No.

JS-Zoo-Mus-101).

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

79

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Systematics

Genus Juxtarctia gen. nov.

Type Species: Juxtarctia bispinuatus sp.

nov.

Distribution: Assam and Himachal

Pradesh.

Diagnosis: Labial palpus long and porrect,

reaching lower level of frons. Antenna

bipectinate in male, serrate in female. Forewing

with ground colour white, prominent black spots

present; vein R1 originating from cell; vein R2-R5

stalked from upper angle of cell; M2 and M3

closely approximated from lower angle; Cu, and

Cu2 arising from well before lower angle of cell.

Hindwing with vein Sc+R, originating from

before middle of cell; M from upper angle; M2

from near lower angle; Cu, from before lower

angle of cell; Cu2 from middle of cell. Hind tibia

with two pairs of spurs.

Male genitalia with uncus of moderate size,

swollen dorsally, tip curved; acrotergite well

developed; fenestrula absent; tegumen longer

than vinculum; vinculum short, with outer walls

slightly produced; saccus small and curved; valva

simple, with broad basal half and narrow

cylindrical apical half; saccular margin produced

into a rounded flaplike projection; sacculus and

costa well defined; juxta exceptionally large and

unique, broad at base, with two parallel

sclerotized dilated flaps, supporting triangular

bifurcated apical half; transtilla broad; aedeagus

of moderate size, distinct sclerotization at distal

end, bearing one or two large distinct spines;

vesica armed with denticles and numerous

spines.

Female genitalia with corpus bursae

membranous, irregular in shape, having distinct

cervix bursae; accessory sac present; two pairs

of semicircular serrated signa; ductus bursae

strongly sclerotized, narrow above and broad at

distal end; anterior apophyses less than half the

length of posterior apophyses; anterior apophyses

with their apices pointed, posterior apophyses

with blunt tips; papilla analis rounded and broad,

fringed with an array of micro and macro setae.

Key to the species of genus Juxtarctia gen. nov.

1 Forewing with veins R2-R. stalked from before

upper angle of cell, M2 and M3 minutely stalked

from lower angle of cell; hindwing with vein Rs

arising from before upper angle of cell; male

genitalia with uncus having blunt tip; valva with

apical portion of equal width, tip broad; juxta

with apical margin bearing well sclerotized small

setae; aedeagus with two prominent spines at

distal end bispinuatus sp. nov.

— Forewing with vein R2-R. stalked from upper

angle, M2 from just above lower angle, M3 from

lower angle of cell; hindwing with vein Rs from

upper angle of cell; male genitalia with uncus

having pointed tip; valva with apical portion

gradually narrowing towards its tip; juxta with

apical margin without any armature; aedeagus

with a large prominent spine at distal end

monospinuatus sp. nov.

Juxtarctia bispinuatus sp. nov.

(Figs 1-9)

Head with vertex and frons furnished with

orange yellow scales. Antenna with scape having

orange yellow scales, flagellum black. Eyes

golden brown. Labial palpus long and porrect,

reaching lower level of frons; first segment

decorated with black scales, underside fringed

with yellow; second and third segments black.

Thorax clothed with white scales; meso-

and metathorax bear black spots; collar covered

with orange scales and black spots; tegula white,

spotted with black. Forewing with ground colour

white; a basal black spot; three subbasal black

spots; a streak-like spot on costa; an antemedial

series of five spots, those below cell and 1 A being

placed outwards; a medial series of seven spots,

excurved strongly at lower margin of cell; two

prominent spots in cell and one beyond

discocellulars; two postmedial series, first of nine

spots, excurved below costa, incurved below vein

80

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Rl R2

sc+Rars

POAPO

APO

CEB

Figs 1-9: Juxtarctia bispinuatus sp. nov., 1. Forewing, 2. Hindwing, 3. Male genitalia,

4. Valva (left) - ventrolateral view, 5. Valva (left) - inner view, 6. Uncus - lateral view,

7. Aedeagus - dorsal view, 8. Aedeagus - ventral view, 9. Female genitalia

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

81

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

M3; second again of nine spots, excurved in

middle; submarginal series of paired spots on

veins M2 to Cu, and a black dot on Cu2; six

marginal spots present; veins R^R,. stalked from

before upper angle of cell; M2 and M3 minutely

stalked from lower angle of cell. Hindwing with

ground colour orange yellow; in male, two

antemedial black spots, one on costa and another

in cell; in female, an antemedial series of spots

on either side of upper and lower margin of cell

and vein 2a, becoming larger towards costa; two

postmedial spots, one on costa and another below

Sc+R,; discoidal spots one on inner side and

another beyond discocellulars; submarginal

series of paired spots on veins Rs, M2, Cu2 and

2A; five marginal spots; fringe orange; vein Rs

originating from before upper angle of cell; M2

from above lower angle of cell; Cu, from before

lower angle of cell. Legs with coxae clothed with

yellow scales, fore coxae with large black patches;

femora furnished black above, pale yellow below;

tibia and tarsi dressed with yellow scales,

streaked with black; outer tibial spurs almost half

length of inner spurs.

Abdomen decorated with orange yellow

scales; short segmental bands on dorsal side

except on first two segments; last segment with

a prominent black spot; lateral and submarginal

series of black spots. Male genitalia with uncus

short, broad, strongly swollen dorsally, setosed,

tip slightly curved, blunt; tegumen broad and

sclerotized, almost double the length of

vinculum; vinculum broad towards tegumen,

narrow towards saccus; saccus small, V-shaped.

Valva broad, sacculus distinct, narrow at basal

end, constricted in middle with flap-like

projections; costa well defined, cucullus and

valvula fused into a rounded cylindrical distal

half; juxta large and unique with lateral flaps

broad, triangular projection slightly notched,

with layers of well sclerotized setae; transtilla

rounded, oval, semisclerotized.

Aedeagus long, slightly curved in middle,

both of its walls equally sclerotized, with a

distinct sclerotization at distal end, bearing two

distinct, but unequal, blunt spines; vesica armed

with large number of denticles and distinct

pointed comuti.

Female genitalia as described in diagnosis

of the genus.

Wing Expanse (Half): Male 25 mm;

Female 25 mm.

Material Examined: Holotype: india:

Assam: North Cachar Hills, Jatinga, 900 m,

1.x. 1995, one male. Coll. A.R Singh. Paratypes:

india: Assam: North Cachar Hills, Jatinga,

900 m, 1.x. 1995, one male, Himachal Pradesh:

Nauni, 900 m, 2.viii. 1 994, one female, Coll. A.P.

Singh.

Etymology: The name of the species

pertains to the armature of aedeagus.

Juxtarctia monospinuatus sp. nov.

(Figs 10-18)

Head with vertex and ffons covered with

orange yellow scales. Antenna with scape studded

with orange scales, flagellum black. Eyes golden

brown with black spots. Labial palpus porrect,

reaching lower level of frons, first and second

segments decorated with black scales, underside

fringed with yellow; third segment black.

Thorax covered with white scales; meso

and metathorax with black spots; collar orange,

spotted with black; tegula covered with white

scales and black spots. Forewing with ground

colour white; a basal black spot; three subbasal

black spots; an antemedial series of five spots,

spots below cell and 1A placed outwards; a

medial series of seven spots, strongly angled

outwards on lower margin of cell; spots in each

angle and one beyond discocellulars; two

postmedial series of nine spots each, first one

bent outwards from costa, then inwardly oblique

below median nervure, second excurved in

middle, incurved below Cu,; submarginal series

of spots on each side of veins R4-Cu,, those on

M2 placed outwards; a marginal series of six

spots; fringe white; underside orange yellow

82

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

O.OGrnin

Figs 10-18: Juxtarctia monospinuatus sp. nov., 10. Forewing, 11. Hindwing, 12. Male genitalia,

13. Valva (left) - ventrolateral view, 14. Valva (left) - inner view, 15. Uncus - lateral view,

16. Saccus - lateral view, 17. Aedeagus - dorsal view, 18. Aedeagus - ventral view

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

83

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

except at apical area, spots larger and diffused;

veins R2-R5 stalked from upper angle of cell; M2

arising from just above lower angle of cell.

Hindwing with ground colour orange yellow; two

antemedial spots on costa and cell; two black

spots present inside discocellulars and another

one outside of discocellulars; submarginal spots

on each side of R5, M2, Cu2 and 2A; marginal

spots on either side of M,, M2, M3 and Cu2, spots

diffused on underside and conjoined; veins Rs

and M originating from upper angle of cell; M2

from above lower angle of cell; Cu, well before

lower angle of cell. Legs with coxae covered with

yellow scales, fore coxae with large black patches;

femora black above, pale yellow ventrally; tibia

and tarsi decorated with yellow scales, streaked

with black; outer tibial spurs half the length of

inner ones.

Abdomen clothed with orange yellow scales;

short segmental bands on dorsal side, except on

first two segments; a large rounded spot present

on last segment; lateral and sublateral series of

black spots; underside with black bands on seventh,

eighth and ninth segments.

Male genitalia with uncus short, broad,

strongly swollen on dorsal side, setosed, tip

slightly curved and sharply pointed; tegumen

broad, much longer than vinculum; vinculum

short, broad, sclerotized, with outer walls

slightly produced; saccus small, V-shaped. Valva

simple, divided into two halves, broad at base,

narrow and cylindrical above; sacculus distinct,

costa defined; saccular margin produced into a

rounded flaplike projection; cucullus and valvula

fused; juxta exceptionally large and unique,

broad at base, with two parallel sclerotized

dilated flaps, narrow at both ends, supporting

triangular bifurcated, well developed structure

above these flaps; transtilla broad,

semisclerotized.

Aedeagus long, tip rounded, both of its

walls equally sclerotized, a distinct sclerotization

at distal end, bearing a large distinct spine;

vesica armed with denticles and large number

of spines.

Female genitalia not examined.

Wing Expanse (Half): Male 24 mm.

Material Examined: Holotype: india:

Assam: North Cachar Hills, Jatinga, 900 m,

29. ix. 1995, one male, Coll. A.R Singh. Paratypes:

india: Assam, North Cachar Hills, Jatinga, 900 m.,

ll.ix.1991, one male; 25. ix. 1995, one male;

1.x. 1995, one male, Coll. A.P. Singh.

Remarks: The new species monospinuatus

is closely allied to bispinuatus sp. nov. on the

basis of general ground colour, ornamentation

of wings, labial palpus and abdomen. It is distinct

from bispinuatus with respect to uncus having a

pointed tip, valva with prominent saccular

finger-like projection and an altogether different

juxta. Aedeagus of this species is also distinct

from the type species.

Etymology: The species has been named

after the single prominent spine in the vesica of

aedeagus.

Abbreviations: 1A: First anal vein, 2A:

Second anal vein, AED: Aedeagus, ANT.APO:

Anterior apophyses, CE.B: Cervix Bursae, CO:

Costa, CRN: Cornuti, CRP.BU: Corpus Bursae,

Cu,: First Cubital Vein, Cu2: Second Cubital

Vein, DU.BU: Ductus bursae, DU.EJ: Ductus

ejaculatorius, F: Frenulum, JX: Juxta, M : First

median vein, M2: Second median vein, M3: Third

median vein, PAP.A: Papilla analis, PO.APO:

Posterior apophyses, R : First radial vein, R2:

Second radial vein, R3: Third radial vein, R4:

Fourth radial vein, R$: Fifth radial vein, Rs:

Radial sector, SA: Saccus, Sc: Subcosta, Sc+R,:

Stalk of Sc+R,, SIG Signum, SL: Sacculus, TG:

Tegumen, TRA: Transtilla, UN: Uncus, VES:

Vesica, VIN: Vinculum, VLV: Valva.

Acknowledgement

Financial assistance by CS1R, New Delhi

is gratefully acknowledged.

84

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Refer

Arora, G.S. & M. Choudhary (1982): On the Lepidopterous

fauna of Arunachal Pradesh and adjoining areas of

Assam in northeast India. Family Arctiidae. Zool. Surv.

India, Tech. Monogr. No. 6: 1-63.

Hampson, G.F. (1894): Fauna of British India, Moths,

including Ceylon & Burma 2: 1-609. Taylor and

Francis Ltd., London.

ENCES

Hampson, G.F. (1901): Catalogue of Lepidoptera Phalaenae

in the British Museum. 3: 1-690.

Koda, Nobutoyo (1988): A generic classification of the

subfamily Arctiinae of Palaearctic and Oriental

regions based on male and female genitalia

(Lepidoptera: Arctiidae) Part-II. Tyo to ga 38(3):

1-79.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

85

A NEW BARILINE CYPRINID FISH OF THE GENUS BARILIUS HAMILTON,

FROM MANIPUR, INDIA'

Waikhom Vishwanath and Wahengbam Manojkumar1 2

( With two text-figures)

Key words: Bariline cyprinid fish, Barilius ngawa sp. nov., Manipur

Barilius ngawa, a new species is described from the Manipur river, Manipur, India. The fish is

characterised by an elongated body, moderate body depth (22.5-26.9% of standard length), 42-43

perforated scales along the lateral line, 21-22 scales on the mid-dorsal streak in front of dorsal fin

insertion and 16-17 circumpeduncular scales, 13-14 vertical dark bars on sides, and diameter of

eyes 21.3-25.8 of length of head length. The species is distinct from the Burmese forms

B. barnoides Vinciguerra and B. ornatus Sauvage in having more lateral line scales, shallower

body and smaller eyes.

Introduction

Species of Barilius Hamilton (1822) are

compressed, their scales are marked with

incomplete transverse bars or spots, dorsal fins

are inserted beyond the middle of the fish. The

systematic position of the genus has been studied

in detail by Howes (1980) based on detailed

anatomical and osteological characters. The

taxon now inhabits the Indian subcontinent,

Thailand, Myanmar, South China (Yunnan),

Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam and Borneo. The

genus is characterised by having a deep rostrally

curved ethmoid region, elongated nasals and

parietals and reduced lateral ethmoids. The

Indo-Burmese species, namely Barilius bola

(Hamilton) and B. guttatus Day have been placed

in the genus Raiamas Jordan on the basis of their

features such as a greatly expanded kinethmoid,

long shallow jaws and reduced premaxillary

ascending process (Howes 1980).

Three species of Barilius were hitherto

known from Manipur, India. They are B. barila

(Hamilton), B. bendelisis (Hamilton) and

B. dogarsinghi Hora. Of these, the first two are

widely distributed both in the Ganga-

1 Accepted June, 1999

department of Life Sciences, Manipur University,

Canchipur 795 003, Manipur, India

Brahmaputra system; and the last, only in the

streams of Manipur, leading to the Chindwin

drainage of Myanmar. While making collections

in the Manipur River System leading to the

Chindwin, a new Barilius was discovered and

is described below.

Material and Methods

Fishes were collected by gill net and

preserved in 10% formalin. Photographs were

taken before preservation. Details of the

collection and coloration were noted. Counts and

measurements follow Jayaram (1981). Dial

calipers were used for measurement up to

0. 1 mm accuracy. The specimens were deposited

in the Manipur University Fish Museum

(MUFM). Abbreviations: SL = standard length,

and HL = head length.

Barilius ngawa sp. nov. (Fig. 1)

Holotype: MUFM 149, 84.8 mm, Sherou

river, (tributary of Manipur river), 24° 18' N,

93° 54' E, 83 km south of Imphal, Manipur,

W. Manojkumar, 20.iii.1993.

Paratype: MUFM 150,40 exs., 61.5-134.3

mm, same data as holotype.

Diagnosis: An elongated Barilius of

moderate body depth, its depth 22.5-26.9% of

86

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Fig. 1: Paratype of Barilius ngawa (MUMF 150/1), 124 mm SL

SL. 42-43 perforated scales along the lateral line. Proportional measurements of holotype

21-22 scales on mid-dorsal streak in front of and paratype (range in parentheses) in percentage

dorsal fin insertion and 16-17 circumpeduncular of SL are given in Table 1.

scales. Vertical bars on sides 13-14; eye diameter Coloration: In life, sides are silvery, dorsal

21 .3-25.8 of HL. golden yellow, darkest at the mid-dorsal line. Sides

Description: D. ii-iii, 7-8; P. i, 12-13; V. with 13-14 vertical blue-black bars extending to

i, 7, 1; A. ii-iii, 10-11; C. 19 (10+9); L.l. 42-43; the lateral line region of the body. Dorsal fm with

L. tr. 8/1/2; PDS. 2 1 -22. Body compressed, snout a dark band. Caudal with dark margins. Fins with

pointed, mouth terminal, gape of mouth reaching orange coloration in the margin,

the middle of orbit, eyes large, but smaller than Etymology: The local name is Nga-wa

other related species (Table 1). Barbels 2 pairs. (Nga = fish; wa = swift movement of shoal). The

Snout long, its length equals interorbital space, species is named after its local name.

Dorsal fin inserted opposite interspace between Habitat: The Manipur river follows a

pelvic and anal fin base. Lower jaw with a southward course, receiving several hill streams,

symphysis and upper jaw with a notch to receive and flows out of the State into Myanmar after

the knob. Depth of body equals length of head, receiving a tributary called Yankoilok. It then

Pelvic fin short. Caudal fin deeply forked, the flows in the Chin Hills and then finally joins

lobes are equal, muscular pads are present at the the Chindwin. The river has clear water with

base of pectoral and pelvic fins. rocks and pebbles at the substratum. Sherou, the

Fig. 2: Barilius barnoides (CMK 4280), collected by P. Hobleman from Mae Son Province, Thailand

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

87

NE W DESCRIPTIONS

Table 1

COMPARISON OF MORPHOMETRIC CHARACTERS OF BARILIUS NGA WA SP. NOV.

WITH THOSE OF B. BARNOIDESV INCIGUERRA AND B. ORNATUS SAUVAGE

88

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

type locality has an elevation of about 750 m

above msl and water temperature ranges between

8-25 °C, whereas the elevation of Yangkoilok is

about 1 00 m above msl and water temperature

is 8-28 °C. The river is mostly shallow (1.5-

2.0 m deep), but there are rocky pools where the

depth exceeds 3.5 m. The river has a luxuriant

growth of shrubs, trees and bamboos on both

banks, and paddy fields wherever there is human

habitation.

Discussion: Barilius ngawa is close to

B. bamoides Vinciguerra (Fig. 2) in its predorsal

length, counts of dorsal, pectoral, ventral and anal

fms, but differs in having smaller number of caudal

fm rays, greater number of lateral line scale rows,

fewer lateral transverse scales, greater number of

predorsal scales. It also has a shallower body and

smaller diameter of eyes. B. ngawa is also distinct

from the upper Burma form (Shan State), i.e. B.

ornatus Sauvage in having greater number of

lateral line scales and circumpeduncular scales,

shallower body, shorter head and predorsal length,

smaller eye diameter, greater snout length and

lesser height of caudal peduncle. A comparative

account of the meristic characters and proportional

measurements is given in Table 1 . The new species

also differs from Barilius dogarsinghi Hora in

having greater numbers of transverse bars on the

body (13-14 vs. 8-9) and more prominent

symphyseal knob on the lower jaw. Kottelat ( 1 984)

mentioned that the description of Danio

monshiensis Wu et al. agreed with that of Barilius

bamoides except for the length of the caudal

Refer

Hamilton, F. ( 1 822): An account of the fishes found in the

River Ganges and its branches. Archibald, Constable

& Co., Edinburg & London, viii+405 pp. 39 pis.

Howes, G.J. (1980): The anatomy, phylogeny and

classification of bariline cyprinid fishes. Bull. Br. Mus.

nat. Hist. (Zool) 37(3): 129-198.

Jayaram, K.C. (1981): The freshwater fishes of India,

Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma and Sri Lanka — a

peduncle. However, Danio monshiensis of

Yunnan, China (as per description by Wu et al.

1964), differs from B. bamoides in having 15-

17 transverse bars on the body (although the

drawing No. 1-44 of the paper shows only 13

bars) vs. 9-10 bars and lateral line scales 42-44

vs. 40-41. The new species is also distinguished

from monshiensis in having a greater number

of predorsal scales (21-22 vs. 18-19),

circumpeduncular scales (16-17 vs. 14-15) and

equal caudal fm lobes vs. unequal caudal fm

lobes with the lower lobe conspicuously longer.

Talwar and Jhingran (1991) considered B.

ornatus Sauvage as a synonym of B. bamoides

Vinciguerra, by confining the distribution of the

latter to Myanmar. But B. ornatus described by

Kottelat (1984), differs from B. ornatus

examined by us in predorsal scale and

circumpeduncular scale counts (Table 1).

Comparative materials. Barilius ornatus ,

ZSI 2986-87, 2 exs., Nampamdet, Shan States,

Barilius bamoides (CMK 4053, 4280, 2exs.,

Mae Hong Son Province, Thailand. CMK =

Collections of Maurice Kottelat, Switzerland)

Acknowledgments

We thank the Director, Zoological Survey

of India, Kolkata, for permitting us to examine

types of Barilius ornatus in the National

Museum, Kolkata, and Dr. Maurice Kottelat,

Switzerland for the loan of Barilius bamoides

collected from Thailand.

ENCES

handbook. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta,

xxii+475 pp. 208 figs., 13 pis.

Kottelat, M. ( 1 984): A review of the species of Indochinese

freshwater fishes described by H.E. Sauvage. Bull. Mus.

natn. Hist. nat. Paris (4) 6(A3): 791-822.

Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland fishes of

India and adjacent countries. Vol 1, Oxford & 1BH

Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Pp. 541 .

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

89

TWO NEW SPECIES OF SCHIZOMIDS FROM INDIA

WITH RANGE EXTENSION FOR SCHIZOMUS TIKADERI

(ARACHNIDA: SCHIZOMIDA)1

D.B. Bastawade2

( With twenty-six text-figures )

Key words: Arachnida, Schizomida, Schizomus chalakudicus sp. nov.,

S. chaibassicus sp. nov., S. tikaderi, new description, range extension

Schizomid collections deposited by F.H. Gravely in the erstwhile Indian Museum, Calcutta

(= Kolkata) were located and studied. The specimens collected from Chaibassa, Chhota Nagpur,

Bihar and Chalakudi near Cochin, Kerala are new species and have been described and illustrated.

The specimens for Schizomus tikaderi were collected from localities other than the type locality

and have been added as new known localities and range extension for this species in Western

India.

The schizomids, tiny animals which inhabit

specialized habitats, occupy a distinct order

amongst the Arachnids. They have received little

attention from arachnologists, and need thorough

exploration. Pocock (1900) has reported four

species under the Suborder Tartarides in the fauna

of British india. Subsequently, Gravely (1911a,

1911b, 1912, 1915, 1925) collected schizomids

from India, Sri Lanka and Burma, and described

three new species from India (Bastawade 1985,

Bastawade and Pal 1992, Cockendolpher 1981,

Cockendolpher et al. 1994 and Reddell and

Cockendolpher 1985, 1991). Fernando (1957)

described a new species from Sri Lanka.

Cockendolpher, Sissom and Bastawade (1988)

have described a new species Schizomus tikaderi

from Maharashtra, India.

The type specimens of the three new

species described by Gravely were deposited in

the collections of the erstwhile Indian Museum,

Calcutta (presently called the National

Collections, Zoological Survey of India,

Kolkata). He also deposited some undescribed

schizomid collections, which have been studied

by the author, and two new species Schizomus

chalakudicus sp. nov. and S. chaibassicus sp. nov.,

'Accepted August, 1999

Zoological Survey of India, Western Regional Station,

Vidyanagar, Sector 29, Opp. Akurdi Railway Station,

Rawet Road, Akurdi, Pune 41 1 044, Maharashtra, India.

from Kerala and Bihar states respectively,

described here. Two new records of Schizomus

tikaderi from the Western Ghats, Maharashtra,

have also been given.

Schizomus chalakudicus sp. nov.

(Figs 1-13)

Female, cephalothorax smooth, propel-

tidium acutely pointed on mid anterior margin,

bent down at the forward end and supported with

a median seta and a pair of basal setae, three

pairs of dorsal submedian setae present, eyes or

eyespots totally absent, mesopeltidium very thin

and separated medially, metapeltidium deeply

notched on anterior middle portion, no setae

clearly noticed. Sternal setae not clear, but a pair

of long stemapophysial setae present on anterior

margin of anterior sternum.

Abdomen with tergites and sternites

smooth, setation not clear, except for a pair of

dorsal median setae on tergites I-IV; tergites X-

XIII telescoped, with no clearly identifiable setae,

segment XII without posterior process but armed

with a pair of spinose setae, other setae unclear.

Flagellum three segmented, only one pair of

lateral and dorsal setae clearly present on the

last annulus (Fig. 8). Stemite I: 0.86 times as

wide. Spermathecae tubuliform, with numerous

irregular shaped tubes on each side (Figs 9-13).

90

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR 2002

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs 1-13 Schizomus chalakudicus sp. nov., 1. Dorsal view of Cephalothorax, 2. Lateral view of Pedipalp,

3. Lateral view of Chelicera, 4. Lateral view of immovable finger of Chelicera,

5. Lateral view of inner margin of movable finger of Chelicera showing serrula,

6. Lateral view of Femur IV, 7. Lateral view of tarsus of leg I, 8. Lateral aspect of Flagellum,

9-12. Ventral view of Spermathecae and gonopods, 13. Details of tubuliform spermathecae

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

91

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Chelicera with basal segment twice as

wide, types of setae present as 1=3, 2=4, 3=6-7,

4=2, 5=7, and 6=1; immovable finger with three

sharp teeth between two large teeth (Fig. 4),

movable finger smooth except a rounded tooth

at distal end of 11-12 sutured serruia on inner

margin (Fig. 5).

Pedipalp with almost triangular form of

trochanter, with 5-6 spinose setae on exterior

ventral margin, femur round with an inner knob

(Fig. 2), mesal surface with 5 spinose setae clearly

noticed on ventromesal surface, all carinae

obsolete; patella smooth, no spur on ventrolateral

surface but only a few plumose setae seen; tibia

also smooth, carinated, 4 spinose setae on

ventromesal margin, carinae obsolete.

Basitarsus-tarsus smooth, claw as long as

basitarsus, spur about 1/3.

Legs I-IV as in Table 1, Femur IV 2.25

times as wide (Fig. 6).

Measurements (in mm): Total length

5.59; Cephalothorax 1.72 (Propeltidium 1.2 &

Mesopeltidium 0.51), Abdomen 3.07 and

Flagellum 0.77.

Material examined: Holotype 1 9 (in

spirit) deposited in the National Zoological

Collections of the Zoological Survey of India,

Kolkata, Regn. No. not stated, Coll. F.H. Gravely,

14-30. ix. 1914, type locality Chalakudi near

Cochin (previously Cochin state), Kerala, India.

Distribution: Known only from the type

locality.

Etymology: The new species has been

named after the type locality Chalakudi.

Schizomus chaibassicus sp. nov.

(Figs 14-26)

Female of 6.106 mm body size (except

flagellum), pale yellowish-brown, paler on

digits, body surface smooth, flagellum of three

annulli.

Cephalothorax with smooth propeltidium,

pointed medially on anterior margin, slightly

bent forward, supported with a pair of basal setae,

one pair of dorsal setae situated posteriorly at

1 .05 mm, a pair of inconspicuous lateral eyespots

present, mesopeltidium narrow, separated

medially by almost half of its length,

metapeltidium undivided, at the most notched

medially on anterior margin (Fig. 14).

Abdomen with all tergites and sternites

smooth, tergites I-IX each provided with a pair

of median and a pair of lateral setae, tergites X-

XI telescoped with 2-3 pairs of dorsal setae,

sternite I 0.86 mm long and 1.03 mm wide,

setation unclear; segment XII with two dorsal

spinose setae and two pairs of ventral setae,

without a dorsal process. Flagellum of three

annulli, 0.645 mm long, setation as in Figs 21

& 22. Spermathecae elongated, lobate and form

a cluster of 8-9 lobes as in Figs 23-26.

Chelicera 1.62 mm long, basal segment

almost twice as wide, with a forwardly bent

spinulated spine present on dorsal sub-basal

portion, fixed finger with only two teeth

Table 1

MEASUREMENTS IN MM FOR THE PEDIPALP AND LEGS I-IV

OF SCHIZOMUS CHALAKUDICUS SP. NOV.

92

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs 14-26 Schizomus chaibassicus sp. nov., 14. Dorsal view of Cephalothorax, 15. Lateral view of Pedipalp,

16. Lateral view of Chelicera, 17. Lateral view of immovable finger of Chelicera,

18. Lateral view of inner margin of movable finger of Chelicera showing serrula,

19. Enlarged view of ‘blood hair’ of Type I on immovable digit of Chelicera,

20. Outer (lateral) view of Femur IV, 21. Lateral view of Flagellum, 22. Dorsal view of Flagellum,

23-25. Ventral view of Spermathecae and gonopods, 26. Details of tubuliform spermathecae

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 99(1), APR. 2002

93

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Table 2

MEASUREMENTS (MM) OF PEDIPALP AND LEGS I-I V OF SCHIZOMUS CHAIBASSICUS SP. NOV.

(Fig. 17), 13-14 minutely sutured serrula on inner

margin without guard teeth, types of setae present

as 1=4, 2=4, 3=5, 4=2, 5=7 and 6=1.

Pedipalp with trochanter acutely produced

anteriorly, ventromesal margin with 7 stout

spinose setae (Fig. 15), femur not rounded,

smooth, without carinae, anteroventral margin

with 3 spinose setae, mesal with 1 seta; patella

acarinated, smooth, ventrolateral margin with 3

spinose setae, one much longer, dorsal surface

with 2 to 4 long setae; tibia with scattered delicate

setae, dorsal surface with few plumose and 3

spinose setae; basitarsus-tarsus with several long

plumose setae on ventromesal and ventral

surface, claw about 2/3 of basitarsus-tarsus, spur

about 1/3, anterior sternum with 7-8 setae and a

pair of long stenapophysial setae, posterior

sternum with 10 setae. Legs I-IV as in Table 2,

Femur IV 2.8 times as wide as long (Fig. 20).

Measurements (in mm): Total length

6.106, Carapace 2.236 (Propeltidium 1.806,

mesopeltidium, metapeltidium 0.43); Abdomen

3.87, Flagellum 0.645.

Material examined: Holotype 1 9 (in

spirit) deposited in the National Zoological

Collections of the Zoological Survey of India,

Kolkata; Regn. No. not stated, Coll. P.E. Gravely,

1.x. 19 19, Type locality a pass between Chaibass

and Chakradharpur, Chota Nagpur, Bihar, India.

Distribution: Known only from the type

locality.

Etymology: The species name is derived

from the type locality Chaibass.

Schizomus tikaderi

Cockendolpher, Sissom and Bastawade

This interesting species of Schizomida is

so far known only from Sinhagad, Dist. Pune

(Flolotype) and from Bhiv Ghat, Dist. Sangli,

Maharashtra (Paratype) (Cockendolpher et al,

1988). During recent surveys of the Western

Ghats, the author could collect 2 9 9 from

Phonda Ghat (800 m above msl) and 2 $ 9 , 1 <$

immature from Amboli Ghat (650 m above msl)

both in Sindhudurg district, Maharashtra, thus

extending its distributional range southwards in

western peninsular India.

Acknowledgements

I sincerely thank the Director, Addnl

Directors, Jt Directors and Dy Directors of the

Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata, Freshwater

Biological Station, Hyderabad and Western

Regional Station, Pune, and all officers and staff

of ZSI, Kolkata and different Regional Stations

for providing financial grants, permitting to study

old material and generous help during the

studies. I thank Mr. and Mrs. Cockendolpher and

Mr. Reddel, Texas, USA for valuable literature

and guidance. I also thank Mr. P.W. Garde, ZSI,

WRS, Pune for artworks.

94

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Refer

Bastawade, D.B. (1985): The first report of the order

Schizomida (Arachnida) from Southern India.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82(3): 690-691

Bastawade, D.B. & T.K. Pal (1992): First record of the

Arachnid order Schizomida from Arunachal Pradesh,

India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 89(1): 137.

Cockendolpher, J . (1 98 1 ): The order Schizomida. Austral.

Arachnid. 5: 6-7.

Cockendolpher, J., W.D. Sissom & D.B. Bastawade

(1988): A new Schizomid from the Indian state of

Maharashtra, with additional comments on eyed

Schizomids (Arachnida: Schizomida). Insect Mound,

USA 2(2): 90-96.

Cockendolpher, J. & N. Tsurusaki ( 1 994): Review of the

Schizomidae of Japan and Taiwan. Bull. natl. Sci.

Mus. Tokyo, Ser. A 14(4): 159-171.

Fernando, E.F. (1957): A new species of Schizomus

( Trithyreus ) from Ceylon (Sri Lanka). Annls. Mag.

nat. Hist. 10(12): 13-16.

Gravely, F.H. (1911a): The species of Ceylon (Sri Lanka)

Pedipalpi. Spolia Zeylanica 7: 135-140.

Gravely, F.H. (1911b): Notes on Pedipalpi in the collections

EN C E S

of the Indian Museum. Rec. Indian Mus. 6: 33-38.

Gravely, F.H. ( 1 9 1 2): Notes on Pedipalpi in the collections

of the Indian Museum. Rec. Indian Mus. 7: 101-110.

Gravely, F.H. (1915): Notes on the Pedipalpi in the

collections of the Indian Museum V, Tartarides (=

Schizomida) collected by Mr. B.H. Buxton in Ceylon

(Sri Lanka) and Malaya peninsula. Rec. Indian Mus.

77:383-386.

Gravely, F.H. (1925): Tartarides (= Schizomida) from Siju

caves, Garo Hills, Assam (now Meghalaya). Rec.

Indian Mus. 26: 61-62.

Pocock, R.I. (1900): The Fauna of British India, including

Ceylon and Burma. Arachnida, London: Taylor and

Francis, xii + 299 pp.

Reddell, J.R. & J.C. Cockendolpher (1985): Redescription

of Trithyreus grassi (Thorell) (Arachnida:

Schizomida). Oriental Ins. 18: 43-52.

Reddell, J.R. & J.C. Cockendolpher (1991): Redescription

of Schizomus crass icaudatus (Picard-Cambridge)

(Sri Lanka) — with a description of a new species of

Hubadia from California (Arachnida: Schizomida:

Hubadidae) Pearce-Sellard Series No. 47: 1-24.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

95

A NEW SPECIES OF DESMODIUM DESVAUX., FABACEAE,

FROM GARHWAL HIMALAYA, UTTARANCHAL, INDIA1

L.R. Dangwal and R.D. Gaur2

( With one text-figure)

Key words: Desmodium garhwalensis sp. nov., D. elegans DC., Fabaceae, Nauti,

Chamoli District, trekking route, Garhwal Himalaya, Uttaranchal

During the field survey and plant explorations in the remote localities of the Garhwal Himalaya

(NW Himalaya) the authors collected some interesting specimens of the genus Desmodium Desvaux

(Fabaceae) from Nauti (Chamoli District), Uttaranchal, from the scrub jungles along trekking routes.

Thorough study of the literature and comparison of the specimens of the regional Herbaria housed at

the Botanical Survey of India, Northern Circle (BSD) and Forest Research Institute (DD), Dehra

Dun, indicate distinct differences between D. garhwalensis sp. nov. and D. elegans DC.

In the course of survey and plant collection

in the remote localities of the Garhwal Himalaya

(NW Himalaya), the authors came across some

interesting specimens of the genus Desmodium

Desvaux. These were collected from Nauti above

Karnaprayag (Chamoli district), from the scrub

jungle along trekking routes. Scrutiny of the

literature as well as comparison of the specimens

with those of the Herbaria Botanical Survey of

India, Northern Circle (BSD), and Forest

Research Institute (DD), Dehra Dun, indicated

distinct features, suggesting a new species,

closely allied to Desmodium elegans DC.

Desmodium garhwalensis sp. nov.

Dangwal et Gaur

Desmodium eleganti DC. proxime affine,

differt caule glabrescenti dilute brunneo,

ramulisque vix piloso; foliis 3. 0-7.0 cm longis

(petiolo incluso); foliolis terminalibus c. 5.0 x

3.0 cm, supra atro-viridis, tegetes formantes pilis

sericeis albis, infra dilute viridis, parum pilosis

in nervis; petiolo 1 .5-2.0 cm longo; petiolulo 0.5-

1 Accepted November, 1999

2Herbarium and Plant Systematics Laboratory,

Department of Botany,

Post Box No. 1 7. H.N.B. Garhwal University,

Srinagar (Garhwal) 246 174, Uttaranchal, India.

1.0 cm longo; inflorescentia 5.0-12.0 cm longa;

floribus c. 2. 0-6.0 mm longis; bracteis linearibus,

1. 0- 2.0 mm longis; leguminibus stipitatis, c. 1.0-

2.0 x 0. 1-0.2 cm, sericeis brunneis, 2-8 articulatis,

leguminis articulo constricto (1.0 mm lato);

segmentis simplicibus, c. 2.0 mm longis, seminibus

dilute luteis ad atro-luteis, c. 2.0 x 1.0 mm.

Frutices decidui dilute brunnei

glabrescentes, usque ad 2.0 m longi; rami vix

pilosi. Folia trifoliata, c. 3. 0-7.0 cm longa

(petiolo incluso); foliola orbicularia, ovata ad

obovata, obtusa ad acuminata, foliola terminalia

3. 0- 5.0 x 2. 5-3.0 cm, foliola lateralia interdum

obliqua, 2. 0-2. 5 x 1. 5-2.0 cm, supra atro-viridia,

pilis sericeis albis tegetes formantes, infra

dilute viridia, parum pilosa in nervis. Petiolus

1. 5-2.0 cm longus; petiolulus 0.5- 1.0 cm longus,

puberulus. Stipula lanceolata, acuminata, usque

ad 3.0 mm longa. Inflorescentia axillaris termi-

nalisve paniculata racemosa, c. 5.0-12.0 cm

longa. Flores purpurei, c. 6.0 mm longi.

Pedicellus c. 3.0 mm longus, puberulus. Bracteae

lineares, 1. 0-2.0 mm longae; bracteolae parvae.

Calyx c. 3.0 mm longus puberulus; dentes tubo

parviores, cum bracteis bracteolisque

persistentibus. Corolla purpurea; vexillum

ovatum ad obovoideum, emarginatum, c. 6.0 mm

longum, ala plumosa, c. 6.0 mm longa; carina

breviter rostrata, plumosa, c. 6.0 mm longa.

96

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Stamina diadelpha (9+1), stamen vexillare

liberum, c. 5.0 mm longum; antherae dithecae.

Gynaecium c. 5.0 mm longum; ovarium

stipitatum pilosum; stylus breviter curvatus,

glaber; stigma capitatum. Legumina stipitata,

1. 0-2.0 x 0.1 -0.2 cm, sericea brunnea, 2-8

articulata, leguminis articuli constricti inter

semina, (c. 1.0 mm lata), articulus simplicibus

c. 2.0 mm longus. Semina dilute flava ad saturate

flava, c. 2. 0-1.0 mm.

I^pus: Nauti, Chamoli district, Garhwal

Himalaya, Uttaranchal, 900 m, 12.x. 1998, L.R.

Dangwal, 135 12 A (Holotypus - GUH); Ibid , L.R.

Dangwal, 13512 B (Isotypus - GUH).

Desmodium garhwalensis sp. nov.

Dangwal et. Gaur (Fig.l: A-J,)

The new species is closely allied to Desmodium elegans DC., a comparison of both the taxa is

given hereunder:

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

97

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

cm

Fig. 1: Desmodium garhwalensis sp. nov., A. Flowering and Fruiting branch,

B. Flower with bract and bracteoles, C. Calyx, D. Vexillum, E-E,. Wing, F-Fr Keel, G. Stamens,

H. Gynaecium, I. Pod, J-Jr Seed

98

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR 2002

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

slightly pubescent on nerves. Petiole 1. 5-2.0 cm

long; petiolule 0. 5-1.0 cm long, minutely

pubescent. Stipules lanceolate, acuminate, up to

3.0 mm long. Inflorescence axillary terminal,

panicled racemes, c. 5.0-12.0 cm long. Flowers

purple, c. 6.0 mm long. Pedicel c. 3.0 nun long,

minutely pubescent. Bracts linear, 1. 0-2.0 mm

long; bracteoles small. Calyx c. 3.0 mm long,

minutely hairy; teeth smaller than tube with

persistent bract and bracteoles. Corolla purple;

vexillum ovate to obovoid, emarginate, c. 6.0 mm

long; wing feathery, c. 6.0 mm long; keel shortly

beaked, feathery, c. 6.0 mm long. Stamens

diadelphous (9+1), vexillary stamen free, c. 5.0

mm long; anthers dithecous. Gynaecium c. 5.0

mm long; ovary stipitate, hairy; style shortly

curved, glabrous; stigma capitate. Pods stalked,

1. 0-2.0 x 0.1 -0.2 cm, silky brown; 2-8 jointed,

joint of pods constricted between the seeds

(c. 1 .0 mm wide); articles simple, c. 2.0 mm long.

Seeds light yellow to dark yellow in colour,

c. 2.0 x 1 .0 mm.

FI. & Fr.: September-December.

Remarks: In dry places along roadside and

scrub jungles, associated with Berberis asiatica ,

Carissa opaca, Indigofera atropurpurea and

Rubus ellipticus.

Etymology: The plant species is named

after the type locality Garhwal Himalaya.

Acknowledgements

We thank Dr. N.C. Majumdar, ex-Scientist

‘SE’ Botanical Survey of India, Kolkata, for the

Latin translation of the taxon and the authorities

of Botanical Survey of India, Northern Circle

(BSD), Dehra Dun and Forest Research Institute

(DD), Dehra Dun for herbarium facilities.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

99

REVIEWS

1. SAVING WILD TIGERS, edited by Valmik Thapar, 2001. Published

by Permanent Black, New Delhi. Pp. 411. Price not stated.

During the last one hundred years, the tiger

has travelled a long journey from a ‘pest’ t0 an

endangered species, and from being the main

target of hunters to that of photographers, and

now it is also the main target of writers. Perhaps

no other Indian animal has been written about

as much as the tiger. Valmik Thapar, the editor

of this book, has himself written eight books on

tigers! I have read most of his books, but never

had an uneasy feeling as while reading this book.

After a 6-page banal introduction, we are treated

to 33 articles, the first being that by Sainthill

Eardley-Wilmot, Inspector General of Forests

and the last by P.K. Sen, present Director of

Project Tiger. The illustrations in these two

articles symbolize the tragedy and indignity that

the tiger has suffered during the last 100 years.

While Eardley-Wilmot is shown standing

proudly in front of three slain tigers and one

leopard, Sen is counting tiger bones! Is this all

that will be left of this grand animal?

Valmik has selected some good writers who

have made an impact on tiger protection. I

particularly liked the article by E.P. Gee, Richard

Perry, Kailash Sankhala and Charles McDougal.

The selection of illustrations/pictures could have

been better. We are treated to an article “An

Appeal for the Preservation of WildLife” by

Stanley Jepson with his wife sitting on a large,

handsome, slain tiger, and the author-hunter

proudly sitting with his gun on a sloth bear, and

his hat disdainfully placed over the head of

another sloth bear. The vehicle in the background

with five Indians who must have helped Jepson

in this slaughter, portrays the tragedy of Indian

wildlife in bygone days. Even the more

contemporary picture printed with Melvin

Sunquist’s article “Radio-tracking the Tiger

(p. 197) looks out of place. What is he doing

with the gun, even if it is a tranquilizing gun? A

picture of a radio-collared tiger would have been

more appropriate.

Besides the inappropriate pictures, the

quality of printing leaves much to be desired.

Most of the pictures are very dark, and the ink

smudges if you touch them. Perhaps the publisher

“Permanent Black” wanted to leave a permanent

impression, on the fingers, even after one put

down the book. Et al ., meaning ‘and others’, is

a Latin phrase that most authors do not know

how and where to use. If there are three or more

than three authors, the name of the first author

is followed by et al. It is used only in text for

brevity, but in the reference section, all the names

are cited, even if there are 20 authors. I was

surprised to see John Seidensticker et al. (p. 341)

and Sarah Christie et al. (p. 373) in the title of

the chapters. Full names of all the authors should

have been given.

If we overlook these drawbacks, saving

wild tigers is an interesting book. E.P. Gee’s

writing in 1964, in his famous book the wildlife

of india, talks about India’s burgeoning human

population “This increase is by far the greatest

threat to wild animals...”. This was written when

India’s population was 440 million. Now we are

more than a billion and demographic prediction

indicates that our population may stabilize only

at 1.4 to 1.5 billion — a billion more than at

Gee’s time. Fortunately, his prophecy has not

come true yet , but will we be able say this with

surety in AD 2100? I am afraid that future

generations will write that farsighted people like

Valmik Thapar made attempts to save wild tigers,

but failed as all the tigerland was occupied by

human beings.

■ ASAD R. RAHMANI

100

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

REVIEWS

2. LIFE’S DEVICES: THE PHYSICAL WORLD OF ANIMALS AND

PLANTS by Steven Vogel. Universities Press (India) Ltd., Distributed by

Orient Longman. © Princeton Press 1988. Pp 368 (16 x 24 cm). Rs 275/-

Did you ever think of a link between

Venturi tubes and prairie dogs, or a leaf and its

petiole as a cantilever beam? Read about how

sponges use tiny, stiff spicules in an easily bent

collagenous meshwork to produce their own

brand of reinforced concrete. It occurs to you as

you digest this, how basically similar that is to

the dry straw and mud plaster used in Indian

villages to this day!

This book is about physical phenomena in

the biological world, and the author has picked

several living functions of animal bodies to

demonstrate some very basic physical principles.

The book is like an illustrated walk through

nature, helping us to make sense of the links

between biology and physics, beyond the simple

hinge joints and ball and socket joints that we

are already familiar with. An interesting example

is that of the physical principles affecting the

mating of hawkmoths. The structure of the male

hawkmoth’s large feather shaped antennae is

such that it is intended to pick up the attractant

pheromones released by the females located miles

away. The author demonstrates how problems

of air viscosity and diffusion affect the air flowing

past or through the antennae. The result is that

less than 18% of the approaching air stream is

actually able to flow through and make contact

with the chemoreceptors on the male’s antennae,

70% of which are dedicated to this vital task

alone. Thus, we fully appreciate the incredible

sensitivity of this system that overcomes the vast

distance between prospective pairs of moths.

Steven Vogel has explained all the

terminology of physics in the earlier chapters, and

as he proceeds, the work increasingly revolves

around its biological focal point instead. I found

my 30 years old memory of junior college physics

not quite adequate to grasp the fascinating

demonstrations of physical principles as applied

to living creatures. The book will help to remove

from our minds deeply ingrained artificial dockets

where we try to file away information in “subjects”,

Physics, Mechanics, Dynamics, Physical

Chemistry, as separate from Biology.

The author’s literary bent of mind shows

in the text, particularly in this line on page 101.

“The surface of a liquid is like the brow of a

thinker - a perturbation wrinkles it into waves”.

Also in the delightful quotations used for chapter

headings. “Blood is thicker than water” is Sir

Walter Scott’s comment on viscosity!

Unfortunately, the very first one, on page 3,

“Throw physic to the dogs, I’ll none o’ it”

[Shakespeare, Macbeth] does not quite fit. For

Macbeth, physic meant what we call medicine

or a drug, not physics in the sense of the book

under review. On page 3 also, I found the only

typographical error worth mentioning, as it

spoils the first taste of a book, so important to

decide how far to read on: though instead of

through.

You will enjoy Vogel’s delightful turn of

phrase, so important to a popular science writer

as well as to a lecturer: quote “The fall of an

elephant is a matter of the utmost gravity”. And

you may overcome an antipathy to explore the

mystifying territory beyond “purely biological”

writing as I did. In all, a delightful, contemporary,

‘need of the hour’ title.

m GAYATRI UGRA

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

101

REVIEWS

3. BIRDS OF PUNE, Kaipavriksh in collaboration with Centre for

Environment Education, Ahmedabad, 2001 . Pp 136. Price Rs. 50.

Besides Usha Ganguli’s book birds of the

delhi region, birds of pune is perhaps the only

book on birds of any district or city. It is

interesting to know that 23 people and two

institutes collaborated to bring out this small and

beautifully designed book of 1 36 pages, profusely

illustrated with black and white and colour

illustrations. Out of the 400 species reported from

Pune district, 1 00 common species are described

in easy colloquial language. The book is for

amateurs, so the birds are classified as ‘Brightly

Coloured Birds’, ‘Muted Coloured Birds’, ‘Sober

Yet Smart’ (whatever that may mean), ‘Long-

legged Birds’. ‘Birds with Prominent Bills’ so

on and so forth. I do not know the efficacy of

such a classification, especially when ‘brightly

coloured birds’ are shown in black and white!

Interestingly, even the pitch black jungle crow

is included under ‘brightly coloured’ birds. While

it is a lovingly smart bird, by no stretch of the

imagination can it be considered as colourful.

The chapter ‘The Fun of Bird watching’ is

fun to read with good tips on birdwatching. ‘Bird

Identification Step by Step’ is also well written.

CEE should bring out this chapter in the form of

a small booklet or a brochure for wider

circulation, because the tips are valid for any

region. For serious bird watchers looking for

good birding areas in Pune district, important

sites are described, some even with maps. A

checklist consisting of 400 species recorded in

Pune district makes this book valuable for

science. Stray or unusual records (e.g. Grey

Hypocolius sighting in Valvan dam, Lonavla) are

also included. Some of these records deserve

publication in the Journal of the Bombay Natural

History Society. Most of the colour illustrations

are accurate, except the crow-pheasant in Plate

K. The wings and back are both rufous in this

bird, but the book shows it with a black back.

The importance of the book is enhanced

by information such as habitat-wise birding areas

of Pune, references for further reading,

newsletters and magazines for birdwatchers, bird

call audio-cassettes and birdwatching

organizations in Pune. Citizens of Pune, quirkily

called Pune-ites, are lucky that they have

experienced ornithologists like Prakash Gole and

Anil Mahabal, photographers like Saleel Tambe

and organizations like Kaipavriksh and Centre

for Environment Education who joined hands to

bring out an interesting book.

■ ASAD R. RAHMANI

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1 . HIGH-TENSION ELECTRIC POLES USED AS NIGHT ROOST

BY TROOPS OF HANUMAN LANGUR PRESBYTES ENTELLUS

AT NAHARGARH WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, JAIPUR

A 1 32 kw high-tension electric line passes

through the Nahargarh Wildlife Sanctuary,

Jaipur. At night, electric poles of this line are

used as roosting sites by the Hanuman langurs

Presbytes entellus. There are three troops of

langurs, which keep to the eastern part of the

Sanctuary. They either roost on the roof and

cornices of the three old multistoried shikar

(hunting) towers or on poles of high-tension

electric line. It was also observed that they

regularly change their roosting sites.

Anogeissus pendula, the main tree species

of the Sanctuary, generally does not grow very

tall in nature, and is hence never used for night

roosting. However, some tall trees of Holoptelia

integrifolia are sometimes used for roosting.

Leopard ( Panthera pardus ) is the main

predator of langurs in the Nahargarh Sanctuary.

Perhaps to avoid the attack of leopard at night,

troops of langurs prefer safer night roosts like

the top of buildings and high-tension electric

poles.

February 7, 2001 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA

Range Forest Officer,

Phulwari Wildlife Sanctuary,

Kotra 307 025, District Udaipur,

Rajasthan, India.

2. ABNORMAL WEIGHT AND LENGTH * OF THE INDIAN PANGOLIN

MANIS CRASSICAUDATA GRAY, 1827, FROM SIROHI DISTRICT, RAJASTHAN

On September 5, 2000, an Indian pangolin

( Manis crassicaudata Gray) was seen in the

campus of the J.K. Cement factory near Banas

railway station in Sirohi district of Rajasthan

State. Since the animal was not safe in the factory

campus, it was captured with the help of local

forest officers and transferred to the Zoological

Garden, Jaipur. At the Zoo, the full grown male

was thoroughly checked by the zoo veterinarian,

and its weight and length were recorded as below,

and are compared with Prater ( 1 980) and Roberts

(1997) in Table 1.

Table 1

BODY MEASUREMENTS OF PANGOLIN

CAUGHT FROM SIROHI DISTRCT

COMPARED WITH PRATER ( 1 980) AND ROBERTS (1997)

It is evident from Table 1 that the specimen

caught from Sirohi district is of abnormal weight

and length, which is worth placing on record.

The specimens measured by Prater and Roberts

may have been immature.

Since the food habits of pangolin are

peculiar, and its rearing is not an easy job in

captivity, the pangolin was safely released in its

natural habitat.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to R.G. Soni, PCCF & CCF

(WL), U.M. Sahai, CF, M.R.Punia, Dy. CWLW,

Dr. B.B.L. Mathur, Zoo veterinarian for facilities.

February 7, 2001 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA

Range Forest Officer,

Phulwari Wildlife Sanctuary,

Kotra 307 025, District Udaipur,

Rajasthan, India.

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103

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

References

Prater, S.H. (1980): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay Roberts, TJ. (1997): The Mammals of Pakistan. Oxford

Natural History Society, Bombay. Pp. 302. University Press, Karachi, Pakistan. Pp. 131.

*It must be noted that these are measurements of skins and not of live animals or measurements taken before skinning.

— Eds

3. SCAVENGING BY STRIPENECKED MONGOOSE HERP ESTES VITTICOLLIS

ON A TIGER KILL IN PERIYAR TIGER RESERVE, KERALA

On October 17, 2000, around 1730 hrs, we

were observing a three-day old sambar ( Cervus

unicolor) stag carcass, partially eaten by tiger,

by the lake at Manakavala area of the Periyar

Tiger Reserve. First an osprey ( Pandion

haliaetus) was seen feeding on the kill. Later, a

wild pig ( Sus scrofa) approached the kill, fed on

it for about 10 minutes and then suddenly bolted.

After about half an hour, a stripenecked

mongoose (Herpes tes vitticollis) came to the kill

and started eating. It entered the open belly and

remained inside for about five minutes. Then it

withdrew into the bushes, but returned after half

an hour with another stripenecked mongoose.

They came near the kill, but immediately turned

around and ran into the bushes. Stripenecked

mongoose is frequently seen in Periyar Tiger

Reserve. However, scavenging by the species is

being reported for the first time. In fact, nothing

much is known about the feeding habits of the

species, even though it is frequently seen in other

areas of the Western Ghats.

February 20, 200 1 BABY SAJAN

A.VEERAMANI

Periyar Tiger Reserve,

Thekkady, Kerala 685 536,

India.

4. NOTES ON THE FOOD HABITS OF STRIPED HYENA

HYAENA HYAENA LINN. 1758 IN SARISKA TIGER RESERVE, RAJASTHAN

Though the striped hyena Hyaena hyaena

is widely distributed in India (Prater 1980),

information on its status, distribution and ecology

is meagre. Hyenas are known to be scavengers,

but occasionally they carry off live sheep and

goats, and quite often stray dogs (Prater 1980).

Between July 1988 and December 1990, 26 hyena

scats were collected from Sariska Tiger Reserve,

Rajasthan (76° 17'-76° 34' N; 27° 5’-27° 33' E).

The scats were washed in a sieve and oven dried

at 60 °C. At least 20 hairs were taken from each

scat (Mukherjee et al. 1994) and examined under

a microscope. Identification of prey species was

based on medullary pattern of hair as described

by Moore et al. (1974). Except one, all the scats

contained single prey species. Chital (Axis axis)

remains were found in 35% of the scats, followed

by domestic cattle Bos indicus (17%), goat

(14%), nilgai Boselaphus tragocamelus (14%)

and rufoustailed hare Lepus nigricollis

ruficaudatus (7%). The remains of an

unidentified bird, an unidentified rodent and fruit

of Zizyphus mauritiana were found in 13% of

hyena scats. Chital, nilgai and domestic cattle

remains found in hyena scats are likely to come

from predation or scavenging.

February 1 3, 200 1 K. SANKAR

BHARAT JETHWA

Wildlife Institute of India,

P. O. Box #18, Chandrabani,

Dehra Dun 248 001, Uttaranchal, India.

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

References

Moore, T.D., L.E. Spence & C.E. Dungnole (1974):

Identification of the dorsal guard hairs of some

mammals of Wyoming. Hepworth, W.G. (ed.), Wyoming

Game and Fish Department, Wyoming. 1 77 pp.

Mukherjee, S., S.P.Goyal & R. Chellam (1994):

Standardisation of scat analysis techniques for leopard

(Panthera pardus ) in Gir National Park, Western India.

Mammalia 58(1): 139-143.

Prater, S.H. ( 1 980): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay

Natural History Society, Bombay. 324 pp.

5. ATTITUDES TOWARDS WILDLIFE CONSERVATION

IN RANCHI DISTRICT — A CASE STUDY

Participation of people in land use

decisions is a new and inspiring concept in

Protected Area (PA) Management. Conservation

of wildlife requires the cooperation and goodwill

of the people living in and around the wildlife

habitat. But adopting these concepts implies a

fundamental shift away from the traditional

approaches to protection and it cannot, therefore,

be expected to determine management practice

overnight (Berkmuller 1986). Even dedicated

Protected Area Managers who have successfully

protected their PA against tremendous odds,

against the opposition of the locals and at great

personal risk, are not easily convinced by this

concept. All said and done, the conflict with the

locals continues to draw the attention of

managers in most of India’s protected areas. The

situation is getting more complex with the

passage of time and factors like population

explosion.

Lack of resources, both man and material,

are a major hindrance to the effective

management of a PA, but the most important

factor is the attitude of the locals towards

conservation. It is not necessary that people living

near predators invariably have a negative attitude

towards them. Respondents to a questionnaire

in Alaska, for example, had the most positive

perceptions of the wolf in a survey undertaken

across states in the USA. People with a positive

attitude to predators indicate greater interest in

protecting wildlife and natural habitats (Kellert

1985). It is difficult to take conservation action

which runs against the general beliefs or attitudes

of the local people, and most decisions are

influenced by attitudes rather than rational

considerations. Values and attitudes are rooted

in personal experience and upbringing.

The study area chosen was Karra CD Block

of Ranchi district, with block headquarters

situated around 30 km west from Ranchi town.

Karra CD Block, one of the 20 CD Blocks of the

district is badly affected by human-wildlife

conflict particularly involving elephants and

bears, as is evident from the number of deaths,

injury, crop and house damage caused by wildlife

as recorded by the Forest Department.

To investigate the levels of awareness about

wildlife conservation and allied aspects, and to

find out the attitudes of the people, a

questionnaire survey was undertaken in the study

area.

148 individuals from 25 villages of Karra

CD Block, answered the questionnaire.

Information regarding their age, ethnic status,

literacy, profession was also gathered (Tables 1

& 2). Awareness scores were grouped as high,

medium and low, while attitude scores were

grouped as positive, neutral and negative.

The results from the questionnaires were

analysed as follows: Answer to questions testing

the attitudes and awareness were graded 1,-1

and 0, depending on the level of the answer given

by the respondent i.e. score of 1 given to positive,

-1 given to negative and 0 to neutral. The points

for the answers were summed to get an attitude

and awareness score. To test the Null Hypothesis,

i.e. to determine if the central locations of

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105

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 1

AGE STRUCTURE AND ETHNIC COMPOSITION

MATRIX OF THE RESPONDENTS

Ethnic Group (No.)

S.C .= Scheduled Caste; S.T .= Scheduled Tribe

Table 2

LITERACY LEVEL AND THE ETHNIC COMPOSITION

OF RESPONDENTS

S.T .= Scheduled Tribe

distributions of the two populations (Awareness

and Attitude) are the same, it is assumed that

their population distributions are identical. In

such cases, the Mann- Whitney U test was used

for testing the Null Hypothesis. Scores were

compared by Mann-Whitney U test and the

number of respondents in the different categories

were compared by Chi-square test. Difference

between attitudes scores and awareness scores

was calculated as U = 3224 and P = 1. The

significant difference between these two scores

indicates that the central locations of the attitudes

and awareness among the people towards wildlife

conservation were identical.

The tribals comprised 60.8% of the

respondents and non-tribals 39.2%. To test

another Null Hypothesis that attitudes and

awareness do not depend on literacy ethnicity,

the Chi-square test was used. Fewer tribals (45%)

were literate compared to non-tribals (65%)

(X2=5.65, d.f.=l). Greater literacy among non-

tribals influenced their attitudes and awareness

about wild animals than tribals (x2=T3.98, d.f.=

2, x2 9.78, d.f.=2). There is a weak but significant

positive correlation between attitude scores and

awareness scores (r=0.18 P>0.05, n=148) of

respondents.

From the above analysis, it can be concluded

that the attitude and awareness amongst the

villagers towards wildlife conservation are

significantly different. Individuals from the

scheduled tribe (ST) had lower attitude and

awareness scores towards wildlife conservation

issues than non ST individuals. This probably is

due to their lower literacy level. Further, it was

observed that literacy directly influences the

attitudes and awareness of the villagers towards

wildlife conservation.

January 10, 2001 H.S. GUPTA

Divisional Forest Officer

Research and Evaluation Division,

RO. Doranda, Ranchi 834 002

Chattisgarh, India.

References

Berkmuller, K. (1986): Attitude Barriers to eco- Kellert, S.R. (1985): Public perceptions of predators,

development and People’s Participation. The Indian particularly the wolf and the coyote. Biol. Cons.

Forester. Pp. 949-952. 3/; 167-189.

6. SOME CLARIFICATIONS REGARDING THE LESSER FLAMINGO

PHOENICOPTERUS MINOR AND THE CRAB PLOVER DROMAS ARDEOLA

Concerning the lesser flamingo Sambhar Lake. This is wrong — the main

Phoenicopterus minor Geoffroy, the impression breeding and later dispersal centre is the Little

one would gain is that the main stronghold is Rann of Kutch where a huge colony bred

106

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 99(1), APR. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

successfully in 1998. Its breeding in the area was

suspected for long and first confirmed by Vora

of the Gujarat Forest Department. Nesting had

been reported earlier by Salim Ali and

Shivrajkumar in the Great Rann, alongside the

greater flamingoes Phoenicopterus ruber Linn.

There are immense flocks during winter

in salt pans around Saurashtra. I was shown these

in the Bhavnagar salt pans and similar huge

flocks at Hathat further west on exposed tidal

flats by Dharmakumarsinhji. Also, a massive

flock spends much of the year at Porbandar on

the west coast of Saurashtra, where a special

sanctuary has been declared in the city! I was

the first to report a largish flock in Chilka during

the survey I conducted for BNHS with P.B.

Shekhar. This has been reported in the JBNHS

(Khacher, 1966, 63: 290-297)

I remember Dharmakumarsinhji and us —

Shivrajkumar and myself — considering the

huge flocks along the Saurashtra coast as coming

from East Africa. Now I suspect there is an Indian

population centered on Gujarat and dispersing

widely across the Subcontinent east to Lake

Chilka and south to Pt. Calimere. I would not be

surprised if this flamingo is commoner in Sindh

and also reaches the saline lakes of Baluchistan

rather more frequently than believed.

To end on a rather personal note, the large

flocks of crab plovers Dromas ardeola Paykull

were “discovered” by me first in December, 1 969

when the Jam Saheb had organized a boat trip

for me. I have referred to this in my account of

The Birds of Gujarat’ JBNHS 93(3): 331-373.

From what T.J. Roberts writes, he has gained

the impression that the discovery was made by

Dharmakumarsinhji, whom I showed a very large

flock, v/hich he photographed, near Ghargha

south of Bhavnagar. This was the first time he

realised that crab plovers were not uncommon.

Interestingly, Grimmett and the Inskipps (2000)

in their birds of the Indian subcontinent have

not shown crab plovers occurring in the Gujarat

section of the seacoast, though they have

mentioned the birds having “traditional roosts”

and state that they are “mainly crepuscular and

usually very wary.” They do not have roosting

sites, but like all inter-tidal mudflat waders, they

collect on a beach or near an inundated shoal as

the water rises. All the birds of a flock of a

particular reef get restricted to one point. Should

the reef get entirely submerged, as often happens

during spring tides, the flock flies in low, swift

direct flight across the open water to some nearby

island, where it might happen that another flock

has been pushed together by the water.

Interestingly, crab plover never go behind sand

dunes to rest during high tide on open mud flats,

as other waders do. They will skirt headlands

along the surf or fly across open water. They are

certainly not crepuscular and, particularly when

resting at high tide, they are ridiculously

confiding, allowing very close approach as

Dharmakumarsinhji had done to shoot his first

photograph of the flock at Ghoga. They feed

between the high tide marks, day and night. In

birds of Pakistan, T.J. Roberts writes “In Pakistan

it occurs very sparsely along the Mekran coast

and occasionally in the Indus Delta, but it seems

likely that numbers pass through on migration

to wintering grounds in the Rann of Kutch”. They

do not winter in either the Great or the Little

Rann of Kachhch, but do so largely in the Gulf

of Kachhch, where the total numbers on all the

tidal mudflats and coral mangrove islands must

be far greater than the 2,500 and 5,000 “revealed”

by the 1984 Oxford University expedition to the

Gulf of Kachhch. This clarification is needed so

that it does not get repeated again and again, as

indeed observations on the birds’ crespuscular

habits and wary disposition have been.

October 1 3, 1 999 LAVKUMAR KHACHER

646, Vastunirman,

Gandhinagar 382 022,

Gujarat, India.

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

7. OCCURRENCE OF GALLOPERDIX SPP., FAMILY PHASIANIDAE

IN NORTHWESTERN MADHYA PRADESH

M.K. Ranjitsinh (. JBNHS , 96(2): 314)

referred to the occurrence of the painted spurfowl

{Galloperdix lunulata Valenciennes) in a few

places in Rajasthan and asked whether it is

sighted in the forests of northwestern Madhya

Pradesh. I have seen it on at least six occasions

between 1992 and 1997 in Madhav National Park

(78° 15'-78° 30' E and 24° 50’-25° 55' N) in

Shivpuri district. This park has northern Dry

Deciduous Mixed Type forest and two lakes. The

painted spurfowl was always sighted in the forest

on the slopes along the muram, road near the

banks of Sakhya Sagar lake in an area where

there is an iron bridge between the points known

as Landing Station Nos. 3 and 5.

On the eastern side of Sakhya Sagar there

is a dam wall. The water seeps through the

bottom of the wall round the year, flowing in a

drainlike channel through the dense

undergrowth towards the second lake, Madhav.

In this area, the red spurfowl (G. spadicea) is

seen frequently.

In 1996, the painted spurfowl was sighted

in Palpur-Kuno Sanctuary about half a kilometre

away from Kuno river and Kuno Dak Bungalow

along the Pohri-Sheopur road in Morena district.

These two species have been regularly seen in

northwestern Madhya Pradesh.

February 23, 2000 RAJIV SAXENA

MIG-853, Darpan Colony,

Thatipur, Gwalior 474 Oil,

Madhya Pradesh,

India.

8. OBSERVATIONS ON THE MATING BEHAVIOUR OF THE INDIAN SARUS

CRANE GRUS ANTIGONE ANTIGONE IN THE WILD

( With four text-figures)

Reproductive behaviour is a typical

sequence of behaviour, which includes courtship,

copulation, egg laying, incubation, rearing and

parental care. The breeding behaviour of various

cranes has been studied widely, in captivity and

in the wild (Johnsgard 1983, Van Ee 1966, Sauey

1976, Tacha 1981, Masatomi 1983, Masatomi

and Kitagawa 1975, Voss 1976 and Tao and

Peixun 1991). Except for general courtship

display and mating of the Indian sarus crane Grus

antigone antigone (Ali and Ripley 1983,

Walkinshaw 1973, Gole 1987) sequential

behaviour leading to mating is not described.

This paper is a preliminary study of

reproductive behavioural patterns observed and

recorded in the field. The obserservations are

divided into three stages: 1. Duetting 2. Dancing

and 3. Copulation.

This study was carried out in the

agricultural landscape of Matar tehsil of Kheda

district, Gujarat. Matar tehsil has more open

vegetation than the other nine tehsils of Kheda

district. The climate is semiarid, tropical

monsoon type. Southwest monsoon arrives in the

third week of June and continues till September

end. The average monthly maximum temperature

ranged between 41.8° C in May and 27.0° C in

December. Average monthly minimum

temperature ranged between 11.3° C in January

and 26.4° C in July. Average annual rainfall of

the district is 840 mm. Paddy and pearl millet

are the major cereals grown in the monsoon

(kharif crops).

The sarus cranes in flock or family were

observed throughout the breeding period from

Jul.-Nov. 1997 and 1998 in the wild. Five pairs

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

were observed in detail using a telescope (20x),

photographed and sketched. Each pair was

observed from a vertical distance of 300 m. Other

pairs with interrupted reproductive behaviour were

also studied when they entered the scanned area.

The behavioural responses of both sexes

need not always leads to successful mating. As

reported in case of Grus japonensis (Masatomi

and Kitagawa 1975) the process is often

interrupted by factors like age, sexual maturity,

pair bond and to some extent the surrounding

habitat. The cranes dispersed widely, forming a

large, isolated territory. The following stages

were observed:

1 . Duetting: Duetting was exhibited by the

pair, and display by a single crane was rarely

observed. The pair generally called in unison as

a part of duetting. The male first gave a note

followed by 2-3 shorter notes by the female. This

unit ‘Ml + F2-3’ was repeated in succession. It

was observed that duetting of a pair may provoke

the same response in its neighboring pair.

The cranes were seen duetting in different

postures, however, the head of both the sexes was

always held high; wings semi-closed, closed, or

obliquely raised, sometimes drooping (Fig. 1).

2. Dancing: A crane in grazing posture

stoops with retracted neck, sometimes spreading

its wings, and makes a bouncing movement. It

leaps up to a few metres above the ground.

Fig. 1: Inter individual posture observed during duetting (Du) of the Indian sarus crane,

Semiclosed-wing duetting (Du,), Closed-wing duetting (Du2), Obliquely-raised wing duetting (Du3),

Drooped wing duetting (Du4)

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109

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 2: Inter individual postures during dancing (Da) of the Indian sarus crane; Stooping (Da,),

Stooping (Da2), Pre-leaping (Da3), Leaping (Da4), Leaping (Da5), Floating (Da6), Rushing (Da?),

Picking-up (Dag), Throwing (Da9), Turning (Da10)

Floating down, it momentarily flaps the wings,

and the legs are bent parallel to the body. The

male often chases the female while dancing,

which ultimately ends in calling vigorously or

becoming ready for mounting. A peculiar

throwing movement was seen when a dancing

crane suddenly bowed its neck up and down

several times, immediately picked up a plant from

the ground and threw it with a sideways jerking

of the neck. The same was done by the mate. This

was also observed during nest building (Fig. 2).

3. Copulatory behaviour: The elaborate

sequence of mating between a pair is shown in

Figs 3 and 4.

a) The male, often emitting a low pitched

precopulatory call, raises its bill about 30°, its neck

no

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 3: Inter individual postures during copulation (C) of the Indian sarus crane; Bill raising (Ca),

Bill-raising (Cb), Back-turning (Cc), Wing-spreading (Cd), Stepping (Ce), Mounting (Cf),

Being-mounted (Cg), Sliding-down (Ch), Post copulatory display or Arching (Ci)

extended obliquely upward (Bill raising Ca). After

a minute or so, the crane generally begins to walk

with a head-up posture to an open place.

b) Seeing this, the female adopts the same

posture and follows the male.

c) Selecting a suitable place, the female

turns her back on her mate. Immediately, the

male makes its characteristic, vigorous, shrill,

copulatory call, which continues with small

interruptions until copulation is complete.

d) The male approaches the female very

slowly, with long steps, and the female spreads

her wings almost open (wing spreading Cd). At

the final stage, the male makes a low pitched

call, and comes close to the female, who retracts

her neck slightly upwards, points the bill

downwards and crouches slightly.

e) Flapping its wings regularly, the male

suddenly steps up to the female (Stepping up Ce)

places his toe on her back, and grips the female

by hooking the claws on to her wings. With a

little pressure on her back, the male lifts his other

leg. The female bends slightly forward and her

body lies almost horizontal to the ground.

f) The male squats on the female’s back,

hooking on his toes. The female spreads her

wings wide and points her bill obliquely

downwards. Both are silent.

g) The male leans back, the female

remains horizontal, their cloacae in contact

(Cloacal kiss Cg). The female’s head is level with

her body, but the bill may touch the ground.

h) Just after copulation, the male calls

aloud, lowers himself and slides down, always

over the head of the female. After dismounting,

the female stands still for a few seconds, and then

both bow together and perform a ritual dance,

calling in unison (Arching Ci).

In four pairs, the female preened her thigh

after dismounting, while the male stood upright,

with his head high. Then both performed a ritual

dance. In other cases, stages (a) to (f) were

observed, but not copulation. In such pairs, the

female runs ahead on being chased by the male.

They stop, dance, both the sexes jump and then

exhibit irrelevant behaviour like preening and

feeding.

Duetting was performed in various

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 4: Sequential line diagrams in sequence of

mating behavior of the Indian sarus crane

situations, before or after copulation, at relief of

incubation, against intruders in territory.

Duetting maintains the synchronisation of

reproductive rhythm (Masatoni and Kitagawa

1975). The call of the male, followed by the

female, was well described as antiphonal song

by Armstrong (1963), where the female adds her

utterance so promptly that it sounds like a single

stereotyped song. Therefore, unison calling need

not be a synchronous duet (Walkinshaw 1949).

The ritual dance is the outcome of

hormone-induced physiological changes within

the body due to excitement, just before

copulation. However, dancing has been observed

even at feeding place by the gathering of the

flock, as in Tancho (Iwamatsu 1966). It was also

observed in a flock of 50 cranes during the

present study, and has been reported earlier (Gole

1987). Interspecific dance with a young sandhill

crane was recorded by Masatomi ( 1 973). Dancing

can occur regardless of the number of birds, age,

sex, season, place or time of day (Walkinshaw

1949). However, it was most common prior to

the initiation of breeding season.

The reproductive behaviour is genus- and

species-specific (Masatomi 1983) and some

modification of behaviour probably occurs due

to the prevailing conditions (Tao and Peixun

1991). Masatomi’s (1983) captive study on

eastern sarus Grus antigone sharp ii revealed

similarity with the Indian sarus crane G. a.

antigone , but the calling during and after

copulation were different in captivity and this

study in the wild. The difference may be in the

subspecies.

Successful copulation could be judged as

having been achieved by the response of the

mates to each other. The male’s bill raising and

the female’s submission by wing-spreading

appear to be a prerequisite for copulation, but

not mandatory

Acknowledgements

I am obliged to Dr. B.M. Parasharya

for critical evaluation of the manuscript. I

also thank the National Tree Growers

Cooperative Federation Ltd., Anand, for

computer facilities.

February 23, 2000 AESHITA MUKHERJEE

AINP on Agricultural Ornithology,

Gujarat Agricultural University,

Anand 388 110, Gujarat, India.

112

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Refe

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of

India and Pakistan (Compact edn.). Oxford

University Press, Bombay.

Armstrong, E.A. (1963): A study of bird song. London.

Gole, P. (1987): Observing the Sarus. pp. 107-114. In:

Proceedings of the 1983 International Crane

Workshop, Bharatpur (Eds.: Archibald, G.W. and

R.F. Pasquier). International Crane Foundation,

Baraboo, USA.

Iwamatsu, T. (1966): The Japanese Crane. Tokyo.

Johnsgard, P. A. (1983): Cranes of the World. Indiana

University Press, Bloomington.

Masatomi, H. (1973): Communal roosting of the Sandhill

Crane with Japanese Crane in Hokkaido, Japan.

Wilson Bull. 84(3): 250-260.

Masatomi, H. (1983): Some observations on the mating

behavior of several cranes in captivity. J. Ethology

83(1): 62-69.

Masatomi, H. & T. Kitagawa (1975): Bionomics and

sociology of Tancho or the Japanese Crane, Grus

japonensis, II Ethogram. J. Fac. Sci. Hokkaido

Univ, Ser. VI. Zool. 19(4): 834-878.

9. A HERONRY AT TRAJ IN

Kheda district is reckoned to be among the

important bird areas of Gujarat, notable for its

expanse of inland wetlands. Besides having a

high density of sarus crane Grus antigone (Singh

and Tatu 2000) this area also holds many

heronries, such as at Traj and Pandoli village

ponds (A.J. Urfi & Dilhaz Jafffey, unpubl. data).

In this note, I record the Traj heronry, which was

studied during June-October, 1999, in some

detail.

The village pond at Traj, estimated to be

over 10 acres, is approximately 20 km from

National Highway No. . 8, between Ahmedabad

and Kheda. Since the pond is fed by a canal,

there is water all year round. In this regard, it is

different from many other village ponds in

Gujarat, which dry up during the summer and

are replenished only during the monsoon. Traj

pond is bisected into two interconnected halves

by a low-lying bund wall. One part is shallow

and overgrown by the Indian lotus ( Nelumbo

FENCES

Sauey, R.T. (1976): The behavior of the Siberian Cranes

wintering in India. In: Proc. Inti. Crane Workshop.

Oklahoma State University, Stillwater (Ed.: Lewis,

J.C.). Pp. 326 -342.

Tacha, T.C. (1981): Behavior and taxonomy of Sandhill

Cranes from mid continental North America.

Ph. D. dissertation, Oklahoma State University,

Stillwater.

Tao, Y. & Li. Peixun (1991): Observations on the mating

behavior of White Naped Cranes in the wild.

Pp. 63-65. In: Proceedings of the 1987 International

Crane Workshop (Ed.: Haris, J.) International Crane

Foundation,, Baraboo, USA.

Van Ee, C. A. (1966): Notes on breeding behavior of the

Blue Crane Tetrapteryx paradisea. Ostrich 37:

23-39.

Voss, K. (1976): Behavior of the Greater Sandhill Crane.

M.Sc. thesis, Univ. Wisconsin, pp. 137

Walkinshaw, L.H. (1949): The Sandhill Cranes. Bull. 29,

Cranbrook Inst. Sc. Michigan.

Walkinshaw, L.H. ( 1 973) Cranes of the World. Winchester

Press, New York.

KHEDA DISTRICT, GUJARAT

nucifera ), while the other is deeper and has a

small island with several Acacia and Ficus trees.

On our first visit to Traj on June 15, we

observed that about 200 Asian openbill-stork

(Anastomus oscitans) had collected on the trees

on the island, along with the little egret ( Egretta

garzetta) and little cormorant ( Phalacrocorax

niger). On a second visit on June 2 1 , the nesting

of these species was confirmed and on July 14,

new breeding species Oriental white ibis

( Threskiornis melanocephalus) and median egret

( Mesophoyx intermedia) were observed to have

also joined the heronry. Even at this stage, the

openbill-stork were seen flying about on nest

building chores, such as collecting fresh leafy

twigs to add to their nests. On the fourth visit on

August 28, chicks of Asian openbill-stork, white

ibis, median egret and cattle egret ( Bubulcus ibis)

were observed. One darter ( Anhinga

melanogaster) and 4 painted stork ( Mycteria

leucocephala) were also observed, leading us to

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

113

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

suspect that these species would nest here at an

appropriate time. However, these birds were not

seen again during a trip on October 7. By now,

the chicks of all heronry birds had reached

subadult proportions. Since the island is some

distance away from the bund walls surrounding

the pond from which observations can be made,

it was not possible to ascertain the number of

nests of each species on any occasion.

Other than the heronry, the wildlife value

of Traj village pond has some other aspects too.

On most of our visits we encountered quite high

numbers of sarus crane, 68 in the shallow part

of Traj pond on July 14 being the highest number.

Other types of waterbirds viz, rails, kingfisher,

ducks etc. were also seen here. Another

interesting feature is the presence of mugger

( Crocodylus palustris) in the deep part of the

Traj pond (Vijaykumar 1997). On our visits five

mugger were observed, of which three were large

specimens ( c . 3m) and two smaller individuals

(1.2-3m). However, we did not come across any

instance of mugger predating on adult or juvenile

birds of the heronry.

For ornithologically significant village

ponds in the Ahmedabad region, a conservation

and education strategy has been chalked out by

Urfi and Nareshwar (1998). This plan envisages

population monitoring of heronry birds and

simple interpretation and community

sensitization programs.

I wish to thank Dilhaz Jaffrey, E.K.

Nareshwar and Narendra Nethwa for company

on field trips. I am grateful to Mr. K.V. Sarabhai,

Director, Centre for Environment Education,

Ahmedabad, for encouragement.

February 23, 2000 ABDUL JAMIL URFI

Sundarvan Nature Dicovery Centre,

S.M. Road, Jodhpur Tekra,

Ahmedabad 380 015,

Gujarat, India.

References

Singh, H.S. & K. Tatu (2000): A study on Indian Sarus

Crane ( Grus antigone antigone ) in Gujarat state.

Gujarat Ecological Educational and Research

(GEER) Foundation, Gandhinagar.

Urfi, A.J. & M. Nareshwar ( 1 998): Interpreting a village

Pond Heronry, NewsEE 4: 5.

Vijaykumar, V. (1997): Evaluation of restocked mugger

crocodiles and its implication for long-term

conservation and management of species in Gujarat,

India. Gujarat Institute of Desert Ecology, Bhuj.

10. INTERACTION BETWEEN SIBERIAN CRANE GRUS LEUCOGERANUS

AND CHECKERED KEELBACK SNAKE XENOCHROPHIS PISCATOR

IN KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK, BHARATPUR

On July 1 , 1997 while collecting information

on the time budget and activity patterns of four

released Siberian cranes Grus leucogeranus in the

Keoladeo National Park, I noticed a crane hurriedly

pacing up and down a distance of c. 10 m. Through

my telescope I noticed a checkered keelback water

snake Xenochrophis piscator holding on to the

crane’s face. The one metre long water snake had

wrapped itself around the crane’s neck. The crane

tried hard to shake the snake off her face. She tried

removing it by vigorously shaking her head and

neck, and also with her feet. Three other cranes

foraging nearby stopped feeding and looked

nervously at the affected crane that struggled for

more than ten minutes, before the snake loosened

its grip and dropped off. After the snake had left,

the crane splashed water on her face and neck for

some time and started preening. The other cranes

also resumed their activities.

In 1 996-97, the water hyacinth Eichhornia

crassipes had choked most of the marshes in the

Park because of which water snakes had become

abundant. The Park Management was getting the

hyacinth removed manually as part of the Park’s

114

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Vegetation Management. On an average, 10-12

workers involved in this task were bitten every

day by water snakes (Park Director, pers. comm.).

There were heaps of water hyacinth lying where

the cranes were foraging. It is possible that the

snake was lying in wait for prey.

Water snakes are known to be pugnacious,

not letting go of their prey till it dies, but not

strangulating it. They are known to feed on small

mammals, birds, fish and amphibians (Daniel

1992, THE BOOK OF INDIAN REPTILES). The huge

pythons Python molurus present in the Keoladeo

marshes could be considered as potential

predators of cranes. I have not come across any

reference on snake-crane interaction and think

it is worth recording.

September 22, 1999 GARGI

Bombay Natural History Society,

331, Rajendra Nagar,

Bharatpur 321 001, Rajasthan,

India.

1 1 . TWO INTERESTING AVIAN RECORDS FROM KUTCH, GUJARAT STATE

This note concerns the occurrence of

Glareola pratincola (Linnaeus) and Monticola

cinclorhynchus (Vigors) in Kutch. Earlier

records mention the occurrence of the former,

but since the nineteenth century it has not been

recorded in this region. In recent years, it has

been seen in 1992 (Himmatsinhji, JBNHS 96(2):

316-31 7) and 1 999. The latter has been recorded

for the first time and it was seen on January 27,

1985 and March 9, 1999.

While MKH and SNV watched water birds

from a location on the Bhuj-Pachham road

(c. 30 km north of Bhuj) on October 18, 1992, a

pratincole flew in and settled down on the marsh.

Soon thereafter, a juvenile bird also came down

nearby. We remained there for some time, but

saw no interaction between them. These

individuals had deeply forked tails, and from

details of the adult coloration, observed through

binoculars and a telescope, appeared to be

Glareola p. pratincola. However, we preferred

to wait for a good photograph or specimen to

confirm our identification in the field.

We learn that Mr. Nitin Jamdar came

across this species in the Banni grasslands and

in the vicinity of Chhari dhandh (pers . comm.).

Besides this, on March 29, 1999 SNV counted

25 G. pratincola at Chhari dhandh.

Stuart Baker ( 1 929) made the only mention

of the collared pratincole in Kutch, but it is not

clear on what authority or evidence he did so.

Dr. Ferdinand Stoliczka was the first to collect

bird specimens from Kutch. Apparently, Hume

also collected information on the birds of this

region, and also had specimens collected through

his own sources. This was followed by a study of

birds by one Hugh Palin, who prepared the first

edition of the birds of kutch in 1 878, which was

revised by Capt. C.D. Lester in 1904. None of

these gentlemen, nor the Salim Ali survey of

1943-44, make any mention of the occurrence

of G. pratincola.

Stuart Baker also refers to the occurrence

and breeding of G. p. maldivarum in Kutch and

Sind. Taking into account all the references

available to us, we feel there is now less

likelihood of maldivarum occurring in Kutch.

Roberts (1991) also mentions that there are no

authentic recent sightings or records of this race

in Pakistan. He further states that G. pratincola

is met with mostly in lower Sind, particularly in

Badin district along the border with India in the

Great Rann of Kutch, and that too as a summer

breeding visitor from East Africa. Gallager

(1980) describes the collared pratincole as a

passage migrant in Oman, the main passage

being from August-October. That is after their

breeding is over.

The water regime in the northwest part of

the Great Rann (directly south of Badin in Sindh,

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

115

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Pakistan) has undergone some changes over the

years, owing to the release of water through a

nullah to reduce the salinity of some land under

the irrigation system. Because of this, some

waterbirds (including both the greater and lesser

flamingos) have extended their movements to

that area. The collared pratincole may also move

further southwards into Kutch from there.

The second noteworthy bird-record for

Kutch was of a male blueheaded rock thrush

Monticola cinclorhynchus (Vigors) seen by SN V

near Dhonsa jheel (Bhuj environs) on January

27, 1985. The second sight record of this species

in Kutch was by Fakirmahamad A. Turk, at his

fruit farm at Dhrab village, west of Mundra,

c. 45 km south of Bhuj, on March 9, 1999. He

observed the bird till March 23, 1999; took

coloured photographs (it was a male) and showed

them to MKH.

This bird breeds along the Himalayan

Refer

Ali, S. (1945): The Birds of Kutch. Oxford University

Press, Bombay. Pp. 175.

Dharmakumarsinhji, R.S. (Date of publication not

mentioned): Birds of Saurashtra. Published by R.S.

Dharmakumarsinhji. Printed by The Times of India

Press, Bombay. Pp. 562.

Gallager, Michael (1980): The Birds of Oman. Quartet

Books Ltd. London.

ranges and spends the winter in the Indian

peninsula, but there are few records of its

occurrence around Kutch. Though

Dharmakumarsinhji lists it in his birds of

saurashtra, no specific reference is made therein

to its presence in that region. Ripley (1982)

mentions scarce cold weather records in southern

Rajasthan and Gujarat (‘including Kathiawar’).

On the other hand, Roberts (1992) considers it a

scarce winter visitor to Sindh. Thus, the

blueheaded rock thrush is a vagrant in Kutch,

not recorded before.

July 30, 1999 M.K. HIMMATSINHJI

Jubilee Ground

Bhuj, Kutch 370 001, Gujarat, India.

S.N. VARU

Juna Vas, Madhapur

Taluka Bhuj, Kutch,

Gujarat, India.

E N C E S

Lester, Capt. C.D. (1904): The Birds of Cutch. The Times

of India Press, Bombay.

Ripley, S.D. (1982): A Synopsis of the Birds of India and

Pakistan 2nd edn. BNHS, Bombay. Pp. 652.

Roberts, T.J. (1991 & 1992): The Birds of Pakistan, Vols

1 & 2. Oxford University Press, Karachi.

Stuart Baker, E.C. (1929): The Fauna of British India,

Birds, Vol. VI, 2 "d edn. Taylor and Francis, London.

12. OCCURRENCE OF THE CEYLON FROGMOUTH

BATRACHOSTOMUS MONIL1GER (FAMILY PODARGIDAE)

IN RADFLANAGARI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, MAHARASHTRA

On November 21, 1998, I visited

Radhanagari Wildlife Sanctuary, Kolhapur

district, Maharashtra along with my friends. We

were moving along one of the roads in the

Dajipur region of the Sanctuary, leading to the

core zone. The forest is of the west coast tropical

evergreen and semi-evergreen type. At about

1120 hrs, we saw a large amount of bird

droppings on the road, under a medium sized

tree, so I thought that there may be a bird nest

or roosting place. We started looking for the

bird and located it soon, perched perfectly

camouflaged on a small branch about 4 to

5 m above the ground. As it was disturbed, the

bird flew off and sat on another branch of

the same tree. I approached the bird and was

able to take a few photographs from about 2 m

away. As I moved closer, the bird started moving

its head like an owlet, opened its large mouth,

and then flew away into the nearby jungle.

116

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

On referring to literature, I realized that the bird

was a Ceylon frogmouth ( Balrachostomus

moniliger).

I continued my observations and noticed a

small round nest, placed in the fork of a small

terminal branch. The cryptic colour of the nest

was similar to that of the branch and a half grown

nestling was present in the nest. When closely

approached, the nestling started opening its

mouth.

The Ceylon frogmouth ( Batrachostomus

moniliger ) is one of the least known species of

the evergreen forest biotope of the Western

Ghats. The species was recorded earlier by

Dr. Salim Ali in Kerala (1935) who described it

as a little known, nocturnal species, seldom seen

during daytime. It was recorded again by Vijayan

(1979) and Sugathan (1981) in Parambikulam

Wildlife Sanctuary, Kannan (1994) recorded it

for the first time from Tamil Nadu and Renee

Borges (1986) recorded it from Kanara, North

Karnataka. The present record extends its range

further north.

The distributional range of the Ceylon

frogmouth extends from the southern heavy

rainfall tracts of the Western Ghats, from c. 1 5° N

in North Kanara district, south to Trivandrum

district, Kerala, (Ali 1970). According to

Sugathan (1981), the distributional range of the

Ceylon frogmouth is believed to be from the wet

evergreen forests of Karnataka state in the

Western Ghats to the southern tip of the country

in Tamil Nadu, and Sri Lanka. The altitudinal

limit of this bird is believed to be 1 ,200 m above

msl.

Acknowledgements

I express my sincere thanks to Mr. J.C.

Daniel, Hon. Secretary, Dr. A.R. Rahmani,

Director, and Mr. N. Chaturvedi, Curator, BNHS

for their valuable guidance and encouragement.

I thank Mr. Vijay Patil and Mr. Abhijit Lingras

of Kolhapur for their support in the field. I also

thank Mr. Prashant Mahajan and Ms Meghana

Gavand, who carefully went through the

manuscript.

September 22, 1999 VARAD B. GIRI

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road,

Opp. Lion Gate, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk,

Mumbai 400 023,

Maharashtra, India.

References

Ali, S. (1935): The Birds of Travancore and Cochin.

Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. Pp. 322.

Ali, S. (1970): Handbook of the Birds of India and

Pakistan. Oxford University Press, Bombay,

Vol.4. Pp. 1-3.

Borges, R. (1986): On the occurrence of Ceylon

Frogmouth, Batrachostomus moniliger in N.

Kanara, Karnataka. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

83(1): 200.

Kannan, R. (1994): Notes on the status and ecology of the

Ceylon Frogmouth ( Batrachostomus moniliger

Blyth) from the Anaimalai Hills of Tamil Nadu.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 91(3): 454-455.

Sugathan, R. (1981): A survey of Ceylon Frogmouth

{Batrachostomus moniliger) habitat in the Western

Ghats of India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 78(3):

309-315.

Vijayan, V.S. (1979): Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary

and its adjacent areas. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

75(3): 888-900.

13. JUNGLE CROW CORVUS MACRORHYNCHOS

AND ITS INGENUITY WITH DRY ROTI

On May 26, 1 999 I was sitting near an movements of animals and birds had slackened,

artificial water hole in Kumbalgarh Wildlife At 1210 hrs, a jungle crow ( Corvus

Sanctuary, Rajasthan. During the afternoon, the macrorhynchos) came and perched on the branch

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

117

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

of a babul tree {Acacia nilotica ) near the water

hole. The crow had a big piece of dry roti (bread)

in its beak. After scanning the area, it flew near

the water hole, submerged the roti in the water

and started drinking water. After about four

minutes, it removed the soft roti from the water

and started eating it. When it had finished half

of it, a blue bull {Boselaphus tragocamelus)

approached it. The crow flew away, leaving part

of its food near the water hole.

The next day, I was sitting near the same

water hole when at 1220 hours, a jungle crow

came with a piece of dry roti in its beak and

perched on the same tree. After scanning the area,

it landed near the water hole, submerged the dry

roti in the water, drank water and removed the

roti from the water after four minutes. However,

this time the crow flew away from the water hole

with the softened piece of roti in its beak.

I was surprised to see this ingenious

behaviour of the crow.

September 22, 1 999 RAZA H. TEHSIN

38/106, Panchwati

Udaipur 313 004, Rajasthan,

India.

14. MORE EVIDENCE OF RED-VENTED BULBUL PYCNONOTUS CAFER

FEEDING ON HOUSE GECKO HEMIDACTYLUS FLAVIVIR1DIS

The animal food of red-vented bulbul

Pycnonotus cafer is recorded to be various large

insects, including caterpillars, moths, ants and

termites among others. In a rare case, a young

common garden lizard Calotes versicolor was

brought by the parent bird to feed its young,

which resulted in the death of the young (Ali

and Ripley 1987). Bharos (1999) recorded the

attempted feeding by redvented bulbul on house

gecko Hemidactylus flaviviridis, in which the

bird killed the prey, but did not consume it.

On August 20, 1999 at about 1530 hrs, a

red-vented bulbul landed on the large verandah

of my house at Malda district, West Bengal, about

3 m away from me. It dropped a food item in the

verandah, and started pecking at it. On taking a

closer look, I found that it was a house gecko,

about 12 cm in length. The lizard was almost

intact except for the head, which was severed

from the neck. Even after several pecks, the bird

could not get a morsel. Then it started pulling

out the viscera of the lizard through the severed

neck by pushing its head deep into the abdomen.

It fed on the viscera for the next 10 minutes.

Unfortunately it was disturbed by my curiosity

and flew off with the prey. I rushed to the

verandah, but could not locate the prey or the

bulbul again.

The northern house gecko is one of the

commonest reptiles in West Bengal, and is found

in almost every house. Its avian predators, as I

have observed, include Oriental magpie-robin

(Copsychus saularis) and the common myna

( Acridotheres tristis). The latter was seen to

capture a house gecko on April 4, 1998 near my

house. But in this case, the gecko was lucky, it

shed its tail by autotomy, to avoid the attention

of the predator. The myna left the battleground

carrying the tail of the prey, and settled on its

nest in the ventilator of a nearby building.

November 9, 1999 SAMIRAN JHA

Green Peoples India, Pranta Pally,

PO. and Dist. Malda 732 101,

West Bengal,

India.

References

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Compact Handbook of the Bharos, A.M.K. (1999): Attempt by redvented bulbul

Birds of India and Pakistan. Oxford University Pycnonotus cafer to feed on a young house gecko

Press, New Delhi. Hemidactylus flaviviridis. JBNHS 96(2): 320.

118

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

15. BROWN CRAKE AMA URORNIS AKOOL SYKES FEEDING ON THE EGGS

OF THE LARGE PIED WAGTAIL MOTACILLA MADERASPATENSIS GMELIN

While I was studying the breeding biology

of the large pied wagtail Motacilla

maderaspatensis Gmelin on March 29, 1993, a

pair of brown crakes (Amauromis akool ) raided

the nest of the wagtail, located in a clump of

polygonum (. Polygonum glabrum) about 3 m

from the banks of the river Mutha, Pune,

Maharashtra. When I saw the crakes perched on

a rocky islet, I hid in the green belt of plants,

especially the evergreen karanj tree ( Pongamia

glabra). The breeding pair of wagtails

immediately noticed the crakes, and without

losing a second they started dive-bombing

attacks. The crakes seemed to be indifferent, they

did not move. One of the birds stretched its neck

and uttered “a longdrawn vibrating whistle” (Ali

and Ripley, handbook vol. 2: 168) This call can

be described as “Tir rrrrrrrrr ...”. It was not

only clearly audible to me, but anyone in the

vicinity of the river could have easily heard it.

This call served as a kind of signal to another

bird, which was slightly larger. The larger crake

dashed into the Polygonum bush and raided the

nest. By pecking forcefully at the eggs, the crake

broke them open and gulped down the white and

the yolk as quickly as possible. The wagtails did

not keep quiet while their nest was being robbed.

They kept fluttering and hovering restlessly

around the bush. The nest was completely

destroyed within three minutes. The crakes flew

off and disappeared into the bushes bordering

the water. The wagtails chased them off

frantically, but could not make physical contact.

After having returned to the nest, the wagtails

remained silent for about 5 minutes. The male

perched on the polygonum bush made the first

move, climbed down and walked up to the nest.

Both the male and the female wagtail fed on the

remains of the eggs. They also picked up the

eggshells and disposed of them a few metres away

from the nest.

November 9, 1999 KIRAN PURANDARE

62/ A, ‘Prashant’

Erandwane Gaonthan,

Off Karve Road, Pune 411 004,

Maharashta,

India.

16. STATUS OF THE PURPLE-RUMPED SUNBIRD NECTAR1NIA ZEYLONICA

IN GUJARAT STATE

The purple-rumped sunbird Nectarinia

zeylonica (Linn.) is known to occur in peninsular

India, south of a line from Nasik (northwest

Maharashtra), Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh (Ripley

1982, Ali and Ripley 1983, Grimmett et al.

1998). Ali (1955) during his avifaunal survey of

Gujarat State had only a single sight record of

this species from Pavagadh, Panchmahal district

on October 30, 1944.

At least three other publications show that

the species occurs definitely in the Rajpipla forest

along the River Narmada (Monga and Naoroji

1983, Desai et al. 1993, Narve et al. 1997). In

spite of this, only a single sighting is recorded

by Grimmett et al. (1998).

We have been observing this species

throughout the year at Vadodara (22° 00' N, 73°

16' E) and Anand (22° 32' N, 73° 00' E). It also

breeds at both the places. One of us (Raju Vyas)

located one nest on a bougainvillea plant during

March-April 1986 at Sayajibaug Zoo Garden,

Vadodara. Shri Fatehsinh Jasol photographed the

nesting pair. At Anand, we observed a female

feeding her two fledglings on June 30, 1 995. We

also observed breeding at Nadiad (22° 4 1 ' N, 72°

55' E) and Pariej (22° 33' N, 72° 38' E) in Kheda

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

1 19

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

district, Gujarat. At Surat (21° 12' N, 72° 52' E),

it is a common breeding species (Bakul Trivedi,

Snehal Patel, Mukesh Bhatt, pers. comm.)

Sightings at Ahmedabad and Gandhinagar

during 1998 by Shri Lavkumar Khacher and Shri

Lalsinh Raol (Raol 1999) indicate its western

distributional limit in Gujarat.

It can be concluded that the purple-rumped

sunbird Nectarinia zeylonica is an uncommon

resident of Gujarat State, and occurs in Surat

district, Shoolpaneswar Wildlife Sanctuary

(Bharuch district) as well as Vadodara, Kheda,

Ahmedabad and Gandhinagar districts. Salim

Ali’s remark (Ali 1955) that ‘it seems curious

that the species should be so rare in Gujarat’ is

clarified now.

February 23, 2000 B.M. PARASHARYA

AINP on Agricultural Ornithology

Gujarat Agricultural University,

Anand 388 110, Gujarat, India.

RAJU VYAS

Sayaji Baug Zoo Garden,

Vadodara 390 018, Gujarat, India.

References

Ali, S. (1955): The Birds of Gujarat, part II. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 52(4): 735-802.

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of

India and Pakistan. (Compact Edn.) Oxford University

Press, Delhi. Pp. 654.

Desai, I.V., B. Suresh & B. Pilo (1993): Birds of Shool-

paneswar Wildlife Sanctuary. Pavo 31(1&2): 55-72.

Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp ( 1 998): Birds of the

Indian Subcontinent. Oxford University Press, New

Delhi. Pp. 801-802.

Monga, S.G. & Rishad Naoroji (1983): Birds of the

Rajpipla forests — south Gujarat. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 80: 575-612.

Narve, D.S., C.D. Patel & N.P. Pandya (1997): Avifaunal

diversity in Shoolpaneshwar Sanctuary. Tiger Paper

24(1): 17-22.

Raol, L. (1999): Pachrangi Sakkarkhoro (Purplerumped

Sunbird). Vihang 2(1): 6.

Ripley, S.D. (1982): A Synopsis of the Birds of India and

Pakistan. Oxford University Press, Delhi. Pp. 528.

17. A SUPPLEMENTARY NOTE ON THE AVIFAUNA

OF THE THAR DESERT (RAJASTHAN)

While birdwatching in the Thar desert

between December 1985 and September 1999, 1

made extensive notes on the birds I encountered.

It was, however, not until the publication of an

annotated checklist of the birds of the Thar desert

of Rajasthan (Rahmani 1997) which summarises

the bird records of three surveys between

February 1993 and May 1994, that I felt the need

to publish my own sightings. Based on my

experience in the area, I realised that the above

mentioned checklist was not comprehensive.

The purpose of this paper is to update Rahmani ’s

list with additional records. Details of all

records, both published and unpublished, are

given for uncommon and rare species, while for

those more frequent, only status and distribution

are given.

Systematic list

Sixty-two species are listed below. The

species’ status in the Thar desert of Rajasthan is

given in brackets as follows: R Resident;

PR Presumably Resident; W Winter Visitor;

S Summer Visitor; M Monsoon Visitor; PM

Passage Migrant; V Vagrant; and (?) Status

uncertain. Some of these are provisional, to be

regarded as a general guide rather than a definitive

statement. Common and scientific names are based

on Manakadan and Pittie (2001).

Great crested grebe Podiceps cristatus

(W): Recorded in the eastern part of the desert

where there are suitable wetlands. A party of 22

was seen at Kharda, Pali district on January 5,

1989. Two were seen at Sardarsamand, Pali

district on the same day.

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Black-necked grebe Podiceps nigricollis

(W): One individual was observed at Kharda,

Pali district on January 5, 1989.

Great white pelican Pelecanus

onocrotalus (W): Fifteen were observed at

Kagoda, Banner district on February 19, 1994.

Twenty were recorded on January 3 1 and one on

March 15, 1998 at Revasa, Sikar district. Quite

regularly seen at Sardarsamand, Pali district.

Spot-billed pelican Pelecanus

philippensis (W): Ten were recorded at Revasa,

Sikar district on January 31,1 998 in the company

of great white pelicans.

Black-crowned Night heron Nycticorax

nycticorax (PR): More than 76, including 15

juveniles, were roosting at Revasa, Sikar district

on January 31, 1998.

Lesser flamingo Phoenicopterus minor

(W): Regular in winter at Sambhar Lake in varying

numbers. About 18,500 were censused between

December, 1995 and March, 1996 at Sambhar

Lake (Sangha 1998). 90 were observed feeding at

Kagoda, Barmer district on February 19, 1994.

Three birds were recorded at Sardarsamand, Pali

district on January 5, 1989. About 200 were

recorded at Badopal near Suratgarh and two birds

near Chhatargarh, Bikaner district during the

winter of 1994 (R.G. Soni pers. comm.)

Marbled teal Marmaronella

angustirostris (W): An increasingly rare

migrant. It was classified as a straggler and

reported in Rajasthan from Bikaner and

Bharatpur (Ali and Ripley 1987). There are only

three recent records from the area under

consideration. On February 14, 1994 three birds

were recorded at RD 1 333 on the Rajasthan Canal

(Indira Gandhi Nahar). One on February 15,

1994, at RD 1440 on the Rajasthan Canal (Indira

Gandhi Nahar) near Mohangarh, Jaisalmer

district (Sangha 1994) and three from Pali, in

February 1991 (Tiwari 1991).

Comb duck Sarkidiornis melanotus (R):

Irregularly seen in the eastern part of the desert,

local movements subject to water conditions. Two

were recorded at Balsamand, Jodhpur district on

January 15, 1989. Breeds atNimaj, Pali district

(Bhagirath Singh, pers. comm.). Listed as

common by Hume (Whistler 1938).

Northern goshawk Accipiter gentilis (W):

A rare migrant. First recorded from Rajasthan

on January 3, 1990 at Gajner, Bikaner district,

with an Indian sandgrouse Pterocles exustus in

its claws. 1 have not seen it at Gajner on

subsequent visits.

Eurasian Sparrow-hawk Accipiter nisus

(W): Six in a loose flock were seen attacking

greater short-toed larks Calandrella

brachydactyla at Tal Chhapar, Churu district on

February 12, 1994. Two were recorded on

January 28, 1996 and three on February 1, 1998

at the same place. Hume considered the species

as very rare (Whistler 1938).

Bonelli’s eagle Hieraaetus fasciatus

(R,W): Two were recorded at Fossil Park,

Jaisalmer on January 12, 1986 (Phil Heath pers.

comm.). One bird was observed drinking water

at RD 845 on the Rajasthan Canal (Indira Gandhi

Nahar) on February 13, 1994. Included by Hume

and Whistler in their list (Whistler 1938).

Himalayan griffon Gyps himalayensis

(W): Presumably a not so rare winter visitor, it

seems to have been overlooked by bird watchers.

One bird was seen near Mohangarh, Jaisalmer

district on February 15, 1994.

Osprey Pandion haliaetus (W):

Irregularly seen at Revasa, Sikar district as there

has been no water for some years. Atleast one

bird was sighted at Gajner, Bikaner, during

December 1990 (R.G. Soni pers. comm.).

Merlin Falco columbarius (W): Rare

winter visitor. Harsh Vardhan and I recorded one

bird at Kanod, Jaisalmer district on February 15,

1994. The bird was hunting citrine wagtails

Motacilla citreola near a shrinking waterbody.

One bird was recorded on February 1, 1998 at

Tal Chhapar, Churu district. A new record for

Rajasthan.

Jungle bush-quail Perdicula asiatica (R):

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR 2002

121

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Not uncommon in the eastern parts of the desert.

Recorded from Revasa, Sikar district and Nimaj,

Pali district.

Sarus crane Grus antigone (PR): Not

uncommon in suitable areas of Pali and Jodhpur.

Eight birds were recorded on March 28, 1993 at

Sardarsamand, Pali district. A pair was seen and

photographed at Navoda near Pachpadra, Banner

district in December 1998 (. Rajasthan Patrika ,

December 6, 1998). Up to five birds were

observed during December, 1998 at Nimaj, Pali

district (Bhagirath Singh pers. comm.).

Pheasant-tailed ja^ana Hydrophasianus

chirurgus (PR): Likely to become common with

the development of large seepage water bodies

in the Rajasthan Canal area. At least four birds

were sighted on a large wetland near RD 507 on

October 2, 1998.

Beach stone plover Esacus magnirostris

(R): Confined to the eastern parts of the desert.

28 were recorded at Sardarsamand, Pali district

on March 28, 1993. Two at Revasa, Sikar district

on June 2, 1998. Probably breeds at both sites.

Two birds were recorded at Kuchaman, Nagaur

district on June 9, 1993. Reported by Hume in

‘suitable river beds in Jodhpur’ (Whistler 1938).

Small pratincole Glareola lactea (?): Five

were recorded at Kuchaman lake, Nagaur district

on October 25, 1991.

Sociable lapwing Vanellus gregarius (W):

An increasingly rare species, though Hume rated

it as common (Whistler 1938). There are three

records from Tal Chhapar, Churu district. One

juvenile was recorded from Revasa, Sikar district

(Sangha 2000). Two birds were recorded from

Jaisalmer on January 18, 1999 (Ben King pers.

comm.).

Northern lapwing Vanellus vanellus (W):

Uncommon winter visitor. I recorded four birds

on January 3, 1990 at Gajner, Bikaner district.

One bird was recorded at Jod Beed, Bikaner in

winter, 1993 (M. Kulshreshtha pers. comm.).

Adam saw it twice at Kuchaman, Nagaur district

(Whistler 1938).

Grey plover Pluvialis squatarola (PM):

Two were recorded on February 29, 1997 and

two on May 3, 1998 at Sambhar Lake. ‘A

specimen of this bird in full breeding plumage

was shot’ at Sambhar Lake (Adam 1 874).

Pacific golden-plover Pluvialis fulva

(PM) One individual in total breeding plumage

was observed on April 3, 1997 at Sambhar Lake.

Hume mentions one specimen collected from Pali

(Whistler 1938).

Greater sand plover Cltaradrius

leschenaultii (PM): Five birds were recorded in

partial breeding plumage on September 10, 1998

at Sambhar Lake. Also recorded by Adam at

Sambhar Lake (1874).

Eurasian curlew Numenius arquata (W,

PM): Many records. Sightings of 18 birds on

October 25, 1991 and one on March 27, 1993 at

Kuchaman, Nagaur district; five seen on August

13, 1994; two on May 3, 1998 and six on August

7, 1998 at Sambhar Lake; one at Tal Chhapar,

Churu on January 28, 1996, one at Deedwana,

Nagaur on February 1, 1998. Hume rated the

species as rare (Whistler 1938).

Terek sandpiper Xenus cinereus (PM):

One bird was recorded at Sambhar Lake on

September 10, 1998. Previously recorded at

Sambhar Lake (Adam 1873).

Jack snipe Lymnocryptes minimus (W):

One bird was recorded on February 1, 1998 at

Kuchaman lake, Nagaur. Although listed by

Hume (Whistler 1938), the species was possibly

uncommon in the desert then as it is today.

Dunlin Calidris alpina (?) Per Undeland

and I recorded 87 birds at Deedwana, Nagaur on

February 1, 1998. Earlier at the same site, I

recorded five birds on January 29, 1 996. 1 3 were

recorded on September 5, 1 999 at Sambhar Lake.

Four were in breeding plumage.

Curlew sandpiper Calidris ferruginea (?)

Per Undeland and I recorded 8 birds at

Deedwana, Nagaur on February 1 , 1998. 25 birds

were recorded at Sambhar Lake on September

25, 1998. Two of the birds were still in breeding

122

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

plumage. Six were recorded on September 5,

1999 at Sambhar Lake.

Red-necked phalarope Phalaropus

lobatus (PM): 27 were foraging at Sambhar Lake

on September 10, 1998. Two were recorded on a

small pond close to the road near Revasa, Sikar

district on September 12, 1998. Previously,

specimens of this rare bird were obtained by

Adam at Sambhar Lake (1874).

*Herring gull Lams argentatus (W, PM):

Fairly common on Sambhar Lake.

Brown-headed gull Larus

brunnicephalus (W, PM): Five were recorded at

Gadisar, Jaisalmer on August 16, 1989. Fairly

common on Sambhar Lake. Recorded by

Whistler (1938).

Whiskered tern Chlidonias hybridus

(W): Fairly common at Sambhar Lake and

Revasa, Sikar district. Up to 250 were recorded

at Sambhar Lake on September 23, 1996. Also

at Badopal, Ganganagar district; Sardarsamand,

Pali district and a wetland near RD 507 on the

Rajasthan Canal (Indira Gandhi Nahar).

Gull-billed tern Geloc/telidon nilotica

(?): Seen all the year round in small flocks.

Regular and fairly common at Sambhar Lake,

Revasa and Deedwana. More than 100 birds were

noted at Sambhar Lake on September 23, 1996.

Five birds were hunting over a wheat field near

Suratgarh, Ganganagar district on March 28,

1999. On May 23, 1999 three birds were observed

hawking at Revasa, Sikar district.

Little tern Sterna albifrons (?): Summer

visitor? Has been recorded at Revasa, Sikar

district only in summer, where two pairs were

recorded breeding in 1998 (Sangha and

Kulshreshtha 1999). On May 23, 1999 I found

one bird in breeding plumage at the same site.

Indian skimmer Rhynchops albicollis

(V): There are two records from the desert area.

The Zoological Survey of India (ZSI) collected

one bird from Dangiwas, Jodhpur on August 10,

1966. One bird was recorded at Jod-Beed,

Bikaner on March 28, 1993 (Sangha and

Kulshreshtha 1998).

Painted sandgrouse Pterocles indicus (R):

Fairly common in suitable areas of Sikar and Pali

districts.

Asian Koel Eudynamys scolopacea (R):

Not uncommon in Jodhpur city, perhaps

increasing (Prakash 1998). One bird was heard

calling at Gajner, Bikaner district on March 29,

1999 and one was seen at RD 840 on the

Rajasthan Canal on October 1, 1998.

Sirkeer malkoha Phaenicophaeus

leschenaultii (PR): I observed one individual

near Sardarsamand, Pali district on January 5,

1989. ‘Dr. King collected a specimen at Jodhpur’

in the rains (Whistler 1938).

Barn owl Tyto alba (PR): Probably a

scarce resident. There are four records from the

Thar desert. One bird collided with an aircraft

at Jodhpur (Satheesan and Grubh 1992). 1 found

a dead bird on the road near Dungargarh, Churu

district on March 3, 1993, and one in the

gloaming on March 25, 1993 near Kheechan

with Harsh Vardhan. Between Ratangarh and

Dungargarh, a dead bird was recorded on

February 24, 1 996 (Rishad Naorojipers. comm.).

Eurasian eagle-owl Bubo bubo (PR): Not

common, but seems to be widespread. Not listed

by Whistler (1938). One bird was observed

hunting during the day at Tal Chhapar, Churu

district on October 23, 1988. One was being

mobbed by house crows Corvus splendens while

drinking water at the Rajasthan Canal at RD

1214 on February 13, 1994. One was seenatAkal

Fossil Park, Jaisalmer on October 3, 1993.

Desert finch-lark Ammomanes deserti

(R): All records are from Jaisalmer, where it is

fairly common in suitable habitats. Affects

desolate, barren country in rocky, gravelly areas

( magra ). Usually found in pairs or small groups

(Sangha and Kulshreshtha 1993). Not recorded

by Hume and Whistler (Whistler 1938). Ali and

Ripley (1987) recorded it only from Jammu.

Red-rumped swallow Hirundo daurica

(M, W): Quite widespread during monsoon.

* Now split into L. heuglini and L. cachinnans

123

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Small numbers are recorded in winter also. More

common in the eastern parts of the desert.

Red-backed shrike Lanius collurio

(PM): Uncommon passage migrant. A single

male bird was recorded near Khuri, Jaisalmer

district on September 10, 1993. One female with

very prominent crescent marks on breast and

flanks was recorded on October 3, 1993 at Barna

village, in the Desert National Park, Jaisalmer

(Sangha 1995).

Eurasian golden oriole Oriolus oriolus

(S, V): The bird breeds in the canal areas of

Ganganagar, Hanumangarh and Bikaner. R.G.

Soni (1994) also recorded its breeding in the

canal areas.

Marshall’s iora Aegithinia nigrolutea

(R): A breeding resident in Jodhpur, Pali and

Sikar districts. Recorded by Hume from Jodhpur

and by Adam from Kuchaman, Nagaur district

(Whistler 1938).

Red-throated flycatcher Ficedula parva

(W): Very common in plantations in the canal

areas of Ganganagar, Bikaner and Jaisalmer

(Sangha 1995). I have recorded it from suitable

habitats in Sikar, Pali and Jodhpur districts;

regularly from Bada Bag, Jaisalmer and Tal

Chhapar, Churu. Specimens were collected from

Hemavas Lake (Whistler 1938). Also included

in Hume’s Jodhpur State list (Whistler 1938).

Grey-headed flycatcher Culicicapa

ceylonenis (W): A rare winter-migrant in the

desert, but may increase in the canal areas. There

is one record from Bajju, Bikaner district. It is

not uncommon in wooded areas of Sikar district.

Blyth’s reed-warbler Acrocephalus

dumetorum (PM): Common in wooded areas

and plantations during spring and autumn

passage. It begins to arrive from mid- August and

continues to do so till late October in small

waves. Spring passage starts from end of March

and continues to mid-May. Commonly seen in

the plantation along the Rajasthan Canal (Indira

Gandhi Nahar) and at Tal Chhapar, Churu and

Revasa, Sikar district.

Plain leaf-warbler Phylloscopus

neglectus (W): It winters mainly in Pakistan

and its current status in India is uncertain

(Grimmett, Inskipp and Inskipp 1998), but l

found it quite regularly in the Fossil Park and

the Desert National Park, Jaisalmer. A new

record for India.

Olivaceous leaf-warbler Phylloscopus

griseolus (?): All records are of autumn and

spring passage. One bird was recorded from the

Desert National Park, Jaisalmer on March 4,

1990 (Sangha 1995). One bird was recorded at

Tal Chhapar, Churu district on September 30,

1998. Two birds were recorded near Bajju,

Bikaner district on March 28, 1999. La Personne

collected specimens during the surveys of

Jodhpur State (Whistler 1938).

Greenish leaf-warbler Phylloscopus

Irochiloides (?): I observed one individual on

September 30, 1998 at Tal Chhapar, Churu

district, feeding in the trees near the rest house.

Blue rock-thrush Monticola solitarius

(W): Uncommon. One individual was recorded

at Gajner, Bikaner district on January 3, 1990

and one on December 19, 1998 at the same place.

Hume reported it from the neighbourhood of

Jodhpur (Whistler 1938).

Orange-headed thrush Zoothera citrina

(W): A rare winter visitor, but may become more

common in the canal area. One bird was

recorded between Bajju and Amarpura on

February 13, 1994. Possibly the first record for

the Thar desert.

Pied tit Parus nuchalis (R): The species

is found in thorn forests of Pali and Nagaur

districts of the desert. J.K. Tiwari (1997) found

it in Jalore also.

Paddyfield pipit Anthus rufulus (PR): Not

uncommon from Pali and Sikar, the eastern

districts of the desert, where it possibly breeds.

Also recorded from Badopal, Ganganagar and

Diyatra, Bikaner on March 27, 1999. Hume

received no specimen from Jodhpur (Whistler

1938).

124

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

White-Eye Zosterops palpebrosa (R):

Fairly common in the eastern parts of the desert.

I have recorded the species breeding in Jodhpur

and Sikar districts. Listed by Whistler (1938).

Blackheaded munia Lonchura malacca

(?): One bird was recorded during monsoon, 1 994

near Mohangarh, Jaisalmer district. (R.G. Soni

pers. comm.)

Trumpeter finch Bucanetes githagineus

(W): All my recent records are from Jaisalmer

district, although Hume collected a male near

Jodhpur (Whistler 1938). Not uncommon in

Jaisalmer. Numbers vary from year to year.

Usually in parties of 6-7 birds. However, on

January 12, 1986 more than 400 birds were

observed feeding in a field on the west side of

the road leading to the Fossil Park, Jaisalmer

(Phil Heath pers. comm.).

Common rosefinch Carpodacus

erythrinus (?): Three birds were recorded in the

plantation along the Rajasthan Canal (Indira

Gandhi Nahar) near Bajju on March 23, 1999.

One male was in breeding plumage. Rated as

very rare by Adam ( 1 873) at Sambhar Lake, who

observed it on ‘one or two occasions’.

Refer

Adam, R.M. (1873): Notes on the birds of the Sambhar

Lake and its vicinity. Stray Feathers 1: 361-404.

Adam, R.M. (1874): Additional notes on the birds of the

Sambhar Lake and its vicinity. Stray Feathers 2:

337-341.

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Compact Handbook of the

Birds of India and Pakistan. 2nd Edn. Oxford

University Press, Bombay.

Grjmmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1998): Birds of the

Indian Subcontinent. Christopher Helm, London.

Manakadan, Ranjit & Aasheesh Pittie (2001):

Standardised common and scientific names of the

birds of the Indian subcontinent. Buceros Vol. 6, No.

1.

Prakash, I. (1998): Koel boom at Jodhpur. Newsletter for

Birdwatchers 38(6): 103-104.

Rahmani, A.R. (1997): The effects of Indira Gandhi Nahar

Project on the avifauna of the Thar desert.

J. Bombay, nat. Hist. Soc. 94: 233-266.

Sangha, H.S. (1994): Marbled teal in Rajasthan.

Newsletter for Birdwatchers 34(2): 34.

Black-headed bunting Emberiza

melanocephala (?): I recorded one male on

March 27, 1993 with house sparrows at the

Sudasri water-hole, Desert National Park. Hume

found the species in ‘simply millions’ at Sojat,

Pali district (Whistler 1938).

White-capped bunting Emberiza steward

(W): I have recorded the species only from the

eastern parts of the desert. Two males and one

female were observed at Tal Chhapar, Churu

district on February 1, 1998.

Acknowledgements

I thank Phil Heath, Ben King, Manoj

Kulshreshtha, Rishad Naoroji, Bhagirath

Singh and R.G. Soni for their field notes, Harsh

Vardhan and Per Undeland for their congenial

company in the field and Dr. Asad R. Rahmani

for inspiration and valuable comments.

Oct. 30, 1999 HARKIRAT SINGH SANGHA

B-27, Gautam Marg, Hanuman Nagar,

Jaipur 302 021, Rajasthan,

India.

E N C E S

Sangha, H.S. (1995): Birds recorded in the Desert National

Park, Rajasthan, India, Unpublished report to Oriental

Bird Club, UK.

Sangha, H.S. (1998): Flamingo surveys at Sambhar Lake

(Rajasthan) India. IWRB Flamingo Specialist Group

Newsletter 8: 24-25.

Sangha, H.S. (2000): Recent sightings of Vanellus

gregarius at Tal Chhapar and Revasa, Rajasthan. J.

Bombay, nat. Hist. Soc. 97(2): 278-279.

Sangha, H.S. & M. Kulshreshtha (1993): Birds recorded

during a visit to the Desert National Park in summer

1993. In: Bird Conservation, Strategies for the

Nineties and Beyond (Eds.: Verghese, A., S. Sridhar

and A.K Chakravarthy), OS1. Bangalore.

Sangha, H.S. & M. Kulshreshtha (1998): Sightings of

Indian Skimmer in Rajasthan far from its fluvial

habitat. Newsletter for Birdwatchers 38(5): 86.

Sangha, H.S. & M. Kulshreshtha (1999): Little Tern

Sterna albifrons found breeding in Rajasthan.

Newsletter for Birdwatchers 39(4) : 63-64.

Satheesan, S.M. & R.B. Grubh (1992): Bird and bat

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

125

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

collisions with aircraft in India at night. J. Bombay,

nat. Hist. Soc. 89: 379-380.

Soni, R.G. (1994): Checklist of Birds of Indira Gandhi

Nahar Project - II (Rajasthan). Indian Forester 120:

929-935.

Tiwari, J.K. (1991): Notes from Rajasthan on Pied Chat

and Marbled Teal. Newsletter for Birdwatchers

31(5-6): 13.

Tiwari, J.K. (1997): White-naped Tit Survey, Gujarat and

Rajasthan, India. Bulletin Oriental Bird Club. 25: 06.

Whistler, H. (1938): The ornithological survey of Jodhpur

state. J. Bombay, nat. Hist. Soc. 40: 213-235.

1 8. STRANGE BEHAVIOUR IN THE RAT SNAKE PTYAS MUCOSUS, FAMILY COLUBRIDAE

We observed the following incident on July

20, 2001 between 1535 to 1550 hrs outside our

office — the Conservation Education Centre,

Bombay Natural History Society, Goregaon,

Mumbai. An Oriental magpie-robin ( Copsychus

saularis) had laid four eggs in the battery box of

a solar lamp post about three weeks earlier. The

pale green eggs with reddish-brown spots were

in a cup-shaped nest made of dry grass and twigs,

resting in one comer of the battery box.

The eggs were intact and were being

guarded regularly by the male and incubated by

the female till the afternoon of July 20, 2001.

We heard loud and harsh alarm calls by the robin

at around 1525 hrs. Initially, we ignored it, as

this behaviour is common for the robin when an

intruder such as jungle babbler, squirrel or

monitor lizard comes close to the nest.

This time, however, the calls were more

intense and very loud. On looking at the lamp

post, we saw a rat snake, Ptyas mucosus entering

the battery box. As we went near to have a closer

look, the snake slithered down, rushing towards

some bushes to hide. We immediately opened the

battery box to see the status of the nest and found

that only one egg was left. We thought that the

game was over, as three eggs had been eaten by

the rat snake, but after an interval of 5 minutes,

the robin started making similar alarm calls at

the same place. We rushed back and were

surprised to see the rat snake in the battery box

again! Out of curiosity we opened the battery box,

and found that the snake had regurgitated the

eggshells.

The fourth egg was left untouched by the

snake.

January 18, 2002 PRITI SAWANT

ANURADHA RAJAGOPALAN*

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road,

Dr. Salim Ali Chowk, Bombay 400 023,

Maharashtra, India.

* Present Address: B/206, Haritara Apts.

B. T.Road, Mhatrewadi, Dahisar (W),

Mumbai 400 068, Maharashtra, India.

19. FIRST RECORD OF BOULENGER’S TREE FROG CHIRIXALUS VITTATUS

(ANURA: RHACOPHORJDAE) FROM MIZORAM, NORTHEAST INDIA

Chirixalus vittatus was described by

Boulenger (1887) from Bhamo, Upper Burma

as Ixalus vittatus. The species was reported from

India by Romer (1949) who collected two gravid

females on June 7, 1944 near Kohima (then in

Assam State). Khare and Kiyasetuo (1986)

subsequently reported the species from Kohima,

Nagaland.

A single specimen was collected by

Samraat Pawar and Sayantan Biswas, from a

breeding site found near Ngengpui Wildlife

Sanctuary, Lunglai district (Lai Autonomous

District Council), southern Mizoram, during a

survey conducted by them in 1998. The female

was near a gelatinous foam-nest on Saccharum

grass, about 3 m tall, nearly 50 m from the Forest

Rest House of the Ngengpui Wildlife Sanctuary.

They found the species to be locally common in

126

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

the area. A voucher specimen was collected

(Regn No. ZSI A 9209, Zoological Survey of

India, Kolkata). We compared our specimen with

three non-type specimens from Nongkhor,

Thailand to confirm our identification. This

specimen therefore constitutes the first record of

this species from Mizoram.

Measurements of the specimen: Snout-

vent length: 29.78 mm, Head length: 7.08 mm,

Head width: 8.06 mm, Snout length: 4.04 mm,

Eye diameter: 4.12 mm, Tympanum diameter:

1.62 mm, Inter-orbital length: 4.08 mm; Inter-

narial length: 2.71 mm, Tibia length: 13.84 mm.

Refer

Boulenger, G.A. (1887): An account of the batrachians

obtained in Burma by M.L. Fea, of the Genoa Civic

Museum. Ann. Civ. Mus. Genova 2(5): 421-422.

Khare, M.K. & Kiyasetuo ( 1 986): A new record of frog,

Chirixalus vittatus (Boulenger, 1 887) from north-

Acknowledgement

I thank Dr. S.K. Chanda, Zoological

Survey of India, Kolkata for allowing us to

examine specimens of the species from Thailand.

July 6, 2001 KAUSHIK DEUTI

Zoological Survey of India,

M-Block, New Alipore,

Kolkata 700 053, West Bengal, India.

SUSHIL DUTTA

Department of Zoology, Utkal University,

Bhubaneshwar 751 004, Orissa, India.

N C E S

eastern hills of India. Zoologica Orientals 3(1-2):

47-49.

Romer, J.D. ( 1 949): Herpetological observations in Assam

and Bengal. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 48(2): 374-

376.

20. ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF OREONECTES (INDOREONECTES) EVEZARDI

DAY AND O. (I.) KERALENS1S RITA, BANARESCU AND N ALB ANT

(PISCES: BALITORIDAE)

The genus Oreonectes includes four

subgenera comprising of ten species (Banarescu,

and Nalbant 1995) distributed in Southeastern

China, Northeast and Southeast Asia, and

Western and Central India. The subgenus

Indoreonectes Rita, Banarescu and Nalbant

comprising of two species, namely evezardi Day

(1878) and keralensis Rita, Banarescu and

Nalbant (1978), is endemic to India. The species

are characterized by the combination of the

following characters: an elongate body,

prolongation of the anterior nostrils into long

nasal barbels, incomplete lateral line system,

pelvic origin in advance of dorsal fin insertion,

a dorsal and ventral adipose crest on the caudal

peduncle and a rounded or straight caudal fin.

O. (I.) evezardi described from Poona,

Maharashtra in the northern Western Ghats is

now known to have a wider distribution in the

Krishna and Godavari basins, and in Madhya

Pradesh, in the Pachmarhi Hills of the Satpura

Range. Chacko et al. (1954) reported its

occurrence further south in the Mettur Dam of

the Cauvery system in Tamil Nadu. Jayaram et

al. (1982), while reporting on the fish fauna of

the Cauvery system, remarked that they did not

find the species, though reported earlier by

Chacko et al. (op. cit.). Later, Jayaram (1999)

and Menon (1999), have inadvertently omitted

the Cauvery system from the distributional range

of the species.

During routine faunistic surveys of

conservation areas, one of us (SK) collected the

species evezardi from the Biligiri Rangasamy

Temple Wildlife Sanctuary (BRTWLS) in

Karnataka from a tributary of the Cauvery river.

Six specimens ranging in length from 25 mm to

45 mm SL, were collected from the following

localities in BRTWLS, namely Girialla,

Kabbanagatte and K. Gudi during February, 1999

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

127

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

and April, 2000. The specimens have been

registered in the Reserve Collections of the

Zoological Survey of India (Southern Regional

Station). The present collection confirms the

distribution of the species in the Cauvery river

also. Incidentally, this is the first report of

evezardi from Karnataka.

However, the specimens from BRTWLS

exhibit some differences from the descriptions

of Day (1875-1878), in having a more elongate

and slender body and certain other differences

in body proportions, as follows: Head length in

Day’s specimen is 5.5 times in TL, whereas in

the present collections it is 4.68 - 4.95 times in

TL. Body depth is 6 in Day’s specimen (vs 7.3 -

8.1), caudal 5 times (vs 5.33 - 5.88) in TL.

Pectoral fin is longer than head, reaching % of

the distance from pectoral to ventral fin origin,

whereas in the specimens from BRTWLS the

pectoral fins are shorter, reaching only a little

more than half this distance. Though the

proportion of eye in snout is given as 3 (also

around 3 in the present collection), Day’s figure

shows a specimen with a smaller snout. The

lateral line is said to be indistinct, while it is

fairly prominent and extends to almost half the

pectoral fin length in a smaller specimen and up

to the pectoral tip in a larger specimen studied.

Hora and Law (1941) reported evezardi

from Periyar River at Pambadumpara in

Travancore Hills of Kerala and remarked on the

variations exhibited in the colour pattern in this

species. Subsequently, Rita et al. (1978)

described O. (I.) keralensis from Periyar River

at Pambadumpara, distinguishing the species

from evezardi based on differences in colour

pattern and relative lengths of nasal barbels. The

nasal barbels are longer in evezardi , extending

to middle of eye, whereas in keralensis it is said

to be shorter reaching up to the anterior border

of eye. The vertical bands on the body are broad

and brown, and interrupted or incomplete,

extending from the dorsal to the ventral side of

the body in evezardi, whereas in keralensis these

are narrow, dark and entire on the upper half of

the body, and often split below the lateral line

into streaks or spots. Rita et al. {op. cit.) remarked

on the probability of Hora and Law’s specimens

being keralensis. Menon (1987) included Pamba

drainage in the distribution of keralensis, based

on his study of fish collections from Sabarigiri

hills.

A study of loaches from the earlier

collections, especially from Cardamom Hills in

southern Western Ghats by Dr. G.U. Kurup in

1969, from Sabarigiri Hills by Dr. R.S. Pillai in

1981 and recently in 1999 from Periyar river by

Mr. Chandran and other collections received for

identification from Muvattupuzha and

Santhamparai have all revealed the presence of

keralensis and not evezardi in these areas. We

reiterate the view of Rita et al. (1978) that the

species present in the Travancore Hills is

keralensis. Also, the specimens reported as

evezardi from Periyar by Chacko (1948) before

the description of keralensis and those reported

by Zacharias et al. (1996), mostly based on

Chacko {op. cit.), could also be keralensis. Biju

et al. (2000) reported the occurrence of this

species in Eravikulam National Park and

Muvattupuzha river, from the cold waters at an

altitude of 1,050 m in Muvattupuzha river and

at a range of 1 ,600-2,200 m in Periyar river. From

the above records, the present distributional

range of keralensis is in the Periyar drainage,

the Muvattupuzha river down to the Pamba river

in the southern Western Ghats.

It can be concluded that evezardi has a

wider distribution in the Northern and Central

Western Ghats above the Palghat gap and in the

Satpura Range, whereas its congener is restricted

to the higher ranges of the southern Western

Ghats below the Palghat gap.

Acknowledgements

We wish to thank the Director, Zoological

Survey of India, Kolkata and the Additional

128

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Director and Officer- in-Charge Dr. P.T. Cherian,

S.R.S., Z.S.I., Chennai for facilities. Our sincere

thanks are due to Dr. A.G.K. Menon for literature

and guidance, and to Dr. P.T. Cherian for going

through the manuscript.

Refer

Banarescu, P.M. & T.T. Nalbant (1995): A generical

classification of Noemacheilinae with description

of two new genera (Teleostei: Cypriniformes:

Cobitidae). Trav. Mus. Hist. nat. “Grigore Antipa”,

XXXV, pp.429-496.

Biju, C.R., K.R. Thomas & C.R. Ajithkumar (2000):

Ecology of hill streams of Western Ghats with

special reference to fish community. Final Report

pp. 203. Bombay Natural History Society,

Mumbai.

Chacko, P.I. ( 1 948): Development of fisheries of the Periyar

lake. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 48: 191-192.

Chacko, P.I., G.K. Kuriyan & S. Thyagarajan (1954): A

survey of the fisheries of the Cauvery river. Contr.

Freshw. Fish. Biol. Stn., Madras 12: 1-19.

Day, F. (1875-1878): The Fishes of India being a natural

history of the fishes known to inhabit the seas and

freshwaters of India, Burma and Ceylon. Quaritsch,

London, xx + 778 pp., pis. 195.

Hora, S.L. & N.C. Law (1941): The freshwater fishes of

Travancore. Rec. Ind. Mus. 43: 234-256.

July 13, 2001 K. REMA DEVI

T.J. INDRA

S. KRISHNAN

ZS1, Southern Regional Station,

100, Santhome High Road, Chennai 600 028.

iNCES

Jayaram, K.C. (1999): The freshwater fishes of the Indian

Region. Narendra Publishing House, Delhi. Pp. 551,

pis. I-XVIII.

Jayaram, K.C., J. Venkateswarlu & M.B. Raghunathan

(1982): A survey of the Cauvery River system with

a major account of its fish fauna. Rec. zool. Surv.

India, Misc. publ. Occ. pap. 36, pp. 115, pis. XII.

Menon, A.G.K. (1987): The Fauna of India and adjacent

countries, Pisces 4, Teleostei -Cobitoidea, Part 1 ,

Homalopteridae. Zoological Survey of India,

Calcutta.

Menon, A.G.K. (1999): Checklist Freshwater Fishes of

India. Rec. zool. Surv. India, Occ. Pap. 175: 1-366.

Rita, S.D., P.M. Banarescu & T.T. Nalbant (1978):

Oreonectes ( Indoreonectes ) keralensis a new

subgenus and species of loach from Kerala, India

(Pisces, Cobitidae). Trav. Mus. Hist. Nat. ^ Grigore

Antipa 19: 185-188.

Zacharias, V.J., A.K. Bharadwaj & PC. Jacob (1996):

Fish fauna of Periyar Tiger Reserve. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 93(1): 39-43.

21. REDISCOVERY OF CRITICALLY ENDANGERED AIR BREATHING

CATFISH CL ARIAS DAYI HORA PISCES: CLARIDAE,

AT MUDUMALAI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, TAMIL NADU

During fieldwork at Mudumalai Wildlife

Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu, as part of our research

program on “Diversity, Ecological Structure and

Conservation of Threatened fishes of the Nilgiri

Biosphere Reserve (NBR)” we collected two

specimens of air-breathing catfish Clarias dayi

Hora, from Ombatta Swamp, a part of the Nilgiri

Biosphere Reserve. The species is commonly

called the Malabar Clariid and Magur and

popularly known as Masarai in Tamil and Muzhi

in Malayalam. It was originally described from

Wynaad in Kerala. The present collection is a

rediscovery after 64 years at a new locality.

Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary is situated

in the Western Ghats of Nilgiri district, Tamil

Nadu (11° 30'-l 1° 39' N; 76° 27-76° 43’ E). Its

total area is 321 sq. km, including 103 sq. km of

the National Park. Ombatta Todu forms Ombatta

swamp before it joins Bidar halla, a tributary of

river Moyar, the main water source for

Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary.

Earlier record

Clarias dussumieri (nec Valenciennes) Day

(partim), 1877, Fishes of India: 484; Day

(partim), 1889, Fauna of British India, Fishes 1:

117.

Clarias Dayi Hora, 1936, Rec. Indian Mus.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

129

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

38(3): 350, fig. 4c (type locality: Wynaad,

Kerala); Misra (partim), 1976 Fauna of India,

Pisces (2nd edn) 3:129.

Clarias dussumieri dayi; Silas, 1952, Proc.

nat. Inst. Sci. India.

Day (1877) collected a single specimen

(7 inches long) of this species from Wynaad in

Kerala. But he misidentified the specimen as

Clarias dussumieri Valenciennes (Day 1877,

1889). Later Hora (1936) re-examined Day’s

collection and he described the same specimen

as a new species Clarias dayi Hora.

According to the IUCN category, it is

almost extinct, as it has not been reported

anywhere in India since it was first described by

Hora in 1936. Despite much work in Western

Ghats of Nilgiri, Wynaad hills (Hora 1937, 1938,

1942; Silas 1951a, b; Rajan 1955; Jayaram 1981;

Jayaram eta/., 1982; RemaDevi and Indra 1988;

Easa and Basha 1995; Easa and Shaji 1997) it

has not been reported again.

During this study, we did not find Clarias

dayi Hora from the original type locality (Wynaad

hills), but our present collection from Mudumalai

Wildlife Sanctuary shows its presence and range

extension in this sanctuary: a rediscovery after

64 years at a new locality.

Diagnosis

D. 70; P. 1/8; V. 1/5; A. 57; C. 16.

Body elongate, head depressed; mouth

terminal; 8 barbels, short, not extending beyond

eyes; nasal barbels shorter than half of head

length; dorsal fin inserted behind pectoral fin

Refer

Day, F. (1875-78): The fishes of India; being a natural

history of the fishes known to inhabit the seas and

freshwaters of India, Burma and Ceylon. London,

xx + 788 pp., 195 pis.

Day, F. (1889): The Fauna of British India, including

Ceylon and Burma, Fishes, Vol. 1, 548 pp; 2, 509

pp. Taylor & Francis, London.

Easa, P.S. & S.C. Basha (1995): A survey on the habitat

and distribution of stream fishes in the Kerala part

tip; pectoral spine strong, serrated on its outer

edge only; colour dark on back, lighter on side.

Distribution

Day collected a single specimen from

Wynaad hills, Western Ghats of Kerala, India

(Day 1 877, 1 889; Hora 1 936; Misra 1 976; Talwar

and Jhingran 1991). The present collection

indicates a range extension to Mudumalai

Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu.

Status

Critically endangered (Molur and Walker

1998).

Habitat

Inhabits fast flowing streams and

palustrine wetlands.

Acknowledgments

We thank the Forest Department of Tamil

Nadu for permission to work in the Mudumalai

Wildlife Sanctuary and Council of Scientific &

Industrial Research (CSIR) for financial support.

We also thank Mr. Mathan for assistance in

fieldwork.

April 2, 2001 A. MANIMEKALAN

M. ARUNACHALAM

Centre for Environmental Sciences,

Manonmaniam Sundaranar University,

Alwarkurichi 62 7 412, Tirunelveli,

Tamil Nadu, India.

N C E S

of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. KFR1 Research

report No. 104. Kerala Forest Research Institute,

Peechi, Trichur.

Easa, P.S. & C.P. Shaji (1997): Freshwater fish diversity

in Kerala, part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve.

Current Sci. 73(2): 180-182.

Hora, S.L. (1936): Siluroid fishes of India, Burma and

Ceylon. VI. Fishes of the genus Clarias Gronovius.

Rec. Indian Mus. 38(3): 347-351.

130

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Hora, S.L. (1937): Notes on fishes in the Indian Museum.

XXVIII. On three collections of fish from Mysore

and Coorg, South India. Rec. Indian Mus. 39(1): 5-

28

Hora, S.L. ( 1 938): Notes on fishes in the Indian Museum.

XXXVIII. On the systematic position of Bagrus

lonah Sykes with description of and remarks on

other Glyptostemoid fishes from the Deccan. Rec.

Indian Mus. 40(4): 363-375.

Hora, S.L. (1942): Fishes of the Mysore state and of the

neighbouring hill ranges of the Nilgiris, Wynaad

and Coorg. Rec. Indian Mus. 44(2): 193-200.

Jayaram, K.C. (1981): The Cauvery river ecosystem and

the patterns of its fish distribution. Bull. Zool. Surv.

India. 4(3): 289-294.

Jayaram, K.C., T. Venkateswarlu & M.B. Ragunathan

( 1 982): A survey of the Cauvery river system with

a major account of its fish fauna. Occ. Papers Zool.

Surv. India 36, 115, 8 pis.

Misra, K.C. (1976): The Fauna of India and adjacent

countries. Pisces (2nd edn). 3. Teleostomi:

22. SOME INGENIOUS

During a visit to Karwar, Karnataka State,

I came across a peculiar method of catching the

common marine catfish Arius dussumieri. This

method seems to be unique to the region and

adopted by amateur fishermen after a good deal

of practice. I have already described some

methods of catching live marine fish for display

in aquaria ( Hornbill 1986(4 ): 11-15, 36).

On May 27, 1990, amateur fishermen

selected a tidal pool slightly high up on the beach.

After heavy rains, at about 1630 hrs, I saw

juveniles of Arius spp. coming in with the tide

in huge numbers. Each fisherman targeted a fish

and hit it repeatedly with a rubber slipper, so

that the fish was temporarily stunned. It was then

picked up carefully and placed in a tidal pool

higher up on the beach, or merely put into a cloth

bag. Sometimes the ‘hit’ resulted in the fish’s

dorsal spine getting stuck in the slipper and the

fisherman carefully removed it and put it in the

bag or tidal pool. The fish swam very fast, and

sometimes the fisherman merely pushed it

towards the shore to incapacitate it. This method

Cypriniformes, Siluridae. xxi + 367 pp, 15 pis.

Molur, Sanjay & Sally Walker (Eds.) (1998): Report of

the Workshop “Conservation Assessment and

Management plan for freshwater fishes of India”,

Zoo Outreach Organisation, Conservation Specialist

Group, India, Coimbatore, India. 156 pp.

Rajan, S. (1955): Notes on a collection of fish from the

headwaters of the Bhavani river. South India.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 53: 44-48.

Rem a Devi, K. & T.J. Indra ( 1 988): Fishes of Silent Valley.

Special issue, Fauna of Silent Valley, Kerala, India.

Rec. zool. Surv. India. 84(1-4): 243-251.

Silas, E.G. (1951a): On a new Cyprinid fish from Coorg,

South India. J. Zool. Soc. India 3: 7-10.

Silas, E.G. (1951b): Notes on the fishes of the genus

Glyptothorax Blyth from Peninsular India, with

description of a new species. J. Bombay nat. Hist

Soc. 50: 367-370.

Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran(1991): Inland Fishes, Vol.

I & II. Oxford-IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New

Delhi, India.

METHODS OF FISHING

of fishing was repeated until the incoming stock

of fish was exhausted. There were scores of

fishermen, and there was enough for everyone

to take home, the average catch being 250 to 300

fish in an hour. This went on from 1645 to

1915 hrs, and it is surmised that each person got

about 500 to 600 fish. I tried my hand at this

type of fishing, but could not catch more than

six fish over half an hour. Either my aim was

bad, or the blow was not enough to stun the fish,

I was able to bring in about a dozen fish alive.

Another unique aspect of this method was that it

was done only on one day: I was informed that

this phenomenon occurs only once a year.

The other strange method of fishing

involved the ‘hook and drag’ method. This was

seen at the Girgaum Chowpatty Bay in South

Mumbai, from the parapet wall at Marine Drive.

Adult Mugil spp., Rates calcarifer, Polynemus

heptadactylus, Strongylura strongylura,

Hemirhamphus spp. were usually caught by this

method, at high tide. The method involved

whirling and releasing a non-baited line with a

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

131

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

single hook or multiple hooks. After the line hit September 28, 2001 VENKATESH N. HEGDE

the water, it was pulled up rapidly, which resulted Department of Zoology ; Mithibai College,

in the body of the fish getting embedded on the Vile Parle (W), Mumbai 400 056,

hooks. The catch was then pulled up quickly. Maharashtra, India.

23. A NEW RECORD OF BRA CHYMER1A LASUS WALKER (HYMENOPTERA:

CHALCIDIDAE) ON EUCHROMIA POLYMENA LINNAEUS

(LEPIDOPTERA: SYNTOMIDAE)

Euchromia polymena Linn, a diurnal moth

is reportedly a pest of sweet potato in various

parts of India (Lefroy 1909, Fletcher 1921, Ayyar

1940, Thomas and Jacob 1973, Hill 1994).

According to its local abundance, it can become

a serious pest defoliator (Hill 1994).

While studying the biology of this pest, I

observed a chalcid parasitoid emerging from

lepidopteran pupae collected in the field. From

the 10 pupae collected, 4 female parasitoids

emerged. They were later identified as

Brachymeria lasus (Walker), a polyphagous

pupal parasitoid.

Brachymeria lasus attacks a wide variety

of agricultural pests. It is sometimes

hyperparasitic. Narendran (1989) listed about

113 insects as hosts of the parasitic or

hyperparasitic B. lasus in his monograph

oriental chalcididae. Euchromia polymena was

not recorded as a host in this list. Thus, it is a

new host record of the parasitoid.

Acknowledgements

I thank Dr. Suresh Mohan Ghosh,

Department of Zoology, Govt. College

Madapally, Vatakara, Kerala for guidance,

inspiration and encouragement and Dr. RM.

Sureshan, Western Ghats Regional Station

Zoological Survey of India, Calicut for

encouragement. I also thank Prof. T.C.

Narendran, Dept, of Zoology, University of

Calicut, for identifying the parasitoid.

July 2 1 , 2000 VINAYAN P. N AIR

3/ IV College Quarters,

PO. Madappally College, Vatakara,

Kerala 673 102, India.

References

Ayyar, T.V.R. (1940): Handbook of Economic Entomology.

Govt. Press, Madras. Pp. 528.

Fletcher, T.B. (1921): Annotated list of Indian Crop Pests.

Suptd. Govt. Printing, Calcutta.

Hill, Dennis S. (1994): Agricultural Entomology. Timber

Press. Oregon, USA.

Lefroy, H.M. (1909): Indian Insect Life. Calcutta.

Narendran, T.C. (1989): Oriental Chalcididae

(Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea) Zoological Monograph.

Dept, of Zoology, Calicut University.

Thomas, M.J. & A. Jacob (1973): On the biology of

Euchromia polymena Linn. (Amatidae: Lepidoptera),

a pest of sweet potato. Agr. Res. Jou. Kerala 11(2):

168-69.

24. OVIPOSITION BEHAVIOUR OF PALEXOR1STA SOLENNIS WALKER,

DIPTERA: TACHINIDAE, A TACHINID PARASITOID OF TEAK DEFOLIATOR,

HYBLAEA PUERA CRAMER

( With one text-figure)

Palexorista solennis (Diptera: Tachinidae) defoliator, Hyblaea puera Cramer (Lepidoptera:

is one of the natural enemies of the teak Hyblaeidae), a destructive pest of teak (Tectona

132

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

grandis L.F.) (Nair et al. 1985, Nair 1988). The

tachinids are dominant parasitoids (Beeson and

Chatterjee 1939, Sudheendrakumar 1986) and

have been recorded at various places (Beeson

1941, Gokulpur 1969, Walcher 1977, Nair et

al. 1985, Sudheendrakumar 1986). In

intensively managed commercial plantations,

too, this parasitoid occurs as a major factor that

reduces the defoliator population by 54.54%

(Loganathan and David, unpublished).

Understanding the steps in parasitism under

natural conditions will be useful when these

parasitoids are mass cultured in a laboratory.

We, therefore, studied the oviposition behaviour

of this potential parasitoid in an intensively

managed teak plantation at Veeravanallur, Tamil

Nadu in 1996 and the results are reported here.

The oviposition behaviour of female

tachinids was studied before and after

oviposition by closely watching thirty adult

female parasitoids randomly selected in the

plantation. Observations on host selection,

number of attempts, duration of each attempt

and mode of oviposition were noted.

The dipteran parasitoids use both the tarsi

and proboscis while searching the host (Nettles

1982). In the first step of host-habitat selection,

the female tachinid first randomly screens the

leaf folds in which the second or third instar

defoliator larvae take shelter (Fig.l). After

locating a suitable leaf fold, the fly alights and

walks about the leaf fold. It then drums the leaf

fold with its fore and hind legs. According to

Klomp and Teerink (1962), drumming sets up

vibrations in the host, which the female

parasitoid monitors, to determine the host size

and in turn regulate the number of eggs

deposited. In this case, drumming caused the

larvae to peep out from the anterior or posterior

end of the leaf fold. The fly stayed put, stretching

and bending its oviscapt to lay the egg on the

heads, legs or thoracic segments of the larvae

Oviscapt ejection and oviposition

maggot

Lorva peeps out in

normal position

Larva comes out

upside down

mean depth

(0.8 cm)

SOIL

puparium

Fig. 1 : Oviposition behaviour and development of Palexorista solennis

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

133

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

ventrally or dorsally, according to the position

of the host larva. Cushman (1926) described

several categories of ectoparasitoids based on

the habit of placing eggs on the host. The

location of egg on the host is often specific.

Nasonia vitripennis (Walker), another tachinid

parasitoid, deposits eggs on the ventral or dorsal

area of the host (Wylie 1958). As the dipteran

parasitoids generally lack a piercing ovipositor,

their eggs are either attached to the substrate or

to the host (Askew 1971). The fly often failed to

deposit the egg as the larva would withdraw

into the leaf fold, but it persisted until it

succeeded. The fly made 1-8 attempts, the

average being 4.6 (n=30). The fly spent 5.0 -

25.32 minutes in the process, the average being

15.54 minutes. After laying the egg, the tachinid

flew away. Each host larva may bear one or two

eggs of the tachinid owing to repeated

oviposition by the same fly or another fly. On

hatching, the tachinid maggot penetrates the

body wall of the host defoliator larva, leaving a

black lesion at the point of entry. The maggot

developed in the thoracic region, moved to the

abdomen as it matured. It finally escaped from

Refer

Askew, R. R. (1971): Parasitic Insects. American Elsevier

Press, New York. Pp 371.

Beeson, C.F.C & S.N. Chatterjee (1939): Further notes

on the biology of teak defoliators in India. Indian

For. (NS) Ent. 5(5): 357-379.

Beeson, C.F.C. (1941): The Ecology and Control of Forest

Insects of India and Neighbouring Countries. Vasant

Press, Delira Dun. Pp 767.

Cushman, R. A. ( 1 926): Location of individual hosts versus

systematic relation of host-species as a determining

factor in parasitic attack. Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash. 28:

5-6.

Gokulpur, R.S. (1969): Record of tachinids from Central

India. Indian For. 95(3): 188-189.

Klomp, H. & B.J. Teerink (1962): Host selection and

number of eggs per oviposition in the egg-parasite

Trichogramma embryophagum Htg. Nature

(Lond.) 195: 1020-1021.

NA1R, K.S.S., V.V. SUDHEENDRAKUMAR, R.V. VARMA &

K.C. Chacko (1985): Studies on the seasonal

the host by piercing the integument with its

prothoracic hooks. It then drops to the soil for

pupation, often burrowing 8 mm below the soil

surface. Rarely does it pupate in the defoliator

leaf fold. The adult fly emerges from the

puparium in 6-7 days.

Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful to Dr. V. V.

Sudheendrakumar, Faculty of Entomology,

Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi for

identifying the parasitoid. The financial

assistance provided by M/s. Sterling Magnum

(India) Ltd., Chennai is gratefully

acknowledged.

November 1, 1999 J. LOGANATHAN*

P. M. M. DAVID

Department of Agricultural Entomology,

Agricultural College and Research Institute,

Killikulam 628 252, Tamil Nadu, India.

* Present address: Research Scholar,

Division of Entomology, I ART,

New Delhi 110 012, India.

; n c e s

incidence of the defoliators and the effects of

defoliation on volume increment of teak. KFRI Res.

Report No. 30, Peechi : 78 p.

Nair, K.S.S. (1988): The teak defoliator in Kerala, India.

In: Dynamics of Forest Insect Populations, Patterns,

Causes, Implications, (Ed.: Berryman, Alan A.).

Oxford and IBH, New Delhi. Pp 268 - 289.

Nettles, W.C. ( 1 982): Contact stimulants from Heliothis

virescens that influence the behaviour of females

of the tachinid, Eucelatoria bryani. J. Chem. Ecol

8: 1183-1191.

Sudheendrakumar, V.V. (1986) : Studies on the natural

enemies of the teak pests, Hyblaea puera and

Eutectona machaeralis. KFRI Res. Report No. 38,

Peechi. 23p.

Walcher, H.P. (1977): Biological control of forest insects.

Ann. Rev. Ent. 22: 1-22.

Wylie, H. G. (1958): Factors that affect host finding by

Nasonia vitripennis (Walker). Can. Ent. 90: 597-

608.

134

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

25. FURTHER CONTRIBUTION ON THE DIPTERA (INSECTA) FAUNA

OF ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS

An insular forest ecosystem along with

tropical climate provides ideal niches for the rich

insect fauna of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Schiner ( 1 868) was the first to describe the dipteran

fauna from the islands, and since then many

workers have made substantial contributions in this

field. The present paper is based on the collection

of the Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata, as well

as information on record. In this communication,

the distributional records of the species have been

considered only from Indian limits. The species

with a single asterisk represent new records (12

species) from these Islands and with double asterisk

denote new locality records (6 species) within the

bay Islands.

Order: Diptera

Suborder: Nematocera

A) Family: Tipulidae

* 1 . Limonia ( Euglochina ) saltern (Doleschall)

Limnobia saltens Doleschall, 1857, Nat.

Tijd. Ned. -Indie. 14: 390.

Material examined: 1M, Shompen

village, Great Nicobar, 10. iv. 1966, coll. A. Daniel

and H.K. Bhowmick.

Distribution: Nicobar Islands and Kerala.

B) Family: Sciaridae

*2. Phorodonta exacta (Brunetti)

Sciara exacta Brunetti, 1912, Fauna. Brit.

India. Dipt. Nematocera 2: 132.

Material examined: 2F, Havelock, South

Andaman, 1 l.xi.1997, coll. S.K. Mondal & K.L.

Bhatta.

Distribution: Andaman Is. and W. Bengal.

Suborder: Brachycera

C) Family: Bombyliidae

**3. Ligyra flaviventris (Doleschall)

Anthrax flaviventris Doleschall, 1 857, Nat.

Tijd. Ned.- Indie. 14: 400.

Material examined: 2F, 4 km from Hut

Bay, Little Andaman, 1 7.i. 1 989; 22.L1989; IF,

3 l.i. 1989, coll. A.N.T. Joseph.

Distribution: Andaman and Nicobar

Islands and Kerala.

Suborder: Cyclorrhapha

D) Family: Syrphidae

*4. Dideopsis aegrotus (Fabricius)

Eristalis aegrota Fabricius, 1805, Syst.

Antliat : 243.

Material examined: 1M, Wright Myo,

South Andaman, 24.iii.1964, coll. B.S. Lamba.

Distribution: Andaman Islands,

Meghalaya, Tripura and West Bengal.

**5. Ischiodon scutellaris (Fabricius)

Scaeva scutellaris Fabricius, 1805, Syst.

Antliat : 252.

Material examined: 1M, Galathea Bay,

Great Nicobar, 16.iii.1966, coll. A. Daniel &

H.K. Bhowmick.

Distribution: Widely distributed in India

including Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

6. Eristalinus aeneus var. taphicus

(Wiedemann)

Eristalis taphicus Wiedemann, 1830,

Aussereurop. zweifl Insekt. 2: 191.

Material examined: 1M, Casuarina Bay,

Great Nicobar, 1966, coll. A. Daniel & H.K.

Bhowmick.

Distribution: Andaman and Nicobar

Islands, Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh.

*7. Pseuderistalis fascipennis Thompson

Eristalis maculipennis de Meijere, 1908,

Tijd. Ent. 51: 261.

Material examined: 1M, Manarghat,

South Andaman, 1 .iv. 1 964, coll. B.S. Lamba.

Distribution: Andaman Islands and Assam.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

135

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

E) Family: Micropezidae

8. Mimegralla albitarsis splendens

(Wiedemann)

Calobata splendens Wiedemann, 1830,

Aussereurop. zweifl Insekt. 2: 539.

Material examined: 2F, Campbell Bay,

Great Nicobar, 1 4.iii. 1 964; 1M, 16.iii.1964, coll.

A. Daniel and H.K. Bhowmick.

Distribution: Andaman and Nicobar

Islands, Delhi, Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh.

F) Family: Tephritidae

**9. Dacus (Zeugodacus) tau (Walker)

Dasyneura tau Walker, 1849, List Dipt.

Colin Br. Mus. 4: 1074.

Material examined: IF, Great Nicobar,

1 7.iv. 1 964, coll. A. Daniel & H.K. Bhowmick.

Distribution: Widely distributed in India

including Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

G) Family: Sepsidae

*10. Australosepsis niveipennis (Becker)

Sepsis niveipennis Becker, 1903, Mitt,

zool. Mus. Berl. 2(3): 143.

Material examined: 5M, 2F, Nancowrie

Bay, Great Nicobar, 13.V.1966, coll. A. Daniel

and H.K. Bhowmick.

Distribution: Widely distributed in India

including Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

H) Family: Muscidae

*11. Stomoxys calcitrans (Linnaeus)

Conops calcitrans Linnaeus, 1758, Syst.

Nat. Ed. 10: 604.

Material examined: 1M, Wright Myo,

South Andaman, 13.V.1988, coll. B. Mitra.

Distribution: Widely distributed in India

including Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

I) Family: Calliphoridae

*12. Bengalia torosa (Wiedemann)

Musca jejuna Fabricius, 1794, Ent. Syst.

4: 312.

Musca torosa Wiedemann, 1819, Zool.

Mag. (misidentification)

Material examined: 1M, Rajatgarh,

Baratang, S. Andaman, 22.iii. 1964, coll. B.S. Lamba.

Distribution: All the states of India

including Andaman & Nicobar Islands.

*13. Bengalia varicolor (Fabricius)

Musca varicolor Fabricius, 1805, Syst.

Ant l i at. 296.

Material examined: 2M, Rajatgarh,

Baratang, S. Andaman, 22.iii.1964. coll. B.S.

Lamba.

Distribution: Andaman & Nicobar

Islands, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.

*14. Chrysomya megacephala (Fabricius)

Musca megacephala Fabricius, 1 794, Syst.

Ent. 4: 317.

Material examined: 1M, Delanipur, Port

Blair, 7.vi.l982, coll. V. Arumugam.

Distribution: Common in all the states

of India including Andaman and Nicobar

Islands.

*15. Chrysomya rufifacies (Macquart)

Lucilia orientalis Macquart, 1842, Mem.

Soc. Sci. Agric. Lille, 2: 303 (1843: 146)

Material examined: 1M, Rajatgarh,

Baratang, S. Andaman, 22.iii.1964 coll. B.S.

Lamba.

Distribution: Common in India including

Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

J) Family: Sarcophagidae

**16. Boettcherisca (s. str.) peregrina

(Robineau-Desvoidy)

Myophora peregrina Robineau-Desvoidy,

1830, Mem. Pres. Acad. Sci. Inst. Fr. (2):

356.

Material examined: 1M, Campbell Bay,

Great Nicobar, 22.iii.19 66, coll. A. Daniel and

H.K. Bhowmick.

Distribution: Widely distributed in India

including Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

136

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

**17. Parasarcophaga (5. sir.) albiceps

(Meigen)

Sarcophaga albiceps Meigen, 1826, Syst.

Beschr. europ. zweifl Insekt. 5: 22.

Material examined: 1M, Horticulture

Garden, Haddo, Port Blair, Andaman Island,

2.iii. 1964, coll. B.S. Lamba; 1M, Netajinagar,

Little Andaman, 1 8.i. 1 988 coll. A.N.T. Joseph;

IF, Galathea Bay, Great Nicobar, 28.iii.1966,

coll. A. Daniel, & H.K. Bhowmick.

Distribution: Common in all parts of India

including Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

**18. Parasarcophaga ( Liosarcophaga ) dux

(Thomson)

Sarcophaga dux Thomson, 1868, K.

svenska Fregatten Eugenies Resa, Dipt., 2: 534.

Material examined: 1M, Campbell Bay,

3.iii.l966, coll. A. Daniel and H.K. Bhowmick.

Distribution: Andaman and Nicobar

Islands, Assam, Bihar, Kashmir, Maharashtra,

Meghalaya, Orissa, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Tripura,

Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal.

Acknowledgements

We thank Dr. J.R.B. Alfred, Director,

Zoological Survey of India, for study material,

Dr. S.K. Mitra, Jt. Director for facilities and Dr.

M. Datta, Scientist ‘SE’ and officer-in-charge,

Diptera section for constant encouragement and

valuable advice.

November 23, 1999 P. PARUI

B. MITRA

M. MUKHERJEE

R.S. MRIDHA

M-Block, New Alipore,

Zoological Survey of India,

Kolkata 700 053, West Bengal, India.

Reference

Schiner, I.R. (1868): Diptera, in Reise der Osterreichischen Fregatte Novara, Zool. Theil. 2: 1-388.

26. SEASONAL OCCURRENCE OF MELANITIS LEDA ISMENE (CRAMER),

SATYRIDAE: LEPIDOPTERA, WITH COMMENTS ON

ITS DRY AND WET SEASON FORMS

( With one text-figure )

A lelanitis leda ismene (Cramer) a butterfly

of Family Satyridae (Order Lepidoptera) is

widespread in West Africa, Southeast Asia and

Australia (Bingham 1905, Talbot 1947, Grist and

Lever 1969, Eliot 1992). It is the only nocturnal

Rhopaloceran and is commonly found near

fluorescent lights. The species is reported to be

a pest of paddy (Ayyar 1961, Sajjan and Singh

1 972) and has been collected from different parts

of north India (Rose and Sharma 1 998), but there

is hardly any report on the biology of this species.

Sajjan and Singh (1972) only mentioned the

availability of its horned caterpillar on paddy in

September-October, and the life span of the adults

as 18-20 days.

This study was intended to observe the

occurrence of wet and dry season forms and to

examine the possible reasons for their

appearance. The incidence of the dry and wet

season forms in 1998 was recorded.

The adults of Melanitis leda ismene were

collected from the bushes and dry leaves under

the forest trees, close to paddy fields around

Chandigarh, where they hide during the day. A

strip of forestland measuring 1 00 m x 40 m was

selected for the collection of butterflies. Night

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

137

NUMBER

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1: Occurrence of dry and wet season forms

of Melanitis leda ismene (Cramer)

during 1 998 in Chandigarh

collection was made from 10 fluorescent lights

in the same area.

Regular surveys throughout 1998 showed

that the adults appear during the last week of

July in low numbers. During August, the

butterflies were available in low numbers and

about 4 to 7 adults were caught each day. All

the adults caught during July and August were

the wet season forms. The population of the wet

season form started rising during the first week

of September and reached a peak by end

September. No dry season form was seen up to

the end of September. In the beginning of

October, the dry season form began to appear.

To start with, the proportion of dry season form

was low, but by the end of October, it was 12:1.

The overall population reaches a maximum in

October (Fig. 1), although the peak population

of the wet season form was attained in

September.

Clearly, the butterfly is active from July

to October, when paddy is available. The

butterfly appears to undergo diapause from the

last week of November to last week of July. It is

also evident that the butterfly undergoes more

than two active generations, the life cycle being

of 20-22 days.

Dry and wet season forms are seen in many

Rhopalocera (Bingham 1905, Talbot 1947).

These forms show marked differences in wing

markings. Generally, wet season forms have

ocelli on both surfaces of the wings and are

known as ocellated forms. The dry season forms

are devoid of such ocelli.

Melanitis leda ismene wet and dry season

forms (Ph. 1-4) are recorded here. This species

is a pest of paddy, but can also survive on

other grasses. The caterpillars of the first

generation, which feed on paddy leaves, mature

into adults of the wet season form. With the

ripening of the paddy leaves, some of the

caterpillars of the subsequent generations start

feeding on grasses, and mature into the dry

season form. No satisfactory explanation has

been offered for their appearance, and for

their common incidence during certain periods.

It appears that change of host is responsible

for the appearance of dry season forms. This

also explains the occurrence of both forms

during the transition period. In most cases, the

so called wet and dry season forms appear in

the presence or absence of the monsoon, but this

does not explain the morphological changes

fully.

Acknowledgements

I thank the Chairman, Department of

Zoology, Panjab University, Chandigarh for

research facilities and Prof. H.R. Pajni for

constructive criticism.

January 10, 2001 V.K. WALIA

Department of Zoology,

Panjab University,

Chandigarh 160 014,

Punjab, India.

138

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

References

Ayyar, T.V.R. (1963): Handbook of Economic Entomology

for South India. Govt. Press, Madras, pp. 154.

Bingham, C.T. (1905): The Fauna of British India, including

Ceylon and Burma. Butterflies. Francis and Taylor,

London, Vol. 1: 1-511, pis. 1-110.

Eliot, J.N. (1992): The butterflies of the Malay Peninsula

by A. Steven Corbet and H.M. Pendlebury. 4th Edn.

Malay Nat. Soc. viii+595 pp. 69.

Grist, D.H. & R.J.A.W. Lever (1969): Pests of Rice.

Longmans, London, pp. 161-162.

Rose. H.S. & Narender Sharma ( 1 998): Role of genitalia

in the identification of Melanitis species (Lepidoptera:

Satyridae). Uttar Pradesh J. Zoo. 18(2): 81-86.

Sajjan, S.S. & J. Singh (1972): Occurrence of homed

caterpillar of Rice, Melanitis leda ismene (Cramer)

Satyridae: Lepidoptera on paddy in Punjab. Science

and Cult. 38(4): 215-216.

Talbot, G. (1947): Fauna of British India including Ceylon

and Burma, Butterflies Taylor and Francis, London.

Vol. 2. pp. 506.

27. MOLLUSCAN FAUNA AND ITS DISTRIBUTION IN THE WILD ASS SANCTUARY

Very little is known about minor animal

forms, namely plankton, annelids, arthropods,

molluscs, in almost all the Protected Areas in the

country. No work has been conducted on the

molluscan fauna of the Wild Ass Sanctuary (WAS),

hence an attempt was made to study their diversity

in the Sanctuary. From the management point of

view, these animals are considered minor for the

protected area, but they are found in a variety of

habitats, show many adaptations and play a key

role in maintenance of the habitat, which they share

with more conspicuous wildlife, to which the

majority of management practices are addressed

in our country.

The Wild Ass Sanctuary is spread mainly

over the Little Rann of Kutch, Gujarat State. It

is situated between 23° 10' and 23° 45' N, and

between 70° 45' and 71° 45' E. The Little Rann

(4,953.59 sq. km) is a vast saline desert, typically

arid and one of its kind in the world. It

experiences a maximum temperature of 44 °C

and a minimum of 5 °C, and receives 125 to

400 mm of rainfall. Three major rivers from the

east, Banas, Saraswati and Rupen, inundate the

Little Rann, where sea water also enters, and

make a huge wetland. The Little Rann is just

above sea level, and the Wild Ass Sanctuary is

spread over five districts namely Rajkot,

Surendranagar, Mehsana, Banaskantha and

Kutch.

The study was conducted from December 1 ,

1997 to July 15, 1998. The material was collected

in the waterbodies, muddy areas, creeks and a

variety of habitats. The molluscs were narcotised

by magnesium sulphate before preservation in

4% formaline or 70% alcohol. The samples were

labeled and identified in the laboratory using

standard references such as Hornell (1951),

Kundu (1965), Menon et al. (1961) and Tonapi

(1980). The Zoological Survey of India

confirmed the identifications.

12 species (Table 1) representing 12

mollusc families were collected and identified;

out of these 7 species belonged to 7 freshwater

families and 5 to 5 brackish water families.

Acknowledgements

We thank Dr. H. S. Singh, Director,

Gujarat Ecological Education and Research

Foundation (GEER Foundation), Gandhinagar

for financial support, Mr. B.H. Patel (D.C.F.

GEER Foundation), Mr. M.B. Patel (R.F.O.

GEER Foundation) and Mr. S.A. Babi (A.C.F.

Wild Ass Sanctuary, Dhrangadhra) and his staff,

for their kind cooperation and help, and the ZSI

for identifications.

April 28, 1999 V.C. SONI, K.P. BHALODIA,

S.M. DAVE, V.J. BHUVA

Dept, of Biosciences, Saurashtra University,

Rajkot 360 005, Gujarat, India.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

139

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 1

CHECKLIST OF MOLLUSCAN FAUNA AND ITS DISTRIBUTION IN THE WILD ASS SANCTUARY

140

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 1 (contd.)

CHECKLIST OF MOLLUSCAN FAUNA AND ITS DISTRIBUTION IN THE WILD ASS SANCTUARY

S.No. Species/Family Distribution Status

7

8

9

10

11

12

(Nava Enjar), Lakhiar talav (Tikar), Mandraki sim talav,

Mandraki gam talav, Venasar gam talav,

Sukhpar Dam (Sukhpar), Varahi talav (Pung bet),

Ajitgadh gam talav, Patasar talav (Khod), Chikhali gam talav,

Behai talav (Rann-kathe- Kajarada),

Savalasari talav (Near Vavania), Juni Anjiyasar

gam talav. Navi Anjiyasar gam talav, Chovishi talav (Near

Nanda), Bhagasar talav (Nava Ghatila),

Pipli gam talav.

Lamellidens sp.

(Unionidae)

Jadeshar talav (Juna Ghatila).

Cerithidea (Cerithideopsilla) Nimaknagar, Kakindia bet, Nada bet, Bhanguria bet,

cingulata (Potamididae) Bandarvalo (Near Vavania), Shedwa bet, Tundi (near Kuda)

Natica tigrina

(Naticidae)

Thais lacera

(Muricidae)

Anadara antiguata

(Arcidae)

Meretrix sp.

(Veneridae)

Mardak bet.

Nimaknagar, Ikadia bet, Mardak bet, Andheriwan bet,

Koparani Dhasi, Near Kuda.

Mardak bet, Surajbari creek, Nimaknagar.

Nimaknagar, Surajbari creek.

R

C

R

C

Abbreviations: C = Common, R = Rare (but may be common in other areas).

References

Hornell, J. (1951): The study of Indian Molluscs.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 48: 543-569 & 750-774.

Kundu, H.L. (1965): On the Marine Fauna of the

Gulf of Kutch. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 62(1):

86-103.

Menon, P.K.B., A.K. Datta Gupta & D. Das Gupta (1961 ).

On the Marine Fauna of the Gulf of Kutch.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 58(2): 476-494.

Tonapi, G.T. (1980): Freshwater animals of India. Oxford

&IBH Publishing Co. Pp. 341.

28. FIRST RECORD OF BOSMINA TR1PURAE KORINEK ET AL., 1999

(CRUSTACEA: CLADOCERA: BOSMINIDAE) FROM ASSAM

During a routine survey of water bodies of

Assam State Zoo and Botanical Garden,

Guwahati, Assam (26.10° N, 92.49° E) in 1997-

1998, 1 came across several females of Bosmina

tripur ae, a Bosminid cladoceran. The species was

described as new to science from Tamil Nadu in

India (Korinek et al. , 1 999). Based on the several

females collected, a brief description of the

species is given.

1999. Bosmina tripur ae Korinek et al .,

Hydrobiologia, 392: 241.

Female: Body size 0.45-0.64 mm in

length, 0.16-0.24 mm in width. Shape almost

oval. Head and eye large. Head with two frontal

setae near rostrum. Antennules fused with

rostrum, hardly reaching one-third the length of

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141

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

the body. Antennae short, with antennal setation

0-0- 1-3/1 -1-3. Setae long. Posterodorsal corner

of valve angular, posteroventral comer ends in

an obliquely directed shell spine (mucro) and is

about 2.1 mm long. Seta Kurzi lies just above

the commencement of mucro. Anterior ventral

valve has several plumose setae. Postabdomen

short, quadrangular and ends in a long stout claw.

Claw with three groups of spines, proximal pecten

of 5-7 small spines, intermediate pecten of 6-8

stout, strong spines which increase in length

distally, distal pecten of 10-12 spines continuing

distally into minute spinules up to tip of claw.

The above description of Bosmina tripur ae

conforms well with the description of the species

given by Korinek et al ., 1999, except that the

present material is larger in size, and therefore

varies in the number of spines in the claws. Saha

and Bhattacharya (1991) recorded the genus from

Tripura. Later, Korinek et al. (1999) studied the

same material and treated it as a new species.

However, Korinek et al. (loc. cit.) described the

species from another conspecific population from

Tamil Nadu. The species was found to occur in

association with other cladocerans, namely

Daphnia sp., Ceriodaphnia sp., Moina sp. and

Simocephalus sp. The present report of the

species thus extends its distribution.

Acknowledgments

I thank Dr. I.K. Bhattacharjee, Head,

Department of Zoology, Cotton College,

Guwahati, for facilities. I also thank Dr. Q.H.

Baqri, Addnl Director, Desert Regional Station,

Zoological Survey of India, Jodhpur, for facilities

and Dr. T. Bhattacharya, Professor, Dept of

Zoology, Vidyasagar University, West Bengal, for

identifying the specimens.

January 24, 200 1 BIKRAMJIT SINHA

Ecology Laboratory, Department of Zoology,

Cotton College, Guwahati, Assam, India.

Present Address: North Eastern Region

Community Resource Management Society,

Sympli Building, Near Law College,

Dharketi, Shillong 793 001,

Meghalaya, India.

References

Korinek, V., R.K. Saha & T. Bhattacharya (1999): A new member of the subgenus Sinobosmina Leider, 1957: Bosmina

tripurae sp. nov. (Crustacea, Cladocera) from India. Hydrobiologia 392: 241-247

Saha, R.K. & T. Bhattacharya (1991): Dispersion pattern of Cladocera in two shallow ponds. J. Ini. Fish Soc. India

23:27-33.

29. ON THE DAMAGE CAUSED TO THE GREEN MUSSEL

PERNA VIRIDIS BY PINNOTHERID CRAB PINNOTHERES CASTA

ANTONY & KUTTYAMMA, 1971 ALONG THE CALICUT COAST

The occurrence of pea crab Pinnotheres in

oysters, clams, ascidians, holothurians and

brachiopods has been reported from various parts

of the world (Thompson 1835, Tesch 1918,

Chhapgar 1955, Munsueti 1955, Yonge 1960 and

Durve 1960). Silas and Alagarswami (1967)

reviewed the pea-crabs {Pinnotheres spp.) and dealt

with their systematics, ecology, biology and

ethology. They also studied their occurrence and

the effects of their infestation on Meretrix casta

from the southwest coast of India. Antony and

Kuttyamma (1971) described a new species of

Pinnotheres , P. casta from Meretrix casta , which

Silas and Alagarswami (1967) had left unnamed.

Information on the pea crabs of India is rather

meagre, but for the study of Silas and Alagarswami

(1967).

Pea crabs are small, with carapace width

ranging from 10-12 mm. The genus is recognized

by the third pair of walking legs (WL) which are

longer than other pairs, and dactyli of 3rd and 4th

walking legs being larger than the 1st and 2nd

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

walking legs. Pinnotheres casta is distinguished

from other species of the genus by its orbicular

carapace.

Green mussels form an important subsidiary

fishery along the west coast of Malabar, Kerala.

About 5,400 metric tonnes of green mussels are

harvested along the southwest coast annually.

Pinnotherid infestation causes considerable loss to

the mussel-catching fisherman.

Two hundred green mussels were collected

from the mussel beds off West Hill beach,

Kozhikode during January 1 998. The mussels were

opened, and the Pinnotherid crabs removed from

the mantle cavity. The soft parts of the mussels

were weighed to the nearest milligram and the

damage caused by Pinnotheres was noted. The wet

weight, dry weight, fat and protein contents of the

infested and non-infested mussels were analysed

and tabulated (Tables 1 & 2).

The average wet weight of the mussels

infested by the crab was 6.20 g, whereas that of

non-infested crabs was 1 1 . 1 8 g. The average dry

weight of the infested mussel was 1.10 g, but

that of non-infested was 2.77 g indicating a loss

of about 55.45% of wet weight and 39.7% of dry

weight (Table 1). The average protein content of

infested and non-infested mussels was 56% and

64.5% respectively. The fat content was 8.66%

in the non-infested mussels and 5.66% in the

infested mussels. The incidence of infestation was

found to be 11% during January 1998.

Silas and Alagarswami (1967) found that

48% of the clams ( Meretrix casta) examined

from Malpe (southwest coast of India) harbored

the Pinnotherid crab; 83.1% of the infestation

had one crab, 13.1% had two and 3.8% had 3

crabs. In this case, however, 90% of Perna viridis

had only one crab and 10% had two crabs.

Silas and Alagarswami (1967) found that

Pinnotheres were parasitic on Meretrix casta.

Strauber (1942), and Christiansen & McDermitt

(1958) recorded them on the American oyster

Ostrea virginica. Our observation also confirms

the parasitic nature of Pinnotheres , and Perna

Table 1

WET WEIGHT AND DRY WEIGHT

OF GREEN MUSSEL (PERNA VIRIDIS )

INFESTED BY PINNOTHERID CRAB

viridis was found to be a new host for Pinnotheres

casta.

December 3, 1999 R.S. LAL MOHAN

Conservation of Nature Trust,

43-C, Water Tank Rd., Nagercoil 629 001,

GEORGE VARGHESE

Central Institute of Fishe/y Technology,

Kozhikode 673 005, Kerala, India.

ERNESTO CAMPOS

University Auto di Baja California

Apart ado Postal 2300,

Ensenada B.C. 22800, Mexico

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

143

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

References

Antony, A. & V.J. Kuttyamma (1971): A new species of

the pea-crab Pinnotheres Latreille (Crustacea:

Brachyura: Pinnotheridae) from the clam, Meretrix

casta Chemitz. Bull. Dept. Mar. Biol & Oceano. (5):

59-68.

Chhapgar, B.F. (1955): On two new species and a new

variety of crabs (Decapoda : Brachyura) from

Bombay state. Rec. Ind. Mus. 53: 251-260.

Christiansen, A.M. & J.J. McDermitt (1958): Life history

and biology of the oyster crab Pinnotheres ostreum

Say. Biol. Bull. 114: 146-179.

Durve, V.S. (1960): A Study on Oysters. Ph.D. thesis,

University of Bombay.

Mansueti, R. (1955): The oyster’s messmate. Nature Mag.

48(3): 125-127.

Silas, E.G. & K. Alagarswami (1967): On an instance of

paras itization by the pea crab ( Pinnotheres sp.) on

the backwater clam Meretrix casta (Chemnitz) from

India, with a review of the work on the systematics,

ecology, biology and ethology of pea crab of the genus

Pinnotheres Latreille, Symp. Crustacea. Part III:

1161-1227.

Strauber, L.A. (1942): The oyster crab Pinnotheres

ostreum , parasitic on the oyster. Anat. Rec. 84: 45-46.

Thompson, J.V. (1835): Memoirs on the metamorphosis

and natural history of the Pinnotheres or pea crabs.

Entomol. Mag. 3: 85-90.

Tesch, J.J. (1918): The Decapoda Brachyura of the Siboga

Expedition 1 1 . Goneplacidae and Pinnotheridae.

Siboga Exped. Rep. 39cl. 295. 19 pis.

Yonge, C.M. (1960): Oysters. Collin’s, St. James Place,

London, pp. 118.

30. PRELIMINARY STUDIES ON SPIDER DIVERSITY

AND THEIR WEBS IN SELECTED SACRED GROVES IN KERALA

Nature worship has been an ancient Indian

tradition and all forms of life have been

considered as sacred in Hindu scriptures. Certain

landscapes or plants were also considered sacred.

These sacred groves are pockets of climax

vegetation preserved by religious sentiments.

Such pockets are commonly referred to as “Kavu”

in Malayalam, “Devarais” in Marathi,

“Pavithravanam” or “Sindhra vanam” in

Kannada and “Kadu” in Tamil (Induchoodan

1988). It is well known that the sacred trees such

as banyan, peepal and other species of Ficus

support a variety of life forms.

Spiders may be sedentary, social and could

be cannibalistic. They are skilful hunters

(Lococids), jumpers (Attids), excellent architects

and specialized swimmers. All spiders are

carnivorous. They are distributed extensively in

the field, thick forest floors as well as in the

human habitations and deserted buildings, under

stones and logs and the tree trunks. Some of the

spiders like Araneus, Argiope, Leucauge and

G aster acantha are orb web weavers. Members

of Family Pholcidae make irregular webs, while

those of Family Eresidae construct compact nests

with many entrance holes. These nests are most

commonly found in India on Acacia trees and

shrubs. Some of the spiders prepare no webs or

snares to catch their prey. Families Lycosidae,

Gnaphosidae, Clubionidae, Sparassidae,

Salticidae, Oxyopidae and Thomisidae are

hunting or running spiders. The role of spiders

in the biogenesis of different agro-ecosystems has

been studied since 1943 (Kagan 1943, Whitcomb

et al. 1963, Whitcomb and Bell 1964, Neyffler

and Benz 1979, 1980, Doane and Dondale 1979,

Doane et al. 1982). They have an important role

in controlling pests. Crab spiders are of

tremendous economic relevance in tropical

countries as they capture and feed on cockroaches

and domestic insect pests. Heteropoda Venator ia,

the giant crab spider could be effectively used to

control cockroaches and other insect pests

because of its preference for these creatures as

prey.

Iringole Sacred Grove: The Iringole

sacred grove is situated in Perumbavoor,

Ernakulam district, Kerala. It is spread around

about 10 ha and lies between 10° 10' N and 76°

30' E. The grove is more or less at sea level. The

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

forest type is Southern Tropical West Coast

Evergreen (Champion and Seth 1968). It has a

luxuriant growth of trees, shrubs and herbs. The

dominant tree species are Hopea parviflora ,

Hopea ponga, Valeria indica, Holigarna

arnottiana, Polyalthia fragrans , Mesua

nagassarium , Aporusa lindleyana, Casearia

esculenta, Cinnamomum malabathrum, Mallotus

philippensis, Myristica malabarica.

Mookuthala Sacred Grove: Mookuthala

sacred grove ( c . 3 ha) is situated in the

Nannamukku Village of Malapuram district,

Kerala and lies between 10° 49-11° 40' N and

75° 50'-76° 35' E.

The Mookuthala forest sacred grove is a

lowland, Southern Tropical West Coast

Evergreen type (Champion and Seth 1968). The

dominant tree species in this locality is

Poeciloneuron indicum (Butham Kolli). Aglaia

elaegnoidea, Caryota urens and Ervatamia

heyneana are also abundant.

Sangukulangara Sacred Grove:

Sangukulangara sacred grove (c. 3 ha) is situated

in Srinarayanapuram near Kodungallur of

Thrissur district, Kerala between 10° 43' N and

76° 53' E and can be classified as Southern

Tropical West Coast Evergreen (Champion and

Seth 1968). The vegetation mainly consists of

Hopea ponga , Memecylon umbellatum,

Artocarpns hirsutus, Syzygium c ary ophy llatum,

Garcinia gummi-gutta , and Xanthophyllum

flavescens.

The study was conducted in three selected

sacred groves in Kerala from December 1991 to

March 1 998 following quadrate method (Ludwig

and Reynolds 1988). Plots of 10 m x 10 m were

laid randomly in different locations in the grove.

Each grove was surveyed in the morning (0730-

0930 hrs), afternoon (1200-1400 hrs) and

evening (1600-1800 hrs). The spiders were

identified along with the type of web, number of

radials, number of rings, web height from ground

level and the plant species used for anchoring

the web (Table 1).

The spiders collected were preserved and

later identified with the help of a standard key

(Pocock 1900; Subramanyam 1968a, b; Tikader

1976, 1980, 1982; Tikader and Biswas 1981;

Vijayalakshmi and Ahimaz 1993) and an

ordinary hand lens. Quantitative information like

richness, diversity and evenness of distribution

were found using SPDIVERS.BAS in

STATECOL (Ludwig and Reynolds 1988).

Fourteen species of spiders were recorded

(Table 2), all of which are widely distributed in

India. Mookuthala sacred grove had the highest

number of spider species (8) followed by

Sangukulangara (7) and Iringole (6).

Iringole Sacred Groves: A total of 152

spiders were recorded during the study period in

Iringole. Argiope anasuja (35.52%) was the

commonest in the area followed by Araneus

nympha (22.36%), Hippasa agelenoides

(17.10%), Gasteracantha geminata (15.78%),

Cyrtophora moluccensis (8.55%) and Tegenaria

sp. (0.65%).

Mookuthala Sacred Grove: A total of 275

spiders were recorded during the study period in

Mookuthala. Argiope anasuja (36.00%) was

found to dominate in the area followed by

Araneus nympha (20.00%), Hippasa agelenoides

(11.27%), Tegenaria sp. (10.54%),

Gasteracantha geminata (8.72%), Crossopriza

lyoni (8.72%), Lycosa quadrifer (4.36%) and

Poecilotheria rufilata (0.36%).

Sangukulangara Sacred Grove: Out of

the 472 spiders recorded in Sangukulangara, the

highest percentage recorded was of Stegodyphus

sarasinorum (44.06%) followed by Argiope

anasuja (21.9%), Hers ilia savignyi (13.13%),

Table 1

DETAILS OF SAMPLING EFFORT

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145

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 2

SPIDER SPECIES RECORDED

IN THE THREE SACRED GROVES

SGI = lringole, SG2 = Mookuthala, SG3 Sangukulangara,

- = absent

Table 3

RICHNESS INDICES OF SPIDERS IN THREE

DIFFERENT SACRED GROVES

SGI = lringole, SG2 = Mookuthala, SG3 Sangukulangara,

N() = No. of species, R1 = Margalef index, R2 = Menhinck

index

G aster acantha geminata (9.9%), Nephila

maculata (5 .08%), Fecenia travancoria (3.81 %),

and Oxyopes rufisternis (2.33%).

Richness Indices: The richness indices of

the spider community in three different sacred

groves are presented Table 3. The R1 value is

high in Sangukulangara sacred grove (R1 = 1 .97)

followed by the Mookuthala sacred grove (R1 =

1 .24), indicating the richness of the area.

Evenness Indices: To quantify the

evenness component of the diversity, five indices

were used. El, E2 and E3 are considered here

for interpretation because these values are

sensitive to the number of species in the sample.

The evenness was observed to be more in lringole

and less in Mookuthala sacred grove (Table 4).

The E4 and E5 values are unaffected by the

richness (Ludwig and Reynolds 1988).

Table 4

EVENNESS INDICES OF SPIDERS

IN THREE DIFFERENT SACRED GROVES

Indices SGI SG2 SG3

SGI = lringole, SG2 = Mookuthala, SG3 = Sangukulangara,

E 1 -E5 = Evenness indices proposed by various authors (Ludwig

and Reynolds 1988)

Diversity Indices: Simpson’s index (1) are

highest in Sangukulangara, followed by lringole

and Mookuthala. Shannon Wiener index H’ is

the most widely used index in community

ecology. The H’ value increases when all the

species are represented by same numbers of

individuals or in other way with even distribution

of abundance’s. N 1 value is high for Mookuthala

(5.78) and shows an even distribution of

abundance when compared with lringole and

Sangukulangara (Table 5).

Table 5

DIVERSITY INDICES OF SPIDERS

IN THREE DIFFERENT SACRED GROVES

SGI = lringole, SG2 = Mookuthala, SG3 Sangukulangara,

N1 and N2 = Hill’s diversity numbers

146

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Abundance: All the spider species studied

show uniform abundance in all the sacred groves

(Table 6). Stegodyphus sarasinorum, found in

social webs, was found only in the

Sangukulangara sacred grove, hence the high

abundance factor.

The present study on spiders indicates

highest number of species in Mookuthala

followed by Sangukulangara. lringole, the largest

of the sacred groves studied had only six species.

The study does not indicate much variation in

the number of species observed. However, it does

indicate a uniform abundance in all the groves.

The diversity indices do not show much

difference between sacred groves.

Among the recorded species, Argiope

anasuja and Gasteracantha geminata were

common in all the areas. Five species namely

Nephiia maculata, Oxyopes rufisternis , Hersilia

savignyi, Fecenia travancoria and Stegodyphus

sarasinorum were confined only to

Sangukulangara sacred grove. Three species

namely Lycosa quadrifer, Poecilotheria rufilata ,

Crossopriza lyoni were recorded only from

Mookuthala sacred grove and Cyrtophora

moluccensis was observed only in lringole.

Occurrence of various species in sacred

groves seems to be correlated with the vegetation

type and biotic interference. Nephiia maculata ,

the spider with large sized web was recorded only

from the least disturbed, but thick grove in

Sangukulangara. Lycosa quadrifer and

Poecilotheria rufilata are ground dwelling

spiders. Hippasa agelenoides and Tegenaria sp.

are seen mostly on grasses. These four species

were found mostly in Mookuthala followed by

lringole, the groves having grassy ground floor.

The tree dwellers are mostly seen in

Sangukulangara and Mookuthala where most

trees are undisturbed. Further, the presence of

bonnet macaque, which move around a lot in

lringole could have also been one of the reasons

for the absence of large web making species such

as Nephiia maculata .

Table 6

ABUNDANCE OF SPIDER SPECIES

IN THREE SACRED GROVES

Acknowledgements

The first author acknowledges the Division

of Wildlife Biology, A.V.C. College,

Mayiladuthurai and Division of Wildlife Biology,

Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi, Kerala,

for providing various facilities to carry out this

work. Thanks are also due to Dr. P. S. Sabastian,

Department of Zoology, Sacred Heart’s College,

Kochi, for his help in the identification of the

spiders. The suggestions made by Dr. G.

Ramaswamy, Reader, Division of Wildlife

Biology, A.V.C. College, for the improvement

of this paper is also acknowledged.

December 21, 1999 C. SIVAPERUMAN

PS. EASA

Division of Wildlife Biology,

Kerala Forest Research Institute,

Peechi 680 653, Kerala, India.

S. SWETHARANYAM

Division of Wildlife Biology,

A.V.C. College (Autonomous),

Mannampandal 609 305,

Nagai District, Tamil Nadu, India.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

147

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

References

Champion, H.G. & S.K. Seth (1968): A revised survey of

forest types of India. Nasik; Government of India

Press, p. 404.

Doane, D.A., W.L. Sterling & N.V. Horner (1982):

Spiders in eastern Texas Cotton fields. J. Arachnol.

10: 251-260.

Donde, J.F. & C.D. Dondale ( 1 979): Seasonal captures of

spiders in a wheat field and its grassy borders in

central Saskatchewan. Can. Ent. 111(4): 439-446.

Induchoodan, N.C. (1988): Ecological studies of a sacred

grove (Iringole). M.Sc. Thesis. Kerala Agricultural

University. Trichur.

Kagan, M. (1943): The Araneida found on cotton in

Central Texas. Ann. Entomol. Soc. America. 36: 257-

258.

Ludwig, J.A. & J.F. Reynolds (1988): Statistical Ecology.

A premier on methods and computing. Wiley-

Interscience Publication, p. 337.

Neyffler, M. & G. Benz (1979): Studies on the ecological

importance of spider populations for the vegetation

of cereal and rape fields. Z. Ang. Ent. 87: 348-376.

Neyffler, M. & G. Benz (1980): The role of spiders as

insect predators in cereal fields near Zurich

(Switzerland). Proc. VIII Intern. Cong. Arach.

Vienna: 127-131.

Pocock, R.I. (1900): Fauna of British India, Arachnida.

London. Pp. 153-205.

Subramanyam, T.V. (1968a): An Introduction to the study

of Indian spiders (part I). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

65(2): 453-462.

Subramanyam, T.V. (1968b): An Introduction to the study

of Indian spiders (part II). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

65(3): 726-143.

Tikader, B. K. (1976): Key to Indian spiders. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 73: 356-370.

Tikader, B.K. (1980): Fauna of India. Spiders, Vol. I,

Araneae (Thomisidae & Lycosidae). Zoological

Survey of India, Calcutta. 1-245 and 259-445.

Tikader, B.K. (1982): Fauna of India. Spiders Vol. II

Araneae (Araneidae and Gnaphosidae). Zoological

Survey of India, Calcutta. 1-291 and 305-527.

Tikader, B.K. & B. Biswas (1981): Spider fauna of Calcutta

and its vicinity part I. Rec. zoo/. Surv. India. Paper

No. 30: 1-49.

Vijayalakshmi. K. & P. Ahimaz (1993): Spiders an

Introduction. Cre: A. Madras, p. 112.

Whitcomb, W.H. & K. Bell (1964): Predaceous insects,

spiders and mites of Arkansas cotton field. Arkansas

Agri. Exp. Stn. Bull. 690: 84.

Whitcomb, W.H., H. Exline & R.C. Hunter (1963):

Spiders of the Arkansas cotton field. Ann. Entomol.

Soc. America. 56: 653-660.

31. NOTES ON CLEmTIS BOURDILLONII V\jm (FAMILY RANUNCULACEAE)

( With one plate)

Clematis bourdillonii was described in

1914 by S.T. Dunn, on the basis of two collections

554 & 860 of T.F. Bourdillon from Merchiston

Estate, Travancore (presently in Kerala). He

chose the name as a tribute to the memory of

T.F. Bourdillon, who botanised Travancore

during 1872-1908. The species is distinguished

by its larger flowers and prolonged anther

connective from C. gouriana Roxb. and by the

entire leaf margin, without undulations, and

glabrous plants (except flowers) from

C. hedysarifolia DC. This species is endemic to

the southern Western Ghats, and is known only

by the type collections from Merchiston Estate.

In flora of thiruvananthapuram, Mohanan

and Henry ( 1 994) state that “This rare species could

not be collected and is not represented in MH”.

They examined both the specimens (syntypes)

present at University College herbarium,

Thiruvananthapuram, and Bourdillon 860 was

designated as the lectotype. Recently, I located one

of the type specimens of C. bourdillonii Dunn, 554

of T.F. Bourdillon and a photo of Bourdillon 860

in the Madras Herbarium, Coimbatore.

The publication on the rediscovery of

Clematis bourdillonii Dunn from Kodaikanal

Hills by Ramachandran (1998) prompted me to

examine the collection from Mathikettan shola,

9.xii.l994, V.S. Ramachandran 10283 Madras

Herbarium (MH). The specimens from

Mathikettan shola (Ramachandran 10283, MH),

characterised by ternate leaves with long,

148

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Murthy, G.V.S.: Clematis bourdillonii

Plate 1

sc.wms tfvii

Si-sin** S* ^

i^ssss*

Fig. 1: Clematis bourdillonii , Type 554

150

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

A COMPARISON OF CLEM A TIS BOURDILLONII WITH SOME ALLIED SPECIES

cirriform petiolules and 1 -3 maroon flowers with

long pedicels, belong to Clematis munroana

Wight, a well marked species, which has been

misidentified by Ramachandran and described

as a different species. A comparison of these

specimens with the Bourdillon specimen 554 in

MH confirmed that they are not C. bourdillonii.

Similarly, I am sceptical about the identity of the

collection Sobha 6223 (KUBOT) and the report

of chromosome number n = 24 for C. bourdillonii

by Sobha and Ramachandran (1980), since the

specimens are not traceable (pers. comm.).

The description of Clematis bourdillonii

Dunn in Indian floras is not elaborate (Gamble

1915, Rau 1993, Mohanan and Henry 1994).

Further, Rau (1993) described the plants as

glabrous or sparsely hairy, leaflets entire or

sometimes coarsely toothed (perhaps from key to

species from Gamble 1 .c.), whereas the protologue

says that the plants are glabrous (except flowers)

and leaflets 6-9 cm, entire (Dunn 1914).

In view of the above findings, a detailed

description of C. bourdillonii Dunn with a figure

and comparative account with allied species is

provided.

Clematis bourdillonii Dunn, Bull. Misc.

Inform.: 181, 1914; in Gamble, FI. Pres. Madras

1 : 3. 1915; Rau in FI. India 1: 59. 1993; Mohanan

& Henry, FI. Thiruvananthapuram: 40. 1994.

(Plate 1, Fig. 1).

Handsome climber, branches furrowed,

glabrous (except flowers), glossy, dark purplish.

Leaves opposite, pinnate (1-2 ternate by Dunn),

leaflets 5, oblong or elliptical, 6-9 x 1.6-2. 5 cm,

tip and base acute, entire and plain, nerves 3-5,

raised on both sides, reticulate in full length;

petiole 4. 5-5. 5 cm, stipular marks absent;

petiolules 1-2 cm. inflorescence axillary or

terminal, cymosely flowered panicle (13-

flowered); peduncle 6-7 cm, glabrous. Flower

buds 7-10 mm long, oblong-elliptic; flowers

c. 2 cm across; pedicels 1.5- 1.7 cm. Sepals 4,

greenish, oblong, 10-12 x 2-3 mm, ultimately

reflexed, glabrous inside, villous outside, margins

tomentose. Stamens c. 20, 6 mm long, equal to

styles or slightly longer; filaments glabrous, flat,

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151

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

2-3x1 mm, connective produced beyond anther

lobes, 1-1.5 mm long; anthers 2-3 mm, Carpels

7-10, hairy, styles hairy, Achenes not seen.

FI.: April-May.

Ecology: Medium elevations, 753.5 m.,

secondary forests.

Distribution: india: Endemic to southern

Western Ghats in Kerala.

Specimens examined: Travancore,

Merchiston Estate, 7.iv.l895, T.F. Bourdillon 554

(MH) (Bourdillon identified as C. hedysarifolia

DC., Dunn (1914) annotated as C. meyeriana

Walp. Cult. ?); T.F. Bourdillon 860 (MH, photo)

(Bourdillon identified as C. hedysarifolia DC.,

Dunn (1914) annotated as C. bourdillonii)',

Merchiston Estate, 9.iv. 1 895, T.F. Bourdillon 554

Dunn, S.T.(1914): Clematis bourdillonii Dunn

(Ranunculaceae). Bull. Misc. Inform., Kew,pp. 181.

Gamble, J.S. (1915): Ranunculaceae. FI. Pres. Madras N 61.

1:3.

Mohanan, M. & A.N. Henry (1994): Flora of

Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala. Botanical Survey of

India, Calcutta.

(K) (identified as C. gouriana Roxb., Dunn

annotated as C. bourdillonii Kew Bull. 181,

1914).

Acknowledgements

I thank Dr. P. Daniel, Deputy Director,

Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore for facilities

and Dr. M. Sanjappa, CNH, Koikata for sending

information from Kew, England. I also thank DD,

BSI for loaning herbarium specimens.

June 5, 2000 G.V.S. MURTHY

Botanical Survey of India,

Southern Circle, Coimbatore 641 003,

Tamil Nadu, India

NCES

Ramachandran, V.S. ( 1 988): Rediscovery of two endemic

taxa from southern India with notes on their

distribution. Rheedea 8: 83-86.

Rau, M.A. (1993): Ranunculaceae. In: Flora of India, 1:

59. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta.

Sobha, V. & K. Ramachandran (1980): Chromosome

numbers, Clematis bourdillonii. Taxon 29: 165.

32. PRESENCE OF COMMIPHORA GILEADENSE , FAMILY BURSERACEAE,

IN RAJASTHAN

( With one text-figure)

On October 15, 1999, while I was on a

biodiversity survey in and around the Sitamata

Wildlife Sanctuary, at the border of Udaipur and

Chittorgarh districts in southern Rajasthan, I

noticed many plants of Commiphora gileadense

near Kedaria Village (Udaipur district) growing

naturally. This area falls under the jurisdiction of

Aravalli Afforestation Project Range Bhinder of

Udaipur (North) Forest Division. Local farmers

told me that this species was present in the forest

area and beeds (patches of private forests) of

surrounding villages also. C. gileadense is a bushy

plant, having trifoliate leaves on slender petioles.

Lateral leaflets are of small size, while terminal

leaflets are generally large in most of the observed

plants. The leaves of C. wightii , which is a rather

common species in Rajasthan, do not have slender

petioles (Fig. 1).

According to Brandis (1972) and Talbot

(1976), C. gileadense is an indigenous species

confined to the east side of the Nilgiris and dry

parts of Sri Lanka. It is also cultivated as a hedge

plant all over South India. It is reported from

Poona and Khandesh area of Maharashtra

(Almeida 1996).

This species is not included in the various

Floras of Rajasthan (Bhandari 1990, Sharma and

Tiagi 1979, Shetty and Pandey 1983, Shetty and

152

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

C. gileadense

Singh 1987, 1991, 1993 and Singh 1983), hence

this sighting is of special interest.

Acknowledgements

I thank R.G. Soni, Addl. PCCF and CCF

(WL), Rajasthan, for the opportunity to study

the biodiversity of protected areas of southern

Rajasthan and Magni Ram Kumawat, RFO,

Bhinder Range and his staff for help in the field.

May 23, 2000 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA

Range Forest Officer,

Phulwari Wildlife Sanctuary,

Kotra 307 025, District Udaipur,

Rajasthan, India.

References

Almeida, M.R. (1996): Flora of Maharashtra. Vol. 1 Blatter

Herbarium, St. Xavier’s College, Mumbai, pp. 1-

294.

andis, D. (1972): The Forest Flora of northwest and

Central India (Repr.). Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal

Singh, Dehra Dun. pp. 1-608.

Bhandari, M.M. (1990): Flora of the Indian Desert. MPS

Pepros, Jodhpur, pp. 1-435.

Sharma. S. & B. Tiagi (1979): Flora of northeast Rajasthan.

Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi & Ludhiana, pp. 1-

540.

Shetty, B.V & R.P. Pandey (1983): Flora ofTonk District.

Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, pp. 1-253.

Shetty, B.V & V. Singh (1987): Flora of Rajasthan Vol. 1.

Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, pp. 1-452.

Shetty, B.V.& V. Singh(1991): Flora of Rajasthan Vol. II.

Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, pp. 453-860.

Shetty, B.V. & V. Singh (1993): Flora of Rajasthan Vol.

III. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, pp. 86 1 -

1246.

Singh, V. (1983): Flora of Banswara, Rajasthan. Botanical

Survey of India, Calcutta, pp. 1-312

Talbot, W.A. (1976): Forest Flora of the Bombay

Presidency and Sind. Vol. 1 (Repr.). Today and

Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New Delhi 5.

pp. 1-508.

33. VENTILAGO BOMBA1ENS1S DALZ., RHAMNACEAE

— A NEW DISTRIBUTIONAL RECORD FOR TAMIL NADU

( With one text figure)

In the course of floristic exploration of

Tirunelveli hills of Southern Western Ghats, the

authors collected an interesting specimen of the

genus Ventilago Gaertn. (Rhamnaceae). Critical

analysis and perusal of literature confirmed it as

Ventilago bombaiensis Dalz. (Fig. 1.). It is rare

(Ramachandran and Nair 1988; Keshavamurthy

and Yoganarasimhan 1990; Vajravelu 1990) and

endemic (Ahmedullah and Nayar 1986;

Sasidharan and Sivarajan 1996; Nayar 1996) and

has so far been recorded in the Western Ghats of

Karnataka, Kerala and Maharashtra states. The

occurrence of this species in Tirunelveli hills,

Tamil Nadu with the evidence from flora of

Tamil nadu, vol. 1 (Nair and Henry 1983) and

the present communication, therefore, forms a

new distributional record for Tamil Nadu. A short

description of this species is given with an

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

153

1 cm

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1: Ventilago bombaiensis Dalz.,

A. Twig, B. Inflorescence, C. Flower, D. Bract, E. Sepal (outer & inner),

F. Petal (inner & outer), G. Stamen, H. L.S. of Pistil, I. T.S. of ovary

154

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

illustration, to facilitate field identity. The

voucher specimens have been deposited in the

St. Xavier’s College Herbarium (XCH).

Ventilago bombaiensis Dalz. in Hook, Kew

Joum. Bot. Gard. Misc. 3:36. 1851; Cooke, FI.

Pres. Bombay 1:239. 1902(1:218. 1958 rep. ed);

M. Lawson in Hook, f., FI. Brit. India 1:631.

(rep. ed); Gamble, FI. Pres. Madras 1:218. 1997

(rep. ed); Ramachandran and V.J. Nair, FI.

Cannanore 99. 1988; Ahmedullah & Nayar,

Endem. PI. Indian Region 1:181. 1986; Smythea

bombaiensis (Dalz.) Baner. & Muker. Indian For.

96:206. 1970; Ziziphus bombaiensis (Dalz.)

Bedd., Ic. t. 114, 1871.

Flowering: April - July.

Specimens examined: India, Tamil Nadu,

Tirunelveli district, Kudamadi, 27. iv. 1998,

Manickam, 15592 (XCH); Kallimalai,

2.vii..l999, Manickam, 19945 (XCH).

Field Notes: It occurs rarely along exposed,

moist deciduous forest at 700 m (Kudamadi) and

850 m (Kallimalai) altitudes. Easily recognized

in the field by the crenate-dentate margin of the

leaves, and flowers in axillary fascicles.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to UGC for financial

assistance and the Field Director, Project Tiger,

KMTR for allowing us to undertake the field

studies. Our sincere thanks to Dr. R. Gopalan

and Dr. V. Chelladurai for their commendable

suggestions and critical evaluation of the

manuscript.

November 15, 1999 V.S. MANICKAM

C. MURUGAN

V. SUNDARESAN

G. JEYA JOTHI

Centre for Biodiversity and Biotechnology,

Department of Botany,

St. Xavier’s College,

Palayamkottai 627 002,

Tamil Nadu, India.

Reference

Nayar, M.P. (1996): Hot spots of Endemic Plants of India, Nepal and Bhutan. 212.

34. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF POGOSTEMON TRAVANCORICUS ,

FAMILY LABIATAE AND ARGYREIA CHOISYANA ,

FAMILY CONVOLVULACEAE IN TAMIL NADU

During a botanical exploration in the

Tirunelveli hills, Tamil Nadu, we came across

two plant species that had not been collected by

earlier workers. They are not included in the

flora of Tamil nadu, India. Ser. I: Analysis.

Pogostemon travancoricus Bedd. Hooker,

FI. Brit. India 3: 637. 1885, Gamble, FI. Pres.

Madras 1135. 1921. (Labiatae).

FI. & Fr.: April-June.

Alt.: 1,400 m.

Specimen examined: Agastyamalai,

Tirunelveli district, Tamil Nadu. Manickam,

19075 (XCH).

Note: This species may be endemic to the

southern Western Ghats. Though it is reported

from Western Ghats, Henry et al. (1987) do not

include it in the flora of Tamil nadu, India. Ser.

I: Analysis. Therefore, it is an addition to the

flora of Tamil Nadu.

Argyreia choisyana Wt. Hooker, FI. Brit.

India 4: 190. 1885; Gamble, FI. Pres, Madras

908. 1921 (Convolvulaceae).

FI. & Fr.: December-February.

Alt.: 400-600 m.

Specimen examined: Kalakad-

Sengaltheri, Tirunelveli district, Tamil Nadu,

Manickam 11732 (XCH).

Note: Gamble reported its occurrence

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

155

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

based on Wight’s collection from Kondaparthi

and Beddome’s collection from Cuddapah. The

present collection is the first report from the State.

Acknowledgements

We sincerely thank the UGC for financial

assistance, the Chief Wildlife Warden and Field

Director for permission to do the field work,

Dr. R. Gopalan, Systematic Botanist, Botanical

Survey of India, Southern Circle, Coimbatore and

Dr. V. Chelladurai, Research Officer, Siddha

Medical College for identification and critical

comments on this paper.

April 22, 2000 V.S. MANICKAM

V. SUNDARESAN

C. MURUGAN

G.J. JOTHI

Centre for Biodiversity and Biotechnology,

Department of Botany,

St. Xavier’s College

Palayamkottai 627 002,

Tamil Nadu, India.

Reference

Henry, A.N., G.R. Kumari & V. Chithra (1987): Flora of Tamil Nadu, India. I: Analysis. Vol. 2. BSI, Coimbatore.

35. OCCURRENCE OF HABENARIA LONG ICORNICU LATA GRAH.

FAMILY ORCHIDACEAE IN MOUNT ABU WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, RAJASTHAN

On September 15, 1999, I was leading a

group of trainees of nature guide service in the

Mount Abu Wildlife Sanctuary, Rajasthan. While

moving on the Kodra Trail, I observed a single

plant of Habenaria longicorniculata under

bushes of Lantana camara. The plant was

growing in a crevice of a smal 1 rock. It was nearly

80 cm long, having 6 subradical alternate, elliptic

leaves. Its long scape bore three developing fruits

at the apex. Dried petals were still present on

the tips of the developing fruit. Each fruit had a

long spur ( c . 10-12 cm) still intact. The proximal

part of the spur was narrow and semi-dried, while

the distal part was club-shaped and green.

According to Mehta (1979), two species

of genus Habenaria, namely H. digitata and

H. marginata are found in the Mount Abu area.

H. longicorniculata has not been reported earlier

from any part of Rajasthan (Shetty and Singh

1987, 1991, 1993). This is the first report of its

occurrence in Mount Abu as well as from

Rajasthan State, hence it is worth recording.

I thank R.G. Soni, Adi. PCCF and CWLW,

U.M. Sahai, CF, M. K. Vijaivergia, Dy. CWLW,

Fateh Singh Rathor, Range Forest Officer (WL)

for facilities to conduct the biodiversity studies

in Mount Abu Wildlife Sanctuary.

June 5, 2000 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA

Range Forest Officer,

Phulwari Wildlife Sanctuary \

Kotra 307 025, District Udaipur,

Rajasthan, India.

References

Mehta, M.R. (1979): Flora of Mount Abu. Ph.D. Thesis. Shetty, B.V.& V. Singh(1991): Flora of Rajasthan Vol. II.

University of Jodhpur, Jodhpur, Rajasthan. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta. Pp. 453-860.

Shetty, B.V. &V. Singh (1987): Flora of Rajasthan Vol I. Shetty, B.V. & V. Singh (1993): Flora of Rajasthan Vol.

Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta. Pp. 1-452. III. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta. Pp. 861-1246.

156

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

36. DOUM PALM AT BHANGARH, RAJASTHAN?

After reading the short note titled “Doum

Palms at Bhamgarh in interior Rajasthan”

(. JBNHS , 1994, 91(3): 476) (author has given the

name of place Bhamgarh, actually its

pronunciation is Bhangarh in the area), I

contacted the Field Director, Tiger Project,

Sariska and Range Forest Officer, Tehala to

confirm the presence of doum palms (Hyphaene

dichotoma) at Bhangarh, a locality in their

jurisdiction. With the assistance provided by the

local authorities, I scrutinized the whole

Bhangarh stream thoroughly and reached the

conclusion that Pandanus fascicular is (Family

Pandanaceae) was misidentified as doum palm.

Pandanus fascicularis is locally called ‘ Kevda

Indeed, it is an old sacred grove of Kevda , having

plants of different heights and ages. A large

number of old plants have taken the shape of

small trees and have dichotomous branching

also. However, branching is not truly

dichotomous in many plants. A good number of

plants are more like shrubs. Plants attain erect

tree posture and also develop profuse aerial stilt

roots P. fascicularis, though a garden plant, often

runs wild along streams in moist and marshy

habitats in many places in Rajasthan like

Bhangarh (Alwar), Kevda-Ki-Nal, Bari Talab,

Thur (Udaipur), etc.

The author is grateful to Mr. Tejveer Singh,

Field Director, Project Tiger, Sariska; Mr. Suresh

Sharma and Mr. Satish Sharma of Tehala Range

for assistance.

November 2, 1999 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA

Range Forest Officer,

Phulwari Wildlife Sanctuary,

Kotra 307 025, District Udaipur,

Rajasthan, India.

37. TYPHON1UM FLAGELLIFORME (ROXB. EX LUDD.) BLUME,

FAMILY ARACEAE: AN ADDITION TO THE FLORA OF ORISSA

The genus Typhonium Schott., Family

Araceae, has 30 species occurring in Southeast

Asia, Indo-Malaysia and Northeastern Australia

(Mabberley 1997). In India, the genus is

represented by 16 species (Santapau and Henry

1973), which are mostly distributed in the states

of West Bengal, Orissa, Bihar, Tamil Nadu, Kerala,

Maharashtra, Himachal Pradesh and the western

Peninsula. During field collection of Typhonium

trilobatum, to study its medicinal properties, we

came across another species of Typhonium , which

closely resembles trilobatum , but differs from it in

a number of morphological characters. On critical

examination, its identity was ascertained as

Typhonium flagelliforme. Interestingly, this species

has not been reported so far from Orissa (Saxena

and Brahmam 1995) and this is a new

distributional record for the state.

Typhonium trilobatum and T. flagelliforme

can be distinguished from each other by the

following consistent morphological characters:

1 . Limb of spathe narrowly lanceolate, acuminate,

not expanded. Neuters above the females short

and stout. Appendage longer than limb of spathe

T. flagelliforme

— Limb of spathe open, broadly ovate. Neuters

above the females long, filiform, curved.

Appendage not longer than limb of spathe ....

T. trilobatum

Correct nomenclature, botanical

description, notes on habitat, phenology, and

distribution of the newly recorded species are

given below.

Typhonium flagelliforme (Roxb. ex

Lodd.) Blume, Rumphia 1: 134. 1835; Gamble,

FI. Presid. Madras 3: 1100. 1935. Arum

flagelliforme Roxb. [Hort. Beng. 65. 1814, nom.

Nud.] ex Lodd. Bot. Cab. 396. 1819. Typhonium

cuspidatum (Blume) Decne Herb. Timor in Ann.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

157

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Hist. Nat. 3: 39. 1834; Hook, f., FI. Brit. India 6:

511. 1893; Prain, Bengal PI. 2: 1107. 1903.

(Araceae).

Tuberous, erect, stemless herbs; tuber up

to 2 cm diameter, sub-globose. Leaves radical,

up to 8.0-15.0 x 2. 0-6.0 cm, of variable width,

ovate-oblong or lanceolate, acute or acuminate,

cordate at base, hastate ly 3-lobed or tripartite,

rarely entire, long petioled, reticulately veined,

green above, glaucous beneath. Petiole 10.0-15.0

cm long, base sheathing. Spathe up to 20 cm

long (including the tail), lurid red, papillose

within; limb of spathe with short lanceolate base

produced into a very long, slender tail. Peduncle

slender, up to 15 cm long. Spadix shortly

stipitate, appendage produced into a long filiform

tail, a little longer than spathe. Male

inflorescence up to 6 mm long, cylindric; yellow.

Female inflorescence sub-globose. Neuters above

female inflorescence few, clavate or obovoid with

purple tip, those above the male subulate, white.

Anthers minute, yellow. Ovary clavate green.

Berries ovoid, 1-2 seeded; seeds globose,

albuminous.

Not common; in shady moist localities and

grassy waste places.

FI. & Fr.: July-September.

Distribution: India, Bangladesh,

Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam,

Malaysia and Indonesia.

Specimens examined: Jashapada, Cuttack

district, Orissa, 1 7.vii. 1 999, P.C. Panda 6675;

Bhubaneswar, Khurda district, Orissa,

17.vii.1999, S.C. Jena, 6671.

Illustration: Wight, Icon. t. 791. 1844.

Typhonium flagelliforme can be

distinguished from its closely allied species

Typhonium trilobatum in the field by its short

height, smaller and shallowly lobed leaves, small

and smooth tubers with a brownish-black skin

and nature of the inflorescence. Both occur in

similar habitat, but the former prefers relatively

open places and soil having less organic

materials.

June 5, 2000 P. C. PANDA

Taxonomy & Conservation Division

Regional Plant Resource Centre,

Bhubaneswar 751 015, Orissa,

India.

References

Mabberley, D.J. (1997): The Plant Book, 2nd Edn, Delhi.

Cambridge University Press, U.K. Saxena, H.O. & M. Brahmam ( 1 995): Flora of Orissa, Vol.

Santapau, H. & A.N. Henry (1973): Dictionary of 4, Regional Research Laboratory and Orissa Forest

flowering plants and ferns of India, CSM, New Development Corporation, Bhubaneswar.

38. OBSERVATIONS ON THE GENUS RADIOCOCCUS ,

FAMILY CHLOROPHYCEAE, A NEW RECORD FOR INDIA

( With one text-figure)

Schmidle (1902) established the genus

Radiococcus , a chlorococcalean. This genus is

widely reported from Belgium, Germany, England

(Schmidle 1902) and U.S.A. (Smith 1950).

According to Philipose (1967), three species of

Radiococcus are known to occur, which are not

yet reported from India. Although Singh et al.

(1953) have reported an alga from Allahabad,

which they have identified as Radiococcus

nimbatus, the description does not tally with that

of Schmidle for this alga. The present paper

describes Radiococcus nimbatus , which could be

the first authentic report from India.

The alga was collected from Ramgarh

Lake, Jaipur while surveying the freshwater algae

of Rajasthan in September. It was found growing

in slow running water in a shallow ditch with

other chlorococcalean and blue-green algae. The

158

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1: Radiococcus nimbatus, a. Coenobia surrounded by mucilaginous sheath with fibrillar structures,

b. Formation of autospores in a coenobium.

temperature of the water was 27 °C and pH 8.0.

It was reared into a unialgal culture using

standard microbiological technique and

maintained in Bold’s Basal Medium (Bischoff

and Bold 1960) and Biphasic Medium

(Pringsheim 1946).

The alga was a coenobium of four cells

and was surrounded by a wide envelope of

mucilage with radiate fibrillar structures (Fig.

la). Cells in the coenobium were usually

arranged in a tetrahedral or opposite, decussate

manner and grouped in fours (Fig. la), but

occasionally one-celled, two-celled and eight-

celled stages were also observed. The four-celled

coenobia measured 14-23.5 pm; the individual

cells measured 7.8-14.0 pm. The cells were

spherical, but sometimes turned oval due to

mutual pressure. Each cell possessed a single

parietal chloroplast with a pyrenoid, which was

normally positioned towards the periphery.

Reproduction was performed by autospore

formation (Fig. lb) and each cell of the colony

was capable of forming daughter coenobia. The

autocolonies were liberated by tearing through

the parent cell wall.

Schmidle (1902) and Smith segregated

Radiococcus from Westella based upon the

characters pertaining to the gelatinous matrix and

arrangement of cells in a coenobium. Different

species of the genus have been characterized by

their cell and colony size and contents. Singh et

al. (1983) reported Radiococcus nimbatus from

Allahabad, India. According to them, the cells were

3-8 pm in diameter. The Camera Lucida drawing

showed a smooth mucilaginous envelope without

fibrillate radiation. Schmidle (1902) compared the

measurements and cell structure of Radiococcus

nimbatus and R. wildemanni. He mentioned that

cells of R. wildemanni measured 3-5 pm, while

that ofR. nimbatus measured 8-1 5 pm. The present

alga, in all its features, resembles the type species

described by Schmidle (1902). Therefore, it is the

first record of the genus Radiococcus from India.

June 5, 2000 PAWAN K. DADHEECH

P.G. Department of Botany

Government College,

Ajmer 305 001, Rajasthan, India.

PUSH PA SR1VASTAVA

Department of Botany,

University of Rajasthan,

Jaipur 302 004, Rajasthan, India.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

159

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Refer

Bischoff, H.W. & H.C. Bold (1960): Some soil algae from

Enchanted Rock and related algal species. In:

Phycological Studies 4. The University of Texas,

Publn No. 6318, Illus. Austin, Texas.

Pringsheim, E.G. (1946): Pure culture of algae. Their

preparation and maintenance. University Press,

Cambridge.

Philipose, M.T. (1967): Chlorococcales, ICAR. New Delhi.

N C E S

Schmidle, V.W. (1902): Uber die Gattung Radiococcus

Schmidle n. gen. Allg. Bot. Zeistchr. 8: 41-42.

Singh, S.P., G.L. Tiwari & D.C. Pandey (1983): Genus

Radiococcus (Chloroccocales) from India. Curr.

Sci. 52: 1195.

Smith, G.M. (1950): Freshwater algae of United

States. McGraw-Hill Publishers, London and New

York.

CORRIGENDUM

JBNHS , Vol.98(3), p. 440, column 2, line 13

for: While sliding down a slope, its head got sandwiched between two or more tree trunks from

which it could not recover itself (Jain and Saandeep 2001).

Read: While sliding down a slope, its head got sandwiched between two or more tree trunks from

which it could not recover itself. There were similar cases of strangulation records from Karnataka

(Jain and Saandeep 2001).

160

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002

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Registered with the Registrar of Newspapers under RN 5685/

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION LIBRARIES

3 9088

12051413

CONTENTS

EDITORIAL 1

THE HONEY BEES OF INDIA, HYMENOPTERA: APIDAE

( With one text-figure)

By Michael S. Engel 3

STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF TWO BIRD COMMUNITIES IN THE

SOUTHERN WESTERN GHATS

( With five text-figures)

By E.A. Jayson and D.N. Mathew 8

INDIVIDUAL VARIATION AND SEXUAL DIMORPHISM IN THAMNOECHA

UNIFORMIS (BUTLER 1875),LEPIDOPTERA: SPHINGIDAE

By Peter Smetacek 26

PETA JJR1STA NOBIL1S SINGHEI — FIRST RECORD IN INDIA AND A NOTE ON

ITS TAXONOMY

( With one text-figure)

By Anwaruddin Choudhury 30

THE INITIAL COLONISATION OF THE YAMUNA FLOOD PLAIN BY THE SIND

SPARROW PASSER PYRRHONOTUS

(With two text-figures and one plate)

By Bill Harvey and Suresh C. Sharma 35

EDIBLE OYSTERS OF THE GENUS CRASSOSTREA SACCO 1897, ALONG THE

RATNAGIRI COAST, MAHARASHTRA, INDIA

By M.S. Sawant and A.M. Ranade 44

FRESHWATER FISHES OF SOUTHERN KERALA WITH NOTES ON THE

DISTRIBUTION OF ENDEMIC AND ENDANGERED SPECIES

By K. Raju Thomas, M. John George and C.R. Biju 47

CHARACTERISTICS AND SIGNIFICANCE OF SONG IN FEMALE ORIENTAL

MAGPIE-ROBIN, COPSYCHUSSAU LARIS

(With one text-figure)

By Anil Kumar and Dinesh Bhatt 54

PSYCHOPHILY AND EVOLUTIONARY CONSIDERATIONS OF CADABA

FRUTICOSA L. (CAPPARACEAE)

By J.S.R. Aluri and S.P. Rao 59

A DICHOTOMOUS KEY FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION OF THE ORDERS OF

INDIAN DIPLOPODA

(With ten text-figures)

By Kubra Bano 64

NEW DESCRIPTIONS 72

REVIEWS 100

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

103

Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Mumbai 400 103 and

published by J.C. Daniel for Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House,

Dr. Salim Ali Chowk, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023.

website: www.bnhs.org; email: [email protected]

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATUBAL HISTORY SOCIETY

AUGUST 2002

Vol. 99 (2)

INSTRUCTIONS TO CONTRIBUTORS

1. Papers which have been published or have been offered for publication elsewhere

should not be submitted.

2. Papers should be submitted in duplicate, typed double space. Preferably an additional

copy should be submitted on a floppy diskette (3.5") using MS Word.

3. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where identification has been

authentically established by comparison of specimens actually collected.

4. Photographs for reproduction must be clear, with good contrast. Prints should be at

least 9 x 12 cm and on glossy glazed paper. Text-figures, line drawings and maps

should be in Indian ink, preferably on tracing paper.

5. References to literature should be placed at the end of the paper, alphabetically arranged

under author’s name, with the abridged titles of journals or periodicals in italics and

titles of books or papers in roman type, thus:

Aluri, Raju J.S. & C. Subha Reddi (4995): Ecology of the pollination in two cat-mint

species. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92(1): 63-66.

Prater, S.H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay Natural History Society,

Mumbai, pp. 35-48.

6. Each paper should be accompanied by an abstract, normally not exceeding 200 words,

and 6-8 key words. Key words should include the scientific names of important species

discussed.

7. 25 reprints will be supplied free of cost to authors of main articles and new descriptions.

Authors of miscellaneous notes, will be sent a free copy of the Journal.

8. The editors reserve the right, other things being equal, to publish a member’s contribution

earlier than a non-member’s.

9. For the standardised common and scientific names of the birds of the Indian subcontinent

refer to Buceros Vol. 6, No. 1 (2001).

Hornbill House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Mumbai 400 023.

Editors,

Journal of the Bombay

Natural History Society

VOLUME 99 (2): AUGUST 2002

CONTENTS

EDITORIAL

MONITORING THE INCUBATION BEHAVIOUR OF THE HOUBARA CHLA MYDOTIS

UNDULATA WITH A TEMPERATURE LOGGER DUMMY EGG

( With two text-figures and one plate)

By Qiao Jianfang, Yao Jun and Combreau Olivier

PHENOTYPIC AND BEHAVIOURAL CHARACTERISTICS USED TO IDENTIFY

WILD BUFFALO BUBALUS BUBALIS FROM FERAL BACKCROSSES IN NEPAL

( With two text-figures)

By Joel T. Heinen

DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS, RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF

MAMMALS IN INDIRA GANDHI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, TAMIL NADU,

INDIA

( With six text-figures)

By M. Ananda Kumar, Mewa Singh, Sanjay K. Srivastava, A. Udhayan, H.N. Kumara

and A.K. Sharma

DERMAPTERA IN THE COLLECTION OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY, MUMBAI

By N. Chaturvedi and G.K. Srivastava

CHARACTERIZATION OF THE GENETIC STATUS OF POPULATIONS OF RED

JUNGLEFOWL

( With one text-figure)

By I. Lehr Brisbin Jr., A. Townsend Peterson, Ronald Okimoto and George Amato.....

THE GENUS PONT1A FABRICIUS (LEPIDOPTERA: PIERIDAE) IN THE KUMAON

HIMALAYA

( With one text-figure)

By Peter Smetacek

A COLLECTION OF FRULLANIA FROM NILGIRi WITH F. DENSILOBA ST. AS A

NEW RECORD FOR INDIA

( With two text-figures)

By S.C. Srivastava and Afroz Alam

DEBARKING OF TEAK TECTONA GRAND IS LINN. F. BY GAUR BOS GAURUS

H. SMITH DURING SUMMER IN A TROPICAL DRY DECIDUOUS HABITAT

OF CENTRAL INDIA

By M.K.S. Pasha, G. Areendran, K. Sankar and Qamar Qureshi

HABITAT PREFERENCE AND ENVIRONMENTAL RELATIONS OF HYDROBIA SP.,

MOLLUSCA: GASTROPODA, IN THE INTERTIDAL SUBSOIL OF A TROPICAL

MANGROVE REGION

( With one text-figure)

By R. Sunil Kumar

BARBULE STRUCTURE OF BIRD FEATHERS

( With five plates)

By A. Rajaram

161

165

173

184

211

217

224

232

238

245

250

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

MELA N OCHA E T OMYJA , A NEW GENUS OF CHLOROPIDAE (DIPTERA) FROM THE

ORIENTAL REGION

( With five text-figures)

By P.T.Cherian 258

TWO NEW SPECIES OF GENUS COLLOTHECA HARRING 1913 (ROTIFERA:

MONOGONONTA) FROM FRESHWATERS OF TRIPURA, INDIA

( With two text-figures)

By S. Banik 262

A NEW CYPRINID FISH SPECIES OF BARILIUf HAMILTON FROM THE

CHATRICKONG RIVER, MANIPUR, INDIA

( With one text figure)

By Keishing Selim and Waikhom Vishwanath M 267

A NEW SPECIES OF EXACUM L., GENTIANACEAE, FROM AGASTHIYAMALAI

(POTHIGAI), SOUTHERN WESTERN GHATS, INDIA

( With one text-figure)

By R. Gopalan 271

THREE NEW SPECIES FROM THE SPIDER FAMILIES AMAUROBIIDAE,

THOM1SIDAE AND SALTICIDAE (ARANEAE: ARACHNIDA) FROM INDIA

( With twenty-eight text-figures)

By D.B. Bastawade ... 274

REVIEWS

1 . WATERBIRDS OF NORTHERN INDIA

Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani 282

2. ETHNOBOTANY OF THE PRIMITIVE TRIBES IN RAJASTHAN

Reviewed by M.R. Almeida 283

3. PARASITIC HYMENOPTERA AND BIOLOGICAL CONTROL

Reviewed by Gayatri Ugra 284

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

MAMMALS

1. On some large-sized red pandas Ailunis

fulgens F. Cuvier

By Anwaruddin Choudhury 285

2. Hunting attempt by Nilgiri marten Martes

gwatkinsi Horsfield, Family Mustelidae, in

Periyar Tiger Reserve, Kerala

By Joji John and Madhukumar 286

3. Possible occurrence of Tibet red deer Ceixiis

elciphus wallichi in Arunachal Pradesh

By Anwaruddin Choudhury 286

4. Himalayan marmot Mannota bobcik (Muller)

resighted after eight years at Kyongnosla

Alpine Sanctuary, East Sikkim

By Usha Ganguli-Lachungpa and

Bishnu Lai Sharma 288

5. Two whale records from Tamil Nadu,

Southern India

By Kumaran Sathasivam 289

6. A comment on the review of “Primates of

Northeast India” published in JBNHS

Vol. 97(3)

By Anwaruddin Choudhury 290

7. “Primates of Northeast India” published in

JBNHS 97(3) — A comment

By Arun Srivastava 292

BIRDS

8. Status of spot-billed pelican Pe/ecanus

philippensis , Family Pelecanidae,

in Gujarat

By B.M. Parasharya 295

u

9. A large congregation of black-shouldered kite

E/anus caeruleus at Ranthambore National

Park

By V. Srinivas 297

10. Attempted feeding by a shikra Accipiter

badius, Family Accipitridae, on buffstriped

keelback Amphiesma stolata. Family

Colubridae

By Samiran Jha 298

11. Attempt by the crested serpent-eagle

Spilornis cheela to seize the Indian cobra

Naja naja

By Kiran Purandare 299

12. Breeding by the Indian courser Cursorius

coromandelicus in winter in Raipur,

Chhattisgarh, India

By A.M.K. Bharos and Mohit Sahu 299

13. Sighting of a rufous-necked stint Calidris

ruftcollis (Pallas) in West Bengal, India

By Gordon Frost and Heinz Lainer 300

14. Occurrence and association of red-necked

phalarope Phalaropus lobatus with other

species at Sambhar, Rajasthan

By Flarkirat S. Sangha 301

1 5 . Pompadour green pigeon Treron pompadora

affinis and large hawk-cuckoo Hierococcyx

sparverioides on the Palkonda Hills,

Peninsular India

By Aasheesh Pittie and S. Balachandran 302

16. Eurasian eagle-owl Bubo bubo tibetanus

Bianchi at 2,100 m in North Sikkim

By Usha Ganguli-Lachungpa 305

17. On the status of Hypocolius ampelinus

Bonaparte in the Indian subcontinent

By M.K. Himmatsinhji, J.K. Tiwari and

S.N. Varu 306

18. Commensal foraging relationships of the

white-browed fantail Rhipidura aureola in

Myanmar

By David I. King and John H. Rappole 308

19. Roosting behaviour of common tailorbird

Orthotomus sutorius (Pennant)

By Anish P. Andheria 312

20. Sight records of crimson sunbird Aethopvga

siparaja in Islamabad, Pakistan

By Sudhir Vyas 316

21. Foliage-dew bathing in oriental white-eye

Zosterops pa/pebrosus , Family Zosteropidae

By K.S. Gopi Sundar and

Capt. Jaideep Chanda 318

22. Food habits of the baya weaver Ploceus

phitippinus (Linn.)

By S.N. Varu 320

23. Four new bird records for Sindh, Pakistan

By Roger A.L. Sutton 320

24. Addition to the checklist of the birds of

Pakistan, Vol. 1 Non-passeriformes, Vol. 2

Passeriformes

By T.J. Roberts 323

25. Some interesting bird records from the Delhi

area

By Sudhir Vyas 325

REPTILES

26. The gharial Gavialis gangeticus in Indravati

river?

By M.K. Ranjitsinh and

L.A.K. Singh 330

27. Communal egg laying by Cnemaspis indica

in Mukuruthi National Park, Western Ghats,

India

By S. Bhupathy and A.M.A. Nixon 330

AMPHIBIA

28. Range extension of Rana malabarica (Bibr.)

in Madhya Pradesh

By E.P. Eric D'cunha 332

FISHES

29. A note on Mesonoemacheilus herrei Naibant

and Banarescu (Cypriniformes: Balitoridae:

Noemacheilinae)

By K. Rema Devi and T.J. Indra 333

30. Fish fauna of some streams and rivers in the

Western Ghats of Maharashtra

By M. Arunachalam, A. Sankaranarayanan,

A. Manimekalan, R. Soranam and

J.A. Johnson 337

INSECTS

3 1 . Checklist of ants from Northwest India-SI

By Himender Bharti 341

32. On the diptera of Nayachar Island, West

Bengal

By B. Mitra, P. Parui and D. Banerjee 343

33. New larval food plant of the Blue Tiger

butterfly Tirumala limniace (Cramer),

Lepidoptera: Danaidae

By Vinayan P. Nair 347

34. New larval food plant of the Grass Demon

Udaspes folus Cramer and the Restricted

Demon Notocrypta curvifascia Felder &

Felder, Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae

By Vinayan P. Nair 348

35. Biodiversity of mantids, Insecta: Mantodea,

in Pune (Western Ghats) with notes on other

regions of Maharashtra

By H.V. Ghate and

S.P. Ranade 348

iii

OTHER INVERTEBRATES

36. Occurrence of spiders Triaeris manii and

Tr icier is poonaensis, Family Oonopidae, in

a banana agroecosystem in Vadodara,

Gujarat

By Manju Siliwal and Dolly Kumar 352

37. Variations in the web of two related species

of spiders Gasteracantha unguifera Simon

and Gasteracantha hasseltii C.L. Koch

By Manju Siliwal, B. Suresh

and Bonny Pilo 355

38. First record of Julia japonica, a bivalved

gastropod from the Indian Ocean

By Tapas Chatterjee 357

BOTANY

39. Occurrence of Kieinhovia hospita L.

(Sterculiaceae) in Marathwada region of

Maharashtra State

By O.S. Rathor and V.B. Chavan 359

40. External morphology of testa in mango

Mangifera indica and its value in the cultivar

characterisation of the crop

By R. Prakashkumar and S. Suresh 359

41. Styiosanthes hamatus (Linn.) Taub.

(Papilionaceae), a new record to the flora of

Gujarat

By P.S. Nagar and S.M. Pandya 363

42. Unusual number of carpels and fertile

stamens in flowers of Bauhinia variegata L.,

Leguminosae: Caesalpinioideae

By S. Bandyopadhyay 364

43 . Actinostemma tenerum Griff., Cucurbitaceae,

a new phytogeographic record from Aiigarh,

Uttar Pradesh

By Athar Ali Khan 365

44. Two new additions to Cooke's Flora of

Bombay Presidency

By B.G. Gavade 366

45. Ethnobotanical uses of the Polygonaceae in

Nepal

By Narayan P. Manandhar 368

46. A new name for Dioscorea glabra var.

hastifolia Prain et Burkill from the Andaman

and Nicobar Islands, India

By Akramul Hoque and P.K. Mukherjee 371

47. Stylidium tenellum Swartz (Stylidiaceae), a

new record for Maharashtra State

By S.M. Bhuskute 374

48. Additions to the grass genera of Maharashtra

By C.B. Salunkhe, S.R. Yadav and

C.R. Patil 376

49. Toxic phanerogamic plants of Manipur

By S. Shyamjai Singh, L. Janmejay Singh

and P. Kumar Singh 378

50. Status of pteridophytic diversity from

Dewalthal hills of Pithoragarh (W.

Himalaya)

By H.C. Pande, R.C. Pande and

Mrittunjai Srivastava 382

Cover Photograph: Whale shark Rhincodon typus

by Phillip Colla

IV

Editorial

SCIENCE AND SENTIMENT

A little learning is a dang ’rous thing;

Drink deep, or taste not the Pierian spring:

There shallow draughts intoxicate the brain,

And drinking largely sobers us again.

— Alexander Pope

Dr. Salim Ali was a pragmatic wildlife conservationist; he thought first with his

head and then used his heart, and he was respected for it. Today, unfortunately, there is a

trend for proactive “conservationists” — many of whom are not even trained academically

in wildlife studies, to hog the media limelight with fancy programmes and solutions.

Last year, the Government of India issued a notification banning capture of ALL

species of Elasmobranchs by placing them in Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act,

1972 (Notification in the Gazette of India, Part 11, Section 3(ii), dated July 11, 2001). I

would like to comment on this.

1 fully endorse listing whale sharks and manta rays (also called devil rays — Mobula

diacantha) in Schedule I. The reason given for placing elasmobranchs in Schedule I was

that foreign fishing boats come to the Andaman Sea, poach sharks, cut off their fins and

throw the sharks back into the sea. The procedure is despicable and deserves to be severely

condemned. But the remedy is to beef up naval and coast guard patrolling, confiscate the

boats and fishing gear, and have stiff jail sentences and hefty fines to deter the perpetrators.

Instead, in a knee-jerk reaction, all elasmobranchs were brought into Schedule I.

There is no target fishery for elasmobranchs, i.e., fishermen do not have gear intended

to catch only these fishes. These fish form a by-catch, i.e., they come in gear designed to

catch other fishes and are thus caught along with them.

Some fifty years back, long-line fishing was in vogue. This gear was not primarily

meant for catching sharks, but sharks were caught in fair numbers, being attracted by the

bait and getting hooked. As this gear is labour intensive, it is no longer in use. Nowadays,

apart from stray elasmobranch catches in trawl nets, sharks are mainly caught in gill-nets

— here, too, as a by-catch, because gill-nets are used mainly to catch large, commercially

important fish such as giant thread-fin ( Polynemus indicus ), Indian salmon ( Eleutheronema

tetradactylum) and jewfish ( Pseudosciaena sina , Otolithus brunneus).

Pelagic sharks have to swim all the time, even during sleep, in order to respire. If

they stop moving forward, their respiration ceases and they die. Hence, once sharks are

caught in a gill-net, their respiration stops and they suffocate to death in a few minutes.

Gill-nets are lifted on to the fishing boat every few hours, so, by the time these are

hauled up the sharks are already dead. Unlike in western (developed) countries, where

only shark fins are used for soup, in India shark flesh is also consumed, so that no part of

a shark is wasted. Shark liver oil is much richer in Vitamin A content compared to cod

liver oil; in fact, in order to conform to the international standard of 20,000 International

Units of Vitamin A per millilitre of oil, shark liver oil has to be diluted with groundnut oil.

Sharks are thus a valuable source of income to fishermen, Traditionally, fishermen

bring them (along with rays and skates, which are also elasmobranchs) to the market.

Once these are banned, the fishermen would be forced to throw them back into the sea.

And, as explained above, since they are already dead by this time, the basic purpose of

conserving them would not be served. On the contrary, their putrefying flesh will only

serve to increase sea water pollution.

One reason for placing sharks in Schedule 1 is that sharks are not prolific breeders,

but this is only a result of efficient evolution over tens of thousands of years. Sharks are at

the apex of the food pyramid, so that they have to be fewer in number, so as to be in

harmonious balance with their prey population; otherwise they would soon exhaust their

food supply, and then die of starvation.

Again, being predators at the top of the food pyramid, they have no natural enemies

(except man). So, when the graph of natural mortality versus fishing mortality is drawn,

the ratio appears to be skewed, and can be misinterpreted by novice conservationists to

show high fishing mortality.

Because of considerable resentment necessitating reconsideration, common sense

finally prevailed, and the Government have notified again (Notification in Part II, Section

3, Subsection (ii), Extraordinary ofthe Gazette of India dated December 15, 2001), relaxing

the blanket ban and imposing restrictions only on certain species by placing them in

Schedule 1 of the Wildlife (Protection) Act.

Along with elasmobranchs, sea horses, corals, many sea shells and ALL sea cucumbers

were also placed in Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act. J fully agree that sea horses

and corals, and also a few sea shells are threatened due to over-collection and deserve

protection. A few (three or four) species of the larger sea cucumbers are collected for

export, as they form the basic ingredient of “trepang” or “beche-de-mer” — a culinary

delicacy in southeast Asia. .

In the 1960s, Mr. S.R. Sane and I were studying the seashore life of Mumbai, and

this resulted in a number of scientific papers. One of these dealt with the Echinodermata of

Mumbai (comprising starfish, sea urchins, sea cucumbers and feather stars). Unlike many

fish and invertebrates, these forms cannot be identified just by looking at the live animals.

Their identity (like that of sponges) is based on their hard spicules, which have to be seen

under a microscope only after macerating the skin in hot acids.

In our studies, too, this method was used. We collected, at the most, half a dozen

specimens of each species. Almost all of these were recorded for the first time from Mumbai.

Another notable find was that some species are not permanent residents of Mumbai's sea

shores, but come sporadically, as if by magic, from somewhere else and, in that year, are

found in their hundreds. Our finding has contributed, albeit in a small way, to the study of

this little known group. But today, unfortunately, we cannot collect even a single specimen

without infringing the law. Can science progress in this manner?

B.F. CHHAPGAR

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are grateful to the Ministry of Science and Technology,

Govt of India,

FOR ENHANCED FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE JOURNAL.

CITATION OF IC/EC NUMBERS FOR GENETIC MATERIALS

It is brought to our notice by the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR),

Pusa Campus, New Delhi 110 012, India, that authors writing papers on particular plant

materials (genetic materials) should indicate IC numbers for Indigenous Collections and

EC numbers for Exotic Collections. Authors can directly procure these single accession

numbers for each genetic material from NBPGR. In the present Intellectual Property

Rights regime, it is in our national interest that all the germplasm material possess a

single national accession number.

Authors are therefore requested to procure IC/EC numbers from NBPGR and state them

on the manuscript, without which papers will not be accepted for publication.

Editors

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JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

August 2002 Vol. 99 No. 2

MONITORING THE INCUBATION BEHAVIOUR

OF THE HOUBARA CHLAMYDOTJS UNDULATA

WITH A TEMPERATURE LOGGER DUMMY EGG1

Qiao Jianfang, Yao Jun2 and Combreau Olivier3

( With two text-figures and one plate)

Key words: China, Xinjiang, egg temperature, Chlamydotis undulata, houbara

The incubating behaviour of two female houbara was successfully monitored with the help of a

temperature logger egg from May 22 to June 11, 1999 in the Xinjiang province of the People's

Republic of China. As a rule, the female showed a bimoda! daily activity pattern (morning and

evening) during the incubation stage. On an average, a female will leave her nest 3 to 9 times

daily for periods ranging from 8 to 26 minutes, but will spend an overall 94±2% of her daily time

on the nest. The average daily temperature of the egg, when the female attended the nest, varied

from 31.9 °C to 36.5 °C. When the female left the nest unattended, the temperature of the egg

generally dropped to an average minimum of 24.9 °C, but could also rise to 40.6 °C (absolute

maximum) in hot conditions. Following the seasonal increase in daily air temperature as summer

progressed, the average daily egg temperature increased from 3 1 .9 °C to 36.2 °C as the incubation

advanced.

Introduction

For several years, the National Avian

Research Centre (NARC) in Abu Dhabi has been

developing an ambitious project aimed at

defining a conservation and management

strategy for the Asiatic subspecies of the houbara,

Chlamydotis undulata , based on sound scientific

knowledge of its population dynamics (Launay

1998). A houbara caught in Abu Dhabi, and

followed by satellite tracking, migrated to the

centre of China in spring and summer 1997. With

these in mind, a three-year agreement between

NARC and the Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and

Accepted October, 2000

2Xinjiang Institute of Ecology & Geography,

CAS, No. 40 South Beijing Road, 83001 1 ,

Urumqi, People’s Republic of China.

’National Avian Research Centre, P. O. Box 45553,

Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates

Geography, People’s Republic of China, was

started in 1997. The agreement focuses on the

study of the breeding biology, migration and the

implementation of pluri-annual surveys to

monitor the general trends in the population.

Despite the high conservation profile of the

houbara, there are few ecological studies

conducted in the wild. In particular, information

on the egg temperature and activity rhythm of

the houbara in the wild is very limited in the

literature, and many aspects remain unknown.

Some information on the feeding activity of the

incubating female was collected by Gaucher

(unpubl. data) in Algeria, and a preliminary

observation of the incubation behaviour was

conducted by Launay etal. (1997) in Uzbekistan.

This study was conducted with a

temperature logger inserted in an egg and added

to a nest clutch in the wild. The logger presented

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 99(2), AUG. 2002

165

MONITORING THE JNCUBA TION BEHA VIOUR OF THE HOUBARA

information on the changes in the egg

temperature and on the activity rhythm of the

incubating female.

Study Area and Method

The study was conducted from April 27 to

July 15, 1999 by a team from the National Avian

Research Centre (UAE) and the Xinjiang

Institute of Ecology and Geography (China).

The study area is located in the semi-desert

steppes of the eastern fringe of the Jungar Basin,

Xinjiang Province of the People’s Republic of

China. The area was chosen on the basis of

previous observations of houbara breeding (Gao

et al. 1997). It is a high plateau bordered by the

Tian Shan Mountains to the south and complex

sand dunes to the north. The substrate is

predominantly clay and gravel to the south,

changing to sand towards the north. The

topography of the area varies from flat to slightly

undulating. Various associations of Artemisia sp.,

Anabasis sp., and Ceratoides sp. dominate the

vegetation in the area. This vegetation is typically

short (5-10 cm). Irregular bushy formations of

Salsola sp. and Haloxyion sp. occur sparingly.

More than twenty ephemeral plant species,

including Plantago sp., Lepidium sp.,

Ceratocarpns sp., Tulipa sp., Scorzonera sp., and

Corydalis sp. commonly occur in early spring

following precipitation. The overall plant cover

lies typically within 10 to 20%.

Information on incubation behaviour was

obtained by means of a dummy egg containing a

temperature logger. One infertile egg from a

natural nest was cut open and drained, and the

temperature logger was fitted inside with cotton

wool. The two halves were then glued together.

The data logger was a Stow Away TidbiT

Temp logger (TBI32) made by ANSET (USA)

with a ±0.4 °C accuracy. The logger can operate

from -30 °C to 70 °C. It was set to take one

reading every two minutes, which allowed for

24 days of monitoring. The logger was

downloaded to a computer once at the end of the

study, - i/ . ; . ; ,

. ? .i» v.-tf '

The air temperature was recorded twice a

day, at 0700 hrs and 1400 hrs, and was compared

with the temperature of the logger egg when the

female left the nest.

We studied the effect of disturbance by cars

on the behaviour of the incubating female. All

the cars were equipped with a GPS set to record

the track routes, which were downloaded to a

computer every alternate day. The track routes

were then compared to the nest locations and

the effect on the females’ behaviour was assessed

through the changes in egg temperature

following our visits to the nests. The temperature

was assessed when the car approached the nest,

giving another 15 minutes to allow the egg to

cool after the female left the nest.

Results and Discussion

The temperature logger egg was placed

successively inside two nests, which had already

been in incubation. It was left in the nest until

the hatching of the natural eggs. From May 22

to 28 (5 complete days), the egg was placed in a

nest of 4 eggs and then moved to a nest of 5 eggs

from May 28 to June 11(12 complete days).

Incubation behaviour: We observed a

decrease or series of decreases in the temperature

of the egg in the early mornings and evenings

(Fig.lA-E). This was interpreted as the time

when the female left the nest for other activities,

such as feeding. Serial drop in temperatures could

be due to predators, cars or displaying males

disturbing the female. In Uzbekistan, Launay et

al. (1997) found that the presence of displaying

males in the vicinity of the nest was obviously

disturbing for the nesting female.

On an average, a female will leave her nest

5.2 ±1.7 times (3 to 9 times) a day for periods

from 8 to 26 minutes (average: 17.4 ±5.3 min).

The total daily duration of these activity periods

varied from 50 to 134 minutes (average 86

166

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

Temperature (°C) Temperature fC) Temperature (°C)

MONITORING THE INCUBATION BEHA VIOUR OF THE HOUBARA

& Srp Pr* .\N .t? .cJ5 .t?

<$• <y <3* A- Nop<b* n<3* ^ <£•<$>•

Time

.0^ .F' <rp <§> .\N .(J5

O* 9/ <r A* N<bp<b- N<D-

Time

•OV rs^n^r ^

O' Q> <T <b* *£>' *<b' ,£>• ^N-

Time

O- V <b* A* *jv ,£>• N<D- N<b- <£y ^b*

Time

Fig. 1: Daily egg temperature at one houbara nest as relayed by the logger egg

(A: hatching day - 11, B: hatching day - 10, C: hatching day - 9,

D: hatching day - 3, E: hatching day - 2, F: hatching day).

JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

167

MONITORING THE INCH BA TION BEHA V101JR OF THE HOUBARA

10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24

Day of Incubation

Fig 2: Linear regression of the average daily egg temperature during the incubation stage

on the days of incubations (two nests).

±23 min), independently of the air temperature

(r2=0.100, df=16, F— 1 .6, NS).

Activity periods normally occurred

between 0613 and 1005 hrs in the mornings,

and between 1845 and 2213 hrs in the evenings

(Anova: F ~ 7.76, d.f. = 67, p < 0.001) making

a bimodal daily activity pattern (12 days out of

1 7). In this respect, the activities of an incubating

female were not different from those of

non-breeding birds (Combreau and Launay

1996).

During incubation, the female spent 94

±2% of her daily time on the nest. This

observation matches that of Verbeek (1972), who

recorded the activity of yellow-billed magpies

( Urocissa flavirostns) in the field and found that

females spent an average of 92.3 % of daily time

on the nest. The temperature relayed by the

logger showed successive variations of very small

amplitude (0.4 °C) when the female sat on the

nest. However, on the day of hatching, the data

logger relayed many variations of amplitude in

the range of 1 to 2 °C, suggesting a change in

behaviour (Fig. IF). Such variations of

temperature were observed 8 times for one nest

and 9 times for the other. These changes in the

egg temperature were not interpreted as activity

periods. We believe that the bird stayed on the

nest all the time, but kept turning the eggs to

facilitate the hatching.

The egg temperature measured 1 5 minutes

after a possible disturbance by a car was found

to be positively correlated to the distance from

the car to the nest (r2 = 0.158, F = 10.5, d.f. =

57, p = 0.002). The effect was restricted to a

radius of 500 m around the nest. A linear

regression analysis for distances ranging from

500 m to 2 km showed no effect at all (r2 =

0.0026, F = 0.41, d.f. = 155, NS). This suggests

that the female houbara incubating a nest is

sensitive to human presence in a radius of

500 m. This effect, however, is small, (r2 = 0.158)

and the female returns quickly to the nest when

the disturbing factor has gone. This behaviour

of leaving the nest in case of danger seems to be

the rule, but there are numerous exceptions. A

168

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

MONITORING THE INCUBATION BEHAVIOUR OF THE HOUBARA

Jianfang, Qiao et al. : Houbara Chlamydotis undulata

Plate 1

Figs 1-4: 1. Details of the temperature logger egg; 2. The temperature logger egg ready to place in a nest;

3. The temperature logger egg placed in a nest with 4 eggs;

4. A female houbara incubating her nest containing the temperature logger egg

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 99(2), AUG. 2002

169

PICS: O. COMBREAU

MONITORING THE INCH BA TION BEHA VJOUR OF THE HOUBARA

number of times, we have observed females

which would stay on the nest with the car or even

human beings in close proximity (10-20 m).

Egg temperature: The average- egg

temperature, when the female was on the nest,

varied from 31.9 to 36.5 °C (average, 34.9 ±1.1

°C). When the female left the nest for her daily

activity, the temperature of the egg dropped to

an average minimum of 24.9 ±3.2 °C (19.9 to

28.8 °C) in the morning and 29.8 ±2.8 °C (25.6

to 33.5 °C) in the evening (t-test, t=2.2, d.f. =

12, P < 0.001). This difference in the egg

temperature was most easily explained by the

difference in the average air temperature that

ranged from 14.5 ±3.2 °C in the morning to 23 .6

±3.9 °C in the afternoon.

As the incubation advanced, we observed

a general increase in the daily average

temperature of the egg from 31.91 to 36.18 °C

(average 34.8 ±1.0 °C) (r2= 0.48, F = 13.8, d.f.

= 16, P = 0.002). For both nests, daily average

egg temperature was highest on or around the

hatching day (Fig. 2). The most likely

explanation is an increase in the average air

temperature as the incubation advances (r2 =

0.47, F= 13.1, d.f. =16, P = 0.002). This is

confirmed by the strong relation observed

between the daily maximum air temperature and

the daily maximum egg temperature (r2= 0.52,

F = 16, d.f. = 1 6, P = 0.00 1). An increase in egg

temperature as the incubation stage advances

has also been observed in other bird species

(Steven et al. 1997). In 1982, Ralph explained

this as resulting from the heat production of the

embryo, the changes in substrate thermal

conductivity and the changes in nest air

temperature.

Quite surprisingly, in twelve out of

seventeen cases, when the female was incubating

the nest, the temperature of the egg increased

gradually from morning to afternoon. On an

average, the temperature of the egg rose to a

maximum of 36.4 ±1.9 °C in the morning and

38.1 ±1.4 °C in the evening (t-test: t = 2.1, d.f. =

16, p = 0.001 1). No obvious biological reasons

could explain these differences, and the most

likely explanation would be the difference in air

temperatures between morning and afternoon.

For both nests, we observed occasionally an

absolute maximum temperature in the range of

40.2-40.6 °C, attained gradually in 15 or 20

minutes. The temperature stayed high for

about 30 minutes, then decreased gradually to a

more normal temperature around 37 °C. Such

high temperatures in an incubating egg raise

concern about the survival of the embryos,

which would surely be killed under artificial

incubation at these temperatures. In our study,

the thermodynamics of the logger egg was

obviously different from that of natural eggs.

Being empty of fluids, it probably gained and

lost heat much faster than natural eggs, and

responded more quickly to changes in ambient

temperature or orientation of solar radiation.

When the logger egg reached temperatures above

40 °C, the temperature of the natural eggs may

have been within the normal range. This is

confirmed by the production in 2 nests of 3

and 4 vigorous chicks from 4 and 5 eggs,

respectively.

Conclusions

Placement of a data logger in an egg was a

useful method for obtaining egg temperatures and

behavioural information on the incubating

houbara female. Moreover, the introduction of a

transformed egg in a nest found in the wild did

not affect hatching, suggesting that the effect on

the incubation behaviour of the female was

negligible. The logger constantly monitored the

egg temperature, from which deductions on the

female’s behaviour could be made without long

periods of observation in the field. However,

sometimes it was difficult to interpret accurately

the changes in the egg temperature in terms of

the female’s behaviour, especially when

successive changes of small amplitude were

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

171

MONITORING THE INCUBATION BEHAVIOUR OFTHEHOUBARA

observed. Further observations would be

necessary to fully understand the female’s activity

on the nest.

Though interesting behavioural results

were obtained, the inaccuracy (±0.4 °C) as well

as the difference in thermodynamic

characteristics of the logger egg curtails the

interpretation in terms of the temperature of

incubation in houbara. It is, therefore, difficult

to make proposals for modifying the incubation

parameters used in artificial conditions. However,

the female does not tend to keep the egg

temperature constant as is done in incubators in

captive breeding programs. On the contrary,

severe variations of temperature were commonly

observed, causing no lethal effect on the embryo.

It is suggested that such variation in the

incubation temperature in captivity might be

beneficial to the development and hatching

success of the eggs.

Refer

Combreau, O. & F. Launay (1996): Activity rhythm of

houbara bustards ( Chlamydotis undulata

macqueenii ) in relation to some abiotic factors.

Journal of Arid Environment 33: 463-472.

Gao. X.Y., K. Xu. J.F. Qiao, J. Yao, & K. Dai (1997):

Preliminary investigation report on the distribution

and population number of houbara in Eastern

Jungar Basin, Xinjiang. Houbara News, Newsletter

of the IUCN/SSC Working Group on the Floubara

Bustard, 1:7-8.

Launay. F., Ronald A. Lougiiland & Elena Mukhina

( 1997): Preliminary observations of the incubation

Acknowledgements

We thank Prof. Song Yudong, Director of

the Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography,

Prof. Gao Xingyi, Head of the Houbara Project at

the Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography

and Mr. Yuan Hong, Vice- Director of the Wildlife

Conservation Office of the Xinjiang Forestry

Department for their constant support. We are also

grateful to HH Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Ai

Nahyan, Crown Prince of Abu Dhabi and

Chairman of ERWDA board, and HH Sheikh

Hamdan bin Zayed Al Nahyan, Vice-Chairman of

ERWDA board. We thank Mr. Mohammed Al

Bowardi and Dr. Frederic Launay for their support.

All the staff of the houbara survey team, both from

NARC and the Xinjiang Institute for Ecology and

Geography is thanked for their help during the

expedition. Special thanks to Mr. Mark Lawrence

for his helpful comments.

• n c f. s

and covey behaviour of Floubara Bustard

Chlamydotis undulata macqueenii. Sandgrouse

19(1): 51-55.

Launay, F. ( 1998): Proposed ideas for an action plan for

the Asian houbara bustard. Floubara news.

Newsletter of the IUCN/SSC. Issue No. 2, pp 7-

10.

Steven F. Wilson & Nicolaas A.M. Verbeek (1997):

Patterns of Wood Duck nest temperature during egg

laying and incubation. The Condor: 963-969.

Verbeek, N.A.M. (1972): Daily and annual time budget

of the Yellow-billed Magpie. The Auk 89: 567-582.

172

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

PHENOTYPIC AND BEHAVIOURAL CHARACTERISTICS

USED TO IDENTIFY WILD BUFFALO BUBALUS BUBALIS

FROM FERAL BACKCROSSES IN NEPAL1

Joel T. Heinen2

( With two text-figures )

Key words: Bubalus arnee, Bubalus bubalis , feral buffalo,

Kosi Tappu Wildlife Reserve, Nepal, wild buffalo

All remaining populations of the wild Asiatic buffalo are known to cross breed with domestic

and feral forms living in the vicinity of the handful of reserves in which the species is found.

Censuses of these animals done in various places in India and Nepal have been criticized because

researchers have used various criteria to differentiate wild buffalo versus feral backcrosses, thus

rendering population estimates unreliable. Due to the highly endangered status of the wild buffalo,

there is an urgent need for a set of criteria that can be applied more broadly to distinguish wild

from feral forms. This paper describes the phenotypic and behavioural characteristics used to

census wild buffalo and feral backcrosses in Kosi Tappu Wildlife Reserve, Nepal, which contains

the last Nepalese population of the species. It is hoped that other researchers in the region may

find these field characteristics useful in identifying wild stocks in South and Southeast Asia,

where they are still thought to occur. Ideally, in all cases, detailed genetic studies are needed to

plan managerial interventions such as translocation projects. Given the expense of such studies,

it is suggested that translocations can be planned using consistent field identification criteria,

until such time as more detailed genetic work is done.

Introduction

The decline of ali species of Asian wild

cattle and buffalo resulted in the restructuring of

the Asian Wild Cattle Specialist Group

(AWCSG) in 1995, by the Species Survival

Commission (SSC) of IUCN — The World

Conservation Union. A background document

(Read et al. 1995) and draff action plan (Hedges

1995) were prepared and a meeting at Khao

Kheow Open Zoo in Chonburi, Thailand was

held in July 1995 to conduct a Conservation

Assessment and Management Planning

Workshop for four species of cattle and four

species of buffalo that occur in various Asian

range states (Byers et al. 1995). From the formal

talks and general discussion, it was apparent that

there is little information on the former or current

‘Accepted February, 200 1

2Department of Environmental Studies,

Florida International University, Miami, FL, 33 1 99, USA.

status of the wild buffalo Bubalus bubalis [=B.

arnee ] (Groves 1981), and that all populations

are endangered to critically endangered for many

reasons (Srikosamatara and Suteethom 1994,

Heinen and Srikosamatara 1996). Wild buffalo

have recently been listed under CITES Appendix

II as a result of the known threats to all wild

populations (Anon. 1997).

Since the species has been in domestication

for at least 4,500 years (Clutton-Brock 1989),

even the historical geographic range is in

question. It is known that wild buffalo occurred

at least from peninsular India to Southeast Asia,

but there is evidence of buffalo in the Indus Valley

over 5,000 years ago (Nowak 1999) and the wild

form may have occurred from Mesopotamia

eastwards (Sinclair 1977). The populations in

Sri Lanka (Eisenberg and Lockhart 1972),

peninsular Southeast Asia, Borneo and Java

(Hedges 1995) have come into question, as it is

not known whether they are partly or wholly of

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

173

PHENOTYPIC AND BEHA VIOURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WILD BUFFALO

feral origin. Wild Asiatic buffalo have probably

been in decline for long periods of time (Daniel

and Grubh 1966, Seshadri 1986). Current site

locations of putative wild stock are western

Thailand, East and Central India, southern

Bhutan and southeastern Nepal (Corbet and Hill

1992) in several isolated reserves.

A major concern is that domestic and feral

buffalo are completely inter-fertile with wild

buffalo; thus the genetics of wild stock are in

question and field censuses become difficult when

feral and wild forms look similar. This is not an

isolated case. Wild sheep and goats of several

species (Shackleton 1997), Eurasian wildcats

{Felis sylvestris ; Nowell and Jackson 1996), yak

( Bos mutus\ Schaller 1998), African wild ass

( Equus asinus ; Duncan 1992), and wild pig (Sus

scrofa\ Oliver 1993) are all known to interbreed

with domestic and/or feral forms. In all these

cases, however, known wild populations exist

that are not affected by domestic mixing. Buffalo,

Bactrian camels C am elus ferus (Schaller 1998)

and Ethiopian wolves Cams simiensis (Sillero-

Zubiri and Macdonald 1997), may be under

greater threat, because domestic or feral forms

(shepherd dogs Can is familiar is in the case of

the Ethiopian wolf), have access to breeding with

wild stock through most or ail of the geographic

range.

Besides genetic introgression, threats of

disease transmission are high when domestic and

wild forms intermingle; this has been raised as a

conservation issue for a number of species. Since

detailed genetic studies are expensive, there is

need for consistent field identification criteria

that can be generally applied to census wild stock.

The American Zoo and Aquarium

Association recommended field censuses and

clarification of the species/subspecies of Asiatic

buffalo (Read 1999). Antibody research is also

needed to test for common diseases for all

populations. Among the putative wild

populations, it was thought that the one in Kosi

Tappu Wildlife Reserve, Nepal (the only extant

Nepalese population) has a good chance of

containing some pure wild stock. This is also

likely in some populations in Assam and Madhya

Pradesh (Divakar 1977, Divakar and Bhushan

1988), although there is debate about the genetic

integrity of the stocks (Choudhury 1 994). In spite

of its importance as the wild progenitor of the

domestic buffalo, the species is poorly studied

(Cockrill 1967). The introduced feral population

in Australia is probably the best known (Tulloch

1970, 1978, 1979). Due to the endangered status

and importance of this species worldwide, the

Department of National Parks and Wildlife

Conservation in Nepal (DNPWC) is considering

translocation of buffalo from Kosi Tappu to one

or more of Nepal’s other lowland parks or

reserves to secure the species. Bubalus bnbalis

is known to have occurred in Chitwan National

Park until the 1960s (Seidensticker 1975) and

probably once ranged throughout the Nepalese

lowlands, including areas now protected

(Fig. 1). The phenotypic and behavioural

characteristics used for the census in Nepal are

described herein. It is hoped that these criteria

will also be useful to researchers studying the

species elsewhere.

Description of the study area and previous

research

Kosi Tappu Wildlife Reserve was

established in 1976 and is spread over 175 sq.

km. It is Nepal’s only Ramsar site and contains

extensive wetlands that are important stopover

and wintering areas for waterfowl (Sah 1997). It

is located on the floodplain of the Kosi River in

Sunsari, Saptari, and Udayapur districts in

southeastern Nepal (75 to 100 m above msl;

Fig. 2). The reserve is subject to extreme flooding

during monsoon; buffalo and other ungulates

frequently leave at that time and seek refuge in

croplands. About 80% of the land area is

dominated by tall grasses such as species of

Saccharum , Phragmites and Typha , and open

river banks. Mixed forests of Bombax , Dalbergia

174

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

PHENOTYPIC AND BEHAVIOURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WILD BUFFALO

CtS

bf)

c

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

175

Fig. 1 : Locations of the protected areas of Nepal

(NP, National Park; WR, Wildlife Reserve: CA. Conservation Area; HR, Hunting Reserve.

The five protected areas located along the southern border are all considered within the historical geographical range of wild buffalo.)

PHENOTYPIC AND BEHA VJOURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WILD BUFFA LO

Fig. 2: Map of Kosi Tappu Wildlife Reserve, showing important locations around and within the boundaries

176

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

PHENOTYPIC AND BEHA VIOURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WILD BUFFA LO

and Acacia make up the remainder. The

vegetation was investigated by Dahmer (1978)

and more extensively by Sah (1997); it is

generally characteristic of riverine communities

in the monsoonal climate of the Gangetic Basin

(Stainton 1972).

The population of wild buffalo in Kosi

Tappu has been censused numerous times and

methods have been scrutinized because there are

semi-feral as well as domestic buffalo that

regularly backcrossed with wild bulls in the area

(Mishra 1981, Shrestha 1981, 1997). Most of

the censuses were conducted by local amateurs,

or by biologists who spent only a week or two in

Kosi Tappu, with little prior experience. There

have been two longer studies: one in 1976 by

Dahmer (1978) for one year, and the other by

Heinen (1993a) from 1986 to 1988 covering 1.5

years. Heinen and Singh (in press) repeated the

census in 2000, allowing for comparisons of

population structure and growth rates over a 24-

year period. Both the long-term studies

considered flooding to be the major source of

mortality and recommended translocations to

Chitwan National Park. Heinen (1993a)

considered the population not viable due to the

probability of chance extinction (e.g. Goodman

1987). Census was completed from mid-February

to early April, the season of grass cutting and

burning, as the animals are more visible (Heinen

1993 b) and also before the extreme heat of pre-

monsoon set in, as the animals then become very

inactive during the day.

The studies of Dahmer (1978), Heinen

(1993a), and Heinen and Singh {in press ) are

considered to be the most definitive, as they were

conducted by individuals who had spent

extensive periods observing buffalo. However,

given that backcrossing with wild males has been

occurring in the region regularly since the

malaria eradication in the 1950s (>40 years or

>6 average buffalo generations, estimated at 6.5

years), one cannot be sure that animals counted

as ‘backcrossed’ are not ‘wild’ in at least some

cases It also may not matter, for animals

backcrossed for so many generations. An f-6

backcross would be 98.44% ‘wild’ based on

nuclear DNA 1 00[ 1 .0-0.56] (Falconer 1981).

Such animals may be appropriate to include in a

conservation breeding or translocation scheme,

pending mitochondrial DNA analysis, provided

that their appearance and behaviour are

consistent with wild individuals. These issues are

further addressed below.

Phenotypic Characteristics of Wild Buffalo

Wild buffalo go through changes in pelage

with age. Young (< 6 months) calves are buff in

colour, and begin to darken in the first year. They

retain lighter coloration into the second year, but

the coat continues to darken until the females

achieve adult coloration by the third year. Thus,

young, juvenile and adult females can be

distinguished on the basis of coloration, and

overall body and horn size. Adult coloration is

very dark, with noticeable whitish markings in

several places on the body. Wild buffalo have one

or two white chevron marks on the underside of

the neck. They also have white hocks, white tail

tips, and fine white markings around the eyes

and along the sides of the nose and mouth. The

white markings tend to become more apparent

in adults, may fade with advanced age, and are

not necessarily visible on new calves. In all cases,

they are visible on late first year calves. Young

males can be distinguished from adults into the

third and fourth years; they are noticeably smaller

and the pelage retains the light coloration. Adult

males at prime breeding age (> 4 years) tend to

be very black, except for the whitish markings

described.

The horns of wild buffalo form wide,

upwardly sweeping semicircles and lack

appreciable curvature in the lateral vertical plane.

Horns begin to grow early in life and are apparent

from a distance in all calves by the age of

6 months. Horns on very young calves extend

horizontally from the skull, and lack any curl.

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PHENOTYPIC AND BEHA VIOURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WILD BUFFALO

As in most Bovids, horns grow throughout life

and can be used as a proxy for age among adults.

Since growth rates can vary based on nutrition,

sex and dominance status of individuals, the

censuses did not record age estimates for the

adults. On an average, among adults, females

tend to have longer horns than males, but males

tend to have much thicker horns. Thus, if the

genitalia are not visible (typically the situation

in the tall grasses of Kosi Tappu and other places

in which purely wild stock are thought to occur),

adults can be sexed by viewing the horns alone.

Bulls are noticeably larger and have massive

musculature. First and second year calves are

difficult to sex because it is usually not possible

to approach wild herds close enough to see the

genitalia. Thus, sex classes were assigned for

adults (> 2 years old) only.

In contrast, the typical ‘river’ breeds of

domestic buffalo common in South Asia are

generally much darker throughout life and show

few to none of the white markings described

above (see Cockrill 1974). Hall and Ruane (1993)

recognized 74 breeds or varieties of domestic

buffalo (fewer than for any other major

domesticated mammal); some breeds retain light-

colored tail tips and hocks. They are smaller and

their horns are usually very small with noticeable

curvature along both horizontal and vertical

planes. Thus, pure domestic buffalo can be told

from wild buffalo rather easily in Nepal and

Central India. Some lesser-developed breeds of

domestic buffalo, especially the ‘swamp’ breeds

more common in Southeast Asia (Cockrill 1974),

retain a few wild phenotypic characters and many

of the buffalo residing in Kosi Tappu and

elsewhere are known to be backcrosses. Thus,

there are many individuals that look essentially

wild, although they are not pure. Other field

criteria are, therefore, needed for identifying wild

stock.

Behavioural Characteristics of Wild Buffalo

Behavioural work is increasingly being

studied in conservation biology (Caro 1998) and

several behavioural characteristics were used to

differentiate between wild and backcrossed

buffalo here. The literature suggests that wild

buffalo females remain in the herds in which they

were bom, while males leave their natal herds,

usually in or before their third year (Heinen

1993a). Herding behaviour can vary seasonally

in Australia (Tulloch 1978), but this was not

observed in Kosi Tappu females. Members of

wild herds of females and their dependent

offspring (called ‘mixed’ herds by Heinen 1993a,

not to be confused with ‘backcrossed’ female

herds) are thought to be highly philopatric.

Again, this is not so in the feral Australian

population (Tulloch 1970).

Dahmer (1978) described two mixed herds

in Kosi Tappu in 1976, the north and south herds,

and Heinen (1993a) relocated those herds in

1986/88 in highly overlapping home ranges with

those mapped by Dahmer. Heinen and Singh

(2000) relocated the herds again in 2000 and

found that their home ranges had not changed

appreciably from the previous work in spite of

the fact that the main channel of the Kosi River

had changed course (Fig. 2). Animals in mixed

herds showed a great deal of phenotypic

uniformity compared to those in backcrossed

herds, and herd members were always seen in

close proximity to each other in all three Kosi

Tappu studies. Backcrossed herds were seen in

variable groupings, sometimes with as few as

6 animals. Mixed herds were always seen with

one herd bull in attendance; backcrossed herds

were also generally seen with an attendant wild

bull, but not necessarily so. Several matings,

between wild bulls and feral backcrosses, were

observed in 1986, 1988 and 2000 (Heinen,

unpublished field notes).

Herding behaviour in single adult males

in Kosi Tappu is highly variable. Younger males

(up to four years, as estimated from horn length

and body size) were frequently seen in small

groups with other males (6-8 animals), whereas

178

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 99(2), AUG. 2002

PHENOTYPIC AND BEHA VIOURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WILD BUFFALO

older males were frequently seen alone or in

pairs. Both Dahmer (1978) and Heinen (1993a)

recorded larger herds of older males on occasion,

and thus, this behavior may vary seasonally or

even daily. Herd bulls are those that accompany

female herds, and no more than one at a time

has been observed attending any herd, be it mixed

(wild) or backcrossed.

Another aspect of behaviour that can be

used as a clue in identification is flight distance.

The mixed herds counted as wild in Kosi Tappu

were extremely wary of any human approach, be

it on foot, boat, elephant, or in vehicles, and all

counts had to be made from relatively long

distances (>150 m and usually more) using high

powered binoculars. Females in Kosi Tappu have

been observed frequently using ‘phalanx’

behaviour to protect calves from approaching

humans prior to fleeing, also described for wild

type buffalo in Sri Lanka (Eisenberg and

Lockhart 1972). Phalanx behaviour is defined

as adult females forming a lateral line, each

facing the intruder, with calves interspersed

between the adults. The backcrossed herds were

all relatively easy to approach in vehicles (<100

m) and most of them allowed walking humans

to approach within c. 150 m or less. They tended

not to form a phalanx before fleeing. These subtle

behavioural differences imply that the semi-feral

backcrossed herds are rounded up by their owners

on occasion, probably annually, to collect first

year calves (especially males) for market

(Dahmer 1978 and Heinen 1993a). Local

villagers told us that these animals could be lured

with salt licks like feral cattle ( Bos indicus)

breeding in the reserve.

Herd bulls tended to flee with their females

on human approach. In contrast, single adult wild

bulls allowed fairly close approach, frequently

within 100 m or less. In all such cases, they faced

the intruder and stood their ground. If a human

came too close, the single adult bulls were likely

to take one or several steps forward. Closer

approach could presumably lead to a charge:

several people have been injured or killed over

the years in Kosi Tappu as a result of such

encounters (Heinen 1993a). There are no records

of wild or backcrossed females in Kosi Tappu

charging humans directly.

Discussion

Mixed herds of wild buffalo with all the

aforementioned phenotypic traits, with little

visible phenotypic variability among individuals,

a consistent herd structure (when not disturbed),

using consistent home ranges over long periods

of time, and with behavioural patterns that

showed phalanx formation and intolerance to

human approach were censused in three different

seasons in Kosi Tappu from 1976 to 2000. All

other females and calves that looked wild were

considered backcrossed, in spite of the fact that

some individuals in backcrossed herds displayed

all phenotypic traits of wild buffalo, and all

individuals in those herds displayed most traits

(Table 2).

These methods may tend to undercounting

of the wild buffalo. For example, a record sized

female buffalo in Kosi Tappu was alive during

Heinen’s 1986-1988 study. The animal displayed

all the traits of a wild buffalo, but was consistently

seen with a herd in which some members lacked

Table 2

CENSUS RESULTS FOR BACKCROSSED

BUFFALO HERDS CENSUSED DURING 2000

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

179

PHENOTYPIC AND BEHA V 10 URAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WILD BUFFALO

some wild phenotypic traits. Some females in

this herd, for example, had distinctively more

curl in the horns than was the case in the north

and south herds, and some lacked a few of the

characteristic white markings. Thus the female,

which died of natural causes in 1 994 and whose

rack is now on display at the reserve

headquarters, was not considered ‘wild’ (Heinen

1993a). Other methods, however, surely

overcount wild buffalo. Suwal (1993) recorded a

population of 158 in 1993, only 5 years after

Heinen (1993a) recorded 93. This corresponds

to a sustained population growth rate of >10%

per year. Possible, but not likely for a large

artiodactyl that generally produces a single

offspring and usually calves biannually (Bronson

1989).

It is suspected that Suwal (1993) counted

the large backcrossed herd seen regularly in the

late 1980s (whose descendants were seen again

in 2000; Herd 1 in Table 2) as ‘wild’ (the herd

described above), and some members weren’t

based on phenotypic traits alone. Since females

are thought to stay with their natal herds, it is

likely that the matriarchal-line was of domestic

origin and that the animals had been

backcrossing with wild males for at least 6

generations. Since these animals acted essentially

wild, and only a few minor phenotypic traits

visible on some individuals were used to

distinguish them from wild stock, it is possible

that members of this herd could be used in a

translocation program. However, that cannot be

advised until mitochondrial DNA studies can be

performed to determine how different the

matriarchal-line really is from wild buffalo.

Similarly, Chaudhary (1999) recorded a

population of 174 wild buffalo in Kosi Tappu (in

1999), which is more likely than Suwal’s (1993)

estimate, but results from 2000 (Heinen and

Singh, in press; Table 1) showed a decrease of

17% one year later in spite of many recent births.

Evidence thus suggests that some studies were

not long enough to allow researchers adequate

Table 1

POPULATION STRUCTURE OF WILD BUFFALO

rN KOSI TAPPU RESERVE

AND ANNUAL POPULATION GROWTH RATE

rl (1976 to 1987) = 0.033, r2 (1987 to 1988) = 0.022,

r3 (1988 to 2000) = 0.037, r total (1976 to 2000) = 0.035.

1976 (Dahmer 1978), 1987, 1988 (Heinen 1993a) and

2000 (Heinen and Singh, in Press)

time to familiarize themselves with all the

characteristics described above to identify the

wild stock.

Evidence still suggests (Heinen 1993a)

that there is little chance of domestic genes

entering the population of wild buffalo because

there is little chance of a domestic male

competing with wild males and monopolizing

breeding in a mixed herd. Heinen and Singh

(2000) saw three domestic males in the Reserve

in March 2000, but all were grazing near villages

along the boundary and far from any mixed or

backcrossed herds. No wild male counted in these

studies had any phenotypic or behavioural traits

suggesting that it was backcrossed. Furthermore,

local buffalo owners informed us that they do

not keep domestic males with their herds because

wild males will attack them, and that their goal

was to crossbreed their females with wild males,

as the backcrossed males command higher prices

when sold as draught animals. There is no

evidence, therefore, that either backcrossed

domestic, semi-feral, or feral males eventually

enter the breeding population in Kosi Tappu.

Shrivastava (pers. comm.) received similar

information from the local buffalo owners around

Kaziranga National Park, Assam during a recent

study (September, 2000 to January, 2001). Thus,

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JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

PHENOTYPIC AND BEHAVIOURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WILD BUFFALO

the evidence suggests that both the reserves

contain populations of pure wild buffalo in

addition to semi-feral and backcrossed herds

from which male calves are removed.

Conclusions

Hedges (1995) discussed the need for

genetic studies, both mitochondrial and nuclear,

to assess differences among the putative wild,

wild type, feral, semi-feral and domestic buffalo

that occur throughout tropical Asia. The first

major genetic study of wild buffalo is currently

underway in Kaziranga National Park (Dr. P.

Malik pers. comm.). Even if appropriate

mitochondrial genetic markers that differentiate

wild from backcrossed matriarchal lines are

isolated, detailed study should also be conducted

at other sites because wild buffalo in Assam are

noticeably larger and considered to be a distinct

subspecies from those in Central India or Nepal.

The available evidence suggests that animals

counted as ‘wild’ in Kosi Tappu were truly so,

and some females and calves recorded as

‘backcrosses’ may also be wild, or at least

backcrossed for enough generations to make the

distinction arbitrary. Thus, the methods described

here are conservative indicators of what

constitutes a wild buffalo.

This species is threatened with extinction

throughout its range. I suggest that translocations

can be planned with the current information by

focusing on animals from herds that display all

phenotypic and behavioural characteristics of the

wild form. There are numerous reserves

throughout lowland Nepal and North and Central

India that are within the known historical range

R E F E R

Anonymous (1997): CITES Draft Listing Proposal For

Asiatic Wild Buffalo. Unpubl. Report to CITES

Secretariat, Promulgated by the Government of

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Bronson, F.H. ( 1989): Mammalian Reproductive Biology.

of the wild buffalo, but do not have populations.

The Government of Nepal is considering a

translocation proposal based on

recommendations made from the identification

criteria used here (Heinen and Singh, 2000).

Furthermore, if future genetic work shows that

some backcrossed feral females are essentially

wild by nuclear DNA criteria, do not contain

specific mitochondrial DNA markers that may

render them less fit, and display most phenotypic

and all behavioural traits consistent with wild

buffalo, then such animals should also be

considered for use in translocation projects.

Acknowledgments

1 thank Dr. T.M. Maskey, Director General

and Mr. N. Paudel, Senior Ecologist, Department

of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation for

permission to work in Kosi Tappu, Mr. L.

Yadhav, Warden of Kosi Tappu, and his staff for

facilitating our stay. Mr. Ganga Ram helped in

field censuses in 1986/1988 and 2000. Mr. C.

Shrestha served as our driver. Dr. J. Flamand of

the Zoological Society of London, Dr. G. Ghaire

of the Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation,

and Dr. M. Gregory of the Nepal/EC Project for

Livestock Disease Control accompanied us for

part of the census and obtained blood samples

for genetic and antibody analyses. This work was

supported by a sabbatical leave from Florida

International University. O. Byers, S. Hedges,

B. Read, U.S. Seal, S. Srikosamatara and other

members of the Asian Wild Cattle and Captive

Breeding Specialist Groups of IUCN’s Species

Survival Commission provided encouragement,

insights and important references.

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m

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183

DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS, RELATIVE ABUNDANCE

AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS

IN INDIRA GANDHI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, TAMIL NADU, INDIA1

M. Ananda Kumar2, Mewa Singh2, Sanjay K. Srivastava3, A. Udhayan4,

H.N. Kumara2 and A.K. Sharma2

( With six text-figures )

Key words: Western Ghats, Anaimalai hills, Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary, vegetation types,

mammals, distribution patterns, niche separation, management

The study reports the results from systematic sampling and 6 years of incidental encounters with

wild mammals in Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary, Anaimalai hills in the Western Ghats, Tamil

Nadu, India. A total of 239 plots were laid along 38 transects in different vegetation types,

covering a length of 200 km. Data was collected during transect walks by direct sightings, whereas

the plots were searched for the presence of signs and tracks. Gaur, sambar and muntjac occurred

with a higher frequency in rainforest, while chital and pig did so in other vegetation types.

Elephants moved in the dry season to the wet western ranges and back in the wet season to the

dry eastern ranges. Tiger had a higher frequency in the wet forests, while that of leopard was

higher in the drie~ forest types. The dry forests at lower altitudes were occupied by the common

palm civet, while the forested areas of higher altitudes were largely inhabited by brown palm

civet, along with the small Indian civet which occurred commonly in the open areas. Malabar

giant squirrel had a relatively higher frequency in other vegetation types than in the riparian

forests of the eastern ranges, which were inhabited by grizzled squirrel. The dry forests at lower

altitudes were occupied by bonnet macaque and Hanuman langur, whereas the wet forests of the

higher altitude were occupied by lion-tailed macaque and Nilgiri langur. The wet ranges in the

Sanctuary were characterized by fragmentation of rainforest, and the dry ranges had high biotic

pressure. The implications of the mammalian distribution pattern and other biotic factors for the

management of these hills are discussed.

Introduction

In southern India, wildlife habitats include

the coastal plains, the Western and the Eastern

Ghats, the central plains of northern Karnataka

and Andhra Pradesh, the Deccan plateau, and

the central plains of Tamil Nadu. These habitats

differ in altitude, rainfall, terrain, soil structure,

temperature and other factors. Among these, the

most biodiverse is the Western Ghats, one of the

hot spots of biodiversity in the world.

'Accepted November, 2001

2Biopsychology Laboratory,

University of Mysore, Mysore 570 006,

Karnataka, India.

’Wildlife Institute of India,

Chandrabani, Dehra Dun 248 006, Uttaranchal, India.

4lndira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary,

Pollachi 642 001, Tamil Nadu, India.

The Western Ghats run parallel to the west

coast. Topographically, they can be divided into

three zones: (a) the flat and narrow coast, (b)

the rising ridge, a high rainfall area with

evergreen and semi-evergreen forests, and (c) the

eastern zone, with low rainfall, characterized

primarily by scrub or deciduous forests. Kumar

(1997) reports that of the nearly 15,000 species

of flowering plants in India, 30 per cent occur in

the Western Ghats, of which about 1,200 are

endemic; of 158 species of fish in the Western

Ghats, about 50 are endemic; of the 120 species

of amphibians (total 205 in India), 90 are

endemic; all of the 33 species of Uropeltids and

7 pit vipers of the Western Ghats are endemic

(Inger and Dutta 1986): of about 500 species of

birds, 15 are endemic (Daniels 1994). A large

number of mammals, including the lion-tailed

184

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS, RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS

macaque ( Macaca silenus), Nilgiri langur

(. Presbytis johnii ), Nilgiri tahr ( Hemitragus

hylocrius ), Malabar civet ( Viverra megaspila ),

Malabar spiny dormouse ( Plcitacanthomys

l as hints ), Nilgiri marten ( Maries gw at kins i ),

Brown palm civet ( Paradoxurus jerdoni), are

endemic to the Western Ghats. Because of the

uniqueness of this habitat, several areas in the

Western Ghats have been brought under the

‘Protected Area Network’. Johnsingh (1986)

reported that of the total 78,387 sq. km area of

the Western Ghats, 17,613 sq. km was brought

under National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries.

Some of the most important protected areas in

the Western Ghats include Sharavathi Hills,

Kudremukh National Park, Pushpagiri Wildlife

Sanctuary, Brahmagiri Wildlife Sanctuary, Silent

Valley National Park, Indira Gandhi Wildlife

Sanctuary, Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary and

Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve. Karanth

(1992) has discussed in detail the factors that

caused, and continue to cause, serious

deterioration of forests in the Western Ghats in

Karnataka. The same factors also explain the

habitat deterioration in the states of Tamil Nadu

and Kerala. They include the disturbance caused

by human settlements, developmental projects,

collection of forest produce, and hunting. The

low lying areas of the Western Ghats were clear

felled for rice and plantation crops, and the

middle ranges were cleared for coffee and tea

plantations. These agricultural activities also

brought permanent settlers who required roads,

bridges, electricity, schools and, hospitals. Since

the Western Ghats receive high rainfall, the

region has also become important for the

construction of large and medium dams for power

generation and irrigation. The forest produce

collected from the Western Ghats includes cane,

reeds, fruits and softwood for matchwood and

plywood. Since all the above factors resulted in

increased human activity, these may also have

increased hunting in the region.

Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary

(previously Anaimalai Wildlife Sanctuary) is one

of the important ecoregions of the Western Ghats.

Extensive research has been taken up on non-

human primates in this Sanctuary (Kumar 1987,

Menon and Poirier 1996, Singh et al. 1997a &

b, 1998, 2000, Kumara et al. 2000a, Kumar et

al. 200 1 ). The effect of rainforest fragmentation

on arboreal and terrestrial mammals has been

reported by Kumar et al. (1995, 1998). Davidar

(1978), and Mishra and Johnsingh (1998),

undertook a thorough survey on the Nilgiri tahr

in the Sanctuary. The above mentioned studies

concentrated on particular species of mammals.

There has been no study to document the overall

distribution pattern of mammals, their occurrence

in specific habitats, community structure and

habitat preferences in the Sanctuary. The annual

wildlife censuses carried out by the Forest

Department, deal only with the animals sighted.

They do not provide an assessment of habitats,

or other conservation and management related

issues. In this context, the present study was

undertaken from June 1999 to July 2000.

Objectives

1. To document the distribution patterns

and abundance of mammals in the various habitat

types in the Sanctuary.

2. To document the presence of biotic

pressures in different areas, and to assess whether

these pressures have an impact on the occurrence

of wild mammals.

3. To assess the effect of physical factors,

including natural and man-made barriers, on the

movement of large mammals.

Because of methodological problems, bats

and terrestrial rodents were not included in this

study.

Study Area

Anaimalai Ecosystem and Indira

Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary: Nearly 2,000 sq.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

185

DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS, RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS

km of Anaimalai ecosystem includes the present

Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary (Tamil Nadu),

Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary (Kerala),

Nelliampathy Hills (Kerala), parts of Palni Hills

(Tamil Nadu) and, the Chinnar and Eravikulam

Wildlife Sanctuaries (Kerala). These hills occupy

a unique place in the Western Ghats, since the

Ghats are widest (east to west) at this point. The

present Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary and

National Park is located at 10° 13' 08" to 10° 33'

27" N, and 76° 49' 02" to 77° 21' 07" E. In 1976,

it was declared a Sanctuary encompassing

958 sq. km. In 1989, 108 sq. km of this Sanctuary

was declared a National Park, which included

Karian Shola, Grasshills and Manjampatty. The

entire Sanctuary lies in the Western Ghats. It

includes the low lying northern and eastern

plains, two plateaus, and the high hills. The

altitude ranges from about 275 m above msl in

the Amaravathi Range and about 340 m above

msl in the Pollachi Range, to nearly 2,500 m

above msl in the Valparai Range. The rainfall

varies from an annual average of 50 cm in the

eastern side of the Sanctuary to about 500 cm in

the western plateaus and slopes. The Sanctuary

receives both southwest and northeast monsoon.

However, the former is predominant in the

western region and the latter in the eastern

region.

Anaimalai Hills have a long history of

forestry and related operations (Davidar 1987).

Most of the area is characterized by steep hills

and deep valleys. However, there are two large

plateaus at Top Slip and Valparai. About 150

years back, these hills contained undisturbed and

contiguous tracts of forests. The two plateau

regions first came under horticulture and forestry.

a. Teak Plantations in Top Slip Plateau:

Because of the medium elevation (< 700 m above

msl) and medium rainfall (150 cm), this plateau

primarily contained moist deciduous forests

dominated by bamboo and teak. Vast stretches

were opened up for teak plantations (Sundararaju

1987). Only a few stretches of mixed deciduous

and bamboo forest were left, which have been

serving as a crucial habitat for certain animals.

b. Tea Plantations in Valparai Plateau:

Because of the higher elevation (> 1 ,000 m above

msl) and relatively higher rainfall (>250 cm),

this plateau contained rainforests and semi-

evergreen forests. The region was found highly

suitable for growing tea and coffee (Congreve

1938). More than 20,000 ha of these forests

around the present town of Valparai were leased

to private companies, clear felled and converted

into tea gardens, which brought a large number

of people from the plains to the hills, where they

became permanent settlers (now < 200,000).

c. Hydel projects: The third onslaught

disturbing wildlife habitats critically is from the

water harvesting schemes in this hill system.

Although these hills receive high rainfall, the

plains on the eastern side are very dry. It was

realized that dams could be constructed at various

places and the deep valleys would store an

enormous amount of water for irrigation and

power generation. Four water management

schemes were, therefore, taken up in these hills.

The Sholaiyar system includes smaller dams up

hills such as Nirar, and larger dams including

Sholaiyar, Parambikulam and Thunakadavu

downstream. The second scheme includes the

Kadamparai dam. Upper Aliyar and Lower

Aliyar dams. On the eastern side, the two single

dam -schemes include Tirumurthy and

Amaravathi. Power generation was taken up at

Sholaiyar, Kadamparai, Navamalai and

Sarkarpathi. A 49 km long contour canal was

built to divert the Thunakadavu-Parambikulam

water from the west to drain into Tirumurthy on

the east.

In spite of these onslaughts on the forests,

the Anaimalai Hills still retain some of the finest

wildlife habitats in southern India. The hills are

characterized by diverse forest types (Fig. 1 ). The

lower elevation areas around Navamalai in

Pollachi Range, and the areas of Amaravathi and

Udumalpet ranges contain southern tropical

186

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77° 21' 07"

DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS, RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

187

Fig. 1: Major vegetation types in Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary

DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS , RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS

thorn forests. The medium altitude ranges around

Attakatti, Upper Aliyar, Kadamparai region and

Top Slip region are characterized by deciduous

forests. The upper ranges (>1,000 m above msl)

around Valparai and even the middle elevation

but high rainfall areas of Vargaliar-Panathiar

region harbour rainforests. The mountain slopes

(>1,800 m above msl) support typical shola

forests, whereas the mountain tops are

characterized by extensive stretches of

grasslands, making it a typical montane habitat.

Kumar et al. (1998) characterize the tropical wet

evergreen forests in Indira Gandhi Wildlife

Sanctuary as dominated by Cullenia-Mesua-

Palaquium, Hopea-Mesua-Artocarpus and

Dipterocarpus-AnacolGsa associations; tropical

montane forests dominated by Gordonia-

Michelia-Eugenia species; mixed dry and moist

deciduous forests dominated by Tectona-

Tenninalia-Dillenia-L agers tro em i a species; and

thorn forests by several species of Acacia ,

Zizy pirns and Albizzia.

This variety of habitats accounts for the

diverse wildlife in the hills. The scrub and

deciduous forests are home to most of the

terrestrial mammals. The rainforests support a

large variety of arboreal wildlife, and the peaks

harbour typical montane species such as Nilgiri

tahr. However, wildlife management in the

Anaimalai Hills is a serious challenge. In

addition to the past pressures, the present day

problems include:

a. The management of wildlife in

fragmented forests, especially in the rainforest

fragments, and areas around the 35 tribal

settlements in the Sanctuary.

b. The management of people: The tribes

on the western side live primarily in rainforests

and generally do not maintain livestock, while

those settled in the dry forests on the eastern side

maintain large stocks of cattle. Therefore, the

grazing pressure is high on the eastern side.

Similar biotic pressure is also faced from the

villages outside the Sanctuary limits on the

northern and eastern sides. Apart from the

pressure of grazing by livestock, human pressures

also visibly affect the Valparai plateau.

Methods

The two methods used were systematic

sampling and incidental encounters. Systematic

sampling was carried out by the line transect

method and plot method.

Line Transect Method: Transects of

varying length were laid in different habitat types

(Fig. 2). The length of each transect was

measured using a pedometer. All transects were

not straight lines, due to the mountainous terrain

and presence of several water reservoirs. Table 1

provides a summary of the length of transects in

different forest ranges and vegetation types. A

total of 38 transects were laid, covering a length

of 200.47 km. A single transect could run

through more than one vegetation type. All

transects were walked at least once and most of

them were repeated in wet and dry seasons. While

walking a transect, the season, transect number,

transect length, length of each vegetation type

along a transect, mammalian species

encountered, number of animals of each species

sighted, distance of each animal from the starting

point of the transect, and altitude were recorded.

The data collected through this method were used

for estimating encounter rates of various

mammalian species. To some extent, this

estimate was influenced by differences in

visibility among various vegetation types. In the

text, monoculture refers to teak and eucalyptus

plantations inside the Sanctuary.

Plot Method: This was the second method

employed in systematic sampling. Each plot was

3 m in width and 50 m in length. A plot was laid

at every 500 m along the transect lines. The

details of these plots are provided in Table 1.

The plots were investigated only once, when

information was recorded on season, vegetation

type, signs of mammalian species (sightings,

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DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS, RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

189

Fig. 2: Locations of line transects during the survey in Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary

(see Appendix-11 for names of places and distance of transects)

DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS

Table 1

DISTANCE COVERED (M) IN LINE TRANSECTS AND NUMBER OF PLOTS

IN VARIOUS RANGES AND FOREST TYPES

Values in parentheses indicate number of plots

fresh signs of tracks, droppings, scrapes, feeding,

digging, kills), altitude, dung deposits by

livestock, woodcutting, poaching (snares, traps

and encounters with poachers) and movement

of people. Grazing was considered moderate if

less than 60% plots per transect had cattle dung

deposits, and severe if more than 60% had the

same.

Woodcutting was also classified as rare or

common, with similar percentage of plots per

transect with stumps of cut wood. Average

number of poaching signs per kilometre was

calculated. The data collected through this

method was used to record the absence or

presence of wild mammals, as well as to assess

the effect of biotic factors on occurrence of wild

mammals.

Incidental Encounters (day and night):

A systematic record has been kept on all

mammalian species sighted in different parts of

the Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary since July

1994. We also made several night trips by jeep

and on foot in a few accessible places, primarily

in the deciduous and rainforest. Such data have

been used to indicate the presence and relative

encounter rates, especially of some small

mammals.

Regular ad libitum notes on physical

barriers, and movement of people in the forest

were also maintained from the information

gathered from locals and forest staff. The data

on the distribution of the Nilgiri tahr was

collected through ad libitum sampling, since

transect or plot method did not provide reliable

information for this species.

Data analysis was carried out by applying

the chi-square test for k proportions (Gibbons

1971).

Results

Large Herbivorous Mammals

Occurrence in different vegetation types’.

Tables 2 and 3 present the data on encounter rates

in transects and occurrence of signs in plots,

respectively, on large herbivorous mammals in

different vegetation types. The significance of

difference for vegetation types was calculated

through the chi-square test for k proportions for

each species separately (Gibbons 1971). Except

for muntjac ( Muntiacus muntjak ), the encounter

rates of all animals differed significantly among

various vegetation types (Table 2). In plots too,

except for sambar (Cervus unicolor ), and wild

pig ( Sus scrofa ), the percent of occurrence of

signs differed significantly among different

vegetation types (Table 3). The direct sighting

data reveal that these mammalian species occur

with a higher frequency in relatively drier forests

including monoculture. On the other hand, the

190

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 99(2), AUG. 2002

DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS, RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS

plot data shows more signs of these species in

the rainforest, riparian forest and monoculture.

Chital (Axis axis ) was found to occur primarily

in the scrub forest, with the exception of a small

population in a deciduous forest at Top Slip.

Contingency coefficient was also calculated for

gaur ( Bos gaums), sambar, muntjac, chital and

wild pig for their occurrence in rainforest and

other vegetation types (combined) for the data

presented in Table 3. A significant chi-square

fc2 =20.99; df=4; p=0.01) revealed that, whereas

gaur, sambar and muntjac had a higher frequency

in rainforest, chital and wild pig had a higher

frequency in other vegetation types.

Occurrence at different altitudes'. Tables

4 and 5 present data on large herbivorous

mammals at different altitudes. Except for

muntjac, the encounter rates differed

significantly in relation to altitude (Table 4),

whereas sambar, chital and wild pig were sighted

with a higher frequency at <500 m, elephant

( Elephas maximus) and gaur were encountered

more frequently at 500-1,500 m. However, the

plot data (Table 5) revealed no significant

Table 2

NUMBER OF LARGE HERBIVOROUS MAMMALS ENCOUNTERED IN DIFFERENT VEGETATION TYPES

IN INDIRA GANDHI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

Elephant ( Elephas maximus ); Gaur ( Bos gaurus)\ Sambar (Cervus unicolor)', Muntjac ( Mimtiacus muntjak ); Chital (Axis axis).

Wild pig ( Sits scrofa).

Values in parentheses indicate encounter rate per kilometre

Table 3

OCCURRENCE OF SIGNS OF LARGE HERBIVOROUS MAMMALS IN PLOTS

IN DIFFERENT VEGETATION TYPES IN INDIRA GANDHI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

Values in parentheses indicate occurrence of signs in per cent plots

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

191

DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS , RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS

Table 4

NUMBER OF LARGE HERBIVOROUS MAMMALS ENCOUNTERED AT DIFFERENT ALTITUDES (M)

IN INDIRA GANDHI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

Values in parentheses indicate occurrence of signs in per cent plots

difference in the distribution of elephant, sambar

and muntjac with altitude. Chital and gaur

occupied lower (<500 m) and higher (500-

1,500 m) ranges respectively. Whereas the

encounter data revealed significantly higher

overall frequency of these species at <500 m

(Table 4), this difference was not significant in

the plots data (Table 5).

Large Carnivorous Mammals

Occurrence in different vegetation types

and at different altitudes'. Tables 6 and 7 present

the data collected through plot method on large

carnivorous mammals in relation to vegetation

types and altitude respectively. Significant

differences in the occurrence in relation to

vegetation type and altitude were found only for

bear ( Melursus ursinus) and leopard (Panthera

pardus ). Bear occurred with a higher frequency

in deciduous, riparian, scrub and monoculture

forests, as against rainforest and grasslands

(Table 6). The occurrence of leopard was greater

in riparian, scrub and grassland and monoculture

regions as compared to rainforest and deciduous

forest. The overall occurrence of large carnivores

was greater in scrub and monoculture areas.

Whereas bear had a higher frequency at >500 m

(Table 7), the leopard was abundant at <1,000

m. Contingency coefficient was also calculated

for occurrence of leopard and tiger {Panthera

tigris) in rainforest and other vegetation types

(combined) for the data in Table 6. A significant

chi-square (x2 ^4.97; df=l; pK).05) revealed that

leopard and tiger occurred with higher

192

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 99(2). AUG. 2002

DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS . RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS

Table 6

OCCURRENCE OF SIGNS OF LARGE CARNIVOROUS MAMMALS IN PLOTS

IN DIFFERENT VEGETATION TYPES IN INDIRA GANDHI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

Values in parentheses indicate occurrence of signs in per cent plots

frequencies in other vegetation types and

rainforest, respectively.

Small Mammals

Occurrence in different vegetation types :

Tables 8 and 9 present the data on the occurrence

of small mammals in different vegetation types.

Mongoose and hare were encountered more in

the drier forests than in the rainforest (Table 8).

Whereas pangolin ( Manis crass icaudata) and

porcupine ( Hystrix indica ) were evenly

distributed in all vegetation types (Table 9),

mouse deer ( Tragulus meminna) occurred with

a higher frequency in rainforest and monoculture,

and the small Indian civet ( Viverricula indica )

and brown palm civet were abundant in the

rainforest and grassland. A contingency

coefficient analysis was applied to the occurrence

of small mammals in rainforest and other

vegetation types (combined) for the data in

Table 9. A significant chi-square (x2=8.65; df=3;

p=0.05) revealed that mouse deer and civet

occurred with a higher frequency in rainforest,

while pangolin and porcupine had a higher

frequency in other vegetation types.

Occurrence at different altitudes: Tables

10 and 1 1 present the data on the occurrence of

small mammals at different altitudes. Only the

hare had a significantly higher frequency at

<1,000 m as against >1,000 m (Table 10).

However, the data from plots gave non-

significant difference in the occurrence of mouse

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

193

DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS, RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS

Table 8

NUMBER OF SMALL MAMMALS ENCOUNTERED IN DIFFERENT VEGETATION TYPES

IN INDIRA GANDHI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

Values in parentheses indicate encounter rate per kilometre

Table 9

OCCURRENCE OF SIGNS OF SMALL MAMMALS IN PLOTS IN DIFFERENT VEGETATION TYPES

IN INDIRA GANDHI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

Values in parentheses indicate occurrence of signs in per cent plots

deer, civet, pangolin and porcupine at different <

altitudes (Table 11). <

(

Arboreal Mammals t

Occurrence in different vegetation types (

and at different altitudes'. Tables 12 and 13 *

present the data on the encounter rates of arboreal <

mammals in different vegetation types and t

altitudes. Significant differences were observed 1

in the occurrence of all arboreal species 1

inhabiting different vegetation types (Table 12). t

Malabar giant squirrel ( Ratufa indica ) had a

higher frequency in rainforest, deciduous forest I

and monoculture; grizzled squirrel ( Ratufa \

macrouru ) had a higher frequency in riparian

forest; bonnet macaques ( Macaca radiata) \

occurred only in deciduous and riparian forests; t

lion-tailed macaques had a higher frequency in (

the rainforest; Nilgiri langur in the rainforest and \

deciduous forest; and Hanuman langur ( Presbytis

entellus) in riparian forest. Significant

differences were observed for all arboreal

mammals in their occurrence at different altitudes

(Table 13). Whereas Malabar giant squirrel was

encountered with a higher frequency at altitudes

of >500 m, the grizzled squirrel was encountered

at <500 m only. Bonnet macaque and Hanuman

langur occurred primarily at <500 m, whereas

lion-tailed macaque and Nilgiri langur occurred

at >500 m.

Distribution of mammals in wet and dry

ranges

In Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary, the

western ranges receive higher rainfall (>250 cm)

than the eastern ranges (<75 cm). The

distribution pattern of a few important prey and

predator species was analyzed by combining the

194

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 99(2). AUG. 2002

DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS , RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS

data from plots in different ranges. Whereas gaur

and mouse deer had a significantly higher

frequency in the wetter ranges, the dry ranges

had a higher frequency of chital (Table 14).

Although tiger occurred with a higher frequency

in the wet ranges, and leopard and dhole ( Cuon

alpinus) occurred with a higher frequency in the

dry ranges, the difference in their distribution

failed to reach the statistical significance (Table

14).

Table 10

NUMBER OF SMALL MAMMALS ENCOUNTERED AT DIFFERENT ALTITUDES (M)

IN INDIRA GANDHI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

Values in parentheses indicate encounter rate per kilometre

Table 1 1

OCCURRENCE OF SIGNS OF SMALL MAMMALS IN PLOTS AT DIFFERENT ALTITUDES (M)

IN INDIRA GANDHI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

Values in parentheses indicate occurrence of signs in per cent plots

Table 1 2

NUMBER OF ARBOREAL MAMMALS ENCOUNTERED IN DIFFERENT VEGETATION TYPES

IN INDIRA GANDHI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

Giant squirrel ( Ratufa indica)\ Grizzled squirrel ( Ratufa macroura)] Bonnet macaque ( Macaca rcidiata ); Lion-tailed macaque

(M. silenus),'Ni\g\r\ langur (Presbytis jolmii)\ Hanuman langur (P. entellus)

Values in parentheses indicate encounter rate per kilometre

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2). AUG. 2002

195

DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS, RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS

Table 13

NUMBER OF ARBOREAL MAMMALS ENCOUNTERED AT DIFFERENT ALTITUDES (M)

IN INDIRA GANDHI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

Values in parentheses indicate encounter rate per kilometre

An analysis was specifically attempted for

the occurrence of elephants in the wet and dry

ranges during wet (June-November) and dry

(December-May) periods (Table 15). The data

clearly indicated that the elephants occurred with

a higher frequency in the wetter ranges of the

west during the dry season and in the drier ranges

of the east during the wet season. The reliability

of the data was indicated by the overall

Table 14

OCCURRENCE OF SIGNS OF MAMMALIAN SPECIES

IN PLOTS IN WET AND DRY RANGES

OF INDIRA GANDHI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

Values in parentheses indicate occurrence of signs

in per cent plots

occurrence of elephants in 4 1 .5 and 42.8 % plots

in wet and dry season respectively.

Incidental encounters of some mammalian

species

Small mammals and Nilgiri tahr. The data

on our long term but incidental recordings of

small mammals and Nilgiri tahr obtained

through night drives and walks of known

distance is presented in Table 16. The sighting

frequency was converted to encounters per

kilometre. Many small mammals were found

only in some characteristic habitat types in the

Sanctuary, but the data table in the end presents

the overall encounter rates for the entire

Sanctuary. Slender loris {Loris tardigradus) was

seen only in the drier regions of the Sanctuary,

with an overall encounter rate of 0.04 animals/

km. Flying squirrel {Petaurista petaurista) and

Table 15

OCCURRENCE OF SIGNS OF ELEPHANTS

IN PLOTS IN WET AND DRY RANGES

ACROSS SEASONS IN INDIRA GANDHI

WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

Values in parentheses indicate occurrence of signs

in per cent plots

196

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

Table 16

DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS , RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

197

DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS, RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS

Table 17

OCCURRENCE OF SIGNS OF BIOTIC FACTORS IN TRANSECTS IN DIFFERENT RANGES

IN INDIRA GANDHI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

Values in parentheses indicate occurrence of signs in percent plots

mouse deer were met with encounter rates of 0. 1 2

and 0.03 animals/km respectively, with a

considerably higher rate in the wetter forests. ;

Nilgiri marten and stripenecked mongoose ]

(Herpestes vittico/lis) (0.003 and 0.01 animals/ 1

km respectively) were also found only in the wet ]

regions. The distribution of different species of 1

civets showed strong ecological correlates. In the

lower altitude and relatively drier forests, <

common palm civet and small Indian civet were «

sympatric, the former being more common I

(Fig. 3). In the higher altitude and wetter regions,

brown palm civet and small Indian civet were

sympatric. The brown palm civet was more <

common in the forested regions, whereas the

small Indian civet preferred relatively open areas

such as tea estates.

Fig. 4 presents the information on the 1

distribution of Nilgiri tahr in the Sanctuary i

(Appendix-Ill). The Nilgiri tahr was found I

mainly in the rocky terrain and hilltops from

500 m (3 HP on Aliyar-Valparai Road) to about i

2,500 m (Akkamalai ridge) and occurred in both :

wet and dry regions. The presence of tahr could i

be classified into eight distinct populations in i

the Sanctuary. Populations I (8 animals), III (14 i

animals) and IV (indirect evidence of presence) l

appeared to be isolated in the Sanctuary, but it is >

possible that they are continuous with 1

populations in Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary j

in Kerala. These areas need further exploration.

Populations VI (71 animals sighted at one time)

and VIII (2 animals) were again isolated

populations. Population VI at Pachchapalmalai

appeared to be a biologically self-sustaining

population, whereas Population VIII probably

had only a few animals. Two populations, i.e.

Population II (39 animals) and Population V

(32 animals) were distributed over relatively large

areas with probably low densities. A relatively

high density (191 animals sighted at one time)

was observed in Population VII (211 animals)

in the Akkamalai-Grasshills region, which is

continuous with Eravikulam Wildlife Sanctuary

in Kerala, making this population contiguous

with that in Kerala.

Mammals sighted in tea gardens'. Many

private tea gardens in the Valparai plateau still

retain fragments of rainforest (Fig. 1) and also

have areas under eucalyptus plantations.

Although line transects and plots were not laid

in these forests fragments during the present

study all incidental encounters with wild

mammals in the private estates and forests were

recorded. The number of encounters with wild

mammals was as follows: elephant herds (22),

gaur herds (63), sambar (88), muntjac (176),

mouse deer ( 1 6), wild pig (3), porcupine (3), bear

(13), tiger (1), leopard (14), dhole packs (27),

jackal (Cams aureus) (4), leopard cat ( Felis

198

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 99(2). AUG. 2002

DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS, RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS

76° 56' 8"

77° 3' 14"

29' 3"

19' 2"

Fig. 3: Distribution of civets in Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary

and private tea gardens around Aliyar-Valparai Road

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

199

76° 49' 02"

DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS

200

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

Fig. 4: Populations of Nilgiri Tahr in Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary (see Appendix-Ill for names of places)

DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS, RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS

bengalensis) (3), unidentified cat (1), stripe-

necked mongoose (23), brown palm civet (8) and

small Indian civet (33). In addition, several

fragments harbour resident populations of lion-

tailed macaque. Nilgiri langur, Malabar giant

squirrel and flying squirrels ( Petaurista sp). The

small and arboreal mammals are resident in the

forest fragments used by the larger terrestrial

animals to move between Manampalli/

Shekalmudi and Akkamalai/lyerpadi forests.

Biotic factors and barriers for dispersal

Biotic pressures on the Sanctuary. Table

17 presents data on grazing by the livestock and

woodcutting by people in the Sanctuary.

Statistically significant differences were observed

for severe grazing in various forest ranges. High

grazing pressure was observed in the drier ranges

including Pollachi, Udumalpet and Amaravathi.

Grazing by the livestock was not observed in

Ulandy, and the pressure was not severe in

Valparai and Manampalli ranges. Although

woodcutting was more common in Amaravathi,

the chi-square test did not show any significant

difference among the various forest ranges. Fig.

5 presents the data on signs of poaching attempts

per kilometre in different ranges. More snares

and traps were found in Ulandy and Pollachi

ranges as compared to other ranges. No such

signs were found in Amaravathi range. Traps of

different sizes made out of wooden stumps and

bamboo were found during the study. Snares

made out of plastic wires and wire mesh were

also found. Most of these traps were placed in

forest fringes along estates or village boundaries.

The traps were also found near water holes and

in the regularly used animal tracks. Over the

years we observed occasional stealing of kills

made by dhole and leopard in some tea estates

bordering forest areas. Analysis was also carried

out for the occurrence of all mammalian species

in per cent plots with relation to biotic factors.

With the exception of gaur, the distribution of

no other species was found to be in any way

influenced by the biotic factors, the details of

these analyses are not presented here. Gaur was

found to occur in 41.3, 8.0 and 0 percent plots,

in plots with no grazing, moderate grazing and

severe grazing, respectively. A chi-square

analysis (x2=39.5; df=2; p=0.01) revealed the

above frequencies of occurrence of gaur in plots

to differ significantly.

Barriers for dispersal of mammals'. The

barriers (Fig. 6) for dispersal of mammals in

Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary were both

natural and man-made. The natural barriers were

hills with steep slopes. Man-made barriers

included tea estates, hydel projects, human

settlements and various roads. The most

prominent barrier was the road between Aliyar

and Valparai. Not only is the traffic heavy on

this road, but the terrain from Aliyar up to

Iyerpadi forest makes the movement of animals

between west and east difficult. South of Iyerpadi

forest, the Valparai plateau area was cultivated

for tea. The western and eastern sides of this road

have become two separate regions with a small

corridor between them at Iyerpadi and Andiparai

forests. Aliyar, Upper Aliyar and Kadamparai

system of reservoirs further separate the eastern

and western ranges.

In the eastern parts of the Sanctuary, a large

number of tribal settlements with domestic cattle

were an obstruction to the free movement of

mammals. As may be seen in Fig. 6, the tribal

settlements in the eastern region were not only

more numerous than in the western region, they

were also clustered, most of them with their

livestock were concentrated in the drier parts of

the Sanctuary. Although the average number of

households per settlement (about 23) was the

same in the wet and the dry regions, the livestock

averaged 3.9 animals per household in the dry

region against 0.3 animals in the wet region. In

addition, there were several colonies for the staff

of the Tamil Nadu Electricity Board. The

concentration of these colonies, movement of

personnel, vehicles, and cattle was primarily in

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201

DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS, RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS

RANGES

(VAL - Valparai, MAN - Manampalli, ULA - Ulandy, POL - Pollachi, UDU - Udumalpet, AMA - Amaravathi)

Fig. 5: Poaching signs per kilometre in different ranges

the drier regions at Attakatti, Upper Aliyar,

Navamalai, and Kadamparai. Such movement

is much less at Manampalli Power House in the

wetter region. Due to the presence of steep hills

and relatively dry scrub forests, the availability

of forage and space for movement for wild

animals was restricted to a few narrow valleys

and streambeds. Most of these areas were also

utilized by locals and their livestock, creating

human-animal conflicts. In the western region,

the southern forests of Valparai range were totally

cut off from the northern forests of Manampalli

and Ulandy ranges due to tea gardens in the

Valparai plateau. Sholaiyar and Parambikulam

reservoirs have cut off the adjoining forest areas.

Discussion

Methodological issues

In the present study, line transect method

based on direct sightings, and plot method based

on indirect evidence, were used to complement

each other. The results obtained through these

two methods reflect upon the relative efficacy of

these methods for one time survey of mammalian

species. As far as vegetation types and

distribution of mammals was concerned, the two

methods brought out two different distribution

patterns. On the basis of direct sightings, large

herbivorous mammals appeared to have a higher

frequency in drier forests. However, the plot

method indicated higher occurrence, except for

elephant and wild pig, of these species in

rainforests. Likewise, the encounter rates of these

species were higher at lower altitudes (with dry

and open forests), but the indirect evidence from

plot method showed an even distribution at

different altitudes. It is, therefore, very clear that

visibility, determined by the nature of vegetation,

is a limiting factor in the direct sighting method.

Direct sightings have proved to be efficient in

determining abundance and density of wild

animals, but perhaps only when one repeatedly

walks on transects. We propose that for a quick

202

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DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS, RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS

appraisal of mammalian distribution and relative

abundance in a single survey, the plot method is

more useful.

Habitat types, mammalian distribution and

niche separation

The 958 sq. km area of Indira Gandhi

Wildlife Sanctuary is characterized by a variety

of habitat types. A unique feature of the Sanctuary

is the presence of the Western Ghats ridges and

plateaus receiving heavy monsoon, and the

eastern slopes and plains in the rain shadow.

These rainfall patterns have led to the growth of

forests that include scrub jungles, deciduous

forests, rainforests, shola and grasslands. These

habitat types in turn support a variety of wild

mammalian species that inhabit all or most

habitat types, or are typical only to some habitat

types. Some of the large herbivorous mammals

such as elephant, gaur and sambar, that are more

or less generalized feeders, occur in almost all

habitats. Elephant, the most generalized feeder,

even moves from wet ranges during the dry

season to dry ranges during the wet season. On

the other hand, typical niches such as scrub

jungles of plains and rocky faces of mountains

are occupied by chital and Nilgiri tahr

respectively. The Nilgiri tahr populations

described in this paper are similar to those

described earlier (Mishra and Johnsingh 1998).

Similar ecological separation in closely

related species can be seen in small mammals

too. The common palm civet inhabiting dry

forests of the lower altitudes is replaced by the

brown palm civet in the wetter forests at higher

altitudes. The small Indian civet also occurs at

higher altitude, but is usually found in open areas

such as tea gardens, and hence is separated from

the forest dwelling brown palm civet.

The most remarkable case of niche

separation was observed in arboreal mammals.

The Malabar giant squirrel, occurring at a high

frequency in many habitat types, is seen at a

significantly lower frequency in the riparian

forest at <1,000 m. The riparian forests in the

eastern part of the Sanctuary are occupied by the

grizzled squirrel. In the rainforests at >1,000 m,

lion-tailed macaque and Nilgiri langur are

sympatric, but Nilgiri langur also inhabits moist

deciduous forests. In the dry forests at lower

altitudes, the riparian forest is primarily occupied

by the Hanuman langur, while deciduous and

scrub forests are inhabited by the bonnet

macaque. Though not as clear cut as in other

taxa, a tendency towards niche separation may

also be observed in large carnivores. Tiger and

gaur is more abundant in the western regions,

whereas leopard, dhole and chital are more

abundant in the eastern ranges.

A higher frequency of most terrestrial

mammals was observed in ‘monoculture’ as

compared to other habitat types. This may be due

to the fact that animals use the patches of teak

plantations to move between different habitat

types.

Biotic factors

Although there are biotic pressures in the

form of grazing, woodcutting and poaching,

these factors did not appear to influence the

distribution and relative abundance of most wild

mammals. However, grazing by the livestock

appears to have significantly affected the

occurrence of gaur. The present data, and also

our observations of several years, show that gaur

is almost absent from the areas grazed by

livestock. In the entire eastern parts of the

Sanctuary, gaur occurs only on some steep slopes

or in some valleys, which are not grazed upon

by the livestock. This pattern can be seen in the

Navamalai-Contour Canal region. Gaur is

frequently seen south of contour canal where the

livestock is prohibited, but in the entire area north

of the canal, which is grazed by cows and

buffaloes, it has never been observed though some

habitat is suitable for gaur. Similarly, in the upper

Aliyar-Kadamparai-Vandal region, and also

around tribal settlements in the eastern parts,

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203

Fig. 6: Natural and man-made barriers for animal dispersal in Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary

DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS, RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS

204

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

1. Karian Shola, 2 Top Slip, 3. Perambikulam, 4 Sarkarpathi, 5. Varagaiiyar, 6. Ayamgulam, 7. Manampalli P. House. 8. Urlikal, 9. Shekalmudi, 10 Varutparai

ll .korangumuclj, 12. Sholaiyar, 13. Vaiparai, 14. Cinnakallar, 15. Iyerpadi, 16.36HP. 17. Akkamalai, 18. Andiparai, 19. Sirikundru, 20. Nadumalat, 2 1 . Navamalai,

22. Mavidappu, 23. Karumutti, 24. Kulipatti, 25. Kurumalai, 26. Kottaiar, 27. Erumakandi, 28. Thirumurthy, 29. Isalthittu, 30. Attukudi. 31.Kodandur, 32. Chinnar

Cneck Post, 3j. Elumalaikovil, 34. Aniaravathi, 35. Vandiar, 36. Thuvanam, 37. Varavandiodai

DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS , RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS

though a large area is relatively dry, it is still

suitable for gaur in most places. The availability

of natural fodder in these areas is evident from

the fact that a large number of domestic animals

graze here.

Management of wild mammals in Indira

Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary

The habitat types, distribution and relative

abundance of mammals and the biotic pressures

in Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary have

implications for management.

Management in the wet western region:

The main feature of the western ranges is the

fragmentation of rainforest, and the presence of

forest fragments in tea estates. In a detailed study

of forest fragmentation and its effect on arboreal

and terrestrial small mammals, Kumar et al.

(1998) stated that several parameters related to

these fragments influence the presence of

mammals in different ways. The size of the

fragments influenced the occurrence of arboreal

mammals with lion-tailed macaques as the most

affected. The loss of canopy contiguity directly

affected the presence of the Nilgiri langur. The

distribution patterns of rodents were influenced

such that the forest fragments smaller in size and

frequented by humans have become dominated

by the commensal species. Spiny dormouse has

disappeared totally from small fragments.

According to Kumar et al. (1998), more than

the size, it was the quality of a fragment that

determined the occurrence of mammalian

species. This observation has far reaching

implications for the management of forests and

wildlife in the western ranges of Indira Gandhi

Wildlife Sanctuary. As mentioned in the results,

the Valparai plateau is frequently used by small

and large mammals to move between

Manampalli/Urlikal/Shekalinudi and Nirar/

Cinnakallar/Akkamalai areas. During these

movements, the animals make use of the

remaining forest fragments for forage and as

shelter. Some of these very crucial private forest

patches are at Varutparai, Puthuthotam,

Sirikundru, Korangumudi, Nadumalai, and other

smaller patches of vegetation along streams. The

region being a plateau, the animals have probably

historically used these areas for movement, and

will continue to use them. It is, therefore, a must

that these forest fragments, including

monocultures of eucalyptus in some places, are

paid special attention. Since these fragments also

harbour arboreal mammals, special attention also

must be paid to the type of vegetation around

and inside these fragments. A plan can be

developed to retain these fragments, improve the

quality of vegetation and also to link them

through stream corridors. This plan is workable

and can be executed with the help of the

management of tea estates, showing them that it

is in their long-term interest if the private forest

fragments are maintained and improved. If these

fragments are removed or further degraded, man-

animal conflict may only become severe,

resulting in the loss of property and human lives

due to the larger mammals.

Some rainforest areas such as

Sankarankudi are underplanted with cardamom.

Green and Minkowski ( 1 977) stated that clearing

the dense undergrowth vegetation destroys the

intricate network of roots supplied by the smaller

plants rendering the soil in cardamom fields

more vulnerable to erosion. As the removed

vegetation no longer contributes to leaf litter and

soil humus, the moisture retention capability of

soil is reduced. They further stated that when a

cardamom field is abandoned, the early

success ional stages of the forest are inhibited,

with a long-term effect on the regeneration

process. The area under cardamom plantation,

therefore, should be minimized, or the practice

should be abandoned.

Management in the dry eastern region:

Although there are a few perennial water sources

available in the form of rivers such as

Kurumalaiar, Vandiar, Kottaiar, Chinnar and

Tirumurthy and Amaravathi reservoirs, most of

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DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS, RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS

the areas in the northeast and southeast of the

Sanctuary are dry. The terrestrial mammals,

during the dry months, are restricted to areas

where water is available. Elephants move to the

wet regions in the west during the dry season.

However, the other small mammals probably do

not have such seasonal migrations. The steep

hills in many parts of the east are inaccessible to

many mammalian species, especially the larger

ones. Therefore, the valleys and streambeds of

these hills are critical and must be left

undisturbed for local movement of animals. In

many places, settlements are placed right inside

the most feasible and the only accessible places

for animals. For example, the Attukudi

settlement has cut off animal movement from

Vandiar and Kottaiar towards Kodandur.

Isalthittu settlement is another critical point for

animals to move between Elumalaikovil and

Guddar. Further, the human movement is most

frequent between Tirumurthymalai-Kurumalai,

Tirumurthymalai-Kottaiar-Attukudi-Kodandur-

Chinnar Check Post, Kurumalai-Kulipatti,

Poosakottam-Thalamedupatti, Kulipatti-

Karumutti, Mavidappu-Upper Aliyar-Navarmalai,

Chinnar 9th Checkpost-Elumalaikovil and Vandal-

Kadamparai. Although gaur are found in areas

grazed by livestock in other sanctuaries such as

Mudumalai, in Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary,

the presence of domestic cattle appears to reduce

the presence of gaur. Locals informed us that gaur

was present in some areas about 50 years back,

but is absent now. Although it is not possible to

stop the movement of people and livestock

immediately, it should be minimized in most

crucial areas such as streambeds and valleys. The

grazing areas should be clearly demarcated for

settlements such as Kurumalai, Kulipatti,

Attukudi, and Thalmedupatti. Minimizing

grazing may also help to reestablish gaur in many

areas where it is now totally absent in spite of

habitat suitability. A serious thought must also

be given to the eucalyptus plantations raised

during 1970s and 1980s in many parts of the

eastern ranges. These monoculture plantations

could be removed, permitting the native species

to regenerate. This would result in an increase

in the forage areas for herbivores.

Overall management perspectives: A

vision for the Sanctuary 50 years from now must

be clearly chalked out. In order to manage these

hills scientifically, Nilgiri tahr, elephant and

lion-tailed macaque may be taken as flagship

species. These species are endangered and

represent the terrestrial and arboreal wildlife of

these hills.

Tribal settlements should be relocated

outside the Sanctuary. However, this is easier

said than done. Therefore, a highly pragmatic

scheme must be developed with attractive

incentives for these people to move out of the

forest. It is our observation that most of the

younger generation of these tribes are willing to

settle outside. This is an intricate social problem

and a multi-pronged strategy should be

developed with a long-term perspective in mind.

For now, the tribes may be supplied with iron

poles and raw material for construction of

houses. This practice will ease the pressure for

logs from the forest.

Periodic monitoring of wild mammals:

Due to the limitations of time and other resources,

the line transects as well as the plots were

monitored only twice in some areas and once in

most areas. Data collected in this manner does

not provide the statistical rigour that is needed.

It is, therefore, suggested that a few transects

and plots must be laid out permanently and

repeatedly monitored in different seasons. This

activity should be differentiated from the annual

census. Records on the sightings and movement

of larger mammalian species must be regularly

maintained by the staff. Weekly entries may be

made in the register kept by each range officer.

The data may also be computerized to facilitate

analysis. Such information would be extremely

useful in identification of habitat use patterns by

mammals.

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DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS, RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS

Road kills account for a fairly large number

of herpetofauna and small mammals (Kumara

et al. 2000b) in the Sanctuary. Vehicular traffic

on the roads inside the Sanctuary must be

restricted to the essential at night and in the wet

season. There is no need to construct new roads

inside the Sanctuary. However, if such a necessity

arises, the rainforest areas must be totally

avoided. Further, the use of vehicles even by

officials should be minimized on three roads:

Varagaliyar-Manampalli, Akkamalai-Grasshills

and 36HP-Kadamparai Dam. These roads go

through the most sensitive areas and should not

be open to tourists. Coordination must be

established with the managers of tea estates to

jointly carry out some conservation activities such

as education and to curb the stealing of kills

inside the estates.

Refer

Congreve, C.R.T. (1938): The Anaimalais. Madras,

pp. 151.

Daniels, R.J.R. (1994). A landscape approach to

conservation of birds. J. Biosci. 19: 503-509.

Davidar, E.R.C. (1978): Distribution and status of the

Nilgiri tahr ( Hemitragus hylocrius ) - 1975-1978.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75: 815-844.

Davidar, E.R.C. (1987): The Anaimalais - Mountains of

the elephant. Sanctuary 7: 214-225.

Gibbons, J.D. ( 1971): Nonparametric Statistical Inference.

McGravv Hill, New York. Pp. 306.

Green, S.M. & K. Minkowski (1977): The lion-tailed

macaque and its south Indian rainforest habitat. In:

Primate Conservation, (Ed.: Bourne, G.H.). Academic

Press, New York, pp. 289-337.

Inger, R.F. & S.K. Dutta (1986): An overview of the

amphibian fauna of India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

83 (Supplement): 135-146.

Johnsingh, A.J.T. (1986): Diversity and conservation of

carnivorous mammals in India. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci.

(Supplement): 73-89.

Karanth, K.U. ( 1 992): Conservation prospects for lion-tailed

macaques in Karnataka, India. Zoo Biol. 11: 33-41.

Kumar, A. ( 1 987): The Ecology and Population Dynamics

of the Lion-Tailed Macaques (Macaca silenus) in South

India. Ph.D. thesis, Cambridge University, UK. Pp. 174.

Kumar, A. (1997): The lion-tailed macaque. In: In Danger,

(Ed.: Manfredi, P.). Ranthambhore Foundation, New

Acknowledgements

This study was sponsored by the Tamil

Nadu Forest Department and coordinated by the

Nilgiris Wildlife and Environmental Association.

We are grateful to Mr. R Prakasam, IFS, Mr. K.S.

Neelakantan, IFS and Dr. T. Sekar, IFS for

advice. We thank all the Range Forest Officers

and other staff of the Indira Gandhi Wildlife

Sanctuary for assistance during fieldwork; our

fellow researchers including Mridula Singh, H.S.

Sushma, Cornelia Bertsch, Matthew Cooper,

Sindhu Radhakrishna, Ajith Kumar, Divya

Mudappa, N.M. Ishwar, V. Karthik and Shankar

Raman who contributed significantly at different

times. We thank the anonymous referee for the

valuable comments that enhanced the quality of

this article.

E N C E S

Delhi, pp. 98-107.

Kumar, A., M. Sivaganesan, G. Umapathy & A. Prabhakar

(1998): A Study on the Management of Fragments of

the Western Ghats for the Conservation of Fauna with

Special Emphasis on Small Mammals. Final Technical

Report, Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural

History, Coimbatore, pp. !S0.

Kumar, A., G. Umapathy & A. Prabhakar ( 1 995): A study

on the management and conservation of the small

mammals in fragmented rainforests of Western Ghats,

south India: A preliminary report. Primate Conserv.

16: 53-58.

Kumar, M.A., M. Singh, H.N. Kumara, A.K. Sharma &

C. Bertsch (2001): Male migration in lion-tailed

macaques. Primate Rep. 59: 5-18.

Kumara, H.N., M. Singh, A.K. Sharma, M. Singh & M.A.

Kumar (2000a): Faunal component in the diet of lion-

tailed macaque. Primate Rep. 58: 57-66.

Kumara, H.N., A.K. Sharma, M.A. Kumar & M. Singh

(2000b): Road kills of wild fauna in Indira Gandhi

Wildlife Sanctuary and its implications for

management. Biosph. Conserv. 3: 41-47.

Menon, S. & F.E. Poirier (1996): Lion-tailed macaques

( Macaca silenus) in a disturbed forest fragment:

Activity patterns and time budgets. Ini. J. Primatol.

17: 967-985.

Mishra, C. & A.J.T. Johnsingh (1998): Population and

conservation status of the Nilgiri tahr Hemitragus

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hylocrius in Anaimalai Hills, south India. Biol.

Conserv. 86: 199-206.

Singh, M., M. Singh, H.N. Kumara, M.A. Kumar &

L. D’souza (1997a): Inter- and intra-specific

associations of non-human primates in Anaimalai Hills,

south India. Mammalia 61: 17-28.

Singh, M., M. Singh, M.A. Kumar, H.N. Kumara &

L. D’souza (1997b): Distribution and research potential

of non-human primates in the AJiyar-Valparai sector

of Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu, India.

Trop. Biodiv. 4: 197-208.

Singh, M., M. Singh, M.A. Kumar, H.N. Kumara,

L. D’souza & A. K. Sharma(1998): Behaviour of lion-

tailed macaque ( Macaca silenus ) in vulnerable and

relatively secure habitats in the rainforests of Western

Ghats, India. Tigerpaper 25: 19-25.

Singh, M., M. Singh, M.A. Kumar, H.N. Kumara, A.K.

Sharma & ITS. Sushma (2000): Niche separation in

sympatric lion-tailed macaque and Nilgiri langur

( Presbytis johnii) in an Indian tropical rainforest.

Primate Rep. 58: 83-95.

Sundararaju, R. (1987): Management Plan for Indira

Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary, PolJachi. Office of the Chief

Wildlife Warden, Chennai.

APPENDIX-1

TRIBAL SETTLEMENTS WITH APPROXIMATE NUMBER OF HOUSEHOLDS AND LIVES TOCK

IN INDIRA GANDHI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

208

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DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS, RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS

APPENDIX-II

TRANSECT NUMBERS, PLACES OF TRANSECT AND DISTANCE OF EACH TRANSECT

For locations, see Fig. 2

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209

DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS, RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS

APPENDIX-III (contd.)

DISTRIBUTION OF NILGIRI TAHR IN INDIRA GANDHI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

210

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DERMAPTERA IN THE COLLECTION OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, MUMBAI1

N. Chaturvedi2 and G.K. Srivastava3

Key words: Dermaptera, Abor Expedition, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh

The study is based upon a part of the collection made during the Abor Expedition — 191 1-1912

covering the present day Assam and Arunachal Pradesh. Altogether, 23 species (excluding seven

identified up to generic level, since represented either by females or nymphs) belonging to

20 genera are dealt with.

The Dermaptera collection at the Bombay

Natural History Society contains 23 species

(excluding 7 identified up to generic level only),

belonging to 20 genera under 7 families. It is

not possible to identify isolated females and

nymphs, since the taxonomy of the Order is based

primarily on males. A part of the collection (ex

Indian Museum) made during the Abor

Expedition, 1911-12, conducted in present day

Assam and Arunachal Pradesh, was determined

and reported by Burr (1913).

Family: Pygidicranidae

Subfamily: Pygidicraninae

Genus: Crcmopygia Burr, 1908

(= Kalocrania Zacher, 1910)

1 . Cranopygia sp.

1 nymph: Label I (printed) Indian Mus.,

Rotung, 1400 ft (426.72 m), Abor Exped.,

3 1 .xii . 1 9 1 1 , de Courcy, Label 11

(handwritten) Kalocrania siamensis Dohrn,

Label III B-printed, denotes M. Burr; 1 nymph:

Label I (printed) Indian Mus., Abor Exped.,

above Panaji, 400 ft (121.92 m) 16. i. 1912,

Kemp, Label II (handwritten by Burr)

Kalocrania siamensis Dohrn; 1 nymph: Label I

(printed) Indian Mus., Kobo 400 ft (121.92 m),

Abor Exped., 11. xii. 1912, Kemp, Label II

(handwritten by Burr) Kalocrania siamensis

'Accepted December, 2000

2Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House,

S.B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India.

■Zoological Survey of India/M’ Block, New Alipur,

Kolkata 700 053, West Bengal, India.

Dohrn, Label III B-printed, denotes M. Burr and

Label IV (printed) 2349/19 (Regn. No. of Indian

Mus., Now Zoological Survey of India [ZSI]).

Remarks: Burr (1913) referred these

specimens tentatively to Kalocrania siamensis

Dohrn, and Hincks (1959) considered it a dubious

record. Since only nymphs are present, these could

be identified up to the generic level only.

Subfamily: Diplatyinae

Genus: Diplatys Serville, 1831

2. Diplatys sp.

3 Females: No data on locality.

Remarks: In the absence of a male, it is

not possible to identify the species.

3. Diplatys sp. 1

1 ex: Label I (printed) Bombay, July 1911,

N.B. Kinnear, Label II (handwritten) Diplatys

fletcheri Burr; 1 ex: Label I Belgaum, N.B.

Kinnear, September 7, 1915, Label II

(handwritten) Diplatys fletcheri Burr.

Remarks: The hind parts in both the

specimens are absent. Hence, it is not possible

to confirm the species or sex.

4. Diplatys sp. 2

1 ex (hind parts broken off): Label 1 (partly

printed and handwritten) Under stones,

Chikalda, N.B. Kinnear, 26.xi.1913, Label II

(handwritten) K. kinneri; 1 Female Label I

(partly printed and handwritten) Bombay, N.B.

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

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Kinnear, July, 1912, Label II (handwritten) D.

kinneri.

Remarks: An anonymous handwritten

det. label D. kinneri is attached to both the

specimens. It is a manuscript name.

Subfamily: Echinosomatinae

Genus: Echinosoma Serville, 1839

5. Echinosoma sp.

1 nymph: Label I (printed) Indian Mus.,

Abor Exped., Sadiya, N.E. Assam, 26.xi.1911,

Kemp; Label II (handwritten by Burr) Echinosoma

sumatranum Haan; 1 nymph: Label I (printed)

Indian Mus., Panaji, 400 ft (121.92 m), Abor

Exped., 1 6.i. 1912, Kemp; Label II (handwritten

by Bun*) Echinosoma sumatranum Haan.

Remarks: The species could not be

confirmed in the absence of a male. Perhaps these

are referable to E. convolutum Hincks. 1959,

which commonly occurs in NE India.

Family: Anisolabididae

Subfamily: Anisolabidinae

Genus: Euborellia Burr, 1910

6. Euborellia femoralis (Dohrn, 1863)

1 Female, Dangs, 3 1.x. 1963, E.M. Shull,

det. as Labidura dohrni (E); 1 Male, Dangs,

3 1.x. 1963, E.M. Shull, det. as Psalis dohrni (G).

Remarks: Elytra and wings are well

developed in both the specimens.

7. Euborellia sp.

1 early nymph, Bombay, 17.vii.1975.

8. Euborellia annulata (Fabricius, 1793)

1 Female: Label I (partly printed and

handwritten) Bombay, N.B. Kinnear, July-

September, 1912, Label II (handwritten)

Euborellia stali (Dohrn).

Remarks: The above species name was

considered valid by Brindle (1981) and

Srivastava (1999).

Genus: Aborolabis Srivastava, 1969

9. Aborolabis pervicina (Burr, 1913)

1 male: Label I (printed) Indian Mus., Abor

Exped., Rotung, 1400 ft (426.72 m), Kemp,

28.xii.191 1, Label II (printed) Under bark, Label

III (handwritten) Anisolabis pervicina Burr,

Label IV B - printed, denotes M. Burr; 1 Female:

Label I (printed) Indian Mus., Abor Exped.,

Rotung, 1 400 ft (426.72 m), Kemp, 29.xii. 1 9 1 1 ,

M. de Courcy Label II (handwritten) Anisolabis

pervicina Burr, Label III B - printed, denotes

M. Burr; 1 Female: Label I (printed) Indian Mus.,

Abor Exped., Dibrugarh, NE Assam, 17-

1 9 . x i . 1 9 1 1 , Kemp, Label II (handwritten)

Anisolabis pervicina Burr.

Genus: Anisolabella Zacher, 1911

10. Anisolabella dohrni (Kirby, 1891)

2 Females: Chikalda Berars, 3644 ft

(1110.69 m), 1 7.xi. 1913, N.B. Kinnear, under

stones; 1 Female: Chikalda Berars, 3644 ft

(1110.69 m), 25. xi. 1913, N.B. Kinnear;

3 Females: Bombay, 3 1 .xii. 1913, N.B. Kinnear;

1 ex (hind parts missing): Bombay, July 1911,

N. B. Kinnear; 1 Female: Bombay, October 1911,

N.B. Kinnear.

Genus: Apolabis Burr, 1915

1 1 . Apolabis aborensis (Burr, 1913)

1 Female: Label 1 (printed) Indian Mus.,

Abor Exped., Rotung, 1400 ft (426.72 m),

25.xii.1911 Kemp, Label II (handwritten by

Burr) Euborellia aborensis Burr.

212

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DERMAPTERA COLLECTION OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

Remarks: This specimen may be treated

as a paratype, although it was not designated

so.

Family: Labiduridae

Subfamily: Nalinae

Genus: Nala Zacher, 1910

12. Nala lividipes (Dufour, 1820)

1 male: Santacruz, Bombay, 7.xi.l912,

N.B. Kinnear; 1 Female: Santacruz, Bombay,

6 .x i . 1 9 1 2, N.B. Kinnear; 1 ex (hind parts

missing): Dangs, 7.xi.l963, E.M. Shull; 1 male:

Dangs, 7.xi.l963, E.M. Shull; 1 male:

Nalsarovar, Ahmedabad, 1 7.i. 1 962, H. Abdulali;

1 Female: Soccoro, Goa, September, 1915, P.F.

Gomes.

13. Nala nepalensis (Burr, 1907)

1 male: Label I (printed) Indian Mus.,

Abor Exped., Yambung, 1400 ft (426.72 m),

1 3 .i. 1 9 1 2, Kemp, Label II (printed) 2431/19,

Label III (handwritten by Burr) Nala nepalensis

Burr.

Subfamily: Labidurinae

Genus: Labidura Leach, 1915

14. Labidura riparia (Pallas, 1773)

(= Labidura bengalensis Dohrn, 1863)

1 Male, 1 Female, 1 ex (hind parts

missing): Soccoro, Goa, September 1915, P.F.

Gomes; 1 Female: Dangs, 1.x. 1963, E.M. Shull;

1 Male: Dangs, 29. ix. 1963, E.M. Shull;

1 Female: Dangs, 28. ix. 1963, E.M. Shull; 1 ex

(hind parts missing): Dangs, 30.x. 1963, E.M.

Shull; 1 Male: Dangs, 3.x. 1963, E.M. Shull;

1 Male: Monghyr, 21.xi.l962, R.B. Grubh; 1

Male: Great Rann of Kutch, March, 1960, P.W.

Soman.

Genus: Forcipula Bolivar, 1897

15. Forcipula sp.

1 nymph: Nalsarovar, Ahmedabad, H.

Abdulali, 1 7. ii . 1 962; earlier determined as

nymph of F pugnax ; 1 nymph: Belgaum, N.B.

Kinnear, 5.ix. 1910

16. Forcipula abbreviala Srivastava, 1986

1 Male: Label I (printed) Indian Mus.,

Yambung stream, 1100 ft (335.28 m), Abor

Exped., 17. i. 1912, Kemp, Label II (printed)

under stone, Label III (handwritten by Burr)

Forcipula pugnax Kirby, Label IV (printed)

2419/19 (Regn. No. of Indian Mus., now ZSI);

1 nymph: Label I (printed) Indian Mus., Abor

Exped., Yambung stream, 1100 ft (335.28 m),

17. i. 1912, Kemp, Label II (printed) under stone,

Label III (handwritten by Burr) Forcipula

pugnax Kirby, Label IV (printed) 2423/19 (Regn.

No. of Indian Mus. now ZSI), Label V B -

printed, denotes M. Burr.

17. Forcipula quadrispinosa (Dohrn, 1863)

1 ex: Dangs, 1 8.ix. 1 963, E.M. Shull; 2 exs:

Dangs, 22. ix. 196.3, E.M. Shull; 2 Males: Dangs,

2.x. 1963, E.M. Shull; 2 exs: Dangs, 6.xi.!963,

E.M. Shull; 1 Male: Nasik, 30.xi.1913, N.B.

Kinnear; 1 ex: Pune, December, 1924, V.S. La

Personne; 1 Female: Soccoro, September, 1915,

P.F. Gomes.

Family: Apachydiae

Genus: Apachyus Serville, 1831

18. Apachyus feae Bormans, 1894

1 nymph: Label I (printed) Indian Mus.,

Kemp, Abor Exped., Yambung, 1100 ft (335.28

m), 1 4. i . 1 9 1 2, Label II (printed) under bark,

Label III (handwritten by Burr) Apachyus feae

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DERMAPTERA COLLECTION OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

Borm., Label IV B - printed, denotes M. Burr; 1

nymph: Label I Indian Mus., Abor Exped.,

Kemp, Rotung, 1400 ft (426.72 m), 28.xii.1911,

Label II (printed) under bark, Label III

(handwritten by Burr) Apachyus feae Borm.,

Label IV B - printed, denotes M. Burr; 1 nymph:

Label I (printed) Indian Mus., Abor Exped,

Kemp, Rotung, 1400 ft (426.72 m), 28.xii.1911,

Label II (printed) under bark, Label III

(handwritten by Burr) Apachyus feae Borm.,

Label IV B - printed, denotes M. Burr; 1 nymph:

(only thorax remaining) Label I (printed) Indian

Mus., Abor Exped, Dibrugarh, NE Assam, 17-

19.xii.191 1, Label II (printed) under bark, Label

III (handwritten by Burr) Apachyus feae Borm.,

Label IV B - printed, denotes Burr, Label V

(printed) 2447/19 (Regn. No. of Indian Mus.,

now ZSI).

Family: Spongiphoridae

Subfamily: Irdexinae

Genus: Irdex Burr, 1911

19. Irdex nitidipennis (Bormans, 1894)

(= Spongophora lutea Bormans, 1 894)

(= Spongophora aborum Burr, 1913)

(= Spongovostox wuermalii Brindle, 1975)

1 ex (only thorax present): Label I (printed)

Indian Mus., Abor Exped., Rotung, 1400 ft

(426.72 m), 25.xii.191 1, Kemp, Label II (printed)

under bark, Label III (handwritten by Burr)

Spongovostox luieus Borm., Label IV B printed,

denotes M. Burr; 1 Female (only hind parts):

Label I (printed) Indian Mus., Abor Exped. Kobo,

400 ft (121.92 m) 28.xii.1911, Kemp, Label II

(printed) under bark, Label III (handwritten by

Burr) Spongovostox aborum Burr

(Brachypterous E), Label IV (printed) 2268/19

(Regn No. of Indian Mus., now ZSI); 1 Male

(hind parts present): Label I (printed) Indian

Mus., Abor Exped., Rotung, 23.xii.1911, Kemp,

Label II (printed) under bark, Label III

(handwritten by Burr) Spongovostox aborum

Burr (Brachypterous G), Label IV B - printed,

denotes M. Burr; 1 male (anterior portion

present): Label I (printed) Indian Mus., Abor

Exped., Rotung, 1 .xii. 1911, Kemp, Label II

(printed) under bark. Label III Spongovostox

aborum Burr (Brachypterous G), Label IV B

printed, denotes M. Burr; 1 ex (only head and

thorax present): Label I (printed) Indian Mus.,

Abor Exped., Kobo, 400 ft (121.92 m),

8.xii.l91 1, Kemp, Label II (printed) under bark,

Label III (handwritten by Burr) Spongovostox

luteus Borm., Label IV B - printed, denotes

M. Burr.

Subfamily: Labiinae

Genus: Chaetospania Karsch, 1886

20. Chaetospania feae Bormans, 1894

1 Male: Label I (printed) Indian Mus.,

Abor Exped., Rotung, 1400 ft (426.72 m),

28. xii. 1911, Kemp, Label II (printed) under bark,

Label III (handwritten by Burr) Chaetospania

feae Borm. G, Label IV (printed) 2136/19 (Regn.

No. of Indian Mus., now ZSI); 1 Female (head

missing): Label I (printed) Indian Mus., Abor

Exped., Rotung, 1400 ft (426.72 m), 23.xii.1911,

Kemp, Label II (printed) under bark, Label III

(handwritten by Burr) Chaetospania feae Borm.

E, Label IV 23 1 1/19 (Regn. No. of Indian Mus.,

now ZSI).

Genus: Circolabia Steinmann, 1987

2 1 . Circolabia curvicauda

(Motschulsky, 1863)

1 Female: Label I (printed) Indian Mus.,

Abor Exped., Rotung, 1400 ft (426.72m),

23. xii. 1911, Label II (printed) rotten wood,

Label III (handwritten by Burr) Labia

curvicauda Motsch.; 1 ex (anterior part

remaining): Label I (printed) Indian Mus., Abor

Exped., Rotung, 1400 ft (426.72 m), 29.U912,

214

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DERMAPTERA COLLECTION OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

Label II (printed) rotten wood, Label III

(handwritten by Burr) Labia curvicauda

Motsch.; 1 ex (anterior part remaining): Label I

(printed) Indian Mus., Abor Exped., Rotung,

1400 ft (426.72 m), 23.xii.1911, Label II

(printed) rotten wood, Label III (handwritten by

Burr) Labia curvicauda Motsch.

Family: Chelisochidae

Subfamily: Chelisochinae

Genus: Chelisoches Scudder, 1876

22. Chelisoches brevipennis Borelli, 1923

1 male (anterior parts only): Label I

(printed) Indian Mus., Abor Exped., Rotung,

1400 ft (426.72 m), 24.xii.1911, Label II

(printed) under leaf stem of decomposing

plantain, Label III (handwritten by Burr)

Chelisoches morio Fabr., G, Label IV 2389/19

(Regn. No. of Indian Mus., now ZSI);

Genus: Adiathetus Burr, 1907

23. Adiathetus glaucopterus (Bormans, 1894)

1 Male: Label 1 (printed) Indian Mus.,

Abor Exped., Rotung, 1400 ft (426.72 m),

28.xii.1911, Kemp, Label II (printed) under

bark, Label III (handwritten by Burr) Adiathetus

glaucopterus Borm., Label IV 2182/19 (Regn.

No. of Indian Mus., now ZSI); 2 Males (in one

ex. anterior half remaining): Label I (printed)

Indian Mus., Abor Exped., Dosing, 1400 ft

(426.72 m), 29J.1912, Kemp; Label II (printed)

under bark, Label III (handwritten by Burr)

Adiathetus glaucopterus Borm. Label IV 2269/

19 and 2270/19 (Regn. No. of Indian Mus., now

ZSI); 1 ex (damaged): Label I (printed) Indian

Mus., Abor Exped., Rotung, 1400 ft (426.72 m),

28.xii.1911, Kemp, Label II (printed) under

bark, Label III (handwritten by Burr ) Adiathetus

glaucopterus Borm., Label IV 2220/19 (Regn.

No. of Indian Mus., now ZSI).

Genus: Laprophorella Mjoberg, 1924

24. Laprophorella kervillei (Burr, 1905)

1 Male (hind parts remaining): Label I

(printed) Indian Mus., Abor Exped., Dibrugarh,

N.E. Assam, 22. ix. 1911, Kemp, Label II (partly

printed) under leaf sheath of bamboo, Label III

(handwritten by Burr) Lamprophorella kervillei

Burr <7, Label IV B printed, denotes M. Burr; Label

V (printed) 2443/19 (Regn. No. of Indian Mus.,

now ZSI; 1 Female (anterior portion remaining):

Label I (printed) Indian Mus., Abor Exped., Dibru-

garh, N.E. Assam, 22.ix.1911; Label II (printed)

under leaf sheath of Bamboo, Label III (hand-

written by Burr) Lamprophorella kervillei Burr, E.

Genus Hamaxas Burr, 1907

25. Hamaxas kempi Burr, 1913

1 Female (hind parts missing): Label I

(printed) Indian Mus., Abor Exped., Upper

Rotung, 4.i. 1 912, Kemp, Label II (printed) under

leaf sheath of plantain, Label III (handwritten by

Burr) Hamaxas kempi Burr E; 1 Male (hind parts

missing): Label I (printed) Indian Mus., Abor

Exped., Rotung, 1400 ft (426.72 m), 29.xii.1911,

Kemp, Label II (printed) under leaf sheath of

plantain, Label III (handwritten by Burr) Hamaxas

kempi Burr, G, Label IV 2408/19 (Regn. No. of

Indian Mus., now ZSI); 1 Female (hind parts

missing): Label I (printed) Indian Mus., Abor

Exped., Rotung, 1400 ft (426.72 m), 28.xii.1911,

Kemp, Label II (printed) under leaf sheath of

plantain, Label III (handwritten by Burr) Hamaxas

kempi Burr, E, Label IV 2203/19 (Regn. No. of

Indian Mus., now ZSI).

Family: Forficulidae

Subfamily: Opisthocosmiinae

Genus: Eparchus Burr, 1907

26. Eparchus insignis (Haan, 1842)

1 ex (only thorax with wings and elytra

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215

DERMAPTERA COLLECTION OF THE BOMBA Y NA TURA L HISTOR V SOCIETY

present): Label I (printed) Indian Mus., Abor

Exped., Rotung, 1 400 ft (426.72 m), 2 1 .xii. 1911,

Kemp, Label II (printed) under bark, Label III

(handwritten by Burr) Eparchus insignis Haan,

Label IV 2172/19 (Regn. No. of Indian Mus.,

now ZS1).

Genus: Timomenus Burr, 1907

27. Timomenus lugens (Bormans, 1894)

1 Male: No data on locality. Det. as

Timomenus nevilli (Burr).

Subfamily: Allodahlinae

Genus: Allodahlia Verhoeff, 1902

28. Allodahlia scabriuscula (Serville, 1839)

1 Female: Label I (printed) Indian Mus.,

Abor Exped., Rotung, 1400 ft (426.72 m),

23 .xii. 1911, Label 1 1 (printed) under bark, Label

111 (handwritten by Burr) Allodahlia

scabriuscula Serville, E, Label IV 2160/19

(Regn. No. of Indian Mus., now ZSI); 1 Male

(anterior portion present): Label I (printed)

Indian Mus., Abor Exped., Rotung, 1400 ft

(426.72 m), 28.xii.191 1, Label II (printed) under

bark, Label III Allodahlia scabriuscula Serville,

G, Label IV 2146/19 (Regn. No. of Indian Mus.,

now ZSI); 1 Male: Label I (printed) Indian Mus.,

Abor Exped., Below Dosing, 1400 ft (426.72 m),

294.1912; Label II (printed) under bark, Label III

Allodahlia scabriuscula Serville, G; 1 Male (hind

portion present): Label I (printed) Indian Mus.,

Abor Exped., Kobo, 400 ft ( 1 2 1.92 m), 1 .xii. 1911,

Kemp, Label II (printed) under bark. Label III

Refer

Brindle, A. (1981): The types of Dermaptera described

by Fabricius. Entomologist’s Rec. J. Var. 15: 14-16.

Burr, M. (1913): Zoological Results of the Abor

Expedition, 1911-1912. Dermaptera. Rec. Indian

Mus. 8(2): 135-147.

Hincks, W.D. (1959): A systematic Monograph of the

Dermaptera of the World based upon the material in

Allodahlia scabriuscula Serville, G.

Subfamily: FoRFicuLrNAE

Genus: Elaunon Burr, 1907

29. Elaunon biparlitus (Kirby, 1891)

1 Female (head missing): Label I (printed)

Indian Mus., Abor Exped., above Panaji, 4000

ft (1219.2 m), 164.1912, Kemp, Label II (printed)

under bark, Label III (handwritten by Burr)

Elaunon bipartitus Kirby, Label IV B printed,

denotes M. Burr, Label V 2326/19 (Regn. No. of

Indian Mus., now ZSI); 1 ex (elytra and wings

only present): Label I (printed) Indiah Mus., Abor

Exped., above Panaji, 4000 ft (1219.2 m),

164.1912, Kemp, Label II (printed) under bark;

Label III (handwritten by Burr) Elaunon

bipartitus Kirby, Label IV B - printed, denotes

M. Burr, Label V) 2320/19 (Regn. No. of Indian

Mus., now ZSI).

Subfamily: Diaperasticinae

Genus: Diaper asticus Burr, 1907

30. Diaperasticus erythrocephalus

(Olivier, 1891)

1 Female (hind parts missing): Label I

(printed) Belgaum, N.B. Kinnear, 4 September,

1910, Label II (handwritten) Elaunon

erythrocephalus , E, W. Kirby.

Remarks: This species is distributed in

Africa and Madgascar only. The above

identification is dubious. The hind parts of the

specimen are missing.

E N C E S

British Museum (Natural History), Pt. II,

Pygidicranidae excluding Diplaty inae, 218 pp., 214

figs., London, British Museum (Natural History).

Srivastava, G.K. (1999): On the higher classification of

Anisolabididae (Insecta: Dermaptera) with a checklist

of genera and species. Rec. zool. Surv. India 97(1):

73-100.

216

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 99(2), AUG. 2002

CHARACTERIZATION OF THE GENETIC STATUS

OF POPULATIONS OF RED JUNGLEFOWL1

I. Lehr Brisbin Jr.2, A. Townsend Peterson3, Ronald Okimoto4

and George Amato5

( With one text-figure)

Key words: Red junglefowl, Callus gallus , chicken, domestication, genome conservation,

hybridization

The native range of the red junglefowl (Gallus gallus) in Southeast Asia and the Indian subcontinent

has been the focus of studies of domestication of this species that became the foundation of a

worldwide multi-billion dollar poultry industry. Such studies must be based on a thorough

understanding of the behaviour, ecology, and biogeography of current as well as past populations.

Although red junglefowl are considered abundant both in captivity and in the wild, and have

usually not been accorded any particular conservation concern, almost all populations show

morphological characteristics suggestive of past hybridization with domestic birds, and indeed

pure genomes may prove to be now extinct in the wild. However, one captive population still

shows two morphological characteristics considered to be indicative of genetic purity: (1) an

annual moult to a dark/black eclipse plumage in the male, and (2) complete absence of combs in

females. Preliminary molecular genetic studies of these birds indicate that they are more distinct

from other captive strains than the latter are from domestic chickens. These captive birds may

thus represent the last pure red junglefowl genomes. This paper establishes criteria for the judgment

of genetic purity, in the hope that colleagues across southern Asia will assess local wild populations

to develop an accurate picture of the genetic status of this species across its range.

Introduction

Red junglefowl ( Gallus gallus ) represent

the ancestor of the most important bird species

in economic terms — chickens, which constitute

the basis for the multi-billion dollar poultry

industry. Although wild red junglefowl are

generally not considered to be of any conservation

concern, studies of historical and recent museum

specimens suggest that wild genomes may be

critically endangered or even extinct in the

‘Accepted November, 2001

^Savannah River Ecology Laboratory,

P.O. Drawer E, Aiken, SC 29802, U.S.A.

■The University of Kansas Museum of Natural History,

Dyche Hall, Lawrence, KS 66045-2454, U.S.A.

^Department of Poultry Science, University of Arkansas.

Fayetteville, AR 72701, U.S.A.

"Wildlife Conservation Society,

1 85"’ Street and Southern Boulevard,

Bronx, NY 10460 U.S.A.

natural state (Peterson and Brisbin 1998). One

captive population (hereafter referred to as the

JFW strain), however, has been kept in genetic

isolation for more than three decades (Brisbin

2000, Hawkins 2001), and shows morphological

characteristics which may offer unique insights

into the history and current status of the red

junglefowl.

To approach these questions of genetic

purity, however, requires a thorough knowledge

of the morphological, ecological, and genetic

characteristics of both the present-day and

historical junglefowl populations. Traditionally,

such studies have been based on examination of

the phenotype, particularly as manifested in

studies of captive birds and museum specimens

(Delacour 1977). More recently, quantitative

studies of museum specimens have revealed

patterns of successive loss of characters presumed

to indicate genetic purity in wild populations

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

217

CHARACTER1ZA TION OF GENETIC STA TUS OF RED JUNGLEFOWL

(Peterson and Brisbin 1998). The picture,

nevertheless, remains incomplete, with only

fragmentary survey information for wild

populations and captive strains, as well as poor

understanding of phenotypic markers used for

such surveys (Peterson and Brisbin 1998).

Additional tools drawn from molecular genetics

and zooarchaeology have yet to be applied to this

question; the purpose of this paper is to initiate

the collection of such information, as well as to

stimulate broader surveys of wild populations and

captive strains.

Morphological Characteristics of Pure Wild

Red Junglefowl

Our evaluation of the morphological

characteristics of pure red junglefowl is based

on features considered characteristic of

genetically pure wild red junglefowl (Delacour

1977). Critical characters include (1) a complete

moult to an overall dark/black “eclipse” plumage

by the male following the breeding season

(generally June-September), and (2) complete

absence of a comb in the adult female. Other traits

are cited as distinguishing pure wild junglefowl

(Nyunt 1993) but have been generally found to

be less reliable: (1) slender, dusky tarsi of wild

birds are shared by several domestic forms

(Smyth 1990), (2) longer spur-lengths than

domestics (Nyunt 1993) has been discounted by

our preliminary studies (Brisbin and Peterson

unpubl. data).

We have surveyed informally the

occurrence of male eclipse plumages in captive

red junglefowl L North America, as well as in

351 skins of adult wild junglefowl in 19 museum

collections (Peterson and Brisbin 1998). These

surveys suggest that the JFW population is the

only North American red junglefowl captive

population in which all birds consistently show

the two characters listed above. The museum

surveys also indicated, on the basis of the

occurrence of male eclipse plumages, that

genetically pure red junglefowl may also be

extinct or critically endangered in the wild. This

trait apparently disappeared from extreme

Southeast Asia and the Philippines (if the latter

populations are indeed native) prior to the mid-

late 1800s, and from the Malaysian region in

the 1 920s. Two recently examined skins indicate

the survival of eclipse plumages on Hainan Island

until the 1930s (Beijing Zoological Institute

01587, 01586). The last museum specimens

showing male eclipse plumages were taken from

north-central India in the mid to late 1960s

(Peterson and Brisbin 1 998), exactly the time and

place that the founders of the JFW population

were brought out of the wild as part of an exotic

gamebird propagation and release program of the

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Bohl and Bump

1970).

History of the JFW Red Junglefowl

Population

The morphology and geographic

distribution of extant subspecies of red junglefowl

have been described and analysed in detail for

decades (Delacour 1977). Studies of the JFW

population, however, have raised serious

questions concerning the morphological and

genetic characteristics of pure red junglefowl

(Peterson and Brisbin 1998). This small captive

population is now being maintained by a

consortium of private aviculturists in the

southeastern United States (Brisbin 1 996, Brisbin

2000, Hawkins 2001), and may now represent

the only source of genetically pure red junglefowl

in the wild or in captivity (Peterson and Brisbin

1998).

The JFW population was established from

a small but undocumented number of founders

captured in north-central India, in the vicinity

of Dehra Dun, in the mid to late 1960s (Bohl

and Bump 1970). Descendents of the wild

founders were distributed to propagation centres

in eight states in the southeastern United States,

where over 6,000 birds were produced and

released in natural habitats throughout the

218

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

CHARA CTER1ZA TION OF GENETIC STA TUS OF RED JUNGLEFO WL

region. Over the years, however, there has been

no indication of long-term survival of free-

ranging birds in any of the releases, and the

program was terminated in the late 1960s.

At this time, a second founder population

of 50 chicks was taken from the Bowen’s Mill

hatchery, near Fitzgerald, Georgia, USA, and

moved to the University of Georgia’s Savannah

River Ecology Laboratory, near Aiken, South

Carolina. They were maintained in captivity and

used in behavioural and ecological studies for

several years (Brisbin 1969). From the early to

mid 1970s through 1997, the entire JFW

population was maintained in random pure

captive propagation by a private aviculturist in

Tuscaloosa, Alabama, with an annual pre-

breeding population size of 10-20 adults of

approximately equal sex ratio. Morphological

and behavioural characteristics did not change

appreciably from those of the original birds

nearly 30 years earlier.

This character stability has been

particularly true regarding the extremely wary

and flighty nature of the JFW birds, which has

persisted in spite of continuing efforts to imprint

and tame incubator-raised chicks. These

observations confirm the findings of earlier

behavioural studies that indicated little

modification of their flighty nature in foster-

rearing under tamed hybrid “zoo-type” red

junglefowl hens (Brisbin 1969). Foster-reared

birds, upon attaining sexual maturity, showed

little tendency to integrate into the social

hierarchy of the resident, free-ranging flock of

hybrid junglefowl. They kept to themselves, and

eventually dispersed into neighbouring wooded

habitats and disappeared.

In 1998, 65 hatch-year JFW birds were

removed from the collection in Alabama and

distributed among several private aviculturists

in Georgia and South Carolina with a dozen or

so adult breeders being retained in the Alabama

collection. The population is thus dispersed now

among experienced breeders, who are working

together to ensure the continued existence of

documented genetically pure birds in several

captive sub-populations.

Molecular Genetic Studies

The unique nature of the JFW population

suggested the importance of a molecular genetic

characterization of these birds, particularly in the

light of recent efforts to use molecular methods

to identify the wild ancestors of domestic

chickens (Siegel etal. 1992, Fumihito etal. 1994,

1 996). Though preliminary, the results of our first

steps in this direction are reported below.

Mitochondrial gene sequences were

derived from PCR amplification products

obtained from feather samples. Samples were

taken from two JFW individuals, a domestic

chicken of undetermined breed, and two

domestic/feral bantam chickens from a specially-

bred flock at the Savannah River Ecology

Laboratory (Brisbin 1993). Samples were also

analyzed from two captive zoo junglefowl with

morphological characteristics suggestive of

domestic contamination, from the Riverbanks

Zoo, Columbia, South Carolina; these birds were

direct descendants of the free-ranging “red

junglefowl” formerly maintained at the San

Diego Zoo (Collias et al. 1994). Outgroups for

phylogenetic analyses included similar samples

from a green junglefowl (G alius varius ), Malayan

peacock-pheasant ( Polyplectron malacense ), and

Bornean peacock-pheasant (P schleiermacheri ),

all from the collections of the New York

Zoological Society.

We sequenced 1011 base pairs from two

regions of the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)

genome: (1) the relatively conservative 16S

ribosomal gene, and (2) a portion of the more

variable, protein-coding, cytochrome b gene. We

used published primers based on the domestic

chicken sequence for PCR amplification, and

PCR products were sequenced directly on an ABI

automated sequencer.

The 16S sequence data were invariant in

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

219

CHA RA CTERIZA TJON OF GENETIC STA TUS OF RED JUNGLEFO WL

- 1 ~ — — " •" “pure" junglefowl

— ■ — ■ domestic chicken

— — — - - — — feral chicken 1

— - - — — ■ feral chicken2

— zoo junglefowl 1

— ■ "" — zoo junglefowl2

L— — — — — — — — Gallus varius

■ — — • - — — — — — — Polyplectron

Fig. 1. Diagrammatic representation of results of preliminary phylogenetic analyses of mitochondrial DNA

sequence data in junglefowl, chickens, and related pheasants. Feral chickens were taken from a special

flock developed at the Savannah River Ecology Laboratory; individuals 1 and 2 represent different

specimens of each form

all four junglefowl and the domestic chicken.

Sequences of the green junglefowl and the two

peacock-pheasants were distinct. This result is

more or less typical for this highly conserved gene

region. Cytochrome b sequences, considering the

small number of red junglefowl sampled, were

fairly variable. The same sites were variable in

both the JFW and zoo junglefowl groups. The

two JFW individuals had identical haplotypes,

which was not surprising, considering the

bottlenecks of low population numbers in the

history of this group.

We analyzed these data phylogenetically,

treating individual bases as unweighted and

unordered characters. A single, most

parsimonious tree placed the JF W birds basal to

the two zoo junglefowl and domestic chicken

(Fig. 1; consistency index 0.86). Genetic

distances between the zoo junglefowl and

domestic chickens were shorter than between the

zoo junglefowl and the JFW birds. Most

importantly, the JFW haplotype included two

sites that were plesiomorphic when polarized by

outgroup comparison, suggesting that this

population does not share the common ancestry

that is shared by the domestic chickens and the

zoo junglefowl. Still, caution must be used in

interpreting this information, given the small

sample sizes available.

We sequenced additional mtDNA from a

single JFW male to parallel prior studies of

chicken and junglefowl molecular genetics,

focusing on the 392 base pair portion of the

noncoding control region studied by previous

investigators (Fumihito et al. 1994, 1996). The

work of these authors, however, lacked samples

from the western extreme of the species’

distribution in India. Our resulting JFW sequence

showed 2% divergence from the published

Barred Rock domestic chicken sequence

(Fumihito et al. 1996). The JFW sequence fell

within a clade that included all domestic

sequences, and grouped broadly with Thai red

junglefowl and Asian domestics, but was more

distinct from western domestics. If the JFW

sample had fallen outside of the domestic clade,

the Thai-origin model (Fumihito et al. 1994,

1996) would have been supported. Rather, our

results failed to support the conclusion of a

Southeast Asian origin of domestic chickens.

Our molecular data do not exclude a model

of Indian origin of domestic chickens. Flere, the

DNA composition of the Southeast Asian

junglefowl used in previous studies (Fumihito et

220

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 99(2), AUG. 2002

CHA RA CTERIZA TION OF GENETIC STA TUS OF RED JUNGLEFO WL

al. 1994, 1996) would be interpreted as showing

the effects of hybridization with feral or domestic

village chickens in that portion of the species’

distribution. Under this scenario, Fumihito et

al. ’s Indonesian genotypes could possibly

represent the original Asian redjunglefowl types.

To support this alternative model, it would be

necessary to show that museum specimens of

birds collected earlier in Southeast Asia have

different mtDNA types from those “red

junglefowl” now found there, and that Indian red

junglefowl have high mtDNA diversity.

Taken together, the above findings have

important implications for understanding

chicken domestication. They particularly

emphasize the importance of documenting the

characteristics and history of populations from

which samples are taken for DNA analysis. In

the case of Fumihito et al. (1994, 1996), “wild”

Southeast Asian junglefowl profiles were based

on samples taken from zoo birds and other

populations of unknown provenance. Personal

observations by I LB, however, suggests that the

wild behaviour of pure red junglefowl, such as

the JFW birds, prevents them from being

maintained on exhibition in most public zoo

collections, where stress would be extreme.

Furthermore, the external morphology of all zoo

junglefowl we have observed fails to conform to

the characteristics of pure wild genetic ancestry

(Delacour 1977). Thus, without further

information, the Tama Zoological Garden’s

“Thai red junglefowl” used in the molecular

studies (Fumihito etal. 1994, 1996) must remain

suspicious as possibly showing the results of past

genetic contamination. Additionally, birds

described by the same authors as “gifts from the

Department of Forestry of the Thai government”

could have been obtained from near villages,

where hybridization could have occurred even

in the free-ranging state. In fact, our studies of

museum specimens (Peterson and Brisbin 1998)

suggest that morphological traits indicative of

pure wild ancestry disappeared from these areas

over 60 years before the sampling for that study.

Flence, there is a real possibility that the

similarity of molecular characters of these birds

to those of domestic birds results from past

hybridization, rather than being indicative of

their status as the progenitor of the domestic

birds.

Implications for Chicken Domestication

An important application of our findings

is in the interpretation of ancient artifactual

depictions of birds. Regarding traits indicative

of pure wild stock (Delacour 1977), we are

unaware of any representation of a male Gallus

in what could be the dusky eclipse plumage,

lacking the elongated bright-coloured neck

hackles. The absence of such representation

suggests either that this trait was lost early in

the domestication process, or perhaps that its

drab appearance was not considered worthy of

depiction by ancient people. Similarly, with one

possible exception, we are unaware of any

representation of early female Gallus lacking a

visible comb and facial wattles. An early

Egyptian “chicken hieroglyph” depicts “the chick

... but never an adult bird” (Zeuner 1 963), which

is the only possible exception. Given that the wild

junglefowl would be combless in the adult hen

(Delacour 1 977), we suspect that this hieroglyph

may actually depict a combless hen such as those

of the JFW strain.

An important question is how could

ancient people with limited facilities and skills

for husbandry have managed to tame junglefowl

to produce a captive and later domestic

population, from such a wild and wary bird? Even

early imprinted and hand-reared chicks of wild

stock would have been extremely difficult if not

impossible for ancient people to raise and breed

successfully in full captivity or semi-confinement

(Brisbin 1969, Bohl and Bump 1970). A more

likely ancestor of domestic chickens would be

more docile in disposition, show a prominent

comb in hens, and might lack an eclipse plumage

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

221

C HA RA CTER1ZA TION OF GENETIC STA TUS OF RED JUNGLEFO WL

in the male. The discovery of such a population

would leave unanswered the question of the status

of populations of India, including the JFW birds.

Hence, our studies raise the possibility that

the JFW population may represent a well-

differentiated group within red junglefowl,

possibly a cryptic species, that may not have been

involved in the domestication of chickens. Such

a scenario has important implications both for

understanding the biogeography and ecology of

chicken domestication, as well as for the

conservation of populations of captive and free-

ranging red junglefowl. Perhaps the most

parsimonious conclusion, however, is still that

of the genetic purity of the JFW population, and

the contamination of the rest of the populations

of this species.

Future Directions

Clearly, continuing the pure captive

propagation of the JFW population remains a

priority. As available numbers and natural

mortality permits, we are preparing a complete

age series of study skins and skeletal material

from these birds to permit thorough molecular

and phenotypic comparisons. Several other

research avenues remain, however, including the

following:

1. Broad molecular surveys to establish

phylogenetic patterns with much-improved

detail, presently under development.

2. Broad phenotypic survey's to document

geographic pattern of variation in critical

characters, particularly as regards detection

of previously unappreciated geographic

breaks.

3. Limited hybridization and backcross

experiments to assess the genetic basis for

the phenotypic markers described above.

Such experiments have now passed to the

second generation of backcross of hybrids

to JFW stock, providing a known-purity

standard for evaluation of phenotypic

markers.

4. Surveys of phenotypic and molecular

characteristics of wild and captive

populations of red junglefowl. This step is

particularly critical in eastern and north-

central India, where the probability of

survival of pure stock is highest; some

indications exist of possibly “clean” captive

and wild populations in some remote areas

of India (G. Das, pers. comm.), making this

step of utmost importance.

Acknowledgements

None of these studies would have been

possible without Isaac Richardson, who single-

handedly maintained the JFW red junglefowl in

pure propagation for over 25 years. Efforts to

continue propagation of this strain have now been

undertaken by the Georgia Game Bird Breeders

Association and the Virginia-Carolinas Pheasant

and Waterfowl Association, under the leadership

of A1 Cumming and Wayne Hawkins,

respectively. We are grateful to Ed Diebold and

Bob Siebels of the Riverbanks Zoo for help in

obtaining DNA samples from zoo junglefowl,

Don Bruning of the Wildlife Conservation

Society for continuing encouragement, and Stan

Vesey and John Glisson for veterinary support.

The senior author also thanks Alan Poole, Leo

Joseph, and the staff of the Academy of Natural

Sciences of Philadelphia for hospitality and

support while working in their collections; the

Zoological Institute of Beijing kindly provided

access to specimens for examination by ATP.

Studies were supported in part by financial

assistance award number DE-FC09-96-SR1 8546

from the United States Department of Energy to

the University of Georgia’s Savannah River

Ecology Laboratory. This paper is respectfully

dedicated to the memory of Gardiner Bump and

Wayne H. Bohl, whose tireless efforts in the

1960s and 1970s resulted in saving what may

now be the last living remnant of the wild

ancestor of the domestic chicken.

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CHARACTERIZATION OF GENETIC STATUS OF RED JUNGLEFOWL

References

Bohl, W. H. & G. Bump (1970): Summary of foreign game

bird liberations 1960 to 1968 and propagation 1966

to 1 968. Wildlife No. 1 30, Bureau of Sport Fisheries

and Wildlife, Division of Wildlife Research,

Washington, D.C. Pp. 61.

Brisbin, I.L., Jr. (1969): Behavioral differentiation of

wildness in two strains of red junglefowl (Abstract).

American Zoologist 9(4): 1072.

Brisbin, I.L., Jr. (1993): The Carolina bantam chicken:

An experimental approach to life in the feral state.

AM BC News 10(1): 4-5.

Brisbin, I.L., Jr. ( 1996): Concerns for the genetic integrity

and conservation status of the red junglefowl.

Tragopan 4: 11-12.

Brisbin, I.L., Jr. (2000): Red junglefowl captive

propagation: Conservation group forms within the

GGBBA. The TIatcher 2000: 16-18.

Collias, N.E., E.C. Collias & R.l. Jennrich (1994):

Dominant Red Junglefowl ( Gallus gallus ) hens in

an unconfined flock rear the most young over their

lifetime. Auk 111: 863-872.

Del .acour, J. (1977): The pheasants of the world. (2nd

Edition). Spur Publications, Hindhead, Surrey,

England. Pp. 395.

Fumihito, A., T. Miyake, S. Sumi, M. Takada, S. Ohno &

N. Kondo (1994): One subspecies of the red

junglefowl ( Gallus gallus gallus ) suffices as the

matriarchic ancestor of all domestic breeds. Proc.

Natl. Acad. Sci., USA, Vol No. 91: 12505-12509.

Fumihito, A., T. Miyake, M. Takada, R. Shingu, T. Endo,

4’. Gojobori, N. Kondo & S. Ohno (1996):

Monophyletic origin and unique dispersal patterns

of domestic fowls. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., USA, Vol

No. 93:6792-6795.

Hawkins, W.P. (2001): Red Junglefowl-pure strain. Game

Bird and Conservationists. Gazette 48(1): 62-64.

Nyunt, K.M. (1993): How to identify the red junglefowl.

Avicultural Magazine 99: 76-78.

Peterson, A.T. & EL. Brisbin, Jr. (1998): Genetic

endangennent of wild red junglefowl Gallus gallus ?

Bird Conservation International 8: 387-394.

Siegel, P.B., A. Haberfeld, T.K. Mukherjee, L.C.

Stallard, H.L. Marks, N B. Anthony & E.A.

Dunnington (1992): Junglefowl - domestic fowl

relationships: A use of DNA fingerprinting. World's

Poultry Science Journal 48: 147-155.

Smyth, J.R. (1990): Genetics of plumage, skin and eye

pigmentation in chickens. In: Poultry breeding and

genetics (Ed.: Crawford, R.D.). Elsevier,

Amsterdam. Pp. 109-167.

Zeuner, F.E. (1963): A history of domesticated animals.

Harper and Row Publishers, New York Pp. 560.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

223

THE GENUS PONTIA FABRICIUS (LEPIDOPTERA: PIERIDAE)

IN THE KUMAON HIMALAYA'

Peter Smetacek* 2

(With one text-figure)

Key words: Lepidoptera, Pieridae, Pontia, Himalaya, faunal drift

The range of Pontia daplidice Linnaeus and Pontia glauconome Klug is extended eastward to

the Kumaon Himalaya. An uncertain record of Pontia chloridice Huebner from the same area is

noted. The possibility of this faunal drift being

Taxonomy

In the Indian sub-region, three species are

generally assigned to the genus Pontia Fabricius.

These are daplidice Linnaeus, chloridice

Huebner and glauconome Klug. Pontia is

sometimes treated as a sub-genus or synonym of

Pieris Schrank (Evans 1932a, Wynter-Blyth

1957). Some authors (Watson and Whalley 1983,

Daccordi et al. 1988) include callidice Huebner

in Pontia , although Varshney (1993) treats

callidice as the type species of the genus Synchloe

Huebner. For the purpose of this paper, I have

followed Varshney (op. cit.), since this is the most

recent work on the subject.

Geography

The Kumaon Himalaya consists of a

section of the Himalayan range, from the low

sub-montane tract known as the Bhabar to the

trans-Himalayan region, extending between 28°

44’ - 30° 49’ N and 78° 44'-81° 0T E. Broadly

speaking, the area consists of three parallel

mountain ranges.

The outermost range rises steeply above

the plains to more than 2,000 m above msl,

reaching 2,600 m in some peaks near Nainital.

Rainfall is heaviest on the southern slopes of

this range, between 1,981 cm and 3,048 cm

‘Accepted March, 2000

2Jones Estate, Bhimtal, Nainital, Uttaranchal 263 136, India.

a recent phenomenon is examined.

annually. This area receives the major part of

its annual precipitation during the southwest

monsoon from June to September. Most of the

sites mentioned in this paper are situated in this

range i.e. Nainital, Bhimtal, Sattal,

Naukuchiatal, Ramgarh, Gethia in Kumaon and

Mussoorie in Garhwal. Some of the precipitation

is in the form of winter snow in Nainital,

Ramgarh and Mussoorie, but this is not usual

in the other places mentioned.

North of this lies the middle range in

which Almora, Panuanaula and Binsar are

situated. This range is generally lower than the

outer range, although it rises in places to nearly

2,600 m above msl. The middle range receives

less precipitation and is altogether drier than

the outer range. As in the outer range, there is

snowfall above 1,600 m in winter and all the

three places mentioned above experience

snowfall.

Further north lies the main Himalayan

range, which is too well known to warrant

description here. It receives most of its

precipitation in the form of snow above 4,000 m.

Between 1,400 m and 4,000 m, the precipitation

is in the form of rain in summer and snow in

winter, while below 1,200 m, snow is not usual

even in winter.

North of this range lies the trans-

Himalayan rain shadow area. Members of the

Pontia genus have been recorded from the rain

shadow area of Ladakh and Himachal Pradesh,

but not of Uttaranchal.

224

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

PONTIA FABRJCIUS IN THE KUM AON HIMALAYA

Distribution

Concerning the distribution of the genus

Pontia, Varshney (1993) noted that it is a

Palaearctic subelement, centred in Pakistan and

northwest India, extending to Iran, the Middle

East and Asia Minor. Within the Indian sub-

region, he gave Baluchistan, Chitral and Punjab

in Pakistan and Ladakh in Jammu and Kashmir

as the area from where these butterflies have been

recorded.

Watson and Whalley (1983), however, state

that Pontia has the most species in Europe and

temperate Asia, with a few known from North

Africa. They go on to caution about catalogues

of the genus where there are many names, the

majority of which are sub-species or forms of

daplidice.

The known range of P. daplidice is N.

Africa, southern Europe to India and Japan

(Lewis 1973). Watson and Whalley (op. cit.) omit

N. Africa, but include Britain. Within the Indian

sub-region, it has been recorded from Baluchistan

to Chitral and Murree in Pakistan (Evans 1 932a).

Peile (1937) added Peshawar in Pakistan and

Wynter-Blyth (1957) added Kashmir to Shipki

in the erstwhile state of Bashahr in present day

Himachal Pradesh to this range (Fig. 1).

I have found P. daplidice to be a common

butterfly in Kumaon. It occurs from the outermost

range of the foothills to the main Himalayan

range. In the foothills, it occurs between 1,200

m and 2,400 m elevation and has been recorded

from Sattal (approx. 1,200 m), Bhimtal valley

(1,400-1,500 m), Nainital (1,800-2,400 m),

Ramgarh (1,800-2,200 m) and Gethia (approx.

1,400 m) in Nainital district and Binsar (2,400

m), Almora (1,600-1,800 m) and between

Bhuteshwar and Panuanaula (approx. 1,800 m)

in Almora district.

In the main range, I found it in the Dhauli

Ganga Valley north of Joshimath in Chamoli

district, Garhwal at 1,800 m to 2,200 m and there

is a record from Khati village (2,500 m) on the

route to the Pindari glacier in Bageshwar district,

northern Kumaon.

The present records extend the known

range of this species by about 300 km south-

southeast from Shipki, which was its previous

limit, to Naukuchiatal and Khati. The present

eastern limit of this butterfly’s range in the area

is uncertain, but so far I have no records from

Pithoragarh district on the border with Nepal. It

should be mentioned that there have been no

recent surveys in that district.

The recorded range of chloridice is from

S. Europe to Iran and Mongolia as well as North

America (Watson and Whalley op. cit.). Lewis

(op. cit.) added Tibet, southwest China and east

Siberia to this range. Within the Indian sub-

region, it has been recorded from Baluchistan,

Chitral and Ladakh according to Evans (1932a)

and Peile (op. cit.). Wynter-Blyth (op. cit.) did

not mention this taxon, since its known

distribution was outside the area covered by his

book.

Hannyngton (1910) recorded this species

from Kumaon at an elevation of 3,650 m in

August and September, and noted that it was rare.

It is not clear why Evans (op. cit.) and Peile (op.

cit.) subsequently overlooked this record, even

though Peile included Hannyngton ’s list among

the appendices to his book. This matter is

discussed further on.

The third member of the genus, P.

glauconome , is known from east Africa, Arabia,

Iran, Baluchistan, Punjab and Chitral in

Pakistan, according to Evans (op. cit., 1932b),

Peile (op. cit.) and Wynter-Blyth (op. cit.). The

latter added Karachi, while Peile added Iraq to

this range.

Roonwal et al. (1956) reported a specimen

of glauconome from Mussoorie in Garhwal, in

the collection of the Forest Research Institute,

Dehra Dun. In addition, I have an extreme dry

season form of glauconome recorded at Bhimtal

on May 1, 1976, with a forewing length of

20 mm. This record extends the known range by

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

225

PONTIA FABRIC JUS IN THE KUMAON HIMALAYA

96°

V///////////////////A/ 7A

w/////mwM

36°

72°

84°

-■ 24®

96®

Fig. 1: Map indicating the known and extended range of Pontia daplidice

226

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

PONTIA FABRJC1US IN THE KUMAON HIMALAYA

nearly 200 km east-southeast of Mussoorie, its

previous eastern limit.

On the basis of the abovementioned

records, the range of ail three members of the

genus from the Indian sub-region is extended to

the Kumaon Himalaya. The occurrence of

chloridice is a little uncertain, since we have only

Hannyngton’s (1910) report to rely on, but the

records for daplidice and glauconome are backed

by specimens.

Habits and Habitat

The following account deals only with

daplidice. According to Peile (1937), it is on the

wing in April, and during September and October

near Peshawar and Miriamshah in Pakistan. He

found it rare.

In Kumaon, it is multivoltine in the outer

ranges, on the wing from March to July and in

September and October, with stragglers

appearing as late as December. In the main range,

it appears to be uni- or bivoltine, since it has

been found between May and early August, but

not before or after. Given that seasons are better

defined in the main range than in the outer

ranges, and the cold season more severe, it is

unlikely that this insect is as prolific there as it

is in the outer ranges. Of interest is the fact that

it is on the wing even in July and the first few

days of August, at the height of the southwest

monsoon, in the outer range.

On the wing, it is often very similar to

Artogeia canidia Sparrman (Pieridae), which

occurs at the same places and times as daplidice.

Generally, however, the flight is rapid, rather

swifter than canidia and nearer the ground. It is

fond of fields, sunny paths and ridges. I have

never found it within shady forests. Rather, it

keeps to the open parts and will rise above the

level of the trees to cross the shady parts, although

it generally keeps low in the open.

Both sexes settle frequently on the low

growing flowers of Compositae ( Senecio Linn.,

Erigeron bellidioides (Buch. Ham., ex D. Don)

Benth. ex C.B. Clarke), as well as to bask with

wings closed or partially open on low plants or

on the ground. I have not met them visiting water

or damp mud.

Breeding

This account deals only with daplidice.

The larvae of the nominate subspecies are known

to feed on species of Cruciferae (Friedrich 1 983).

The subspecies moorei Roeber does not appear

to have been actually bred in India until now.

Females of daplidice were observed

ovipositing on immature seeds and leaves of

Lepidium virginicum Linn. (Cruciferae). The

plants with the ova were placed in a breeding

box, where the larvae emerged within a week,

but did not survive. Subsequently, second instar

and third instar larvae were located on plants of

the same species, and successfully bred through.

One individual pupated on June 3, 1998 and

emerged on June 8, 1998. Others pupated for

more or less the same period, but it is not possible

to give exact dates since they were kept together.

The larval stage probably lasts a fortnight or three

weeks, giving a time frame of a brood a month

or every five weeks during summer in the outer

ranges. This means that in the outer ranges, there

is a more or less continuous succession of broods

during spring and summer.

The host plant, Lepidium virginicum

(Virginia Peppergrass; Bird’s Pepper; Virginia

Pepperweed) is a native of North America and is

widespread from the Atlantic coast to the Rocky

Mountains, West Indies, Mexico, Central and

South America. It has been introduced to India,

most probably as part of the U.S. grain shipments

during the 1950s and 1960s. Maheshwari and

Paul (1973) reported its spread to the Netarhat

Plateau, Bihar.

Unfortunately, there is no record of when

this weed reached Kumaon. Gupta (1968) did

not mention it. Gupta (1968) mentioned

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

227

PONTIA FABRICIUS IN THE KUMAON HIMALAYA

Lepidium ruderale Linn., which Maheshwari and

Paul (1973) note is often misapplied to

L. virginicum in Indian herbaria. Since

L. ruderale is also cultivated, it is unlikely that

Gupta (op. cit.) misidentified it.

Today, L. virginicum is naturalised in

different parts of India and is frequently abundant

in degraded areas, roadside swards, vacant lots,

fallow fields and neglected lawns. In Kumaon,

it germinates in early spring and dies down by

September.

Seasonal Variation

Peile (1937) noted that daplidice varies

much with the season. Individuals recorded in

Kumaon display a little seasonal variation, in

that the apical dark area on the forewing recto is

relatively lighter and the individuals large in the

spring brood(s), i.e. from March to May.

Individuals recorded in June are small and

heavily marked on the forewing recto , while the

post-monsoon brood from September and

October is of the same size as the spring brood

and heavily marked, the white sub-marginal spots

on the forewing recto often greatly reduced, with

some absent. The green markings on the verso

surface do not vary much, either individually or

seasonally.

The individual of glauconome was

recorded in May, the height of the dry season. It

is a typical dry season form of the species, with

the green markings on the verso surface almost

obsolete, but the veins on the hindwing verso

prominently yellow.

Discussion

Pontia daplidice is a known migrant,

individuals crossing to Britain from the European

mainland (Watson and Whalley 1983), from low

elevation to high elevation in erstwhile

Czechoslovakia (Kudrna 1974a) and from the

Asian mainland to Japan (Kudrna 1974b).

Mackinnon and de Niceville (1897) did not

find daplidice in Mussoorie or the Dun Valley,

and Hannyngton (1910) did not find it in

Kumaon although both these lists are very nearly

complete. R.C. Busher, who collected butterflies

around Nainital and compiled an unpublished

list of local butterflies in 1918 (ms in author’s

possession), including interesting species in the

Vanrennen collection, did not include daplidice.

Nor does it find mention in notes compiled by

my father, the late Fred Smetacek Sr., from the

Nainital, Bhimtal and Naukuchiatal area during

1949 and 1950.

It first appears in notes compiled in 1961,

with what appears to be the first pair recorded

from Sattal (1,200 m) near Bhimtal on April 21,

1961, by my father. The notes state “Not rare at

Sattal and Nainital in late April and May 1961.

Rarer in 1962. Also flies during September and

October. Also captured at Bhimtal on August 27,

1964.” (Victor Smetacek’s notes).

It appears probable that, rather than having

been overlooked, this species colonised the outer

ranges of Kumaon between 1950 and 1961.

Of interest is the record of P. daplidice by

Atkinson (1882) from the main Himalayan range

between the Tons and Sarda rivers, i.e. the

present state of Uttaranchal. He stated that his

list is based, with few exceptions, on actual

specimens collected by him or others. It is unclear

why Hannyngton (op. cit.) and other authors

overlooked this record, unless the specimen was

subsequently identified as chloridice, which is

similar.

This would explain the presence of

daplidice and absence of chloridice from

Atkinson’s list and the presence of chloridice

and absence of daplidice from Hannyngton ’s

list. Whatever the truth of these surmises, they

are to do with the main Himalayan range and

do not alter the fact that the colonisation of

the middle and outermost ranges of the

Himalaya in Kumaon by daplidice appears to

be recent.

228

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PONTIA FABR1C1US IN THE KUMAON HIMALAYA

Added to this, Atkinson’s ( 1 882) list is not

impeccable, and among numerous

misidentifications may be cited Rhapicera

satricus Doub. for what was probably Rhapicera

moorei Butler; Vanessa urticae Linn, for Aglais

cashmirensis Koll. and “ Argynnis ” rudra Moore

which does not occur west of Meghalaya.

During the winter of 1998-1999, the rains

were very meagre. As a result, spring was very

dry and many annuals failed to germinate.

Among these was Lepidium virginicum which

appeared only in irrigated valleys, but not at all

in the waste ground and roadside swards all over

Nainital district.

The population of Pontia daplidice

tumbled more or less correspondingly after the

first brood, so that in late May I saw none and in

June only a single freshly emerged female.

Normally, in the c. 25 km between Bhimtal and

Gethia or Nainital, it was possible to see at least

a dozen individuals every day during the season.

In the meantime, the population of

Artogeia canidia, another Lepidium virginicum

feeder, was not affected, so canidia probably feeds

on something else in addition to L. virginicum .

This is not unusual, as canidia has been known

from Kumaon since butterfly records began.

Varshney (1 993) recorded seeds of Reseda

(Resedaceae), Turritis , Sisymbrium , Sinapis and

Alyssum (all Cruciferae) as larval host plants of

the genus, evidently non-Indian records. Gupta

(1968) recorded species of Turritis Linn, and

Arabidopsis Schur. from Nainital. However,

daplidice does not appear to feed on these plants

here, judging by its population decline

corresponding with the decline of Lepidium

virginicum. It is an observed fact that the

population of daplidice declined soon after the

decline of L. virginicum and subsequently both

taxa recovered.

In July 1999, although the southwest

monsoon was in progress, Lepidium virginicum

had not germinated in areas where it was

common the previous year, and it was only to be

found on a limited scale in irrigated areas. In

2000, the inevitable re-colonisation of degraded

areas by this weed was followed by a

corresponding increase in the daplidice

population, so that by 2002, daplidice was as

common as it was prior to 1999.

Pontia daplidice moorei Roeber is

distinguished from the nominate subspecies by

being a very large form. The population of

daplidice from Kumaon is assigned to moorei

on the basis of the relatively large size of the

majority of individuals and the contiguous

distribution of the two populations.

Peile (1937) collected a female with a wing

expanse of 65 mm at Peshawar (Pakistan), now

in the collection of the Natural History Museum,

London, U.K. Hence, he gave the expanse of this

subspecies as 45 to 65 mm; while Wynter-Blyth

(1957), whose work was published twenty years

later than Peile’s, followed Evans (op. cit.) in

assigning 45 to 50 mm. Specimens from Kumaon

have a wing expanse up to 58 mm. One specimen

taken in June has an expanse of 42 mm.

Therefore, the wing expanse of this subspecies

ought to be from 42 to 65 mm.

The records of P. glauconome from

Mussoorie and Bhimtal are quite certainly

stragglers from further west, but it is uncertain

how much further west. The question is, is there

a breeding population of glauconome in the

plains of western India, or are the two specimens

recorded from the known populations now in

Pakistan? Both possibilities are equally likely,

since this is a genus of strong fliers and migrants.

Similarly, the breeding or migrant status of

P. chloridice in the Kumaon and Garhwal

Himalaya requires clarification.

The present records of glauconome are of

interest since it has a rather restricted distribution

in this area compared with other members of the

genus. It occurs from east Africa to Chitral and

Karachi in Pakistan. Given that it is capable of

travelling as far east as Kumaon, its

comparatively restricted distribution may be

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

229

PONTIA FABRJCJUS IN THE KUMAON HIMALAYA

attributed to its inability to breed in areas which

are not completely favourable. In other words, it

is not as resilient a species as the other members

of the genus, although individuals are capable

of travelling a considerable distance.

Unlike the other two members of the

genus, glauconome is a low elevation butterfly

that has colonised the warm, dry and low areas

of Pakistan and other parts of its range, but seems

to be unable to tolerate wetter regions such as

Kumaon. P. daplidice , on the other hand, has

given a new dimension to generic preferences

by colonising and thriving in the heavy rainfall

areas of Kumaon, which are well within the sub-

tropical monsoon zone.

Almost all the Lepidoptera that appear to

have colonised or migrated to Kumaon recently

belong to the Indo-Malayan fauna (Smetacek

1994, 1995, 2001, unpublished data). The

colonisation of the outer ranges of Kumaon by

daplidice is of interest, since it is generally

considered a Palaearctic taxon. This extension

goes against the apparent trend, where the

Central and Western Himalaya are getting

warmer and wetter (Myers 1985) and

consequently more conducive to colonisation by

Indo-Malayan species (Smetacek 1994).

Wynter-Blyth (1957) noted that daplidice

is primarily an inhabitant of the high inner

hills, common at high altitude. In my experience,

it is common at moderate elevation, i.e. between

1,200 m to 2,500 m, and less so above. As a

matter of fact, I have never found it above

3,000 m in Kumaon or Garhwal. Also, I have

found it to be commoner in the outer range than

in the main Himalayan range. In the main

range, I have found it in open river valleys

near cultivation, rather than on hillsides or

ridges at high elevation. Being a strong flier and

quite a migrant, it might occasionally be found

at high elevation like Catopsilia pomona

Fabricius (Smetacek 1993), but it seems

generally that above the tree line it is merely a

straggler.

Conclusion

From the above account, it is evident that

the distribution of two members of the genus

Pontia, i.e. daplidice and glauconome , has

extended to the Kumaon Himalaya, the former

as a colonist and the latter as a straggling

migrant. The colonisation of this area by

daplidice appears to be quite recent, probably

in the middle of the 20th century. It seems that

the major factor behind its increased range is

the spread of the North American plant,

Lepidium virginicum , which was introduced to

India, probably in grain shipments in the post-

Independence period.

P. daplidice has been bred on this plant

in Kumaon, and in 1999, populations of

daplidice in the area fell sharply at the same

time as this plant failed to germinate in places

where it was common, mainly due to meagre

winter rains. It is interesting that the lack of a

suitable larval host plant rather than a climatic

factor appears to have restricted the distribution

of daplidice to the Palaearctic Region. The

self-introduction of a suitable host plant has

resulted in the colonisation by daplidice of

Kumaon, which is known as the mixing zone

between the Palaearctic and Indo-Malayan

faunas. The possibility of it extending its

distribution further east in the coming years

cannot be ruled out.

In the present context of global warming,

the extension of range of a typically Palaearctic

genus into the transitional zone represented by

Kumaon is unusual.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to Professor Y.P.S. Pangtey

of Thakur D.S.B. Constituent College, Nainital,

for kindly identifying the larval host plant of

P. daplidice , as well as to the editor and

anonymous referees for their valuable

suggestions.

230

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

PONTIA FABRJC1US IN THE KUMAON HIMALAYA

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Evans, W.H. (1932a): The Identification of Indian

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Friedrich, E. (1983): Handbuch der Schmetterlingszucht:

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Gupta, R.K. (1968): Flora Nainitalensis. Navyug Traders,

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Hannyngton, F. (1910): The Butterflies of Kumaon.

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Butterflies. Atlanta B5 (2/3): 92-120.

Lewis, H.L. (1973): Butterflies of the World. Harrap,

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Mackinnon, P.W. & L. de Niceville (1 897-98): Butterflies

from Mussoorie and the Dun Valley. J. Bombay nat.

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Maheshwari, J.K. & S.R. Paul (1973): Occurrence of

Lepidium virginicum Linn, in Netarhat Plateau

(Bihar). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70: 575-576,

1 plate.

Myers, N. (Ed.) (1985): The Gaia Atlas of Planet

Management. Pan Books. London & Sydney.

Pp. 272.

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India. Staples Press, London. Pp. xiv + 312, 25

pi.

Roonwal, M.L., R.N. Mathur, (late) G.D. Bhasin, P.N.

Chatterjee, P.K. Sen-Sarma, Balwant Singh,

Avinash Chandra, R.S. Thapa & Kumar Krishna

(1963): A Systematic Catalogue of the Main

Identified Entomological Collection at the Forest

Research Institute, Dehra Dun. Ind. For. Leaf. 121

(4) Ent. Part 31 (Lepid.): 1295-1395.

Smetacek, P. (1993): Catopsilia pomona Fab.

(Lepidoptera: Pieridae) at High Elevation in the

Uttar Pradesh Himalaya. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

90: 527-528.

Smetacek, P. ( 1 994): An Annotated List of the Hawkmoths

(Lepidoptera: Sphingidae) of Kumaon, N. India:

A Probable Case of Faunal Drift. Rec. zool. Surv.

Ind., Occ. Paper 156: 1-55.

Smetacek, P. ( 1 995): A New Altitudinal and Range Record

for the Copper Flash Butterfly Rapala pheretimus

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127-128.

Smetacek, P. (2001): Resolution of the Controversial

Western Limit of the Range of Delias acalis Godart

(Lepidoptera: Pieridae). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

98: 298-300.

Varshney, R.K. (1993): Index Rhopalocera Indica, Part

HI (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae, Pieridae, Danaidae).

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Watson, A. & P.E.S. Whalley (1983): Dictionary of

Butterflies and Moths in Colour. Peerage Books.

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Pp. xx + 523, 72 pi.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 99(2), AUG. 2002

231

A COLLECTION OF FRULLANIA FROM NILGIRI

WITH F DENSILOBA ST. AS A NEW RECORD FOR INDIA1

S.C. Srivastava and Afroz Alam2

( With two text-figures )

Key words: Bryophyta, Hepaticae, Jungermanniales, Jubulaceae, Frullania densiloba

Frullania densiloba St. is reported for the first time, not only from India, but also from Tropical

Asia, along with the other species of Frullania distributed in the Nilgiri hill ranges. A key to

segregate various species of Frullania from Nilgiri is provided.

The present communication is based

exclusively on a collection of Frullania from the

Nilgiri hill ranges to evaluate the frequency and

variety of the genus in this area. Frullania shows

a very high level of structural diversity and often

becomes a puzzle in species determination.

Apart from its morphological diversity, each

species can be recognized by its typical lobule,

presence and absence of ocelli, perianth

morphology, leaf lobe shape and under-

leaves.

While working on the collection of the

genus from the Nilgiris, an interesting ocellate

species of Frullania other than Frullania

tamarisci , a well-known ocellate species from

Nilgiri and other regions of South India was in

hand. On critical study, this plant showed very

close resemblance to Frullania densiloba St., a

species distributed in Eastern Asiatic temperate

region (including Japan, Ryukyu, Formosa,

Quelpart, Botel Tobago) (Kamimura 1961) and

clearly different from Frullania tamarisci. The

discovery of F. densiloba from the Nilgiris thus

constitutes a new record, not only from India

but also from Tropical Asia.

A key to segregate various species of

Frullania of the Nilgiris is provided along with

an illustrated morpho-taxonomic account of

F. densiloba .

'Accepted January, 2002

2Department of Botany, University of Lucknow,

Lucknow 226 007, Uttar Pradesh, India.

Key to the Species

1. Plant dioecious 2

— Plant monoecious 3

2. Leaf-lobes ocellate (with ocelli) ...1 4

— Leaf-lobes non-ocellate (without ocelli) 5

3 . Leaf-lobule helmet shaped, perianth 4-5 keeled

F. wallichiana

— Leaf-lobule large, cucullate to subcucullate,

perianth usually 4 keeled F. neurota

4. Leaf-lobes acute to acuminate, rarely obtuse to

rounded, ocelli in 1-2 rows, 10-20 cells long,

lobule saccate, subparallel with the stem and

not inclined, slightly apart from the stem,

female inflorescence terminal on short lateral

branches, underleaves bifid, much wider than

the stem, sinus obtuse F tamarisci

4. Leaf-lobes slightly concave, ovate, with

rounded apex, ocelli in a single row, less than

10 cells long, lobule clavate, almost parallel

with the stem and inclined towards the stem,

female inflorescence terminal on a leading

branch, underleaves bifid, as wide as stem or

slightly wider than the stem, sinus acute

F densiloba

5. Leaf-lobes squarrose F. squarrosa

— Leaf-lobes ovate with obtuse or rounded apex

6

6. Rostrum of leaf-lobule elongated which forms

a piliferous beak F acutiloba

— Leaf-lobules usually without rostrum 7

7. Leaf-lobules variable in shape, explanate to

saccate, perianth ovoid, 5 keeled

F. muscicola

— Leaf-lobules campanulate, perianth pyriform,

usually 4 keeled F campanulata

232

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

COLLECTION OF FRULLANI A FROM NILGIRI

Frullania dens Hob a St. Species

Hepaticarum IV: 549-550 (1909); Kamimura,

Jour. Hatton Bot. Lab. No. 24: 69-73 (1961).

Plants small, 10.3-13.6 mm in length,

brownish, having characteristic Frullania-typQ

branching, stem rounded (in a cross section),

0.06-0.07 mm in diameter, differentiated into

distinct cortical and medullary zone, cortical cells

6. 3-7. 6 x 3. 1-3.8 pm, medullary cells 22.3-26.6

x 13.4-15.2 pm and are relatively larger than

cortical cells. Leaves complicate Ipilobed, leaf lobe

concave, ovate with somewhat rounded apex,

contiguous to loosely imbricate, 0.28-0.32 mm

long and 0.20-0.24 mm wide, apical cells of lobe

11.4-15.2 x 7.6-11.4 pm, median and basal cells

15.2-22.8 x 7.8-11.4 pm with thickened walls,

trigones not clear, ocelli 4-8 in number, uniseriate

to scattered, 22.8-26.6 x 19.0-21.3 pm, oil bodies

not seen. Leaf-lobules almost parallel with the

stem and about half of its own width covering

the stem (i.e. slightly inclined towards the stem),

clavate, 0.15-0.16 mm long and 0.08-0.11 mm

wide, mouth rounded, stylus 4-celled, 25.3-28.2

pm long and 11.3-15.2 pm wide. Underleaves

cauline, distant, transversely inserted, oblong,

lateral margin almost parallel to the stem, 0.10-

0.12 mm long and 0.068-0.070 mm wide, apex

bilobed up to half of its length, sinus acute.

Dioecious (Figs 1, 2). Male inflorescence

nearly globose on short lateral branches,

bracteoles restricted to the base of inflorescence,

bracts in 2-3 pairs, ovate, 0.52 mm long and 0.44

mm wide, apical cells of bract 7.5-17.5 x 6.25-

12.5 pm, median and basal cells 7.5-12.5 x 12.5-

22.5 pm, male bracteoles bilobed 157.2-162.5

pm long and 51-55 pm wide. Female

inflorescence terminal, bracts three, bract lobe

ovate to oblong with conspicuous dentitions at

margin, 0.57 mm long and 0.32 mm wide, at

fully stretched condition, 0.77 mm long and 0.55

mm wide, bracteoles bilobed to about half of its

length, sinus narrow, two or three in number,

0.49 mm long and 0.24 mm wide, at fully

stretched condition 0.53 mm long and 0.33 mm

wide, dentate. Perianth almost one fourth to half

emergent, 3. 5-3. 9 mm long and 1.64-1.76 mm

wide, obovate, 3-keeled (2 lateral and 1 ventral),

apex rounded with a distinct rostrum.

Distribution and Ecology: Corticolous

epiphyte, being reported for the first time from

South India: Tamil Nadu: Nilgiri: Ootacamund,

Dodabetta peak.

Grows with Plagiochila sp.,

Drepanolejeunea sp., Leucolejeunea sp., Radula

sp., Frullania tamarisci between 2,300-2,600 m,

temperature ranging between 10-25 °C, with

annual rainfall up to 400 cm.

Range: Japan, Quelpart, Ryukyu, Formosa,

Botel Tobago, India.

Specimens examined: India: Tamil Nadu:

Nilgiri: Ootacamund: Dodabetta, Leg.: P.K.

Verma and A. Alam, Det.: S.C. Srivastava and

A. Alam. LWU- 13453/2001, 13477/2001.

The following species of Frullania have

been observed along with F. densiloba St. in the

collection from Nilgiris. (See Parihar et al. 1 994,

Nath and Asthana 1998). All these species listed

below were reported earlier from Sikkim

Himalayas (Mitten 1861) except F campanulata

(Chopra 1938) and F. acutiloba (Mitten 1861)

which were reported from South India.

1 . Frullania tamarisci (L.) Dum. Sde. Lac.

in Miquel, Ann. Mus. Lugd- Batavi 1:313(1 836).

Basionym: Jungermannia tamarisci L., Sp.

PI. 1134 (1753).

Characteristics of species: Dioecious,

with saccate lobule, ocelli in 1-2 rows, 10-20 cells

Song, rarely scattered, and 3 keeled perianth.

Distribution and Ecology: Very common

in Nilgiri hills and elsewhere, South India: Tamil

Nadu: Nilgiri: Ootacamund: Dodabetta peak,

Government Botanical Garden, Pykara,

Avalanche. Grows on tree bark associated with

Plagiochila sp., Leucolejeunea sp., Lophocolea

sp., Frullania neurota , F. squarrosa and

F. densiloba.

Range: Japan, Korea, China, Formosa,

Philippines, India, Ceylon.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2). AUG. 2002

233

COLLECTION OF FRULLANIA FROM NILGIRI

Fig. 1: Fmllania densiloba St., A. Male plant (dorsal view), B. Male plant (ventral view),

C. T.S. of stem, D-H. Leaf-lobes with lobules, I. Leaf-lobe with ocelli, J. Apical cells of leaf-lobe,

K. Median cells of leaf-lobe, L. Basal cells of leaf-lobe, M. Leaf-lobule with stylus, N. Cells of lobule,

O-Q. Underleaves, R. Underleaf (cellular)

234

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

COLLECTION OF FRULLANIA FROM NILGIRI

Specimens examined: India: Tamil Nadu:

Nilgiri: Ootacamund: Dodabetta: LWU - 6863/

82, 6873/82, 6885/82, 6889/82, 6892/82, 6896-

97/82, 6900-01/82, 6903/82, 6934/82, 6938/82,

6946/82, 6949/82, 6952-55/82, 6957-58/82,

6969/82; 12432-33/2000, 12462/2000, 13451/

01, 13455/01, 13464/01, 13480-81/01, 13484/

01; Government Botanical Garden: LWU-6974/

82; Pykara: LWU- 12672/2000, 12704/2000,

12748/2000; Avalanche: LWU-12544/2000,

12553/2000.

2. Frullania wallichiana Mitt. Proc. Linn.

Soc. 5. 118(1861)

Characteristics of species: Monoecious,

with helmet shaped, large lobule and 4-5 keeled

cylindrical perianth.

Distribution and Ecology: South India:

Tamil Nadu: Nilgiri: Pykara, Krutukuli. Plants

grow on bark of trees with Ptychanthus striatus

and Lejeunea sp.

Range: Himalayas, India, Sri Lanka,

Sumatra, Java, Philippines, Africa, Central and

South America, New Guinea.

Specimens examined: India: Tamil Nadu:

Nilgiri: Pykara: LWU- 12607/2000, 12675/2000,

12691-92/2000, 12699/2000, 12714/2000,

12715/2000, 12722/2000, 12755-58/2000,

12760/2000, 12761/2000; Krutukuli: LWU-

13709/2001.

3. Frullania neurola Tayl. J. Bot. 5: 400

(1846)

Characteristics of species: Monoecious,

lobules large, cucullate or subcucullate, without

beak, perianth 4 keeled.

Distribution and Ecology: South India:

Tamil Nadu: Nilgiri: Ootacamund: Dodabetta,

Government Botanical Garden, Soil and Water

Conservation Institute (SWCI) Road, Krutukuli,

Pykara, Avalanche. Grows on tree bark in

association with Radula sp., Lophocolea sp.,

Frullania campanulata, Frullania tamarisci , and

Frullania wallichiana .

Range: Widely distributed in tropical Asia,

Hawaii, Mexico, India.

Specimens examined: India: Tamil Nadu:

Nilgiri: Ootacamund: Dodabetta: LWU-6874/82,

6905/82, 6916/82, 6921/82, 6953/82, 6962/82,

6963/82, 6964/82; 12411/2000, 12414/2000,

12422/2000, 12424/2000, 12440/2000, 12459/

2000, 12479/2000, 12487-88/2000, 13455/2001,

13464/2001, 13480-84/2001, 13486/2001;

Government Botanical Garden: LWU-6974/82,

6987/82, 6988/82, 6989/82, 6991/82, 12791/

2000, 12796/2000, 12803/2000. Pykara: 12667/

2000, 12672/2000, 12677/2000, 12678/2000,

12683/2000, 12684/2000, 12689/2000, 12692/

2000, 12693/2000, 12700/2000, 12714/2000,

12758/2000, 12761/2000, 12769/2000, 12783/

2000; Avalanche: 12568/2000, 12590/2000,

12613/2000, 12623/2000, 12665/2000; Soil and

Water Conservation Institute (SWCI) Road:

13709/2001. Krutukuli: 13701/2001, 13702/

2001, 13704/2001, 13705-06/2001, 13712/2001,

13714/2001, 13715/2001, 13724/2001, 13730/

2001.

4. Frullania squarrosa (R., Bl. et Nees)

Dum. Rec, d’obs 13(1835)

Basionym: Jungermannia squarrosa R.,

Bl. e/Nees Nova Acta Acad. Caes. Leop. Carol.

12:219 (1824)

Characteristics of species: Dioecious,

leaves squarrose, saccate, with helmet-shaped

leaf lobules variable in size and 3-keeled

perianth.

Distribution and Ecology: South India:

Tamil Nadu: Nilgiri: Ootacamund: Dodabetta,

Government Botanical Garden, Soil and Water

Conservation Institute (SWCI) Road, Pykara,

Avalanche, Krutukuli. Plants grow on soil as well

as tree bark in association with Lophocolea sp.,

and Lejeunea sp.

Range: Widely distributed in warm-

temperate regions of the world.

Specimens examined: India: Tamil Nadu:

Nilgiri: Ootacamund: Dodabetta: LWU-6885/82,

6890/82; 13464/01. Government Botanical

Garden: LWU-12803/2000; Pykara: LWU-

12758/2000, 12759/2000; Avalanche: LWU-

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

235

COLLECTION OF FRULLANIA FROMNILGIRI

Fig. 2: Frullania densiloba St., A. Female plant (Ventral view), B1 . Male bracts, C. Apical cells of male bract,

D. Median cells of male bract, E, 2. Male bracteoles, F. Apical cells of male bracteole, G. Median-basal cells of

male bracteole, H. Female bract. I. Female bract (stretched), J. Apical cells of female bract, K. Median cells of

female bract, L. Basal cells of female bract, M . Female bracteoles, N. Apical cells of female bracteoles,

O. Median cells of female bracteole, P. Basal cells of female bracteole, Q . T.S. of perianth (Apical portion),

R. T.S. of perianth (Middle portion), S. T.S. of perianth (Basal portion), T. L.S. of perianth,

U. Apical cells of perianth, V. Median cells of perianth, W. Basal cells of perianth

236

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

COLLECTION OF FRULLANIA FROMNILGIRI

12595/2000; Krutukuli: LWU-13701/2001 ,

13707/2001, 13710/2001, 13711/2001.

5. Frullania muscicola St., Hedwigia 33:

146(1894)

Characteristics of species: Dioecious, leaf

lobule saccate with 5 to 6 keeled perianth.

Distribution and Ecology: South India:

Tamil Nadu: Nilgiri: Ootacamund Dodabetta,

Government Botanical Garden, Pykara,

Avalanche, Krutukuli. Plants grow on tree bark

and also on soil with Plagiochila sp., Radula

sp., Lophocolea sp., Lejeunea sp., Frullania

squarrosa, and F. tamarisci.

Range: China, Himalayas, India.

Specimens examined: India, Tamil Nadu:

Nilgiri: Ootacamund: Dodabetta: LWU-6880/82,

6903/82, 6923/82, 6953/82, 6960/82,

Government Botanical Garden: LWU-6978/82,

6994/82, 7029/82, 7035/82; Pykara: LWU-

12686/2000, 12727/2000, 12748/2000, 12760/

2000; Avalanche: LWU- 12644/2000; Krutukuli:

LWU-1371 1/2001.

6. Frullania campanulata Sde. Lac.

Nederi. Kruidk. Arch 3: 422(1854).

Characteristics of Species: Dioecious, leaf

lobule campanulate, longer than broad, perianth

4-keeled, with smooth surface.

Distribution and Ecology: South India:

Tamil Nadu: Nilgiri: Ootacamund: Dodabetta,

Government Botanical Garden, Soil and Water

Conservation Institute (SWCI) Road, Pykara,

Avalanche. Epiphyte, grows in association with

Microlejeunea sp. Radula sp., Frullania neurota ,

Frullania tamarisci , Metzgeria sp., and

Plagiochila sp.

Range: Sumatra, Java, India.

Specimens examined: India, Tamil Nadu:

Nilgiri: Ootacamund: Dodabetta: LWU-6873/82,

6888/82, 6909/82, 6917/82, 6930/82, 6954/82,

6962/82, 6963-64/82; 12411/2000, 12414/2000,

12422/2000, 12424/2000, 12440/2000, 12459/

2000, 12479/2000, 12487/2000, 12488/2000,

Government Botanical Garden: 6987/82, 6988/

82, 6989/82; Pykara: LWU- 12668/2000, 12696/

2000, 12697/2000, 12721/2000, 12744/2000,

12750/2000, 12760/2000, 12764/2000;

Avalanche: LWU-12571/2000, Soil and Water

Conservation Institute (SWCI) Road: LWU-

12379/2000, 12388/2000, 13701/2001, 13711/

2001; Theetukal: LWU- 137 14/2001.

7. Frullania acutiloba Mitt., Proc. Linn.

Soc. 5: 120(1861).

Characteristics of species: Dioecious, leaf

lobule explanate to helmet-shaped, large with

piliferous beak, perianth 3-keeled.

Distribution and Ecology: South India:

Tamil Nadu: Nilgiri: Ootacamund: Dodabetta,

Government Botanical Garden, Theetukal.

Epiphyte, associated with Cheilolejeunea sp.,

Radula sp., Metzgeria sp., Frullania tamarisci

and F squarrosa.

Range: India, Ceylon, Java.

Specimens examined: India, Tamil Nadu:

Nilgiri: Ootacamund: Dodabetta: LWU-6934/82,

6952/82, Government Botanical Garden: LWU-

12808/2000; Theetukal: LWU-1 3720/01, 13721/

01, 13722/01, 13724/01, 13726/01.

Acknowledgements

Financial assistance from the Department

of Environment and Forests, Govt of India, New

Delhi is gratefully acknowledged.

References

Chopra, R.S. (1938): Notes on Indian Hepatics, I. Proc.

Indian Acad. Sci. Ser. B-7 : 239-251.

Kamimura, M. (1961): Monograph of Japanese

Frullaniaceae. Journ. HattoriBot. Lab. 24: 1-109.

Mitten, W. (1861):. Hepaticae Indiae Orientialis, an

enumeration of Hepaticae of East Indies. J. Proc.

Linn. Soc. Bot. 5: 87-108.

Nath, V. & A.K. Asthana (1998): Diversity and

distribution of genus Frullania Raddi in South

India. Journ. Hattori Bot. Lab. 85: 63-82.

Parihar, N.S., N. Katiyar & B. Lal (1994): Hepatics

and Anthocerotes of India. A new annotated

checklist. Central Book Depot, Allahabad, pp.

1-106.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

237

DEBARKING OF TEAK TECTONA GRANDIS LINN. F.

BY GAUR BOS GAURUS H. SMITH DURING SUMMER

IN A TROPICAL DRY DECIDUOUS HABITAT OF CENTRAL INDIA1

M.K.S. Pasha, G. Areendran, K. Sankar and Qamar Qureshi2

Key words: Food habits, debarking, gaur, Bos gaurus , Madhya Pradesh,

teak, Tectona grandis, bark feeding

Debarking of teak trees Tectona grandis Linn. f. by gaur Bos gaurus H. Smith was studied during

the summer of 1996 in the Pench Tiger Reserve, Madhya Pradesh. Seven one-hectare vegetation

plots were sampled within the summer ranging areas of the gaur to quantity and determine the

extent of debarking. Of the sampled trees, 39% were debarked, 73% of which had low level of

debarking. The teak trees of different girth classes were not debarked in proportion to their

availability. No mortality was observed amongst the debarked trees. A maximum of 26.6% crude

protein was recorded from the bark samples. Amongst the minerals found in the teak bark,

calcium v/as the major constituent, followed by sodium, iron, manganese and copper. Of the food

plants eaten by the gaur, teak bark was consumed most (14%). The moisture content in the teak

bark varied from 25 to 80%. Consumption of the high protein, calcium- and potassium-rich teak

bark would be beneficial to the gaur especially during the dry months when food resources are

limited. Further analysis of the bark samples of teak and other food plants of the gaur, for secondary

compounds and nutritional quality, would enable a better understanding of the debarking behaviour

of the gaur.

Introduction

The selection of food plants by herbivores

could be due to the presence of soluble

carbohydrates, proteins, plant fibre, minerals,

vitamins, secondary compounds and organic

acids (Westoby 1978). To obtain these nutrients,

the animals consume different parts of the plants

iike leaves, twigs, roots, floral parts and bark.

Bark feeding is a well-known phenomenon

among groups of mammals such as rodents,

lagomorphs, ungulates, proboscides and primates

(Curtis 1941, McKay 1973, Laws et al. 1975,

Vancuylenberg 1977, Sullivan and Sullivan

1982, Prior 1984, Kenward and Parish 1986,

Borges 1989, Sukumar 1989, Joshua 1992,

Sharma and Prasad 1992, and Khan et al. 1994).

The existing information on the debarking

habits of gaur {Bos gaurus) is so far mainly

anecdotal. The gaur is known to feed on the bark

'Accepted December, 2001

2Wildlife Institute oflndia, P.O. Box 1 8,

Chandrabani, Dehra Dun 248 001 , Uttaranchal, India.

of Adina cor difolia (Brander 1923, Schaller

1967), Holarrhena antidysentrica (Ogilive

1954), Tectona grandis (Ranjitsinh 1997) and

Wendlandia natoniana (Ogilive 1954).

Debarking of teak by gaur was studied

between April and June 1996 in the Pench Tiger

Reserve (PTR), Madhya Pradesh. Only teak trees

were debarked by gaur and debarking of teak by

other wild ungulates in the study area was not

observed.

Study Area

Pench Tiger Reserve, PTR, (78° 55' to 79°

35' E and 21° 8' to 22° N) lies in the southern

lower reaches of the Satpura hill range in the

southwestern region of Madhya Pradesh. The

Reserve with a total area of 757.85 sq. km

comprises a wildlife sanctuary, national park and

reserved forests.

In addition to gaur, the wild ungulates

found in PTR are chital (Axis axis), sambar

( Cervus unicolor ), nilgai ( Boselaphus

238

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

DEBARKING OF TEAK BYGAUR

tragocamelus ), barking deer ( Muntiacus

muntjac ), chowsingha ( Tetraceros quadricornis ),

chinkara ( Gazella gazella benneti ) and wild pig

(Sus scrofa). The predators existing in the area

are tiger ( Panthera tigris ), leopard (P. pardus )

and wild dog ( Cuon alpinus).

The Pench river flows in a north-south

direction, dividing the Park into two almost equal

halves. Due to the construction of a hydroelectric

dam on the Pench river, 54 sq. km of the low-

lying area on either side of the river has been

submerged. During the summer months the river

dries up, resulting in small water bodies which

are vital for the survival of the gaur and other

wild animals.

Climatically, the area has four seasons:

summer (March-June), monsoon (July-August),

post monsoon (September-October) and winter

(November-February). The temperature ranges

from a minimum of -2 °C at the height of winter

to a maximum of 49 °C in peak summer. The

average annual rainfall is 1,400 mm. The forest

cover of the area has been classified as Tropical

Dry Deciduous and Tropical Moist Deciduous

types (Champion and Seth 1968). The dominant

vegetation types include teak forest, teak-

miscellaneous forest, miscellaneous forest,

Butea-Zizyphus mixed woodland, Anogeissus-

Boswellia mixed forest, Cliestanthus collinus

forest and riverine forest. The terrain is gently

undulating and criss-crossed by small streams,

most of which are seasonal. The hills have

gradual to steep slopes with almost flat tops. The

mean altitude is 550 m.

Methods

Though teak trees were found all over the

Tiger Reserve, they were debarked only in the

summer ranges of the gaur, close to Pench river

in the National Park. Based on a reconnaissance,

seven one-hectare plots in an area of 40 sq. km

were randomly selected within the summer

ranges of the gaur, along the Pench river in the

National Park, to quantify debarking. In each

one-hectare plot, nine circular plots of 10 m

radius at an interval of 25 m were sampled (n =

63) for the following data:

(a) Total number of trees of all species and

their GBH (girth at breast height).

(b) The debarked area of the tree was

calculated by taking the average width of the

debarked portion at three different points along

the debarked strip of the stem and multiplying it

with the length of the debarked strip. The product

obtained is multiplied with the constant 7i (3.14).

In case of two separate portions debarked on the

same tree, the area of each was calculated

separately and summed to give the total area.

(c) The area from the base of the stem to

the upper tip of the debarked strip was

determined as the area available for debarking.

This entire portion of the stem was assumed to

be cylindrical. The surface area of this cylinder

was calculated to obtain the available area (n dh,

where: d = diameter of the stem at breast height,

h = height from the ground to the tip of the

debarked portion and n = constant 3.14).

(d) Extent of debarking (ED) was

categorised into three classes, low (< 25% of the

available area debarked), medium (25% to 50%

of the available area debarked) and high (>50%

of the available area debarked) and was

calculated using the following formula:

Area Utilized

ED = x 100

Area Available

(e) Height at which debarking occurred

from the ground.

The sampled teak trees were grouped into

eight different girth classes (<21 cm, 21-40 cm,

41-60 cm, 61-80 cm, 81-100 cm, 101-120 cm,

121-140 cm, 141-180 cm) to analyze the

utilization pattern of each girth class. To

determine the difference in the expected and

observed utilization patterns of different teak

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

239

DEBARKING OF TEAK BY GA UR

girth classes, chi-square goodness of fit test (G)

was used (White and Garrot 1990). To test the

difference in proportionate use and availability

for each girth class, 95% simultaneous

confidence interval was calculated following

Marcum and Loftsgaarden (1980). Student’s t-

test (Fowler and Cohen 1986) was used to detect

the differences between mean density (trees/ha)

of debarked and other food plant (trees) species

in the plots sampled.

A total of 180 samples of teak bark

representing nine girth classes were collected.

The fresh weights of bark samples were taken in

the field and then oven dried at 60 °C for

24 hours and weighed again. The difference in

the fresh and the dry weight were estimated to

determine the percent moisture content in the

bark. All bark samples were tested for percent

crude protein, ash content and calorific value

(Allen 1989). Kjeldahl method (Allen 1989) was

used to estimate the nitrogen content in the bark.

The values of nitrogen expressed as percentage

of dry weight were multiplied by a factor of 6.25

to obtain the percent protein (Cunnif 1995).

Percent ash was estimated by combustion of a

sample of known weight in a muffle furnace at

600 °C for 6 hours. The residue left after the

combustion of organic matter in the sample, is

the ash content for that species. The calorific

value of the bark was estimated to get the gross

energy (kcal/g) by igniting them in a Gallenkamp

Ballistic Bomb Calorimeter. One bark sample

representing the different girth classes was taken

for the analysis of the minerals. The dried and

ground samples were digested by the Mixed Acid

Digestion Method and were analysed for calcium,

copper, manganese and iron. Inductive Couple

Plasma Emission Spectrophotometer (ICPS) was

used for the analysis of the minerals (Allen 1 989).

Data on the food habits of gaur was

collected by opportunistic sightings. In total, 130

feeding observations were recorded. The food

plant species and parts eaten were noted down

for each observation. A total of 50 individuals of

teak were tagged to monitor the mortality, if any,

due to debarking by gaur.

Results

The teak trees were virtually leafless at the

time when debarking was observed. Except calves,

individuals of all age groups were observed feeding

on the teak bark. Direct feeding observations (n =

130) showed that browse formed a major

proportion of the diet of the gaur during summer

(grass: browse ratio 1 : 3). A total of 1 1 tree, 3 shrub,

3 climber, 4 grass and 1 herb species were recorded

as summer food plants of the gaur (Table 1).

Among the plant parts eaten by gaur, teak bark

was the most frequent (14%).

Table 1

FOOD PLANTS OF GAUR IN PENCH TIGER RESERVE

(SUMMER 1996)

240

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

DEBARKING OF TEAKBYGAUR

Of the 630 teak trees enumerated during

the sampling, 247 were found debarked. The

debarking by gaur among the eight girth classes

of teak trees showed a significantly different

(G=67.3, df=7, p< 0.001) utilization pattern

(Table 2). The Simultaneous Confidence Interval

identified girth class III (41-60 cm) as preferred,

girth class II (21-40 cm) as avoided, and the trees

of other girth classes used in proportion to their

availability.

The mean density (trees/ha) of teak trees was

high in debarked plots (Table 3) as compared to

plots where debarking was absent (t = 365.4, d.f.

= 6 1 , p< 0.000 1 ), whereas the mean density (trees/

ha) of food plants (trees) of gaur in the debarked

plots was significantly lower than that in the

undebarked plots (t = 540.3, d.f. = 61, p < 0.0001).

The height at which gaur debarked the tree

varied from 37.4 to 78.8 cm (average 69.2 cm).

Of the total teak trees sampled, 39.2 % trees were

debarked. The levels of debarking varied between

girth classes. Of the total trees debarked (n=247),

73% were in the low, 21% in medium and 6% in

high debarking category.

The estimated calorific value and the

percent ash content in teak bark ranged from 3.1

to 4.3 kcal/gm and 8.8 to 16.4 % respectively.

The percent crude protein varied between 7.7 and

26.6 %. The results of the analysis of the minerals

in the bark are given in Table 4.

The water content among the nine girth

classes varied from 25% to 80%. The mean water

content estimated was 46.22% (SE ±9.01).

Discussion

Several arguments have been put forth to

explain the probable reason of debarking

behaviour in the different species of mammals.

The mammals may debark in response to

shortage of food resource in an area (MacKinnon

1976), or shortage of mineral and trace elements

required to meet their nutritional demand (Allen

1943, Bax and Sheldrik 1963, Croze 1974 and

Table 2

PREFERENCE RATING OF DEBARKED TEAK TREES

BY GAUR IN PENCH TIGER RESERVE

P, = proportions available, P2 = proportions utilized; n = num-

ber of trees in available and utilized categories; R = preference

rating; (-) utilized less in proportion to its availability; (+) =

utilized more in proportion to its availability; (0) = utilized in

proportion to its availability

Vancuylenberg 1977), or for maintaining an

*

optimum fibre: protein ratio for proper digestion

of food and better assimilation of nutrients

(Spinage 1994).

As the summer advances, most of the

herbaceous layer in PTR dries up, resulting in

poor quality of such resources. As a result, the

gaur may turn to the available browse species

and fibrous teak bark. In dry seasons, high fibrous

diet increases the digestive efficiency by

increasing the retention time of the food in the

gut (Owen-Smith 1988) and also by decreasing

the turnover rate of the rumen content (Bell

Table 3

MEAN DENSITY OF TEAK AND

OTHER FOOD PLANTS (TREES) OF GAUR

IN PENCH TIGER RESERVE

Mean density of trees/ha (S.E.)

Teak

Debarked plots 446.5 /ha (±125.3)

Undebarked plots 157.5 /ha (±125.6)

(t = 365.4, d.f. = 61, p<0.0001)

Food plants (trees) other than teak

Debarked plots 112.48 /ha (±46.1)

Undebarked plots 380.30 /ha (±54.8)

(t = 540.3, d.f. = 61, pO.0001)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

241

DEBARKING OF TEAK BY GA UR

Table 4

TEAK BARK MINERAL CONTENTS

IN PENCH TIGER RESERVE (n=10)

1971). For the gaur, this may be one of the

advantages of feeding on bark. The mineral

contents of teak bark obtained from this study

are similar to those reported by Tewari (1992)

from other parts of central India. Teak bark being

rich in protein and minerals, like calcium and

sodium, would be beneficial to gaur. Requirement

of minerals like calcium and phosphorus for

ruminants ranges from 500 to 800 ppm and 300

to 450 ppm respectively (Webb 1988). The

concentration of calcium in teak bark analyzed

was 37,500-66,700 ppm. Tewari (1992) has also

reported high concentration of calcium (22,400

ppm) and phosphorus (400 ppm) in the teak bark.

Thus, consumption of teak bark would help the

animal to satisfy its mineral needs and meet the

food shortage to fulfil its physiological and

nutritional requirements. High water content in

the bark could be just an additional benefit to

the animal in summer, when water becomes a

limiting resource.

The results indicated that trees of different

girth classes were debarked disproportionately

to their availability. Such disproportionate use

of resources can be termed as selective (Johnson

1 980). Thus, high abundance of trees of one girth

class did not necessarily result in high use. Areas

with higher density of teak were preferred by

gaur for debarking. The high tree availability

perhaps provided better opportunities to feed

selectively and reduced the time spent on

searching. Also, by feeding in dense stands, the

animals expend less energy per unit time (Curtis

and Wilson 1943, Krebs and McCleery 1984).

With the increase in the girth class of teak

trees, the area debarked decreased i.e. the

younger trees were debarked more than the older

ones. This could be due to the fact that the bark

of younger trees was softer and relatively less

thick. Hence, it was easy for the gaur to strip

the bark in large quantity and to reach the

phloem and cambium layers that are rich in

nutrients.

The bark consists of all tissues external to

the vascular cambium (Esau 1967) and is

composed of phloem, cortex, periderm, and

remnants (if any) of the epidermis (Niklas 1999).

The bark of a tree serves as a protective shield,

insulating it against extremes of temperature,

fire, desiccating wind, and against herbivory and

microbial infections (Romberger et. al. 1992).

Forest fire is known to affect the cambial tissue

of trees (Uhl and Kauffman 1990, Hengst and

Dawson 1993, Pinnard and Huffman 1997).

During the study there were a few incidents of

fire in the plots where debarking had taken place,

but they were limited to the understory

vegetation. No mortality of debarked trees was

noticed as a result of the low intensity fire.

Extensive damage caused by debarking is known

to affect the radial growth of trees (Krefting et.

al. 1962, Storm and Halverson 1967). In all

debarked trees in the study area, the meristematic

tissues of the stem grew over a period of time

(6 months to 1 year) depending upon the inten-

sity of debarking, and covered the exposed

portion.

Incidents of debarking of teak by sambar

( Cervus unicolor) were reported from Gir

National Park, Gujarat (Khan et al. 1994), but

in PTR, debarking of teak by wild ungulates other

than gaur was not observed.

Since different nutrients tend to co-vary

in *heir concentrations within plant tissues,

depending upon the phenological stage of the

plant (Westoby 1978), it is necessary to obtain

the profile of the important minerals constituting

teak bark at the different phenological stages of

242

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

DEBARKING OF TEAK B Y GA UR

teak. This will give a clue as to why gaur debark

teak trees only in summer. Moreover, as noted

by Ower Smith and Novellie (1982), one of the

factors which is rebuttal for foraging

performance is the food quality. The availability

of secondary compounds in different plants in

varying degrees also limits their palatability

(Freeland and Janzen 1974). Further analysis

of the bark samples of teak and other food plants

for secondary compounds and nutritional quality

wouid provide insights into the debarking

behaviour of gaur.

Refer

Allen, D L. (1943): Michigan fox squirrel management.

Mich. Dept. Cons. Game Divn. Pub!. No. 100: 1 -404.

Allen, E.S. (1989): Chemical Analysis of ecological

materials. 2nd Edn. Blackwell Scientific Publications,

Oxford, U.K. Pp. 368.

Bax, P.N. & D.L.W. Sheldrik (1963): Some preliminary

observations on the food of elephants in the Tsavo

Royal National Park (East) of Kenya. E. Afr Wildl.

J. 1: 40-53.

Bell, R.H. V. ( 1 97 1 ): A grazing ecosystem in the Serengeti.

Sci. Am. 225: 86-93.

Borges, R.M. (1989): Resource heterogeneity and the

foraging ecology of the Malabar giant squirrel ( Ratufa

indica ). Ph.D. thesis, University of Miami, Florida.

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Acknowledgements

We thank the Madhya Pradesh Forest

Department for permission to work in Pench on

gaur. We thank Shri S.K. Mukherjee, Director,

Wildlife Institute of India, for the support

extended to the Gaur Ecology Project and

Dr. J.A. Khan, Dr. Ravi Chellam, Dr. S.P. Goyal

and Dr. Y.V. Jhala for their useful comments on

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fieldwork.

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DEBARKING OF TEAK B V GA UR

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244

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

HABITAT PREFERENCE AND ENVIRONMENTAL RELATIONS

OF HYDROBIA SP., MOLLUSCA: GASTROPODA,

IN THE INTERTIDAL SUBSOIL OF A TROPICAL MANGROVE REGION1

R. Sunil Kumar2

( With one text-figure )

Key words: Mangrove, subsoil, ecology, estuary, intertidal area

Ecological distribution and pattern in population density of Hydrobia sp., a mud snail, both

horizontally and vertically in the subsoil, is described in detail from intertidal areas of a tropical

estuarine habitat. A maximum monthly density of 306/0.1 sq. m was recorded. Total density

recorded was 28 1/0.1 sq. m at location 1 and 1,811/0.1 sq. mat location 2. The varying distrioution

and abundance among the two mangrove regions studied was noted. This variation may be

correlated with the difference in texture and nature of the mangrove substratum. The drastic

change of ecological factors, especially salinity, does not seem to influence the occurrence, showing

the species’ typical euryhaline behaviour. Maximum occurrence and density of this species was

seen in the top 0-5 cm sediment stratum and apparently decreased towards the deeper part. High

abundance of mangrove detritus is the cardinal factor favouring the habitat selection of the species.

Its adaptability to the peculiar dynamic mangrove system helps its survival there.

Introduction

A variety of benthic organisms occupy the

intertidal habitat of the tropical and subtropical

mangrove regions of the world. The molluscan

taxa form an important group among these

benthic organisms (Kasinathan and Shanmugam

1985; Patra et al. 1990; Singh and Choudhury

1995; Alcantara and Weiss 1995; Schrijvers et

al. 1995; Sheridan 1997; Yu et al. 1997; Sunil

Kumar 1997, 1998). Molluscs are distributed in

the topsoil as well as in the subsoil, and also as

epibionts, attached to the submerged roots, timber

and branches of mangrove vegetation. The

present study describes the horizontal and

vertical distribution pattern, ecological

distribution and population structure of the mud

snail Hydrobia sp. in the intertidal subsoil of

Cochin mangroves in Kerala. The occurrence of

'Accepted December, 2001

2School of Marine Sciences,

Cochin University of Science and Technology,

Cochin 682 016, Kerala, India.

Present Address: Department ofZoology, Catholicate College,

Pathanamthitta 689 645, Kerala, India.

Hydrobia sp. in the mangrove ecosystem of

Cochin backwaters is being reported as a new

record to the mangrove habitat of the Indo-Pacific

region (Sunil Kumar 2001).

Material and Methods

Two fringing mangrove areas of Cochin

backwaters, represented by the dominant mangals

Rhizophora mucronata and Avicennia officinalis

were selected for field collection. Monthly

collections were taken for two years from

September, 1989 to August 1991 from the

intertidal area, namely low tide, mid tide and

high tide regions. Triplicate soil samples, using

a box corer (120 sq. cm), were made during the

low tide period of the tidal cycle from the top

20 cm of the mangrove substratum. From this,

the upper 15 cm length sample was taken for

study. Collections from each tidal area were

pooled and sieved through a 0.5 mm mesh sieve

to separate the benthic organisms. Organisms

were sorted, counted and the population density

of Hydrobia sp. was determined and is expressed

in number per 0.1 sq. m. Sand-silt-clay fractions

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

245

HABITAT PREFERENCE AND ENVIRONMENTAL RELATIONS OFHYDROBIA SP.

of the soil (Krumbein and Pettijohn 1938) and

organic matter (Walkley and Black 1934; El

Wakeel and Riley 1957) were determined season-

wise. Environmental factors were analysed

monthly by standard methods (Strickland and

Parsons 1977). For studying the vertical

distribution of the species 20 cm sediment core

sample were taken and each sample was cut into

0-5, 5-10 and 10-15 cm length. The 16-20 cm

depth soil sample was not taken for the analysis.

These 5 cm strata from three different depth

levels were sieved separately and organisms

counted.

Results and Discussion

Environmental factors

Of the various environmental factors

studied, salinity fluctuated the most according

to seasons; its distribution pattern in two

locations is given (Fig. 1). The dissolved oxygen

content ranged from 1.61 to 5.4 ml/1 and 1.71 to

6.7 ml/1 at locations 1 and 2 respectively. The

pH value of the sediment varied from 6.4 to 8.75

at location 1; 6.3 to 8.3 at location 2. The pH

value of water ranged from 6.2 to 7.5 and 6.1 to

7.6 at locations 1 and 2 respectively. Sediment

temperature varied from 28 to 33 °C at both

locations. Water temperature varied from 30 to

33.5 °C at location 1 and 29 to 36 °C at location

2.

The sediment texture showed marked

variations in the two study areas (Table 1). In

general, sand was dominant, followed by silt and

clay. Sediment type was sandy in the three tidal

areas in all seasons at location 1 . At location 2,

it was clayey sand during pre-monsoon and post-

monsoon, and silty sand during monsoon. Minor

fractions of the sediment (silt, clay) were high at

location 2.

The occurrence of Hydrobia sp. throughout

the study period, despite changing salinity,

clearly substantiates the typical euryhaline nature

of the species. Varying salinity distribution

pattern, and other abiotic factors such as

temperature, dissolved oxygen and pH do not

appear to affect its occurrence.

Horizontal distribution and population density

Population structure of Hydrobia sp. is

given in Table 2. Of the two locations, the species

showed a regular distribution pattern in location

2. Total density recorded was 281/0.1 sq. m and

1,81 1/0.1 sq. m at locations 1 and 2 respectively.

SONDJ FMAMJ JASON DJ FMAMJ J

1989 1990 Month 1991

Fig 1 : Monthly variation of salinity in the two locations

246

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

Table 1

SEDIMENT CHARACTERISTICS OF THE STUDY AREA IN DIFFERENT SEASONS (ALL VALUES EXCEPT pH in %)

HABITAT PREFERENCE AND ENVIRONMENTAL RELATIONS OF HYDROBIA SP

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

247

HABITAT PREFERENCE AND ENVIRONMENTAL RE LA TIONS OF HYDROBIA SP.

Maximum monthly population density of 306/

0.1 sq. m was recorded in February 1991,

followed by 106/0.1 sq. m in November 1990

and January 1991 in location 2. The species

showed no seasonal pattern in distribution.

A substantial variation in the distribution

of the species was evident in the three tidal areas.

At location 1, Hydrobia sp. population was

42.4%, 40.9% and 16.7% in the high, mid and

low tide areas respectively, while at location 2,

the population was 20%, 36.7% and 43.3% in

the high, mid, and low tide areas respectively. A

reduction in population density from high to low

tide areas was thus seen at location 1, as opposed

to an increase in population density from high

to low tide areas at location 2. The greater

numbers of the species in the low tide area of

location 2 and high tide area of location 1 indicate

that the tidal rhythm does not seem to influence

the horizontal distribution and abundance of this

infaunal mollusc. This suggests that the little

more consolidated substratum of prolonged

exposed high tide areas as well as the non-

consol idated substratum, when only compared

to high tide areas, of prolonged submerged low

tide areas simultaneously favoured the occurrence

of Hydrobia sp. Tidal cycle is a characteristic

feature of the intertidal area. The exposed area

above the mid-tide mark was more consolidated

than the more submerged area of the low-tide

mark. Therefore, the nature of the substratum

apparently varies in the intertidal zone. Hydrobia

sp. was distributed irrespective of the substratum.

Vertical distribution

The vertical distribution of Hydrobia sp.

at location 2 is given in Table 3. Maximum

density was found in the upper 0-5 cm sediment

stratum. 63.3%, 15.1 % and 21.6% of the fauna

was found at 0-5, 5- 1 0 and 10-15 cm respectively.

A maximum of 50/0.1 sq. m (in June, 1991) and

1 9/0. 1 sq. m (in March, 1991) Hydrobia sp. were

recorded in the deeper 10-15 cm stratum in

comparison to the upper stratum of mangrove

soil. Vertical distribution pattern of Hydrobia sp.

reveals that the species can penetrate the soil

down to 15 cm and beyond, showing its

burrowing ability. High numerical abundance of

the organisms in the 10-15 cm depth in

comparison to the topsoil, only in two months

(Table 3) and also its lower density at other

periods of the study in deeper portion shows the

capacity of Hydrobia sp. to survive in the deeper

mangrove soil. Availability of detritus formation

appears to be more pronounced in the surface

sediment strata and this may coincide with the

maximum abundance of species in the 0-5 cm

sediment layer.

Hydrobia ulvae is a detritus- and deposit-

feeder, and the difference in abundance of the

species can be attributed to the nature of

substratum in which they live (Newell 1965).

It is suggested that the feeding habits increase

with finer fractions of sediment. In the present

study, the intertidal soil of the two mangrove

areas was rich and thoroughly mixed with

enormous detritus, while the substratum showed

a characteristic difference in sand-silt-clay

fractions. Finer fractions (silt and clay) of

sediment and organic carbon were high at

location 2, compared to location 1 and Hydrobia

sp. showed dominance in the former area.

Moreover, the concentration of organic carbon

content pertains largely to the finer fractions of

sediments (Sunil Kumar 1996). Food resource

input as well as other ecological features of

mangroves might be more or less similar in these

two areas, whereas the mangrove substratum

showed variability, reflecting the difference

in distribution and numerical abundance of

species.

Tidal influence, a cardinal factor as far as

the distribution of various intertidal animals in

different habitats is concerned, did not appear to

be a limiting factor in the distribution of

Hydrobia sp. in the present study. High

abundance of detritus, the favourite food of

Hydrobia sp., together with its euryhaline nature,

248

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

HABITAT PREFERENCE AND ENVIRONMENTAL RELATIONS 0FHYDROBIA SR

Table 3

burrowing capacity and adaptations for survival

towards deeper sediments are favourable factors

responsible for the long-term occurrence and

abundance of organisms in two different types

of substrata. The study also reveals that Hydrobia

sp. prefer the mangrove habitat of location 2, of

which the top 0-5 cm layer of the soil provides

the most suitable habitat.

References

Alcantara, RH. & V.S. Weiss (1995): Macrobenthic

communities associated with the red mangrove

(Rhizophora mangle ) in Tenninos Lagoon, Mexico

Gulf. Rev. Biol. Trop. 43: 117-129.

El Wakeel, S.K. & J.R Riley (1957): The determination

of organic carbon in marine muds. J. Cons. Penn,

int. Explor. mer. 22: 180-183.

Kasinathan, R.A. & Sfianmugham (1985): Molluscan

fauna of Pichavaram mangroves, Tamil Nadu. In:

Proceedings of the National Symposium in Biology,

Utilisation and Conservation of Mangroves (Ed.:

Bhosale,L.J.).Pp. 438-443.

Krumbein, W.C & F.J. Pettijohn (1938): Manual of

sedimentary petrography. Appleton Century Crofts,

New York, pp. 549.

Newell, R. ( 1 965): The role of detritus in the nutrition of

two marine deposit feeders, the prosobranch

Hydrobia ulvae and the bivalve Macoma baithica.

Proc. Zool. Soc. London 144: 25-45.

Patra, K.C., A.B. Bhunia& A. Mitra(1990): Ecology of

macrobenthos in a tidal creek and adjoining

mangroves in West Bengal, India. Envir. Eco. 8(2):

539-547.

Schrijvers, J., D. Van Gansbeke & M. Vincx (1995):

Macrobenthic infauna of mangrove and

surrounding beaches at Gazi Bay, Kenya.

Hydrobiologia 306(1): 53-66.

Sheridan, P. (1997): Benthos of adjacent mangrove,

seagrass and non-vegetated habitats Rookery,

Florida. U.S.A. Esluar. Coast. Shelf Sci 44(4): 455-

469.

Singh, B.N. & A. Choudhury (1995): Studies on the

distribution of Gastropoda (Mollusca) in a

mangrove forest (Prentice Island) of Sunderbans,

India. J. mar. biol. Ass. India 37 (1&2): 283-286.

Strickland, J.D. & T.R. Parsons (1977): A practical

handbook of sea water analysis. Bull. Fish. Res.

Bd. Canada , Ottawa, 167, pp. 203.

Sunil Kumar, R. ( 1 996): Distribution of organic carbon in

the sediments of Cochin mangroves. South West

Coast of India. Indian J. Mar. Sci. 25: 274-276.

Sunil Kumar, R. (1997): Vertical distribution and

abundance of soil dwelling macro invertebrates in

an estuarine mangrove biotope. Indian J. Mar. Sci.

26: 26-30.

Sunil Kumar, R. ( 1 998): A critique on the occurrence and

distribution of macrozoobenthos in a traditional

prawn field and adjacent mangroves in Cochin

backwaters. J. mar. biol. India 40 (1&2):

11-15.

Sunil Kumar, R. (2001): New record of the mud snail

Hydrobia (Mollusca: Gastropoda) from the

mangrove habitat of Indo-Pacific region. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 98(1): 142-144.

Walkley, A. & I. A. Black (1934): An estimation of the

Degtjareff method for determining soil organic

matter and a proposed modification of the chromic

acid titration method. Soil Sci. 37: 29-38.

Yu Ri Quing. G.Z. Chen, Y.S. Wong, N.F.Y. Tam & C.Y.

Lan ( 1 997): Benthic macrofauna of the mangrove

swamp treated with municipal water.

Hydrobiologia 347: 127-137.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

249

BARBULE STRUCTURE OF BIRD FEATHERS1

A. Raj aram2

{With five plates)

Key words: barbule morphology, bird-hits, bird taxonomy, feather microstructure, feathers

The structure of barbules from bird feathers has been studied by optical (bright field and polarized)

and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The factors which help in its identification are discussed

and attention is drawn to similarities within related species and difficulties encountered.

Introduction

Optical microscopy of feather remnants has

been employed to identify the species involved

in bird-hit cases of aircraft (Rosalind and Grubh

JBNHS 1987, 84: 429-431). The general

principle is that the nodal pattern on barbules,

the colour at the nodes and their shape are

characteristic of a species. The present paper is

an extension of the work. In the case of bird-hits

to aircraft, it is possible to identify the bird from

other body parts, if they are in good condition.

However, identification of a species solely on the

basis of feathers is difficult, and analysis of the

feather structure in greater detail is necessary.

In addition to optical microscopy, where objects

are viewed in a bright field, I have used polarized

light microscopy and Scanning Electron

Microscopy (SEM) to identify a species. A

detailed study of this nature can help to identify

birds involved in bird-hits, and also in taxonomy

and in the control of trade in endangered species.

Materials and Methods

Samples were obtained fresh, usually

feathers floating in the air, picked up as they hit

the ground, from the bird under observation. Three

samples (i.e. crow pheasant, house crow and Indian

pitta) were of dead birds, but without any apparent

putrefaction. Samples for light microscopy were

prepared as follows: Barbule feathers were washed

in 70% alcohol, then in absolute alcohol, rinsed in

'Accepted February, 2001

-Biophysics Division, Central Leather Research Institute

Chennai 600 020, Tamil Nadu, India.

xylene and mounted on glass slides with DPX

mountant under a coverslip. This resulted in poor

contrast in white feathers, hence those samples

were viewed in polarized light. For Scanning

Electron Microscopy, samples bearing barbies

were mounted on double sided sticking tape stuck

on to aluminium stubs, given a thin coat of gold

and viewed in a Cambridge Stereoscan S 150 or a

JEOL 5600LV instrument at an accelerating

voltage of 10 kV.

Results and Discussion

The micrographs obtained are shown in

Figs 1-18. (Abbrev.: SEM = scanning electron

micrograph, OMB = optical micrograph in bright

field and OMP = optical micrograph in polarized

light. The micron mark lines indicate 50

micrometres in the optical micrographs). Feather

barbules from 1 8 species were studied. The SEM

studies show surface features very well.

Projections on the barbules are clearly seen. Fig.

1 a is that of the Indian peafowl Pavo cristatus.

The barbules are thick and the nodal projections

are characteristic. The optical micrograph (Fig.

lb) shows some variations, depending on the

plane of focus. Since the depth of focus, compared

to the SEM, is very small for the optical

microscope and we did not stain or take sections,

we got an average effect, due to the thickness of

the barbules. We noticed pigmentation in some

regions, which was absent in other barbules, but

a change in the focus point resulted in some

contrast in these regions also. To the same

observer, this would not be a problem as he would

become aware of the variations possible, but in

250

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

BARBULE STRUCTURE OF BIRD FEATHERS

Rajaram, A.: Barbule structure

Plate 1

Figs 1-3: la. Indian peafowl (SEM), lb. Indian peafowl (OMB), 2a. Blue rock pigeon (SEM),

2b. Blue rock pigeon (SEM), 2c. Blue rock pigeon (OMB), 3. Pompadour green-pigeon (OMB)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

251

BARBULE STRUCTURE OF BIRD FEATHERS

Rajaram, A.: Barbule structure

Plate 2

Figs 4-6: 4a. House crow (SEM), 4b. House crow (OMB), 5a. Common myna (SEM),

5b. Common myna (OMB), 6a. Indian pitta (SEM), 6b. Indian pitta (OMB)

252

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

BARBULE STRUCTURE OF BIRD FEATHERS

Rajaram, A.: Barbule structure

Plate 3

Figs 7-10: 7a. Rose-ringed parakeet (SEM), 7b. Rose-ringed parakeet (OMB),

8a. Black-crowned night-heron (SEM), 8b. Black-crowned night-heron (OMP),

9. Cattle egret (OMP), 10. Median egret (OMP)

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

253

BARBULE STRUCTURE OF BIRD FEATHERS

Rajaram, A.: Barbule structure

Plate 4

Figs 11-15: 1 la. Indian white-backed vulture (SEM), lib. Indian white-backed vulture (OMB),

12. Painted stork (SEM), 13. Spot-billed pelican (SEM), 14. Brahminy kite (OMB),

15. Greater coucal (OMB)

254

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BARBULE STRUCTURE OF BIRD FEATHERS

Rajaram, A.: Barbule structure

Figs 16-18: 16. Eurasian eagle owl (OMB), 17. Spotted owlet (OMB), 18. Black kite (SEM)

Plate 5

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255

/

BARBULE STRUCTURE OF BIRD FEA THERS

printed representative pictures, it could cause

some confusion. Fig. 2a is from a blue rock pigeon

Columba livia. The fresh feather has a powdery

coating, which may be the powder keratin said to

be found in this species. The nodal projections

are clearer when this powder keratin is cleaned

(Fig. 2b). Fig. 2c shows the barbule under an

optical microscope. The figure is similar to the

one published by Rosalind and Grubh (op. cit.),

but the pigmentation is invisible in this

photograph as my focus point is different.

Barbules from a Pompadour green-pigeon Treron

pompadora (Fig. 3) resemble that of the blue rock

pigeon. The barbules from a house crow Corvus

splendens (Fig. 4) show pigmentation at the nodes.

There is a distinct increase in thickness from node

to node towards the distal end of the barbule, as

seen in the SEM. Common myna Acridotheres tristis

feathers show distinct pigmentation above and

below the node (Fig. 5b). The Indian pitta Pitta

brachyura feather has a rode with a uniform

projection all around (Fig. 6a) and the pigmenta-

tion is also distinct (Fig. 6b). The roseringed parakeet

Psittacula krameri (Fig. 7) has nodal projections

extending over a longer portion as seen in the SEM,

a more helpful diagnostic feature than the OMB

and the figure published earlier.

In case of white feathers, there was little

contrast in the OMB. Hence the samples were

observed in polarized light. The black-crowned

night-heron barbules (Fig. 8) can be distinguished

by the shorter intemodai distance compared to that

of the cattle egret Bubulcus ibis (Fig. 9) and median

egret Mesophoyx intermedia (Fig. 10), but there

is little difference between the last two. SEM (Fig.

8a) is not useful in identifying the black-crowned

night-heron or the cattle and median egrets (not

shown). White feathers are thus difficult to identify

if the details are not present at the nodal junctions.

The SEM seen in Fig. 8a is similar to many feathers

like the Indian white-backed vulture Gyps

bengalensis (Fig. 11a), the painted stork Mycteria

leucocephala (Fig. 12) and the spot-billed pelican

Pelecanns philippensis (Fig. 13). However, the

OMB of the Indian white-backed vulture

(Fig. 1 1 b) is distinctive in that there seem to be

pores within the barbules. Does this help in

reduced buoyancy in soaring flight? The nodal

projections are comparatively less prominent in

birds that soar, and may be an adaptation for

smoother air flow. The barbule structure of the

brahminy kite Haliastur indus (Fig. 14), greater

coucal Centropus sinensis (Fig. 15), Eurasian

eagle owl Bubo bubo (Fig. 16) and spotted owlet

Athene brama (Fig. 17) are also shown. Greater

coucal barbules show pigmentation throughout.

The nodal projections are more prominent in

the Eurasian eagle owl than in the spotted owlet,

but some relatedness is also evident. However,

when we compare the barbules of the spotted

owlet with the published picture of the Eurasian

scops-owl Otus scops (Rosalind and Grubh op.

cit.), there is little difference.

From the various species studied here, only

two of the eight observations mentioned in the

earlier paper are really helpful in identification

from the barbule structure alone. In addition to:

“barbules are clearly subdivided into nodes and

intemodes, which are often pigmented” it can be

said that the nodes have a distinct projection whose

shape, size and orientation are largely characteristic

of the species. Often, the thickness of the barbules

is related to the size of the bird, even though there

are exceptions (eg. black kite Milvus migrans (Fig.

1 8) has comparatively thinner barbules). The nodal

projections are more prominent in passerines than

in birds that soar. The variations in barbule

structure are less significant in related birds (blue

rock pigeon vs. Pompadour green-pigeon, spotted

owlet vs. Eurasian scops-owl). More detailed

studies are required for identifying closely related

species and those with mostly white plumage.

Acknowledgements

I thank Dr. Peter Koshy and colleagues of

Regional Research Laboratory, Thiruvanan-

thapuram for some of the SEM pictures.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

257

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

MELANOCHAETOMYIA , A NEW GENUS OF CHLOROPIDAE (DIPTERA)

FROM THE ORIENTAL REGION1

P.T. Cherian2

( With five text-figures)

Key words: Melanochaetomyia gen. nov., M. rubrohalterata sp. nov., Chloropid fly,

Oriental Region

Melanochaetomyia gen. nov. is described from India with M. rubrohalterata sp. nov.,

the type species.

Introduction

The close affinities of E/achiptera

Macquart to its congeners Melanochaeta Bezzi,

Disciphus Becker, Anatrichus Loew and others

were recognized by earlier workers like Duda

(1934), Cherian (1975) and Sabrosky (1977).

Andersson (1977) brought them together under

genus Elachiptera , which was followed by

Kanmiya (1983). Nartshuk (1983, 1987)

assigned the status of a tribe, namely

Elachipterini Lioy, to this group after removing

Cadrema Walker and adding four more genera

to it. While studying this tribe, one new species

was found, which possesses a combination of

characters not found in any other genus of the

tribe or any other Chloropid genera. A new

generic name, Melanochaetomyia is proposed to

describe this species.

The type specimen is deposited in the

collections of the Southern Regional Station,

Zoological Survey of India, Chennai. Regn. No.

I/DC/122; SRS/ZSI.

Melanochaetomyia gen. nov.

Type species: Melanochaetomyia

rubrohalterata sp. nov.

'Accepted November, 1999

Zoological Survey of India, Southern Regional Station,

1 00, Santhome High Road, Chennai 600 028,

Tamil Nadu, India.

Description: Black, stocky-bodied flies

with polished frontal triangle bearing long hairs

on each half, 10 orb , 1+2 npl and a bristle on

katepisternum (sternopleuron).

Head higher than long; frons slightly

widened at vertex otherwise parallel-sided,

projecting above and beyond eyes anteriorly, with

long dense punctate fr; frontal triangle large,

polished, reaching four-fifths length of frons, with

nearly pointed apex and punctate hairs on the

triangle on either side. Face deeply concave,

densely silvery grey tomentose; facial carina low,

reaching almost middle of face; epistomal margin

a little raised. Antenna erect; ant 2 with long

slender spine; ant 3 reniform, 1 .3x as wide as long;

arista not terminal; flagellum slender with long,

fairly dense hairs. Eye large with vertical long axis

and very dense pubescence. Gena rather narrow,

densely tomentose, as also postgena, the latter with

long hairs; vibrissal comer nearly a right angle;

vibrissa long and slender; occipital margin around

bases of ovt and ivt tomentose and with dense hairs;

a row of postocular setae well developed. Head

bristles black with erect and convergent oc, well-

developed vertical bristles, 9-10 orb and inclinate

if-

Thorax predominantly brownish-black;

scutum glabrous with two lateral and two median

longitudinal stripes and white punctate hairs;

humeral callus and the area behind up to base of

wing, part of anepst, hypopleuron and margins of

scutellum tomentose; scutellum nearly semicircular

258

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NEW DESCRIPTIONS

with almost flattened disc and punctate hairs;

thoracic bristles well developed with 1 /?, 1+2 npl ,

pa 1 , pa 2, 1 dc , widely separated <35 and 55 1 and

a bristle on kepst as in species of Cadrema.

Wing with brownish tinge; m|+2 ending

beyond apex of wing; r-m cross-vein beyond middle

of discal cell; anal angle well developed. Haltere

partly red and yellow.

Legs brownish-black, but for yellow tarsi;

femoral organ a row of 7-8 short spines; tibial organ

long, oval.

Abdomen black, somewhat shiny, densely

silvery-grey tomentose with long erect hairs except

for dorsal areas of basal segments. Male genitalia:

Epandrium broader than tong; surstylus broadly

triangular, narrowly rounded apically; cercus

moderately developed; hypandrium broadly and

shallowly incised on outer margin of basal bridge;

aedeagal apodeme well developed; distiphallus

subcylindrical, progressively somewhat narrowing

distal ly; postgonite unlike in Melanochaeta not

triangular but subcylindrical, ending with a

somewhat obtuse apex.

Gender and derivation: Feminine; from

Melanochaeta plus the suffix myia.

One species, rubrohalterata is described here

which is the type species.

Melanochaetomyia rubrohalterata sp. nov.

(Figs 1-5)

Male: Head (Fig. 1): Much higher than long,

length, height and width ratio 2:3:4. Frons greatly

depressed, but anteriorly area beyond lunule

projecting prominently above eyes, parallel-sided

but slightly widened at vertex, where it is silvery

grey tomentose and with prominent hairs, v/idth

0.85x the length and 0.43x the width of head,

blackish-brown, but projecting area anteriorly

brownish-yellow, wholly with prominent whitish-

black fir; frontal triangle large, shiny brownish-

black, reaching four-fifths the length of frons,

ending with narrowly obtuse apex, with a few

prominent punctate hairs on triangle mostly

confined to either side of median part and the area

behind, area inner to lateral margin with 2 to 3

very low, linear short ridges and depressions, each

commencing from vertex margin and extending

to level of posterior margin of anterior ocellus. Face

deeply concave, much narrower than frons,

brownish-black, very densely silvery grey

tomentose and hence appearing grey; facial carina

very low, triangular between eyes and extending

hardly one-fourth the length of face and roofed

basal ly by projecting frons; spine on ant 2 long;

ant 3 reniform, 1.5x as wide as long, upper one-

third brownish-black, rest yellow; arista black,

basal segments slightly thickened and with short

hairs, flagellum slender with dense prominent

concolorous hairs. Gena dark brown, one-fifth as

wide as ant 3, grey plumose; vibrissal corner almost

a right angle with long, slender vibrissa; postgena

concolorous with and plumose like gena. Palpi

yellowish-brown; proboscis partly shiny black and

partly brown. Head bristles well developed, black;

ovt and the cruciate pvt subequal; ivt a trifle shorter

than ovt; oc upright, convergent, three-fifths the

pvt; orb about 1 0, posterior 4 more developed and

reclinate to partly erect, the rest slanting and

inclinate; if in a row outside the triangle along

lateral margin and a few on the triangle on either

side not in rows; if and the well developed fr almost

of equal size; a well developed row of long black

postocular setae very prominent.

Thorax: Almost as wide as head,

predominantly brownish-black, scutum 1.1 5x as

long as wide with glabrous, greatly convex disc

bearing two median and two lateral longitudinal

dark blue stripes, of which each of former

commences from the anterior margin and extends

to three-fifths the length, while both more broad

lateral ones extend from level of humeral callus

and taper off above 1 dc at the level of pa 2, wholly

covered with dense white finely punctate hairs

which are somewhat parted along narrowly

grooved acr and dc lines; humeral callus and area

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

259

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs 1-5: Melcmochaetomyia rubroha/terata sp. nov., 1. Head, 2. Scutellum, 3. Wing, 4. Epandrium,

5. Hypandrium and Phallic complex

260

JOURNAL; BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

up to base of pa 1 densely silvery grey tomentose;

scutellum (Fig. 2) nearly semicircular, 1 .2x as wide

as long, with nearly flattened glabrous disc and

thick, densely tomentose margins, concolorous

with and punctate and pubescent like scutum;

pleura brownish-black with glabrous black maculae

along lower anterior margin of anepst, lower

margin of meron above coxa on anepm, except for

part of lower halves densely tomentose; kepst with

long white hairs and one bristle. All thoracic

bristles black, well developed; h 1 ; npl 1 +2 and 1

dc all subequal; pa 1 a trifle longer than pa 2 and

shorter than 1 dc; as as long as scutellum, widely

separated; 55 1 , 0.6x the as.

Wing (Fig. 3): Brownish, as long as body

and 2.42x as long as wide, distinctly brownish;

m|+2 ending beyond wing apex; proportions of

costal sectors 2 to 4 in the ratio 25: 15:8; r-m cross-

vein beyond middle of discal cell at 0.57 of its

length; terminal sectors of r4+5and m|+2 parallel;

anal angle well developed. Distal half of knob of

haltere reddish, basal part and stalk yellow.

Legs: With dense yellow hairs; coxae,

trochanters, femora and tibiae brownish-black;

femoral organ well developed, distinctly projecting

in the form of one row of 8 to 9 warts; tibial organ

long, oval; all tarsi yellow; midtibia with a slender

terminal spine.

Abdomen: Somewhat shiny black, whole

of dorsum grey tomentose, covered with long

dense black hairs except for the median parts of

Refer

Andersson, H. (1977): Taxonomic and phylogenetic

studies on Chloropidae (Diptera) with special

reference to Old World Genera. Ent. Scand. Suppl.

8: 1-200.

Cherian, P.T. (1975): Indian species of Elachiptera

Macquart (Diptera: Chloropidae). Orient. Ins. 9(1):

9-12, 16 figs.

Duda, O. (1934): Fauna Sumatrensis, Bijdrage

No. 74.Chloropidae (Diptera). Tijdschr Ent. 77: 55-

161.

Kanmiya, K. (1983): A systematic study of the Japanese

Chloropidae (Diptera). Mem. Entomol. Soc .,

basal segments.

Male genitalia (Figs 4, 5): epandrium

much wider than long; cercus with two long

hairs; surstylus well developed, with conspicuous

hairs; postgonites with a few short hairs distally.

Length: Male 2.8 mm; wing 2.7 mm.

Holotype: Male, india: Meghalaya: Nangpo,

1 0.iv. 1 979, Coll. P.T. Cherian.

Remarks: This species was collected along

with other members of the Tribe Elachipterini

belonging to genera Melanochaeta Bezzi,

Elachiptera Macquart and Cadrema Walker from

the Nango forest in Meghalaya, a haven for

diverse groups of insects, especially dipterans.

It differs from all its congeners, apart from other

characters, in possessing well-developed hairs

on the frontal triangle.

Abbreviations: acr acrostical; anepm

anepimeron; anepst anepisternum; as apical

scutellar bristle; dc dorsocentral bristle;^ frontal

hairs; h humeral bristle; if interfrontal bristle;

ivt inner vertical bristle; kepst katepisternum;

npl notopleural bristle; oc ocellar bristle; orb

fronto-orbital bristle; ovt outer vertical bristle;

pa postalar bristle; pvt postvertical bristle;

as subapical scutellar bristle.

Acknowledgement

I am grateful to the Director, Zoological

Survey of India, Kolkata for encouragement.

E N C E S

Washington 11: 1-370.

Nartshuk, E.R (1983): A system of the superfamily

Chloropoidea (Diptera: Cyclorrhapha). Ent. Oboz.

Moscow. 62(3): 638-648.

Nartshuk, E.P. (1987): Zlakovie Mukhi (Diptera:

Chloropidae) IK Systema, Evolusia i. Svyazi s

rastennymi. Trud. Zoo/. Inst. Acad. Nauk USSR, 136:

1-280.

Sabrosky, C.W. (1977): Family Chloropidae, pp. 277-319

(part). In: A catalog of Diptera of the Oriental Region.

3 (Eds.: Delfinado and Hardy). University Hawaii

Press, Honolulu.

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

261

TWO NEW SPECIES OF GENUS COLLOTHECA HARRING 1913

(ROTIFER A: MONOGONONTA) FROM FRESHWATERS OF TRIPURA, INDIA1

S. Banik2

( With two text-figures )

Key words: C. tetralobata sp. nov., C. hexalobata sp. nov., new species,

freshwater wetland

The present study recorded two new species: Collotheca tetralobata sp. nov. and C. hexalobata

sp. nov. from the wetlands of Tripura which are described here. In order to find out their ecological

niche characteristics, different physicochemical factors of water, preference of plant-substrata,

and seasonal occurrence of the species were also noted.

Introduction

Collotheca belongs to the sessile fauna

under Phylum Rotifera. In India, some workers

(Anderson 1889, Sarma and Rao 1986, Sarma

1988, Banik and Kar 1995) studied the taxonomy

of the genus. However, Koste (1978) made a

detailed study on their taxonomy with regard to

the European region. In taxonomic observations,

knowledge of ecological conditions is most

helpful to get an idea of the distribution of

species, which is lacking in most descriptions of

new taxa (Anderson 1889, Segers et al. 1994).

The present work describes two new rotifer

species with their ecological characteristics such

as physicochemical conditions of their freshwater

habitat, nature of plant substrata and seasonal

occurrence.

Material and Methods

The rotifer fauna were collected live from

natural substrata (such as root, stem and leaf of

hydrophytes) from the littoral region of shallow

water wetlands of Agartala, Tripura (23° 50* 15"

N and 91° 15' 45" E) during 1994-1997. The

live specimens were examined under an Olympus

'Accepted April, 2000

Tisheries & Limnology Research Unit,

Department of Life Science, Tripura University,

Agartala 799 013, Tripura, India.

Trinocular-KH microscope with a camera lucida.

Preparation of trophi was done following the

method of Banik and Kar (1995) and Banik

(1996). The physicochemical analysis of

freshwater was made following APHA (1992).

Type specimens were deposited in the

Fishery Laboratory, University of Calcutta,

Kolkata (MFLC) and in the collection of the

Fishery & Limnology Research Unit, Tripura

University, Tripura (RTU). All measurements

(size of body, amictic and resting eggs of the

rotifer fauna) are expressed in pm. Koste’s (1978)

key was followed for the description of the taxa.

Results

Family: Collothecidae

Genus: Collotheca Harring 1913

Collotheca tetralobata sp. nov.

Collotheca hexalobata sp. nov.

Collotheca tetralobata sp. nov.

Materials examined: Twelve partheno-

genetic females (Holotype, MFLC 219); nine

parthenogenetic females (Paratype, MFLC 220);

a glass vial with 23 specimens (Paratype, MFLC

221). One parthenogenetic female, one mictic

female (Paratype, RTU); six parthenogenetic

females (Paratype, RTU); permanent mounted

slide consists of entire animal and trophi (RTU).

262

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

1 ABC lOO/um

ID 15 Aim

- 1

Fig. 1: Collotheca tetralobata sp. nov.,

A. The specimen in normal condition,

B. Amictic egg, C. Resting egg, D. Trophi

Description: Parthenogenetic Females

(Figs 1A-D). Corona with four unequal, blunt

lobes (two longer) and tetragonaliy arranged.

Bristles longer at the tip of the lobes. Cilia very

small at interlobal area. Germovitellarium

distinct during pre-reproductive period. Lorica

transparent, very long, oval-shaped. Holdfast

much longer. Longitudinal and circular muscles

of coronal lobes distinct during relaxation.

Antennae paired, laterally placed between

coronal funnel and the trunk. Amictic eggs, 3-5

at a time. Resting eggs, 1-2 at a time. Just before

laying eggs, the animal undergoes a resting

condition for a few seconds. Trophi uncinate type

(Fig. ID), uncus and subuncus distinct. Males

unknown.

Measurements in pm:

Total length of the body 700-770

Length of the lorica 400-467

Length of longer tube 97- 1 06

Length of shorter tube 63-69

Breadth of corona 57-65

Length of the trunk 2 1 6-22 1

Breadth of trunk at apex 43-49

Breadth of trunk at base 15-19

Length of the foot 220-248

Length of the holdfast 167-195

Length of amictic egg 100-1 16

Width of amictic egg 71-89

Length of resting egg 173-184

Width of resting egg 102-1 12

Differential diagnosis: The new species

belongs to the C. ornata type, but is easily

distinguished from C. ornata by the presence of

two longer lobes and two shorter lobes, paired

lateral antennae, very long holdfast and interlobal

cilia, and by the absence of pentagonal

arrangement of five short lobes and very reduced

holdfast.

Collotheca tetralobata sp. nov. might also

be confused with the congener possessing blunt

lobes. C. ornata , however, has odd numbered

smaller lobes of similar size and varied shape of

lorica.

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

263

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Ecological Characteristics

a) Physicochemical conditions of water.

The new species was found in temperatures of

10-21 °C, dissolved oxygen 4. 7-8. 9 ppm, pH 6-

6.9, bicarbonate 63-98 ppm, silicate 3-9 ppm and

dissolved organic matter 3-7.6 ppm.

b) Plant-substrata preference'. This species

occurs on stems and leaves of Utricularia

vulgaris. Sometimes occurred on root-hairs of

Eichhornia crassipes also. However, it was not

seen in any other macrophytes.

c) Seasonal Occurrence : Co/lotheca

tetralobata sp. nov. was noted in the winter

months only.

Collotheca hexalobata sp. nov.

Material examined: Nine parthenogenetic

females (Holotype, MFLC 323); eleven

parthenogenetic females (Paratype, MFLC 324),

vial with 30 specimens (Paratype, MFLC 325).

One parthenogenetic female, one mictic female

(Paratype, RTU), five parthenogenetic females

(Paratype, RTU), permanent mounted slide with

entire animal and trophi (RTU).

Description: Parthenogenetic females

(Figs 2A-D). Corona broad with six equal, blunt

lobes arranged hexagonally. Bristles longer,

germovitellarium distinct during adult period.

Lorica less transparent, wavy at the lower part.

Holdfast much longer, with continuous

contraction habit. Base of holdfast broad, oval.

Antennae paired, lateral. Amictic eggs, 2-3 at a

time. Resting eggs, 2-3 time. Trophi uncinate

type (Fig 2D). Males unknown, probably

distorted during mounting process.

Measurements in jam:

Total length of the body 1,426-1,530

Length of the lorica 300-398

Length of the lobe 65-79

Breadth of the corona 271-280

Length of the trunk 383- 400

Breadth of trunk at apex 97-101

Breadth of trunk at base 59-65

D

2 ABC 100/um

2D 15 /um

Fig. 2: Collotheca hexalobata sp. nov.,

A. The specimen in normal condition,

B. Amictic egg, C. Resting egg, D. Trophi

264

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 99(2). AUG. 2002

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Differential diagnosis: The new species

belongs to the C. tenuilobata type, but is easily

distinguished from C. tenuilobata by the

presence of six lobes, longer holdfast and its

broad and oval base and by the absence of

pentagonal arrangement of tubular lobes,

interlobal cilia, greatly reduced holdfast with

small and round base and a transparent lorica.

C. hexalobata sp. nov. might also be

confused with the congener whose tubular

lobes look like blunt lobes and the longer

holdfast seems to be a reduced one under

contracted condition of the whole body, which

is an important behavioural character of

C. tenuilobata. However, C. tenuilobata under

relaxed condition shows a transparent lorica,

pentagonal lobes and much reduced holdfast.

Ecological Characteristics: a) Physico-

chemical conditions of water: C. hexalobata sp.

nov. was found at temperatures of 16-34 °C,

dissolved oxygen 3. 6-7. 8 ppm, pH 5. 7-6. 8,

bicarbonate 34-89 ppm and dissolved organic

matter 6-13 ppm.

b) Plant-substrata preference : This species

was found only on root-hairs of Eichhornia

crass ip es.

c) Seasonal Occurrence : It was observed

mostly during summer, and only one individual

was noted in winter (i.e. in December 1994 and

November 1996).

Refer

Anderson, H.H. (1889): Notes on Indian Rotifers. J. Asiatic

Soc. Bengal 58: 345-358.

APHA ( 1 992): Standard Methods for the Examination of

Water and Waste Water. American Water Works

Association and Water Pollution Control Federation,

Washington, 1268 pp.

Discussion

The morphological characteristics of the two

new species C. tetralobata sp. nov. and

C. hexalobata sp. nov. do not exhibit any specific

similarity with known rotifer species of Collotheca

Harring 1913 (Koste 1978). C. tetralobata sp. nov.

can be confused with C. ornate and C. hexalobata

sp. nov. with C. temalobata to some extent.

However, the new taxa are quite different from the

known rotifer species because of some distinct, new

and easily identifiable taxonomic characters

(Segers et al. 1992, 1994).

Besides this, the most interesting feature

of the new taxa is species-specific ecological

niche characteristics such as physicochemical

condition of water, preference of particular plant-

substratum for growth, food and occurrence of

species in particular season(s) (Banik 1987, Datta

and Banik 1987, Banik and Kar 1995, Banik

1996, 1997, 1998, 1999).

The present observation confirms that

shallow freshwater bodies of Tripura are much

neglected in studies of sessile rotifers (Banik et

al. 1994)

Acknowledgements

1 thank the UGC (Sanction No. F 3-52/93

SR-II), New Delhi, for financing the study under

the Major Research Project. Thanks are due to

Mrs. S. Deb and S. Debbarman for sampling the

rotifers and water; to Professor Walter Koste,

Germany for suggestions and to the Head,

Department of Life Science, Tripura University

for laboratory facilities.

E N C E S

Banik, S. (1987): Ecological studies of periphyton on

artificial substrata in lentic water bodies. Ph.D.

Thesis, University of Calcutta, 1 09 pp.

Banik, S. (1996): New Records of Sessile Rotifers from

Freshwater fishponds of Tripura II. Proc. Indian

natn. Sci. Acad. B62 (2): 111-116.

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

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NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Banik, S. (1997): New Records of Sessile Rotifera from

freshwater fish ponds of Tripura, India with notes

on ecological niche. Paper presented in VII

International Rotifer Symposium held at Minnesota,

June 22-27, 1997.

Banik, S. (1998): New Records of rotifers (planktonic)

from freshwater wetlands of Tripura (India) II.

Bangladesh J. Zoology 26(1 ): 67-72.

Banik, S. ( 1 999): New Records of planktonic Rotifera from

freshwater wetlands of Tripura (India). J. Asia Soc.

Bangladesh, Science 25 (2): 17-23.

Banik, S., R. Debnath, S. Debbarman & S. Kar (1994):

Occurrence of rotifers in a seasonal wetland in

relation to some limnological conditions.

J. Freshwater Biol. 6: 221-224.

Banik, S. & S. Kar (1995): New Records of Sessile Rotifers

from freshwater fish ponds of Tripura. Proc. Indian

natn. Sci. Acad. B61: 225-230.

Datta, N.C. & S. Banik (1987): Periphytic community on

glass slide substrata in a freshwater lake in relation

to some abiotic factors Proc. Indian natn. Sci. Acad

B53 : 245-247.

Koste, W. (1978): Rotatoria Monogononta Bomtraeger,

Berlin, Stuttgart, Vol. I, Textband 673 p., Tafelband

234 p.

Sarma, S.S.S. (1988): New records of freshwater rotifers

(Rotifera) from Indian waters. Hydrobiologia 160:

263-269.

Sarma, S.S.S. & T.R. Rao (1986): Observations on the

egg types and males of Collotheca tenuilobata

Anderson (Rotifera: Collothecidae). Proc. Indian

natn. Sci. Acad B52: 729-73 1 .

Segers, H., N. Emir & J. Mertens (1992): Rotifera from

north and northeast Anatolia (Turkey).

Hydrobiologia 245 : 1 79- 1 89.

Segers, H., D.K. Mbogo & H.J. Dumont (1994): New

Rotifera from Kenya, with a revision of the Ituridae.

Zoological J. Linn. Soc. 7: 25-31.

266

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

A NEW CYPRINID FISH SPECIES OF BARIIJUS HAMILTON

FROM THE CHATRICKONG RIVER, MANIPUR, INDIA'

Keishing Selim and Waikhom Vishwanath2

( With one text-figure)

Key words: New species, Barilius chatricensis sp. nov., Manipur

A new species of Barilius is described based on ten specimens from Chatrickong river, flowing

through Chatrick village of the Ukhrul district, Manipur, India. The species is characterised by

15 rows of scales in front of the dorsal fin, 7-8 distinct dark blue bands on the side of the body,

absence of a dark spot at the base of the caudal fin, and absence of barbels on the snout. The

maxilla does not reach the base of the pectoral fin. The dorsal fins do not commence midway

between the eye and base of caudal fin, and the last short dorsal fin-ray does not reach the caudal

peduncle. Lateral line is complete with 38 scales, and predorsal scales are 15 in number.

Introduction

The bariline fishes of the genus Barilius

Hamilton (Family Cyprinidae: Cyprininae)

inhabit medium to fast torrential mountain

streams of the Indian subcontinent, Thailand and

Myanmar. The fishes are characterised by a

compressed body, blue-black transverse bars or

spots on the body and dorsal fins inserted beyond

the middle of the body (Hamilton 1822). Howes

(1980) made detailed study on the systematics

of the genus, based on anatomical and

osteological characters. The genus, as now

restricted, includes only those species occurring

in India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka,

Myanmar and Thailand, with 25 species of the

genus Barilius , 15 being in the Indian region

(Talwar and Jhingran 1991). Only three species

of Barilius were hitherto known from Manipur,

India, namely B. barila (Hamilton 1822),

B. bendelisis (Hamilton 1 822) and B. dogarsinghi

Hora 1921 . A new species of Barilius is described

here from Chatrickong river, that flows in the

Ukhrul district of Manipur, India. The river is

formed by two important tributaries: Khunukong

and Sanalok; both of which meet at Dha-ado and

flow as Chatrickong for about 5 km on Indian

soil and then into Myanmar, finally meeting the

'Accepted October, 1999

department of Life Sciences, Manipur University,

Canchipur 795 003, Manipur, India.

Chindwin near Homalin, a township in Myanmar

(about 24° 40' N, 94° 45' E).

Material and Methods

The new species was collected by cast net.

Type specimens are deposited in the Manipur

University Museum of Fishes (MUMF). Standard

measurements and counts were made following

Jayaram (1981 ). Body proportions are expressed

as percentage of standard length (SL) and head

length (HL). Transverse scales were counted as

scaled between lateral line and dorsal fin origin

and from lateral line to pelvic fin origin.

Barilius chatricensis sp. nov.

Holotype: MUMF 530/1, 86.4 mm (SL),

Chatrickong river, Ukhrul District, Manipur,

India. 150 km from Imphal. Coll. Keishing

Selim; 16. xi. 1995.

Paratype: MUMF 531/9 58.6-89.00 mm

(SL). Data same as Holotype.

Diagnosis: A species of Barilius with 7-8

thick blue-black transverse bands on the body

which do not extend to lateral line; lateral line

scales 38; predorsal scales 15. Maxilla does not

reach the base of pectoral fin. Dorsal fins do not

commence midway between the eye and base of

caudal fin. Barbels absent on snout and no dark

spots at the base of caudal fin.

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

267

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Description: D. II, 7; P. i, 11; V. i, 8; A. ii,

10; C. 18;L.1.38;L.tr7/l/2;PDS. 15. Proportional

measurements and counts of the fish are shown in

Table 1. Body compressed, abdomen rounded,

snout blunt, cleft of jaws with numerous pores.

Upper jaw longer than lower. Eyes large, situated

in the anterior half of the head. Barbels absent on

snout. Maxilla does not reach the base of pectoral

fin, and dorsal fins do not commence midway

between eye and base of caudal fin. Dorsal profile

in front of the dorsal fin relatively straight, slightly

curved towards the base of the caudal fin. Dorsal

fin inserted beyond middle of standard length; its

insertion reaches the base of pelvic fin and its last

fm ray short, not reaching caudal peduncle. Ventral

fin does not reach anal fin. Vent opens just above

base of anal fin. Caudal fin deeply forked, lower

lobes longer than upper lobes.

Colour: Body silvery white, slightly dark

dorsally. 7-8 dark blue bands on the sides of the

body. Bands short, thick, tapering towards the

lateral line but not extending to it. Pectoral,

ventral and anal fins tinged with orange colour

in fresh condition.

Distribution: Chatrickong river, Ulchrul

district, Manipur, India.

Etymology: The species name refers to the

Chatrickong river from where the type material

was collected.

Remarks: Barilius chatricensis sp. nov.

is similar to B. dogarsinghi Hora in some of its

body proportions. But it differs from the latter in

Table 1

MORPHOMETRIC CHARACTERS

L.l. = Lateral line longitudinal scales

L.tr. = Lateral transverse scales

Fig. 1: Barilius chatricensis sp. nov., MUMF 530/1, 86.4 mm (SL)

268

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

Table 2

COMPARISON OF B. CHATR1CENSIS SP. NOV. WITH OTHER BARILINES

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

269

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

having a longer head, shorter predorsal length,

shorter and shallower caudal peduncle, wider

mouth, fewer predorsal scales and absence of

barbels on the snout. The new species is also

distinct from B. dogarsinghi in colour pattern

and extension of fins (See Table 2).

It also differs from B. barna (Ham.) in that

the maxilla does not reach the base of pectoral

fin and the last dorsal fin ray, being short, does

not reach the caudal peduncle. Dorsal fin

commences midway between the eye and base of

caudal fin in B. barna , whereas it does not

commence midway between eye and base of

caudal fin in B. chatricensis. Lateral line

complete with 39-42 scales, predorsal scales 16

in B. barna , whereas in B. chatricensis the lateral

line is complete with 38 scales and predorsal

scale 15. B. barna has 7-11 well defined vertical

dark bars and flanks with 7-9 narrow deep blue

vertical bands, whereas in B. chatricensis there

are only 7-8 distinct dark blue bands.

The new species also differs from

B. bendelisis (Ham.) in lateral line scales

numbering 40-45; predorsal scales are 18-20;

2 pairs of barbels; 8-12 dark bands and poorly

developed tubercles.

Barilius guttatus Day and B. bola

(Hamilton) were reported by Menon (1952) and

Menon (1954) respectively, from Manipur. These

species are, however, included in the genus

Raiamas Jordan by Howes (1980) in view of their

greatly expanded kinethmoid, and low and

shallow jaws. They are easily separated from

Refer

Hamilton, F. ( 1 822): An account of the fishes found in the

river Ganges and its branches. Archibald, Constable

& Co., Edinburgh and London, pp. 405.

Hora, S.L. (1921): Fish and fisheries of Manipur with some

observations on those of the Naga hills. Rec. Indian.

Mus. 22(3): 165-214.

Howes, G.J. (1980): The anatomy, phylogeny and

classification of bariline cyprinid fishes. Bull. Br.

Mus. nat. Hist. (Zool.) 37(3): 129-198.

Jayaram, K.C. (1981): The freshwater fishes of India,

other bar i lines of the region by their long gape,

extending behind the orbit. Although, Howes (op

cit.) did not examine B. dogarsinghi , it appears

that this species along with the species under

description belong to the second subgroup of the

genus Barilius , exemplified by B. gatensis in

which the body is deep, jaws short, barbels a

single pair or absent, and tubercles large, and

well developed tubercles.

Comparative Material: Barilius

dogarsinghi Hora: ZSI (Zoological Survey of

India) / F-2208/2, 3 specimens, from Manipur

(No date or collector’s name)

Barilius dogarsinghi Hora, MUMF - 360,

10 specimens from Chakpi stream, Manipur, coll.

W. Vishwanath and Manoj (No date).

Barilius barna (Ham.) ZSI/ 1 2038, ZSI/

12042, 2 specimen from Banor R. Deoli Ajmere,

Mewara, coll. Biddulph & Museum collectors

(No date).

Barilius bendelisis (Ham.) ZSI/ 4233, 2

specimens from Barak Kangjup, Manipur, coll.

A.G.K. Menon on l.ii.1953.

Acknowledgements

We thank the Director, Zoological Survey

of India, Kolkata for permission to examine

the type specimen of Barilius dogarsinghi

Hora and Barilius barna (Ham.). We also

thank the Ministry of Environment and

Forests, Government of India, for financial

assistance.

E N C E S

Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma & Sri Lanka, a hand

book. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta: 475 pp.

Menon, A.G.K. (1954): Further observations on the fish

fauna of Manipur State. Rec. Indian Mus. 52: 21-

26.

Menon, M.A.S. (1952): On a collection of fish from

Manipur, Assam. Rec. Indian Mus. 50: 21-26.

Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland fishes of

India and adjacent countries. Vol. 1 . Oxford & IBH

Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Pp. 54 1 .

270

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 99(2), AUG. 2002

A NEW SPECIES OF EXACUM L., GENTIAN ACEAE,

FROM AGASTHIYAMALAI (POTHIGAI), SOUTHERN WESTERN GHATS, INDIA1

R. Gopalan2

( With one text-figure )

Key words: Exacum klackenbergii sp. nov., Agasthiyamalai, South Western Ghats

A new species of Exacum , from Agasthiyamalai (Pothigai), southern Western Ghats, India, is

described and illustrated.

Exacum klackenbergi sp. nov.

A Exacum wightianum Arn. caulibus

lignosis, teretibus (non alatis); foliis distincte

petiolatis, ellipticis, apice enciforme acuminatis;

antheris oblongis, ad basim sagittatis

differt.

Holotypus ( R . Gopalan 88726, CAL) and

isotypi ( R . Gopalan 88726, MH — num. acc.

163946-48) in Sangumuthirai, Pothigaimalai

(Agasthiyamalai) in ditione Tirunelveli in statu

Tamil Nadensi, India, ad altitudinum c. 1,500

m, die 5.ii.l989 lecti.

Allied to E. wightianum Am. but differs in

the stem being woody, terete (not winged), leaves

distinctly petioled, elliptic, ensiformly acuminate

at apex and anthers oblong, sagittate at base.

Herb, to 70 cm high, divaricately or erecto-

patently branched; internodes varying in length,

shorter than leaves; stems woody, terete at base,

minutely striate towards apex; branchlets

4-angled. Leaves opposite, simple; petioles to

1.2 cm long, rounded abaxially, canaliculate

abaxially (not amplexicaul); lamina elliptic,

2-6.5 x 0.9-2. 1 cm, attenuate at base, entire and

revolute along margins, acuminate or ensiformly

acuminate (acumen to 15 mm long) at apex,

coriaceous, 3-nerved at base; midrib prominent

beneath, minutely grooved above; lateral nerves

2, prominent beneath, slightly raised above.

Floral leaves 2; petioles to 4 mm long; lamina

'Accepted April, 2000

2Botanical Survey of India,

Coimbatore 64 1 003, Tamil Nadu, India.

elliptic, 4-25 x 1-1 1 mm, attenuate at base, entire

and revolute along margins, acuminate (acumen

to 5 mm long) at apex. Inflorescence a terminal

cyme (rarely solitary, axillary); peduncles and

pedicels 4-angled, drooping, minutely winged;

bracts 2, ovate, 3-5 x 0.7-2 mm, cuneate to

attenuate at base, entire, acuminate at apex.

Flowers zygomorphic, bisexual. Calyx 5-lobed;

lobes coalescent to 3 mm from base, ovate-

lanceolate, 13-15 x 4-5.5 mm, subequal,

gradually narrowing towards apex, winged;

wings (semi) cordate at base, distinctly nerved.

Corolla blue, yellow at throat; tube 6-8 mm

long; lobes 5, quincuncialis, broadly elliptic,

18-31 x 8-19 mm, membranous, wavy along

margins, acute at apex. Stamens 5, adnate to

corolla tube; filaments 2-3 mm long, flat; anthers

oblong (not bottle-shaped), 8-9 x 1.5-2 mm,

sagittate at base, opening by longitudinal

slit above, with a prominent papilla near the

apex on dorsal side, basifixed. Ovary oblong-

ovoid, c. 7 x 4 mm; style stout, terete, 12-13

(-14) mm long, curved; stigma slightly capitate,

viscid.

Holotype ( R . Gopalan 88726, CAL) and

isotypes ( R . Gopalan 88726, MH - Acc. No.

163946-48) were collected from Sangumuthirai,

Pothigaimalai (Agasthyamalai) in Tirunelveli

district, Tamil Nadu, 1,500 m, 5.ii.l989.

Etymology: The species is named in

honour of Dr. Jens Klackenberg, Botanical

Institute, University of Stockholm, Sweden, for

his valuable monograph on the paleotropical

genus Exacum L. (Gentianaceae).

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

271

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Fig. 1: Excicum klackenbergi sp. nov., A. Branchlet, B. Calyx, C. Corolla spreadout with stamens,

D. Stamen (Front & Lateral views), E. Pistil

272

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Acknowledgements

I thank Dr. P. Daniel, Deputy Director,

Botanical Survey of India (BSI), Coimbatore, for

facilities, encouragement and critically going

through the manuscript, and Dr. V.J. Nair,

Scientist Emeritus, BSI, Coimbatore for the Latin

diagnosis. I thank Dr. A.N. Henry, Scientist

Emeritus, BSI, Coimbatore, for valuable

suggestions.

JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

273

THREE NEW SPECIES FROM THE SPIDER FAMILIES AMAUROBIIDAE,

THOMISIDAE AND SALTICIDAE (ARANEAE: ARACHNIDA) FROM INDIA'

D.B. Bastawade2

( With twenty-eight text-figures)

Key words: Araneae, Amaurobiidae, new record, Indian main land, Families,

Thomisidae, Salticidae, new species, Amaurobius indicus , Camericus bipunctatus,

Myrmarachne dirangicus

Three new species of spiders have been described with first report of the Family Amaurobiidae

from the Indian main land from the Maharashtra State as Amaurobius indicus. Additional two

new species Camericus bipunctatus , Myrmarachne dirangicus , have been described under the

families Thomisidae and Salticidae respectively and reported from Arunachal Pradesh, India.

The detail descriptions and diagnostic illustrations have been provided for easy identification

with key characters and allied species respectively.

Studies on the spider fauna of British India

has been dealt with by many European

Arachnologists namely Thorell, Simon,

Stoliczka, Cambridge to Pocock and later by

many Indians such as Narayana, Basu and more

recently by Tikader, Sadana, Patel, Malhotra,

Gajbe, Bal, Biswas and Reddy among others.

Considering the wide variety of habits inhabited

by spiders the present information seems scanty

and scarce, and needs more study to understand

the diversity amongst spiders.

This paper is based on recent survey

explorations made for collections in various parts

of India. The Family Amaurobiidae is being

reported for the first time from the

mainland. Tikader ( 1 977) reported it earlier from

the Andaman Islands. The Thomisid genus

Camericus has so far been known from only two

species (Tikader 1980). A third species is

recorded here with its full description and

illustrations. The Salticid genus Myrmarachne

is being reported for the first time from

Arunachal Pradesh by a new species.

‘Accepted February, 2000

Zoological Survey of India, Western Regional Station,

PCNTDA, Rawet Road, Sector 29,

Akurdi, Pune 41 1 044, Maharashtra, India.

Family: Amaurobiidae

Amaurobius indicus sp. nov.

(Figs 1-12)

General: Dark blackish-brown to

yellowish-brown in colour, ventral portion

lighter; dorsum entirely covered with scutum in

both male and female (Fig. 1) but the ventral

collar extends posteriorly up to 2/3 rd portion.

All legs armed below with a row of paired

spines on Tibiae and Metatarsi. Male with much

elongated and shallow cymbium, and bulging

paracymbium at the base.

Measurements (in mm): Total length

8.00; Cephalothorax 3.8 long, 2.3 wide;

Abdomen 4.2 long, 3.8 wide.

Cephalothorax: Longer than wide, entire

surface rough with fine granulation and without

hair, median anterior portion high with high

clypeus, eight eyes placed in two rows, laterals

smaller and close to each other, anterior medians

larger than remaining, ocular quad almost as

wide as long; Cephalothoracic sternum broad and

pointed posteriorly, labium longer than wide and

endites deeply curved on inner portion (Fig. 3),

Chelicerae robust, bulging anteriorly on basal

segment, armed with 3 on promargin and a row

of 9-10 teeth on retromargin of fang furrow, fang

274

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs 1-12: Amaurobius indicus sp. nov.

1. Female, dorsal aspects (legs omrnitted); 2. Abdomen, lateral aspects; 3. Cephalothoracic sternum, labium

and endite, ventral aspects; 4. Chelicera, lateral aspects; 5. Dentition on cheiicerae, promarginal aspects;

6. Basal segment, mesal aspects; 7. Male palp, lateral aspects; 8. Male palp, mesal aspects;

9. Female palp, dorsal aspects; 10. Tarsus IV, lateral aspects; 11. Female epigyne, ventral aspects;

12. Female genitalia, dorsal aspects

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

275

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

more than half the length of basal segment, bent

on middle portion and acutely pointed (Figs 4-

6); Palps simple, elongated, anned ventral ly with

5-6 longer setae on Tibiae and Tarsi, and 5-6

Trichobothries in a cluster placed almost at the

centre on external surface, in both male and

female (Fig. 9); Palps in male (Paratype) much

elongated with shallow cymbium, armed with

few longer setae and thickly clothed with short

hair, paracymbium bulging at the base of

cymbium (Fig. 7) with a pair of small spikes, a

pair of short, straight but stout apophysis present

on outside of Tibiae, outermost being longer and

stouter (Fig. 8). Legs I-IV comparatively thin,

long, smooth and shining, armed ventral ly with

9-9, 8-8, 3-2, 3-2 anteriorly directed paired spine

rows (Fig. 10); Leg formula 1432, calamistrum

present on III & IV pairs, more prominently

noticeable on 1 /6th distal portions. Scapula

prominent on III & IV pairs while claw tufts

fringed prominently on all legs.

Abdomen: Longer than wide, dorsum

covered with smooth scutum without any hair, a

weak chitinous collar present on l/3rd anterior

portion along with pedicel in female. Female

genitalia with a pair of clear dark spots (Fig. 1 1 ),

internal genitalia with dark dumbbell shaped sacs

(Fig. 12).

The anterior l/3ld chitinous collar

continues ventro-posteriorly up to 2/3 rd of

abdominal portion in male, male palp

complicated (Fig. 8).

Type data: Holotype 1 9, Paratypes 1 d\

2 9 9 , (2 9 9 genitalia dissected and kept

in microvials separately), all in 70%

rectified spirit, will be deposited in the

National Collections, Zoological Survey of India,

Kolkata.

Type locality: 40 kms, northeast of

Khalapur, near Matheran, Dist. Raigad (Colaba),

Maharashtra, India. Coll: Dr. D.B. Bastawade,

1 3 .xii. 1 987.

Distribution: So far known only from type

locality.

Etymology: Named after country of

collection and distribution locality i.e. India.

Key to Am a urobius indicus sp. nov .

— Anterior row of eyes more procurved, anterior

and posterior lateral eyes placed together,

ocular quad almost square, tibiae and metatarsi

of I pair of legs armed below with 9-8 and 9-9

paired spines in male and female, leg formula

1432, male palp with elongated shallow

cymbium and a bulging paracymbium with two

short curved spikes and a pair of tibial

apophysis, outer being elongated and straight

than inner, female genitalia with a pair of

dumbbell shaped darker sacs

Amaurobius indicus sp. nov.

Anterior row of eyes less procurved, anterior

and posterior lateral eyes placed away from

each other, ocular quad almost rectangular,

tibiae and metatarsi of I pair of legs with 4-4

and 6-6 paired spines in male and female

respectively, leg formula 1423, male palp with

short and deeper cymbium with a simple coiled

paracymbium and with a stout curved tibial

apophysis, female genitalic sacs triangular in

shape and clear ones

Amaurobius andamanensis Tikader

Family: Thomisidae

Camericus bipunctatus sp. nov.

(Figs 13-19)

General: Crab-like appearance, dark

brown to blackish, lighter on abdomen with a

pair of conspicuous light yellowish spots on mid-

dorsal portion, legs robust and dark brown to

blackish-brown (Fig. 13).

Measurements (in mm): Total length

7.00; Cephalothorax 2.90 long, 2.20 wide;

Abdomen 4.10 long, 3.80 wide.

Cephalothorax: Wider than long,

uniformly dark brown, more darker on lateral

portions, stalks of lateral eyes conspicuously

276

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

18 1 mm

I- — <

Figs 13-19: Camericus bipunctatus sp. nov.

13. Female, dorsal aspects (legs ommitted); 14. Cephalothoracic sternum, labium and endite,

ventral aspects; 15. Chelicera, dorsal aspects; 16. Chelicera, ventral aspects;

17. Male palp, mesal aspects; 18. Female epigyne, ventral aspects;

19. Female genitalia, dorsal aspects

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

277

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

yellow, entire surface finely punctate, sparsely

and finely rugose, more or posterior portion,

clothed with fine short hair, ocular quad longer

than wide, both the rows recurved and anterior

lateral eyes situated on shorter stalks and

posterior lateral not placed nearer to the posterior

medians and small in size (Fig. 13), sparsely

clothed with short hair; Cephalothoracic sternum

small, inverted pear shaped pointed posteriorly,

labium small narrow, longer than wide and

endites curved inside on anterior portion (Fig.

14); Chelicerae dorsoventrally compressed on

basal segments, narrow distally, finely granular

on dorsal portions, weakly and sparsely clothed

with short hair, promargin outstretched and

armed with 6 denticles (Figs 15, 16), boss small,

triangular fang very short, less than 1 /3 rd of basal

segment (Fig. 15).

Palps short and slightly flattened on tarsi,

clothed with short hail*. Legs I & II longer and

robust, darker than III & IV and also thickly clothed

with short setal hair on ventral and interior portions

of Tibiae and Tarsi of I & II, all legs finely punctate,

rugose on ventral portion of femora, sparsely haired

with short hair. All legs armed with a pair of claw

anterior being stronger.

Abdomen: Almost elliptical, longer than

wide, soft, dorsal portion with a pair of

conspicuous, round, yellowish-brown mid-dorsal

spots with a small central reddish dot along with

three smaller spots, single on anterior median

portion, while a pair between the larger median

spot and a central smaller spot (Fig. 13), dorsal

portion other than these spots covered with

serially beaded lines but lighter in color (Fig.

13), entire body clothed with short setae. Two

pairs of short and stumpy spinnerets present on

posterio-ventral portion. Genitalia as in Figs 18

& 19.

Measurements (in mm): Total length

5.65; Cephalothorax 2.15 long, 1.90 wide;

Abdomen 3.50 long, 3.10 wide; Male palp with

short cymbium and thin minute transparent

paracymbium (Fig. 17).

Type-data: Holotype 1 9 , Paratypes 6 9 9,

all in 70% rectified spirit ( 9 genitalia dissected

and kept in micro vial). Male paratype smaller in

body size, also lighter in colour.

Type locality: Near Tulsi Lake, Sanjay

Gandhi National Park, Near Mumbai,

Maharashtra, India collected from under loose bark

of a fallen tree. Coll. Dr. D.B. Bastawade,

27.ii.1997.

Distribution: Thane, Nasik (1 9), and

Dhulia districts, Maharashtra and West-Kameng

District, Arunachal Pradesh, India. (Specimens

collected from Arunachal Pradesh are small in

body size and paler in body colour).

Etymology: Named after the two prominent

spots present on the dorsal surface of the abdomen.

Key to Camericus bipunctatus sp. nov.

— Anterior and posterior median eyes placed very

close to anterior median portion and situated

away from lateral eyes, dorsal surface of

abdomen bears a pair of conspicuous elliptical

spots in the middle with dark reddish central

portion and rest of the abdomenal portion

decorative with light beaded lines, I and II pairs

of legs thickly clothed ventrally on tibiae and

tarsi and uniformly brown to blackish in colour,

Female epigyne and male palp structurally

different Camericus bipunctatus sp. nov.

— Anterior and posterior median eyes placed more

on lateral portion close to lateral eyes, dorsal

surface of black abdomen decorative with an

inverted chalk white anchor shaped patch, tibiae

and tarsi of I and II legs not so thickly clothed

and patched with black in female, female

epigyne and male palp structurally different...

Camericus formosus Thorell

Family: Salticidae

Myrmarachne dirangicus sp. nov.

(Figs 20-28)

General: Ant-like spider, blackish-brown,

278

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NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs 20-28: Myrmarachne dirangicus sp. nov.

20. Female, dorsal aspects (legs omitted); 21. Cepnalothorax, lateral aspects; 22. Cephalothoracic sternum,

labium and endite, ventral aspects; 23. Chelicera, dorsal aspects; 24. Chelicera, ventral aspects;

25. & 26. Tarsi I & IV, ventral aspects; 27. Female epigyne, ventral aspects;

28. Female genitalia, dorsal aspects

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

279

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

more blackish on cephalic region while light

brownish on thoracic region, abdomen with two

pairs of narrow lateral whitish bands, median

anterior portion darker with a blackish patch on

posterior portion (Fig. 20), light brown to

yellowish-brown on ventral portion; Chelicerae

brown, palps dark blackish on distal segments, legs

darker on exterior margins and on joints, otherwise

pale brown. Anterior median eyes larger than

others and pearly white.

Measurements (in mm): Total length

7.10; Cephalothorax 2.90 long, 2.00 wide;

Abdomen 4.20 long, 2.00 wide.

Cephalothorax: Longer than wide,

cephalic region high and flat, posteriorly sloped

into a shallow constriction and continues

posteriorly into thoracic region, further

narrowing posteriorly in to a pedicel (Fig. 21),

entire surface smooth, clypeus narrow and not

high, eight eyes placed in two rows, anterior two

pairs placed in front in a row,- median pair being

larger and pearly white; posterior row deeply

procurved, the medians being shifted much

laterally almost in a same line to posterior

laterals and much smaller in size (Fig. 20),

ocular trapezium wider than long;

Cephalothoracic sternum elongated and acutely

pointed posteriorly, labium elongated with

lateral margins parallel, rounded on anterior

margin, endites narrowed behind to

accommodate labium (Fig. 22); Chelicerae

depressed from sides, almost quadrangular, with

a ridge on interior surface, basal segments armed

with promarginal and retromarginal row of 10

and 4 minute teeth respectively (Figs 23, 24),

fangs pointed and almost l/3rd of basal segment.

Palps short as compared to body length,

dorsoventrally flat and expanded, fringed

ventrally with short setae and other portion

covered with hair, a long Trichobothridial hair

present on proximal portion of Tibiae. Legs I-

IV thin, in 4312 formulae, Tibiae I with 4 pairs,

and II with 2 pairs of anteriorly directed ventral

spines (Figs 25, 26), Tarsomeres fringed with

short setae.

Abdomen: Longer than wide, entirely

smooth, leathery except the Epyginal portion,

covered with short hair, with two lateral oblique

bands (Fig. 27), internal genitalia with a pair of

sacs, curved on inner portions and each sac bears

two dark spots in it (Figs 27, 28).

Type Data: Holotype 1 $ , Paratype 5 9 9.

Holotype 9 dissected for genitalia and kept

separately in micro vial, all in 70% rectified

spirit, will be deposited in National Collection

Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata.

Type Locality: 15 kms O’ Dirang, West-

Kameng District, Arunachal Pradesh, India.

Coll. Dr. D.B. Bastawade, 22.ix.1990.

Distribution: So far known only from type

locality.

Etymology: Named after the type locality

Dirang.

Key to Myrmarachne dirangicus sp. nov.

Cephalothoracic region broad and short than the

abdomen, cephalic and thoracic junction not much

constricted and shallow, cephalic region blackish

with white tinge, whereas thoracic region

brownish, the abdomenal coloration and female

genitalia entirely different structurally

Myrmarachne dirangicus sp. n.

Cephalothoracic region narrow and more elongated

than abdomen, cephalic and thoracic junction much

constricted and deep, cephalic and thoracic regions

totally brownish, colour pattern on abdomen and

female genitalia entirely different structurally....

Myrmarachne bengalensis Tikader

Acknowledgements

I thank Dr. J.R.B. Alfred, Director,

Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata for

permission and encouragements to take up and

complete this work at WRS, Pune. I am also

grateful to Dr. M.S. Pradhan, Scientist-SE, WRS,

Pune for providing me the necessary facilities to

280

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

undertake this work. I thank Mr. P.W. Garde,

Artist Gr. I, WRS, Pune for the drawings, and

Refer

Tikader, B.K. ( 1 977): Studies on spider fauna of Andaman

and Nicobar Islands, Indian Ocean. Rec. zoo/. Surv.

India 72: 153-212.

my mother and wife for their constant co-

operation during the work.

N C E S

Tikader, B.K. (1980): Fauna of India, Araneae I:

Thomisidae. Zoological Survey of India, Delhi,

pp. 247.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

281

REVIEWS

1. WATERBIRDS OF NORTHERN INDIA, by J.R.B. Alfred, Arun Kumar, RC. Tak

and J.P. Sati, 2001. Published by the Director, Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata.

Pp. xxiv + 239, (21 x 14 cm). Price Rs. 200/- paperback, Rs. 750/- hard bound.

There is a pressing need, in India, to bring

out regional bird guides. The waterbirds of

northern india has partially fulfilled this lacuna.

Of the 245 waterbirds from India, this book

covers 180 species recorded from Northern India

(Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab,

Haryana, Uttaranchal, Delhi, Chandigarh and

Uttar Pradesh). It claims to be an illustrated field

guide, but not ail birds are illustrated and some

of the illustrations are sub-standard (e.g. Plates 7,

44). The book is full of valuable scientific data,

but the presentation needs improvement. For

instance, the size of the bar charts in Plate 41

could have been larger for better readability.

Frequent spelling mistakes further decrease the

quality of this otherwise useful book.

The authors have painstakingly described

species with common and scientific names, size,

status (resident, winter migrant, vagrant etc.),

diagnostic characters, habits and habitat, food,

and distribution. However, it is rather strange

that purely dry and arid zone species (e.g. Indian

courser Cursorius coromandelicus, stone-curlew

Burhinus oedicnemus) are also included in this

list. Lesser snow goose Anser caerulescens , of

which we have only one confirmed record from

India (Mundkur et al. 1992), has been included

on the basis of a newspaper report. Someone

claimed to have seen this north American species

at Suklina Lake in Chandigarh, which must have

been a pair of the white variety of domestic goose

Anser indicus that we find in many public

gardens and ponds. Incidentally, Sukhna lake is

a man-made artificial wetland, more appropriate

for noisy picnickers than a stray snow goose!

Distribution maps of each species add value

to this book, but unfortunately some are not

accurate. The authors have perhaps depended too

much on published records and not on intuition.

When one depends totally on published records.

then such maps show the distribution of

ornithologists or recorders and not of birds. For

instance, wigeon Anas penelope is suddenly

shown absent in eastern Uttar Pradesh (p. 77),

although this region has large wetlands; this

species should be present there! Incidentally,

there are very few bird watchers in this region.

When this species is recorded all over India, then

why should be it absent in eastern Uttar Pradesh?

Similarly, shoveller Anas clypeata (p. 78) is also

shown enigmatically absent in eastern Uttar

Pradesh. The pheasant-tailed jacana

Hydrophasianus chirurgus (p. 103) is absent in

a small portion of northeastern Uttar Pradesh

while it has been recorded across the border in

Nepal as “fairly common on the Kosi marshes

and proved breeding there” (Inskipp and Inskipp

1991, p. 140). I have reported it from Sitadwar

and Pyagpur wetlands in Bahraich district of

Uttar Pradesh (Scott 1989). Similarly, the

distribution of the white-tailed lapwing Vanellus

leucurus, the lapwing V. vanellus , grey-headed

lapwing V cinereus — birds likely to occur in

any suitable area in northern Indian — is shown

as disjunct (perhaps more to do with the presence

of birdwatchers in these areas than the actual

distribution of birds). There are many such

mistakes in the maps. In case of common birds,

likely to be found in all suitable areas, it is better

to give a general distribution map, and if

necessary mark out important sites or extralimital

distribution.

The great white-bellied heron Ardea

insignis , a very rare bird of Eastern India, has

been shown occurring somewhere in the Uttar

Pradesh-Haryana border, but the full reference

is not given. Who recorded this species in

Northern India? Unfortunately, the book is silent

on such matters. The black-necked stork

Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus (p. 55), on which I

282

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

REVIEWS

did some work a couple of years ago and prepared

a distribution map (Rahmani 1989), has been

shown occurring only in Jammu, Himachal and

north Punjab, but not in Uttar Pradesh where the

largest known population occurs.

In the revised edition, some of the maps

could be redrawn, and only those stray or vagrant

Refer

Inskipp, C. & T. Inskipp (1991): A Guide to the Birds of

Nepal. 2nd Edn, Christopher Helm, U.K.

Mundkur, T., P. Pandya, N. Jhala, N. Parvez &

S. Khachar (1992): Snow goose Anser

caerulescens — an addition to the avifauna.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 88: 446-447.

records should be included that have been

accepted by scientific journals. Unproven records

(e.g. lesser snow goose, white-bellied heron)

should be removed. Newspaper reports have no

place in a scientific book.

M ASAD R. RAHMANI

: N C E s

Rahmani, A.R. (1989): Status of the black-necked stork

Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus in the Indian

subcontinent. Forktail 5: 99-110.

Scott, D.A. (Ed.): A directory of Asian Wetlands. IUCN

Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, U.K.

2. ETHNOBOTANY OF THE PRIMITIVE TRIBES IN RAJASTHAN by Prabhakar

Joshi, 1 995. Published by Printwell & Rupa Books Pvt. Ltd., India. Pp. xv (not numbered)

+ 314 (24 cm x 16 cm). 14 coloured pages + 18 pp. illustrations. Price Rs. 750.00/S 50/

£ 30.

This book is dedicated to Dr. S.K. Jain,

pioneer and founder of the Ethnobotanical

Society in India. It has a foreword by

Dr. Pushpangadan and two pages devoted to

acknowledgements!

The book, which is based on a doctoral

thesis submitted to the University of Rajasthan,

has 16 chapters and contains information not

only on plants, but in the author’s own words,

has preponderant bearing on plants. A large part

of it is irrelevant in scientific context. It speaks

about false beliefs and superstitions, but provides

few guidelines for future work or scientific inputs

based on the author’s studies. 75% of the

information in the book looks outdated when

one refers to the bibliography and information

available in our state gazetteers.

A total of 172 plants of Rajasthan, used

by tribals for various purposes, are mentioned,

of which 72 are cultivated. The list of plants

used for fencing, repelling porcupines, rats and

crows, fish-poisoning, those yielding minor

forest products like gum, oil-seeds, fruit, bark

and flowers of commercial use are given with

their local names like Ratanjyot, Swarnakshiri,

and scientific botanical equivalents. Botanical

names in the entire text are without author

names.

The chapter on food plants contains a list

of 92 edible plants including 15 famine food

plants (reported after Maharda, 1985). Out of

these, at least two plants Celastrus paniculatus

Wi lid. and Mucuna pruriens Hook.f. are not safe

for human consumption. C. paniculatus contains

neuro-active compounds which in very minor

doses are used for treating nervous system

disorders. These compounds can cause nervous

system disorders and even insanity in excess

doses. Similarly, M. pruriens seed contains

L-dopa, which is used for treating Parkinson’s

disease and is known to be harmful for normal

human beings if consumed regularly. Seeds of

Terminalia bellerica not only cause intoxication,

but also act as violent purgatives and sometimes

prove fatal. In fact, the author does not comment

on the folklore in the context of the current

knowledge of plants and their medicinal,

economic or commercial utility.

JO UREAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2). AUG. 2002

283

REVIEWS

The book lists 100 ethnomedicinal plants

useful against 75 different diseases. The author

mentions some primitive methods of treatment

and suggests some advanced methods, which do

not sound logical and may be left for

consideration by medical experts.

The tribals of Rajasthan have important

plants related to ceremonies, religion and

superstitions, related to their deities, their myths,

and for medicinal uses.

The book may be a good entertainer, but

the amusement is a little too costly.

■ M.R. ALMEIDA

3. PARASITIC HYMENOPTERA AND BIOLOGICAL CONTROL by T.C. Narendran,

2001. Published by Palani Paramount Publications, Tamil Nadu. Pp. 190 (22.5 x 14.5 cm).

Price Rs. 300; US $ 50.

Written for specialists by a specialist, the

book contains keys to superfamilies and families

with figures to most couplets. For each family a

habitus drawing, a diagnosis, biological notes,

major points on biological control, systematics

and pertinent references are provided.

Classification of major divisions of Hymenoptera,

classification and general morphology of

parasitic Hymenoptera, details on collecting and

preserving, packing and shipping are also

provided. Besides these, a separate chapter is

provided on the importance of parasitic

Hymenoptera in biological control of insect pests.

The book will be a valuable source of reference

for parasitic Hymenoptera, their host-parasite

relationships and relation to biological control,

not only to entomologists, agricultural scientists

and biological control workers, but also to post-

graduate students of entomology. More than 120

illustrations are provided. The foreword has been

written by the highly respected entomologist Prof.

M.S. Mani.

■ GAYATRI UGRA

284

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1. ON SOME LARGE-SIZED RED PANDAS AILURUS FULGENS F. CUVIER

( With a text-figure)

The red or lesser panda A ilurus fulgens F.

Cuvier 1825 is a small carnivore rather poorly

known, at least in the wild. It is found in the

Himalayas in Nepal, India, Bhutan, northern

Myanmar and China (Choudhury 1997, Corbet

and Hill 1992). Its distribution in India has been

mapped, and an interesting population

discovered in Meghalaya (Choudhury 1997).

During field surveys in northeastern India since

the early 1980s, I have come across innumerable

evidences of the red panda, from live animals to

skins and stuffed specimens. Whenever 1 saw a

skin or a stuffed animal, I took measurements.

Here I report some large specimens, much larger

than the known records.

The maximum recorded length of the red

panda was 62.5 cm for head and body and 50 cm

for tail (MacDonald 1984, Prater 1980). In 1996,

I examined a skin at Tura in the Garo Hills,

Fig. 1: Map showing the localities mentioned in the text

Meghalaya. The panda was shot in Nokrek

National Park (approx. 25° 27' N, 90° 18' E) in

the early 1960s, but the condition of the skin

was excellent. It measured: Head + body length

= 73 cm, Tail length = 43 cm (Choudhury 1 997).

It became the largest known specimen (skin) in

the world.

In May 2000, I came across a large skin at

Tenga in West Kameng district, Arunachal

Pradesh. It measured: Head + body length = 72

cm. Tail length = 50 cm. It was reportedly killed

by road workers at Mandla Phudung area (c. 27°

16' N, 92° 06' E) in the same district in 1998.

While its head + body length was slightly smaller

than the Garo Hills specimen, overall length

made it the largest ever recorded. However, this

record was shortlived.

In May 2000 again, I saw another huge

skin at Sangti, also in the same district. On

enquiry, I learnt that it had been brought from

Chayangtajo area (c. 27° 45' N, 93° O' E) in East

Kameng district, where it was killed by the

Sulung tribals. It measured: Head + body length

= 79 cm, Tail length = 43 cm. While in overall

length the skin was the same as the previous one,

the head and body were amazingly huge, the

largest known in the world so far. Most intriguing

was the fact that it still had some whitish

colouring on its dorsum, indicating that it was

not adult. One could imagine its size had it lived

to adulthood!

I thank J. Datta, Mrs Lau, Bir Bahadur

Gurung and Dr Tacho for help and for allowing

me to examine the skins.

June 1,2001 ANWARUDDIN CHOUDHURY

The Rhino Foundation for nature in NE India,

C/o The Assam Co. Ltd, Bamunimaidam,

Guwahati 781 021, Assam, India.

Eds — It must be noted that these are measurements of skins

and not of live animals or measurements taken before skinning.

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

285

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

References

Choudhury, A. U. (1997): Red panda Ailurus fulgens F.

Cuvier in the northeast with an important record from

Garo Hills. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 94(1): 145-147.

Corbet, G.B. & J.E. Hill (1992): The mammals of the

Indomalayan Region: a systematic review. Oxford

University Press, Oxford.

MacDonald, D. (Ed.) (1984): The Encyclopaedia of

Mammals. Vols. 1&2, George Allen & Unwin, London

& Sydney.

Prater, S.H. (1980): The Book of Indian Animals. Repr.

with corrections, Bombay Natural History Society,

Mumbai.

2. HUNTING ATTEMPT BY NILGIRi MARTEN MARTES GWATKINSl HORSFIELD,

FAMILY MUSTEL1DAEJN PERIYAR TIGER RESERVE, KERALA

On December 16, 2000, a group of 11

persons led by the first author were participating

in population estimation of tiger and prey base

in the Periyar Tiger Reserve. At about 1000 hrs,

we chanced upon a group of four Nilgiri martens

Martes gwatkinsi , trying to hunt a mouse deer

( Tragulus meminna ), which we watched for about

10 minutes. The wounded mouse deer was

moving about in a small pool of water with a

steep bank on one side, and sandy dunes on the

other sides. The martens had surrounded the

pool, but did not venture into it. One marten tried

to reach the mouse deer by moving down a root

protruding into the pool from the bank.

On sensing our presence, the martens fled

into the forest. The second author followed one

of them to about 1.5 m, and photographed it on

a tree. Soon, however, the animal moved down

to 3 m from him, jumped into the undergrowth

and disappeared. Meanwhile, one of us took

pictures of the mouse deer in the pool. This

happened in a rainforest dominated by Cullenia

exarillata, by a trek path connecting Vellimala

and Thamara, at an elevation of about 1 ,500 m.

The Nilgiri marten is listed in Schedule I

of the Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972, and is

endemic to the higher elevations of the Western

Ghats. It has been rarely sighted, and even less

is known about its feeding habits.

February 20, 2001 JOJI JOHN

MADHUKUMAR

Periyar Tiger Reserve,

Thekkady, Kerala 685 536, India.

3. POSSIBLE OCCURRENCE OF TIBET RED DEER

CERVUS ELAPHUS WALIJCHI IN ARUNACHAL PRADESH

( With a text-figure)

The Tibet red deer Cervus elaphus wallichi

Cuvier 1823, also called the shou or Sikkim stag

is a very rare and little known subspecies of the

red deer C. elaphus . Once it was even thought to

be extinct (Thornback 1978). At present, it is

known only from southern Tibet (Schaller et al.

1996), though its original distribution included

Bhutan also (Anon. 1976). During a visit to

Bhutan in January 2001, 1 got reports of its

possible occurrence in parts of Thrumshingla

National Park, but no evidence was available.

During field survey for wildlife in western

Arunachal Pradesh, 1 could not get direct

evidence of the presence of the species, although

older people reported a large deer with branched

antlers (more branches than those of the sambar

Cervus unicolor ), which used to occur in the

north. They called it shou The sambar was not

uncommon on the south-facing slopes of the

Himalaya, especially in the deep valleys, mainly

286

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1 : Map showing the localities mentioned in the text and distribution of shou

(Note: there is one more locality which currently holds the largest population farther north;

distribution in Tibet after Schaller et at. 1996)

below 2,000 m. In summer, it was recorded up

to 2,600 in above msl (occasionally to c. 3,000

m) in the Himalaya in western Arunachal

Pradesh. However, a report I received during my

visit to Thingbu (27° 42' N, 92° 06' E) in Tawang

district in May 2000 seemed to be an intriguing

one, as it could be the only recent record of the

shou in India. It was reported from north of

Thingbu, very close to the India-China (Tibet)

International Boundary on alpine pastures. A

stag with “big” antlers was seen around noon at

a place that was a six-hour trek from Thingbu

(approx. 27° 47' N, 92° 06' E) in the summer of

1999 (Chombey Tsering of Thingbu, pers.

comm.). The elevation of the place was more

than 4,200 m above msl. The locals including

the persons who sighted it had identified it as

shou. During summer, many villagers move up

with their domestic yaks, setting up seasonal

camps at high elevation pastures, an example of

transhumance. However, in recent years they had

never came across any shou. They also said that

the deer usually remains in open woodlands with

stretches of grassy areas, but this sighting in a

completely open grassy slope has surprised them

and they observed it as long as it was within their

sight. Occasional sighting of shou has also been

reported from north of Magu about 4,000 m

above msl (Perna Youndi of Jang, pers. comm.).

Some Monpas of Tawang and northern

areas of West Kameng, the main tribal group

inhabiting western Arunachal Pradesh, often call

all large deer as shou (including the sambar).

However, sambar has different names among

most of the Monpas, gasha in most of the areas

and shawa in Zemithang area. But in that locality,

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

287

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

north of Thingbu, high up on the alpine pastures

of the Great Himalaya, the sambar is out of the

question. Schaller et al. (1996) also mentioned

that even in Tibet, it is confused with the white-

lipped deer Cervus albirostris by the locals (as

both are called sha by the Tibetans), but that is

not the case here, as the range of albirostris is

nowhere near the Indian border.

From the map in Schaller et al. (1996), it

appears that the upper reaches of the Subansiri

river could still hold some potential shou habitat,

as no survey has ever been carried out in that

portion to date (Fig 1). Gee (1964) also suspected

the presence of a few shou in the area.

Dec. 7, 200 1 ANWARUDDIN CHOUDHURY

The Rhino Foundation for nature in NE India,

C/o The Assam Co. Ltd., Bamunimaidam,

Guwahati 781 021,

Assam, India.

References

Anon. (1976): Is the shou extinct? Oryx 13: 340.

Gee, E.P. (1964): The Wild Life of India. St. James Place, London, pp. 183.

Schaller, G.B.. W. Liu, & X. Wang (1996): Status of Tibet red deer. Oryx 30(4): 269-27 4.

Thornback, J. (1978): Red Data Book. Vol. 1, Mammalia. IUCN, Morges, Switzerland. XL + 516 pp.

4. HIMALAYAN MARMOT MARMOTA BOBAK (MULLER) RESIGHTED AFTER EIGHT

YEARS AT KYONGNOSLA ALPINE SANCTUARY, EAST SIKKIM

The Himalayan marmot Marmota bobak

has been regularly observed in the trans-

Himalayan region of north Sikkim in Lhonak

valley, Lashar and Yumesamdong valleys, and

the Chho Lhamo plateau at altitudes from 4,500-

5,500 m. In July 1992, four adult marmots were

recovered from captivity from Kerang on the

Chho Lhamo plateau and from Pegong near

Tsungthang in north Sikkim, but could not be

released in the wild due to various logistic and

other problems. They were brought to the Head

Office of the Department of Forests, Environment

& Wildlife at Deorali, Gangtok (1,500 m). They

had been tied with wires and their teeth were

broken. As the office had no facilities or

experience to treat or keep them, they were taken

for release almost immediately to a higher

altitude, to the 31 sq. km Kyongnosla Alpine

Sanctuary (c. 4,000 m) around 20 km from

Gangtok on the way to Natu La in East Sikkim.

There was no opportunity to age or sex them, as

the animals were highly stressed and held in

wooden cartons.

The site of release within the sanctuary was

at Namnang, beyond an area locally called Raja

Dhunga, or King Rock. The sanctuary staff,

Bishnu Kumar Sharma and Jeevan Kumar Rai,

released the animals. They were infrequently

observed in the area for a short period, after

which they were not seen. It was presumed that

the already traumatised animals did not survive

in this unfamiliar terrain.

However, one adult marmot was resighted

on August 24, 2000 at 1645 hrs about 4 km from

the site of release in the Sola Firing Range area.

The same two staff who were patrolling the

sanctuary, spotted the marmot. The animal

emerged from beside a big rock, a short while after

it stopped raining. They observed it for about

10 minutes from a distance of c. 50 m, feeding on

grasses and herbs. It hid when approached. The

spot was very close to the owner of a yak ‘goth’ —

(cattle camp) Mr. Sangey Sherpa, whose son also

saw it. He informed that another marmot had been

sighted further up from this site.

It might not have been such a good idea

to introduce the injured animals to this sanctuary

with predators like hill fox Vulpes vulpes and

288

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

yellowthroated marten Martes flavigula and

with apparently no history of marmot occurrence

(C. Lachungpa, pers. comm.). However, it is

interesting to note that two may have survived

the ordeal, and it is an indication that marmot

life span in the wild could be at least eight years.

5. TWO WHALE RECORDS FROM

Recently, the media reported two different

occurrences of a large whale running aground

in Tamil Nadu.

The first of these instances took place in

November 2000. Newspapers and television

channels reported that a whale was stranded near

Point Calimere. Their accounts said that the

whale was stuck in mud and that it had been

languishing there for 40 days or more. On

November 14, the Coast Guard and others

attempted to rescue the stricken animal and 1

was able to witness this effort from close quarters.

The whale was stranded in c. 1 .25 m water

at a location south of Point Calimere that took

about an hour to reach by trawler. The bottom

was clayey, and the water was quite brown and

muddy. Further, the only parts of the whale that

appeared frequently above the surface were its

blowhole and snout. Nevertheless, over the course

of the operation to save the creature, I was able

to note the following features:

Shape: slender and long.

Length: about 12 m, roughly equal to that

of the trawlers used to move it.

Dorsal fin: triangular, backward slanting,

about 30 cm high; trailing edge frayed. Placed

at about two-thirds the total length of the whale,

from the snout.

Tail flukes: large.

Flippers: could not be seen.

Colour: black overall; belly white, possibly

a little pink. Large white scars on the back

between the blowhole and the fin.

Rostral ridges: three distinct longitudinal

ridges running from the blowhole towards the

Feb. 27, 2001 USHA GANGULI-LACHUNGPA

BISHNU LAL SHARMA

Department of Forests,

Environment & Wildlife,

Government of Sikkim, Deorali,

Gangtok 1ST 102, Sikkim, India.

TAMIL NADU, SOUTHERN INDIA

tip of the snout, the middle one considerably more

raised than the other two.

On the basis of these observations, I

identified the stranded whale to be a Bryde’s whale

Balaenoptera edeni. The three ridges on the top

of the head are diagnostic (Jefferson et al. 1993,

Leatherwood and Reeves 1983, Watson 1981).

The second whale came ashore near

Poothurai village of Kanyakumari district. On

January 18, 2001, The Hindu carried an item

about this whale. It said that a stranded whale

was rescued by the villagers and officials, and

had swum back to the sea. The Tamil newspaper

Dinakaran carried a colour photograph of the

whale on the same day, lying at the edge of the

water. The caption said that the whale was “50

feet long and 10 feet high”. According to this

paper, the whale was entangled in fishermen’s

nets and was brought to the shore.

The snout and right side (front part) of the

whale are visible in the published photograph.

The whale was evidently a humpback Megaptera

novaeangliae : it had the throat grooves or ventral

furrows characteristic of a rorqual; its flipper

appeared long and narrow, and it had the

unmistakable knobs on top of the head. Further,

no ridge was visible along the midline on top of

the head, and the colour of the animal was black

and white.

After intense search of the literature, I

found only a few records of the Bryde’s whale

and humpback whale from India:

Bryde’s Whale

i) Date not known, recorded by Blanford

JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 99(2). AUG. 2002

289

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

from the Bay of Bengal (De Silva 1987).

ii) July 2. 1979, a 13 m specimen washed

ashore at Beypore, Calicut (Lai Mohan 1992).

iii) February 20, 1983, 13.52 m carcass

found on an islet near Dhanushkodi Island, Gulf

of Mannar (Lai Mohan 1992).

iv) April 14, 1982, Leatherwood (1984)

observed 7 Bryde’s whales on a cruise from

Madras to Trincomalee.

Humpback Whale

i) January 23, 1941, 14.7 m (49 ft) long

whale stranded on the Anjengo coast near Quilon

(Mathew 1948).

ii) January 15, 1988, 14.3 m long female

specimen washed ashore near Kasaragod (La!

Mohan 1992).

Refer

De Silva, RH.D.H. (1987): Cetaceans (Whales, Dolphins

and Porpoises) recorded off Sri Lanka, India, from

the Arabian Sea and Gulf, Gulf of Aden and from the

Red Sea. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84(3): 505525.

Jefferson, T.A., S. Leatherwood & M.A. Webber (1993):

Marine Mammals of the World, FAO Species

Identification Guide. United Nations Environment

Programme, Food and Agricultural Organization of

the United Nations, Rome. Pp. 320.

Lal Mohan, R.S. (1992): Observations on the whales

Balaenoptera edeni , B. musculus and Megaptera

novaeangliae washed ashore along the Indian coast

with a note on their osteology. J. mar. biol. Ass. India

34: 253-255.

Leatherwood, S. (1984): Further notes on cetaceans of

iii) January 20, 1988, decomposed 15 m

long female specimen found at Mavila

Kadappuram, near Nileswaram, Kerala - drifted

back into the sea after two days and appeared on

January 24 at Thaikadappuram (Muthiah et al.

1988).

I am not able to determine whether the last

two records refer to different specimens or just

to one.

The limited information available on these

species in India makes the present records

noteworthy.

May 15, 2001 KUMARAN SATHASIVAM

29 Jadamuni Koil Street,

Madurai 625 001,

Tamil Nadu, India.

e n c e s

Sri Lanka. Paper No. SC/36/06 presented to the

International Whaling Commission Scientific

Committee. 12 pp.

Leatherwood, S. & R.R. Reeves (1983): The Sierra Club

Handbook of Whales and Dolphins. Sierra Club, San

Francisco. 302 pp.

Mathew, A.P. (1948): Stranding of a whale Megaptera

nodosa on the Travancore coast in 1943. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 47(4): 732-733.

Muthiah, C., S. Mohammed, G. Bhatkal & B. Melinmani

(1988): On the stranding of a Humpback Whale in

the North Kerala coast. Mar Fish. Infor. Serv. T&E

Ser. 55:12.

Watson, L. (1981): Sea Guide to Whales of the World.

Hutchinson, London. Pp. 302.

6. A COMMENT ON THE REVIEW OF “PRIMATES OF NORTHEAST INDIA”

PUBLISHED IN JBNHS VOL. 97(3)

With reference to the above-mentioned

review, I would like to point out the following

errors. The review of primates of northeast india,

Srivastava (1999), by Gavand (2000) has failed

to detect some serious errors. The main problem

in this work lies in the maps and text.

Zoogeographical complexities have made faux

pas very difficult in Northeast India, e.g., the

River Brahmaputra and many of its tributaries

such as the Dibang, Manas and Sankosh are

effective barriers in the dispersal of many

mammals.

The capped langur Trachypithecus pileatus

does not occur between the Siang and Dibang

rivers in Arunachal Pradesh, but the map on

p. 1 63 shows as many as three sites in that region.

290

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

What was the basis and source of these? There

is no indication as to whether it was the author’s

own observation or other source. This area is a

“no langur” zone and so far none have been

sighted. If any sighting has been made, then it

should be highlighted with specific data, as it

would be a very important record. Even in China

(Tibet), no langurs were recorded immediately

to the east of Yarlung Zangbo (Siang or

Brahmaputra) (Choudhury 1997, Qiu 1997).

Phayre’s leaf monkey Trachypithecus

phctyrefs northern limit of distribution in Assam

is the Barak river, but the map on page 168 shows

that it occurs beyond, even reaching the

Meghalaya border! The author did not show the

Barak river but the site shown was apparent as

well beyond (the northernmost site shown on

the map). The distribution of T. phayrei in Assam

is already mapped (Choudhury 1988, 1994a, b)

but the author did not review these records,

although some are published in the well-known

JBNHS.

So far, there is no record of the rhesus

macaque Macaca mulatto in the higher areas of

western Arunachal Pradesh such as Tawang

district and upper areas of Kameng. The

published records from Tawang (Singh 1991)

were based on misidentification of Assamese

macaque M assamensis. Unlike other parts of

Arunachal Pradesh where the primate is hunted

for food, this species is common all over Tawang

and Kameng, due to local tradition (the Monpas

do not kill primates). But on the map on p. 1 43,

rhesus macaque was shown to occur in Tawang

and upper areas of West Kameng (2 dots each).

The location of Tawang district is conspicuous

on the map of Arunachal Pradesh as it forms the

western extended arm penetrating inside Bhutan

and Tibet.

On p. 1 56, the distribution of golden langur

Trachypithecus geei did not show Chakrashila

Sanctuary, or the other nearby locations totalling

more than 10. Not even a single dot put for more

than 10 sites! Rather, Dhubri township with a

human population of about 80,000 was shown

as an isolated location. These locations are

already mapped (Choudhury 1992).

In the text, perhaps the most serious matter

is the observation on the feeding profile and home

range of Phayre’s leaf monkey in Murlen

National Park, Mizoram (p. 167-8). Who has

observed it in Murlen? My last visit to Murlen

was in February 2001. So far, no observer has

recorded it within the Park, although I was able

to confirm its presence this time outside in the

lower river valleys. The forest officials and staff

who had accompanied all the survey trips (only

a handful hence they easily remember) including

that of the author’s in Murlen since 1994 (it is

mandatory to take authorised forest staff) did not

report sighting Phayre’s leaf monkey. Other

observers on specific survey for this species could

also not confirm it (Joydeep Bose, recipient of a

National Geographic Society grant for the study

of T. phayrei , pers. comm.). Anon (1994-99)

which forms the basis for this book, as is evident

from its Foreword and Preface, also does not

mention sighting the Phayre’s leaf monkey in

Murlen. The Park is a high elevation area with

most parts above 1 ,000 m (up to > 1 ,600 m) but

on p. 167, it was mentioned that the leaf monkey

occurs up to 800 m only. Thus, the author himself

has ruled out its presence in areas above 800 m,

whereas the Park is higher. Then how could it

occur in Murlen?

It is clear from Anon. (1994-99) that no

field survey was carried out in Manipur, but the

maps show some localities. What is the source

of these? No mention in the text, or even in the

reference section, of any published work.

Other noticeable errors, apart from spelling

mistakes, were the conservation status of different

species according to the Indian Wildlife

(Protection) Act 1972. The stumptailed

M. arctoides, Assamese M. assamensis and

pigtailed macaques M. nemestrina are protected

under Schedule II (Part I) and not Schedule I

(pp. 135, 140, 150 respectively). The map on

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291

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

the forest type on p. 53 and the accompanying

text on p. 51-54 is poor. Subtropical pine forest

shown even near Guwahati city! In the Himalaya,

the temperate forest areas have been shown as

subtropical or vice versa.

General comments I would like to make

are that in a regional work, the distribution needs

to be in greater detail, e.g., the stumptailed and

pigtailed macaques are confined to the

easternmost corner of Arunachal Pradesh. About

30 pages (p. 85-116) on food trees were wasted,

as the plant part taken by the macaque is not

mentioned. Huge introductory chapters (116

pages, more than 50% of the book) could have

been restricted to 20-30 pages.

Furthermore, Phayre’s leaf monkey’s status

as per the Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 has been

Refer

Anon. (1994-99): Indo-US Primate Project Annual Reports

(unpubl.)Nos 1-5. Dept of Zoology, JNV University,

Jodhpur.

Choudhury, A.U. (1988): Phayre’s leaf monkey

( Trcichypithecus phciyrei ) in Cachar. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 85(3): 485-492.

Choudhury, A.U. (1992): Golden langur - distribution

confusion. Oryx 26: 1 72-173.

Choudhury, A.U. (1994a): Phayre’s leaf monkey in

Northeastern India. Tigerpaper XX I (3): 1-4.

Choudhury, A.U. (1994b): Further observations on

Phayre’s leaf monkey in Cachar, Assam. J. Bombay

mentioned as Schedule I on p. 169, but as *?’ on

p. 186 [Table 8.1] In the same Table, the status

of primates mentioned on pp. 135, 140 and 150

are contradicted, that too wrongly (Part I not

mentioned). On p. 137, para 2, it is stated that

the Assamese macaque occurs up to 4,000 m

elevation, but the very next paragraph says it is

up to 3,800 m. Again on p. 147, para 2, it is

stated that the pig-tailed macaque occurs up to

1 ,200 m altitude, but the next para says it is up

to 1,700 m. Which one is correct?

Oct. 25, 2001 ANWARUDDIN CHOUDHURY

The Rhino Foundation for nature in NE India,

C/o The Assam Co. Ltd.,

Bamunimaidam,

Guwahati 781 021, Assam , India.

E N C E S

nat. Hist Soc. 91(2): 203-210.

Choudhury, A.U. (1997): Mammals of Namcha Barwa,

Tibet. Oryx 31(2): 91-92

Gavand, M. (2000): Review of 'Primates of Northeast

India’ by A. Srivastava. JBNHS 97(3): 415.

Qiu, M.J. (1997): Mammals of Namcha Barwa, Tibet. Oryx

31(2): 92.

Singh, P. (1991): A preliminary faunal survey in Thingbu

Circle, Towang district, Arunachal Pradesh.

Arunachal Forest News 9(1): 13-22.

Srivastava, A. (1999): Primates of Northeast India.

Megadiversity Press, Bikaner.

7. “PRIMATES OF NORTHEAST INDIA” PUBLISHED IN JBNHS 97(3) — A COMMENT

Thank you for the opportunity to comment

on the note on my book “Primates of Northeast

India ( 1 999). The critic has commented on three

aspects of the review and the book: the literature

search, field work conducted and distribution of

primates.

The sections Preface, Foreword and

Acknowledgments clarify the source of data set,

field work conducted, literature search, scope of

the book, genesis, and the objectives of the book.

Field Work: It is explicitly mentioned in

the Acknowledgments and other places that the

data set presented in this book is an outcome of

my own field work covering 650,000 hectares of

forests between 1994 and 1999, walking about

1,600 km on forests trails covering almost every

state of Northeast India. I have also relied heavily

on the observations of my colleagues and friends.

As all this field work was carried out with many

of my colleagues as part of a research team, I

have taken extra care that no direct data are

reported so that the academic rights of others

are not compromised. This is normal academic

ethics. However, more data are now analyzed and

292

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 99(2), AUG. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

published in journals of repute, giving everybody

equal right of authorship. Additionally, the book

aimed to provide firsthand information to common

people and to an expert. If a reader is keen to obtain

direct data, he is always welcome to read more

scientific papers published elsewhere.

Literature Search: Apart from my personal

collection of over 5000 reprints and 250 books on

primates, I have consulted the world’s best primate

literature collection at Primate Information Center,

Primate Center Library WRPRC at Wisconsin,

Madison. The list of references with 195 citations

clearly shows that the most authentic work is cited

in the book. Therefore, it is not appropriate to say

that I have not consulted relevant literature.

Needless to say, one needs some criteria to choose

from thousands of published and unpublished

materials. The best a science student is taught to

do in such circumstances is to select first the

research findings published in referred journals

with high citation index and / or impact index, next

choose published work in peer reviewed journals,

books and lastly published material in unreviewed

journals, newspapers and unpublished reports.

Therefore, students are always advised to publish

their work in reviewed journals for the maximum

exposure.

Yet Another Data Point: It is not

appropriate to question the dignity of a researcher

who has a proven track record and I have the

privilege of being trained by the best

primatologists of the world, and have worked in

the field and published results with them. 1 do

not believe in Yet Another Data Point philosophy,

rather I collect as much and as authentic detailed

information as possible and test the hypothesis,

and only then do I report my findings in reputed

journals. This is the main reason why I have

given only passing reference to my field

observations as they are not published yet.

Nevertheless, the quality of my research is clearly

evident from the publications I have done with

my research team. To make a comparative

analysis please read Choudhury (1992) and

Srivastava, et al. (2001a, b) on the distribution

of golden langurs; Choudhury (1995-96) and

Srivastava et al. (2001c) on Borajan reserve

forest; and Choudhury ( 1 999) and Srivastava et

al. (200 Id) on Primates of Gibbon Wildlife

Sanctuary.

Physical Barriers and Dispersal: In

earlier publications, some natural historians

mentioned this area between the Siang and the

Dibang rivers as ‘no primate zone’. As more

information is available now, it is referred as ‘no

langur zone’ but before proposing such a theory,

one needs to test this hypothesis, collect evidence

and data to support it (which in this case is

lacking). We have sighted capped langurs and

rhesus macaques in this area we have surveyed

between 1994 and 1999. If one has not observed

the species in the area, it does not follow that the

species doesn’t exist, e.g., even after six visits to

Hollangapara RF, Choudhury (1989) was not able

to sight a single individual of stump-tailed

macaque, though he later recorded one group

(Choudhury, 1999). Here one needs to understand

the phenomenon of dispersal, speciation through

isolation and more importantly, the zoological

time scale and climatic conditions before

proposing such a theory. Often, the dispersal is

more closely related to climatic conditions than

postulated physical barriers that are apparently

more impressive and effective at present than in

the past. Generally, the Pleistocene glacial

interval with reduced temperature, reduced

rainfall, and increased seasonality has played a

significant role in the dispersal of animals in the

Indo-Chinese Peninsula (Heaney 1991).

Verstappen (1975) identified three factors

responsible for Quaternary climatic conditions

in Asia, especially during glacials: (1) the

position of the Intertropical Convergence Zone,

(2) the worldwide drop in air and marine

temperatures which resulted in lowering of

snowline and forest line and affected altitudinal

zonation of vegetation in the area, and (3) the

emergence of shelves during glacials due to

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293

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

lowering of sea level. Gross evidences derived

from palynology, sedimentology and

geomorphology suggests substantial cooler and

drier climate over unglaciated continental areas

at the end of the last glaciation about 1 8,000 years

ago (CLIMAP 1976, Gates 1976). Two such

periods of aridity may be the most plausible

explanation for the apparent zoogeographical

anomalies in Southeast Asia, including the

disjunct distribution of primates (Brandon- Jones,

1 978). Perhaps lowering of sea level explains the

distribution of long-tailed macaque to Nicobar

Islands in India. On the other hand, we have a

fine example of speciation through reproductive

isolation by an effective biological barrier for

distribution of primates in India, the closely related

species Macaco radiata and M. assamensis are

separated by a biological barrier, M. mulatto, (rivers

have no role to play in this case).

1 do not find any faux pas in the distribution

maps for capped langur (page 163), rhesus

macaque (p. 143), Phayre’s leaf monkey (p. 168),

and so on. All the sites mentioned in the maps are

based on the surveys conducted by us between 1994

and 1999. A more detailed research paper

highlighting specific locations of each population

encountered is in preparation and will soon be

available for comments (Srivastava, et al. In prep.).

If the critic can record the presence of

Phayre’s leaf monkey from Murlen National

Park, why not others? The statement 1 have made

on feeding and home range use is based on my

observations (of course unpublished) of these

monkeys inhabiting Murlen NP, Innerline

Reserve Forest, Sipahijala WLS, and protected

areas in northern Thailand. Incidentally, the

altitude of Murlen National Park is between

400 m and 1897 m (Anon. 1996), and not above

1 ,000 m (up to > 1 ,600 m) as reported in the note.

The types of forest map on page 53 has been

adopted from the classic work of Champion and

Seth (1968), which was further modified by the

Forest Survey of India (1997) and I do not find

any faux pas there either.

The five volume compendium The Flora of

Assam by Kanjilal, 1997 (list price Rs. 1200/-) is

extraordinary but out of reach of the common

man. The forest is green for a natural historian,

not only field biologists, even plant taxonomists

fail to identify plants on the spot without flowers

and fruits and / or technical assistance. My

attempt here was merely to introduce the concept

of primate habitat and diet to the reader and foster

greater interest in primate ecology. Most

botanical descriptions are too technical for a

layman and figures are often not available in

Kanjilal (1997). Therefore, the section on plants

is an important and useful component of my

book. Similarly, the sections on the history, state

profile and people of Northeast are important and

meaningful. I quote Southwick (2000) ‘‘In the

first two chapters, Dr. Srivastava wisely prepares

us for understanding this diversity with profiles

of topographic, climatic and economic conditions

of each of the seven states of northeast India,

aiong with discussions of their historical,

sociological, and ethnographic backgrounds.

This is a substantial, scholarly achievement and

it appropriately sets the stage for better

understanding some of the problems facing the

remarkable biodiversity of this vital region ...”

Needless to say, I am aware of the

typographical and editorial shortcomings of this

book of mine, but surely they are not faux pas. As

an author I hold ethical, moral and professional

responsibility to attend to all these shortcomings

in the next edition. Despite al! the shortcomings I

have received extraordinary remarks on the book

by leading primatologists of the world.

In my considered opinion, it is not a crime

to make available the facts and figures of science

to a layman. I hope this note will help in the

development and growth of field biology in

general and primatology in particular in India.

October 25, 200 1 ARUN SRIVASTAVA

#34 Raj mat a Ka Nohra,

Bikaner 334 001, Rajasthan, India.

294

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

References

Anon (1996): Welcome to Murlen National Park. Dept, of

Environment and Forests, Govt, of Mizoram. Wildlife

Series No. 23: 1-5.

Brandon-Jones, D. ( 1 978): The evolution of recent Asian

colobines. In: Recent Advances in Primatology, Vol. 3,

Evolution (Eds: Chivers, D.J. and K.A. Joysey).

Academic Press, London, pp. 323-325.

Champion, H.G. & S.K. Seth (1968): A Revised Survey of

the Forests Types of India. The Manager of Publication,

New Delhi.

Choudhury, A.U. (1989): Primates of Assam: their

distribution, habitat and status. Ph.D. thesis, Gauhati

University, Guwahati. (Unpublished).

Choudhury, A.U. (1992): Golden langur — distribution

confusion. Oryx 26: 172-173.

Choudhury A.U. ( 1 995-96): Primates in Bherjan, Borajan

and Podumoni Reserved Forests, Assam, India. Asian

Primates 5 (3&4): 10-11.

Choudhury, A.U. (1999): Primates in Gibbon Sanctuary,

Assam, India. Asian Primates 7 (1&2): 4-6.

CLIMAP Project Members (1976): The surface of ice-

age earth. Science 191: 131-137.

Forest Survey of India (1997): The State Forest report.

Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt, of India,

Varun Offset Printers, Dehra Dun.

Gates, W.F. ( 1 976): Modeling the ice-age climate. Science

191: 1138-1144.

Heaney, L.R. (1991): A synopsis of climate and

vegetational change in Southeast Asia. Climate Change

19: 53-61.

Kanjilal U.N. (1997): Flora of Assam. Vol. I to V. Omsons

Publications, New Delhi.

Southwick, C.H. (2000): Primates of Northeast India. WWF

India Network Newsletter 10(3): 7-8.

Srivastava, A., M. Baruah & S.M. Mohnot (2001a): The

population dynamics and conservation of golden langur.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 98(1): 12-17.

Srivastava, A., J. Biswas, P. Bujarbarua & J. Das (2001b):

Status and distribution of golden langurs

( Trachypithecus geei ) in Assam, India. American

Journal of Primatology 55(1): 15-23.

Srivastava, A., .1. Das, J. Biswas, P. Bujarbarua, P. Sarkar,

I. Bernstein & S.M. Mohnot (2001c): Primate

population decline in response to habitat loss: Borajan

reserve forest of Assam, India. Primates 42(4): 40 1 -

406.

Srivastava, A., D. Chetry, P. Bujarbarua, J. Das &

P. Sarkar (200 Id): Status of primates in the Gibbon

Wildlife Sanctuary, Assam, India. Biosphere

Conservation, 4(2): In press.

Srivastava, A., D. Chetry, P. Bujarbarua, J. Das, J. Biswas,

P. Sarkar, R. Medhi, J. Bose, F. Begum, G. Ahmed &

S.M. Mohnot (In prep.): Status and distribution of

primates in Assam and focal areas for future

conservation and management.

Srivastava, A., P. Sarkar, J. Das, P. Bujarbarua,

C. Chetry, J. Biswas, R. Medhi, J. Bose, F. Begum, G.

Ahmed & S.M. Mohnot (In prep.): Primate populations

in northeast India: the corridor between southeast and

temperate Asia and the Indian subcontinent.

Verstappen, ITT. (1975): On palaeo climates and land form

development in Malaysia. In: Modern Quaternary

research in Southeast Asia (Eds: Bartstra G.J. and W.A.

Casparie). Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema.

8. STATUS OF SPOT-BILLED PELICAN PELECANUS PHILIPPENSIS,

FAMILY PELEC AN ID AE, IN GUJARAT

The spot-billed pelican Pelecanus

philippensis is a monotypic species and is known

to breed in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Orissa and

Andhra Pradesh from November to March-April.

Ali and Ripley (1983) state that it is resident and

locally migratory in both Pakistan and all over

India. Ali (1954) has listed P. philippensis , but

has not commented on it. On the other hand, he

has written comments and confirmed sighting

of the great white pelican Pelecanus onocrotalus.

However, confirmed identification of the two

subspecies of P. philippensis was not specified.

P.p. philippensis is not listed by Ali (1945) and

Palin and Lester (1904). Dharmakumarsinhji

(1954) does not include the nominate species

P philippensis , however, he has described both

the Dalmatian P crispus , and the great white

pelican P. onocrotalus, which are winter

migrants to the Saurashtra peninsula.

While scanning the literature, particularly

on the Dalmatian pelican P. crispus , I realised

that I had never seen P. philippensis in Gujarat,

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

though P. crispus was seen regularly, in small

numbers, in the coastal regions of Saurashtra and

freshwater reservoirs, including Nalsarovar Bird

Sanctuary and Pariej and Kanewal reservoirs of

Kheda district, in central Gujarat. However,

midwinter waterfowl census reports ( 1 987-1 996)

and other recent checklists show the occurrence

of both the Dalmatian and the spot-billed pelican

in Gujarat. I believed that this could be an error,

partly because the observer may not have been

able to distinguish between two subspecies. I

discussed this matter with a few senior

birdwatchers, asking them if they had seen

P. philippensis in any part of Gujarat State. 1

requested them to send their comments, which

are quoted below.

Shri Lavkumar Khacher: “1 do not have

any preserved records of sightings of the two

subspecies and I am sure one of the greatest

problems is going to be this total lack of

qualitative data. You are absolutely correct about

inaccuracy of identification by a number of

birdwatchers. My impression is that the northern

wintering bird is the one we see most frequently.

Being great fliers (sic), however, it certainly does

not preclude the southern bird from spreading

north, but caution is necessary since the juveniles

of Dalmatian might be passed off as the dark

southern birds.”

Shri M.K. Himmatsinhji: “As far as the

spot-billed pelican Pelecanus philippensis is

concerned, I have not come across it in Kutch.

On what authority Ali and Ripley ( 1 983) mention

it as occurring in Pakistan is not clear to me. On

the other hand, Roberts (1991) excludes it from

the checklist of birds of Pakistan. It has been my

experience over the years that one cannot lay

down hard and fast rules about records or

occurrence of birds in any given area or region.

In this case, it can safely be said that this species

has not been firmly recorded in Gujarat.

“The Dalmatian pelican P. crispus is an

irregular migrant visitor, which whenever

present is always seen in very small numbers (2-

6 individuals) in this part of our country.”

M.K. Shivbhadrasinhji: “I have not come

across any spot-billed pelican P. philippensis in

Saurashtra.”

S.N. Varu: “I have not seen spot-billed

pelican in Kutch though previously I was

mistaken but afterward I confirmed that it was a

Dalmatian pelican.”

This matter was also discussed with

Dr. Taej Mundkur (Wetland International,

Malaysia) during February and November 1996.

Till then, he had not seen P. philippensis in

Gujarat. However, during his visit to Gujarat on

August 14, 1999, he informed me of having seen

a single bird amongst a few Dalmatian pelicans

on Lakhota lake at Jamnagar during January

1999. This is the one reliable sighting from

Gujarat.

The spot-billed pelican is an uncommon

winter visitor in Rajasthan also. Though the

species figures in the checklist of the Keoladeo

National Park (Vijayan 1991), its sightings were

rare (L. Vijayan pers. comm.). In the last ten

years, it has rarely turned up at Keoladeo

National Park (Vibhu Prakash, Bholu Khan,

pers. comm.). It has not been recorded at Kota

in southeast Rajasthan during the last few years

(Rakesh Vyas pers. comm., Vyas 1992). Since

the species is so rare in Rajasthan, the possibility

of its occurrence in Gujarat is doubtful.

The monotypic P. philippensis is known

to breed in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra

Pradesh from November to March-April. Hence,

the adult potential breeders are likely to move

only to the breeding grounds rather than wander

in the north-western states of India. Only

immature birds are likely to wander away from

the breeding ground during winter. This could

be the major reason behind its rarity in Rajasthan

and complete absence from Gujarat.

Regular records of this species in the Asian

Waterfowl Census and subsequent publications

(Perennou et al. 1994. Khacher 1996) may be

due to confusion in identification or listing.

296

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

According to Khacher (op. cit.), there is lack of

quality data collection. Besides this, I feel that

the confusion is mainly due to the common

English name grey pelican used by Ali and Ripley

(1983) for P. philippensis and by

Dharmakumarsinhji (1954) for P. crispus. Thus,

it can be concluded that the occurrence of this

species is not established in Gujarat state.

November 29, 1999 B. M. PARASHARYA

AINP on Agricultural Ornithology,

Gujarat Agricultural University,

Anand 388 110, Gujarat,

India.

References

Ali, S. (1945): The Birds of Kutch. Oxford University

Press, Bombay.

Ali, S. (1954): The Birds of Gujarat. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 52(2 & 3): 374-458.

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of

India and Pakistan. Compact edition. Oxford University

Press, New Delhi.

Dharmakumarsinhji, R.S. (1954): Birds of Saurashtra,

India. Times of India Press, Bombay.

Khacher, Lavkumar (1996). The Birds of Gujarat: A

Centenary Overview. J. Bombay nat Hist. Soc. 93(3):

331-373.

Lopez, A. & T. Mundkur (1997): The Asian Waterfowl

Census 1994-1996. Results of the Coordinated

Waterbird Census and an Overview of the Status of

Wetlands in Asia. Wetlands International, Kuala

Lumpur, Malaysia.

Palin, H. & Lester, C.D. (1904): The Birds of Cutch.

Times Press, Bombay.

Perennou, C., T. Mundkur, D.A. Scott, A. Follestad &

L. Kvenild ( 1 994): The Asian Waterfowl Census 1987-

91 : Distribution and Status of Asian Waterfowl. AWB

Publication No. 86. IWRB Publication No. 24. AWB,

Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia and IWRB, Slimbridge, U.K.

Roberts, T.J. (1991): The Birds of Pakistan, Oxford

University Press, Karachi.

Vijayan, V.S. (1991): Keoladeo National Park Ecology

Study. Final Report 1980-1990. Bombay Natural

History Society, Bombay.

Vyas, R. ( 1 992): Checklist of the birds of Kota district in

southeast Rajasthan. Newsletter for Birdwatchers 32

(11 & 72): 8-10.

9. A LARGE CONGREGATION OF BLACK-SHOULDERED KITE

ELANUS CAERULEUS AT RANTHAMBORE NATIONAL PARK

Naoroji (1987) has reported a large

communal gathering of over 1 5 black-shouldered

kites from Ranthambore National Park,

Rajasthan, India, on an afternoon in May 1984.

A larger gathering of more than 50 kites was

observed in the same Park, in the last week of

May 1999, at about 1600 hrs near the Raj Bagh

Lake (26° OF 49” N, 76° 28' 03” E). Although

the black-shouldered kite is distributed

throughout India, such a phenomenon has not

been reported from within the country. In Africa,

it is known to roost communally, sometimes in

very large congregations (Brown et al. 1982).

Even at Ranthambore, though they are known

to roost communally, such a large number has

not been recorded so early in the day before

roosting time (Naoroji 1987).

What is interesting is the striking similarity

in both these observations that are 1 5 years apart

and from the same area. During another research

investigation, I had stayed for five continuous

weeks, making trips (each of three hours

duration) both in the morning and evening,

everyday, but had not noticed such a gathering

on any other occasion.

The species is known for its nomadic

movements throughout its distributional range

(del Hoyo et al. 1 994) and in Africa is known to

appear in areas with temporary rodent abundance

and above average rainfall (Brown et al. 1982,

Cramp and Simmons 1980). In India, especially

at Ranthambore, it would be interesting to see if

such gatherings occur every year and if local

rainfall patterns or abundance of prey influences

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

it. Could such a gathering have significance in

migration, seasonal or nomadic population

movements?

Acknowledgements

I thank Dr. Asad R. Rahmani for his

valuable suggestions and for the references. 1

Refer

Brown, H Leslie, K. Emil Urban & Kenneth Newman

(1982): The Birds of Africa. Vol. 1 . Academic Press.

Pp. 302-304.

Cramp, S. & K.E.L. Simmons (Eds) (1980): Handbook of

the Birds of Europe, the Middle East and North

Africa: Birds of the Western Palearctic. Vol. 2

Hawks to Bustards. Oxford University Press.

thank Dr. M.B. Krishna for suggesting that I

write this note and for his help with the drafts.

January 8, 2000 V. SRIN1VAS

‘Padmashree ’ No. 1 70/B,

Jayanagar 1st Block East,

Bangalore 560 Oil,

Karnataka, India.

ENCF.S

Pp. 23-27.

del Hoyo, J., A. Elliott & J. Sargatal (1994): Handbook

of the Birds of the World. Vol. 2, New World Vultures

to Gunieafowl. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. Pp. 115.

Naoroji, Rishad (1987): Communal gathering of black-

winged kites ( Elanus caeruleus vociferus).

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83 (supplement): 200-201 .

10. ATTEMPTED FEEDING BY A SH1KRA ACCIPITER BADIUS \

FAMILY ACCIPITRIDAEjON BUFFSTRIPED KEELBACK

AMPHIESMA STOLATA, FAMILY COLUBRIDAE

According to Ali and Ripley (1987), the

food of the shikra Accipiter badius includes all

live animals of manageable size, like mammals,

birds, reptiles, amphibians and various insects.

Its reptilian food includes various kinds of lizards,

e.g. Calotes versicolor, Mabuya car in at a,

Hemidactylus sp., and Lygosoma sp. However,

Naoroji (1985) recorded Calotes versicolor as

its main food.

On January 7, 1999 while walking on the

roadside along Chander More , a wetland in

Murshidabad district, West Bengal at around

1400 hrs, I saw a shikra Accipiter badius cross

the road in front of me and fly overhead, carrying

a rope-like object in its feet. As it settled on an

eucalyptus tree, some 70 m away, I moved quickly

near the tree and found it was holding a small

snake, 30-40 cm in length. I identified the snake

as a buffstriped keelback Amphiesma stofata, the

commonest snake in this area. The shikra had,

perhaps, captured it in the nearby marsh as it came

from that direction when I first saw it. The snake

was still alive, and in trying to free itself, had coiled

around the leg of the shikra, which looked

uncomfortable. A few minutes later it flew off with

its prey and I could not see the fate of the snake.

November 9, 1999 SAMIRAN JHA

Green Peoples India,

P rant a Pally,

PO. and Dist. Malda 732 101,

West Bengal, India.

References

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Compact Handbook of the Naoroji, R. (1985): Notes on some common breeding

Birds of India and Pakistan. Oxlord University Raptors of the Rajpipla Forest. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Press, New Delhi. Soc. 82(2): 278-308.

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11. ATTEMPT BY THE CRESTED SERPENT-EAGLE SPILORNIS CHEELA

TO SEIZE THE INDIAN COBRA NAJA NAJA

On May 26, 1999, Mr. Neelirnkumar

Khaire, Director, Katraj Snake Park, Pune

informed me about an injured crested serpent-

eagle Spilornis cheela. The eagle was found in

the Katraj Ghat, about 10 km south of Pune.

While patrolling the Ghat section, the traffic

police officer Mr. B.S. Divekar was shocked to

see a bird falling from the sky, right in front of

his vehicle. The officer soon realised that it was

some kind of ‘shikari pakshi’ i.e. a bird of prey.

To his great surprise, the bird was entangled with

a cobra ( Naja naja). He took a stick and tried to

drive off the cobra by beating it on its tail. The

cobra immediately raised its hood and launched

false attacks. However, after some time, it slowly

unwound itself and disappeared into a nearby

nullah. Although the eagle was not very badly

injured, it was soaked in the rain and unable to

move.

Mr. Divekar brought the eagle to the Katraj

Snake Park, where there is a section for injured

animals. While examining the eagle, we found

that it had been superficially bitten under the left

eye, clearly noticeable by the fang marks from

which some blood had oozed out and clotted. Two

things struck me. In spite of its swiftness and

ability to hunt snakes and lizards, this particular

eagle could not manage its quarry efficiently. The

snake managed to coil around the bird’s wings

in the air, making it lose control of its wings.

The eagle was kept under careful observation in

a cage. It was fed with small pieces of mutton,

which it readily accepted. The need to give it

snake antivenin was discussed. However, the shot

was not given, as the eagle started showing signs

of revival. To test the extent of the bird’s revival,

the Park management gave it small animal prey

like chicken and guinea pig. The eagle

immediately launched attacks and seized the

prey. After having confirmed its ability to fly and

physical fitness, the eagle was set free on July 9,

1999, by the Park authorities.

March 3, 2000 KIRAN PURANDARE

62/ A, ‘Pr askant ’

Erandawane Gaonthan ,

Off Karve Road, Pune 411 001,

Maharashtra, India.

12. BREEDING BY THE INDIAN COURSER CURSOR1US COROMAN DELICUS

IN WINTER IN RAIPUR, CHHATTISGARH, INDIA

On December 15, 1999, while bird

watching, we visited the open wasteland (locally

known as bhatas) near village Mand (Kharora),

about 38 km on the Raipur-Balodabazar State

Highway, district Raipur, Chhattisgarh. Apart

from yellow-wattled lapwings ( Vanellus

malabaricus ), ashy-crowned sparrow-larks

(Eremopterix grisea ) rufous-tailed finch-larks

( Ammomanes phoenicurus) and Eurasian

skylarks ( Alauda arvensis), a flock of twenty

Indian coursers ( Cursorius coromandelicus ) was

also seen. At some distance from them, we

sighted a solitary bird squatting on the open

ground. The bird did not move till the vehicle

had approached close, whereas the other birds

had already moved to considerable distances.

This behaviour aroused our curiosity and we

approached closer. Thereafter, the bird moved

away reluctantly, exposing two eggs on its open,

scraped ground nest. The bird in the nest and

the exposed eggs were photographed. The area

around the nest was extensively examined, but

no other nest could be located.

Subsequently, the site was visited on

January 12, 2000 when another hen brooding

two eggs was seen about 40 m away from the

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

first nest. A week later, i.e. on January 19, 2000,

a second abandoned nest was found; no hen or

chicks were seen; the eggshells lying nearby were

collected.

Another nest with a hen brooding a clutch

of two eggs was located on January 19, 2000

about 25 m away. The breeding season of the

species is March to August, (handbook of the

birds of india and Pakistan; Ali, Salim and

S. Dillon Ripley, 1987, Vol. 3, Pp. 182). In this

case, the eggs were being hatched in December

and January, suggesting that the species breeds

in winter in this region.

March 3 1 , 2000 A.M.K. BHAROS

MOHIT SAHU

B-101, Gayatri Nagar,

P. O. Shankar Nagar,

Raipur 492 007,

Chhattisgarh, India.

13. SIGHTING OF A RUFOUS-NECKED STINT CALIDRIS RUFICOLLIS (PALLAS)

IN WEST BENGAL, INDIA

On September 17, 1999, while observing

a mixed flock of over 1,000 waders on the tidal

mudflats of the alluvial Divar island in the

inland-estuary of the Mandovi, Tiswadi tal,

North Goa district, Goa, c. 15 km up the mouth

of the river, an odd wader caught our interest.

For more than 15 minutes, we observed through

30 x 60 and 60 x 78 spotter-scopes, the mostly

immobile bird and compared it with numerous

curlew sandpipers Calidris ferruginea , little

stints C. minuta , and broad-billed sandpipers

Limicola falcinellus that were surrounding

it.

Plumage: Virtually identical to little stint

but markings less contrasting; pale V-shaped

mark on mantle less distinct; crown less grizzled;

buff wash on sides of breast stronger.

Size: Markedly longer than little stint;

almost as large as broad-billed sandpiper,

sometimes appearing as large as some of them.

Distinctly stocky, plumper and heavier than the

comparatively sleek little stint, like a half-grown

red knot C. canutus.

Our observations of the plumage conform

with those of Hayman et al. (1988) and Grimmett

et al. (1998) for the non-breeding plumage of

the rufous-necked stint which, however, are not

conclusively identifying. It was the

measurements that made us sure of the identity

of this enigmatic wader.

Table 1

COMPARATIVE MEASUREMENTS OF SMALL WADERS

The average weights given by Ali and Ripley

(1983) might be misleading, since they were taken

for each species in different seasons. However,

Snow and Perrins (1998) state that the rufous-

necked stint is, on an average, 30% heavier than

the little stint. This, in connection with the rufous-

necked stint’s slightly shorter tarsus, accounts for

the remarkable stockiness of the bird we had

observed.

The rufous-necked stint, long considered

conspecific with the little stint, is known to winter

in SE Asia and Australasia, and in our region it is

a scarce but regular winter visitor to the shores of

Bangladesh and India’s east coast. Our sighting is

the first record of this species on the west coast.

November 9, 1 999 GORDON FROST

Shanu Smruti, Kudach Wada,

Arpora 403 5 18, Goa, India.

HEINZ LAINER

Praias de St. Antonio,

Anjuna 403 5 09, Goa, India.

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

References

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of

India and Pakistan. Compact Edition. Oxford

University Press, New Delhi.

Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1998): Birds of the

Indian Subcontinent. Christopher Helm, A & C

Black, London.

Hayman, R, J. Marchant & T. Prater (1988): Shorebirds.

An identification guide to the waders of the world.

Christopher Helm, London.

Snow, D.W. & C.M. Perrins (1998): The Birds of the

Western Palearctic. Oxford University Press,

Oxford, New York.

14. OCCURRENCE AND ASSOCIATION OF RED-NECKED PHALAROPE PHALAROPUS

LOBATUS WITH OTHER SPECIES AT SAMBHAR, RAJASTHAN

With its slim graceful body, slender neck,

small head, needle-like bill and lobed toes, the

red-necked phalarope Phalaropus lobatus is one

of the most distinctive waders. It is an expert

swimmer, readily distinguished from other

waders by its ability to land on water.

Adam ( 1 874) obtained specimens of this rare

bird on September 22 and 25 at Sambhar.

According to Ali and Ripley (1980), it has been

“recorded from few inland localities on spring and /

or autumn passage”. Roberts (1991) says they “take

flight to the sea coast non-stop, but occasional birds

can be encountered on inland lakes or freshwater

ponds on passage” and describes the status as

“common but only offshore”.

The purpose of this note is to report recent

sightings of the red-necked phalarope at Sambhar

lake and describe its foraging method in association

with other feeding birds on passage. Twenty-seven

red-necked phalarope were recorded at Kochia ki

Dhani, a satellite freshwater wetland of Sambhar

Lake on September 9, 1998. Eleven of them were

swimming with six little grebe Podiceps ruficollis

and picking up insects from the surface of the water.

The other birds were paddling and spinning to

bring prey to the surface.

In the afternoon of February 5, 1 999, Denis

Parkes, a British bird watcher, and I were

watching waders at Kochia ki Dhani, Sambhar.,

Scanning the birds with my binoculars, I picked

out a more lightly built bird and said that I had

the red-necked phalarope. We counted 17 red-

necked phalaropes on this freshwater pond. All

of them were in ‘off’ plumage. They were staying

in two to three groups around shovellers Anas

clypeata. They were spinning around picking off

flies disturbed by the ducks as they swam. As is

customary with the genus when on inland waters,

the group was not wary of us.

On September 5, 1999, Harsh Vardhan and

I recorded four red-necked phalarope at the same

site with seven or eight avocets Recurvirostra

avosetta, presumably taking advantage of the

prey or edible particles brought to the surface, or

into view, by foraging avocets in a shallow part

of the lake. All the phalaropes were actively

following the avocets.

The explanation for this behaviour is that

the red-necked phalarope “associate with the other

feeding birds probably to benefit from the higher

prey availability brought about by disturbance” (del

Hoyo et al. 1996). According to Cramp and

Simmons (1983), the red-necked phalarope feed

in this manner “presumably to take advantage of

prey brought to surface or into view”. Two

comprehensive books on the birds of the

Subcontinent (Ali and Ripley 1980, and Roberts

1991) describe its feeding methods, but do not

record its feeding association with other birds. This

note provides additional information on the feeding

behaviour of the species in the Indian Subcontinent.

December 16, 1999 HARKIRAT S. SANGHA

B-27, Gautam Marg,

Hanuman Nagar, Jaipur 302 021,

Rajasthan, India.

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References

Adam, R.M. (1874): Additional notes on the birds of the

Sambhar Lake and its vicinity. Stray Feathers 2:

337-341.

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1980): Handbook of the Birds of

India and Pakistan, Vol. 2, 2nd edn. Oxford

University Press, New Delhi. Pp 323-325.

Cramp, S. & K.L. Simmons (1983): The Birds of the

Western Palaearctic, Vol. Ill Waders to Gulls.

Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 629-639.

del Hoyo, J., A. Elliot & J. Sargatal (Eds.) (1996):

Handbook of the Birds of the World, Vol. 3. Hoatzin

to Auks. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. Pp. 532.

Roberts, T.J. (1991): The Birds of Pakistan, Vol. 1. Oxford

University Press, Karachi. Pp. 362-363.

15. POMPADOUR GREEN PIGEON TRERON POMPADORA AFFINIS

AND LARGE HAWK-CUCKOO HIEROCOCCYX SPARVERJOIDES

ON THE PALKONDA HILLS, PENINSULAR INDIA

We visited Talakona Reserve Forest (13°

49' N, 79° 13' E) along with- members of the

Bird Ringing Training Programme, organized

by the Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS),

from August 27-29, 1999, led by the second

author. We camped at the Andhra Pradesh Forest

Department’s Guest House Complex at the

Siddeswaraswamy Temple. Talakona is c. 70 km

northwest of Tirupati town in Chittoor district,

Andhra Pradesh, and situated past Bhakarapeta

near Nerabylu village in the foothills of the

Palkondas, in what are collectively known as

the Eastern Ghats. The hills that lie between

Nerabylu and Mogilipenta, which is on the

northeastern side, have several peaks higher

than 1 ,000 m in this part of the Palkonda Range.

Talakona is in the midst of a sacred grove, some

5 sq. km in area, with Semi-Evergreen jungle,

including several endemic tree species (Anon.

1996: 14, 20, but specified location of Talakona

on page 20 is incorrect). We bird-watched along

a narrow 3 km stretch of riparian forest on either

side of a perennial stream, Bugga Vagu. This is

a frequently used pilgrim route that proceeds

eastward from the temple and leads to the

Talakona, or Papanasanam waterfall. One walks

almost parallel to the stream most of the way,

on a path at least 20-25 m above the water

level, and affords excellent views into the

canopy of the trees that rise from the valley

below.

Large Hawk-Cuckoo

Hierococcyx sparverioides Vigors

While we were returning from the waterfall

on the morning of August 28, 1999, a hawk-like

bird flew on to a bare branch of a tall tree

(c. 30 m), at eye level. In flight, we suspected it

was a brainfever bird Hierococcyx varius Vahl.

But through the binoculars it turned out to be a

large hawk-cuckoo Hierococcyx sparverioides

Vigors! It looked slightly bigger than H. varius ,

and a yellow circle was clearly visible around its

orangish eye. It had very prominent dark grey

horizontal bars on its white belly and its tail was

distinctly banded dirty brown and dark grey. This

will be the second published record of

H. sparverioides from what are known as the

Eastern Ghats in Andhra Pradesh State. The first

was by Ripley et al. (1988: 553), who recorded

two immature females collected by them at

Jyothimamidi “in disturbed forest” on the “Vizag

Ghats” (that lie in the Northern Circars section

of Andhra Pradesh, north of the Godavari river)

on February 23 and 25, 1985 (see also Taher and

Pittie, 1989: 14). However, ifthe biogeographical

sub-areas of Ghorpade {in litt. 22-ix-1999 and

map, 1 999: 4) are scientifically more correct, the

‘true’ Eastern Ghats occur only south of the

Godavari and east of the Western Ghats: the

“Vizag Hills” and others north of the Godavari

being ‘incompatible’ with them, and belonging

to what Ghorpade terms the Central Highlands

302

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

sub-area, which later reveal a distinct Himalayan

influence and domination of sal (Shorea robusta)

jungle that is absent south of the Godavari (Legris

and Meher-Homji 1977). This means that our

sighting is actually the first ever record of the

large hawk-cuckoo from the true Eastern Ghats

ecosystem. The handbook (Ali and Ripley 1987)

mentions wintering and passage records of

H. sparverioides from Madhya Pradesh, Orissa,

Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala, indicating

that this Himalayan-breeding cuckoo uses an

easterly route to its wintering haunts on the

Wynaad, Nilgiris, Palnis, and other highlands

south to the erstwhile Travancore on the Western

Ghats (Abdulali 1949: 1985: 210). The present

record from the Palkonda Hills is the second from

Andhra Pradesh, and confirms this easterly

migratory route of the large hawk-cuckoo.

Pompadour Green-Pigeon

Treron pompadora affinis (Jerdon)

Also on August 28, about half way to the

temple from the waterfall, we were walking under

an unidentified Ficus tree in fruit, when B. Raha,

one of the participants, looked up and said

“Green-pigeon!” Some 3-4 birds were seen

moving in the canopy directly overhead, giving

us a brief glimpse of themselves between the

foliage. Just before all of them flew away, we got

a better view of one green-pigeon and noticed

that it had a maroon back. We were then sure it

was a Pompadour green-pigeon Treron

pompadora affinis (Jerdon), but we needed at

least one more sighting to confirm its identity

positively. So we returned that very evening at

1700 hrs, but could see no green-pigeons on the

same tree. After some time, we started back and

then, near the temple, about 7-8 green-pigeons

flew over us and settled in a tree on the edge of

the road, close at hand. One landed on a bare

branch, clearly visible to all of us. Thus, we

identified them as a flock of Pompadour green-

pigeons! Ali and Ripley (1987) reported the

distribution of this species and its habitat as

“Western and southwestern India - the Western

Ghats complex (including the Nilgiris, Palnis,

and associated hill ranges) - from about 20° N

southward through western Mysore (Malnaad)

and Kerala. Affects forest and well-wooded

country in evergreen and wet deciduous biotope;

lowlands and up to c. 1200 m. altitude.” Jerdon

(1864) claimed to have “killed it in Central India,

and in the Eastern Ghats” but gave no details of

location or date! Sugathan (1983) reported that

“One specimen of T. pompadora was ringed in

1969 at the BNHS ringing camp. Subsequently,

two pompadora ...were ringed in April/

December 1970,” in Point Calimere Sanctuary,

Thanjavur district, Tamil Nadu (Krishna Raju

and Shekar 1971). It is significant that Point

Calimere is just 48 km away from Sri Lanka,

separated by the Palk Strait, where T.p.

pompadora (Gmelin) is “Resident subject to local

movements” (Ripley 1982). Unfortunately, the

race of this green-pigeon was not noted in both

these instances {teste Balachandran). Abdulali

(1985), however, questioned several identifica-

tions of Sugathan (1983), but Hussain (1985),

who was the project in-charge at Point Calimere,

attempted to justify most of these ‘bird-in-the-

hand’ determinations. Surprisingly, Hussain

(1985) refers to Sugathan’s 1 T. pompadora ’ as

“ pompadora affinis ”, stating that “its occurrence

in Point Calimere is noteworthy.” The second

author has regular sight records of pompadour

pigeons during winter (October to February) from

Point Calimere between 1981-1987. He also has

sight records of the green-pigeon [= pompadour

green-pigeon] from Tirumala...at Papanasanam

(regularly sighted in flocks of 20-40) during

1989. Two of our bird watcher colleagues, who

have visited this area, were contacted for

information on this species/subspecies. Krys

Kazmierczak (in litt. 20-ix-1999) quoted from

his Talakona diary of 10-ii-1993, “ Treron

pompadora 10.” Bharat Bhushan (in litt. 20-ix-

1999) also recorded the ‘Pompadour pigeon’ in

the Eastern Ghats. He recalls seeing it “at

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303

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

different occasions ... near Mamandur (13° 42'

N, 79° 27' E, Andhra Prades, [A.P.]), and also

in a permanent patch of the peninsular endemic

red sanders tree ( Pterocarpus santalinus) near

Renigunta (13° 35' N, 79° 30' E, A.P). Further

to these records, the second author has a sight

record from Auroville (Pondicherry), where he

saw a bird on a banyan tree in July 1996. It was

the same race that breeds in the Western Ghats,

(Balachandran and Alagarrajan 1997). Priya

Davidar of Pondicherry University (in litt. 14-x-

1 999), informed that she has “not seen the grey-

fronted green pigeon here (in Pondicherry) nor

have any of my students. However, there is no

reason why it cannot be a straggler here if

recorded in other areas along the east.”

This note is, therefore, a confirmation of

Jerdon’s purported first record of “affmis” from

the Eastern Ghats, based upon positive

identifications from Chittoor district and

Pondicherry in Tamil Nadu State. The presence

of Treron pompadora in Point Calimere is

recorded, but details about race are lacking,

preventing us from ascertaining whether the

birds are affinis, or the nominate pompadora that

is believed to be endemic to Sri Lanka. Further

observations will clarify this matter in the Point

Calimere region. The presence of this

predominantly Western Ghats species or

subspecies (known from 20° N near Mumbai to

the Ashambu Hills in south Kerala and Tamil

Nadu), on the Eastern Ghats, is significant, as it

reinforces the “vicariance” model propounded by

Ripley et al. (1988) — that these present-day

peninsular rain forest ‘relicts’ are those now

stranded in surviving, humid, forested refuges,

associated with the rain-capturing scarps, on the

eastern hill ranges (see also Daniel et al. 1986,

for an endemic gecko of peninsular India, also

rediscovered on the hills near the Tirumala

temple).

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank Kumar Ghorpade

for reviewing the manuscript and for suggestions

for improving this paper, and also Krys

Kazmierczak, Bharat Bhushan and Priya

Davidar for responding promptly with their

supporting information.

December 13, 1999 AASHEESH PITTIE

8-2-545 Road No 7,

Banjara Hills, Hyderabad 500 034,

Andhra Pradesh, India:

S. BALACHANDRAN

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road,

Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India.

References

Abdulali, H. (1949): Some peculiarities of avifaunal

distribution in peninsular India. Proc. natl. Inst. Sci.

India. 15(8): 387-393, 5 maps.

Abdulali, H. (1985): Comments on “Some interesting

aspects of the avifauna of the Point Calimere

Sanctuary, Thanjavur Dist., Tamil Nadu by R.

Sugathan (JBNHS 79, pp. 567-75, 1 983)”. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 82(1): 209-210.

Ali, Salim & S.D. Ripley (1987): Compact Handbook of

the Birds of India and Pakistan. 2nd Edn. Oxford

University Press, Delhi.

Anon. (1996): Sacred and Protected Groves of Andhra

Pradesh. World Wide Fund for Nature-India Andhra

Pradesh State Office. 96 pp, 3 Annex., 40 col.

photographs.

Balachandran, S. & S. Alagarrajan (1997): Birds of

Auroville — Final Report, Bombay Natural History

Society, Bombay.

Daniel, J.C., B. Bhushan & A.G. Sekar (1986):

Rediscovery of the Golden Gecko Calodactylodes

aureus (Beddome) in the Eastern Ghats of Andhra

Pradesh. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83(1): 15-16,

I col. pi.

Ghorpade, K. (1999): Letter from an insect-hunting

ornithologist-21 . Pitta 93: 3-4.

Hussain, S.A. (1985): Comments on Mr. Abdulali’s note

on Dr. Sugathan’s paper on Avifauna of Point

Calimere. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82(1): 210-212.

Jerdon, T.C. (1864): The Birds of India: Being a Natural

History of all the Birds known to inhabit Continental

304

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

India; with descriptions of the Species, Genera,

Families, Tribes, and Orders, and a brief notice of

such Families as are not found in India. Making it a

Manual of Ornithology Specially adapted for India.

Published by the author. 2 (2): 450-451.

Krishna Raju, K.S.R. & P.B. Shekar (1971): Some

interesting bird records from Point Calimere.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 68(2): 457-459.

Legris, P. & V.M. Meher-Homji (1977): Phytogeographic

outlines of the hill range of peninsular India. Tropical

Ecology 18(1): 10-24.

Ripley, S.D. (1982): A Synopsis of the Birds of India and

Pakistan together with those of Nepal, Bhutan,

Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. 2nd Edn. Bombay Natural

History Society, Bombay. Pp. xxvi+653. 1 map.

Ripley, S.D., B.M. Beehler& K.S.R. Krishna Raju (1988):

Birds of the Visakhapatnam Ghats, Andhra Pradesh.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84(3): 540-559 & 85(1):

90-107.

Sugathan, R. (1983): Some interesting aspects of the

avifauna of the Point Calimere Sanctuary, Thanjavur

District, Tamil Nadu. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 79(3):

567-575.

Taher, S.A. & A. Pittie (1989): A Checklist of Birds of

Andhra Pradesh. Published by the authors,

Hyderabad, ix+39 pp.

16. EURASIAN EAGLE-OWL BUBO BUBO TJBETANUS BIANCHI

AT 2,100 M IN NORTH SIKKIM

On March 3, 1 995 while on a visit to North

Sikkim, we met an old hunter who had a big owl

skin. On inquiry, he said that he had found the

bird electrocuted by a high-tension wire at

Khedum ( c . 2,100 m) in Lachung Valley about

two and a half months earlier, i.e. around mid-

December, 1994. It had the following

measurements:

Wing length : 480 mm

Bill (From feathers) : 232 mm

(From base of skull) : 48 mm

Tarsus length : 72 mm

Tail length : 300 mm

Length of unstretched

skin laid flat : 68 mm

Its overall colour is pale buff and black,

with dark heavy streaks on the breast and finely

vermiculated streaks on the abdomen. The toes

are completely feathered, with feathers

overhanging and concealing the base of the dark,

slaty claws. Local people from Gangtok identified

it as ‘Pwongma’ (Lepcha) and ‘Koiralo’ (Nepali)

and as the owl that “eats cats”, the last possibly

being the tawny fish-owl Ketupa flavipes. The

hunter reported that its mate was still in the area,

but so far we have neither seen nor heard of more

of these birds.

Of the four subspecies of Bubo bubo

(Linn.) in the Indian subcontinent, Bubo bubo

bengalensis is the darkest and most richly

coloured, both B.b. turcomanus and B.b.

hemachalana are paler, while B.b. tibetanus is

browner.

According to the handbook of the birds of

india and Pakistan (1983) by Ali and Ripley,

B.b. bengalensis is resident throughout the

Subcontinent from c. 1,500 m (and rarely

c. 2,400 m) in the western Himalayas up to west-

central Nepal “...possibly further east, but not

yet recorded from Sikkim, Bhutan or NEFA...”

Both B.b. turcomanus and B.b.

hemachalana are recorded from the western

Himalayas (Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh) and

extralimitally from northern Pakistan, northern

Baluchistan, and western Tibet right up to

Kazakhstan.

According to Vaurie (1965: 587) B.b.

tibetanus has “...Range within our limits

hypothetical...” though it “...probably also

inhabits the eastern Himalayas at high

altitudes...” Thus, it may occur in northern

Sikkim and perhaps also North Bhutan and

NEFA...”

Considering the length, measurements,

colour and locality, the specimen appears to be

the Eurasian eagle-owl Bubo bubo tibetanus

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Bianchi, which has an extralimital distribution

in centra! and eastern Tibet (Lhasa, Gyantse,

Khamba Dzong), areas that adjoin Sikkim. Salim

Ali does not mention this owl in birds of sikkim

(1962). This specimen, now deposited in the

BNHS collection, confirms the hypothetical

occurrence of the species in our range from North

Sikkim. It may be worthwhile to emphasize that

Bubo bubo bengalensis , which is much smaller

and darker, is also not yet recorded from Sikkim.

I thank the Sikkim Forest Department for

enabling me to obtain this record.

Feb. 23, 2000 USHA GANGULI-LACHUNGPA

Department of Forests

Environment & Wildlife \

Government of Sikkim,

Deorali, Gangtok 737 102, India.

17. ON THE STATUS OF HYPOCOLIUS AMPELINUS BONAPARTE

IN THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT

The hypocolius Hypocolius ampelinus

Bonaparte (Family Bombycillidae) occurs in

Afghanistan, S. Iran, Arabia and N. Africa

where, in some areas, it is common and

widespread. The handbook of the birds of india

and Pakistan (Ali and Ripley 1972) describes the

species as a rare vagrant, with individual

examples seen and collected at long intervals in

the Indian subcontinent. This opinion was

supported by the fact that perhaps the first

specimen was collected by Blanford on March

6, 1875 in the Larkana district, Pakistan followed

by a record of Duke on April 20, 1877 in Kalat,

Baluchistan (Pakistan). The handbook also

mentions Sind (Karachi). It seems there were no

further sightings of the hypocolius till Dr. Salim

Ali saw and procured a specimen from Kihim

on November 14, 1930 (Ali 1931). Apart from

this, there was also said to be a report of its

occurrence in Madhya Pradesh. It was nearly

thirty years later that a female and a male were

collected in mist nets consecutively on March

22 and 23, 1960 at Kuar Bet on the southern

edge of the Great Rann of Kutch.(Shekar 1960).

Apart from this. Dr. TJ. Roberts quotes Gen.

Christon (pers. comm.) having come across a pair

at Dalbadin in the Chagai (Pakistan) in 1942.

At the best of times, birds are

unpredictable creatures changing their pattern

of movement and distribution over a period of

time. This fact is proved by the recent records

of occurrence of Hypocolius ampelinus on both

sides of the border between India and Pakistan.

Roberts ( 1 992) refers to R. Passburg and himself

having observed small parties of this species in

the Hab valley (west of Karachi) between

February 3 and March 6, 1984. This included a

flock of 16 birds on February 17, 1984. Then

Asad Ali and R. Passburg saw some numbers in

1986 and 1989 in the same location. But the

most significant observation was that of Roberts

himself, of 25 to 30 individuals at Zangi Nawar

lake in the Chagai desert (Baluchistan) ori May

1, 1985; they were going to roost in pairs,

behaving excitedly and calling continuously.

S.N. Varu (SNV) accompanied by

members of the local nature club was the first

person to record the recent occurrence of the

hypocolius in Kutch, a male in the vicinity of

Chhari Dhandh on January 23, 1990 and one

female the same day drinking water at the small

village tank of Fulay. During the Bird Migration

Study Project undertaken by the Bombay Natural

History Society from January 1 990 for two years,

S. Asad Akhtar and J.K. Tiwari recorded the

hypocolius and also captured and ringed a

few individuals (details given in the Project

Report). From 1992 to 1994, J.K. Tiwari made

a more detailed study of the hypocolius at Fulay

village under the BNHS Grasslands Ecology

Project. The details of occurrences are given in

Table 1.

306

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 1

RECORDS OF HYPOCOLJUSAMPELJNUS

IN KUTCH FROM 1990-94

The main sightings were made in the area

adjacent to Fulay village, having sandy soil with

thorny vegetation and ample food supply in the

form of berries of Salvadora persica. This scrub

jungle is situated between Fulay and Chhari

villages. It has a dry water course, which runs from

Chhari and passes through a greater part of this

biotope. The predominant species of vegetation in

this area are Acacia nilotica and Salvadora

persica. Hypocolius ampelirms roost in Acacia and

feed mainly on the ripe berries of Salvadora. After

their morning activities, these birds, as observed

by JKT, would suddenly fly up and disappear,

presumably to a source of water.

This species has been seen more recently

on various occasions as indicated in Table 2.

Table 2

RECENT RECORDS OF HYPOCOLJUSAMPELJNUS

IN KUTCH

From the regular sightings and increasing

numbers of birds seen fairly regularly for a period

of four years, coupled with the recent sightings,

though sporadic, it could now safely be inferred

that this species has extended its range of

distribution and that it is more or less a regular

visitor to Kutch. Fresh information from

observers in Pakistan about occurrences of

Hypocolius ampelinus in that country could

certainly help us on this side of the border to

arrive at more definite conclusions.

The semi-desert type scrub jungle near

Fulay, in which the maximum numbers of

hypocolius were observed, is in great danger of

being cleared for agriculture and if steps are not

soon taken to save this biotope, it will be lost for

ever. This would also result in the destruction of

one more habitat of the pied .tit, Parus nuchalis,

in Kutch, which has already disappeared from

some of its former haunts.

November 30, 1 999 M.K. HIMMATSINHJI

Jubilee Ground, Bhuj,

Kutch, Gujarat,

India.

J.K. TIWARJ

Sanghipuram, Moti Ber

Abdasa, Kutch 370 655,

Gujarat, India.

S.N. VARU

Junavas, Temple Street,

Madhapur, Bhuj, Kutch 370 020,

Gujarat, India.

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

References

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1972): Handbook of the Birds of Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 34: 1061.

India and Pakistan, Vol. 5, Oxford University Press, Roberts, T.J. (1992): The Birds of Pakistan. Vol. 2

Bombay. Passeriformes. Oxford University Press, Karachi,

Ali, S. (1931): The occurrence of the grey hypocolius Shekar, P.B. (1960): Further Additions to the Birds of

( Hypocolius ampelinus ) in North Konkan. J. Kutch. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 57: 224-225.

18. COMMENSAL FORAGING RELATIONSHIPS OF THE WHITE-BROWED FANTAIL*

RHIPIDURA AUREOLA IN MYANMAR

Flocking behaviour of birds in the non-

breeding season is widely reported from the

tropics. A number of reasons have been proposed

for this behaviour. Several authors have observed

that birds foraging in flocks benefit from the

availability of arthropods flushed by flock mates

(Belt 1874, Biddulph 1954, Moynihan 1962,

Croxall 1976, MacDonald and Henderson 1977).

However, other authors have found little evidence

that the so-called “beater effect” (Powell 1985)

is an important factor in promoting flocking

behaviour (Willis 1972, Powell 1977, Greig-

Smith 1978, King and Rappole 2001a).

Fantails are small, fly-catching passerines

of the Family Pachycephalidae. Though some

species of fantail do not appear to participate in

mixed-species flocks, e.g. the Willy wagtail

( Rhipidura leucophrys ) (Cameron 1985) and the

yellow-bellied fantail ( R. hypoxantha) (Stevens

1904), other species of the group, such as the

white-browed fantail ( R . aureola) regularly

participate in mixed-species foraging flocks

during the non-breeding season. Cameron ( 1 985)

reported that grey fantails (R. fuliginosa) and

rufous fantails (R. rufifrons) participating in

mixed-species foraging flocks appear to forage

on insects flushed by other flock members.

We studied the behaviour and movements

of the white-browed fantail in mixed-species

flocks in semi-deciduous forest in north central

Myanmar, in an attempt to determine the basis

for their participation in such groups.

This work is part of a long-term study of the

birds of the north-central dry zone of Myanmar

initiated in 1994, which is continuing. However,

most of these observations were collected from

January 16-29, 1999 at Chatthin Wildlife

Sanctuary (23° 43' N, 95° 31' E), located roughly

160 km north-northwest of Mandalay in

Myanmar’s Central Dry Zone. This sanctuary was

established in 1941; it covers 268.2 sq. km (Salter

and Sayer 1983) in which elevations range from

250-500 m. The climate is characterized by a rainy

season (June-October), a cool dry season

(November-February), and a hot dry season

(March-May). The principal forest habitat at the

sanctuary is Indaing, a Dry Deciduous Forest

comprised of over 1 00 tree species, but dominated

by Dipterocarpus tuberculifer. Indaing has a

relatively open understorey of grasses and low

shrubs maintained by regular, anthropogenic

spring burning in March and April. Dominant trees

in the forest lose their leaves in March at the height

of the dry season, and leaf out again in June after

monsoon arrives, at which time a lush, herbaceous

understorey develops (Salter and Sayer 1983,

McShea et al. 1999, Nay Myo Shwe et al. 1999).

Bird flocks were located by walking slowly

(c. 1.5 km/hr) through the forest, watching for

movement and listening for vocalization of

common flock associates. Once a flock was

located, it was followed as long as possible.

Observations were conducted with the aid of

8 x 42 binoculars. Descriptions of the foraging

behaviour and movements of flock members were

written down or dictated into a hand-held tape

recorder for later transcription.

*The white-browed fantail-flycatcher Rhipidura aureola is

considered a member of Subfamily Rhipidurinae, see Buceros

Vol 6(1), 2001. Published by: Bombay Natural History Society.

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

During 253 minutes of flock observation,

we observed white-browed fantail foraging

commensally with other species in nine instances.

In six instances, fantails were observed foraging

with flocks of sylviid warblers. In three other

instances, fantails were observed foraging with

chestnut-bellied nuthatches ( Sitta castanea)

(Table 1).

The general pattern fantails foraging with

flocks of sylviid warblers was as follows. The

warbler flocks consisted of 3-15 individuals of

several species, including plain prinia ( Prinia

inornata), Beavan's prinia {Prinia rufescens),

Radde’s warbler {Phylloscopus schwarzi ), and

common tailorbird {Orthotomus sutorius) (King

and Rappole 2001a). They generally occur in

open Indaing with widely spaced trees and a

dense understorey, mainly of grasses and shrubs,

c. 1 metre in height. Flock members forage

mainly in the understorey, and in relatively close

proximity to one another (flock diameter <25 m).

Fantails foraging in association with these flocks

typically perch at the front margin of the

advancing flock on an exposed branch or side of

a tree trunk 1 -2 m above the ground. They hawk

flying insect prey, which is apparently flushed

by the movements of the flock. As the flock moves

through the understorey, fantails shift perches in

an apparent effort to keep to a perch that enables

them to monitor their flock mates. Warbler flocks,

with a fantail in attendance, were followed over

distances of up to 300 m. Only once did we see

two fantails following the same warbler flock

without agonistic interaction. On a separate

occasion, a fantail attending a warbler flock was

chased back in the direction from which the flock

had come by a second fantail, which then

assumed sole membership in the flock.

Fantails were also observed attending

mixed-species flocks of common woodshrike,

small minivet (P ericrocotus cinnamomeus ), with

up to 20 other species, including the chestnut-

bellied nuthatch (King and Rappole 2001a). In

following these flocks, we observed three

occasions when fantails were apparently

following the foraging activities of chestnut-

bellied nuthatches, and attempting to capture

flying insect prey flushed by the nuthatches. In

one instance, a fantail was seen with a pair of

nuthatches, which were gleaning bark in the

canopy. The fantail maintained a position below

the pair, making periodic hawking flights into

the air below the nuthatches, evidently after

invertebrates were dislodged by the nuthatches.

The fantail followed the nuthatches as they

changed perches seven times in 26 minutes over

a distance of 100 m. In another instance, a fantail

was seen following a nuthatch through three

successive perch changes over a distance of 30

m. As the nuthatch foraged, gleaning

invertebrates from tree bark, the fantail kept 1-2

m away from the nuthatch, facing it and evidently

observing its activities. Only once did we observe

two fantails following the same woodshrike flock

without agonistic interaction. However, only one

of them was foraging commensally with a

nuthatch during that observation.

The members of the Subfamily

Rhipidurinae, which include the white-browed

fantail, are noted for their distinctive style of

foraging, in which the conspicuous white patches

in the rectrices are exposed abruptly as the bird

fans its tail, either from a perch or in flight,

thereby flushing insects which are then captured

in flight (Goodwin 1967, Cameron 1985, Recher

and Holmes 1985). In Myanmar, we regularly

observed fantails perching on tree trunks flashing

their outer rectrices and chasing insects flushed

from the bark, or making zigzag diving flights

over the grass, similar to the behaviours thought

by Goodwin (1967) to be directed at flushing

insect prey. Thus, the switch from preying on

arthropods flushed by the fantail itself to preying

on arthropods flushed by other species is a natural

one, especially in the case of species that flush

or dislodge prey from substrates regularly used

by foraging fantails (e.g. grass or bark). Cameron

(1985) described grey and rufous fantails

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

309

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

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JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

following close behind tree creepers

(Climacteridae) and warblers (Acanthizidae) and

catching insects flushed by these species. We

present nine examples of similarly opportunistic

foraging on prey flushed by warblers and

nuthatches by white-browed fantails.

White-browed fantails appear to forage

principally on flying insects, while warblers

forage mainly by gleaning sedentary

invertebrates from leaves. Thus, it does not

appear that warbler flock mates are being

interfered with by fantail pursuit of prey that they

have dislodged. Nor does it appear that warblers

benefit in any way from fantail activities.

Therefore, the relationship appears to be

commensal, in which one species benefits (i.e.

the fantail) while the others are neither helped

nor harmed (Odum 1971 : 21 1). The relationship

between fantails and chestnut-bellied nuthatches

also seems to be mainly commensal, in which

the fantail benefits and the nuthatch is not

affected. However, nuthatches do, on occasion,

pursue dislodged prey as they fall, and in one

instance we observed a fantail attempting to steal

such prey from a nuthatch. Thus, the relationship

between these two species appears to include

aspects of kieptoparasitism (Brockman and

Barnard 1979).

Benefits of flock attendance in Indaing

forest in Myanmar appear to include enhanced

predator detection provided by flock mates (King

Refer

Belt, T.W. (1874): The naturalist in Nicaragua. Murray

Press, London.

Biddulph, C.H. (1954): A possible association between

the yellow-naped woodpecker and the large racket-

tailed drongo. J. Bombay not. Hist. Soc. 52: 209.

Brockman, HJ. & C.J. Barnard 1 1 979): Kieptoparasitism

in birds. Animal Behavior 27: 487-514.

Cameron, E. ( 1 985): Habitat usage and foraging behavior

of three fantails (Rhipidura: Pachycephalidae).

Pp. 177-191. In: Birds ofeucalypt forests: ecology,

conservation, and management (Eds: Keast, A.,

H.F, Recher, H. Ford and D. Saunders,). Surrey,

and Rappole 2001a) or opportunities to

kleptoparasitize flock mates (King and Rappole

2001b). Our observation of foraging white-

browed fantails indicates that this species may

regularly benefit from exploiting prey flushed by

flock mates, as reported in fantails elsewhere

(Cameron 1985).

Acknowledgments

We thank C. Wemmer, W. McShea,

C. Pickett, Uga, Nay Myo Swe, Lei Lei Hnin,

Thida Swe, Thein Win, Myint Aung, and Khyne

U Mar for help and support. We also thank the

Forestry Ministry and the Nature and Wildlife

Conservation Division (especially Direcor Uga)

of the Forestry Department of Myanmar, in

particular. This research was made possible by

support from the Friends of the National Zoo,

the National Geographic Society, and British Air.

November 29, 1999 DAVID I. KING

USDA Forest Service

Northeastern Research Station,

University of Massachusetts Amherst,

Amherst, Massachusetts, 01003 USA.

JOHN H. RAPPOLE

Smithsonian Conservation and Research Center,

1500 Remount Road, Front Royal,

Virginia 22630, USA.

E n c e s

Beatty and Sons, NSW, Australia.

Croxall, J.P. (1976): The composition and behavior of

some mixed-species bird flocks in Sarawak. Ibis

118: 333-346.

Goodwin, D. (1967): Notes on the behavior of some

Australian birds. Emu 66: 237-25 1 .

Greig-Smith, P.W. (1978): Imitative foraging in mixed-

species flocks of Seychelles birds. Ibis 120:

233-235.

King, D 1. & J.H. Rappole (2001a): Mixed-species bird

flocks in Dipterocarp forest of North-Central Burma

(Myanmar). Ibis 143: 380-390.

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

311

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

King, D.I. & J.H. Rappole (2001b): Kleptoparasitism of

laughing thrushes Garrulax by greater racket-tailed

drongos Dicrurus paradiseus in Myanmar. Forktail

17: 1-125.

MacDonald, D. W. & D.G. Henderson ( 1 977): Aspects of

the behavior and ecology of mixed-species bird

Hocks in Kashmir. Ibis 119 : 481-493.

McShea, W.J., P. Leimgruber, S.L. Myint Aung, S.L.

Monfort & C. Wemmer ( 1 999): The range collapse

of a tropical cervid ( Cervus eldi ) and the extent of

remaining habitat in Central Myanmar. Animal

Conservation 2: 173-183.

Moynihan, M. (1962): The organization and probable

evolution of some mixed-species flocks of

Neotropical birds. Smithsonian Miscellaneous

Collection 143:1-140.

Nay Myo Shwe, Thida Swe, Lei Lei Hnin, Htein Win &

J.H. Rappole (1999): A guide to the birds of

Chatthin Wildlife Sanctuary, Union of Myanmar.

Smithsonian Conservation and Research Center,

Front Royal, Virginia, USA.

Odum, E. P. (1971): Fundamentals of ecology. 3rd Edn.

W.B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

Powell, G.V.N. (1977): Socio-ecology of mixed-species

flocks in a Neotropical forest. Unpubl. Ph.D.

dissertation. University of California, Davis,

California.

Powell, G.V.N. (1985): Sociobiology and adaptive

significance of interspecific foraging flocks in the

neotropics. Ornithological Monographs 36: 713-

372.

Recher, H.T. & R.T. Holmes (1985): Foraging ecology

and seasonal patterns of abundance in a forest

avifauna. Pp. 79-96. In: Birds of Eucalypt Forests:

Ecology, Conservation, Management, (Eds: Keast,

A., H.F. Recher, H. Ford and D. Saunders) Surrey

Beatty and Sons, NSW Australia.

Salter, R.E. & J.A. Sayer (1983): Kyatthin Wildlife

Sanctuary: Draft management plan. United Nations

Development Programme, Food and Agricultural

Organization, Rome. FO:BUR/80/006 Field

Document 6/83.

Stevens. H. (1904): The Yellow-bellied Flycatcher

(Chelidorhynx hypoxanthum). J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 1: 155.

Willis, E.O. (1972): The behavior of Spotted Antbirds.

University of California Publications in Zoology

79: 1-132.

19. ROOSTING BEHAVIOUR OF COMMON TAILORRIRD

ORTHOTOMUS SUTORIUS (PENNANT)

( With one plate )

The common tailorbird Orthotomus

sutorius (Pennant) is a common warbler found

throughout the Indian subcontinent. It uses both

natural and artificial fibres to stitch 1-3 leaves

to construct a tiny, pocket-sized nest where it lays

2-4 eggs between April and September (Ali and

Ripley 1983, handbook of the birds of tndia and

Pakistan, Compact edn, OUP). The nest is

generally built close to the ground amidst thick

bushes to elude avian predators. Due to the

availability of big-leafed garden plants and

abundant food comprising of insects and nectar,

this highly adaptable bird has colonized almost

every medium-sized city garden. Like most

diurnal birds, its daytime activities have been

studied to some extent. However, there is a dearth

of information on its roosting behaviour. In

general, the roosting behaviour of gregarious

birds is well documented, but that of tiny solitary

birds is little understood.

I would like to share my observations on

the roosting behaviour of a pair of common

tailorbirds in my backyard at Andheri, Mumbai.

Though these birds have been roosting in my

garden for the past year, I could not find their

nest. Since mid-October 1999, a juvenile bird

also accompanies the pair, testifying their

breeding success this season. Every evening,

about 45-60 minutes before sunset, the family

arrives in the garden and makes its presence felt

through their repetitive “tik-tik-tik-”, and not the

usual “towit-towit-towit-”. At this point, the birds

continue their search for insects amongst leaves

and bark. Their feeding sorties are interrupted

by short preening bouts, which involve face

scratching, wing stretching and preening of

312

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Andheria, Anish P. : Common Tailorbird Orthotomus sutorius Plate 1

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

VIH3HQNV d HSINV =SDId

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 99(2), AUG. 2002

313

Fig. 4: Roosting site on Pongamia pinnata (about 4 m from the ground) after the fledgling began accompanying its parents. The overhead leaves

award protection from avian predators, while there is no leaf cover from below. The rear portion of the birds is also visible

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

various portions of the plumage. In between these

seemingly casual activities, they make sallies to

the roost for a thorough inspection, where they

spend not more than a few seconds.

Finally, after spending about 1 5-20 minutes

in the vicinity of the roost, one of the adults,

along with the juvenile, moves towards the

roosting site. The birds may give a loud “tik-tik-

tik-” in rapid succession just before settling in

the roost. This is more pronounced on sensing a

cat in the garden (there has always been at least

one cat, often two, in our compound).

Surprisingly, the presence of the felines has not

deterred them from roosting here. The other adult

bird, a male (as could be identified from the

longish tail feathers) has always been observed

to join the other two later (after another 10-15

minutes). During the time he spends alone, he is

largely silent, usually engrossed in vigorous

preening.

Once in the roost, the three birds become

silent and cuddle together i.e. one sandwiched

between the other two (Plate 1 , Fig. 1 ). The three

birds mostly sit facing the same direction. This,

however, is by no means a rule. Interestingly,

the juvenile is always in the centre. Here it must

be added that before the breeding season, the

adults never cuddled together (Plate 1, Fig. 2).

They would roost on the same shrub, but on

separate twigs. Later, during late August, i.e.

after the commencement of the breeding season,

the couple was seen cuddling together during the

night (Plate 1, Fig. 3). They continued to roost

jointly in the beginning of October, while raising

a litter in one of the adjoining buildings (nesting

site not known). I would like to bring to the notice

of the readers that in the past, I have seen similar

behaviour among oriental white-eye Zosterops

palpebrosus and ashy prinia Prinia socialis. In

both instances, the number of birds involved were

three, indicating the presence of a juvenile. Such

cuddling behaviour, therefore, seems to be a part

of the parental care amongst tiny solitary roosters.

Another interesting analogy can be made

between the loud calls of the tailorbirds and the

gregarious birds like house sparrows Passer

domesticus and house crows Corvus splendens ,

which are also very noisy just before occupying

their roosts. If disturbed before sunset, they leave

the roost giving loud “tik-tik-tik-” calls, but

return at the first opportunity. In fact, one

evening, though human movement frequently

disturbed the birds, they refused to abandon the

roost. Each time the birds returned in a few

minutes, accompanied by loud alarm calls. The

reluctance to evacuate the roost highlights the

unwillingness to search for a new site in the

fading light.

The roosting site is invariably a thin

horizontal branch about 1-4 m from the ground.

It always has a few overhanging leaves on the

top, forming a roof (Plate 1, Fig. 4), although

there may or may not be any foliage at the bottom.

This clearly suggests that the birds make

concerted efforts at selecting a site that is

concealed from nocturnal avian predators, and

are not too concerned about predators that are

likely to approach from below. In addition to this,

protection from heavy downpour during monsoon

may also govern such a site selection. Once, for

a couple of weeks, they even roosted within a

metre from our ground-floor balcony and seemed

indifferent to the continual disturbance caused

by the lamps. They seem to be using human

presence/movement to their advantage, as many

predators avoid heavily inhabited areas.

While roosting, they crouch on both legs

and tuck their heads over their shoulders

(Plate 1, Fig. 1), beneath fluffed feathers. They

continue to occupy a particular site for days

(20-25) until disturbed or till the leafy roof

withers away, a distinct possibility during winter.

If bothered during the night, they refuse to

abandon the roost even if an interloper actually

touches them. This ploy of remaining motionless

may be a defence strategy against arboreal

reptilian predators that are more sensitive to

movement than visual clues. However, they tend

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

315

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

to change the roost on the subsequent night. The

newiy selected roost is always on another plant,

but within the garden. They keep changing the

location during the following nights until

satisfied with the fresh one.

Other noteworthy observations are:

a) In spite of roosting in close proximity of

human habitations, they never use man

' made structures for the purpose.

b) The adults roosted much closer to the

ground, approximately 2 m, whereas after

being accompanied by the fledgling the roost

was always beyond 3 m, mostly about 4 m

from the ground.

c) They tolerate house sparrows at quite a close

distance.

d) They refuse to abandon their roost even if

they realize that the observer is watching

them.

e) Mosquitoes were noticed parasitizing on the

sleeping birds.

f) In the morning, the birds leave the roost just

before it gets bright i.e. the same time when

the house sparrows start getting restless and

noisy.

g) Firecrackers had little effect on the birds as

they continued to occupy the site during

Diwali festival.

From the above observations it is clear that

a medium sized tree with low horizontal branches

e.g. Pongamia pinnata , Bntea monosperma ,

Ficus hispida or a shrub like Adhatoda vasica

or Ixora sp. is all that is required to attract birds

even in crowded cities like Mumbai. Just as it is

vital to study the diurnal habits of various fauna,

understanding their nocturnal habits, if not more,

is equally essential for devising appropriate

conservation strategies. The survival of every

species is dependent on a proper blend of its

adaptation to the geographical cycles of winter

and summer, day and night. The common

tailorbirds in my garden have accentuated just

that.

With the help of the BN HS, 1 intend to ring

these birds in order to monitor their roosting/

breeding behaviour in the coming year.

Acknowledgement

1 am grateful to Dr. Asad R. Rahman i for

deliberating on the initial draft.

March 2, 2000 ANISH P. ANDHER1A

2, Sugar Building,

VP. Road, Andheri (West),

Mumbai 400 058,

Maharashtra, India.

20. SIGHT RECORDS OF CRIMSON SUN BIRD AETHOPYGA SIPARAJA

IN ISLAMABAD, PAKISTAN

The crimson sunbird Aethopyga siparaja

has been recorded in the Himalayas west to

Kangra in Himachal Pradesh (Ripley 1982).

During the winters of 1 999-2000 and 2000-200 1 ,

I observed this species at Islamabad, Pakistan,

far to the west of its hitherto known ranee and

the first records for this country, apparently.

The first observation was one juvenile/

eclipse male Aethopyga siparaja , seen for about

15 min, at about 15 m range, through 10 x 50

binoculars, at 1000 hrs on December 11, 1999

in an Islamabad garden (Sector G 6/4), feeding

from eucalyptus flowers. The bird appeared

uniform dark olive-green above, uniform

yellowish-olive green below (perhaps slightly

more yellow towards the belly), with a dull

reddish-pink chin and throat (not extending to

breast). No evident eyebrow, and dark eye

prominent on an otherwise plain face. No ashy

or grey tinge on either upperparts or underparts.

No yellow was noticed on the rurnp, nor any

white tips to tail feathers, which was short and

316

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

square-cut with no graduation. The bill appeared

longer and more prominent than in Mrs. Gould’s

sunbird Aethopyga gouldiae . The bird called

often, a short “tzip”. In spite of keeping a lookout,

it was not seen again in the winter of 1 999-2000.

I identified this bird as a juvenile male

Aethopyga siparaja , based primarily on (i) the

reddish throat, which I believe is not shown by

any other South Asian Aethopyga in either

female, juvenile or eclipse plumage; (ii) lack of

any grey tinge above or below, uniform yellowish-

green underparts and no noticeable yellow on

the rump, which excludes A. gouldiae and

A. saturata; (iii) lack of prominent white tips to

tail feathers, which excludes A. gouldiae and

A. nipalensis\ and square-cut, not graduated tail,

which excludes A. nipalensis. Female/juvenile

male A. ignicauda , in my experience, usually

shows some orange or red in the tail.

The species reappeared in winter 2000-

2001 in the same locality, with at least four

individuals present in the area. It was first seen

on January 3, 2001, one juvenile/eclipse male

similar to the 1999 bird. Between then and

February 4, four different birds were seen, one

long tailed male; one juvenile/eclipse male

showing extensive bright red chin, throat and

‘shoulders’ (lesser wing coverts); another

juvenile/eclipse male (the first one mentioned

above) with duller red chin and throat and no

red on ‘shoulders’; and a female, with uniform

yellowish-olive underparts and no red at all. Twos

or singles were seen frequently through February,

then less frequently in March with my last record

(an adult long-tailed male) on March 26, 2001.

Some mutual antagonism (territorial? sexual?)

was noted on several occasions, e.g. one bird

flying out, calling in flight, to chase another that

appeared nearby. The birds were active

throughout the winter day, and were seen feeding

on remnant flowers of bottlebrush Callistemon ,

and Eucalyptus , and catching insects in flight.

They were quite vocal, and apart from the

distinctive “tzip”, also called “tzip-ip-ip” or

“chit-chit-chwe”. A subdued song (subsong?) was

heard on a couple of occasions, prolonged and

continuous over two or three minutes, comprising

a mixture of the rapidly repeated call notes

alternated with short bouts of warbling or

chirruping, rather sparrow-like in tone and

character.

On January 25, three birds — the long

tailed male, the juvenile/eclipse male with red

shoulders and the female — were together in a

leafless Broussonetia papyrifera (introduced

paper mulberry) tree with the two males showing

apparent antagonistic behaviour towards each

other, cocking their tails, raising their beaks to

show off the scarlet on their chests and ‘singing’

at each other. Seen through binoculars at close

range (under 10 m), the long-tailed male was

noted to be in moult. The chin, throat and breast

were largely bright scarlet, but some olive-green

feathers remained on either side of the lower

throat and sides of face, and the mantle showed

an admixture of crimson and green feathers. The

purple malar stripes had developed, and the

yellow rump was visible when the bird cocked

its tail. Tail moult appeared complete, with fresh

iridescent green central tail feathers, and

iridescent green patches were visible on the

forecrown. Similarly, the short tailed juvenile/

eclipse male with red ‘shoulders’ also showed a

few iridescent green feathers on the forecrown

and scarlet patches on the sides of the breast. By

mid-February, both these features were much

more pronounced and extensive, but the tail was

still short. Seen again closeiy on March 11, a

long-tailed male had apparently completed moult

and was in fine plumage.

I am familiar with all five South Asian

Aethopyga sunbird species, in India, Nepal and

Bhutan. The observations in 2001 confirm the

identification of the species beyond doubt.

Mrs. Gould’s sunbird Aethopyga gouldiae,

which normally occurs west to the Sutlej Valley

in Himachal Pradesh, has appeared as a wanderer

in winter in the Islamabad neighbourhood

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

317

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

(Roberts 1992). The only other sunbird species

recorded in Pakistan is the purple sunbird

Nectarinia asiatica , a summer visitor to the

Islamabad area. It had arrived in Islamabad by

early March 200 1 , and for almost three weeks,

both species could be seen in the same general

area. No mutual interaction was noted between

the two species. As far as I am aware, there are

no previous records of the crimson sunbird from

Pakistan.

Seasonal movements of nectar-feeding

birds have been recorded in literature, and the

wandering of A. gouldiae far to the west of its

usual range is probably explainable by the paucity

of flowering plants in winter in the western

Himalayan foothills. Islamabad, with its large

variety of planted exotics, may be attractive to

Ripley, S.D. (1982): A Synopsis of the Birds of India and

Pakistan, 2nd Edn. Oxford University Press,

Bombay. Pp. 532-533.

21. FOLIAGE-DEW BATHING

ZOSTEROPS PALPEBROSUS,

Birds have been seen to employ a variety of

methods for body-maintenance including bathing

and anting. Bathing is defined as any of a variety

of stereotyped movements by birds to wet (and/or

dust) their feathers (Ehrlich et al. 1994). Bathing

is a common phenomenon and is believed to help

allay itching, remove parasites and clean feathers,

which require considerably more care than hair or

skin, due to their structural complexity and

importance for birds (Welty and Baptista 1988).

Birds have been seen to bathe in dust, snow,

sunlight, rain and water. In passerines, bathing is

characteristically hurried, with continuous

movement, usually in water and rain (Welty and

Baptista 1988). Five types of bathing have been

listed for passerines: i. splashing while standing

in shallow water, ii. hopping in and out of water,

iii. dipping down from flight (into stagnant or

nectar-feeders for this reason. But the records of

A. siparaja over two winters in Islamabad may

indicate that the species has begun to winter

regularly in the area, and possibly even have

expanded its breeding range to the adjacent

Margalla ravines or Murree foothills where

suitable habitat is certainly available.

March 10, 2000 SUDHIR VYAS

Deputy High Commissioner,

High Commission of India,

G-5 Diplomatic Enclave,

Islamabad, Pakistan,

C/o DB Section,

Ministry of External Affairs,

South Block, New Delhi 110 00 1,

India.

N C E S

Roberts, T.J. (1992): The Birds of Pakistan, Vol. 2

(Passeriformes). Oxford University Press, Karachi.

Pp. 391.

IN ORIENTAL WHITE-EYE

FAMILY ZOSTEROPIDAE

moving water) thus splashing water over their

moving body, iv. bathing in the rain and lastly, v.

shuffling about amongst wet vegetation (Freethy

1982). The last type seems to be rare and we report

our observation on the oriental white-eye Zosterops

palpebrosus (Temminck) indulging in this kind

of bathing.

At the Forest Research Institute, Dehra

Dun, November 1999, we observed a flock of

about 25 oriental white-eyes bathing in the

moisture on vegetation at 0900 hrs. In November,

night temperature falls to nearly 10 °C and, in

the mornings, much of the vegetation is covered

with dew. The birds were seen to rush into the

top-most branches of small-leafed shrubs by turn.

They would brush vigorously against the

vegetation to make the water fall upon them, and

go into bouts of vigorous shaking accompanied

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

by continuous, rapid opening and closing of

wings. Each bird took an average of two seconds

(range: 1-4 seconds). It was not clear if an

individual bird repeated bathing or whether it

was always a different individual bathing.

Following the bath, which we have termed

“foliage-dew bathing” the birds preened

themselves briefly before resuming foraging.

White-eyes are known to be mainly arboreal

although they have been seen to fly down to bathe

in ‘runnels’ (Ali and Ripley 1974), they have

not been seen to foliage-dew bathe.

Most forms of body maintenance behaviour

are thought to be inborn in birds. Young

goshawks have been seen to go through bathing

movements on bare ground on seeing a brood

mate splashing in water (Bond 1942), and hand-

reared motmots have been observed to go through

bathing movements, at the mere sound of rainfall

(Smith 1977). Since dew is available only a few

months in the year, this form of bathing is

prevalent only in those months. We have

observed white-eye in other parts of Dehra Dun

and India, and questioned other bird watchers,

but have not encountered this behaviour

elsewhere and the behaviour is rare in the species.

The habit could have been learnt either by

accident or by watching other species of birds

foliage-dew bathing. It is possible that the

behaviour is peculiar to a small local population

wherein the young ones learned by watching

older birds. In the case of North American wren-

tits Chamaea fasciata, which wet their feathers

from dew on vegetation, this is thought to be an

adaptation to an environment where water is

scarce (Ehrlich et al. 1994). If this is true for all

birds which foliage-dew bathe, only dew is likely

to be used, and never rain water on leaves, since

water is plentiful on the ground during the rainy

season. Hence, the term foliage-dew bathing

would be far more appropriate than foliage-

moisture bathing, which would encompass all

sources of moisture on foliage, including rain.

It was particularly interesting to note that

the oriental white-eye maximized the use of water

falling from leaves by choosing small-leafed plants,

in spite of dew being present on larger leaves. Water

falling from a cluster of smaller leaves tends to

have a large number of smaller droplets, as each

leaf cannot accumulate enough water to form large

drops. The cluster also covers a larger area

underneath. In contrast, a single large leaf, when

shaken, forms fewer numbers of larger drops that

have to be “caught” properly to be useful to the

bird for bathing. It was unclear why they chose

the top-most branches all the time.

We thank R. Jayapal for going through the

manuscript and giving helpful suggestions to

improve it.

February 23, 2000 K.S. GOPI SUNDAR

Wildlife Institute of India,

P.B. 18, Chandrabani,

Dehra Dim 248 00 J,

Uttaranchal, India.

CAPT. JAIDEEP CHANDA

Indian Military Academy,

Dehra Dun 248 001 ,

Uttaranchal, India.

References

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1974): Handbook of Birds of India University Press, Oxford. Pp. 355.

and Pakistan. Volume 10: Flowerpeckers to Buntings. Freethy, Ron (1982): How birds work. A Guide to Bird

Oxford University Press, Bombay. Pp. 58. Biology. Blandford Press, Dorset, Pp. 176.

Bond, R.M. (1942): Development of young Goshawks. Smith, S.M. (1977): The behaviour and vocalizations of

Wilson Bull. 54: 81-88. young Turquoise-browed Motmots. Biotropica 9: 127-

Ehrlich, P.R., D.S. Dobkin, D. Wheye& S.L. Pimm (1994): 130.

The Birdwatcher’s Handbook. A Guide to the Natural Welty, J.C. & L. Baptista ( 1 988): The Life of Birds. 4th

History of the Birds of Britain and Europe. Oxford edn, Saunder’s College Publishing, New York. Pp. 37.

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

22. FOOD HABITS OF THE BAYA WEAVER PLOCEUS PHILIPPINES (LINN.)

{With one plate )

The bay a weaver Ploceus philippinus

(Linn.) is known to feed on food grains,

caterpillars, small insects, moths, spiders,

orthopterous insects, grass and weed seeds (Ali,

S. 1945, the birds of kutch, pp. 42-43, OUP;

Roberts, T.J. 1992, the birds of Pakistan, Vol. 2.

pp. 493-496, OUP). Weaverbirds are known to

exploit fallen grains and raid standing crops.

However, in Kerala State, southern India, George

reported several baya weaver catching frogs in a

rice Feld and eating them. (JBHNS, Vol. 70,

1973).

Harshad Pomal, a nature photographer

from Bhuj, photographed (Plate 1) a baya weaver

feeding on a gecko. The female carried the gecko

to the nest to feed her young ones. He observed

this at Khari river area near Bhuj. This appears

to be a new item in the food list of the baya weaver

and hence worth reporting.

March 2, 2000 S.N. VARU

Junavas, Temple Street,

Madhapnr, Kutch,

Gujarat 370 020, India.

23. FOUR NEW BIRD RECORDS FOR SINDH, PAKISTAN

Ever since moving into our home in

Karachi in March 1994, which is in Dhoraji

adjacent to a small park, there has been a single

magpie ( Pica pica ) around the park. It has

occasionally not been sighted for up to a week,

but has always reappeared. It tends to frequent

with house crows (which sometimes mob it).

About two weeks ago, I last saw the bird looking

less pristine than usual, and tending to hide in

bushes, and I have not seen it since — I fear it

may have died. In any event, it was here for over

five years. The nearest part of the species’

normal range is in central Baluchistan. It is

unclear if it is a genuine wild bird that strayed

here, or an escape, though I am not aware of the

bird being kept caged.

On May 31, 1998, while experimenting

with a newly acquired adaptor on my Kowa

spotting telescope, I photographed a single

spotted munia ( Lonchura punctulata ) in an

acacia bush in the adjacent park in Karachi

(Kidney Hill Park). T.J. Roberts (1992, birds of

Pakistan) reports the bird as being confined to

northern Pakistan. To my knowledge, there is

no previous record in Sindh. Tom Roberts

suggests that this could have been an escape,

and that possibility cannot be excluded.

On June 28, 1998 at Gizri Creek in

Karachi (between the Defence and Korangi

areas) I saw and photographed a woodchat shrike

{Lanius senator) — a bird I am familiar with

from southern France. This bird was present for

about 4 hours in the morning, but was not seen

on subsequent visits. Roberts does not include

the species in his birds of Pakistan, but Ali and

Ripley (1996) in their pictorial guide to the

birds of the Indian subcontinent mention an

unconfirmed record from Quetta, Baluchistan.

Since the species nests in Iran, it is not an

entirely unexpected occurrence. Alas, Gizri

creek is no longer the excellent bird habitat of

old, as the creek bed has been reclaimed by

filling it with sand, presumably for future

buildings.

On October 18, 1998, on the Hub River,

which separates Sindh and Baluchistan, about

45 km northwest of Karachi and about 2.5 km

upstream from the upper tidal limit, I saw and

photographed a black-capped kingfisher

{Halcyon pileata). It flew across the river several

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Yarn, S.N.: Baya weaver Ploceus philippinus

Plate 1

Fig. 1 : Baya weaver Ploceus philippinus feeding on a gecko

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321

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

times, and was therefore seen in both Sindh

and Baluchistan. The bird was seen again one

week later (October 25) by my wife and my

driver, but was not present on subsequent visits.

Roberts does not include it in his book, but he

and others tell me that it has been seen and

reported on at least one previous occasion in

Pakistan, by a bird watcher from Finland, I

believe, who was resident in Islamabad for some

years.

Eds: The author has photographic

evidence of all the sightings.

February 23, 2000 ROGER A.L. SUTTON

Faculty of Health Sciences,

The Agha Khan University,

Stadium Road, PG. Box No 3500

Karachi 74800, Pakistan.

Present Address: 3254 W. 20'h Avenue,

Vancouver, BC, Canada.

24. ADDITIONS TO THE CHECKLIST OF THE BIRDS OF PAKISTAN,

VOL. 1 NON-PASSERIFORMES, VOL. 2 PASSERIFORMES

In these volumes published by Oxford

University Press, Karachi in 1991 and 1992

respectively, 1 attempted to set out what was

currently known about the status of birds recorded

within the political boundaries of modern

Pakistan, including a baseline checklist totaling

663 species.

Since that time nine, if not ten, additional

species have been recorded and in the majority

of instances, these records have been published

by the observers. As the author of the above

volumes, I feel that it is desirable to gather

together these scattered records and to give them

wider publicity, especially as some of them could

be new subcontinental records.

1. Eurasian Dotterel Eudromias morinellus

In the Buceros Vol. 3, No. 2 , 1998, titled

“Standardised English Names of the Birds of the

Indian Subcontinent - A Proposal”, the common

dotterel is omitted, presumably because the panel

of experts did not know of, or did not accept, the

inclusion of this species in “An Annotated

Checklist of the Birds of the Oriental Region”,

by Inskipp, Lindsey and Duckworth (1996),

though the Editors of that Buceros issue state

that they are following the taxonomic sequence

of that Checklist. Since Inskipp et al. do not give

any distributional data for inclusion of the

common dotterel, our Pakistan record is

important. In January 1991, a Swedish

ornithologist and long-time resident in Karachi,

visited the Hab Valley along the border between

Sindh and Baluchistan Provinces, in an arid

mountainous region with savannah vegetation

and a large dam-reservoir. He and his wife were

alone, but spotted a winter plumage common

dotterel, which Rolf Passburg photographed.

This photograph was subsequently enlarged and

widely exhibited in November 1991 during the

visit of the Duke of Edinburgh to Pakistan, in

his capacity as President of WWF International.

The new record attracted widespread interest at

that time. Compared with other similar

plumaged plovers, the dotterel has a distinctive

broad creamy white supercilium extending

around to the nape, as well as a thinner creamy

white band separating the “dirty” buff upper

breast and throat from the paler buff lower breast.

Passburg wrote to the Oriental Bird Club (OBC)

about this record, but without sending the

photograph, and for some reason OBC refused

to accept it. Rolf has kindly promised to send

me a copy of this photo, which 1 shall, in due

course, deposit with the Picture Library of the

BNHS.

2. Black-capped Kingfisher Halcyon pileata

A single individual frequented the

mangrove creeks just west of Karachi in January

1 995, and this new record was published by Juha

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Kylanpaa in Forktail , Vol. 13, 1998. p. 126. In

October 1998, another individual was

photographed by Dr. Roger Sutton in the Hab

Valley, close to the site where the dotterel was

seen. Dr. Sutton kindly gave me copies of several

of his photographs, and he has submitted a paper

to the Oriental Bird Club on this and other

sightings (In press).

3. Oriental Tree Pipit Anth us liodgsoni

A party of 5 ornithologists visited Pakistan

for a faunal survey under the Himalayan Jungle

Project, which focused on the best remaining

population of the western tragopan. While

dealing with officialdom in Islamabad, they

recorded all the birds in that area, which is very

rich in both flora and animal wildlife. In scattered

forest on the banks of the Rawal Lake, they

observed a party of 1 5 oriental tree pipits from

January 29 to February 4, 1996. Their record was

published in official reports to several sponsoring

agencies, including BirdLife International, WWF

Internationa! and the World Pheasant

Association. They cited my exclusion of this pipit

in Volume 2 of Birds of Pakistan.

4. Redwing Turdus iliacus

In February 1989, Juha Kylanpaa, a

Finnish Missionary, picked up the decomposed

body of a thrush in his compound in Tonk, in

Dera Ismail Khan, NWFP. He sent the wings to

a museum in Finland, where they confirmed that

it was a redwing. After much time and

correspondence, Juha sent one wing to me and I

was able to deposit this wing in the collection of

the Bombay Natural History Society.

5. Woodchat Shrike Lanius senator

Undoubtedly a new subcontinental record.

Again it was Dr. Roger Sutton who discovered

this individual, frequenting thorn scrub along the

banks of Ghizri Creek, just on the southeastern

outskirts of Karachi. I have several copies of clear

photographs which he took of this bird, which

was seen in late June 1998.

6. Common Reed Warbler

Acrocephalus scirpaceus

The Finnish diplomat, Mikko Pyhalaa

made a number of valuable contributions to the

ornithology of Islamabad region, during his

posting to that capital city. During a visit to the

Sindh Province in Larkana district, he observed

three specimens of the reed warbler at Harnal

Lake (27° 23' N; 67° 55' E) in Phragmites reeds,

where he was able to compare it with

A. stentorius and A. agricola , all three of which

were seen in the same small area. He published

this record of sighting the birds on January 12th

1996, in the first edition of the newly established

Pakistan Journal of Ornithology. As published,

he observed them at close range with binoculars

and telescope, and noted the pale supercilium

only in front of the eye in A. scirpaceus , the

noticeably smaller size and less vociferous song

of A. scirpaceus compared with A. stentorius.

Blyth’s reed warbler A. dumetorum is only

reliably separable in the hand (wing formula),

but in Pakistan this species always stays in low

bushes and trees in dry land areas and is not

found in water emergent Phragmites. A.

scirpaceus being such a difficult bird to observe,

and known to breed in Iran and to winter in

Afghanistan, its occurrence this far to the East

is not surprising. Dr. Aleem Ahmad Khan,

OBC’s representative for Pakistan, also told

Pyhalaa that he had seen this species, but

unfortunately I do not have details and Miko

Pyhalaa is now serving in South America!

7. Little Bunting Emberiza pusilla

Rafiq Ahmad Rajpoot, at the time a junior

Field Officer working for the Sindh Wildlife

Board, visited the Karchat Information and

Conservation Centre in the south western corner

of the Kirthar National Park in Sindh. During a

survey from October 24 to November 1 1, 1992,

he recorded 120 different bird species, including

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

three little buntings, which were drinking from

a small seepage zone, in this dry hilly area. I

know Rajpoot personally and he is a keen

birdwatcher, with a good knowledge of reptiles

and mammals as well. All the other species

recorded in his Karchat list had been previously

recorded there. Rajpoot did not have a camera;

his observations were not substantiated by any

other companion, and have not been submitted

for publication. All the known records of this

uncommon wintering visitor to the Subcontinent

have been in the far northern areas of the

Himalayas. His report and lists of species are

deposited in the Sindh Wildlife Board Library,

open to the public. However, the record should

be treated with caution and probably should not

be included in a definitive Checklist.

8. Indian Pied Hornbill

Anthrcicoceros malabaricus

Seen on March 13, 1999 in Mirpur, in

Poonch by Major Erkki Kallio. This was in the

area presently on the Pakistan held side of the

Cease-fire line.

9. Long-tailed Broadbill Psarisomus dalhousiae

Seen on August 21, 1999 by Major Erkki

Kallio at Kotli in Poonch, presently on the

Pakistan held side of the Cease-fire line.

Both these records i.e. the Indian pied

hornbill and long-tailed broadbill, are of interest

in that they must be the westernmost record for

these species from the Himlayas.

10. European Robin Erithacus rubecula

Seen on February 13, 2000 in Islamabad

at the foot of the Margalla Hills. A second

European robin seen by Juha Kylanpaa in Kao

forest below Dunga Gali, Hazara district on

December 28, 2000. Major Erkki Kallio, a keen

and reputed birdwatcher in his own country, was

working with UNMOGIP as a Military Observer,

and based in Islamabad at the time, and Juha

Kylanpaa is a missionary based in the NWFP,

who has already published two articles of his bird

sightings in Pakistan, in the Journal of the

Oriental Bird Club, Forktail and he was the

individual who picked up a wing of the redwing

Turdus illiacus deposited by me in the BNHS

Collection, as mentioned above. I was so

surprised at the robin sightings that Major Kallio

kindly sent me a slide that he took of the bird,

and there is no mistaking his identification. I

understand from him that it has also been

recorded in India for the first time in 1999 at

Rajouri, also in Poonch, and this information was

passed on by Erkki to the Indian Deputy High

Commissioner Sudhir Vyas in Islamabad, who

also writes in the JBNHS.

I think it is important to record unusual

distributional records where they represent

extensions of known range. Sadly, so often

there is shrinking of range of so many species,

and in the case of the European robin it is

not normally considered a long distance

migrant.

February 23, 2000 T. J. ROBERTS

Cae Gors, Rhoscefnhir,

Nr. Pentraeth,

Anglesey LL75 8YU,

United Kingdom.

25. SOME INTERESTING BIRD RECORDS FROM THE DELHI AREA

A four-year posting at Delhi from mid-

1995 to mid-1999 provided me with an

opportunity to review the bird life in the area,

and compare it with notes made during earlier

periods of stay in 1977-79 and 1984-86 (Vyas

1995). In ten years, the city of Delhi has grown

phenomenally, particularly to the east and south,

and some of the most fruitful birding localities

no longer exist. The formerly bird-rich marshes

near the Coronation Pillar and Model Town in

north Delhi have been drained and built upon.

Large areas of reed beds about 5 km south of

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Okhla along the Agra canal near Madanpur

village, which were a known locality near Delhi

for species such as ruddy-breasted crake Porzana

fusca, are now badly degraded, encroached upon

and partially covered by landfills. Sultanpur Lake

near Gurgaon, located 48 km south-west of Delhi,

was dry during the winters of 1 997-98 and 1 998-

99, depriving the area of one of its most

productive sites. Increased cultivation and

construction in the neighbourhood of Sultanpur

Lake, and the drainage of marshes and seasonal

inundations in the surrounding area, has also

reduced its attractiveness for birds. On the other

hand, the pond area of the new Okhla Barrage

(now Okhla Barrage Bird Sanctuary) has

emerged as an excellent new site, attracting a

number of water and marsh species, in spite of

the extremely high level of water pollution. The

bird habitats of Okhla Barrage have been

described by Urfi (1993). For other sites referred

to in this note GanguJi (1975) provides a general

reference.

The following are new or interesting

records for the Delhi area, and some notes on

bird population trends made during this period.

Yellow bittern Ixobrychus sinensis ,

Chestnut bittern Ixobrychus cinnamomeus

and Black bittern Dupetor flavicollis : All

appear to have increased considerably in the

Delhi area compared to the 1 980s. The expansion

of reedbed habitats in the Okhla reservoir area

consequent to the construction of the Okhla

Barrage is a likely reason. Yellow and chestnut

bitterns were found common and breeding

(juveniles seen) at Okhla between May 4 and

end August. Black bitterns also appeared at

Okhla from early May, and one was recorded as

late as October 12, 1997 in reed beds near

Madanpur.

Great bittern Botaurus stellar is: One bird

was flushed from a reedbed at Sultanpur on

December 25, 1996. There are old 19th century

hunting records from about Delhi [Anon (=

Editors) 1949], but I know of no subsequent

mention for Delhi specifically.

Glossy ibis Plegadis falc'tnellus : Formerly

recorded irregularly about Delhi (Flutson 1954,

Ganguli 1 975), but it was not noted in the 1970s

and 1980s. It seems to have reappeared, with

about 25 present at Sultanpur in the winters of

1995-96 and 1996-97. The lake was dry in winter

1997-98.

Bar-headed goose Anser indicus :

Numbers appear to have fallen considerably in

the Delhi area over the last ten years. Compared

to a minimum of 1,500-2,000 at Sultanpur in

winter 1985-86, numbers both at Sultanpur and

Okhla did not exceed 10 in the winters of 1995-

96, 96-97 and 97-98.

Common shelduck Tadorna tadorna :

Unlike earlier, this species was regularly recorded

during the observation period at Okhla in winter,

with 11 through December 1995, 12 on March

16, 1997 and 14 through February 1998.

Greater scaup Ay thy a marila : At least two

birds, one male in breeding plumage and one

female, were part of a mixed gathering of about

4,000 other duck, including common pochards

Ay thy a fer in a, tufted pochards Aythya fuligula

and red-crested pochards Rhodonessa rufina at

Okhla Barrage on February 22, 1998. This

species has been listed for Delhi by Ali and Ripley

(1968) and, Abdulali and Pandey (1978), but is

not mentioned by Ganguli (1975).

Besra sparrowhawk Accipiter virgatus :

One bird was observed a little after noon on

December 30, 1997 in a thickly wooded patch in

the Delhi Zoological Park. The bird flew into

the canopy of a large tree where it perched;

turning occasionally to ward off attacks by

mobbing house crows Corvus splendens. Thus,

I could observe the bird well for about five

minutes, at about 20 m range with 10 x 50

binoculars. It appeared about the same size or

slightly smaller than the shikra Accipiter badius

and (i) dark brownish-slaty above, darker and

much less clear grey than shikra, no pale

eyebrow; (ii) noticeably square-cut, brownish-

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grey tail with three broad dark bars running

across (including the central tail feathers), very

conspicuous; (iii) dark grey cheeks contrasting

in a clear line with a whitish throat, which

showed a clear, broad, dark, mesial stripe and a

few dark brown streaks in a restricted band on

the lower throat; (iv) entire breast and belly

barred broadly with rufous (much more coarsely

than is usual in shikra), with each rufous bar

somewhat wavy and edged with a thin dark line

above and below; thigh feathers also barred, but

the bars narrower and browner, (v) eyes pale

yellow, cere greyish, not contrastingly noticeable,

legs yellow. It did not show a reddish shield on

the breast. This bird is definitely not Accipiter

nisus or badius , and, on the basis of the characters

above, I identify it as a besra sparrowhawk,

probably a female bird. Through December 1 997,

much of northern India including Delhi had an

extended spell of cold and very foggy weather,

which may explain the presence of this bird out

of its usual range. I do not know of any earlier

record of besra sparrowhawk from the Delhi area.

Eurasian hobby Falco subhuteo. There

are very few records of this species from Delhi.

One was hunting over trees in the evening in

central New Delhi on September 21, 1997.

Other, more generalized comments on

birds of prey populations about Delhi may be

made. These are based on a subjective

comparison with my own records in the 1970s

and 1 980s (Vyas 1 995). There has been a striking

decline in the numbers of Agui la eagles wintering

about Delhi. I had no records of the eastern

Imperial A. heliaca or tawny eagles A. rapax in

the years 1995-1998. Steppe eagles A. nipalensis

are now scarce in Delhi’s immediate vicinity,

whereas up to the 1980s they were a feature of

the riverain tract along the Jamuna river. While

spotted eagles A. clanga still appeared in small

numbers about Okhla and Sultanpur, I had no

records of Pallas’ fish-eagle Haliaeetus

leucoryphus or osprey Pandion haliaetus in the

1990s. Similarly, there were no records of laggar

Falco jugger, though single red-headed falcons

Falco chicquera appeared in February and July

1998 at Okhla and Sultanpur respectively. The

number of Indian white-backed vultures Gyps

benghalensis has fallen dramatically, in keeping

with trends reported widely from elsewhere in

India (Rahmani 1998). This decline was evident

even between 1996 and 1999, and several

occupied nests within city limits in New Delhi

were abandoned. The species bred commonly in

the city earlier, but in 1999, I could count just

three occupied nests on roadside trees in a

restricted residential area in New Delhi,

compared to 18 in this area in 1996.

Demoiselle crane Grus virgo : There are

not many records from Delhi, and usually of

small numbers. Two flocks, of about 80 and 26

birds respectively, were seen at Okhla in the

morning of September 29, 1996, flying in from

the east and then turning north along the river.

The number of common crane Grus grus has

dropped sharply. While a few hundred used to

winter regularly about Sultanpur in the 1970s

and 1980s, I recorded only three during the

current period at Sultanpur on December 26,

1996.

Watercock Gallicrex cinerea: Its earlier

recorded locality in the area, the marshes near

the Coronation Pillar in north Delhi, no longer

exists. Instead, watercocks (mostly males in

breeding plumage, but also females) were

recorded quite commonly, and almost certainly

breeding, at Okhla between June 22 through

August each year from 1996 to 1998. Their

numbers have increased, with up to five

individual males seen foraging separately one

evening. Birds were noted flying around in the

evenings in June and early July, and dropping

into marsh; often seen feeding in open grassy

patches in the mornings and evenings.

White-winged black tern Chlidonias

leucopterus'. The species has occasionally been

seen in breeding plumage about Delhi in May-

June(Gangu!i 1975, Vyas 1995). On October 20,

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327

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1996, there was at least one with a scattered flock

of whiskered terns Chlidonias hybridus at Okhla

in (first) winter plumage; on August 30, 1997,

there were three with whiskered terns and gull-

billed terns Gelochelidon nilotica over flooded

fields near Madanpur village. All showed the

characteristic head pattern (black eye patch

clearly separated from black nape, no streaking

on crown), noticeably smaller bills, whitish-grey

rumps and absence of any dark patches on side

of breast. On the latter occasion, one bird had

the solid brown mantle of the juvenile white-

winged. Their flight action was slightly quicker,

with deeper wing beats, than nearby whiskered

terns which offered opportunities for direct

comparison. It may well turn out to be a regular,

but overlooked, autumn passage migrant.

Black tern Chlidonias niger : On

September 28, 1998, two Chlidonias terns at the

Okhla Barrage were noted flying together,

quartering an area of shallow water along the

bank with abundant submerged weeds, in close

proximity to but separate from large numbers of

whiskered terns which were mostly in winter

plumage or moulting from juvenile to first winter

plumage. They were observed with 10 x 50

binoculars, at times as close as 15 m range.

Attention was first attracted to them because of

their head pattern, strikingly different from the

extensively streaked crown, framed below by a

black line behind the eyes and around the nape,

of the whiskered terns. These two birds showed

(i) a solid black Uskull-cap” contiguous with a

broad black eye patch curving back and down

from each eye; (ii) grey mantle with a few dark

brown feather edges on the lower scapulars; (iii)

no marked pattern on the wings; (iv) pale grey

rump and tail, the latter with an admixture of

white towards the bases of the feathers; (v) white

underparts with very noticeable dark grey patches

on sides of breast; on one bird the side patches

were extensive (extending quite far down into

the white breast), smudgy and medium-grey, and

on the other, they were smaller, more sharply

defined and darker grey; (vi) smaller bills

compared to whiskered terns nearby; (vii) no

difference could be noted in flight action. I have

seen black terns in winter plumage (outside

India) earlier, and, after consulting available

literature, I am convinced of my identification

of these two birds as black terns, moulting out of

juvenile into first-winter plumage. The species

has been recorded once for Delhi by H.W.

Alexander (Hutson 1954, Ali and Ripley 1969).

Indian plaintive cuckoo Cacomantis

passerinus. Vocal, and seen about Okhla,

Gurgaon and Sultanpur from late-May/June

onwards through 1996-1998. Quite common, as

three calling males were recorded over a 2 km

transect along the river, south of Okhla on June

1, 1997. Although there are earlier scattered

records, this cuckoo now appears to have

established itself about Delhi as a regular

summer/monsoon breeding visitor. 1 had neither

seen nor heard this species in Delhi in the 1970s

and 1980s.

Bengal bush-lark Mirafra assamica (race

assamica ): This species is not listed for Delhi in

the earlier checklists, and may be a new arrival

in the area with the creation of suitable habitat

due to the formation of the Okhla Barrage. It

was present and probably breeding through 1 996-

98 at Okhla and Madanpur, in overgrown fallow

fields adjacent to marshy depressions and

borrow-pits. The birds were tame, and afforded

frequent opportunities for close observation when

they fed along earth-tracks. It was noted between

early March and October 12, and may possibly

be a year-round resident, though it was not seen

in winter. Persistent song and display flights in

the mornings between March 16 - August 17,

with a maximum of three displaying birds

(presumed to be males) and at least one more

present at Okhla, one bird still singing and

suspected nesting (dropping into grass repeatedly

at the same spot) on August 17, 1997. One was

seen at Madanpur on October 12, 1997.

Attention was first attracted to the bird by

328

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

its different song flight compared to little eastern

skylarks Alauda gulgula displaying in the same

area. It is very different also compared to that of

red-winged bush-larks Mirafra erythroptera,

which are not in this habitat. The bird soared

fairly high in the air, alternately fluttering a little

way up and then gliding a little way down with

wings in a V, tail partly fanned and legs hanging

loose all the time, thus executing a continuous

series of short shallow dips or scallops in the

air; this continued for several minutes before

gliding down to the ground. A high-pitched,

rather hoarse, thin, song accompanied each dip,

each phrase sounding like “i’eezz” of less than

one second duration. The birds displayed almost

continuously in the morning, at least till

1030 hrs. 1 would like to point out that this song

flight does not match that described for this

species in Ali and Ripley (1972), but is closer to

the description in Alstrom (1998).

Common raven Corvus corax. Two birds

were seen at the Buddha Jayanti Gardens, New

Delhi Ridge, on March 20, 1996. One, chased

by a house crow, soared up to circle and soar

with a group of Egyptian vultures Neophron

percnopterus , another flew across the gardens

to perch in a leafless silk-cotton tree, where it

was studied through binoculars from about

25 m, at about 0930 hrs in bright light. A house

crow mobbed it, offering direct comparison of

size. The bird appeared almost twice the size of

the house crow, the size difference evident both

in flight and at rest; broad wedge- shaped tail

noticeable even at rest; massive beak, not heavily

bowed as a jungle crow’s; forehead not steeply

rising from the bill as in a jungle crow; highly

Refer

Abdulali, H. & J.D. Pandey (1978): Checklist of the Birds

of Delhi, Agra and Bharatpur. Bombay Natural

History Society, Bombay.

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1968- 1974): Handbook of the Birds

of India and Pakistan, Vol. 1 ( 1 968); Vol. 3 ( 1 969);

Vol. 5 (1972). Oxford University Press, Bombay.

Alstrom, P. (1998): Taxonomy of the Mirafra assamica

glossy plumage; throat hackles visible, but not

protruding; stately flight, with slower wing-beats

than house crow; and its soaring silhouette were

all distinctive. The birds did not call. I have never

recorded soaring behaviour in house crows, or

the jungle crows Corvus macrorhynchos that turn

up occasionally about Delhi. There have been

only a few old records from the Delhi area, where

it was considered as rare or vagrant (Ali and

Ripley 1972, Ganguli 1975).

Bristled grass-warbler Chaetornis

striatus : I recorded at least 5 birds (including 3

singing and displaying males) in areas of

waterlogged grass and reeds, and in a reed-

covered borrow-pit at Okhla, between August 4

and mid-September 1996. The birds were seen

by several members of the Delhi Bird Club,

photographed and reported to the Oriental Bird

Club (Grewal 1996). In 1997, there were none

at Okhla - there had been massive disturbance

of the reedbeds due to malaria control operations

- but at least one displaying and calling bird was

present in reedbeds near Madanpur in August

1997. There was no evidence of its presence in

1998. I can trace only one earlier record from

Delhi, in 1962 (Donahue 1967).

May 23, 2000 SUDHIR VYAS

Deputy High Commissioner,

High Commission of India,

G~5 Diplomatic Enclave,

Islamabad (Pakistan).

C/o DB Section,

Ministry of External Affairs,

South Block, New Delhi 1 10 001,

India.

E N C E S

complex. Forktail 13: 97-107.

Anon (= Editors) ( 1 949): The Birds of Delhi and District.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 48: 811-812.

Donahue, J.P. (1967): Notes on a collection of Indian Birds,

mostly from Delhi. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 64:

410-429.

Ganguli, U. (1975): A Guide to the Birds of the Delhi

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

329

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Area. Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New

Delhi.

Grewal, B. (1996): Bristled Grassbird Chaetornis striatus

at Okhla, Delhi. Oriental Bird Club Bulletin 24\

43-44.

Hutson, H.P.W. (1954): The Birds about Delhi. The Delhi

Birdwatching Society, Delhi.

Rahmani, A.R. (1998): A possible decline of vultures in

India. Oriental Bird Club Bulletin 28: 40-41 .

Urfi, A.J. (1993): The Birdlife of Okhla. Sanctuary

Magazine 13/15 1993: 50-53.

Vyas, S. (1995): Checklist of the Birds of the Delhi

Region: An Update. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93:

219-237.

26. THE GHARIAL GAVIALIS GANGETICUS IN INDRAVATI RIVER?

Occurrence of the gharial ( Gavialis

gangeticus) in River Mahanadi, Orissa was often

thought to be an exception. However, data

presented in Singh and Bustard (1982a, 19Q2b)

and Singh (1992) suggested occurrence of

gharial in all major rivers of Orissa and in the

Godavari in Andhra Pradesh. There was no

information, then, from the River Indravati,

Madhya Pradesh State.

When one of us (MKR) was in the

Indravati area during 1981, a person informed

of the occurrence of a long snouted crocodilian

in the river some 16-20 years earlier, estimated

to be around the late 1960s. The description

obviously referred to the gharial, and differed

from the description of the short snouted mugger

( Crocodylus palustris). In 2000, when other

people in the same area were interviewed by

MKR, they had no idea of the occurrence of the

gharial in Indravati river. The people questioned

were young and probably had had no exposure

to the previous generation’s experiences. The

presence of gharial in the River Indravati

appeared to have vanished from the memory of

the locals.

Nonetheless, the single piece of

information about the ghariaPs occurrence in

Indravati in the late 1 960s bridges the gap in the

distribution of the gharial, strengthening the view

that Gavialis gangeticus had a continuous

distribution from River Mahanadi to Godavari

along eastern India.

Any further information on the gharial ’s

occurrence in Orissa, Madhya Pradesh and

Andhra Pradesh will be gratefully acknowledged.

January 1 8, 2002 M. K. RANJITSINH

Krishnasar, 5, Tiger Lane,

Off W6 Lane, Sainik Farms,

New Delhi 100 062, India.

L.A.K. SINGH

Similipal Tiger Reserve, Baripada,

Orissa 757 002, India.

References

Singh, L.A.K. & H.R. Bustard (1982a): Geographical the gharial Gavialis gangeticus { Gmel in) from the

distribution of the gharial Gavialis gangeticus Brahmani and Baitarani rivers in Orissa. J. Bombay

(Gmelin) in Orissa, India. British Journal of nat. Hist. Soc. 79(2): 424-426.

Herpetology 6, (1982): (7): 259-260. Singh, L.A.K. (1992): Distribution of Gavialis gangeticus.

Singh, L.A.K. <fe H.R. Bustard (1982b): The extinction of Hamadryad 16(1,2): 39-46.

27. COMMUNAL EGG LAYING BY CNEMASPIS INDICA

IN MUKURUTHI NATIONAL PARK, WESTERN GHATS, INDIA

(With one text-figure)

Indian geckoes are largely nocturnal, and Phelsuma. The biology of species referred to

except species belonging to the genera Cnemaspis Cnemaspis is poorly known. In the present paper,

330

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

we report some aspects of the breeding biology,

especially egg laying by Cnemaspis indica in

Mukuruthi National Park (11° 10'-11°22'N, 76°

26'-76° 38' E), Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve,

Western Ghats. C. indica is common in the high

altitude montane grasslands, especially 2,000-

2,500 m above msl. Currently, the true montane

grasslands and shola are restricted to the

Mukuruthi National Park, Tamil Nadu and

adjacent areas in Kerala in the Nilgiris.

We sampled about 0.5 ha of grassland every

month from October 2000 to April 2001, using

randomly placed 25 sq. in quadrats. Fifteen nest

sites with eggs were located during this period.

The nests were found in crevices, under boulders

that were usually placed on a rocky substratum.

The number of eggs found in a site varied from

2 to 70 (x - 15.2, SD = ±21.6, n = 15). Mean

length and width of 58 eggs found in a site was

5.5 mm and 4.4 mm, respectively.

The gecko nests were observed from

October to April, and the greatest number of nests

and eggs were found during December-February

(Fig. 1). This shows that C. indica has an

extended breeding season, October-April, with

a peak during mid-winter. All nests found during

January had many hatched eggs. This indicates

that eggs did not hatch synchronously, and were

laid on different days. More than one female

would have used the same site for depositing

eggs. In each nest, eggs were stuck to the rock

in groups of three or two, or singly. A nest

observed in February 2001 had 58 eggs, which

were arranged in groups of three (7 clutches),

two (13 clutches) and single eggs (11 clutches)

totaling 31 clutches. Clutch size of the day

geckoes in general is reported as 2-3 (Smith

1935).

Apart from several females laying eggs at

the same site, it is possible that each one may

c

3

cr

0

— *

a

0

CD

W

Fig. 1 : Egg laying of Cnemaspis indica in Mukuruthi National Park, Western Ghats

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

331

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

have laid eggs more than once. However, the

inter-nesting period is not known. The laying of

eggs collectively by several females in the same

site could be due to the scarcity of suitable sites.

It appears that these sites have some specific

microclimate such as temperature. Preliminary

observations show that these sites have higher

temperature than the general atmosphere.

Warmer nest conditions may help faster

embryonic development and hatching.

Communal nesting (Smith 1935) in a suitable

site is not uncommon in geckoes. Thirty eggs of

Hemidactylus frenatus have been found in a

wooden box embedded in the wall (Bhupathy,

unpublished data). Many females of the endemic

and endangered golden gecko, Calodactylodes

aureus also deposit eggs collectively, and the

number of eggs may exceed 40 at each site

(Daniel, J.C. pers. comm.). Smith (1935)

reported the largest number of 1 86 eggs in a nest

of Gekko japonicus , perhaps an instance of

communal egg laying.

Acknowledgements

This paper is part of a study funded by the

Biosphere Programme (F.No. 10/1 4/97-CS) of

the Ministry of Environment and Forests,

Government of India. We thank R.K. Rai,

Additional Director, Biosphere Programme, for

timely release of funds, and colleagues at SACON

for encouragement. We are grateful to R.P.S.

Kotwal, Chief Wildlife Warden, Tamil Nadu and

S. Paulraj, Wildlife Warden, Nilgiris for

permission to work in the protected area and for

logistic support.

March 13, 2002 S. BHUPATHY

A.M.A. NIXON

Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology

and Natural History,

P.O. Anaikatti,

Coimbatore 641 108,

Tamil Nadu,

India.

Reference

Smith, M.A. (1935): The Fauna of British India. Reptilia and Amphibia. Vol II. Sauria. Taylor and Francis, London. 440

pp.

28. RANGE EXTENSION OF RANA MALABARICA (BIBR.) IN MADHYA PRADESH

One night in August 1999, while driving

back to my camp (Wild Chalet, Mocha village), in

the buffer zone of Kanha National Park in Madhya

Pradesh, I stopped to watch a frog crossing the

road. It looked like an interesting species, but I

was unable to get down immediately as it was

raining. Since I had seen similar frogs earlier in

South West India, it did not take me long to identify

it as the fungoid frog Rana malabarica (Bibr.). I

never knew that this frog existed as far north as

Mandla district in Madhya Pradesh, and after my

first sighting, I kept a lookout for it to photograph

and confirm my identification. I did not see that

species during that season, but 1 instructed my local

assistants to keep a lookout.

In May 2000, after a couple of pre-

monsoon showers, a friend informed me that he

had seen a number of colourful frogs in a newly

dug well in the village of Mocha. I asked him to

procure a specimen immediately, which he did.

The live frog in a bottle confirmed the existence

of Rana malabarica around Kanha. I kept the

frog for about 24 hours and released it after

photographing it. I went around the village trying

to gather more information about this species,

and saw some individuals in two or three wells

(in May and June) sitting on the sides above the

water. I never saw them actually living in water

and I support the earlier observations on habits

(Daniel 1975).

332

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

The occurrence of Raria malabarica

observed in and around Kanha is an extension

of its range. It was reported earlier from

Jagdalpur in Bastar district (Daniel and Selukar

1964) now in Chattisgarh, about 350 km

southeast of Kanha. The present report from

Kanha in the Satpuras (Maikal Range) definitely

strengthens the view that the species has a much

wider distribution in the Peninsula. However,

around Kanha, it is definitely not a common

species, as it appears only during two or three

months of the year, unlike in southwest India

and also perhaps in Bastar, where it is stated to

be not uncommon (Daniel and Selukar 1964).

Essentially a forest dweller, Rana malabarica

seems to prefer moist-deciduous biotopes to dry

deciduous tracts and perhaps this explains why

it is absent (?) between the Kasara Ghat

(Maharashtra) and Eastern Satpura trend of hills

with sal forests. Having been reported from

Bastar already, the species may very well occur

in the Eastern Ghats.

January 18, 2002 E.P. ERIC D’CUNHA

PO. Kisli 481 768,

District Mandla,

Madhya Pradesh,

India.

References

Daniel, J.C. & T.G. Selukar (1964): Occurrence of the Daniel, J.C. (1975): Field guide to the amphibians of

fungoid frog Rana malabarica (Bibr.) at Jagdalpur, western India. Part 3. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72(2):

Bastar district, M.P. JBNHS 60: 743-744. 516-51 8.

29. A NOTE ON MESONOEMA CHE1L US HERREI NALBANT AND BANARESCU

(CYPRINIFORMES: BALITORIDAE: NOEMACHEILINAE)

( With one plate )

Mesonoemacheilus herrei described by

Nalbant and Banarescu (in Asket Singh et al.

1981) was based on collections made from

Puthutotam Estate, Valparai in Anamalai Hills

by Herre in 1941, and identified as belonging to

the species guentheri. Nalbant and Banarescu

distinguished herrei from guentheri (described

by Day from Nilgiri Hills), based on several

characters, including differences in colour

pattern and structure of scales (white spots on

body being more roundish and regularly disposed

in guentheri vs. white coloration ‘V’ or ‘Y’-

shaped in herrei; scales with reduced and

eccentric focal zone in the former vs. a central

and much larger focal zone in the latter).

Menon (1987), in his revisionary study of

the Noemacheilids, treated herrei as a synonym

of guentheri. However, Jayaram (1999),

following Banarescu and Nalbant (1995),

retained it as a separate species. No specimens

of herrei were reported subsequent to its original

description. Silas (1951), in his paper on the

fishes of Anamalai and Nelliampathi Hill ranges,

reported collection of Noemacheilus triangularis

from the streams draining the Ponnani drainage

system in the Nelliamathi Hills. N. herrei ,

especially the juveniles, superficially resemble

both guentheri and triangularis , and the

specimens named triangularis by Silas (op. cit.)

could possibly be herrei , described subsequently

by Nalbant and Banarescu. More recently, six

survey teams of the Zoological Survey of India

(1996-1998) collected three species of

Noemacheilus from the Anamalais, namely

denisoni , herrei and monilis.

A total of 27 specimens of herrei , ranging

in length from 20.5-52 mm SL were collected

from two localities and Kolikamuthi at altitudes

890 m and 870 m respectively. M. herrei (Plate 1 ,

Fig.l) is reported here, and an attempt is made

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

333

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

to distinguish the species from guentheri (Plate 1,

Fig. 2). A key to all the Mesonoemacheilid

species, including two species described

subsequent to the publication of Jayaram (1999)

is also given.

Material studied: 3 exs., 30-34 mm SL,

Reg. No. F.4941, Varagalayar, 890 m, 4.ii.l996,

Coll. M.B. Raghunathan; 3 exs., 34-48 mm SL,

F. 5772, Kolikamuthi, 870 m, 21.ii.1998, Coll.

M.S. Ravichandran.

Morphometric characters measured by

standard methods are presented in Table 1,

mostly in relation to standard length and head

length with the mean followed by the range in

parentheses. The meristic characters are as

follows. D. 3/7-8; P. 1/9-11; V. 1/7; A. 3/5; C. 1/

16/1. Additional morphometric differences

observed in larger specimens are detailed below.

Fins and eye being larger in juveniles, it is

difficult to segregate them based on these

characters alone Table 1.

Key to the Mesonoemacheilus species

1. Dorsal with 10 branched rays .. M. pulchellus

— Dorsal with variable number of branched rays

(8-10) 2

2. Dorsal with 7-8 branched rays; body depth less

than 5.5 in SL 3

— Dorsal with 8- 1 0, mostly 9, branched rays; body

very elongate, depth more than 5.5 times in SL

M pambarensis

3. Two or three rows of large yellow spots edged

with black on the sides 4

— Body with reticulate, oblique or vertical bands

5

4. Spots rounded; caudal peduncle long, anal not

reaching caudal base; a band on caudal base

M. guentheri

— Spots V- or Y-shaped; caudal peduncle short;

anal tin reaching caudal base; spot on caudal

base present M. herrei

5. Body with reticulate pattern of dark wavy

bands and blotches on lighter ground

M. menoni

— Body with light oblique and vertical bands on

darker or lighter ground 6

6. Body with 6-7 oblique light bands having black

edges 7

— Body with irregular vertical dark bands 8

7. Distance from vent to anal fin about 4 times in

the distance from pelvic to anal fin

M. triangularis triangularis

Distance from vent to anal fin about 6 times

in the distance between pelvic and anal fin

M. triangularis tambraparanei

8. Lateral line complete, 8 to 10 brown bands

Table 1

MORPHOLOGICAL COMPARISON OF MESONOEMACHEILUS GUENTHERI AND M. HERREI

guentheri (Plate 1, Figs 2 & 4) herrei (Plate 1, Figs 1 & 3)

a. Suborbital flap not pronounced,

shorter than broad (Fig. 4).

b. Nostrils situated more than

half eye-diameter distance before eyes.

c. Lateral line prominent and complete.

d. Distance from pelvic to anal

origin greater, pelvic fin reaching

‘/2 the distance to anal origin.

e. Caudal peduncle longer than broad.

f. Anal not reaching caudal base.

g. Cauda! base with a dark band

Suborbital flap well-developed,

longer than broad (Fig. 3).

Nostrils closer to eyes, distance between nostril

and eye less than half eye diameter.

Lateral line almost incomplete and distinct

only up to anal origin, after which

it is discontinuous or absent.

Distance from pelvic to anal shorter, pelvic

reaching % the distance to anal origin.

Caudal peduncle as long as broad.

Anal reaching caudal base.

Caudal base with a well marked roundish blotch.

334

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Rema Devi, K. & T.J. Indra: Mesonoemacheilus sp.

Plate 1

Figs 1-4: 1. Lateral view of Mesonoemacheilus herrei, 48 mm SL,

2. Lateral view of Mesonoemacheilus guentheri , 59 mm SL,

3. Enlarged view of head of herrei showing long suborbital flap,

4. Enlarged view of head of guentheri showing short suborbital flap

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

335

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 1

MORPHOMETRIC DETAILS OF HERRE1 FROM

INDIRA GANDHI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

Banarescu, P. & T. Nalbant (1995): A general

classification of Nemacheilinae with description of

two new genera (Teleostei: Cyprini formes: Cobitidae).

Trav. Mus. nat. Hist. “Grigore Antipa ”35: 429-496.

Jayaram, K.C. ( 1 999): The freshwater fishes of the Indian

Region. Narendra Publ. House, Delhi: 1-551, pi.

1-18.

across back, broken up into secondary bands

below lateral line; males with suborbital spine

M sijuensis

— Lateral line incomplete; males without

suborbital spine 9

9. Lateral line ending below dorsal fin or slightly

in front of it, with a number of irregular V- or

Y-shaped cross bands M. reticulofasciatus

— Lateral line ending above end of anal fin base

(7 or 8 saddle-shaped black bands on back; sides

marked by varying number of bands broken up

into narrow bands anteriorly

M. petrubanarescui

Acknowledgements

We thank the Director, Zoological Survey

of India and the Officer-in-Charge of Southern

Regional Station, Dr. RT. Cherian for facilities

and especially the latter for going through the

manuscript. We also thank Dr. A.G.K. Menon,

Emeritus Scientist, Zoological Survey of India,

Chennai for guidance.

January 22, 2002 K. REM A DEVI

T.J. INDRA

ZSI. Southern Regional Station ,

100, Santhome High Road,

Chennai 600 028,

Tamil Nadu, India.

N C E S

Menon, A.G.K. (1987): The Fauna of India and the

adjacent countries, Pisces, Vol. iv. Teleostei-

Cobitoidea, Part 1-Homaloptera. Calcutta x+259 pp.

Singh, Asket, Nibedita Sen. Petru Banarescu & Teodor

T. Nalbant (1981): New Noemacheiline loaches from

India (Pisces, Cobitidae). Trav. Mus. nat. Hist.

“ Grigore Antipa ” XXIII: 202-2 1 2.

30. FISH FAUNA OF SOME STREAMS AND RIVERS

IN THE WESTERN GHATS OF MAHARASHTRA

The documentation of fish fauna is

essential, as major changes have occurred in the

streams and rivers of the Western Ghats, in the

Indian peninsula. Major rivers, such as the

Godavari, Krishna and the Bheema, originate

in the Maharashtra part of the Western Ghats.

This documentation is part of a detailed

programme on fish diversity in Western Ghats

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337

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 1

FISH SPECIES AND THEIR CONSERVATION STATUS AT DIFFERENT SITES

IN SOME STREAMS AND RIVERS IN MAHARASHTRA

338

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 1 (contd.)

FISH SPECIES AND THEIR CONSERVATION STATUS AT DIFFERENT SITES

IN SOME STREAMS AND RIVERS IN MAHARASHTRA

Sites*

Species**

2 3 4 56789 10

III Order: Silurifonnes

v. Family: Bagridae

p. Genus: Mystas

29. Mystus bleekeri (N U) x

30. Mystus malabaricus (EN)

3 1 . Mystus vittatus ( V U )

vi. Family: Siluridae

q. Genus: Silurus

32. Silurus wynaadensis (CR) x

r. Genus: Wallago

33. Wallago attu (LRnt) - x

IV Order: Cyprinodonti formes

vii. Family: Cichlidae

s. Genus: Aplocheilus

34. Aplocheilus lineatus (NA)

V Order: Perciformes

viii. Family: Ambassidae

t. Genus: Chanda

35. Chanda nama (NA)

ix. Family: Gobiidae

u. Genus: Glossogobius

36. Glossogobius giuris (LRnt)

v. Genus: Stigmatogobius

37 .Stigmatogobius oligactis (NA)

VI Order: Channiformes

x. Family: Channidae

w. Genus: Channa

38. Channa marulius (LRnt) x x

VII Order: Mastacembeli formes

xi. Family: Mastacembelidae

x. Genus: Mastacembelus

39. Mastacembelus armatus (N A)

x - x

X

XXX

X

X X

x present; - absent

*1. Mondai 2. Khal river 3. Pej river 4. Vasishti river 5. Dhom reservoir 6. Phansad 7. Savitri 8.Gundalika9. Vethaganga

10. Khandala Falls.

** LRnt - Lower Risk near threatened; LRlc- Lower Risk least concern; En- Endangered; VU - Vulnerable;

CR - Critically Endangered; N A - Not Assessed (Sanjay Molur and Sally Walker, 1 998)

the streams/rivers in Maharashtra, under the

Western Ghats Biodiversity Project.

Earlier workers on the fish fauna of

Maharashtra State include Fraser (1942), Hora

and Misra (1942) and Suter (1944). In the

Maharashtra State Gazette, there is a brief

account of fishes in and around Pune (Kulkarni

and Ranade 1974) including 167 species with

their local (Marathi) and English names. Tilak

and Tiwari (1976) studied the fishes from the

Indrayani River. The fish fauna of Ujni wetland

of Pune was studied by Yazdani and Singh

(1990). Ghate et al. (1992) contributed on the

fishes from Mula and Mutha rivers. Ghate and

Pawar (1992) also documented the fish fauna

from Neerar River, Pune.

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1. Mondai stream: The Mondai stream

starts from Mandhardevi hill ranges

and joins Neerar river. Fishes were collected

a kilometre from Shirrai in Satara district.

2. Khal river: Originates from Bhirra, in

Raigad district, Maharashtra.

3. Pej river: Pej river flows in Khed on the

northern side of Pune district. Sampling was

done at Khed.

4. Vasishti river: Originates near Koynanagar

on the western side of Chiplun area, and

flows west in Ratnagiri district. Sampling

was carried out near Chiplun.

5. Dhom river: Dhom reservoir is a man-made

impoundment on the Dhom river.

6. Phansad river: Streams flow in the Phansad

Wildlife Sanctuary in Murud taluka, Raigad

district.

7. Savitri river: Originates from Mahabaleshwar

and flows westwards. Sampling was done 15

km from Mahabaleshwar in Raigad district.

8. Gundalika river: Flows westward and into

the sea at Roha. Sampling was done at Kolad.

9. Vethaganga river: A tributary of River

Krishna, flows through Kolhapur district,

Maharashtra.

10. Khandala Falls: Situated in Khopoli, it is a

small drainage. Sampling was done near

Kunega.

Fishes were collected using various mesh

sizes of monofilament gill nets, drag nets and

scoop nets in November and December 1996. The

colour, markings and interesting characters were

noted and specimens were preserved in 10%

formalin. Day (1878), Jayaram (1991, 1999);

Menon (1992, 1999); Talwar and Jhingran

(1991) were referred to for identification.

Thirty-nine species belonging to 7 orders,

1 1 families and 24 genera from 10 localities were

collected (Table 1). Most of these are widely

distributed in Maharashtra and also in other parts

of the Western Ghats. Danio aequipinnatus ,

Garra mullya, Rasbora daniconius ,

Glossogobius giuris, Nemacheilus denisoni are

the commonest forms in Maharashtra State.

Puntius sahyadriensis , Chela laubuca,

Osteobrama cotio peninsularis , Wallago attu,

Silurus wynaadensis and Salmostoma novacula

were rare forms.

Salmostoma sardinella ; Silurus

wynaadensis , Puntius bimaculatus , Puntius

conchonius , Hypselobarbus dubius were new

records for Maharashtra and Stigmatogobius

oligactis from Dhom reservoir was a new record

for India (Arunachalam et al. 1999a, b;

Arunachalam et al. 2000). The species was

previously recorded from rivers of Java (Weber

and Beaufort 1953).

Juveniles of Tor khudree were recorded in

Dhom reservoir and large numbers were also

recorded from Khandala falls. An interesting

character in the juveniles of Tor khudree is the

small black spot on the caudal peduncle region.

Industrialization and urbanization are the

major threats to the fish communities and

habitats in Maharashtra.

Acknowledgements

M.A. thanks Prof. Madhav Gadgil, Centre

for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of

Science (IISc), Bangalore for financial assistance

under Western Ghat Biodiversity Network.

(WGBN). We thank Dr. P.T. Cherian, Officer-in-

charge, Dr. K. Rema Devi and Dr. T.J. Indra,

Scientists, ZSI, Southern Regional Station,

Chennai.

December 1 1, 2001 M. ARUNACHALAM

A. SANKARANARAYANAN

A. MANIMEKALAN

R. SORANAM

J.A. JOHNSON

Sri Paramakalyani Centre

for Environmental Sciences,

Manonmaniam Sundaranar University,

Alwarkurichi 627 412,

Tamil Nadu, India .

340

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

References

Arunachalam, M., A. Sankaranarayanan, A.

Manimekalan, R. Soranam & J.A. Johnson

(1999a): New record of Salmostoma sardinella

(Pisces: Cyprinidae) from Mondai stream,

Maharashtra. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 96(1):

162-163.

Arunachalam, M., A. Sankaranarayanan, A.

Manimekalan, R. Soranam & J.A. Johnson

(1999b): New record of Stigma togob ins o/igactis

to India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 96(1): 167-168.

Arunachalam, M., A. Sankaranarayanan, J.A. Johnson,

A. Manimekalan & R. Soranam (2000): New

records of fishes from streams/rivers in Western

Ghats of Maharashtra. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

97(2): 292-295.

Day, F., (1978): The Fishes of India. Jagmander Book

Agency, New Delhi, Vol. I., (4“' ed., 1994). Pp.

778.

Fraser, A.G.L. ( 1 942): Fishes of Poona. Part I. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 43: 79-91.

Ghate, H. V. & V.M. Pawar ( 1 992): Fish fauna of the river

Neera near Veer Dam, Pune: A preliminary note.

Proc. Is1 Nat. Symposium on Central Hydraulics:

118-121.

Ghate, H.V., G.K. Wagh & S.L. Lokhande (1992): Fish

fauna of the river Mula and Mutha, Pune. Proc. Is'

Nat. Symposium on Central Hydraulics: 105-1 17.

Hora, S.L. & K.S. Misra (1942): Fishes of Poona.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 43 (2): 220-223.

Kulkarni, C.V. & M.R.Ranade (1974): Fauna volume,

Gazetteer Maharashtra State. Chapter I.

Jayaram, K.C. (1991): Revision of the genus Puntius

Hamilton from the Indian region. Rec. zool. Surv.

India. Occ. Paper No. 135: 178.

Jayaram, K.C ( 1 999): The freshwater fishes of the Indian

region. Narendra Publishing House, Delhi. 551 pp.

Menon, A.G.K. ( 1 992): Conservation of freshwater fishes

of Peninsular India. Unpublished report (Grant

No. 1 4/24/87-MAB/RE dt. 12.8.1988) Ministry

of Environment & Forests, Govt, of India.

136 pp.

Menon, A.G.K. ( 1 999): Checklist — Freshwater fishes of

India. Rec. zool. Surv. India , Occ. Paper No: 175:

i-xxix, 1-366 pp.

Molur, Sanjay & Sally Walker (Eds.) (1998): Report of

the workshop on "‘Conservation Assessment and

Management Plan (CAMP) for freshwater fishes of

India" Zoo Outreach Organization, Coimbatore,

India. 156 pp.

Suter, M. (1944): New records of fish from Poona.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 44: 408-414.

Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland fishes of

India and adjacent countries. Oxford & IBH

Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Vols. I & II,

1 1 58 pp.

Tilak, R. & D.N. Tiwari ( 1 976): On the fish fauna of Poona

district (Maharashtra). News/. Zool. Surv. India 2:

193-199.

Weber, M. & L.F. De Beaufort (1953): The fishes of the

Indo-Australian Archipelago. Leiden, E.J. Brill Ltd.,

A.J. Prints Agency, New Delhi.

Yazdani, G.M. & D.F. Singh (1990): On the resources of

Ujni wetland, Pune, Maharashtra. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 87: 157-160.

31. CHECKLIST OF ANTS FROM NORTHWEST INDIA-II

In India, no comprehensive work is

available on the Family Formicidae (Insecta:

Hymenoptera) since Bingham (1903), which

mostly covers taxa from southern India, Burma

(=Myanmaar) and Sri Lanka. Since then, several

taxonomic changes have been made. The present

studies were carried out under a DST project on

ants from northwest India and 8 subfamilies with

43 genera and 100 species have been recorded.

Out of these, 13 new species have been reported.

Two subfamilies, namely Dolichoderinae and

Formicinae have been discussed.

Subfamily: Dolichoderinae

1. Bothriomyrmex clalyi Forel 1895

Collected from plains (250 to 300 m).

Additional locality: Bengal.

2. Bothriomyrmex wroughtonii Forel 1895

Plains, in soil nests (250 to 330 m).

3. Iridomyrmex glaber (Mayr 1862)

Earlier reported from Western India, now

collected from Chintpurni (700 m), Himachal

Pradesh; Rohtak (220 m), Haryana.

4. Tapinoma indicum Forel 1 895

Nest in soil, mainly in plains; reported only

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 99(2), AUG. 2002

341

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

from northwest India.

5. Tapinoma melanocephalum (Fabricius 1793)

Nest in soil, also in leaf litter; plains and

foothills; widely distributed all over India.

Subfamily: Formicinae

1. Acropyga acutiventris Roger 1862

Collected from Jahalman village near

Keylong (3,100 m), Himachal Pradesh; restricted

to northwestern region.

2. Camponotus angusticollis (Jerdon 1857)

Widespread in northwest India.

Additional localities: Central India, Assam.

3. Camponotus arrogans (Smith 1858)

Collected from Malakpur near Pathankot

(400 m), and Mukerian (300 m), Punjab.

Additional locality: Bengal.

4. Camponotus buddhae Forel 1892

Collected from Lahoul (3,000 m),

Himachal Pradesh; reported earlier from the

same locality.

5. Camponotus compressus (Fabricius 1787)

Widely distributed.

6. Camponotus dichrous Forel 1886

Restricted to northwest Himalayas;

collected from same belt.

7. Camponotus dolendus (Forel 1892)

Collected from Lahoul (3,000 m),

Himachal Pradesh; reported earlier from

northwest Himalayas.

8. Camponotus invidus Forel 1892

Collected from Dehra Dun (660 m),

Uttaranchal; Lahoul (3,000 m), Himachal Pradesh.

Additional locality: Orissa.

9. Camponotus lamarckii Forel 1892

Collected from Terrace (400m), Himachal

Pradesh.

Additional locality: Sikkim.

10. Camponotus oblongus (Smith 1858)

Collected from Gobinddham (3,000 m),

Uttaranchal; Dunera (700 m), Himachal Pradesh;

reported to be widely distributed.

11. Camponotus misturus (Smith 1857)

Found to be widely distributed in

northwestern India and represents first report

from India.

12. Camponotus sericeus (Fabricius 1798)

Widely distributed in India.

13. Camponotus taylori Forel 1894

Widely distributed in India.

14. Camponotus wasmani Emery 1893

Collected from Dunera (700 m), Himachal

Pradesh; Chohal (400 m), Punjab.

Additional locality: Sikkim, Assam.

All the species of Camponotus were found

in diverse habitats, most of them among the roots

of various trees like Dalbergia , Mangifera ,

Acacia , Cassia , and Zizyphus and collected in

plains, foothills and high altitude regions.

Workers generally have large mandibles and are

mostly polymorphic.

15. Cataglyphis setipes (Forel 1894)

Collected from soil nests in extremely

hostile environments with high temperature,

nests in direct sunlight, in areas ranging from

plains to small hills.

Additional locality: Central India.

16. Formica gagates Latreille 1798

17. Formica sanguinea Latreille 1798

Both species collected from Lahoul

(3,000 m), Himachal Pradesh and earlier reported

from the same region.

18. Lasius alienus (Foerster 1850)

19. Lasius himalayanus Bingham 1903

Both species collected mainly from trees

at Kulu ( 1 ,2 1 9 m), Manali (2,050 m), and Lahoul

(3,000 m), Himachal Pradesh; no additional

locality apart from northwest India.

20. Lepisiota frauenfeldi Mayr 1855

21. Lepisiota opaca (Forel 1892)

Both species of Lepisiota widely distributed

in India.

22. Oecophylla smaragdina Fabricius 1775

Widely distributed in India.

23. Paratrechina birmana (Forel 1902)

Collected from soil nest in plains, widely

distributed in India.

24. Paratrechina longicornis (Latreille 1802)

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JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Collected from soil nest, also from dead

wood and even carcasses, from plains to foothills,

and is widely distributed.

25. Plagiolepis sp. Mayr 1861

Only collected from Keylong (3,300 m),

Himachal Pradesh; earlier reported from

northwestern, southern and eastern India.

26. Polyrhachis jerdoni Forel 1892

Collected from Dunera (700 m), Himachal

Pradesh; Pathankot (620 m), Punjab.

Additional locality: Assam; represents first

record from India.

27. Polyrhachis rupicapra Roger 1862

Collected from Malakpur near Pathankot

(400 m), Punjab and also represents first record

from India.

28. Prenolepis naorojii Forel 1902

Collected from Dunera (700 m), Himachal

Pradesh.

Additional locality: Assam.

Acknowledgement

We thank the Department of Science and

Technology, Ministry of Human Resources, New

Delhi (Grant No. HR/S Y/Z-0 1/97), for financial

assistance.

June 22, 2000 HIMENDER BHARTI

Department of Zoology,

Punjabi University, Patiala 147 002,

Punjab, India.

Reference

Bingham, C.T. (1903): Hymenoptera Vol. 11 Ants, Cuckoo- Wasps. In: The Fauna of British India including Ceylon and

Burma (Ed: Blanford, W.T.). Taylor and Francis, London xix + 106 pp.

32. ON THE DIPTERA OF NAYACHAR ISLAND, WEST BENGAL

( With one text- figure)

The study of island fauna, whether oceanic

or riverine, is always interesting. Nothing was

known of the Diptera fauna of the Nayachar

Island until the project “Faunal succession in

relation to vegetation of the newly emerged

Nayachar Island” on the River Hooghly, near

Haldia was started in 1992. The present

investigation is part of a long-term study on the

succession and the diversity of Dipteran fauna

on a newly emerged island. The main objective

here is to give a comprehensive account of the

Diptera of the island.

Brief description of sites: Nayachar Island

is situated on the River Hooghly, near the

mouth of River Haldi, Midnapore district, West

Bengal (Fig. 1). Nayachar is a spindle-shaped,

silt deposited island with an area of about

29.36 sq. km, formed due to continuous riverine

action at the mouths of the Hooghly and Haldi.

The distance between this island and the nearest

landmass Haldia of Midnapore is only 3 km. The

topography of the island is flat and the average

height from water level is about 0.90-3 m (Hazra

et al 1996). The vegetation comprises mainly

natural grasslands and mangrove plants.

Systematic Account

Suborder: Brachycera

Family: Stratiomyidae

Subfamily: Stratiomyinae

1. Microchrysa flaviventris (Wiedemann)

1824. Sargus flaviventris Wiedemann,

Analecta Ent: 31.

Material examined: 1 d1, Nayachar,

28.x. 1998, coll. B. Mitra.

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Diagnosis: Vertex black, shining, ocelli

red, in male upper facets of eye brown, much

longer than lower black ones; antenna pale

yellow; thorax shining metallic green with

scattered pale-yellow pubescence; scutellum

concolourous with thorax; legs pale brown, hind

femur with broad median brown band, hind tibia

with paler apical band; abdomen brownish-

yellow with pale yellow microscopic pubescence.

Distribution: West Bengal, widespread.

Family: Tabanidae

Subfamily: Tabaninae

2. Tab anus {Tab anus) striatus Fabricius

1 787. Tabanus striatus Fabricius, Mantissa

Insect a, 2: 356.

Material examined: 2 9, Rest house site,

28. ix. 1 996, coll. A.K. Hazra; 2 9 , Kulpi side khal,

29.x. 1998, coll. A.K. Hazra & A.K. Sanyal; l 9,

Hut side, 25. ii. 1999, coll. A.K. Hazra & A.K.

Sanyal.

Diagnosis: Antennae rusty yellow; callus

square; thorax with 4 broad whitish stripes and

with a line in the middle; wing hyaline; femora

rusty brown, tibiae paler, tarsi blackish; abdomen

with 5 stripes.

Distribution: West Bengal, India.

Family: Asilidae

Subfamily: Asilinae

3. Philo tlicus femoral is Ricardo

1921. Philodicus femoralis Ricardo, Ann.

Mag. nat. Hist. (9)8: 190.

Material examined: 1 9, Rest house site,

26.xi.1999, coll. A.K. Hazra and A.K. Sanyal.

Diagnosis: Mystax pale yellow with a few

black bristles on lower side; thorax dark brown

with mediolongitudinal dark brown stripe

extending the entire length; legs dark brown,

femora comparatively light coloured, mid and

hind femora bear more than one row of bristles;

wing medially hyaline and rest brownish;

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JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 99(2), AUG. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

abdomen dark brown with hind border of tergites

grey.

Distribution: West Bengal (South),

Arunachal Pradesh, Bihar, Goa, Kerala,

Meghalaya and Orissa.

Suborder: Cyclorrhapha

Family: Lonchopteridae

4. Lonchoptera guptai Joseph and Parui

1981. Lonchoptera guptai Joseph and

Parui, Bull. Zool. Surv. India, 4(3): 255-256.

Material examined: 1 d\ Rest house site,

19.viii.1992, coll. A.K. Hazra and party.

Diagnosis: Head and thorax black to dark

brown, the latter with anterior border and

posterolateral sides lighter; legs pale yellow, hind

femur apically brown; wing light yellow; haltere

light yellowish; abdomen dark brown to black,

ventral ly lighter.

Distribution: West Bengal and Uttar

Pradesh.

Family: Syrphidae

Subfamily: Syrphinae

5. Jscltiodon scutellaris ( Fabric i us)

1805. Scaeva scutellaris Fabricius, Syst.

Antliat: 252.

Material examined: 1 d\ Rest house site,

28.xi.1999, coll. A.K. Hazra and A.K. Sanyal.

Diagnosis: Eyes bare; metasternum bare;

antennal segment 3, subacute apically; wing with

vein R4+5; upcurved apically and ending

appreciably before wing apex; upper margin of

sternopleuron with distinct yellow spot; a few

short hairs anteriorly below upper patch of

sternopleural hairs; surstylus elongate, directed

posteriorly, broadened beyond base, not lobed.

Distribution: West Bengal (South),

common in India.

Subfamily: Milesinae

6. ErisUtlinus ( Eristalinus ) arvorum (Fabricius)

1787. Syrphus arvorum Fabricius,

Mantissa Insect a, 2: 335

Material examined: I 9, Nayachar,

16.xii.1992, coll. A.K. Hazra.

Diagnosis: Antenna bright orange, tip of

third antennal segment darker; scutum with 4

black stripes; scutellar disc bears dense yellow

pubescence except at centre which has black

pubescence; legs brownish-yellow or orange

except a portion of all tibiae which is blackish;

abdomen black, first tergite pale yellow; second

with two oblong yellow spots, third with a pair

of oval spots, fourth with a curved yellow spot.

Distribution: Southern West Bengal,

Arunachal Pradesh, Delhi, Jammu and Kashmir,

Meghalaya, Orissa, Sikkim and Tripura.

Family: Sepsidae

Subfamily: Sepsinae

7. Australosepsis frontalis (Walker)

1860. Sepsis frontalis Walker, J. Proc.

Linn. Soc. Lond, Zool., 4: 163.

Material examined: 4 d\ Kulpi side khal,

29.x. 1998, coll. A.K. Hazra and A.K. Sanyal.

Diagnosis: Wing without a diffused dark

spot at end of vein R2+r

Distribution: West Bengal, Andhra

Pradesh, Bihar, Kerala, Maharashtra and Punjab.

8. Dicranosepis bicolor (Wiedemann)

1830. Sepsis bicolor Wiedemann,

Aussereurop. zweifl. Insekt., 2: 468.

Material examined: 2 d\ Rest house site;

MIC, ll.xii.!997, coll. A.K. Hazra and A.K.

Sanyal; 5 cf, 2 9, Rest house site, 12.xii.1997,

coll. A.K. Hazra and party.

Diagnosis: Wing unspotted; in male fore

femur without posteroventral setae sub-basal ly,

hind metatarsus without a row of long anterior

setae, middle metatarsus with no strong bristles.

Distribution: West Bengal; widespread in

India.

9. Sepsis indica Wiedemann

1 824. Sepsis indica Wiedemann, Analecta

Ent : 57.

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Material examined: 1 d\ 1 9, Rest house

site, 1 1 .xii. 1 997, coll. A.K. Hazra and A.K

Sanyal.

Diagnosis: Head reddish-yellow to black;

thorax reddish-yellow with a broad blackish

dorsal stripe which sometimes occupies the whole

of thorax, sides of thorax with a broad greyish

white shimmering band across the stenopleur,

dorsocentral 4; scutellum and metanotum

reddish-yellow; legs reddish-yellow, hind tibiae

dark brown; all tarsi black towards tip; wing

clear; abdomen reddish-yellow with irregular

black mark.

Distribution: West Bengal, Assam,

Kerala, Maharashtra, Mizoram, and Manipur.

Family: Ephydridae

Subfamily: Parydrinae

10. Ochthera brevitibialis de Meijere

1908. Ochthera brevitibialis de Meijere,

Tijdschr. Ent., 5 1 : 167.

Material examined: 3 <?, Hut side,

12.xii.1997, coll. A.K. Hazra and A. K. Sanyal.

Diagnosis: Face golden yellow pruinose,

frons shining green; thorax bluish-black with a

pair of brown longitudinal stripes, chaetotaxy not

distinguishable, scutellum unicolorous with

thorax, with 4 bristles; fore femur black, length

twice its greatest thickness.

Distribution: West Bengal, Assam and

Tamil Nadu.

Family: Muscidae

Subfamily: Muscinae

1 1 . Musca (Muse a) domestica Linnaeus

1758. Musca domestica Linnaeus, Syst.

Nat. Ed. 10, 1: 596.

Material examined: 1 d\ Hut side,

12. xii. 1997, coll. A.K. Hazra and A.K. Sanyal.

Diagnosis: Four black vittae on thorax,

inner pair terminating at posterior end;

propleural depression with fine setulose hairs;

suprasquamal ridge without black setulae, all post

dc strong; mid tibia without av and ad setae.

Distribution: West Bengal, cosmopolitan.

12. OrtheUia indica (Robineau-Desvoidy)

1830. Lucilia indica Robineau-Desvoidy,

Mem. Pres. Div. Sav. Acad. Sci. Inst., Fr. 2: 453.

Material examined: 6 d\ 5 9, Hut side,

19.viii.1992, coll. A.K. Hazra and party; 7 9,

Hut side, 12. xii. 1997, coll. A.K. Hazra and A.K.

Sanyal.

Diagnosis: Bronze-green to bluish-green

in colour; presutural acrostichal absent, postalar

3, anterior mesopleural present, sternoplural 1+3;

discal cell with a stripe at base, vein M1+2 with a

distinct deep bend behind; legs without metallic

reflections, mid tibia with an ad seta beyond

apical fourth.

Distribution: West Bengal, Andaman

Islands, Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh,

Assam, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra,

Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, and Uttar Pradesh.

Family: Calliphoridae

Subfamily: Chrysomyinae

13. Chrysomya megacephala (Fabricius)

1 794. Musca megacephala Fabricius, Syst.

Ent. 4: 317.

Material examined: 5 d\ 2 9 , Rest house

site, 1 9.viii. 1 992, coll. A.K. Hazra and party.

Diagnosis: Eyes in male with markedly

enlarged facets on upper two-thirds, lower one-

third with small facets; parafacialia and genae

yellowish-orange, both covered with yellowish-

white hairs; antennal segment 3 entirely orange;

thorax and abdomen greenish-blue with purple

lustre; wing hyaline, dark at base, subcostal sclerite

covered with brown pubescence and a few short

erect hairs, upper squama white, dark margined.

Distribution: West Bengal, also common

in other parts of India.

Subfamily: Rhyniinae

14. Stomorhina discolor (Fabricius)

1794. Musca discolor Fabricius, Ent. Syst.,

4: 320

346

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Material examined: 1 9, Rest house site,

26. ii. 1999, coll. A.K. Hazra and A.K. Sanyal.

Diagnosis: Antenna and palpus brown; cell

R5 narrowly open; abdomen yellowish with black

bands posteriorly on terga 1 and 2, and with a

median longitudinal black stripe.

Distribution: Southern West Bengal,

Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Bihar, Kerala,

Manipur and Uttar Pradesh.

Family: Tachinidae

Subfamily: Tachininae

15. Thelaira macropus (Wiedemann)

1830. Dexia macropus Wiedemann,

Aussereur. Zweiflugel. Ins., 2: 375.

Material examined: 1 d', Rest house site,

28.vii.1998, coll. B. Mitra.

Diagnosis: Medium size (body 11.5-15.0

mm, wing 9.0-16.5 mm). Black subdorsum and

sides of abdomen from near base to middle T.

4

yellow. Face wider than frons; epistome not

raised; vibrissae bifurcated at epistomal margin;

facial ridge with a few hairs close to vibrissae;

arista plumose; orbitals not differentiated;

scutellum with a pair of discal and three pairs of

marginal setae, of which the apicals are raised,

cruciate and slightly shorter than subapicals; 3+3

Ac , 3+3 dc and 1+3 ia setae; R more than half

way to apex and R4+5 upto r-m setulose. Abdomen

with T|+2 excavate nearly to its hind margin;

segments T1+2 and T3 each with a pair of median

marginal setae, segments T, and T4 each with a

pair of median discal setae.

Distribution: West Bengal, Assam,

Himachal Pradesh and Kashmir.

Acknowledgements

We thank Dr. J.R.B. Alfred, Director,

Zoological Survey of India for placing the

material at our disposal for study. We are grateful

to Dr. S.K. Mitra, Joint Director, for facilities

and to Dr. M. Datta, Scientist ‘SE’ and Officer-

in-charge, Diptera section for valuable advice;

to Dr. A.K. Hazra and Dr. A.K. Sanyal Scientist

‘SE’ for the opportunity to work with them under

the project in Nayachar Island.

January 8, 2001 B. MITRA

P. PARU1

D. BANERJEE

Zoological Survey of India

‘M’ Block, 535, New Alipore,

Kolkata 700 053, West Bengal, India.

33. NEW LARVAL FOOD PLANT OF THE BLUE TIGER BUTTERFLY

TIRUMALA LIMN I ACE (CRAMER), LEPIDOPTERA: DANAIDAE

While studying butterflies near the

Botanical Garden of the Government College

campus, Madappally, Vatakara, Kerala from

October to November 1999, 1 came across a plant

on which I observed a large number of small eggs

and larvae of a butterfly. Rearing the larvae to

maturity, I identified the butterfly as Tirumala

limniace (Cramer). The plant was later identified

as Cosmostigma racemosa (Asclepiadaceae).

According to Wynter-Blyth (1957), the food

plants of T. limniace are Dregea volubilis,

Calotropis gigantea , Marsdenia tenacissima ,

Hoy a car nos a, Tylophora indica and Asclepias

curassavica (all Asclepiadaceae). Thus,

Cosmostigma racemosa is a new larval food

plant for Tirumala limniace.

Acknowledgements

I thank Dr. A.K. Pradeep, Dept, of Botany,

University of Calicut for identifying the host plant.

July 26, 2000 VINAYAN P. NAIR

3/1 V College Quarters,

RO. Madappally College,

Vatakara, Kerala 673 102, India.

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347

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Reference

Wynter-Blyth, M.A. (1957): Butterflies of the Indian Region. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

34. NEW LARVAL FOOD PLANT OF THE GRASS DEMON

UDASPES FOLUS CRAMER AND THE RESTRICTED DEMON

NOTOCRYPTA CURVIFASCIA FELDER & FELDER, LEPIDOPTERA: HESPERIIDAE

While studying the butterfly fauna near the

Botanical Garden of the Government College

Campus, Madappally, Vatakara, Kerala, in

October-November 1999 and August-October

2000, 1 recorded a new larval food plant for the

larvae of the Grass Demon Udaspes folus Cram,

and Restricted Demon Notocrypta curvifascia

Felder & Felder, Lepidoptera.

Udaspes folus and Notocrypta curvifascia

larvae were found to feed on the leaves of Alpinia

calcarata Rose. (Zingiberaceae). The recorded

food plants of Grass Demon are Curcuma

domes tic a, C. aromatica, C. amada , C. caesia,

C. zedoaria, C. decipiens , C. angustifolia,

Zingiber officinale , Hedychium coronarium ,

Elettaria cardamomum , Aframomum melegueta

(all Zingiberaceae), Maranta arundinacea

(Marantaceae) and Tigridia pavonia (Iridaceae)

Seitz (in Sevastopulo, 1973) noted Fagraea

racemosa (Loganiaceae) and Kershaw (in

Abraham et al, 1 975) noted Alpinia nutans Rose.,

(in Hong Kong) as the food plant of the Grass

Demon. According to Mackinnon (in Wynter-

Blyth 1957), it also feeds on grasses.

Restricted Demon larva has been recorded

to feed on Kaempferia rotunda , Zingiber

purpureum (=Z. cassumunar) and Curcuma

decipiens (all Zingiberaceae). Wynter-Blyth

( 1 957) does not mention Alpinia calcarata Rose.,

occurrence and successful rearing of Grass

Demon Udaspes folus Cram., and Restricted

Demon Notocrypta curvifascia Felder & Felder

on Alpinia calcarata confirms it as a new larval

food plant for both the species.

Acknowledgements

I thank Dr. A.K. Pradeep, Department of

Botany, University of Calicut for identifying the

host plant, and Chandrika Mohan. Scientist,

CPCRI (RS), Kayamkulam for literature.

September 25, 200 1 VIN AYAN. P. N AIR

3/1 V College Quarters,

P.O. Madappally College,

Vatakara, Kozhikode District,

Kerala 673 102,

India.

References

Abraham, V.A., G.B. Pillai & C.P.R. Nair(1975): Biology Rhopalocera. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70(1): 156-

of Udaspes folus Cram, leaf roller of turmeric and 1 83 .

ginger. J. Plantn Crops 3: 83-85. Wynter-Blyth, M.A. (1957): Butterflies of the Indian

Sevastopulo, D.G. (1973): The food-plants of Indian Region. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

35. BIODIVERSITY OF MANTIDS, INSECTA: MANTODEA,

IN PUNE (WESTERN GHATS) WITH NOTES

ON OTHER REGIONS OF MAHARASHTRA

Accelerating rates of biodiversity loss and Agenda 21, have called for the world’s

signing of international agreements, such as the biodiversity to be inventoried and monitored.

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and Such inventories provide the basic information

348

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

for monitoring, which measures changes in

the ecosystems (Heywood 1995). The Western

Ghats is among the 25 most important hotspots

of the world that urgently need efforts for

the conservation of biodiversity (Myers et al.

2000).

During the faunal inventory of diverse

taxonomic groups in and around Pune 1 8° 32' N

73° 52' E in the Western Ghats, we became

interested in mantids and other insects and

started looking for various species. We soon

realized that there were no institutions nearby

where identified collections of mantids were

available. We also found that the distribution of

Indian mantids was poorly known, as we had

collected some species that were not reported

from Maharashtra earlier. In fact, many regions

of our country, including the Western Ghats,

Eastern Ghats and even the highly diverse

northeast of India, need fresh explorations. There

are hardly any recent references on the mantids

of India.

Mantids are predatory insects classified

under Order Mantodea. Feeding on grasshoppers,

crickets, moths and butterflies, these efficient

predators probably control populations of some

insects. India has a moderately diverse fauna of

mantids with 162 species under 68 genera and

6 families, as indicated in the recent volume on

Indian Mantodea (Mukherjee et al. 1995,

henceforth referred to as the Fauna). About 2,200

species are known worldwide and the Indian

share is about 7.36%.

According to the Fauna (Mukherjee et al.

1995), 14 genera and 17 species occur in

Maharashtra, while two earlier papers (Nadkemy

1965, Mukherjee and Hazra 1983) indicate that

there are 25 species under 19 genera. But the

Fauna mentions 6 additional species, taking the

total tally of mantid species in Maharashtra to

3 1 (but see below) and the genera to 2 1 . There is

also a list of 1 0 mantid species in the Maharashtra

State Gazetteer: Series Fauna (Nadkarni 1974),

but since the latest lists are available, this list is

not considered here. Another recent paper

(Chaturvedi and Hegde 2000) claimed 9 out of

1 1 species from the Sanjay Gandhi National Park

(SGNP, Mumbai) to be new records for

Maharashtra. However, these authors have

apparently not considered Nadkemy (1965) in

which species like Gongylus gongylodes and

Creobroter gemmatus have already been reported

from Maharashtra. Considering all the above

literature, the list of species of Maharashtra needs

to be updated and here we are attempting to do

so. Needless to say, more surveys will change

the final tally.

For the past 3 years, we have been looking

for mantids in and around Pune and have

collected, dry preserved as per the standard

procedure, and identified the various mantids up

to species level using the Fauna. All the species

were handpicked in the vegetation or when

attracted towards fluorescent light. The list of

species that we have collected so far (August

200 1 ) is given below. Most species collected from

Pune district are first records from this area, as

we are not aware of any published list of mantids

of Pune. Details of number of specimens studied,

their morphometry, etc. will be presented

elsewhere. We have studied a minimum of 3

specimens per species, unless otherwise stated.

At least one specimen of each species is preserved

dry at the Zoology Department, Modem College,

Pune.

The list of mantids in our collection:

(* denotes new record for Maharashtra.

The collection localities, based on our own work,

in and around Pune, are given below each name;

locality name in bold denotes a place outside

Pune)

Insecta : Mantodea

Amorphoscelidae Stal

1 . Amorphoscelis annulicornis Stal

(Dapodi, Kothrud, Modern College Road,

Tadoba)

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Hymenopodidae Chopard

2. Ephestiasula intermedia Werner*

(Pune University,Tamhini, Talegaon, Satara,

Tadoba)

3. Ephestiasula pictipes (Wood-Mason)

(Ambegaon, one specimen)

4. Euantissa pulchra (Fabricius)

(Pashan, Talegaon, Modem College, Kondhwa,

A’nagar road)

5. Hestiasula brunneriana Saussure

(Pune University, Kothrud, Dapodi, Talegaon)

6. Creobroter apicalis Saussure

(Pune University, Aundh road, Tamhini)

Mantidae Burmeister

7. Didymocorypha lanceolata (Fabricius)*

(Chatushringi, Katraj, Talegaon, Kondhwa)

8. Dysaules himalayanus Wood-Mason

(Talegaon, Taljai hills)

9. Humbertiella ceylonica Saussure

(Paud, Modern College, Talegaon, Shelewadi,

Kelshi)

(Aundh, Pune University, Mulshi)

10. Heterochaetula fissispinis Wood-Mason *

(Pashan, Talegaon)

1 1 . Heterochaetula tricolor (Wood-Mason)

(Two specimens, Talegaon)

12. Schizocephala bicornis (Linnaeus)

(Aundh Road, Deccan College Road, Taljai hills,

Chatushringi, Kondhwa)

13. Hapalopeza nilgirica Wood- Mason *

(Kothrud, Talegaon)

14. Eomantis guttatipennis (Stal)*

(Pune University, Aundh road, Tamhini,

Talegaon)

15. Deiphobe incisa Wemer

(Talegaon, one specimen)

16. Deiphobe infuscata (Saussure)

(Tamhini, Taljai hills)

17. Deiphobella laticeps (Wood-Mason)*

(Taljai hills, Chatushringi)

18. Hierodula ( Hierodula ) tenuidentata

Saussure

(Pashan, Modern College, Pune)

19. Hierodula (Hierodula) ?ventralis Giglio-Tos

(one specimen from Pune)

20. Hierodula (Rhombodera) woodmasoni

Werner *

(Shirwal, one specimen)

2 1 . Mantis inornata Wemer *

(Dapodi, Talegaon)

22. Mantis religiosa Linnaeus*

(Dapodi, Pashan, Talegaon)

23. Statilia maculata (Thunberg)*

(NCL road, Pashan, Talegaon, Alibag)

24. Phyllothelys westwoodi Wood-Mason

(Coll. Tadoba, Dist. Chandrapur, one specimen)

25. Aethalochroa ashmoliana (Westwood)

(Modern College, Erandwana, Dapodi,

Talegaon)

26. Aethalochroa insignis Wood-Mason*

(Coll. Tadoba, Dist. Chandrapur, one specimen)

27. Toxoderopsis taurus Wood-Mason

(Coll. Nannaj, Dist. Sholapur, one specimen)

Empusidae Burmeister

28. Empusa guttula (Thunberg)*

(Chatushringi, Talegaon)

29. Gongylus gongylodes (Linnaeus)

(Panshet Dam Road, Sinhagad, Mulshi)

Thus, there are 29 identified mantids in

our collection. In addition, there are specimens

of 4 unidentified species; one of them is close to

Hierodula (H.) bipapilla while the other is

identified only as Ephestiasula sp. There is also

a nymph of Tenodera sp.; imago is not yet

located. There are also a couple of specimens of

Gonypetyllis semuncialis Wood-Mason from

Tadoba, again not known earlier from

Maharashtra (sent for additional confirmation).

Out of these 29 mantids, 12 are being reported

for the first time from Maharashtra. Hierodula

sp. and Humbertiella sp. are difficult to separate

as they are poorly differentiated. An extensive

and intensive survey must be carried out all over

the Western Ghats to settle similar taxonomic

questions.

350

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Considering the four publications on

taxonomy of Indian Mantodea (Nadkerny 1965,

Mukherjee and Hazra 1983, Mukherjee et al.

1995, Chaturvedi and Hegde 2000) there are 15

additional species (listed below) known from

Maharashtra, which we have not yet collected.

Thus, there are at least 48 (33 in collection + 15

from the published records) species of mantids

in Maharashtra, although there were probably

no surveys specifically for mantids.

A list of mantids known from Maharashtra,

but not collected by us so far is as below: (locality

names, as mentioned in the papers cited, are

given below each name)

Hymenopodidae Chopard

1. Ambivia popa Stal: Andheri, Mumbai:

Nadkerny 1965; Ambenali, Satara: Mukherjee

and Hazra 1983.

2. Creobroter gemmatus (Stoll): Santacruz,

Mumbai: Nadkerny 1965; Goregaon, Mumbai:

Chaturvedi and Hegde 1999.

Mantidae Burmeister

3. Humbertiella affinis Giglio-Tos: Goregaon,

Mumbai: Chaturvedi and Hegde 1999.

4. Humbertiella indica Saussure: SGNP,

Mumbai: Chaturvedi and Hegde 1999.

5. Humbertiella nigrospinosa Sjostedt: SGNP,

Mumbai: Chaturvedi and Hegde 1999.

6. Elmantis nira Mukherjee and Hazra 1983:

Nira, Satara: Mukherjee and Hazra 1983.

7. Elmantis trincomaliae (Saussure): Deolali,

Nasik: Nadkerny 1965.

S.Amantis sp.: Andheri, Mumbai: Nadkerny 1 965.

9. Deiphobe mesomelas (Olivier): Locality not

mentioned: Mukherjee et al. 1995.

10. Hierodula ( Hierodula ) unimaculata

(Olivier): Salsette, Mumbai: Nadkerny 1965.

11. Hierodula ( Rhombodera ) butleri Wood-

Mason: SGNP, Mumbai: Chaturvedi and Hegde

1999.

12. Mantis nobilis Brunner: Ambenali, Pune:

Mukherjee and Hazra 1983.

13. Euthyphleps curtipes (Westwood): Mumbai:

Mukherjee et al. 1995.

14. Paradanuria sp.: Andheri, Mumbai:

Nadkerny 1965.

Empusidae Burmeister

15. Empusa pauperata (Fabricius): Nasik:

Nadkerny 1965.

It is clear from the two lists presented

above that, with about 48 species, Maharashtra

has a share of 29.62% of all Indian mantids and

about 2% of the world’s share: both these figures

are significant. Some rare species like

Aetha/ochroa simplicipes , Euthyphleps curtipes

and Toxoderopsis spinigera are known only from

a few localities in Maharashtra (perhaps these

are endemics or species of restricted

distribution). Presence of Hestiasula

bnumeriana in Mumbai and Pune (Chaturvedi

and Hegde 2000, Ghate et al. 2001), which was

earlier known only from eastern India, also

indicates that the distribution records of mantids

must be updated. Even Acromantis montana ,

which we recently reported from Karnataka

(Western Ghats) (Rane et al. 2000), was known

earlier from the eastern states only. We therefore

feel that more surveys will throw more light on

these enigmatic creatures.

We have now started collecting and

rearing mantids from oothecae. It is interest-

ing to note that the oothecae are very complex

and the structure is perhaps unique to the

species or at least to the genus, as suggested

by earlier workers (Breland and Dobson 1947).

We have observed the much discussed mating

and cannibalistic behaviour of the female

mantids, as in the case of Didymocorypha. We

also have colour photographs of many of

the live specimens of the mantids reported

herein.

It is of interest to note that another species

of Toxoderopsis , namely T. spinigera has not

been reported in the past almost 1 10 years from

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351

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

any locality in India. The only record is that of

the holotype as mentioned in the Fauna.

Acknowledgments

We thank Prof. Madhav Gadgil, Indian

Institute of Science, Bangalore, for financial

assistance under the DBT Project to carry out

biodiversity research in Modern College and

Mr. Ashok Captain for enlightening us on the

mantids he has seen and photographed. We also

thank Dr. T.K. Mukherjee (Department of

Zoology, Hooghly Mohsin College, Chinsurah,

Hooghly, W. Bengal) and Dr. A.K. Hazra (ZSI,

Kolkata) for encouragement and help in

identification. A number of students and friends

brought in mantids from different parts of Pune

and Maharashtra and we wish to thank them all,

particularly Sanjay Thakur, Rahul Marathe,

Nilesh Rane, Krushnamegh Kunte, Rajpreet

Kaur and Abhay Soman. The specimen of

Toxoderopsis taurns (reported herein) was

collected by the staff of the Bustard Sanctuary at

Nannaj (Sholapur) and was brought to us through

the courtesy of Mr. N.H.N. Shaikh (Deputy

Conservator of Forests, Wildlife, Pune), Mr. P.N.

Kukdolkar (Technical Assistant, Wildlife, Pune);

we owe special thanks to them. We are indebted

to the authorities of Modern College, for facilities

and encouragement.

February 1 1 , 2002 H. V. GH ATE

S.P. RANADE

Department of Zoology,

Modern College, Shivajinagar,

Pune 411 005, Maharashtra, India.

References

Breland, O.P. & J.W. Dobson (1947): Specificity of Mantid

oothecae (Orthoptera: Mantidae). Ann. Entomol. Soc.

Amer. 60(4): 557-575.

C'haturvedi, N. & V. Hedge (2000): Mantid fauna of Sanjay

Gandhi National Park, Mumbai, with some new

records for Maharashtra State. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 97: 295-297.

Ghate, H.V., S. Ranade, R. Kaur & R. Marathe (2001):

On Hestiasula brunneriana Saussure (Insecta:

Mantodea) from Pune, Maharashtra. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 98(3): 473-476.

Heywood, V.H. (Chief Ed) (1995): Global Biodiversity

Assessment, Cambridge University Press, U.K.,

pp. 457.

Myers, N., R.A. Mittermeier, C.G. Mittermeier, G.A.B.

Da Fonseca & J. Kent (2000): Biodiversity hotspots

for conservation priorities. Nature 403: 853-858.

Mukherjee, T.K. & A.K. Hazra (1983): On a small

collection of Mantidae (Dictyoptera) from

Maharashtra India with the description of a new

species. Rec. cool. Surv. India. 80: 59-465.

Mukherjee, T.K., A.K. Hazra & A.K. Ghosh (1995): The

mantid fauna of India (Insecta: Mantodea ). Oriental

Ins. 29: 185-358.

Nadkerny, N.T. (1965): A note on the Mantids and

Tettigonids in the collection of Bombay Natural

History Society. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 62(1):

76-83.

Nadkarni, N.T. (1974): Insects. In: Maharashtra State

Gazetteers: General Series: Fauna (Ed: Kunte, B.G.).

Government of Maharashtra, Bombay, pp.127.

Rane, N., S. Ranade, H.V. Ghate & T.K. Mukherjee

(2000): On the description of female of Acromantis

montana from Kumta, Karnataka, Western Ghats

(Mantodea: Hymenopodidae). Entomon 25(1):

61-62.

36. OCCURRENCE OF SPIDERS TRIAERIS MANII AND TRIAERIS POONAENSIS,

FAMILY OONOPIDAE, IN A BANANA AGROECOSYSTEM IN VADODARA, GUJARAT

( With one plate)

During a recent survey in banana fields in came across two rare species of Family

and around Vadodara City, Gujarat, to study the Oonopidae. Review of literature showed that

spider diversity of the banana agroecosystem, we these two spiders, Triaeris manii and

352

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Siliwal, Manju and Dolly Kumar: Triaeris sp.

Plate 1

Fig. 1: Triaeris manii Tikader & Malhotra (16x)

Fig. 2: Triaeris poonaensis Tikader & Malhotra (12x)

353

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 99(2), AUG. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

T. poonaensis were reported only once from the

Indian subcontinent by Tikader and Malhotra

(1974) from Poona, Maharashtra. This family is

little known in India (Tikader and Malhotra

1974), hence it is a significant observation. These

spiders mimic the beetles of Family Tenebrionidae.

Their cephalothorax, legs and abdomen are

reddish-brown. In the present study, these spiders

were found inhabiting moist places like decaying

leaves of the banana plant, while Tikader and

Malhotra (op. cit.) found them under stones and

dead bark of trees. Clearly, they prefer moist,

dark, damp places, especially in decaying organic

matter like dead leaves or the bark of a tree.

Triaeris manii Tikader & Malhotra

(Plate 1, Fig. 1)

Cephalothorax, legs and abdomen reddish-

brown. Abdomen nearly elliptical, clothed with

fine hairs, scutum on dorsal side complete, on

the ventral side incomplete, resembling the elytra

of coleopterans. It measures about 2.4 mm in total

length, Carapace 1 .0 mm in length and 0.7 mm

in width, whereas abdomen 1.4 mm in length

and 1.2 mm in width. Males, females and

juveniles were sighted in the field. They seem to

be uncommon in the banana fields. Higher

numbers were sighted in January.

Triaeris poonaensis Tikader & Malhotra

(Plate 2, Fig. 2)

Like T. manii , these spiders are red,

abdomen nearly elliptical, clothed with fine hairs.

Dorsal side (except a little posterior part) with

conspicuous scutum. Tikader and Malhotra

(1974) reported males with complete scutum,

unlike females. Ventral side also with scutum

extending to base of spinnerets. Scarce in banana

fields, only females and juveniles were sighted.

Total length c. 2.8 mm, Carapace 1.0 mm in

length and 0.8 mm in width, abdomen T9 mm

in length and 1 .2 mm in width. Higher numbers

were sighted in January, as in T. manii .

The occurrence of uncommon spider

species in a banana field indicates that the banana

agroecosystem provides suitable conditions for

breeding of spiders. Detailed studies of spider

biology and ecology could be conducted in this

agroecosystem.

Acknowledgement

We thank Dr. ELK. Biswas, Zoological

Survey of India, Kolkata, for confirmation of

species and for literature.

March 7, 2001 MANJU SIL1WAL

DOLLY KUMAR

Division of Entomology,

Department of Zoology,

Faculty of Science,

MS. University of Baroda,

Vadodara 390 002,

Gujarat, India.

Reference

Tikader, B.K. & M.S. Malhotra (1974): Studies on some rare spiders of the family Oonopidae from Maharashtra,

India. Oriental Ins. 8(4): 495-501.

37. VARIATIONS IN THE WEB OF TWO RELATED SPECIES

OF SPIDERS GASTERACANTHA UNGU1FERA SIMON

AND GASTERACANTHA HASSELTJI C.L. KOCH

(With two text-figures)

Silk plays an important role in the life of to release silk (Hansell 1984), which is used not

spiders. At all life stages, spiders have the ability only to spin prey capture webs but also to make

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355

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

draglines, nests, retreats, cocoon, and for

ballooning and encapsulating the prey, among

other uses (Kaston 1978, Hansell 1984, Dean and

Sterling 1985).

Spiders weave prey capture webs, which

vary considerably in shape, size and design,

depending on the species and on their age. These

variations, however, are common among spiders

of the same family.

Members of the Family Araneidae are well

known for decorating their orb webs with

stabilimentum or with small fuzzy silk balls.

Though these modifications in the prey capture

webs are known to the genus level, variation at

the species level is not sufficiently documented.

A field survey was conducted in 1 999-2000

for spider diversity and biology at Jessore Sloth

Bear Wildlife Sanctuary (JSBWS), Banaskantha

district, Gujarat which encompasses an area of

180.6 sq. km and is part of the Aravalli range

that extends into north Gujarat. The forest type,

according to Champion and Seth (1968), is Dry

Deciduous.

During the study, two species of

G aster acantha , G. unguifera Simon and

G. hasseltii C.L. Koch were observed in large

numbers. These two species of spiders have small

but distinct differences in their morphology and

are being reported for the first time from Gujarat

state. Nevertheless, what attracted our attention

was the remarkable difference they exhibited in

the architecture of their webs.

Members of the genus Gasteracantha are

known to prepare a unique web consisting of a

typical orb-web with some small silk balls along

the viscid spirals. Later, these silk balls are

entangled with debris to form a rounded mass of

waste products, the size of a spider (Tikader

1987).

The web of G. unguifera (Fig. 1) showed a

typical Gasteracanthan design. It had an orb-web

in the centre, where the female spider usually

rests. Several irregular strands (similar to

cobweb) were also found attached to the spiral

and radial threads of the main orb-web. These

irregular silken threads were seen on all sides of

the orb-web over a large area, and their distal

ends were attached to a suitable substratum,

normally plant twigs or the trunk of a tree. The

orb-web and the irregular silken strands were

decorated with very conspicuous milky-white

beads of silk. The web was noticeable from a

distance due to the beads. The diameter of the

web was about 35-40 cm, but the area covered

by the web was about 1 -2 m due to the presence

of irregular threads. Webs were always found

about 0.9-1 m above the ground. These spiders

were sighted throughout the year in the JSBWS,

but were relatively less abundant. Males were

found in their small separate orb-web (10-14 cm

in diameter) that was attached to the large female

orb-web with special mating threads. By pulling

these threads, the males announce their presence

to the female.

The orb-web of G. hasseltii (Fig. 2) was

found attached to the leaves and twigs of shrubs

Fig. 1 : Web of Gasteracantha unguifera with

conspicuous silken beads and irregular strands

radiating from the main orb-web

356

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 2: Web of Gasteracantha hasseltii with

indistinct fuzzy silk beads

with a few silken strands. The orb-web had very

faint silken beads or fuzzy silk on the radial as

well as on the spiral threads, which were noticed

only after close and careful observation.

Moreover, these beads or fuzzy silk were not

observed in the webs of subadults. The web was

made among the low line vegetation, very close

to ground level (3-4 cm above the ground) and

its diameter was about 40-56 cm. The size of the

web varied considerably, depending on the

availability of space. These spiders were sighted

from April to November in the JSBWS. Juveniles

were seen more frequently in April-May, while

adults were found till November.

Tikader (1987) opined that Gasteracantha

uses the silken beads in their web mainly as a

scaring or camouflaging device against predators.

G. hasseltii make their webs in the lower strata

of the forest ecosystem where they are well

camouflaged with the ground vegetation against

predators. Hence, G. hasseltii needs no false

silken bead in their web for protection.

G. unguifera make the web above the ground

cover, which make them noticeable to predators.

Therefore, they make a number of conspicuous

silken beads in the web to misguide their

predator. Hence, it can be concluded that

Gasteracantha species, which occupy various

vertical strata in a forest, alter their web patterns

probably to suit their surroundings and thus

escape predation.

Acknowledgement

We thank SRISTI, Ahmedabad for

financial support under the GEF/UNDP project

on dry land biodiversity.

May 30, 2001 MANJU SILIWAL

B. SURESH

BONNY PILO

Division of Biodiversity,

Dept of Zoology,

M.S. University of Baroda,

Baroda 390 002, Gujarat,

India.

References

Champion, H.G. & S.K. Seth (1968): A revised survey of Hansell, M.H. (1984): Animal Architecture and Building

the forest types of India. Government of India Press, Behaviour. Longman Inc, New York.

New Delhi. Kaston, B.J. (1978): How to know the spiders. 3rd ed.

Dean, D.A. & L. Sterling (1985): Size and phenology of W.C. Brown Co., Dubuque, Lowa.

ballooning spiders at two locations in eastern Texas. Tikader, B.K. (1987): Handbook of Indian Spiders.

J. Arachnol. 13: 111-120. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

38. FIRST RECORD OF JULIA JAPONICA, A B1VALVED GASTROPOD

FROM THE INDIAN OCEAN

( With three text-figures )

Bivalved gastropods were first recorded recorded Berthe/inia (Thamanovalva) Umax from

from Indian seas by Pravakar Rao (1965). He the Mandapam camp, Gulf of Mannar, among

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 99(2). AUG. 2002

357

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Refer

Ganapati, RN. & A.L.N. Sarma (1968): Occurrence of

bivalve gastropods (Mollusca) in Visakhapatnam

shore. Curr. Sci. 37: 689-690.

Ganapati, P.N. & A.L.N. Sarma (1972): Bivalved

gastropods of the Indian Seas. Proc. Ind. Nat. Sci.

Acad. 38B: 240-250.

green alga Caulerpa racemosa. Subsequently,

this species along with B. (T) ganapatii and B. (T.)

waltairensis was reported from the Visakhapatnam

coast (Ganapati and Sarma 1968, 1972; Sarma

1975). B.(T.) schlumbergeri and Julia burni were

reported from the Andaman coast (Ganapati and

Sarma 1972; Sarma 1975). Recently, Sarma and

Chatterjee (1991) reported a Berthelinia sp. from

the Kovalam beach, Kerala, west coast of India.

While engaged in the phytal-faunal associations

of Halimeda opuntia of Chiriatapu coast of

Andaman, a few shells of Julia japonica were

also encountered.

Spawning habit in Julia was described by

Kuroda and Habe (1951). Live Julia japonica

and their feeding and spawning habits were

described by Kawaguti and Yamasu ( 1 962, 1 966)

from the Sea of Japan. The present finding

represents the first report of Julia japonica from

the Indian Ocean.

The shells are 1 to 2.4 mm long. Both right

and left valves are thick and heavy (Fig. 1). Each

valve is in chordate form. A scar of protoconch

is present on the tip of the umbo of the left valve.

Besides Julia japonica a few shells of Julia burni

(Fig. 2) and Berthelinia sp. (Fig. 3) were also

collected.

I thank Dr. Marleen De Troch,

Department of Zoology, Marine Biology Section,

University of Gent, Belgium for sending copies

of literature.

July 1 8, 200 1 TAPAS CHATTERJEE

Department of Biology,

Indian School of Learning,

I.S.M. Annexe, Dhanbad 826 004,

Jharkhand, India.

E N C E S

Kawaguti, S. & T. Yamasu (1962): Julia japonica found

living as a bivalve gastropod. Proc. Japan Acad.

38: 284-287.

Kawaguti, S. & T. Yamasu (1966): Feeding and spawning

habits of a bivalved gastropod — Julia japonica.

Biol. J. Okayama Univ. 12: 1-9.

358

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Kuroda, T. & T. Habe (1951): Illust. Catal. Jap. Shells.

128.

Pravakar Rao, K. (1965): Record of bivalve gastropod

Berthe/inia Umax (Kawaguti and Baba 1959).

Nature 208 : 404-405.

Sarma, A.L.N. (1975): Three new species of the bivalved

gastropods Julia and Berthelinia found in Eastern

Indian Ocean. Jap. Jl. Malac ( Venus) 34: 1 1-25.

Sarma, A.L.N. & T. Chatterjee (1991): Occurrence of

bivalved gastropods in the west coast of India,

Arabian Sea. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 88:

130-133.

39. OCCURRENCE OF KLEINHOVIA HOSPITA L. (STERCULIACEAE)

IN MARATHWADA REGION OF MAHARASHTRA STATE

During a floristic and ethnobotanical

survey of Nanded district, Marathwada,

Maharashtra State, a plant of Family

Sterculiaceae Kleinhovia hospita L. was detected

in the botanical garden of Science College,

Nanded. This plant is a common cultivated

avenue tree in Mumbai, mostly grown in Pars!

holy places. It is a native of Moluccas Islands of

eastern Malaysia. Naik (1998) in his flora of

marathwada has reported only one specimen in

Aurangabad city of Marathwada region,

Maharashtra State, but the plant no longer exists

in Aurangabad and the authors have confirmed

it.

The present authors correctly identified

and deposited the voucher specimens in the

herbarium of the Postgraduate Department of

Botany, Science College, Nanded. It is pertinent

to note that recently (Alverson et al. 1 999) during

their cladistic studies of the core Malvales from

the ndhF sequence data (ndhF is a chloroplast

gene) have confirmed the inclusion of this plant

and genus Kleinhovia , as suggested long ago by

Zebe (1915), in the tribe Byttnersdideae and

excluded it from Helictereae of Family

Sterculiaceae as suggested by Takhtajan (1997).

Occurrence of only a single plant specimen in a

64,792 sq. km area is alarming, and deserves

attention from the conservation point of view.

April 22, 2000 O.S. RATHOR

P. G. Department of Botany,

Science College, Nanded 43 / 605,

Maharashtra, India.

V.B. CHAVAN

Department of Botany

Yeshwant Mahavidyalaya ,

Nanded 431 605 ,

Maharashtra, India.

References

Alverson, W.S., B.A. Whitlock, B.A. RetoNyfeeler, C.

Bayer & David A. Baum ( 1 999): Phylogeny of the core

Malvalves: Evidence from ndhF Sequence data Am. J.

Bot. 86(10): 1474-1486.

Naik, V.N. (1998): Flora of Marathwada, Amrut

Prakashan, Aurangabad, pp. 156-57.

Takhtajan, A. (1997): Diversity and classification of

dowering plants, Columbia University Press, New York.

Zebe, V. ( 1 9 1 5): Monographic der strucliaceen; Gattungen

Kleinhovia, Helicteres, Reeveria, Ungeria und

Pterospermum, Ph.D. dissertation. Freidrichwillhelm

University Breslau.

40. EXTERNAL MORPHOLOGY OF TESTA IN MANGO MANGIFERA INDICA AND ITS

VALUE IN THE CULTIVAR CHARACTERISATION OF THE CROP

( With one plate)

The significance of SEM studies of testa has been demonstrated in some angiosperms.

morphology, at species level, in plant taxonomy However, its value at the level of varieties or

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

359

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

cultivars has not been documented in India and

is presented in this communication.

Mangifera indica is an important tropical

fruit crop with a large number of natural varieties,

which have yet to be documented. There are also

cultivated varieties of export quality that earn

considerable foreign exchange. The

characterisation and classification of the natural

varieties are particularly important for their

improvement, conservation and use in the

propagation of varieties of commercial value. A

study on the characterisation of mango varieties,

based on testa morphology, has been undertaken

in Thiruvananthapuram district, Kerala. The

results of studies on three varieties are given

below.

Three varieties of Mangifera indica ,

namely Moovandan, Neelum and Banglora, were

selected for study. Mango fruit consists of an

edible outer part (pulp) overlying the outer seed

surface or testa, which is hard and encloses the

cotyledons and the embryo. The testa bears

conspicuous dichotomously branched veins. The

outer and inner surfaces of the testa have

structural differences, associated with their

location and function. The outer surface is

fibrous, while the inner surface is non-fibrous,

but both have vicin threads, with randomly

placed rounded nodules.

The SEM studies of the outer and

inner surfaces of the testa are described (Plate 1,

Fig. 1).

Moovandan: Outer testa (Fig. la) surface

has a cellular base covered by a web of vicin

threads carrying intermittent or crowded nodular

granules. The inner testa surface (Fig. lb) is

characterised by tiers of parallel plate-like

structures. These leafy plates have free tips, no

web threads or nodulations.

Neelum: Outer testa surface (Fig. lc) has

a cellular base covered by small trichomes and a

web of double layered vicin threads; the lower

layer is close netted with dense nodules, while

the upper layer is open netted with distantly

placed threads. The inner testa surface (Fig. Id)

is disrupted, the cells being saucer-shaped

with sparsely nodulated fibrils without any

webbing.

Banglora: Outer testa surface (Fig. le) has

a cellular base covered by plate-like islands

covered by a dense mesh of threads with nodules.

The inner surface (Fig. If) is characterised by a

multi-layered lattice pattern, each layer having

depressions that are interconnected through thin

spinous threads.

It is demonstrated by the study that for each

variety of mango tested, the specific

characteristics of the outer and inner surfaces of

the testa can help to identify a variety. No clear

common character can be assigned to the two

surfaces except for the vicin threads. The

structural differences in the surfaces of the testa

could be used in taxonomic studies. The

morphology of the outer and inner surfaces of

the testa reflect their functions! The outer testa

surface holds the pulp, while the inner surface

is free and protects the cotyledons and embryo.

The degree of needs for such protection is

reflected in the structure. The plates had strong

fibres in Moovandan, but cellular in Neelum and

Banglora.

Acknowledgements

We thank the Department of Science and

Technology (STEC), Government of Kerala for

financial assistance to carry out this work.

June 26, 2000 R. PRAKASHKUMAR

Department of Botany,

VTM NSS College,

Dhanuvachapuram,

Thiruvananthapuram 695 503,

Kerala, India.

S. SURESH

TBGR1, Palode,

Kerala, India.

360

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Prakashkumar, R. et al. \ Mango Mangifera indica

Plate 1

Fig. 1 : Mangifera indica var Moovandan a. outer testa, b. inner testa;

Mangifera indica var Neelum c. outer testa, d. inner testa;

Mangifera indica var Banglora e. outer testa; f. inner testa

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

41. STYLOSANTHES HAMATUS (LINN.) TAUB. (PAPILIONACEAE),

A NEW RECORD TO THE FLORA OF GUJARAT

( With seven text-figures )

While investigating the flora of the Barda

Hills and their surroundings, an interesting

species of Stylosanthes was observed near

Vijarkhi (Jamnagar) and Ranakandorna

(Ranavav) along agricultural fields and

roadsides. After critical study, the specimen was

Figs 1-7: Stylosanthes hamatus (Linn.) Taub., 1. A flowering twig, 2. Standard petal,

3. Vexillum (wing petal), 4. Keel petal, 5. Gynophore slightly emerging out of androecium sheath, 6. Pod

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 99(2), AUG. 2002

363

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

identified as Stylosanthes hamatus, of which

there is no published report from Gujarat. A brief

description and illustration follows.

Stylosanthes hamatus (Linn.) Taub. in Verh,

Bot Brand 32: 22, 1980

Syn. S. mucronata Willd., Sp. PI. 3: 1166,

1802; Beddome, Icon., PL Ind. Orient, t. 294,

1871; Baker in Hook, f., FI. Brit. Ind. 2: 148,

1876; Cooke, FI. Pres. Bombay 1: 356, 1903;

Talbot, Trees Bombay 69, 1902. S. fruticosa

(Retz.) Alston in Trimen., Handb. FI. Ceylon 6

suppl. 77, 1931; Nooteboom in Reinwardtia 5:

449, 1961; Verdcort in Kew Bull. 24: 59, 1970.

Arachis fruticosa Retz, Obs. Bot. 5: 26, 1788.

Hedysarum hamatus (Linn.) Taub., Syst. Veg.

Ed. 10, 1170, 1759 (pro parte, pro typus); Burm.

F., FI. Ind. 167, 1768.

A much branched, low, diffuse, perennial

undershrub. Branches terete, stiff, ascending,

more or less hairy. Leaves trifoliate, stipules

scarious, strongly nerved, adnate to the petiole

for half their length, terminating above in 2

spreading teeth. Leaflet 10-18 mm long, elliptic-

oblong 4 by 20 mm, or lanceolate, coriaceous,

pale green, pubescent on lower surface. Terminal

leaflet a little larger than lateral ones, all acute

and mucronate at the apex, glabrous above,

slightly pubescent, strongly nerved, base

subacute; lateral leaflets subsessile, the terminal

with a petiole about 4-5 mm long. Flowers

solitary or few in sessile terminal heads in the

axils of leaf-like stipulate bracts. Bracts

persistent, striated, pubescent. Calyx tubular;

tube filiform 4-6 mm long, membranous, the

upper connate lobes ciliate at the apex. Corolla

yellowish-orange 7-9 mm long. Pods flattened,

10-15 mm long, 1-2 jointed, very short, concealed

by the persistent bracts, hooked at the apex with

the persistent base of the style, joints pubescent

with raised veins.

FI & Fr.: September-February

Present status: Rare

Specimen examined: PSN 221

April 22, 2000 PS. NAGAR

S.M. PANDYA

Department of Biosciences,

Saurashtra University,

Rajkot 360 005,

Gujarat, India.

42. UNUSUAL NUMBER OF CARPELS AND FERTILE STAMENS IN FLOWERS OF

BAUHINIA VARIEGATA L., LEGUMINOSAE: CAESALPINIOIDEAE

( With one text-figure)

My earlier observation on the unusual

occurrence of two free carpels in the flowers of

Bauhinia variegata L. in a collection from

Myanmar was included in the publication of

Larsen and Larsen in FI. Males. 12(2): 414. 1996.

Recently, I have again come across a flower

of B. variegata with two free carpels. The flower

was found lying on the ground below a tree of

this species on the Prain mound in Division 16

of the Indian Botanic Garden, Howrah. This is

the third of six trees of B. variegata , counted

anti-clockwise from that of a B. racemosa Lam.

tree on the margin of the circular mound.

In the flower observed, the two free carpels

are normal in size, whereas in the collection from

Myanmar (Sittang, 8.ii.l9Q5, Coll. ?, herb. acc.

no. 137613 - CAL), one flower has two free

carpels of normal size and the other two flowers

have a normal and a reduced size carpel.

It may be mentioned here that after

collecting the flower with two free carpels, I have

examined a number of flowers from all the six

trees, but all of them either have normal or

reduced size carpel.

364

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1 : Bauhinia variegata L.: a. Normal and

reduced size carpel. — After herb. acc. no. 137613;

b. two free carpels of normal size, — After

Bandyopadhyay 103. (Scale = 1 cm).

When I was writing this communication,

Dr. P.R. Sur kindly drew my attention to a flower

of B. variegata from his garden at Aakra,

Santoshpur, which had not only two free carpels

but also ten petals and ten fertile stamens.

Moreover, I observed that the spathaceous calyx

was shortly bilobed at its apex and each half was

made up of five sepals. It seemed to me that two

flowers had somehow joined together.

While examining the flower with two free

carpels, gathered from the Prain mound, I also

observed seven fertile stamens and later found

that some of the flowers from the third, fifth and

sixth trees in the aforesaid sequence, have four,

six or seven fertile stamens. There were also

flowers with the usual five stamens. Furthermore,

«

some of the flowers, irrespective of the number

of fertile stamens, had two to five stam inodes

and a reduced stamen of varying size. This

interesting variation in the number of fertile

stamens and the presence of a reduced stamen

has not been recorded earlier in B. variegata.

The flowers on all the six trees are reddish-

purple and the fertilized ovules develop into well-

formed seeds.

The voucher specimens (3 . i I i .2000,

Bandyopadhya 103; !4.iii.2QQ0, Bandyopadhyay

104; 6.iii.2000, Sur s.n.) have been deposited in

CAL.

June 26, 2000 S. BANDYOPADHYAY

Botanical Survey of India ,

RO. Botanic Garden,

Howrah 711 103, West Bengal, India.

43. ACTINOSTEMMA TENERUM GRIFF., CUCURBITACEAE,

A NEW PHYTOGEOGRAPHIC RECORD FROM ALIGARH, UTTAR PRADESH

Actinostemma Griff, is a small genus

consisting of seven species confined to China

(Chakravarty 1959). A. tenerum Griff, is the sole

representative of this genus in India, with a

limited distribution in Assam, Bengal and

western Himalayas, and Bahraich, Kheri and

Pilibhit in Uttar Pradesh. The above mentioned

places in Uttar Pradesh are situated in the terai

region and are characterized by humid climate

and humus-rich loam soil. The species was

recently collected from Aligarh (27° 29' - 28°

1 1' N, 77° 29’ - 78° 38' E). Since this taxon has

never been reported from any locality in Uttar

Pradesh, except those mentioned above, its

occurrence in Aligarh is being reported as a new

distributional record.

Actinostemma tenerum Griff. PI. Cantor.

24.T.3. 1837; Clarke in Hook, f., FI. Brit. ind. IS

633 (excl. syn.) 1879; Duthie, FI. Upp. Gang.

PS. I, 382 1969 (Repr edn); Chakravarty,

Monograph on Indian Cucurbitaceae, 180, 1939.

An extensive climber with slender, obtusely

five-angled branches; younger parts, petiole base

and nodes pilose with gland-tipped hairs, tendrils

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

simple or bifid; leaf-blade sagittately trilobed,

leaf-base with a deep sinus, apex acute, margins

minutely denticulate or coarsely serrate; male

flowers small in large panicle like pendulous

inflorescence; sepals and petals cream-coloured,

narrow subulate, stamens five, free; female

flowers solitary, fruit ovoid-elliptic, softly

echinate, circumscissile, without pulp when

mature; seeds three, ashy, plano-convex (one seed

was noticed with both faces plain) reticulate,

margins distinctly grooved.

44. TWO NEW ADDITIONS TO COOK1

(With one

FI. and Fr.; September to November.

Exsiccata: Athar s.n. Botany Department

Herbarium, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh.

Remarks; Rare, grows on moist clay soil

on the banks of canals.

April 22, 2000 ATHAR ALI KHAN

Department of Botany

Aligarh Muslim University

Aligarh 202 002,

Uttar Pradesh , India.

’S FLORA OF BOMBAY PRESIDENCY

text-figure)

While working on the flora of Chaukul-

Ramghat in Savantwadi taluka of Sindhudurg

district, two rare angiosperm species were

collected. They are presented below with

necessary descriptions, line drawings and

distribution in the study area.

Emilia scabra (Asteraceae)

(Fig. 1)

DC. Prodr. 6: 303,1838; Wight., Icon,

t.l 123, 1846; Gamble, FI. Madras 2; 716, 1921.

E. sonchifolia DC. var. scabra Hook, f., Flora

Brit. Ind. 3; 336,1881.

A branched pubescent herb. Leaves radical,

scabrous, semiamplexicaul at the base, dentate.

Capitulum oblong 1-1.5 cm long and 0.5 cm

broad, on forked, slender rachis. Involucral bracts

linear, spathulate, 6-7 nerved, nerves faint,

yellow, curling outward on drying. Head

homogamous. Disc florets many, purple,

deciduous; each floret with an inferior, small,

rounded triangular ovary. Corolla tube long.

Calyx modified into pappus. Pappus many,

deciduous, white, consisting of a number of

oblong cells, hairy, shining. Corolla with long

tube, slightly enlarged at the apex, consists of

5 petals, oval shaped, purple. Stamens 5,

epipetalous, filament slender, flexuous. Anthers

syngenecious, remain within the corolla tube.

Ovary bilocular, slightly flattened, trigonous with

long, slender and bifid style; stigma lobes 2,

thick, purple, remain within the corolla tube.

Achene angled, ribbed, hispid on the angles.

Rare, noticed along the borders of rice

fields.

FI. & Fr.; December.

Distribution: Chakul. Exc. BGG-808

(BLAT).

This species has not been reported since

the publication of the flora of madras by Gamble

in 1921. This is the first report from Maharashtra

and follows a gap of 75 years after Gamble’s

report. It is also an addition to Cooke’s flora of

BOMBAY PRESIDENCY.

Cymbopogon nardus L. (Poaceae)

Rendle, var. luridus (Hook, f.) Gavade &

Almeida comb. nov. Cymbopogon nardus (L.)

Rendle var. confertiflorus (Steud.) Stapf. ex Bor.

in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 5 1 : 905, 1 953 & Grass.

Ind. 130, 1960. Andropogon nilgiricus Hochst. in

Hohenacker, Phan. Ind. Or. No. 932, 1851 (nom.

nud). Andropogon confertiflorus Steud., Syn. pi.

Glum. 1 : 385, 1 854. Andropogon nardus L. subsp.

nilgiricus Hack, in DC., Mon. Phan. 6: 604, 1889;

Hook, f.. Flora Brit. Ind. 7: 204, 1896. A. nardus

L. var. luridus Hook, f, Flora Brit. Ind. 7: 204,

1896. Cymbopogon confertiflorus (Steud.) Stapf.,

in Kew Bull. 1906: 318, 1906.

366

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1: Emilia scabra DC., A. Habit, B. Capitulum inflorescence, C. Disc floret, D. L.S. of Disc floret,

E. 2 stamens with corolla, F. Enlarged stamen, G. Pistil, H. Involucral bract, I. Collection of Pappus,

J. Single Pappus enlarged-Microscopic view, K. Achene, L. Seed

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 99(2), AUG. 2002

367

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

A perennial herb with stout root-stock.

Stem tall up to 6 ft (1.8 m), stout, leafy. Leaves

long, linear, glaucous beneath; ligule coriaceous.

Panicles elongate, rather broad, decompound,

branches narrow, sparingly divided. Spike in

large crowded fascicles, dark purplish-brown

after drying. Spathe cymbiform, hairy, spikelets

sessile, lanceolate. Glumes dorsally flat or

concave. Keel winged above the middle.

A rare grass noticed on laterite flats.

Flowers: October.

Distribution: Chakul Exc.: BGG - 732.

(BLAT).

Sir J.D. Hooker in his flora of British india

in 1879 reported this grass from the Nilgiri

hills. N.L. Bor in his grasses of Burma, ceylon,

india and Pakistan (1960) states that this

grass is apparently found in the mountains of

Madras.

The Blatter Herbarium, St. Xavier’s

College, Mumbai has two sheets of this grass,

sp. no. 9685 from the Nilgiris, collected by

Sedgwick L.J. in June 1916, and sp. no. 230 from

Madura collected by Sedgwick L.J. in May 1916.

There is no further report of this grass from

45. ETHNOBOTANICAL USES OF

Family Polygonaceae with about 30 genera

and 600 species is well represented in Nepal.

Herbs, some shrubs and rarely trees of the family

are mainly distributed in the northern temperate

region of the globe. So far, 1 1 genera and 72

species have been recorded from Nepal (Hara et

al ., 1982). Malick et al. (1969) reported a new

genus Eskemukerjea from Nepal Himalaya. The

Family Polygonaceae has also found its way into

the homes of the locals because of its varied

medicinal properties. These ethnobotanical uses

are not well documented, as the use of most

species differs from area to area. Hence, a

systematic study of the ethnobotanical uses of

Family Polygonaceae was undertaken.

Field study was conducted in different parts

of the country in the last 1 5 years. Information

Maharashtra by later taxonomists, thus it is *a

new record for Maharashtra and also an addition

to Cooke’s flora.

Dr. N.L. Bor followed Stapflew’s varietal

name confertiflora picked up from Steudel’s

Andropogon confertiflorus Steud. However, the

rule of priority is not applied outside its own rank

and therefore the correct varietal name should

be Cymbopogon nardus (L.) Rendle var. luridus

(Hook, f.) Gavade & Almeida, which is proposed

here.

Acknowledgement

I am grateful to my guide Mr. M.R.

Almeida, for help in the preparation of this

article.

January 12, 2000 B.G. GAVADE

Blatter Herbarium,

St. Xavier s College,

Mahapalika Marg,

Mumbai 400 001,

Maharashtra, India.

THE POLYGONACEAE IN NEPAL

on the different uses was noted by interviewing

the locals and by making observations. The locals

assisted in plant collection and provided

indigenous knowledge about their various uses.

The information collected was verified by cross

checking it at different places on different

occasions. The specimens collected and identified

by the author are preserved in the Nepal

Herbarium and Plant Laboratories, Godawari,

Nepal. The plants are listed alphabetically

according to their botanical names. Each entry

consists of the following sequence: the scientific

name; local names (N. -Nepali, T.-Tamang, Th.-

Tharu); voucher number; a brief description and

the uses.

Aconogonum campanulatum (Hook.f.)

Hara; N. Thotane, Raparey ghans; 858-78.

368

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Herb in shady locality. Flowers pinkish-

white. Young shoot and leaf are pickled or eaten

as vegetable.

A. mol!e(D. Don) Hara;N. Thotane; 12166.

Herb on moist and open ground. Flowers

yellowish. Use same as A. campanulatum.

Bistorta amptexicaulis (D. Don) Green;

N. Nharkali, Imilachi, Ratanaulo; 8999.

Herb on open and moist ground. Flowers

pinkish. Juice of root is used to relieve indigestion

and body pain.

B. macrophylla (D. Don) Sojok; N. Chyau

phul; 8035.

Herb on open and moist ground. Flowers

pink. Juice of root used to treat diarrhoea and

dysentery.

B. mil let ii Lev; N. Mhyakur; 9985.

Herb on open land. Flowers red. Roasted

seeds edible and sweet.

B. vaccinifolia (Wall, ex Meisn.) Greene;

N. Pulunge jhar; 8959.

Herb on moist rock crevices. Flowers pink.

Juice of root used to treat fever.

B. vivipara (L.) S.F. Gray; N. Khalti,

Malun; 9859.

Herb on open pasture land. Flowers

pinkish. Seeds are pickled, juice of root used for

intermittent fever and to treat diarrhoea.

Fagopyrum dibotrys (D. Don) Hara; N. Ban

bhar, Barbande, Bhanre, Salsale, Tautha; 9557.

Herb on open and neglected ground.

Flowers white. Tender portions are cooked; also

considered nutritious fodder.

F. esculenlum Moench; N. Phaphar; 1 1 807.

Cultivated herb. Flowers pink. Tender

shoot and leaf are cooked; powdered seed used

in case of fever.

F. tataricum (L.) Gaertn.; N. Tite phaphar;

9619.

Cultivated herb. Flowers white. Tender

shoot and leaf are pickled; seeds are edible; plant

is an astringent.

Fallopia pterocarpa (Wall, ex Meisn.)

Holub; N. Kalike; 230-75.

A trailing herb in open localities. Flowers

yellowish. Tender leaf is cooked.

Koenigia nepalensis D. Don; N.

Taunro; 1 1 377.

Herb on moist ground. Flowers white.

Tender leaves are cooked, especially during famine.

Oxyria digyma (L.) Hill; N. Kyurba; 8063.

Herb on open hill slopes. Flowers pinkish.

Plant is used as a refrigerant.

Persicaria barbata (L.) Hara; N. Aule jhar,

Khursanijhar, Semachare ghans, Tote jhar; 12526.

Herb on open and damp places. Flowers

white. Tender shoot and leaf are cooked; paste

of root is applied to treat scabies (Manandhar,

1990); squeezed plant is used as fish-poison.

P. capitata (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) H.

Gross; N. Bish maro; 9549.

Herb on moist ground. Flowers pink. Used

to treat conjunctivitis, peptic ulcer, boils and

wounds, and relieve headache.

P. chinensis (L.) H. Gross; N. Ratnaulo;

12176.

Herb on open and moist ground. Flowers

white. Tender leaf pickled. Plant used as a fish-

poison.

P. hydropiper (L.) Spach; N. Pire; 11097.

Herb in moist and shady locality. Flowers

white. Stem is chewed to treat toothache. Juice

of plant is anti-helminthic, carminative and

applied on itches. It is poisonous in large amounts

to animals and is used as a fish-poison.

P. lapathifolia (L.) S.F. Gray; Th. Bhauka;

6059.

Herb on open ground. Flowers yellowish.

Paste of root is used to treat headache.

P. microcephala (D. Don) H. Gross; T.

Tungdhap; 12939.

Herb, grows in shady places. Flowers

white. Tender shoots and leaves are cooked. Paste

of root relieves constipation. Used as fish-poison.

P. nepalensis (Meisn.) H. Gross; N.

Raunne; 6822, 8846.

Herb on open ground. Flowers pink. Juice

of plant used to heal boils. Plant used for washing

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

369

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

clothes and as nutritious fodder.

R perfoliata (L.) H. Gross; N. Bakhre

aankha, Phaphre jhar; 9561.

Prickly climber. Flowers yellowish. Tender

shoots cooked, ripe seeds eaten raw. Juice of plant

relieves headache and backache.

P. polystachya (Wall, ex Meisn.) H. Gross;

N. Pire; 8977.

Herb on open hill slopes. Flowers white.

R posumbu (Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don) H.

Gross; N. Ratnaulo; 11048.

Herb, grows in moist, shady areas. Flowers

pinkish-white. Plant juice used as fish-poison.

P. pubescens (Bl.) Hara; N. Seto pire; 66-

92.

Herb on open, moist ground. Flowers pink.

Plant is squeezed and spread in stagnant water

as fish-poison.

P. punicata (Elliot) Small.; N. Pire khar;

369.

Herb on moist ground. Flowers yellowish.

Plant juice used as fish-poison.

R runcinata (Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don) H.

Gross; N. Kapre sag; 1607.

Herb, grows in moist, shady areas. Flowers

pinkish. Tender leaves and shoots are cooked.

P. viscosa (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) Nakai;

N. Rato pire; 2002.

Herb on open ground. Flowers pinkish.

Plant juice used to stupefy fishes.

Polygonum plebeium R. Br., N. Sukul

jhar; 11923.

Prostrate herb on open ground. Flowers

pinkish. Tender shoots are cooked. Juice of root

used for diarrhoea, dysentery and bodyache. Paste

of whole plant used to treat wound between toes.

Rheum acuminatum Hook. f. & Thoms,

ex Hook.; N. Hale; 2975.

Herb on rocky hill slope. Flowers red. Root

used as substitute for tea.

R. australe D. Don; N. Padamchal

(rhizome), Chulthi amilo (petiole); 6225.

Herb on open, rocky ground. Flowers

reddish. Fresh petiole cooked, dried one pickled.

Rhizome is purgative, astringent and used in

diarrhoea and dysentery (Anonymous 1970).

R. moorcroftianum Royle; N. Padamchal,

2902.

Herb on open, rocky ground. Flowers

yellowish. Petioles pickled for use.

Rumex acetosa L.; N. Hale; 6880, 6526.

Herb on open ground. Flowers reddish.

Paste of root used to set dislocated or cracked

bones.

R. hastatus D. Don; N. Kapu; 659.

Herb on open, rocky ground. Flowers

pinkish.

Tender leaves and shoots pickled. Root

chewed to relieve throatache. Juice of root used

to relieve diarrhoea and dysentery (Manandhar

1995a).

R. nepalensis Spreng; N. Halhale; 42-93.

Herb with stout perennial rootstock.

Flowers reddish. Paste of leaf relieves swelling

gum; powder of leaf used to treat scabies. Plant

relieves body pain. Juice of root used as an anti-

helminthic, for cough, cold, and to relieve eye

inflammation; pounded root used in diarrhoea

and dysentery (Manandhar 1995b). Yellow

colour extracted from the root is used for dyeing

clothes.

This study recorded 34 species belonging

to 10 genera, with diverse ethnobotanical uses

in Nepal. These include food, medicine, fish-

poison and dyeing. Persicaria nepalensis is

mixed with water for washing clothes.

Twenty-one species were noted for food

value. The seeds of Bistorta millettii and

B. vivipara and the petiole of Rheum australe

and R. moorcroftianum are pickled. Tender

shoots and leaves of 16 species are cooked. Two

cultivated species, Fagopyrum esculentum and

F. tataricum are important items of food for

individuals living in the temperate and sub-alpine

belt of the country. Powdered roots of Rheum

acuminatum serve as a substitute for tea, which

is relished by the locals, though the taste differs

from the original tea.

370

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Thus the plants contribute greatly to

rural health care. Manandhar (1989) has

recorded piscicidal properties in Persicaria

chinensis , P, microcephala , P. posumbu and

P. punicata .

The ethnobotanical uses of Family

Polygonaceae call for scientific evaluation of folk

claims and intensive field work among

unexplored ethnic groups, areas and plant

diversity of the country.

Refer

Anonymous (1970): Medicinal Plants of Nepal. HMG,

Department of Medicinal Plants, Kathmandu,

Nepal. Pp. 78.

Hara, H., A.O. Charter & L.H.J. Williams (1982): An

enumeration of the Flowering Plants of Nepal.

Trustees of British Museum (Natural History),

London.

Malick, K.C. & G. Sengupta (1969): Eskemukerjea Malik

et Sengupta — a new genus of Polygonaceae from

Nepal Himalaya. Bull. Bot. Surv. India 11(3-4):

433-435.

Acknowledgement

The author sincerely thanks the rural folk

for their cooperation and help during the field

work.

Jan. 24, 200 1 NARAYAN P. MANANDHAR

Ka 3-16, Nay a Baneshwar,

PO. Box 3389,

Kathmandu, Nepal.

ENCES

Manandhar, N.P. (1989): Ethnobotanical notes on some

Piscicidal Plants of Nepal. Ethnobotany 1: 57-59.

Manandhar, N.P. (1990): Traditional phytotherapy of

Danuwar tribes of Kamlakhonj in Sindhuli district,

Nepal. Fitoterapia 61(4): 325-33 1 .

Manandhar, N.P. (1995a): An inventory of some Herbal

Drugs of Myagdi District, Nepal. Economic Botany

49(4): 371-379.

Manandhar, N.P. (1995b): A survey of medicinal plants

of Jajarkot district, Nepal. Journal of

Eihnophannacology 48: 1-6.

46. A NEW NAME FOR DIOSCOREA GLABRA VAR. HAST1FOLIA PRAIN ET BURKILL

FROM THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS, INDIA

( With one text-figure)

Dioscorea serpenticola A. Hoque & P.K.

Mukherjee nom. et stat nov. is an endemic species

to the Andaman Islands. It was first collected by

C.G. Rogers in 1904 from Rutland, South

Andaman. Later, J.L. Ellis collected it from

Saddle Peak, North Andaman in 1987. D. Prain

and I.H. Burkill named it Dioscorea glabra var.

hastifolia Prain et Burkill in 1914, based on the

collections of C.G. Rogers.

Dioscorea serpenticola A. Hoque & P.K.

Mukherjee nom. et stat. nov. (Fig. 1).

Type: South Andaman, Rutland,

19.V.1904, C.G. Rogers 278 (Holotype, CAL).

Syn.: D. glabra var. hastifolia Prain et

Burkill, Journ. Asiat. Soc. Beng. ns. 10: 37,

1914; Knuth in Engl. Pflanzenr.87 (IV-43): 277,

1924., (non D. hastifolia Ness, Lehm., PI. Preiss.

2: 33, 1848).

D. elegans Ridl, D. oryzetorum Prain et

BurkiSS et D. glabra Roxb. similis caule

dextrorsum volubile, Lamina coriacea, spico

mascuio 2 cm longo, alabastro masculo globoso,

diplotegio latiore quam longo, seminis ala

cir.genti, sed differt a D. elegans Ridl. et

D. oryzetorum Prain et Burkill venatione

campylodromo, nervibus 7, lamina hastata, et

differt a D. glabra Roxb. foliis altemis, lamina

petiolis perlongiora, diplotegiis parvioribus,

spico masculo axillari.

Tuber 1 .5-3 cm, hard, globose, woody knot

at base of stem, bearing tuft of horizontal long roots,

superficially buried. Bulbils not known. Stem right

twining, terete, glabrous, unarmed, slender, faintly

ridged. Leaves simple, alternate, petiole 1-2 cm

long, shorter than lamina (lamina:petiole = 5:1)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

371

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

c. Part of male inflorescence, d. Outer perianth, e. Inner perianth, f. Single stamen, g. Position of

stamens with pistillode, h. Twig with fruits, i. Single diplotegia, j. Dehiscence of diplotegia,

k. Single seed, (a-g: Ellis, J.L. 12719; h~k: Rogers, C.G. 278)

372

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

with apical and basal pulvini; lamina 6-10.8 x

3-6 cm, hastate, apex acuminate, base broad or

shallow cordate, texture coriaceous, venation

palmate, convergent, reticulate (campylodromous),

5-7 nerved, midrib and the first pair of secondary

veins reach up to acumen, tertiary veins irregularly

branched, forming a network, nerves faintly

prominent on abaxial surface, glabrous on both

surfaces.

Male inflorescence axillary, somewhat stout,

simple spike, arising in fascicles directly from leaf

axils, sometimes singly on short flowering branch,

5-7 cm long. Rachis slightly drooping, terete,

winged or ridged, glabrous, straight, 0.7-2. 8 cm

long, bearing 14-20 solitary alternate flowers at

0.5-1 mm intervals.

Male flowers globose or elongate-globose,

sessile, with broad base, 1-1 .2 x 1 mm, larger than

bract, thalamus slightly convex. Bract 1 , 0.7- ! x 0.7

mm, anterior, sessile, concave, ovate, apex

acuminate-cuspidate, base broad thin, mem-branous.

Bracteole 1 , 0.5 x 0.5 mm, sessile, lateral, ovate, flat,

apex acute, base constricted. Perianths 6, in two

whorls (3 + 3), glabrous, polyphyllous, somewhat

open; outer 3 obovate, concave, apex acute or obtuse,

base broad, margin wavy, 1.1 x 0.85 mm; inner 3

spathulate, hooded, 0.8 x 0.75 mm. Stamens 6, in

two whorls in alternate series, all fertile, 0.5 mm long,

filament 0.2 mm long, stout, anthers 0.3 mm long,

introrse, connective narrow; outer 3 alternate to inner

perianth, inner 3 alternate to pistillode ridges inside

and opposite to inner perianth outside. Pistillode

triridged, apex emarginate-cleft, 0.2 mm long,

situated at the centre of torus.

Female inflorescence axillary, simple spike,

erect, rachis angular, ridged, stout, 5-7 cm long,

bearing 7-16 solitary alternate flowers at 0.3-0.6

cm intervals.

Infructescence erect or semi erect, rachis

stout, fruits overlapping, 3-9 fruits on a rachis.

Diplotegia not recurved, stipitate (stipe 0.5-

0.6 mm), triwinged capsule, with marcescent

perianth cup at apex and marcescent bract and

bracteole at base, capsule almost rounded ( 1 .5- 1 .8 x

1 .9-2 cm), apex emarginate,.foas@ truncate, margins

curved. Dehiscence loculicidalSy septifragal with

separation of 3 ribs. Seeds 1 cm diameter, rounded

with wing all round, dark maroon.

Distribution: Andaman and Nicobar

Islands: South Andaman, Rutland; North Andaman,

Saddle Peak.

FL: September to October.

Fr.: October to January.

Specimens examinee!: India - South

Andaman, Rutland, 19.V.1904, C.G. Rogers 278

(CAL, type); North Andaman, Saddle Peak,

500 m, 16.x. 1987, J.L. Ellis 12719 (PBL).

Dioscorea serpenticola is readily separated

from related species by alternate leaves, lamina

hastate, much longer than petiole, base truncate,

venation campylodromous, 7- nerved; male spikes

directly on stem axil; diplotegia small, broader than

long, dehiscence by rib separation. We feel that the

morphological differences cited above are adequate

to recognise this as a distinct species.

The specific epithet hastifolia is preoccupied

by the existence of D. hastifolia Nees, Lehm. Pi.

Preiss. 2: 33, 1848. So the name Dioscorea

hastifolia cannot be applied, being a later

homonym, which is illegitimate (Art. 53 of ICBN,

Tokyo, 1994). So the above new binomen is

proposed.

Acknowledgements

We thank Dr. N.C. Majumdar for the Latin

diagnosis, Dr. Asadul Hoque, Aklima Khatoon

and Suhana Layla for encouragement and

assistance.

November 2, 1 999 AKRAMUL HOQUE

Central National Herbarium,

Indian Botanic Garden ,

Botanical Survey of India,

Howrah 711 103, West Bengal, India.

P. K. MUKHERJEE

Department of Botany, University of Calcutta,

West Bengal, India.

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373

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

47. STYLIDIUM TENELLUM SWARTZ (STYLIDIACEAE),

A NEW RECORD FOR MAHARASHTRA STATE

( With a text-figure)

The genus Stylidium Sw. is represented in India, whereas S. tenellum is reported from Uttar

India by two species, namely S. tenellum Sw. and Pradesh (Babu 1977), Bihar and Orissa (Haines

S. kunthii Wall. S. kunthii is confined to Eastern 1921-24), Madhya Pradesh (Mukherjee 1984 and

Fig. 1: Stylidium tenellum Sw., A. Twig, B. Flower, C. Gynostemium, D. Mature capsule, E. T.S. Capsule &

F. Seed showing surface ornamentation

374

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Verma et. al 1985) and Karnataka (Bhaskar and

Kushalappa 1991). However, there is no record

of its occurrence in Maharashtra State so far. The

author is reporting for the first time the

occurrence of S. tenellum Sw. from Maharashtra

State.

During the survey of wetlands of Gondia

district, Maharashtra State, the author collected

Stylidium tenellum Sw. from Borkanhar locality

of Amgaon tehsil.

The voucher specimen has been deposited

in the herbarium, Department of Botany,

Bhawabhuti Mahavidyalaya, Amgaon, Gondia

district, Maharashtra.

The diagnostic characters, locality, field

number and notes are given below.

Stylidium tenellum Sw. Ges. Naturf. far.

Berlin 1:51, t.2,f. 3,1807 (non R. Br.1810);

Clarke in Hook f, F.B.I. 3.420.1881; Haines,

Botany of Bihar & Orissa 4: 499.1921-1924;

Babu, Herb. FI. Dehra Dun, 291, 1977;

i

Mukherjee, FI. Pachmarhi & Bori Reserve.

271.1994; Verma et. al , FI. Raipur, Durg &

Rajnandgaon. 207.1985; Bhaskar &

Kushalappa, J. Bombay, nat. Hist. Soc. 88(3):

465.1991.

Annual, erect, glabrous, slender herb, up

to 10 cm high, normally branched, branches

filiform, stem dark purple or brown; leaves

alternate, sessile, lanceolate-oblong or obovate-

spathulate, c. 0.8 mm long, obtuse, entire, 3-

nerved; basal ones in rosette, upper ones passing

into bracts; flowers minute, sessile, 2-3 in cymes,

zygomorphic, epigynous, rose-purple; sepals 5,

linear, subequal, spreading, persistent in the

Refer

Babu, C.R. (1977): Herbaceous Flora of Dehra Dun. CSIR,

New Delhi.

Bhaskar, V. & C.G. Kushalappa (1991): Stylidium

tenellum Swartz (Stylidiaceae) — A new record for

South India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 88 (3): 465-

466.

Haines, H.H. ( 1 92 1 -24): Botany of Bihar and Orissa Part

fruit; corolla bilabiate, purple or pink, lower

three lobes minute, upper two spathulate,

prominent and ray-like; corolla tube minute;

stamens 2, filaments adnate to the style into an

elongate geniculate column which is inclined

to one side; anther lobes 4; stigma hairy; ovary

inferior; capsule linear 10-12 mm long,

pubescent, valves united at both ends; seeds

minute, brown, angled.

FI. and Fr.: October- January.

Ecology: Occasional, along the edges of

tanks in open grassy places, found on sandy

loam.

Specimen Examined: Borkanhar,

Amgaon, Bhuskute 205, 19.xi.1998.

Associated Taxa: JJtricularia caerulea

Linn., Lindernia ciliata (Colsm.) Pennell, Xyris

pauciflora Willd., Diplacrum caricinum R. Br.

This taxon is easily mistaken at first sight for

Lindernia , but may be distinguished by its

peculiar gynostemium and inferior ovary.

Acknowledgements

1 am thankful to the UGC for financial

assistance and to Dr. M.K. Janarthanam, Goa

for literature and identification. I also thank

Mr. K.L. Mankar, Secretary, Bhawabhuti

Shikshan Sanstha for encouragement and Mr.

V.S. Chobisa, Principal, for facilities.

August 1 1 , 2000 S.M. BHUSKUTE

Department of Botany,

Bhawabhuti Mahavidyalaya, Amgaon,

Dist. Gondia 441 902, Maharashtra, India.

E N C E S

IV. London. Pp. 499.

Mukherjee, A.K. (1984): Flora of Pachmarhi and Bori

Reserve. Botanical Survey of India, Howrah.

Pp. 271.

Verma, D.M., M.I. Hanif & R. Saran (1985): Flora of

Raipur, Durg and Rajnandgaon. Botanical Survey

of India, Howrah. Pp. 207.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

375

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

48. ADDITIONS TO THE GRASS GENERA OF MAHARASHTRA

( With two text-figures)

Intensive and extensive studies over the last districts namely Kolhapur, Ratnagiri, Sangli,

10 years on the grass flora. Family Poaceae, of Satara and Sindhudurg) have yielded two

southwestern Maharashtra (comprising five unrecorded grass genera from the State. Full

i

2

Fig. 1: Crypsis schoenoides (L.) Lam.: 1. Habit, 2. Ligule, 3. Spikelet, 4. Lower glume, 5. Upper glume,

6. Lemma, 7. Palea, 8. Stamens & Pistil, 9. Caryopsis

376

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

descriptions and illustrations are provided for 1. Crypsis schoenoides (L.) Lam. Tab.

each genus in this paper. Voucher specimens have Encycl. Meth. Bot. 1 : 166. 1791 ; Bor, Grass. Bur.

been deposited in the Herbarium of Shivaji Cey. Ind. Pak. 622. 1960. Phleum schoenoides

University, Kolhapur. L. Sp. PL ed. 1: 60. 1753. Heleochioa

7

Fig. 2: Poa annua L.: 1. Habit, 2. Ligule, 3. Spikelet, 4. Lower glume, 5. Upper glume front view,

6. Upper glume back view, 7. Lemma, 8. Palea, 9. Stamens & Pistil

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 99(2), AUG. 2002

377

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

schoenoides (L.) Host. Icon. Gram. Austr. 1: 23.

1801. Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 7: 235. 1896. Fig. 1.

Annual or perennial herbs. Culms tufted,

terete, 3-18 cm long, creeping, decumbent; nodes

glabrous. Leaves: sheaths compressed, keeled,

striate, margins hyaline, ciliate near the apex,

ligule ciliate, 0.8-1 mm long, blades linear-

lanceolate, 0.5-5 x 0.1 -0.4 cm, sparsely hispid

with tubercle based hairs, margins scaberulous,

apex acute. Panicles compressed, compact, short,

spicate, ovate-oblong, 0.4-0. 8 cm long, concealed

in the sheaths, rachis slender, pedicels short.

Spikelets linear-lanceolate, 2-3 mm long,

laterally compressed. Lower glume membranous,

linear, 2-2.2 mm long, 1 -nerved, keeled, keels

ciliate, apex acute. Upper glume membranous,

ovate-lanceolate, 2.4-3 mm long, 1 -nerved,

keeled, keels ciliate, apex acute. Lemma

membranous, ovate-lanceolate, 2.4-3 mm long,

1 -nerved, keeled, apex acute. Palea hyaline,

ovate-oblong, 2. 2-2. 5 mm long, nerveless,

keeled, apex obtuse. Lodicules 2, minute.

Stamens 3; anthers 0.4-0. 6 mm long. Grain

oblong, 1.3-1. 6 mm long.

Rare near moist places.

FI. & Fr.: September-December.

Specimen examined: Patil 8987, Satara

city, Satara district.

2. Poa annua L., Sp. PI. 68. 1-1753; Hook,

f., FL Brit Ind. 7: 345. 1896; Bor Grass. Bur.

Cey. Ind. Pak. 547. 1960. Fig. 2.

Annual herbs. Culms tufted, terete, erect

or ascending. 5-30 cm high, simple or sparingly

branched; nodes glabrous. Leaves: sheaths

subcompressed, glabrous, ligule membranous,

1.5-3. 5 mm long; blades flat, oblong-lanceolate.

1-10 x 0. 1-0.5 cm, glabrous, margins

scaberulous; apex acute. Panicles pyramidal,

2.5- 7 cm long; rachis slender, glabrous, branches

filiform. Spikeiets ovate-oblong, 3.5-7 x 1-3 mm

long, 3-6 flowered. Lower glume chartaceous,

lanceolate, 1.5-2 mm long, 1 -nerved, glabrous;

apex subacute. Upper glume chartaceous, oblong-

elliptic, 2-3 mm long, 3-nerved, glabrous; apex

obtuse. Lemma chartaceous, elliptic-oblong,

2-3 mm long, 5-nerved, keeled, keels ciliate; apex

obtuse. Palea chartaceous, oblong-lanceolate

1. 5- 2.2 mm long, keeled, keels ciliate; apex

toothed. Lodicules 2. Stamens 3; anthers

0.5-1 mm long.

Rare, found growing in strawberry

plantations at high altitudes.

FI. & Fr.: August-November.

Specimen examined: Salunkhe 8900,

Mahabaleshwar, Satara district.

Acknowledgement

We thank Dr. J.F. Veldkamp,

Rijkesherbarium, Leiden, The Netherlands, for

his help in identification of the taxa.

June 26, 2000 C.B. SALUNKHE

Department of Botany,

Krishna Mahavidyalaya,

Shivnagar 415 108, Maharashtra, India.

S.R. YADAV

Department of Botany,

Shivaji University, Kolhapur 416 004,

Maharashtra, India.

C.R. PATIL

Dattajirao Kadam Mahavidyalaya,

Ichalkaranji 416 115,

Maharashtra, India.

49. TOXIC PHANEROGAMIC PLANTS OF MANIPUR

Manipur, a tiny state in northeast India,

has luxuriant natural flora and fauna. The

indigenous people of Manipur have been using

natural products of plants for food, medicine and

house construction. Primitive man, in his quest

for plants that could provide food, after trial and

error, identified poisonous plants. Many

medicinal plants are also poisonous. The effect

378

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 99(2). AUG. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

varies, depending upon the individual and the

dose taken. However, highly poisonous plants are

those that induce fatal consequences

immediately, or by the cumulative action of the

toxic content even when a small quantity is taken

(Long 1992). Toxic plants may be classified

broadly into three main groups (Thothathri

1985).

i) Poisonous to men and livestock

ii) Poisonous to fishes

iii) Insect repellent plants

Poisonous plants are probably responsible

for greater losses in farm livestock than is

commonly believed. Sometimes they may cause

illness and death of human beings, particularly

villagers who mainly depend on wild plants for

food. From the herbal medicinal practitioners

(Maibas), the traditional use of arrows poison-

tipped with extracts of Arum maculatum L., use

of rootstock for poisoning wild animals and fowls

in hunting or for selfprotection, can be traced to

the tribal population (Sinha 1996). Mass food

poisoning of some villagers due to consumption

of wrong combinations of otherwise edible wild

plants as vegetables, also reveals the poisonous

nature of some plants.

Many villages, mainly the valley and some

parts of the hills of Manipur were surveyed by

us for poisonous plants. The information on the

toxic effects of the plants was obtained through

village elders and priests commonly known as

Maibas (herbal practitioners). During the survey,

the plant parts having toxic effects were collected

and preserved on herbarium sheets. Species were

identified with the help of the Botanical Survey

of India, Shillong, Meghalaya. The Latin names,

local names and family of the collected plant

species are listed in Table 1.

Table 1

POISONOUS PHANEROGAMIC PLANTS OF MANIPUR

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

379

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 1 (contd.)

POISONOUS PHANEROGAMIC PLANTS OF MANIPUR

380

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 1 (contd.)

POISONOUS PHANEROGAMIC PLANTS OF MANIPUR

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

381

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

References

Long, H.C. (1992): The Poisonous Plants. Asiatic ThothathriK. Ratna Sen, D.C. Pal &H.A. Molla( 1995):

Publishing House, Delhi. Selected Poisonous Plants from the tribal area of

Sinha, S.C. (1996): Medicinal Plants of Manipur, Mass India. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta. Pt. I

Publication, Imphal. (Intro).

50. STATUS OF PTERIDOPHYTIC DIVERSITY FROM DEWALTHAL HILLS

OF PITHORAGARH (W. HIMALAYA)

From the taxonomy point of view, the

Himalayan ferns have received considerable

attention during the last century. Information on

the fern vegetation is so far based on the classical

pioneering work of Clarke (1880), Beddome

(1892), Hope (1904) and Duthie (1906). Later,

Khullar (1984), Punetha and Kaur (1987), and

Punetha and Kholia (1989) explored the

pteridophytic diversity and gave a comprehensive

list of ferns and fern-allies of Pithoragarh district.

The Kumaon Himalaya is very rich in

pteridophytic flora because of its varied

topography, climate, soil and vegetation.

Pithoragarh is one of the important districts of

Kumaon Himalayas known as Shor valley, which

is bounded by Nepal and Tibet. However, the

ferns and fern-allies of Dewalthal hills seem to

be neglected. Therefore, the present paper is an

attempt to list ferns and fern-allies of the area.

Physiography and Vegetation: Dewalthal

is situated at an altitude of 1,600 m and is about

22 km away from Pithoragarh. It is surrounded

by mountains varying in elevation from 900-

2,100 m. The main collection sites were

Nakhnoli (1,400 m); Chammu (1,100 m);

Pukhrora (1,300 m); Kakragar (1,200 m); Lori

(2,100 m); Jingal (1,500 m); Dewalthal (1,600

m) and Surun (1,900 m).

The ground vegetation is covered with a

more or less dense crop of grasses during rains.

The mountain slopes are covered with forests of

chir and oak. Near Rin, Chammu and Jingal

forest patches of Pinus longifolia are interspersed

with terraced fields. Between 1,500-1,800 m are

mixed forests of Quercus leucotrichophora.

Rhododendron arboreum , Lyonia ovalifolia,

Myrica escidenta with bushes of Phyrocantha

cranulata , Rhus parviflora , Myrsine africana ,

Rubus ellipticus , Woodfordia floribunda which

give a prominent character to vegetation. The

ground cover constitutes Flemenzia fruticosa ,

Heteropogon contortus and Themeda anathera

among others. At higher elevations, the typical

associates of Quercus leucotrichophora are

Rhododendron arboreum , Myrica esculenta ,

Quercus glauca. The ground cover includes

Berberis asiatica, Myrsine africana and Deutzia

staminea among others.

Enumeration of the Tax a

Seventy species of ferns and fern-allies

representing 38 genera and 22 families have

been listed. The arrangement of families of ferns

follows mainly Pichi-Sermolli ( 1 977) with minor

modification and that of fern-allies follows

Ching (1978). All the species and genera under

each family are arranged alphabetically with

their latest nomenclature. The specimen number

and name of locality are given for each taxon.

The voucher specimens are deposited in the

herbarium of the Department of Botany, Kumaon

University Campus, Almora (ALM)

Uttaranchal, India.

Family: Selaginellaceae Milde

Selaginella bryopteris (Linn.) Bak.;

Kushani; 1,600 m (3113).

S. chrysocaulos (Hook, et Grev.) Spring;

Pukhrora; 1,400 m (3115).

S. delicatula (Desv. ex Poir) Alston;

Lamtari; 1,400 in (3117).

S. exigua Spring; Jingal; 1,350 m (3120).

S. involvens (Sw.) Spring; Jingal; 1,350m

(3122).

S. sanguinalenta f. indica (Mild.) Alston;

382

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Rinbichhul; 1,500 m (2290).

Family: Equisetaceae

L. C. Richard ex De Candolle

Equisetum diffusum D.Don; Mailkhet;

I, 600 m (3124).

Family: Ophioglossaceae (R. Br.) Agarhdh

Ophioglossum reticulatum Linn.; Kalsin

Temple; 1,400 m (3125).

Family: Loxogrammaceae Ching ex Pic.-Ser.

Loxogramme involuta (D. Don) Presl.;

Koraltara; 2,000 m (3203).

Family: Polypodiaceae Bercht. et Presl

Arthromeris wallichiana (Spr.) Ching;

Lori; 1,900 m (3128).

Drynaria propinqua (Wall, ex Mett.) J.

Sm.; Lori; 1,900 m (3131).

Goniophlehium amoenum (Wall, ex Mett.)

J. Sm.; Dharamghar; 2,100 m (3151).

G. argutum (Wall, ex Mett.) J. Sm.; Lori;

1,900 m (3155).

Lepisorus amaurolepidus (Sledge) Bir &

Trikha; Lori; 1,900 m (3124).

L. excavatus (Willd.) Ching; Lori; 1,900

m (3137).

L. mehrae Fras. Jenk.; Kuchha; 2,000 m

(3140).

L. nudus (Hook.) Ching; Kakra; 1,800 m

(3157).

Microsorium membranaceum (D.Don)

Ching; Dharamghar; 2,100 m (3145).

Phymatopteris oxyloba (Wall, ex Kze) Pic.-

Ser.; Dharamghar; 2,100 m (3148).

Pyrrosia flocculosa (D.Don) Ching; Kapri-

Gao; 1,660 m (2987).

P. manni (Gies.) Ching; Gwata; 1,700 m

(2985).

P. porosa (Presl) Hovenkamp; Kushani;

1,800 m (2980).

P. stigmosa (Sw.) Ching; Kushani; 1,800

m (2975).

Family: Lygodiaceae C. Presl

Lygodium flexuosum (Linn.) Sw.; Lamtari;

1,400 m (2973).

L.japonicum (Thunb.) Sw.; Lamtari; 1,400

m (2970).

Family: Sinopteridaceae Koidz

Cheilanthus bullosa Kunze; Chaupata;

1,600 m (2965).

C. dalhousiae Hook.; Bishonakhan; 1,300

m (2970).

C. rufa D.Don; Dewalthal; 1,800 m (2961).

Family: Cryptogrammaceae Pic.-Ser.

Onychium cryptogrammoides Christ;

Kushani; 1,700 m (2974).

Family: Pteridaceae Ching

Pteris cretica Linn.; Pukhrora; 1,600 m

(2756).

P. stenophylla Wall, ex Hook, et Grev.;

Pukhrora; 1,600 m (2759).

P. subquinata Wail, ex Ag.; Pukhrora,

1,600 m (2757).

P. vittata Linn.; Bishonakhan; 1,500 m

(2756).

P wallichiana Ag.; Bishonakhan; 1,500 m

(2754).

Family: Adiantaceae (Pr.) Ching

Adiantum capillus-veneris Linn.; Surun;

1,900m (2738).

A. edgeworthii Hook.; Jingai; 1,400 m

(2755).

A. incisum Forssk.; Manichhina; 1,600 m

(2763).

A. lunulatum Burm. f.; Ghattgara; 1,600

m (2118).

Family: Hemionitidaceae Pic.-Ser.

Gymnopteris vestita (Wall, ex Presl) Und.;

Lori; 2,100 m (3129).

Family: Hymenophyllaceae Link

Crepidomanes insigne (Bosch.) Fu;

Nagrora; 2,000 m (3129).

Family: Hypolepidaceae Pic.-Ser.

Hypolepis glandulifera Brownsey et

Chinnock; Jingai, 1,400 m (2290).

Pteridium aqulinum (Linn.) Kuhn.;

Kushani; 1,600 m (3974).

Family: Lindsaeaceae Pic.-Ser.

Sphenomeris chinensis (Linn.) Maxon;

Koraltara; 2,400m (3142).

Family: Thelypteridaceae (C. Presl) Pic.-Ser.

Ampelopteris prolifera (Retz.) Copel.;

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 99(2), AUG. 2002

383

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Devinagar; 1,200 m (3209).

Christella arida (D.Don) Holtt.; Charma;

1,200 m (3144).

C. dentata (Forssk.) Brownsey et Jermy;

Bungachhina; 1,600 m (2144).

Cyclogramma auriculata (J. Sm.) Ching;

Chaupata; 1,500 m (3127).

Glaphyropteridopsis erubescens (Wall, ex

Hook.) Ching; Charma; 1,600 m (3183).

Stegnogramma pozoi (Lag.) K. Iwats.;

Jingal; 1,400 m (2198).

Family: Aspleniaceae Mett. ex Frank

Asplenium dalhousiae Hook.; Pukhrora;

1,600 m (2768).

A. trichomanes Linn.; Dharamghar; 2,000

m (2263).

A. varians Wall, ex Hook, et Grev.;

Pukhrora; 1,600 m (2768).

Family: Athyriaceae Ching

Athyrium anisopterum Christ; Lori; 2,000

m (3129).

A. pectinatum Presl; Kaprigao; 1,600 m

(3116).

A. schimperi Moug. ex Fee; Dewalthal;

1,700 m (2959).

Deplazium esculentum (Retz.) Sw.;

Rinbichhul; 1,500 m (2949).

D. frondosum (Clarke) Christ; Dewalthal;

1,700 m (2959).

Hypodematium crenatum (Forssk.) Kuhn.;

Lawanthi; 1,600 m (2186).

Family: Aspidiaceae Mett. ex Frank

Dryopteris caroli-hopei Fras.-Jenk.; Bajat;

1,650 m (2172).

D. chrysocoma (Christ) C. Chr.; Koraltora;

2,100 m (3140).

D. cochleata (Ham. ex D.Don) C. Chr.;

Kushani; 1,600 m (2133).

D. juxtaposita Christ; Guroli; 1,800 m

(3132).

Polystichum discretum (D. Don) J. Sm.;

Suron; 1,900 m (2162).

P. mehrae Fras.-Jenk. et Khullar;

Manichhina; 1,900 m (2747).

P. squarrosum (D. Don) Fee; Bajat; 1,700

m (2751).

Tectaria coadunata (J. Sm.) C. Chr.;

Melapani; 1,500 m (2177).

Family: Nephrolepidaceae (Ching) Pic.-Ser.

Nephrolepis auriculata (Linn.) Trimen;

Sualekh; 1,600m (2283).

Oleandra wallichii (Hook.) Presl; Lori;

2,100m (3136).

Family: Davalliaceae Mett. ex Ching

Araiostegia pseudocystopteris (Kze.)

Copel.; Lori; 2,100 m (2137).

Family: Blechnaceae (Presl) Copel.

Woodwardia unigemmata (Mak.) Nakai;

Patarora; 1,500 m (3102).

Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful to the Director,

NBRI, Lucknow, India for providing labo-

ratory facilities. Thanks are also due to DST,

New Delhi and UPCST, Lucknow for financial

assistance.

April 22, 2000 H.C. PANDE

R.C. PANDE*

MRITTUNJAI SRIVASTAVA

Taxonomy and Biodiversity Division,

National Botanical Research Institute,

Lucknow 226 001, Uttar Pradesh,

India.

*Department of Botany,

Kumaon University Campus,

Almora 263 601, Uttaranchal,

India.

References

Beddome, R.H. ( 1 892): Handbook to the Ferns of British Ching, R.C. ( 1 978): The Chinese fern families and genera:

India, Ceylon and Malaya Peninsula. With suppl., Systematic arrangements and historical origin. Acta

Thacker Spink & Co., Calcutta. Phytotax. Sinica 16(3): 1-19; 16(4): 1 6-37.

384

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 99(2). AUG. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Clarke, C.B. (1880): A review of the ferns of Northern

India. Trans. Linn. Soc. London II Bot. /: 425-611.

Duthie, J.F. (1906): Cat. Plants of Kumaon. (Reprint)

Bishen Singh and Mahendra Pa! Singh, Delira Dun,

1974.

Hope, C.W. (1904): The ferns of northwestern India.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 15: 78-111, S 15-419.

Khullar, S.P. (1984): The Ferns of W. Himalayas — A

Few Additions, Corrections and Annotations.

Indian Fern J. 66: 21-24.

Pichi-Sermolli, R.E.G. (1977): Tentamen

Pteridophytorum Genera in Taxonomicum

Ordineum Redigendi. Webbia 33(2): 313-512.

Punetha, N. & B.S. Kholia (1989): Addition to the

Pteridophytic Flora of Pithoragarh District of

Kumaon (W. Himalayas). New Botanica 14: 115-

126.

Punetha, N. & S. Kaur (1987): Pteridophytic flora of

Pithoragarh district of Kumaon (W. Himalayas).

J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 9: 269-289.

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BOARD OF EDITORS

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titles of books or papers in roman type, thus:

Aluri, Raju J.S. & C. Subha Reddi ("1995): Ecology of the pollination in two cat-mint

species. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92(1): 63-66.

Prater, S.H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay Natural History Society,

Mumbai, pp. 35-48.

6. Each paper should be accompanied by an abstract, normally not exceeding 200 words,

and 6-8 key words. Key words should include the scientific names of important species

discussed.

7. 25 reprints will be supplied free of cost to authors of main articles and new descriptions.

Authors of miscellaneous notes, will be sent a free copy of the Journal.

8. The editors reserve the right, other things being equal, to publish a member’s contribution

earlier than a non-member’s.

9. For the standardised common and scientific names of the birds of the Indian subcontinent

refer to Buceros Vol. 6, No. 1 (2001).

Hornbill House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road

Mumbai 400 023.

Editors,

Journal of the Bombay

Natural History Society

VOLUME 99 (3): DECEMBER

CONTENTS

EDITORIAL 387

THE VERTICAL STRATIFICATION OF BIRDS IN MIXED SPECIES FLOCKS AT

PARAMBIKULAM, SOUTH INDIA: A COMPARISON BETWEEN TWO HABITATS

By V.V. Robin and Priya Davidar 389

ACTIVITY SCHEDULE AND HABITAT USE OF THE SLENDER LORIS

LORIS TARDIGRADUS LYDEKKER1ANUS

By Sindhu Radhakrishna and Mewa Singh 400

PLANT SELECTION FOR NESTING BY OECOPHYLLA SMARAGDJNA,

HYMENOPTERA: FORMICIDAE: DO PHYSICAL FEATURES AFFECT THE

CHOICE OF THE PLANT?

By N. Sumithramrna, A.R.V. Kumar, K. Chandrashekara and D. Rajagopal 408

STATUS OF BENGAL FLORICAN HOUBAROPSIS BENGALENSIS IN ROYAL B ARDIA

NATIONAL PARK, NEPAL

( With two text-figures)

By Nabin Baral, Bij ay Tam an g and Nilesh Timilsina 413

ABUNDANCE AND DIVERSITY OF MOSS COMMUNITIES OF CHOPTA-TUNGANATH

IN THE GARHWAL HIMALAYA

( With seven text-figures)

By Hans Raj Negi , 418

STATUS, ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF NARCONDAM HORNBILL {ACEROS

NARCONDAMI) IN NARCONDAM ISLAND, ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR

ISLANDS, INDIA

( With three text-figures)

By H.S.A. Yahya and Ashfaq Ahmed Zarri 434

NOTES ON NEW RECORDS OF HOOKTIP MOTHS, LEPIDOPTERA: DREPANIDAE,

FROM THE KUMAON AND GARHWAL HIMALAYA

By Peter Smetacek 446

REVISION OF FIVE KNOWN SPECIES OF FAMILY ASSAMIDAE, LANIATORES:

OPILIONES, ON THE BASIS OF TYPES AND IDENTIFIED SPECIMENS

DEPOSITED IN THE ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA NATIONAL

COLLECTION, BY ROEWER (191 1-1939)

( With forty-five text-figures)

By D.B. Bastawade 455

CLADOCERAN FAUNA OF MALDA DISTRICT, WEST BENGAL

By S.V.A. Chandrasekhar and Tapas Chatterjee 467

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW SPECIES OF AMBLYANTHUS A. DC., FAMILY MYRSINACEAE, FROM

ARUNACHAL PRADESH, INDIA

( With one text-figure)

By G.S. Giri, S.K. Das and H.J. Chowdhery

471

A NEW SPECIES OF PUNTIUS HAMILTON (PISCES: CYPRINIDAE) FROM

KALAKAD MUND AN THURAI TIGER RESERVE, TAMIL NADU, INDIA

( With three text-figures)

By M. Arunachalam and J.A. Johnson 474

TWO NEW SPECIES OF PUNTIID FISH FROM THE YU RIVER SYSTEM OF MANIPUR

( With two text-figures)

By Laifrakpam Arunkumar and Hijam Tombi Singh 481

DESCRIPTION OF A NEW IDIOCERINE GENUS PERIACERUS, HEMIPTERA:

CICADELLIDAE, AND TWO NEW SPECIES FROM INDIA AND SRI LANKA

( With twenty-nine text-figures)

By C.A. Viraktamath and C. Parvathi 488

MELICERTUS SIMILIS, A NEW SPECIES OF PRAWN, DECAPODA: PENAEIDAE,

FROM INDIA

( With six text-figures)

By Angsuman Chanda and Tanmay Bhattacharya 495

REVIEWS

1. MEDICINAL PLANTS

Reviewed by Naresh Chaturvedi 499

2. MONITORING TIGERS AND THEIR PREY: A MANUAL FOR RESEARCHERS,

MANAGERS AND CONSERVATIONISTS IN TROPICAL ASIA

Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani 499

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

MAMMALS

1. Pale hedgehog Paraechinus micropus in

southeast Rajasthan

By Rakesh Vyas 501

2. Sighting of the smooth otter ( Lutra

perspicillata) in Nagai district along the Bay

of Bengal Coast, Tamil Nadu State

By G. Agoramoorthy and Minna J. Hsu 501

3. Identification of dorsal guard hairs of striped

hyena Hyaena hyaena (Linnaeus, 1758)

Hyaenidae: Carnivora: Mammalia

By J.K. De and R. Chakraborty 502

4. The status of gaur Bos gaurus in north Cachar

Hills district of Assam

By Anwaruddin Choudhury 506

5 . Distribution and status of the gaur Bos gaurus

in Nagaland

By Anwaruddin Choudhury 509

6. Albino gaur at the Nagarhole National Park,

Karnataka

By S.G. Neginhal 512

7. Occurrence of the wild water buffalo Bubaius

arnee in Mizoram and Manipur

By Anwaruddin Choudhury 512

BIRDS

8. Grey heron Ardea cinerea scavenging on

cattle carcass

By Bishwarup Raha 516

9. Attempt by a cattle egret Bubulcus ibis

coromandus to feed on an adult house shrew

Suncus murinus (Linn.)

By Ashish Shukla 517

1 0. Occurrence of northern shoveller Anas clypeata

Linn, in Kole wetlands ofThrissur, Kerala

By C. Sivaperuman and E.A. Jayson 517

11. Black-shouldered Kite Elanus caeruleus

vociferus (Latham) preying on wood

sandpiper Tringa giareola Linnaeus

By C. Sivaperuman and E.A. Jayson 518

12. Leaf-presenting as possible courtship

behaviour by pied falconets Microhierax

melanoleucos

By Desmond Allen, Paul I. Holt and

Jon Hornbuckle 518

13. Unusual association between a pair of sarus

cranes Grus anti gone and Siberian crane Grus

leucogeranus at Keoladeo National Park,

Bharatpur

By Gargi and Vibhu Prakash 520

u

1 4. Observations of squatting posture adopted by

Chlamydotis undulata (Jaquin)

By M.K. Himmatsinhji 522

15. A breeding colony of river tern Sterna

aurantia, small pratincole Glareola lactea

and red-wattled lapwing Vanellus indicus at

Lonavla

By S. Unnithan and G.V.K. Unnithan 522

16. Ruddy turnstone Arenaria interpres Linn, at

Phulera lake, Rajasthan

By Harkirat Singh Sangha and

Harsh Vardhan 525

1 7. Occurrence of the Indian skimmer Rhynchops

albicollis Swainson in Assam

By Maan Barua 526

1 8. Blue rock pigeons foraging on tamarind leaves

By Satyasheel N. Naik 527

19. Unusual nesting material in the nest of blue

rock pigeon Columba livia Gmelin

By V.P. Soniya 527

20. Oriental turtle-dove Streptopelia orientalis :

a new species for the Thar Desert

By Harkirat Singh Sangha and

Rishad Naoroji 528

21. Breeding record of the Sykes’s nightjar

Caprimulgus mahrattensis (Sykes) in Harike,

Punjab, India

By Mihir N. Devare 528

22. Sight records of the sand martin Riparia

riparia in southern India

By V. Santharam 529

23. Possible new record of Sturnus malabaricus

blythii in Valsad district, Gujarat

By Piyush Patel 531

24. Sturmis malabaricus blythii in Gujarat State

By B.M. Parasharya, S.N. Varu, C.K. Borad

and Aeshita Mukherjee 532

25. House- crow Corvus splendens Vieillot

feeding on midges

By Muhammed Jafer Palot and

V.P. Soniya 533

26. Sight record of the little pied flycatcher

Ficedula westermanni Sharpe in Andhra

Pradesh

By C. Srinivasulu 534

27. Blue-throated flycatcher Cyornis

rubeculoides Vigors in the Thar Desert

By Harkirat Singh Sangha and

Rishad Naoroji 534

28. Unusual behaviour of purple sunbird

Nectarinia asiatica

By A. Shivaprakash 535

29. Sightings of ortolan bunting Emberiza

hortulana at the grassland around Gangapur,

Nasik

By Bishwarup Raha and S.R. Gudsoorkar .... 536

3 0 . Sighting of the rock bunting Emberiza cia Linn,

in Ranthambore National Park, Rajasthan

By Anish P. Andheria 536

31. Fruit and nectar resources in a Moist

Deciduous Forest and their use by birds —

A preliminary report

By V. Santharam 537

BOTANY

32. Cleome scaposa DC., Capparaceae — A rare

species for Saurashtra

By P.S. Nagar 543

33. Occurrence of Hibiscus radiatus Cav.

(Malvaceae) in Punjab

By M. Sharma 544

34. Extended distribution of two rare and

endangered taxa from Tirunelveli Hills,

Western Ghats, Tamil Nadu

By C. Murugan, V.S. Manickam,

M.M. Josephine and V. Sundaresan 545

35. Occurrence of Butea monosperma var. lutea

(Witt.) Maheshwari in Rajasthan

By Satish Kumar Sharma 547

36. Notes on the distribution of Bauhinia

wallichii Macbr. and B. ovatifolia T. Chen,

Leguminosae: Caesalpinioideae

By S. Bandyopadhyay 547

37. Pits with inflated trichomes on under surface

of leaves of Bauhinia malabarica Roxb.,

Leguminosae: Caesalpinioideae

By S. Bandyopadhyay 548

38. Seedling morphology of Bauhinia foveolata

Dalz., Leguminosae: Caesalpinioideae

By S. Bandyopadhyay 551

39. Syzygium neesianum Arn. (Myrtaceae) — An

addition to the Indian Flora

By C. Murugan, V.S. Manickam and

V. Sundaresan 553

40. Some new records of Asteraceae for the state

of Maharashtra

By C.B. Salunkhe, V.B. Shimpale,

M.M. Sardesai and S.R. Yadav 555

41. Emending of an endemic and critically

endangered species Cinnamomum

walaiwarense Kosterm., Family Lauraceae, of

Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, India

By M.B. Viswanathan and U. Manikandan ... 557

42. A note on the additional host range for the

genus Korthasella van Tiegh. Family

Loranthaceae, from Nilgiris, southern India

By V.S. Ramachandran and S. Paul Raj 560

43. Rediscovery of a critically endangered

species Phyllanthus beddomei (Gamble)

Mohanan, Euphorbiaceae, from Kalakad-

Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve in India

By M.B. Viswanathan, N. Ramesh,

M. Maridass and U. Manikandan 560

iii

44. Rediscovery of Phyllanthus rotundifolius

Klein ex Willd., Euphorbiaceae, after 101

years (1899-2000) in Kanchipuram district,

Tamil Nadu, South India

By Fr. K.T. Augustine S.J 562

45. Additions to the orchid flora of Maharashtra

By M.M. Sardesai, M.P. Bachulkar and

S.R. Yadav 564

46. Additions to the flora of Karnataka

By K. Gopalakrishna Bhat 566

47. Some new records for the state of

Maharashtra

By M.M. Sardesai, S.P. Gaikwad,

S.M. Bhuskute and S.R. Yadav 567

48. Additions to the grasses of Maharashtra

By C.B. Salunkhe and S.R. Yadav 569

49. Vegetation and phenoaynamics of wetlands of

central Rajasthan

By S.K. Vijay and T.N. Bhardwaja 573

50. Typhonium horsfieldii (Miq.) Steenis, Family

Araceae, a new report for India

By K. Sasikala, E. Vajravelu and P. Daniel .. 581

5 1 . Lectotypification of Polystichum squarrosum

(D. Don) Fee var. beddomei Manickam &

Rajkumar, Family Dryopteridaceae

By S. Dominic Rajkumar 583

52. A comparative study on the reproductive

biology of three Indian species of Marsileci

By T.S. Joseph and C.B. Gena 583

53. A comparative eco-anatomical study on the

rhizome of three Indian Marsileas

By T.S. Joseph and C.B. Gena 587

Cover: Bird paintings by Carl D’Silva and

J.P. Irani ©BNFIS

IV

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are grateful to the Ministry of Science and Technology,

Govt of India,

FOR ENHANCED FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE JOURNAL.

CITATION OF I C/EC NUMBERS FOR GENETIC MATERIALS

It is brought to our notice by the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR),

Pusa Campus, New Delhi 110 012, India, that authors writing papers on particular plant

materials (genetic materials) should indicate IC numbers for Indigenous Collections and

EC numbers for Exotic Collections. Authors can directly procure these single accession

numbers for each genetic material from NBPGR. In the present Intellectual Property

Rights regime, it is in our national interest that all the germplasm material possess a

single national accession number.

Authors are therefore requested to procure IC/EC numbers from NBPGR and state them

on the manuscript, without which papers will not be accepted for publication.

Editors

/

Editorial

Think of common birds also

With a few exceptions, the Indian parliamentarians are not known for their concern

for nature. It was a pleasant surprise when the Bombay Natural History Society

(BNHS) received an urgent request from the officials of the Ministry of Environment and

Forests, Government of India to help formulate a reply to a question on the status of the

house sparrow ( Passer domes ticus). A concerned Member of Parliament (MP) wants to

know what is happening to the ubiquitous house sparrow. The honourable MP had read

somewhere that the house sparrow is decreasing in many countries such as the United

Kingdom. He wanted to know “Is it true that in India also the sparrow population is

decreasing, and if so, what steps does the Government propose to take to check the decline?”

We regularly hear about the destruction of nature and the alarming decrease in the

number of rare species. This has made us almost unconcerned with the fate of the so-called

common birds. We are taking it for granted that our common birds are still common. But

is this the case? The sudden and dramatic decline in the number of Gyps species of vultures

in South Asia, first reported by the BNHS, has proved that no species, no matter what its

population is (or was), is safe. The vultures came into focus because they are large,

conspicuous and were found in very high numbers in north India and their decrease was

noticed even by the common man. But, what about the slow but steady decline of the Asian

paradise flycatcher ( Terpsiphone pciradisi) in central India or the river tern (, Sterna aurantia)

in the Gangetic plains or the common iora (Aegithina tiphia) in Western Ghats. Has any

one given attention to these so-called common and widespread species? Are they still

found in the same numbers as they were 20 years ago? Is anyone collecting long term data?

Unfortunately, the answer to all these questions is a resounding ‘No’. We have no idea

what is happening to our common birds. We have no long-term monitoring system. Our

ignorance has created complacency bordering on apathy.

With massive urbanization, pollution, pesticides, change in agricultural practices,

and increase in the number of crows, dogs and cats, the impact on common birds is great

but undocumented. The house sparrow has disappeared from many metropolitan cities due

to decrease in open areas and change in the architecture of houses (leaving less nesting

sites). The innocent-looking domestic cat is not so harmless. Despite being well fed,

sometimes overfed, by indulgent owners, its instinct teaches it to kill any small bird or

mammals it can get hold of.

Our common garden birds, such as the ashy prinia {Prinia social is), common tailor

bird ( Orthotomus sutorius) and purple sunbird (. Nectarinia asiatica) are not safe if a cat is

prowling around. Thanks to misguided animal-rights activists, there are too many cats

and dogs lurking around in our cities, taking a heavy toll of urban wildlife.

The impact of pesticides, correctly termed as biocides, on birds is largely unknown

in India. There is no Rachel Carson in India to tell us how many silent springs have passed

since our Independence, how many birds have stopped singing. This is one field, which is

open to universities and institutes for research.

The BNHS is conducting the Important Bird Areas (IBA) programme, and has

established the Indian Bird Conservation Network (IBCN). IBAs are sites of international

significance for bird conservation, and part of an integrated approach to conservation that

embraces site, species and habitat protection.

The IBCN (www.ibcnetwork.org) is a network of Indian organizations and individuals

who collaborate to promote the conservation of birds in India and the conservation of

biological diversity as a whole through IBCN members. This Network will help in gathering

data on common birds as well.

While collecting data for the IBA programme of the BNHS, funded by the Royal

Society for the Protection of Birds, and sponsored by the BirdLife International, the IBA

team has collated a huge amount of secondary data on birds. While we could collate data

on rare species, there is practically no good scientific data on supposedly common birds.

At the most, for many sites, we have presence/absence information, sometimes of a dubious

nature. People still loosely use the terms ‘common’ ‘uncommon’, ‘rare’ without giving an

explanation. There is no quantification; therefore, comparing data across years and across

sites becomes difficult.

In the United Kingdom, with perhaps the largest number of bird watchers in the

world, the British Trust for Ornithology (BTO) is collecting data on common birds for the

last 60 years through hundreds of thousands of volunteers. Based on this data, the BTO

can say what is happening to UK’s birds. Good data leads to good decisions.

In India, monitoring of common birds is urgently required. The BNHS is planning

to start such a scheme with the cooperation of IBCN members and interested ornithologists.

Under the IBA project, the Society has already organized twelve highly successful bird

census workshops, involving more than 350 people, all over the country. Many more are

planned in the coming months. Through these workshops we want to familiarize our IBCN

and BNHS members with basic bird census methodologies, so that quantifiable data can be

collected on common birds. The scheme is being worked out, so if you have any suggestions,

please write to us.

ASAD R. RAHMANI

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

December 2002

Vol. 99

No. 3

THE VERTICAL STRATIFICATION OF BIRDS IN MIXED SPECIES FLOCKS

AT PARAMBIKULAM, SOUTH INDIA:

A COMPARISON BETWEEN TWO HABITATS1

V.V. Robin2’3 and Priya Davidar2

Key words: Mixed avian foraging flocks, mixed hunting party, Parambikulam,

insectivorous flocks, vertical stratification, moist deciduous forest, teak plantation

The vertical stratification of mixed species flocks of birds was compared between moist deciduous

forest and teak plantations at Parambikulam, South India. The foraging height, number of species,

number of individuals, foraging substrate, and foraging manoeuvre were noted using five minute

scan samples. The mean foraging heights of all species of birds were significantly different

between the two habitats. The foraging height of drongos and minivets was higher in moist

deciduous forest compared to teak plantations. There was also a shift by a few birds in the use of

branches as a substrate in moist deciduous forest, to twigs in teak plantations, but no such trend

was seen in the use of foraging manoeuvre,

understanding of the behaviour of these flocks.

Introduction

Interspecific or mixed-species bird flocks

are a widely occurring phenomenon that has

attracted the attention of biologists for more than

a century (Bates 1863). A mixed-species flock

has been defined as “any group of two or more

birds whose formation depends upon positive

responses by individuals to members of their own

or other species” (Morse 1970). Mixed-species

flocks can be of many types (Morse 1977, Powell

1989) from small to large, composed of a few to

many species, the species composition being

consistent or variable, the number of individuals

‘Accepted September, 2001

2Salim Ali School of Ecology and Environmental Science,

Pondicherry University, Pondicherry 605 014, India.

’Present Address: Centre for Ecological Sciences,

Indian Institute of Science,

Bangalore 560 012, Karnataka, India.

A long-term study is suggested for a deeper

per species may be even or markedly uneven;

the associations of the component individuals

may be ephemeral, enduring only a few minutes

or hours, or nearly permanent (Terborgh 1990).

Over a century of work on mixed-species

flocks, various aspects have been studied. The

two major hypotheses to explain the formation

of mixed-species flocks (MSF) are: 1) feeding

enhancement and 2) predator avoidance. Feeding

advantages can be obtained in various ways.

Some birds in mixed species flocks may capture

insects that the members, as a whole, flush

during their movement (Winterbottom 1943,

Morse 1970). Birds in mixed-species flocks

minimize duplication of effort by not searching

for food in places already searched (Morse 1977).

They are also able to exploit food resources

otherwise not accessible, by copying the activities

of others (Krebs 1973) and by social learning

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

389

VERTICAL STRA TIFICATION OF BIRDS IN MIXED SPECIES FLOCKS

(Greig-Smith 1978). They avoid predators in

various ways (Morse 1977). The detection of the

predator is enhanced by the “more eyes

hypothesis”. Predators also may not be able to

single out a prey due to “confusion effect”.

The participants of mixed-species flocks

have been classified as “nuclear” and “followers”

or “attendants” (Greig-Smith 1978). When some

species participate in flocks, various adjustments

are made in order to reduce inter-specific

competition and/or increase in foraging success.

Many species increase their foraging success by

copying nuclear or other species (Valburg 1992,

Eguchi and Yamagishi 1993, Latta and Wunderle

1996).

Although a wealth of information is

available on flocks from neotropical and

temperate regions, very little is known of

paleotropical flocks, especially from Asia (Jepson

1 987). Studies of Asian flocks are restricted to

Japan (Ogasawara 1965), Sarawak (Croxall

1976), Burma (Stanford 1947) and India

(MacDonald and Henderson 1977, Vijayan 1989,

Pramod pers. comm.). The flocks of the Western

Ghats, India are very poorly understood, with

information only from Vijayan (1984), Vijayan

(1989) and Pramod (pers. comm.). While Vijayan

(1984) demonstrated the shift in the use of

vertical strata in three species of drongos in each

others’ presence, Pramod (pers. comm.) showed

that the flocks in Silent Valley preferentially used

the undergrowth and canopy, and characterised

the species of 45 flocks into ‘leading’ and

‘following’ based on vocalisation.

It has also been found that the foraging

height of some birds changes when they are

present in a flock (Croxal 1976, MacDonald and

Henderson 1977, Eguchi and Yamagishi 1993,

Herrera 1979, Jones 1979, Latta and Wunderle

1 996). However, there is hardly any information

on the stratification of all birds in a flock, which

may be a critical factor in determining various

aspects of flocks, like inter-specific competition

and the maximum number of birds and/or species

that can be present in a flock. The habitat

structure might also play an important role in

the stratification of the flocks. In order to test

these hypotheses, this study was undertaken at

Parambikulam in Kerala, which has a large

section of teak plantations and moist deciduous

forests with no information available on the

mixed species flocks inhabiting them.

The specific objectives of this study were:

1. To examine whether there exists any

difference in the vertical stratification of

birds in mixed-species flocks of two

different habitats; teak plantation and

moist deciduous forest.

2. To examine the probable causes of the

difference in vertical stratification.

Study Area

Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary (76° 35-

76° 50' E and 10° 20’- 10° 26' N), Western Ghats,

Kerala is spread over 398 sq. km. It is a wide

valley between the Nelliampathy hill ranges to

the north and the Anamalais to the south.

The intensive study area consisted of

valleys such as Tunacadavu, Tellickal and

Parambikulam, with Parambikulam Valley being

the largest in the Sanctuary.

The average annual rainfall is 1,723 mm,

varying between 1,178 and 2,268 mm. The

maximum temperature fluctuates between 24°

and 33° C and the minimum between 20° and

25° C. February to April are the hottest months

with low relative humidity.

Vegetation

The sanctuary exhibits a mosaic of

vegetation, broadly classified based on Champion

and Seth (1968) into Southern Tropical Wet

Evergreen, Southern Tropical Semi-evergreen,

Southern Tropical Moist Deciduous and

Southern Tropical Dry Deciduous (Vairavel

1998).

390

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

VER TICAL STRA TIFICA TION OF BIRDS IN MIXED SPECIES FLOCKS

Moist Deciduous Forests

Moist Deciduous Forests occur between

400-1,000 m elevation covering almost 60 sq.

km in the Sanctuary. The top canopy remains

leafless between March and May. Most teak

plantations were raised after clear felling these

forests.

Teak plantations

Teak plantations cover an area of c.100

sq. km. The stands are of different ages, planted

between 1916 and 1982 (Vairavel 1998). The

undergrowth in many plantations has been

cleared for various purposes.

Methodology

Mixed-species flock

A reconnaissance of the area was done to

identify different trek paths and trails to be used.

A mixed-species foraging flock was identified

after verifying the sighting for two minutes. Five-

minute scan samples were made on each flock; a

maximum of three such observations were taken

with two minute intervals (Altmann 1974) from

the time of flock identification.

Different trails and paths were followed

every day in order to obtain sufficient replicates.

However, parts of a few trails might have been

walked more than once. The foraging height of

each individual bird, substrate used (trunk,

branch, twig, foliage and ground), foraging

manoeuvre exhibited (broadly classified under

fly-catching, gleaning, probing and flycatcher-

gleaning), and number of species and number of

conspecifics were recorded. Occurrences of

aggressive behaviour and individuals closely

following other individuals were noted.

Vegetation

Ten 10 m x 10 m plots were laid in both

teak plantations and moist deciduous forests.

Plots were laid alternately at 15 m to the right

and left of the trail, at 100m intervals. In every

plot, the number of trees present (> 1 0 cm gbh),

the maximum height and gbh of every tree were

recorded. For each tree, the height of the

first twig and the first branch present were

noted.

Presence or absence of foliage on a tree

was noted every 2 m, from 2 m to the maximum

height of the tree. In order to quantify the shrub

or undergrowth, every 10 m x 10 m quadrate

was divided into 25 cells measuring 2 m x 2 m.

The maximum height of the shrub/undergrowth

in each such cell was noted.

Analysis

All analysis was done using SPSS version 7.5.

Results and Discussion

One hundred flocks were spotted in the

teak plantation and 188 observations (of five

minute scans) were made on them. For the same

number of flocks spotted in the Moist Deciduous

Forest, 178 observations were made. Since the

number of observations for each flock varied from

one to three, each observation was taken as a

unit for analysis. A total number of 6 1 species of

birds and two species of primates were found in

Moist Deciduous Forest and 57 species of birds

and one species of giant squirrel (Ratufa indica)

was found in teak plantations (Appendix 1). It

has to be noted that different species of warblers

and flower-peckers were not recorded to the

species level due to difficulty in identification.

Spending more time to identify these species

could have resulted in missing other species.

Common golden-backed woodpecker Dinopium

javanense and lesser golden-backed woodpecker

Dinopium benghalense were together considered

as “golden-backed woodpecker” due to unclear

identifications in the initial stages of the

fieldwork. However, since they work as a guild

(gleaners and probers), the problem in sampling

may not be very significant in a mixed species

foraging flock.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

391

VERTICAL STRA T1FICA TION OF BIRDS IN MIXED SPECIES FLOCKS

Of all the birds in both habitats (Appendix

1), only 10 species (Table 1) were common

(>11%) to both the habitats. The foraging heights

of all birds in both the habitats were compared

using t-test and showed that the birds forage

significantly higher in Moist Deciduous Forests

(P^O.QOO) (Table 2). The data on 10 common

species was used for analysis of vertical

stratification. There seemed to be a definite trend

in the vertical stratification of birds. Forty-five

different combinations of the ten common species

were analysed for variability in foraging height

using paired sample t-test for the various

combinations (Table 3). Most combinations of

species (97%) showed that mutually exclusive

foraging heights are used by most species except

the following: white-bellied drongo Dicrurus

caerulescens occupied similar heights as the

bronzed drongo Dicrurus aeneus (P=0.346) and

velvet-fronted nuthatch Sitta frontalis (P=0.803);

large woodshrike Tephrodornis gularis had

foraging heights similar to scarlet minivet

Pericrocotus flammeus (P=0.406) and white-

bellied drongo (P=0.611); great tit Parus major

shared its foraging height with the bronzed

drongo (P=0.8 1 3) (Table 3). The greater racket-

tailed drongo Dicrurus paradiseus was found in

the lower parts of both the habitats. Bronzed

Table 1 : Ten common species in the flocks

of Moist Deciduous Forest and Teak Plantation

Table 2: Comparison of foraging heights of all birds

in Teak Plantation and Moist Deciduous Forest

Habitat N Mean S.D S.E P

Teak 1910 7.41 5.13 0.12

0.000

MDF 1528 8.86 5.62 0.14

drongo preferred a higher stratum than the

greater racket-tailed drongo. Such vertical

stratification has also been observed by Vijayan

(1984) at Thekkady. The reason for the same was

hypothesised to be the avoidance of inter-specific

competition. The minivets were found from

Table 3: Paired t-test p values for difference in height of ten common species of birds in Teak Plantation

and Moist Deciduous Forest

392 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

VERTICAL STRATIFICATION OF BIRDS IN MIXED SPECIES FLOCKS

middle to higher zone, while the jungle babbler

Turdoides striatus seemed to prefer the

undergrowth and ground. The other gleaners and

probers (golden-backed woodpeckers, great tit,

velvet-fronted nuthatch and large wood shrike)

were found in varying heights in the middle strata.

Significant differences in foraging height

were found in five species (Table 4) when the

foraging heights of each of the 10 common

species were compared between the two habitats.

Various factors were considered for the difference

in foraging height.

Height of trees

If the height of the trees in one habitat is

greater than the height of trees in the other, it

could naturally cause an increase in the foraging

height of the birds. It must be noted that the teak

plantations in Parambikulam are fairly old: the

trees have undergone silvicultural thinning and

the surviving trees are considerably tall. The

analysis of tree heights in the two habitats

revealed that teak plantation trees were taller than

the moist deciduous forest trees (P=0.017)

(Table 5). Thus, if the birds’ choice of foraging

Table 4: Comparison of mean heights between two habitats of ten commom species (t-test)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

393

VER TIC A L S TRA TIFIC A TI ON OF BIRDS IN MIXED SPECIES FL O CKS

Table 5: Comparison of habitat parameters between Moist Deciduous Forest and Teak Plantation

* significant

height was due to an increase in the height of

trees in the two different habitats, a reverse trend

(lower foraging height in Moist Deciduous

Forest) should have been seen. However, the

foraging height of all birds was greater in the

Moist Deciduous Forests. Hence, tree height does

not appear to contribute directly to the foraging

height of birds. However, the sample size for the

habitat parameters data is small (N=10 in each

habitat) and the result may be biased.

Foraging manoeuvre

The drongo used sallying as its foraging

manoeuvre on most occasions (96%, Table 6) (X2,

p=0.000). It has been said that foraging

manoeuvre of a species could change depending

on the kind of prey that is pursued. This

difference in prey selection could also cause an

increase in foraging height of the birds if there

is a variation in prey availability. The foraging

manoeuvre, however, did not seem to vary and

most birds followed the same method of prey

capture in both the habitats. Pinkowski (1979)

in his study of Sialia sp. suggested that sallying

might be a more expensive foraging manoeuvre

than gleaning or flycatcher-gleaning. However,

flycatcher-gleaning and gleaning involve active

searching for prey, and when the drongos (the

predominantly sallying species in this study)

form part of mixed species foraging flocks, they

Table 6: Percentage use of foraging manoeuvre

by ten common species in the two habitats

wait for the prey to be flushed by the gleaners.

With abundant aerial prey, sallying might be bio-

energetically more viable. Pinkowski (1979), in

his model, proposed that if an aerial prey is

visible, it would be the first choice for the fly-

394

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

VERTICAL STRA TIFICA TION OF BIRDS IN MIXED SPECIES FLOCKS

catching species. No significant difference in

foraging behaviour was seen in different species

between the two habitats. This could be because

there is no functional difference in the flocks of

both the habitats; i.e. gleaners flush insects and

sallying species follow, irrespective of the habitat

that the flock is in. Drongos at Thekkady preferred

sallying when in the presence of other birds, but

flycatcher-gleaning when feeding solitarily

(Vijayan 1984). This further corroborates the

choice of sallying as a preferred foraging

manoeuvre for the drongos in mixed species flocks.

Studies by Latta and Wunderle (1996) and Jones

(1977) also show that shifts in the foraging

manoeuvre of birds occur when feeding in flocks

compared to feeding solitarily, possibly due to inter-

specific competition. However, there is no data on

this aspect in this study.

Substrate characters and use

The availability of suitable substrate was

thought to be a limiting factor in vertical

stratification of a species. A species’ preference

for a particular substrate and its availability at a

higher stratum in moist deciduous forest could

cause an increase in the foraging height. It was

found that many species showed a strong

preference for a particular substrate. For the

sallying drongos whose prey capture location is

air, the substrate is merely a perching site,

whereas for gleaners it is also the location of prey

capture. The drongos preferred twigs (X2,

P=0.000) compared to other substrates (Table 7).

However, the height of primary twig in the two

habitats did not seem to show any significant

difference (P=0.93) (Table 5) and thus, the

change in foraging height of the drongos might

not be due to the change in height of its preferred

substrate, twigs. In Teak Plantations, there was

an increased use of branches by the drongos as a

substrate, compared to that in the Moist

Deciduous Forest, but the percentage of usage

Table 7: Percentage use of substrate by ten common species in the two habitats

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

395

VERTICAL STRA TIFICATION OF BIRDS IN MIXED SPECIES FLOCKS

(14.58%) (Table 7) was not high. However, the

height of primary branching is greater in teak

plantations (P=0.009) (Table 5) and this shift in

substrate does not seem to have influenced the

foraging height of the drongos. This indicates

that the drongos shifted their foraging perch to

higher twigs in the Moist Deciduous Forest. One

of the reasons for such a shift could be the greater

abundance of twigs at a higher stratum in moist

deciduous forest than in Teak Plantation, but

habitat data are inadequate to draw a conclusion

in this regard. The drongos were also found to

be following the gleaning species most of the

time (e.g. bronzed drongo followed scarlet

mini vet and greater racket-tailed drongo followed

golden-backed woodpeckers) (Robin 2000).

There appeared to be an increase in the foraging

height of the scarlet minivet (P=0.02) and this

could have caused an increase in the foraging

height of the bronzed drongo (P=0.03). The

increase in foraging height of the scarlet minivet

could be due to the availability of suitable

substrate at a higher stratum in the Moist

Deciduous Forest. However, there seemed to be

no significant change in the foraging height of

the small minivet Pericrocotus cinnamomeus

between the two habitats (P=0.86) and a

difference, if any, could be due to inter-specific

competition as they are conspecifics. The

foraging height of only the great tit showed a

decrease in the Moist Deciduous Forest (P=0. 13)

while the large woodshrike showed no significant

change (P=0.86) (Table 4).

There seemed to be no significant change

in substrate use of minivets, nuthatch, great tit

and golden-backed woodpeckers (Table 7). The

jungle babbler used undergrowth and ground

more than any other substrate in both the habitats

(X2, P=0.000). However, there seemed to be a

higher percentage of ground/undergrowth

utilisation in Teak Plantation and the utilisation

of trunk in Teak Plantation was lower than in

Moist Deciduous Forest (Table 7). The high

percentage of use of ground/undergrowth could

be because Teak Plantation had less undergrowth

cover than Moist Deciduous Forest (X2,

P=0.000). Hence, the visibility of the babblers

could have been higher in Teak Plantations. The

babblers might also have preferred to feed on

open ground than in denser undergrowth, as

visibility of insects might be higher. Since

“undergrowth/ground” was considered as a single

substrate, quantitative information on whether

ground is preferred to undergrowth is not

available. Higher utilisation of trunk in Moist

Deciduous Forest could be due to difference in

prey availability. However, more data are required

to confirm this. There seemed to be an increase

in the height of undergrowth in Moist Deciduous

Forest (P=0.0001) (Table 5) and the preference

of jungle babbler towards undergrowth/ground

could have resulted in an increase in its foraging

height (P=0.025) (Table 4) in Moist Deciduous

Forest.

The velvet-fronted nuthatch used

branches, trunk and twigs almost evenly but the

use of branches seemed to be higher in Teak

Plantations (Table 7). Since the primary

branching was found lower in Teak Plantations

(Table 5), the increase in height in Moist

Deciduous Forest could be due to its choice of

higher parts of twigs, trunk and branches other

than primary branches.

The shift in the substrate could also be due

to inter-specific competition as found in

Alatalo’s (1981) study where great tits and gold

crests shifted their foraging sites depending on

the presence or absence of each other.

Other possible reasons

The availability of food in a higher area in

Moist Deciduous Forest could be one of the

possible reasons for an increase in the foraging

height of most birds in that habitat. However,

this aspect was not studied. Inter-specific

competition and niche separation could be

another reason for an increase in foraging height.

However, most of the species occurring in Moist

396

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

VERTICAL STRATIFICATION OF BIRDS IN MIXED SPECIES FLOCKS

Deciduous Forest were found in Teak Plantations

as well, and a shift in foraging height in all birds

due to this factor is unlikely. The presence of

most birds in a higher stratum could also be due

to the phenological phase of the trees in the

habitat during the study period. The Moist

Deciduous Forests were sampled in February-

March when leaf fall had commenced, whereas

Teak Plantation was sampled in December-

January, before the leaf-fall. Pinowski (1979)

states that dead and leafless branches might offer

an unobstructed view for searching prey. He

found eastern bluebirds using higher perches in

summer than in spring. The birds could thus have

shifted to a higher stratum in the season when

leaf-fall occurred. However, sampling of the

mixed species flocks in the two habitats in the

same season could have given a more accurate

idea of the same.

The study reveals that not only is there a

clear vertical stratification in the birds in mixed

species flocks, but also a difference in the usage

of height between the two habitats. However, the

factors influencing the shift in foraging height

could be any of the above or could be a

combination of various factors. Different species

may have different factors affecting their vertical

stratification. Carefully designed long-term

studies should be carried out considering various

seasonal changes, to determine these causes.

Quantification of prey base, though difficult in

the field, has to be done in order to understand

prey availability and response of different species

Refer

Alatalo, R.V. (1981): Interspecific competition in tits,

Parus sp. and Goldcrest Regains regulus : Foraging

shifts in multispecies flocks. Oikos 37: 335-344.

Altmann, J. (1974): Observational study of behaviour.

Sampling methods. Behaviour 49: 227-267.

Bates, H.W. (1863): The naturalist on the river Amazon.

John Murrays, London. 2nd edn (reprint). University

of Berkeley, 1 962 (not seen in original).

Croxall, J.R (1976): The composition and behaviour of

some mixed species bird flocks in Sarawak. Ibis 118:

to it. Colour banding individual birds might

facilitate identification of individuals and would

result in greater understanding of the dynamics

of the flocks.

Acknowledgements

This study was undertaken as a part of the

first author’s Masters dissertation funded by a

Salim Ali - Lok Wan Tho Fellowship from the

Bombay Natural History Society. I thank the

Kerala Forest Department, especially PCCF

Mr. Surendran Asari, DFO Parambikulam

Sanctuary, Mr. Rajan Sehgal, Range Officer

Sungam, Mr. Gopalakrishnan for permission and

support for the field work.

Thanks are due to various people for their

help in crucial situations: Dr. R. Sugathan for

encouragement, Mr. J.C. Daniel for initial

discussions, Mr. Shankar Raman and Ms. Divya

Muddappa for discussions, help and hospitality,

Dr. Gunasekharan for help with analysis of data.

Dr. N.V. Joshi, Dr. Chris Knogge, Dr. S. Vairavel,

Dr. Ajith Kumar, Dr. V.S. Vijayan, Dr. Lalitha

Vijayan, Dr. M.B. Krishna, Mr. Surendra Verma,

Mr. Robert John, Mr. Samba Kumar and

Ms. Nandini Rajamani for discussions at various

stages. Dr. K. Sankar (WII), Dr. Asad Rahmani,

Mr. Archis Grubh, Mr. Brian Sykes for helping

me with the literature search; Librarians of

SACON, BNHS and French Institute for the

library facilities, and Mr. Karupuswamy for his

assistance in the field.

NCES

333-346.

Champion, H.G. & S.K. Seth (1968): A revised survey of

the forest types of India. Government of India, New

Delhi. Pp. 404.

Eguchi, K. & S. Yamagishi (1993): The composition and

foraging behaviour of mixed species flocks of forest

living birds in Madagascar. Ibis 135: 91-96.

Greig-Smith, P. W. ( 1 978): The form, structure and function

of mixed species insectivorous bird flocks in West

African Savanna woodland. Ibis 120: 284-297.

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VERTICAL STRA TIFICATION OF BIRDS IN MIXED SPECIES FLOCKS

Herrera, C.M. (1979): Ecological aspects of heterospecific

flock formation in a mediterranean passerine bird

community. Oikos 33: 85-96.

Jepson, P. (1987): Mixed-species bird flocks. OBC bulletin

No. 5: 13-17.

Jones, S.E. ( 1 977): Co-existence in mixed species Antvvren

flocks. Oikos 28: 366-375.

Krebs, J.R. ( 1 973): Social learning and the significance of

mixed species flocking of chickadees. Can J. Zool.

51: 1275-1288.

Latta, S.C. & J.H. Wunderle (1996): The composition

and foraging ecology of mixed species flocks in pine

forests of Hispaniola. Condor 98: 595-607.

MacDonald, D,W. & D.G. Henderson (1977): Aspects

of the behaviour and ecology of mixed species bird

flocks in Kashmir. Ibis 119: 481-491.

Morse, D.H. (1970): Ecological Aspects of some mixed

species foraging flocks of birds. Ecol. Monogr. 40:

118-168.

Morse, D.H. (1977): Feeding behaviour and predator

1 avoidance in heterospecific groups. Bio Science. 27:

332-339.

Ogasawara, K. ( 1 965): The analysis of the mixed flock of

the family Paridae in the botanical garden of the

Tohuku University, Sendai. Sci. Rep. Tohoku. Univ.

Sen IV (Biol) 31: 167-180.

Pinkowskj, C.B. (1979): Foraging ecology' and habitat

utilization in the Genus Sialia. In: The role of

insectivorous birds in forest ecosystems (Eds.:

Dickson, J.G., R.N. Conner, R.R. Fleet, J.C. Kroll &

J.A. Jackson). Academic press. Pp. 165-191.

Powell, G.V.N. (1989): On the possible contribution of

mixed species flocks to species richness in neotropical

avifaunas. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 24: 387-393.

Robin, V.V. (2000): Species composition and vertical

stratification of birds in mixed species flocks at

Parambikulam, South India: A comparison between

two habitats. Technical Report submitted to the

BNHS, pp. 28.

Stanford, J.K. (1947): Bird parties in forest in Burma.

Ibis 1947: 507-509.

Terborgh, J. (1990): Mixed species flocks and polyspecific

associations: costs and benefits of mixed groups to

birds and monkeys. Amer. J. Primatol. 21: 87-100.

Vairavel, S.M. (1998): Ecology of Gaur with special

reference to habitat utilisation in Parambikulam

Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala, India. Ph.D. Thesis.

Valburg, L.K. ( 1 992): Flocking and frugi vory: The effect

of social groupings and resource use in the common

bush tanager. Condor 94: 358-363.

Vijayan, L. (1984): Comparative biology of Drongos with

special reference to Ecological Isolation. Ph.D. Thesis

Bombay University. Pp. 404.

Vijayan, L. (1989): Feeding behaviour of the Malabar

woodshrike at Thekkady, Kerala. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 86: 396-399.

Winterbottom, W. (1943): On woodland bird parties in

Northern Rhodesia. Ibis 85: 437-442.

Appendix 1: Percentage occurrence of birds and *mammals in flocks of two habitats

398

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

VERTICAL STRATIFICATION OF BIRDS IN MIXED SPECIES FLOCKS

Appendix 1 ( contd .): Percentage occurrence of birds and *mammals in flocks of two habitats

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002 399

ACTIVITY SCHEDULE AND HABITAT USE

OF THE SLENDER LORIS LORIS TARDIGRADUS LYDEKKERIANUS'

SlNDHU RADHAKRISHNA2 AND MEWA SlNGH3

Key words: slender loris, activity budget, moon phase, diet, tree species,

intersexual differences

The behavioural ecology of the nocturnal prosimian Loris tardigradus lydekkerianus in its natural

habitat was studied for a period of 21 months. Twenty-eight identified study individuals belonging

to different age-sex categories were observed for 2364 hours. Data collected on the general

activity schedule of the species showed changes in response to the phases of the moon, and

seasonal variations. Insects made up the greater portion of the diet of the slender loris, with fruits

and gum being included to a small extent. Intersexual differences were seen in the height of trees

used by the animals and heights at which the animals preferred to stay in the trees.

Introduction

The slender loris {Loris tardigradus) is one

of the two nocturnal prosimians found in India.

The species has been declared Vulnerable (IUCN

2000), yet little has been done to conserve this

primate in the wild. The major stumbling block

is the lack of complete information on its

behaviour in its natural habitat. Though it was

used extensively in anatomical studies (Rao 1 927,

Swayamprabha 1983, Manjula 1984, Sarma and

Kadam 1984) in the past and its reproduction

studied in detail (Ramaswami and Kumar 1962,

1965; Ramakrishna and Prasad 1962, 1967;

Kadam and Swayamprabha 1980; Izard and

Rasmussen 1985), very little is known about its

behaviour in the wild.

In September 1996, a population survey

of the slender loris conducted by Singh et al.

(1999) discovered high densities of the subspecies

lydekkerianus in the scrub jungles of the Eastern

Ghats, South India. Singh et al. (1999)

'Accepted March, 2002

department of Psychology, University of Mysore,

Mysore and National Institute of Advanced Studies,

Bangalore, Karnataka, India.

Present address: National Institute of Advanced Studies,

Indian Institute of Science Campus,

Bangalore 560 012, Karnataka, India,

department of Psychology, University of Mysore,

Manasagangotri, Mysore 570 006, Karnataka, India.

recommended that these fragmented populations

needed to be conserved, and emphasized the need

for a long-term behavioural study to provide more

data for management strategies. A study was

therefore undertaken on the social behaviour of

the slender loris L.t. lydekkerianus in its natural

habitat. The data collected on its activity budget

and habitat use is presented here.

Study Area

The Beerangi Karadu hill range (10° 29' N,

78° 10' E, altitude: 400 m above msl) of Ayyalur

Forest range was chosen, as an earlier study

(Singh et al. 1999) reported a high density of

slender loris in this area. The climate is hot and

humid (max. temp.: 34.19°C, min. temp.:

23.34°C, relative humidity: 80.74%), and the

annual rainfall (mean: 869.6 mm) is received

mostly from the northeast monsoon during

September-October. The area spans about 16 ha

of open dry scrub jungle. A road runs through,

bisecting it into two different habitats. On one

side lies the Reserved Forest, secondary degraded

habitat rising uphill, and vegetation mainly

Acacia , Euphorbia , Azadirachta , Albizia and

Cassia. Though tree felling is illegal, it went on

surreptitiously all the time. On the other side of

the road lies a Tamarindus and Eucalyptus

orchard, and fields bordered by Cocos nucifera.

400

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

ACTIVITY SCHEDULE AND HABITAT USE OF SLENDER LORIS

Except for the odd row of trees that provide

contiguity, being planted closely, there is little

canopy in this part of the study area. Prosopis ,

Commiphora and Azadirachta overgrown with

lianas, provide a natural fence along the road; this

was an important area of ranging for the loris.

Methods

The study began in October 1997 and

concluded in June 1999. Observations of the first

month were used to prepare an ethogram and

decide upon a suitable sampling method.

Observations were conducted on foot every night

from dusk to dawn ( 1 800 to 0600 hrs). An animal

was first spotted by its unique orange-red tapetal

reflection to light, from more than 100 m away.

It was then approached for identification and

followed the rest of the night. Petzl headlamps

covered with red cellophane were used, as red

light did not disturb the animals and ensured

better observation (Charles-Dominique 1977,

Charles-Dominique and Bearder 1979).

Instantaneous point and ad libitum

sampling techniques (Altmann 1974, Anon.

1981) were used. A five-minute instantaneous

sampling technique was employed to record the

behavioural categories of the animal at night. A

total of 22,834 instantaneous scans were

collected: 21,019 scans on 28 identified

individuals and 1,815 scans on unidentified loris.

Study animals were identified by distinctive

physical markings on their bodies and

locomotory idiosyncrasies. Each scan recorded

information on the identity of the individual,

behaviour the animal was engaged in, time, moon

phase, tree species, tree height, height of focal

location of animal on tree, identity of nearest

neighbour, inter-individual distance and

vocalization. Ad libitum sampling was used to

describe events (copulation, agonistic

interactions) that occurred too quickly for regular

sampling methods, or the sequences in activities

like social behaviour, feeding, etc. which were

not adequately represented in the focals.

Six main behavioural categories were

recognized: locomotion, exploration, feeding,

inactivity, social, and self-directed. Locomotion

refers to activity that occurred with no ostensible

purpose of exploration. Its sub-categories were

locomote, shift from one tree to another, shift

from tree to ground, hesitation to complete shift

to tree or ground, movement of just a pace or

two. Exploration was defined as activity to

investigate the environment. The sub-categories

were forage, urine-mark and sniff. Feeding was

recorded when a loris was observed ingesting.

Food materials belonged to one of the three

categories: insects (arthropods and other

invertebrates), plant material (all plant parts) and

gum (plant exudates). Inactivity was recorded

when the animal was totally passive: sit, freeze,

sleep, and pause. Social behaviour included all

associative and agonistic encounters. Sub-

categories of social behaviour were sleep together

with other individual(s), locomote/ sit/

autogroom near another individual, allogroom,

play, aggressive vocalization, physical fight, sniff

conspecific, approach, carry infant, and carried

by mother. Self-directed activities were those

performed by the animal on itself: scratch, urine-

wash, autogroom.

The hours of loris activity were divided into

thirteen categories, beginning from 1730 to

0530 hrs, with each category representing an

hour. The phases of the moon were divided into

two main categories according to the amount of

light available: the light phase, from half-moon

to full moon and then to half-moon, and the dark

phase, from half-moon to new moon and then to

half-moon. Rainfall conditions were recorded as

the dry season from January to June and the wet

season from July to December. Height of the tree

and the height of the animal on the tree were

classified into seven categories: undergrowth/

base of tree, < 1 m, 1-3 m, 3-5 m, 5-8 m, 8-10 m

and 1 0-15 m. None of the trees in the study area

were taller than 15 m.

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ACTIVITY SCHEDULE AND HABITAT USE OF SLENDER LORIS

Data Analysis

Data analysis was carried out using the

statistical package SPSS for Windows, Version

9.0. Percent values of scans were calculated for

the habitat and behavioural variables, z tests

(Gibbons 1971) were used in binomial situations

to test for significant differences in the proportion

of scans for any behavioural category. Chi Square

goodness-of-fit tests were used to check if a

particular behaviour or habitat variable was more

significant than another. Intersexual differences

were subjected to two-tailed analysis of variance

test. Pearson correlation was used to test the

degree of correlation between climatic factors and

activity variables of the species. A step-wise

multiple regression analysis was also run to see

if climatic variables affected the activity schedule

of the animal.

Results

Activity Budgets

Calculation of percent scans showed that

47.27% of the general activity schedule of the

species was exploration and 26.90% was

inactivity. The number of scans for the different

behavioural categories significantly differed from

each other ( % 2 = 20877.39; df = 5; P < 0.01).

The general activity schedule of the species was

analysed for changes with respect to the hours

of the night, moon phases and climatic variables

(Table 1). The proportion of scans was

significantly higher before midnight (1730 to

2330 hrs) for the behavioural categories:

locomotion and self-directed; the proportion of

scans for social behaviour was significantly

higher after midnight (2330 to 0530 hrs). The

proportion of scans was significantly higher in

the dark phase of the moon for the exploration

category and in the light phase for the inactive

category. All the behavioural categories showed

significant changes for the dry and wet seasons:

locomotion, feeding, inactivity and self-directed

behaviour increased in the dry season while

exploration and social behaviour increased in the

wet season.

A Pearson correlation test of the climatic

variables and the activity budget presented

Table 1 : Activity budget of the slender loris

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ACTIVITY SCHEDULE AND HABITAT USE OF SLENDER LORIS

Table 2: Step-wise multiple regression on climatic variables and activity schedule of species

Step Model Dependent Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized t Sig

Variable B Std error Coefficients

Beta

significant negative correlations for rainfall and

locomotion (r = -0.60), rainfall and inactivity

(r = -0.72) and, minimum temperature and self-

directed (r = -0.61). Significant positive

correlations were seen for rainfall and

exploration (r = 0.79), humidity and feeding

(r = 0.60) and, maximum temperature and

locomotion (r = 0.76). The results of a stepwise

multiple regression (Table 2) on climatic

variables and activity schedule showed that

maximum temperature was the best predictor for

locomotion, rainfall for exploration and

inactivity, and minimum temperature and rainfall

for self-directed behaviour. For the categories

social and feeding, no variables were entered.

Feeding

Insects formed a significantly higher

percentage in the diet of the slender loris (x2 =

876.69; df = 2; P < 0.01) at 91.48%, with plant

material and gum forming 6.61% and 1.9%

respectively. The insects consumed included ants

(Hymenoptera), termites (Isoptera), stick insects

(Phasmatodea), pungent smelling beetles

(Coleoptera), silkworms, butterflies and moths

(Lepidoptera), and several varieties of

grasshoppers (Orthoptera) and slugs (Mollusca).

Study individuals were seen feeding on the fruits

of Securinega leucopyrus and Ziziphus oenoplia.

They were also observed to stick their heads into

the flowers of Eucalyptus, Tamarindus and Agave

americana and suck at the pods of Prosopis

juliflora. It could not be determined if they were

sucking the nectar from the flowers or eating the

ants in the pods and flowers. Study individuals

were also seen licking gum from the bark of

Albizia and Acacia trees. In a typical gum lick,

the loris would cling to a tree trunk vertically,

scrape at the bark with its toothcomb and lick

the exposed sap. A gum lick usually lasted about

two to five minutes, but in one case, a female

licked gum from an Acacia planifrons for 15

minutes. Lorises were observed to cling vertically

inside the Euphorbia, but it could not be

ascertained if they actually licked gum from the

plant.

Habitat Use

The tree and plant species most commonly

used by the slender loris included Albizia amara.

Acacia ferruginea, A. planifrons, A. leucophloea,

A. nilotica, Prosopis juliflora , Euphorbia tortilis.

Agave americana, Azadirachta indica,

Tamarindus indica. Eucalyptus grandis.

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ACTIVITY SCHEDULE AND HABITAT USE OF SLENDER LORIS

Canthium parviflorum , Cassia fistula , Cassia

auriculata , Securinega leucopyrus, Commiphora

berryi, Strychnos nux-vomica , Holoptelea

integrifolia, Bauhinia racemosa, Ziziphus

oenoplia , Dichrostachys cinerea and Ipomoea

staphylina. The four Acacia species (37.77%)

were the main tree species used by the slender

loris. The other important tree species were

Azadirachta (15.04%), Euphorbia (13.10%),

Albizia (9.92%), and Tamarindus (6.12 %).

Lorises used trees 3-5 m and 5-8 m tall

most often and almost equally (36.36% and

37.40% respectively). They stayed most often at

heights of 3-5 m (51.26%), and 1-3 m (26.62%).

The height of the tree used and the level at which

the loris ranged, were found to be different for

males and females.

Univariate analysis of variance of tree

height and the sexes showed that both adult males

and females used the 3-7 m category most often

(Mean: males = 80.16, females = 68.92). A

significant interaction between the tree heights

and the sexes (ANOVA: F 3 36 = 3 . 93; P < .05)

indicated that, whereas the males used trees of

3-7 m more than the females, the females used

trees of 1-3 m more than the male, (Mean of

1-3 m: females = 22.88, males = 9.61).

Univariate analysis of variance of animal

height and the sexes showed that both adult males

and females stayed at heights of 3-5 m most often

(Mean: males = 61.43, females = 41.16). A

significant interaction between the sexes and

animal height (ANOVA: F 3 36 = 4.41; P < 0.01)

indicated that, whereas males stayed at 3-5 m

more than the females, females stayed at 1-3 m

more than the males (Mean of 1 -3 m: females =

34.71, males = 24.42).

Discussion

Activity Budgets

Slender lorises spend a large part of their

activity schedule in exploration, followed by

inactivity. Self and social behaviours account for

very little time, hardly 10% of their activity

schedule. Though the results show that the time

spent on feeding is minimum, the data only

comprised observed feeding instances, which are

difficult to record in a small-bodied,

predominantly insectivorous, cryptic animal (but

see Nekaris 2000). Slender lorises do not spend

most of their waking life in social contact, as

has been described for pottos (Anderson 1971).

Even when a mother and offspring shared the

same range, there was little contact between them

at night. Most of the social behaviour was

restricted to dusk and dawn, when the animals

met to sleep together. Sleep group formation at

dawn and the split-up at dusk was usually

accompanied by allogrooming and play-

wrestling. Though animals did sometimes meet

during the night to allogroom and play-wrestle,

they were not observed meeting to groom or sleep

after the first five or six hours of activity as

reported by Goonan (1993). Bushbabies travel

faster and cover greater distance during lighter

phases of the moon, due to greater ease in

navigation under better viewing conditions

(Bearder pers. comm.). In the slender loris,

increased exploration is seen in the darker phase

of the moon. This may be related to the cryptic

strategy used by the slender loris that depends

on stealth and concealment for protection from

predators.

In the study area, the rains of September-

October caused a rise in the number of

hymenopterans. Just after these rains, the

Eucalyptus , Acacia leucopholea and

Azadirachta flowered, and Securinega fruits

appeared. This also probably caused an increase

in the insect population. The increased

explorations in the wet season could be attributed

to these reasons. Animals were observed to

continuously forage for insects in the first rain.

The long foraging was followed by a long session

of grooming. This explains why rainfall is a

strong predictor of exploration, and to a smaller

extent of self directed behaviour. Muller et al.

(1985) suggest that the slender loris copes very

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

ACTIVITY SCHEDULE AND HABITAT USE OF SLENDER LORIS

well with high environmental temperatures on

account of its long and slender limbs, small size

and increased heat loss through evaporation. This

may explain why the species shows increase in

locomotion with rise in temperature.

Feeding

Slender lorises are predominantly

insectivorous (Phillips 1931, Petter and Hladik

1970, Still 1905), they also eat flowers and fruits

(Roonwal and Mohnot 1977, Johnson 1984).

The present study records that they also feed on

gum. Gums are complex polymerised sugars

with protein and trace minerals, and are

consumed by small-bodied primates to survive

seasonal shortages of fruits and insects, and to

make up for the low calcium levels in fruits and

insects (Bearder and Martin 1980, Bearder

1987). It has been proposed that slender lorises

would include a large amount of toxic insect prey

in their diet (Rasmussen 1986, Rasmussen and

Nekaris 1998). In the present study, some

amount of repugnant insects was eaten (as

evidenced by the slobbering and urine-washing

displayed when eating the pungent smelling

beetles). But as a complete identification of

insects was not done, the extent of their role in

the slender loris diet is not known (but see

Nekaris 2000). Slender lorises have been

reported to drink milk and water in captivity, by

licking it off their fingers or lapping it like a

dog from the bowl (Subramoniam 1957, Schulze

and Meier 1995), but the study animals were

never seen to consume anything liquid. They

were frequently observed to suck on the thorns

of Acacia trees, but it could not be ascertained

if they did so to obtain liquid nourishment, or

feed on insect larvae (Nekaris, pers. comm.).

Study animals were never observed to eat

invertebrates beyond the arthropod level (but see

Nekaris 2000), though slender loris have been

reported to feed on baby mice, birds, and gerbils

in captivity (Kinnear 1919, Phillips 1931,

Subramoniam 1957, Bishop 1964).

Habitat Use

The predominant use of Acacia by the

observed lorises is probably due to the high insect

densities on these trees. Acacia also provides gum

and plant matter. Furthermore, the thorns must

also prove a deterrent to predators. Wherever

Acacia was available, study females preferred to

leave their month-old infants in these trees (pers

obs.). Next to Acacia , Azadirachta and

Tamar indus were used for parking infants (pers

obs.), possibly because of their height and the

insect densities they support (Singh et al. 1999).

All the major tree species used provide food and

protection, either in terms of height from the

ground ( Azadirachta , Tamar indus and Albizia)

or by way of thorns (Acacia and Euphorbia).

Slender lorises prefer to stay at heights of

3-5 m from the ground and use trees of heights

3-8 m. Nekaris (2000) observes that slender

lorises used trees of mean height 5.6 m and

ranged at an average height of 3.5 m. Height

preference in the slender loris is probably related

both to dietary requirements and safety from

predators. Male slender lorises show greater

locomotion than the females (Radhakrishna

2001). This probably results in them making a

greater use of the connecting terminal branches

found higher up in the trees. This would explain

why male slender lorises tend to stay at greater

heights and use taller trees more than the females.

Conclusion

These findings on activity patterns, diet

and substrate use in the slender loris have

important implications for its conservation. The

slender loris has (a) a predominantly

insectivorous diet, (b) preference for common tree

species such as Acacia , Azadirachta and

Euphorbia and (c) a high reproductive potential

(Radhakrishna 2001). Several populations have

also been found in close proximity to human

habitations (Singh et al. 1999). Significant

threats faced by the study population include

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 99(3), DEC. 2002

405

ACTIVITY SCHEDULE AND HABITAT USE OF SLENDER LORIS

disturbances caused by tree felling, resulting in

loss of canopy contiguity, and deaths caused by

vehicular traffic (Radhakrishna 2001, Singh

et al. 1999). If these factors could be controlled,

the management of slender loris for long term

survival in the wild would become easier.

Acknowledgements

The study was funded by a University

Grants Commission, New Delhi Fellowship and

private donors. The first author gratefully

acknowledges the support of her family and

friends. Our sincere thanks to S. Theodore

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tardigradus in the forests of Ceylon. Mammalia

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Bangalore University.

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PLANT SELECTION FOR NESTING BY OECOPHYLLA SMARAGDINA ,

HYMENOPTERA: FORMICIDAE: DO PHYSICAL FEATURES AFFECT

THE CHOICE OF THE PLANT?1

N. SUMITHRAMMA, A.R.V. KUMAR, K. CHANDRASHEKARA AND D. RAJAGOPAL2

Key words: Oecophylla smaragdina, weaver ant, nesting habits,

plant physical features, Homoptera

The weaver ant, Oecophylla smaragdina Fabricius is the only species of ant in the Old World to

build nests on plants by tying leaves together with silk secreted by the larvae. Although the ant is

widespread in its distribution in southern India, it was not found to nest uniformly across its

range of distribution. One possible reason for such a variation could be the lack of suitable plants

for nesting. Investigations, therefore, were made on the suitability of plants, on the basis of

selected physical parameters, to check their influence on the choice of plants for nesting by

O. smaragdina.

A total of 498 plants belonging to 51 species were examined for the occurrence of nests of

O. smaragdina in and around the GKVK campus of the University of Agricultural Sciences,

Bangalore. A total of 124 nests were located on 19.61% of the species of plants examined,

indicating that the ants do not nest on all species of plants. Fourteen physical characters (of leaf

or twig) measured either as qualitative or quantitative data, were not found to influence the

nesting pattern of the weaver ant. Therefore, the observed variation in nesting pattern may be

attributed to other non-physical factors of the plants. The chemistry of the plants or the micro-

habitat, i.e. the location of the plant, may influence the nesting pattern of O. smaragdina.

Introduction

The weaver ant, Oecophylla smaragdina

F. is the only member of the tribe Oecophyllini

(Formicidae: Formicinae) found in the Old World

and is widely distributed in perennial cropping

systems throughout southern India. It is

considered a nuisance and a pest of many

cultivated crops, as it harbours noxious

homopterans such as coffee green scales (Hill

1983) for honeydew. On the other hand, its use

as a biocontrol agent in several cropping systems

is widely appreciated (Way and Khoo 1992).

Elsewhere, it is considered a dominant ant, which

can influence the structure of the ant mosaic

(Majer 1993) and the diversity of many other

arthropods, because it is a carnivore. Though

similar evaluations are lacking in India, it is

'Accepted April, 2000

department of Entomology,

University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK,

Bangalore 560 065, Karnataka, India.

undoubtedly a dominant species in many

cultivated and natural perennial systems,

particularly along the Western Ghats.

The ant builds the nest by tying leaves with

silken threads produced by the ant’s own larvae.

Some worker ants form a chain to connect the

leaves of the plant and then pull them together,

so that the margins of the leaves overlap. Other

workers bring the advanced stage larvae close to

the overlapping edges and move them criss-cross

across the edge to seal it. Nest construction using

leaves appears to be a continuous process, as nests

of all sizes can be found on different parts of the

plant (Holldobler and Wilson 1990). The nest is

expanded by joining more leaves to increase its

volume, which also results in the formation of

different enclosures within the nest. Although

the ant is known to build nests on a wide variety

of plants, the plant factors that influence the ant’s

colonisation pattern have been little studied. It

is believed that the ant prefers evergreen, broad-

leaved plants to construct nests (Bingham 1903).

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PLANT SELECTION FOR NESTING BY OECOPHYLLA SMARAGDINA

However, the congeneric O. longinoda is known

to prefer many cultivated plants for nesting. The

order of preference shows a strong preference

for mango over other cultivated species tested

by Djieto-Lordon and Dejean (1999), who did

not investigate the characteristics of plant or

leaves in relation to the nesting preference of

the species. The choice of a plant for nesting is

likely to be influenced by both the physical and

chemical features of the plant. In this study, we

tested some physical features of the plant for their

possible role in influencing the nest plant

selection by of O. smaragdina.

Material and Methods

A total of 498 plants belonging to 51

species in 24 families were examined for nests

of Oecophylla smaragdina in and around GKVK

campus, University of Agricultural Sciences,

Bangalore (Table 1). Fourteen physical

characteristics of the plants were recorded, in

qualitative or quantitative measures. The

occurrence of O. smaragdina on 51 species of

plants measured qualitatively (presence/absence)

was checked for association with eight of the

fourteen qualitative measures of plants. These

included type of plant (shrub/tree), presence/

absence of thorns, arrangement of leaves, shape

of leaf, texture of leaf, simplicity of leaf, petiolate/

sessile leaves and smoothness of leaf margin. The

characters measured quantitatively were number

of leaflets, internodal length, number of twigs

per metre, size of leaf (length, breadth, area).

The quantitative measures, grouped into 5-7

classes and the corresponding number of plant

species with O. smaragdina nests were tabulated.

The occurrence of Homoptera colonies on the

plants was also recorded.

The qualitative characters were tested for

association using 2x2 contingency Chi-square.

Quantitative characters were divided into 5, 6,

or 7 classes, considering the range. Proportional

occurrence of plants with and without the nests

in each size class was noted. Using the

cumulative values of proportional occurrence of

plant species in the two categories x2 of K-S test

(Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, Siegel 1956) for two

large samples was then computed to ascertain

whether the two distributions differed. Lack of

difference would suggest that plants with nests

are distributed in all size classes of the character

considered and match the natural distribution of

the characters in the community. For all these

tests, any species with at least one nest,

irrespective of the number of plants surveyed,

was taken as a plant with nests.

Results

Occurrence of O. smaragdina on plants:

In all, 124 nests of O. smaragdina were located

on 34 plants belonging to 10 species spread over

6 families (Table 2). This amounted to 6.83% of

plants, 19.61% of species and 25% of families

of plants surveyed, indicating that these ants do

not nest uniformly on all plant species. Mango,

pongamia, tabebuia, cocoa, syzigium, coffee and

four unidentified plants were found to harbour

ant nests and the percentage plants with nests

followed the same order.

Physical features of the Plant: Among the

plants observed, 24 species were shrubs and 6 of

them harboured nests. Similarly, 27 species were

trees and 4 harboured weaver ants. All the ten

species of plants with nests were found to be

thornless. Five of the plants with nests had

opposite leaves while the remaining had alternate

leaves. The ants were observed to nest on plants

with both simple and compound, petiolate leaves,

but only two were in the latter category. Six of

the plants with nests had elongate leaves, while

four had oval leaves. All these ten plants had

smooth leaf margin and only one had leaves with

a rough surface. The details of qualitative

characters and plants exhibiting them are

included in Table 3. All the ten plants with nests

were found within the range of five leaflets per

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PLANT SELECTION FOR NESTING BY OECOPHYLLA SMARAGDINA

Table 1 : Plant species screened for the occurrence of Oecophylla smaragdina in and around GKVK, Bangalore

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PLANT SELECTION FOR NESTING BY OECOPHYLLA SMARAGDINA

Table 2. Occurrence of Oecophylla smaragdina nests on plants

Oecophylla Nests

Present Percent Absent Percent Total

leaf and 37 species of plants without nests had

the leaflet numbers in this range. The intemodal

lengths varied from <1 to 19 cm among the

studied plants. These were divided into 6 different

classes and all of them were represented among

the plants with ants. Number of twigs per metre

of the stem ranged up to 60 and was divided into

five classes, which were all represented by the

plants with nests. Leaf or leaflet length varied

from 0.5 to 46.83 cm and the plants could be

divided into 7 different classes and all of the

categories were represented by plants with ant

nests. Similarly, leaf breadth and the leaf area

showed considerable variation among the plants

checked for ant nests. The plants could be divided

into five and six classes with respect to breadth

and area respectively. Ants were found on plants

of ail categories. A summary of these quantitative

characters is provided in Table 4.

Nest occurrence and plant characters:

The distribution of the fourteen characters among

the plants with nests matched the natural

distributions of these characters among the

51 species of plants surveyed (Chi-square:

0.5xl04to 2.62; p>0.05 for all the characters).

Clearly, the tests indicated that the physical

features of the plants considered were not

influencing the choice of nesting by the weaver

ants (Table 3 & 4).

Table 4: Association between quantitative characters

of plants and preference for nesting

by Oecophylla smaragdina at GKVK Campus

Ants and Homoptera on plants: Colonies

of homopterans were found on 29 species of

plants. All the plants with ant nests were found

to harbour Homoptera, including aphids, scales,

mealy bugs and tree-hoppers. The ants were

observed to tend only scales and mealy bugs. The

association test indicated that ant occurrence is

strongly dependent upon the availability of

homopteran colonies on the plants (Chi-square:

6.01; p<0.01).

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

411

PLANT SELECTION FOR NESTING BY OECOPHYLLA SMARAGDINA

Discussion

There has been no evaluation of the role

of physical characters of plant in the nesting

preference of O. smaragdina. The present study

shows that physical parameters of the plants

considered do not influence the choice of nest

plant. Earlier observations indicated that weaver

ants nest exclusively on broad-leaved evergreen

plants (Bingham 1903). However, in the present

study, the ants were recorded on deciduous plants

such as Pongamia and on other species which

have very small leaflets e.g., Albizia sp.

Although the study considered only two types

of plants i.e. shrubs and trees, it is likely that

vines may also be colonised. This study showed

that the ants have no preference for plants with

specific physical characteristics for nesting.

Reasons for the absence of nests on most of the

plants species screened could not be established

in this study. The occurrence of O. smaragdina

on plant species may be governed by factors other

than their physical features. For example, the

nesting efficiency may be influenced by the

amount of silk the larva needed to produce to

bind the leaves together, as smaller leaves

require greater quantities of silk and energy, at

the cost of the development of the colony. Yet,

such characters were not found to influence the

nesting pattern. Clearly, the cost of such nest

building may be offset by other benefits that the

ant may get from plants with small leaves. This

is evident from the strong association observed

Refer

Bingham, C.T. (1903): Hymenoptera-II: The fauna of

British India including Ceylon and Burma. Taylor

and Francis, London, pp. 506.

Djieto-Lordon, C. & A. Dejean (1999): Tropical arboreal

ant mosaics: innate attraction and imprinting

determine nest site selection in dominant ants.

Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 45: 219-225.

Hill, D.S. (1983): Agricultural pests of tropics and their

control. Cambridge University Press. Pp. 516.

Holldobler, B. & E.O. Wilson (1990): The Ants.

Springer- Verlag, London. Pp. 732.

between the ant nests and the Homopteran

colonies among the plants screened.

If physical parameters of the plants are not

influencing the nest building on plants, then what

other factors govern the O. smaragdina nest

distribution on plant species? There is some

indirect evidence to support the possibility of nest

construction by O. longinoda being influenced

by prior experience of the larvae with the

plants (Djieto-Lordon and Dejean 1999). The

experience of nesting on a plant could be

imprinted in the larvae by chemical signals.

Therefore, it is likely that the chemical features

of the plants play the most important role in

selection for nesting by O. smaragdina. But not

all plants were uniformly inhabited even among

the preferred plants, which suggests other factors

like the micro-habitat of the plant as one possible

reason to affect the nesting. However, the

occurrence of ant nests was strongly associated

with the occurrence of Homoptera, particularly

scale insects. This suggests that the host

plants of these scales may be the most important

hosts of the weaver ants. But O. smaragdina

being a predatory ant, such a strong association

between the Homoptera and the ants is

surprising. It is possible that the honeydew of

the Homoptera is essential for the survival and

multiplication of the ants. These aspects of the

biology of O. smaragdina may be of help in

managing them, either in biological control or

to reduce their impact as pests of economic

importance.

E N C E S

Majer, J.C. (1993): Comparison ofthe arboreal ant mosaic

in Ghana, Brazil, Papua New Guinea and Australia

— its structure and influence on ant diversity. In:

Hymenoptera and Biodiversity (Eds.: LaSalle, J. &

L.D. Gauld). CAB International, London, pp. 115-

141.

Siegel, S. (1956): Nonparametric statistics for the

behavioural sciences. McGraw-Hill, New York,

pp. 312.

Way, M.J. & K.C. Khqo (1992): Role of ants in pest

management. Ann. Rev. Ent. 37: 479-503.

412

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

STATUS OF BENGAL FLORICAN HOUBAROPSIS BENGALENSIS

IN ROYAL BARDIA NATIONAL PARK, NEPAL1

( With two text-figures)

Nabin Baral, Bijay Tamang and Nilesh Timilsina2

Key words: Houbaropsis bengalensis, status, grassland management,

population decline, Bardia, Nepal

A survey for the endangered Bengal florican (Houbaropsis bengalensis ) was carried out in Aprii-

May 2000 in some grassland sites of the Royal Bardia National Park, Nepal. A total of 5 floricans

(3 males and 2 females) were counted in 1 1 days. All the males had distinct territories. Though

limited suitable florican habitat was available, the population seemed to be declining. To provide

additional habitat for floricans, proper maintenance of grasslands in areas other than Bagaura

and Lamkauli has been recommended.

Introduction

Bengal florican ( Houbaropsis

bengalensis ), one of the three bustard species

endemic to the Indian subcontinent, has

undergone an alarming decline throughout its

former range, as its grassland habitat has been

lost to cultivation, afforestation or degraded by

overgrazing (Rahmani et al. 1991). Its past

distribution ranged from southern Uttaranchal

(earlier northwestern Uttar Pradesh) to Upper

Assam, through the Nepal terai, Bengal duars

and Brahmaputra Valley (Ali and Ripley 1969,

Rahmani et al. 1991). The known population of

less than 300-400 individuals is at serious risk

from further habitat loss, warranting its inclusion

in the IUCN list of endangered species.

In Nepal, a preliminary study initiated by

ICBP (now BirdLife International), in 1982,

located 35-50 floricans distributed in five sites:

Royal Chitwan National Park (RCNP), Royal

Bardia National Park (RBNP), Royal

Suklaphanta Wildlife Reserve (RSWR), Koshi

Taapu Wildlife Reserve (KTWR) and an

unprotected area near the Koshi barrage in east

Nepal (Inskipp and Inskipp 1983). The Koshi

barrage site appears to have lost its small

'Accepted August, 2001

2P.O. Box 907, Kathmandu, Nepal.

population after 1980, following a change in the

course of the Koshi river. There has been no

record from KTWR since 1990.

The rapid population growth and

urbanization in the Nepal terai has resulted in

all unprotected grasslands being converted to

cultivated land, with grasslands now existing

only inside protected areas. Records from the past

two decades indicate a decline in the population

of the Bengal florican. Hunting does not seem to

be the cause, since the species is well-protected,

and punishment for poaching is severe. Decrease

in the extent of grasslands and the improper

management of some could be major causes for

its decline. This paper aims to present the current

information on the status and distribution of the

Bengal florican in the Royal Bardia National

Park.

Study Area

The Royal Bardia National Park (28°

38’ N and 81° 20' E) is located c. 450 km

southwest of Kathmandu in southwestern Nepal,

and occupies an area of 968 sq. km. It has a sub-

tropical climate, with three seasons: the hot-dry

from mid February to mid June, monsoon from

mid June to late September and cool-dry from

late September to mid February (Dinerstein

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

413

STATUS OF BENGAL FLORJCAN IN ROYAL BARDIA NATIONAL PARK

1 979a). About 80-90% of the total annual rainfall

occurs during the four months period from June

to September. The average annual rainfall of the

Park is 2,168 mm.

The Park holds a great variety of flora and

fauna. Some 32 large mammals (Dinerstein

1979b) and 235 bird species (Inskipp 1983) have

been recorded. The vegetation of the Park was

classified into six major types by Dinerstein

(1979a), and modified by Jnawali and Wegge

( 1 993) to seven major types. The vegetation types

are Shorea robust a forest, Acacia-Dalbergia

forest, woody grasslands, floodplain grassland

and phantas. Phantas are previously cultivated

fields, which have been restored to open

grasslands after being included in the Park. The

three phantas: Lamkauli, Bagaura and Khauraha

were the main areas under study (Fig 1). These

phantas are dominated by Imperata cylindrica,

Saccharum spontaneum and Narenga

porphorycoma. The Khauraha phanta has lost

its open grasslands to succession by invading

trees and bushes. Some grassy patches inside and

outside the Park were also studied.

Methodology

Known florican habitats were visited

during the breeding season (April-May), when

the territorial males are easily seen during their

aerial display. As Bengal floricans are most active

in the early mornings and evenings (Ali and

Ripley 1969), observations were carried out

mainly in the early mornings (0630-1000 hrs)

and late afternoon (1630-1900 hrs). Floricans are

territorial during the breeding season when each

individual male defends a patch of grassland (Ali

and Rahmani 1982-84, Sankaran and Rahmani

1 986), so the number of territories or display sites

in an area indicates the population of adult male

floricans. As hens are not easy to locate, the

population estimates are based on the assumption

414

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

STATUS OF BENGAL FLORICAN IN ROYAL BARDIA NATIONAL PARK

of equal sex ratio. Observations were made using

binoculars from machans for a better view of the

grasslands. Some areas were also covered on

elephant back. The number of floricans seen,

their sexes, activity, time, weather and time spent

in each area were noted. Notes were taken on

the general condition of the grasslands and

disturbances.

Group discussions were held with the Park

officials, game scouts and local people to gather

information on the presence and conservation

related issues of the Bengal florican.

Results

The present study recorded five floricans

(3 males and 2 females). Two males and two

females were recorded in Lamkauli phanta and

one male was recorded in Bagaura phanta. Sub-

adults, eggs and chicks were not recorded

(Table 1). All the male floricans observed were

occupying short grass patches, whereas the

females observed in Lamkauli occupied the tall

grass area by the side of the motorable road.

Because the grass was short and the visibility

good, the study assumes that all the floricans

present were recorded.

There was no overlapping of territories

between the males. All the male birds observed

on the ground were also seen in flight, but the

females were never seen flying.

Earlier studies suggested the presence of

Bengal florican in Khauraha phanta (pers.

comm., Park staff), but this survey was unable

Table 1: Bengal florican recorded in

Royal Bardia National Park, 2000

to record any. Successive changes have resulted

in encroachment of grasslands by trees, bushes

and tall grass species and this might have

made the Khauraha habitat unsuitable for the

floricans.

Most of the small grass patches and

probable florican habitats inside and outside the

Park were surveyed, but no florican was seen.

The habitat in Bagaura and Lamkauli

phanta seemed to be ideal for the florican.

Imperata cylindrica among the short and

Saccharum sp. among the tall grass species

dominated both the phantas. Male floricans

preferred the Imperata patch and females the

Saccharum patch. Grass height ranged from 17-

110 cm, and it provided sufficient cover and

shelter. Khauraha could be an ideal habitat for

Bengal florican, but needs rigorous

management.

Inskipp (1983) reported 9-10 floricans (8-

9 males and 1 female) in Bardia and Weaver

(1991) reported 6 birds (5 males and 1 female).

The current population of 3 males and 2 females

when compared to the earlier records shows a

decline in population.

Discussion

In most studies conducted in Bardia, sub-

adult floricans were not sighted. This may

indicate some recruitment problem, either due

to poor breeding or low survival rate of young;

the availability of suitable habitat could be one

of the main problems. The population of florican

has declined over the past two decades, so it is

important to address the problems related to

grassland habitat to increase their population.

We do not know the viable population size for

long-term survival, but maintaining a healthy

population in all the present habitats is crucial

for the conservation of the species.

Grassland management is necessary to

maintain the florican habitat. In Bardia,

grasslands undergo annual controlled burning

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

415

STATUS OF BENGAL FLOR1CAN IN ROYAL BARDIA NATIONAL PARK

T

N

(Not to scale)

Fig. 2: Map of Bagaura and Lamkauli phanta showing distribution of Bengal florican

in January and February. In December, the local

villagers are allowed to enter the protected areas

and cut grass for thatch. Normally, January and

February seems to be the correct time for the

burning of grass in Bardia, but the record of a

displaying male (Inskipp and Inskipp 1983) in

December suggests that the breeding season

should be avoided while burning or harvesting.

If burning is carried out during the breeding

season, it could destroy eggs or young birds.

Ideally, burning should be done in small patches

before the breeding season. All the patches

should not be burned every year. Extensive dry

season burning should be strictly avoided.

There was no hunting pressure as the

species is listed and hunting is strictly

prohibited. Grasslands near the Park and near

human settlements were overgrazed, and also

suffered from anthropogenic pressures.

The space needed for territory formation

of a large population of floricans is currently

lacking in Bardia.

Recommendations

1. Steps should be taken to prevent

invasion by tree saplings. Burning and

harvesting in grasslands should be strictly

regulated.

2. Locals should be made aware of the

different aspects of florican and grassland

conservation.

416

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 99(3), DEC 2002

STATUS OF BENGAL FLO RICAN IN ROYAL BARDIA NATIONAL PARK

3. Very little is known about the ecology of

the Bengal florican outside its breeding season.

Radiotelemetry should be used to study the

movement of floricans outside the breeding season.

4. Healthy populations of wild ungulates,

to some extent, help in maintaining grassland

habitat. Interaction of Bengal florican with other

grassland species could be studied, and the

conservation strategy should protect all the

grassland species originally found in the area.

5. Florican population in all prime habitats

should be monitored annually.

Refer

Ali, S. & A.R. Rahmani (1982-84): Study of ecology of

certain endangered species of wildlife and their

habitats: The Great Indian Bustard. Annual report

2, Bombay Natural History Society.

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1969): Handbook of the Birds of

India and Pakistan. Vol. 2, Oxford University Press,

Bombay.

Dinerstein, E. ( 1 979a): An ecological survey of the Royal

Kamali-Bardia Wildlife Reserve, Nepal, Part 1:

Vegetation, modifying factors and successional

relationship. Biol Conserv. 15: 127-150.

Dinerstein, E. ( 1 979b): An ecological survey of the Royal

Kamali-Bardia Wildlife Reserve Nepal, Part II:

Habitat/animal interaction. Biol. Conserv. 16: 265-

300.

Inskipp, C. (1983): Checklist of birds of Royal Bardia

Wildlife Reserve. International Center for Bird

Preservation, Cambridge. Pp. 6.

Inskipp, C. & T. Inskipp (1983): Report on a Survey of

Bengal Floricans ( Houbaropsis bengalensis) in

Nepal and India, 1982. ICBP Study Report No. 2.

Acknowledgements

This study was funded by the WWF-Nepal

Program. We are indebted to A.R. Rahmani and

Carol Inskipp for valuable guidance and

reference material. We thank DNPWC and staffs

of RBNP for help and permission for this work.

We are grateful to Dr. S.R. Jnawali and

Mrs. Sarita Jnawali, and Mr. Mohan Chaudhary,

proprietor of the Hotel Bardia Natural Park. We

are indebted to Mr. Hem Sagar Baral for

encouragement and support

NCES

Pp. 54.

Jnawali, S.R. & P. Wegge (1993): Space and habitat use

by a small, reintroduced population of one-horned

rhinoceros {Rhinoceros unicornis) in Royal Bardia

National Park in Nepal — A preliminary report.

In: Proceedings of the International Conference on

Rhinoceros Biology and Conservation (Ed.: Ryder,

O.A.). Zool. Soc., San Diego, USA. 208-2 1 7 pp.

Rahmani, A.R., G. Narayan, L. Rosalind, R. Sankaran

& U. Ganguli (1991): Status of the Bengal Florican

Houbaropsis bengalensis in India. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 88 (3): 349-375.

Sankaran, R. & A.R. Rahmani (1986): Study of the

ecology of certain species of wildlife and their

habitats: The Lesser Florican. Annual Report 2,

Bombay Natural History Society. 41 pp.

Weaver, D.J. (1991): A Survey of Bengal floricans

{Houbaropsis bengalensis) at Royal Suklaphanta

Wildlife Reserve and Royal Bardia National Park,

Western Nepal, 1990. A report to OBC, UK. Pp.

15.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 99(3), DEC. 2002

417

ABUNDANCE AND DIVERSITY OF MOSS COMMUNITIES

OF CHOPTA-TUNGANATH IN THE GARHWAL HIMALAYA1

( With seven text-figures)

Hans Raj Negi 2

Key words: Alpha-diversity, beta-diversity, macrohabitats, microhabitats, moss,

taxon rank surrogacy, Tunganath, Garhwal Himalaya

A total of 8, 1 55 colonies of moss from 1 2 plots of 50 m x 1 0 m, from four vegetation (macrohabitat)

types along gradients of disturbance and elevation (1,400-3,700 m) in the Chopta-Tunganath

landscape of the Garhwal Himalaya, yielded 34 families with 87 genera and 1 77 species. Thuidium

cymbifolium, Entodon rubicundus, and Racomitrium subsecundum were wide-niche species,

occupying all the three major substrates (microhabitats), namely rock, soil and wood, whereas

Tetraplodon mnioides and Timmia megapolitana were rare, encountered only once during the

survey. Macrohabitats and microhabitats were compared with respect to alpha- and beta-diversity

of the moss flora. Amongst the macrohabitats, the high altitude (2,900-3,200 m) Rhododendron

forest had the richest moss communities followed by the middle altitude (2,500-2,800 m) Quercus

forest, higher altitude grasslands (3,300-3,700 m) and then the lower elevation (1,500 m) Quercus

forest. Amongst the microhabitats, soil was richer than wood and rock substrates. Species, genus

and family level, alpha- as well as beta-diversities were significantly correlated with each other,

implying that the higher taxonomic ranks such as genera may be used as surrogates of species for

effective periodic monitoring and assessment of moss biodiversity. While unregulated human

activities such as excessive fuel wood collection, tourism and fire may adversely affect the diversity

of moss, seasonally regulated livestock grazing seems to have no marked impact.

Introduction

While there has been an appreciable

progress in the taxonomic listing and descriptions

of species of moss communities during the last

three decades (Gangulee 1969-72, Chopra 1975,

Kumar and Chopra 1981), the research on their

community ecology, quantifying patterns of

abundance, diversity and its conservation has only

recently begun (Negi andGadgil 1997, Negi 1999,

Negi 2000). Notably enough, much of the past

work on biodiversity patterns and processes have

been descriptive and concentrated at the regional

‘Accepted June, 2001

2Biodiversity Laboratory,

Evolutionary and Organismal Biology Unit

Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research

Jakkur Campus, Jakkur P.O., Bangalore 560 064,

Karnataka, India.

Present Address: Biodiversity Division,

Institute of Himalayan Bioresource Technology

(Council of Scientific & Industrial Research),

Post Box No. 6, Palampur 1 76 06 1 ,

Himachal Pradesh, India.

and global scales (Heywood 1995, Gaston 1996).

This paper attempts to present the local scale

patterns, particularly abundance, and alpha and

beta diversities in moss communities across the

gradients of macrohabitats (vegetation types) and

disturbance along the altitude, in a landscape of

about 500 sq. km, of Chopta-Tunganath in

Garhwal Himalaya. Emphasis is given on

understanding the local scale patterns, because

land-use decisions and management policies are

most often implemented only at this level (Ricklefs

and Schluter 1993, Negi 1999). The study further

examines the efficacy of using higher taxon ranks

such as genera as reliable surrogates of species

for effective periodic monitoring of the moss

diversity. Conservation implications are also

discussed.

Study Area

Chopta-Tunganath (30° 20' - 30° 35* N and

79° 10-79° 20' E; 1,400 m-3,700 m) is a

mountainous landscape spreading over 500 sq. km

418

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

ABUNDANCE AND DIVERSITY OF MOSS COMMUNITIES OF CHOPTA-TUNGANA TH

79°20'E

30o35'N

30°20'N

SCALE-]: 5,60,000

INVESTIGATED SITES

L— L_L. L— JL

0

I

33.6 km

Fig. 1: Location of Chopta-Tunganath landscape

in the Indian Garhwal Himalaya (Fig. 1). The

undulating topography of the area provides a

variety of edaphic conditions, resulting in a

distinctive flora and fauna (Gupta 1964).

The soil is coarse, well drained and acidic,

at pH 4 - 5.5 (Sundriyal 1992). There is no

detailed analysis of rainfall variation at different

sites along the gradient. The average annual

precipitation at Okhimath station (30° 30* N; 79°

15* E; 2,500 m), about 10 km west of Chopta,

was 1,888.5 ±98. 5mm for the last 50 years, with

low to heavy snow fall from December to March.

The maximum monthly temperature varies

between 19-37 °C, from the higher altitude

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

419

ABUNDANCE AND DIVERSITY OF MOSS COMMUNITIES OF CHOPTA-TUNGANATH

grasslands to the lower elevation Quercus forests,

respectively, from May to October. The minimum

temperature drops to -15 °C in the alpine

grasslands in December up to February.

The vegetation of the study area is broadly

classified as temperate mixed oak and coniferous

forests, sub-alpine forest, alpine scrub and

grasslands. The area harbors more than 250

vascular plant species (Semwal and Gaur 1981)

and 92 species of lichens (Upreti andNegi 1998)

besides a rich diversity of fauna including the

highly endangered musk deer ( Moschus

chrysogaster ) (Negi 1996). The low elevation

woodlands such as Quercus forests are open to

fodder and fuel wood collection throughout the

year. In the sub-alpine forests and alpine

meadows, livestock grazing and tourism starts

in early June, reaching a peak in July-August

and stopping in early October.

Methods

Field Sampling Design: The landscape

was stratified into five macrohabitat types, based

on the predominant vegetation cover along the

gradient 1) Paddy fields; (<1,400 m). 2) Lower

altitude (1 ,500 m) broad-leafed forest; dominated

by Quercus leucotrichophora. This forest has

been protected, from felling by locals, for more

than 25 years. 3) Middle altitude (2,500-2,800 m)

broad-leafed forest; dominated by Quercus

semecarpifolia. 4) High altitude (2,900-3,200 m)

mixed forests with dominant broad-leafed species

e.g. Rhododendron arboreum and Rhododendron

campanulatum , dotted with a few coniferous trees

of Abies pindrow and Taxus buccata. 5) Higher

altitude (3,400-3,700 m) grasslands dominated

by herbaceous species, e.g. Anemone , Potentilla,

Aster , Geranium , Meconopsis, Primula and

Polemonium, and pockets of shrubs of

Rhododendron anthopogon and Juniperus sp. All

the macrohabitat types were exposed to varied

degrees of human interference such as rice

cultivation in the low land terraces, fuel wood

collection from woodland, and seasonal livestock

grazing and tourism in the alpine meadows.

Data Recording: 12 plots of 50 m x 10 m,

were laid between 1 ,500 m to 3,700 m above msl,

Table 1 : Attributes of 12 plots (50x10 sq. m) sampled for mosses and woody plants in Chopta-Tunganath

Mosses Woody plants

MAC = Macrohabitat, LQ = Lower altitude Quercus forest, MQ = Middle altitude Quercus forest,

HR = High altitude mixed forest of Rhododendron, HG = Higher altitude grassland

420

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC 2002

ABUNDANCE AND DIVERSITY OF MOSS COMMUNITIES OF CHOPTA-TUNGANATH

covering four types of macrohabitat (Table 1).

Paddy fields at 1 ,400 m were excluded from the

sampling, as they supported few moss colonies.

Three major substrates, namely rock, soil and

wood, were selected as microhabitats. The woody

substrates included tree trunks, branches, twigs,

logs and stumps. Search and collection of all the

moss colonies was carried out in each plot from

June-October in 1994-95. Representative samples

from each colony were preserved in bamboo

paper pouches (30 cm x 30 cm). Species level

identifications were made with the help of a moss

taxonomist at the Botanical Survey of India

(BSI). The taxonomy was based mainly on the

keys by Chopra (1975) and Gangulee (1969-72).

The specimens which could not be identified to

the species level were either considered as distinct

yet anonymous species (sp.), or assigned to a

species which the majority of its structural and

ecological characteristics resembled (cf.).

Voucher samples of all the recorded species from

the study area were preserved in the Herbarium

of BSI. The numbers of trees above 10 cm girth

at 130 cm height above ground and patches of

shrubs (>10 cm height) in all plots were also

noted. Although the mosses could not be sampled

on trees above a height of 2.5 m, many canopy

species were collected from fallen branches and

twigs.

Data analysis

Alpha-Beta Diversity: Alpha-diversity

was measured as number of, species, genera or

families of mosses per plot (Whitaker 1972).

Compositional change of species, genera

or families from one plot to another (beta-

diversity or turnover) was calculated as a

Chord-distance or dissimilarity index, preferred

over Jaccards similarity index (Ludwig and

Reynold 1 988). The former index is more robust,

as it uses abundance information also, whereas

the latter requires only the presence - absence

data.

Chord distance between j* and kth plots is

given as:

Where, Ny and are the numbers of

colonies of Ith taxon in jth and kth plots, & and Sk

are the numbers of species, genera or families in

j* and kth plots respectively.

The dissimilarity (distance) values vary

from 0 to 1.42, for pairs of plots corresponding

with having none to completely dissimilar

taxonomic composition. The matrix of the

dissimilarity values for all pairs of plots was

subjected to simple linkage cluster analysis and

depicted as a dendrogram after re-scaling the

values between 0 to 1 (Mark and Roger 1984).

Rarefaction: Sampling effort in terms of

number of moss colonies across macro as well

as microhabitats were highly unequal. I have,

therefore, employed rarefaction process to

compare these habitats for richness of moss

diversity. How many species, genera or families

do we get for an equal number of colonies

sampled from each habitat type? Rarefaction

addresses this question, and involves linearly

increasing the number of colonies drawn from

the pooled data (i.e. all the colonies in a particular

habitat type) and the numbers of species, genera

and families encountered were recorded. The

above process was repeated 100 times, using

computer simulations and the mean numbers of

species, genera and families were calculated for

a number of colonies sampled from each habitat

type.

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Regression model and simulations: A

simple linear regression model was used to

interpret the data on the relationships among

species, genus and family level alpha and beta

diversities. Since the beta-diversity values are not

independent of each other, there is every

possibility that the observed relationships may

have occurred by chance. Moreover, this causes

uncertain degrees of freedom while establishing

the magnitude of the relationship. To overcome

this problem, computer simulations based on

randomization process were employed. The beta-

diversity values in one of the pairs of taxonomic

hierarchy (species, genus or family level) were

scrambled with respect to the other, thus

randomizing the process and r was calculated.

This procedure was repeated 1 ,000 times for each

pair yielding 1,000 values of r. Level of

significance value (p) was calculated as a

proportion of the simulated values of r that were

greater than the observed r. Thus, the

relationship with r value at p < 0.005 arrived

after simulations was considered significant.

Results

A total of 34 families with 87 genera and

177 species from 8,155 colonies sampled over

6,000 sq. m, constituted the moss community of

Chopta-Tunganath. The moss taxa, their

occurrence on the major substrates namely rock,

soil and wood, elevation range and average

abundance per sampled plot are given in Table 2.

The distribution of numbers of species, genera

and families on these three substrates are depicted

in the form of Venn diagrams (Fig. 2). 31.67%

of the species, 19.54% of the genera and 17.64%

of the families were terricolous (on soil). 17.51%

Fig. 2: Venn diagrams depicting distribution of (a) 177 species, (b) 87 genera and

(c) 34 families of moss communities on rock, soil and wood

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Table 2: Average abundance of mosses [in descending order] per plot and

altitude range from Chopta-Tunganath

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Table 2 (contd.y. Average abundance of mosses [in descending order] per plot and

altitude range from Chopta-Tunganath

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Table 2 (contd.): Average abundance of mosses [in descending order] per plot and

altitude range from Chopta-Tunganath

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ABUNDANCE AND DIVERSITY OF MOSS COMMUNITIES OF CHOPTA-TUNGANATH

Table 2 (contd.): Average abundance of mosses [in descending order] per plot and

altitude range from Chopta-Tunganath

Alt. = altitude; Max = maximum; Min = minimum; Fq = frequency of occurrence in plots; Abun = abundance

Avg. = average; Stdev. = standard deviation

of the species, 16.09% of the genera and 8.82%

of the families were lignicolous (on wood). 3.95%

of the species and 1 . 1 5% of the genera and none

of the families, were saxicolous (on rock).

Whereas 55.88% of the families with 20.3% of

the species and 32.18% of the genera were

426

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All

Fig. 3a-c: Accumulation of species (a), genera (b) and families (c) of moss with increasing number of colonies in different macrohabitat types. The

macrohabitat types are: LQ; lower altitude Quercus forest (1,500 m), MQ; Middle altitude Quercus forest (2,500-2,800 m), HR; high altitude

Rhododendron forest (2,900-3,200 m), HG; higher altitude grassland (3,400-3.700 m). The number of species, genera and families at each interval

is an average of 1 00 simulations

140

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428

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Fig. 4a-c: Accumulation of species (a), genera (b) and families (c) of moss with increasing number of pooled colonies in three microhabitat types

namely rock, soil and wood. The number of species, genera and families at each interval is an average of 100 simulations

ABUNDANCE AND DIVERSITY OF MOSS COMMUNITIES OF CHOPTA-TUNGANATH

HG (3600m)

HG (3400m)

HG (3700m)

— — HR(3200m)

HR(3100m)

HR (3000m)

HR(2900m)

— — MQ (2800m)

p — MQ (2700m)

MQ (2600m)

*— — MQ (2500m)

- — — — LQ( 1500m)

» i i- — - 8 — ... — t —

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Rescaled Chord distance

Fig. 5: Complete linkage dendrogram of 12 plots sampled in different macrohabitat types based on Chord

distance with respect to species composition. Macrohabitats are LQ: lower altitude Quercus forest,

MQ: middle altitude Quercus forest, HR: high altitude Rhododendron forest, HG: higher altitude grassland

generalists, occurring in all three substrates. The

rest of the taxa shared two of the three

microhabitats in the area.

Entodon rubicundus, Racomitrium

subsecundum and Thuidium cymbifolium were

the most abundant, wide-niche generalist species

with wide elevation range, frequently occurring

in all three substrates. Philonotis nitida ,

Pogonatum neesi , Tetraplodon mnioides and

Timmia megapolitana , encountered only once

during the study, were rare. Species such as

Pogonatum microstomum , moderately abundant

in more than 58% of the macrohabitat types in

the area, may be considered as habitat specialists,

confined to soil microhabitats.

High altitude mixed forests of

Rhododendron have the highest number of moss

species, followed by middle altitude Quercus

forests, higher altitude grasslands and finally

lower altitude Quercus forest. For family level

richness, middle altitude Quercus forest is the

richest, followed by high altitude mixed

Rhododendron forest, higher altitude grassland

and lower altitude Quercus forest. Middle altitude

Quercus forests and high altitude mixed forest

of Rhododendron were equally rich in the number

of genera in equal numbers of sampled moss

colonies (Fig. 3a-c).

Soil microhabitats support the highest

number of species, followed by wood and rock

substrates (Fig. 4a-c). But at genus level, wood

turns up as rich as the soil. The majority of

species, genera and families prefer soil and wood

microhabitats. However, a few species

consistently grow exclusively on rocks. This

indicates the importance of rock, soil and wood

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ABUNDANCE AND DIVERSITY OF MOSS COMMUNITIES OF CHOPTA-TUNGANATH

Genera Genus Turnover

Fig. 6: Relationship between species, genus and

family level richness of moss

combinations in microhabitats for diversity of

moss communities.

The change of composition of moss species

across the plots i.e. beta-diversity or turnover

along the elevation is depicted in Fig. 5. The

Family Turnover

Fig. 7: Relationship between species, genus and

family level turnover of moss community

plots belonging to the same macrohabitat tend

to cluster, depending on the moss species

composition. The moss assemblages, therefore,

appear to reflect the characteristics of the

macrohabitats in which they occur.

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ABUNDANCE AND DIVERSITY OF MOSS COMMUNITIES OF CHOPTA-TUNGANATH

The relationships among taxonomic ranks

of species, genera and families of mosses with

respect to their alpha and beta diversities along

with fitted regression equations are given in Figs

6 and 7. There is a significant positive correlation

(p < 0.005) between species, genus and family level

in alpha (Fig. 6) as well as beta-diversity (Fig. 7).

Discussion

Floristic studies in India, particularly on

the lower plants, lack objective oriented field

methodology. This has hindered the long term

monitoring of biological diversity (Negi and

Gadgil 1997, Negi 1999, Negi 2000). In this

study, replicable methodological approach is

adopted that may in turn facilitate comparable

studies in future. Numbers of species or any other

higher ranks of taxonomic organization at sites

(richness or alpha-diversity) and change across

the habitats (turnover or beta-diversity) are

important parameters of biodiversity in

environmental monitoring and conservation

evaluation (Magurran 1988, Pressey et al. 1994,

Negi 1999).

We found that a mosaic of macrohabitats

and microhabitats vary in terms of these

biodiversity attributes. Higher altitude

Rhododendron forest is the richest habitat for

mosses. Interestingly, the lower altitude Quercus

forest is consistently poorer than the higher

altitude grassland, which hardly has any woody

microhabitats for the wood loving taxa. It may

be that though the lower altitude Quercus forest

is managed by the locals for cutting and lopping,

there is no control over grazing and collection

of fuel wood throughout the year. This probably

rendered the forest with only tree trunk bark

inhabiting species along with a few saxicolous

moss taxa. Higher altitude grasslands are open

for grazing, but only during the summer season.

Lower diversity of woody plants may also

contribute to the paucity of moss in the lower

elevation Quercus forest. However, there was no

significant relationship between numbers of species

of woody plants and the moss species diversity in

the area. Although the majority of the species were

soil specific, the moss richness seemed to be greatly

affected by woody microhabitats, as many species

occur only on this substrate. This pattern brings

out the importance of such microhabitats in the

area and cautions us about the potential adverse

anthropogenic impacts of deforestation, habitat

degradation and fire, the frequency of which is

increasing alarmingly in the region (Semwal and

Mehta 1996).

The study identifies rare species in the moss

community, with quantitative infonnation on the

patterns of distribution, populations, taxa in the

landscape. Without such information, any program

for conservation and sustainable management of

bioresources in the fragile ecosystems of the

Himalaya will remain on shaky ground.

There is neither time nor funds adequate to

sample and identify all the species in a given area

for periodically monitoring large diverse lower

plant communities such as moss. This is because

numbers of species is generally high and the

identification is time consuming. Therefore, a

reduced set of taxonomic ranks other than the

species may be used as surrogates for cost-effective

assessment of biodiversity (Williams and Gaston

1994, Prance 1994, Negi 1999). It. is therefore

necessary to establish a relationship of species

diversity with the higher taxonomic ranks. The

present investigation attempted to establish such

a relationship, and showed that even at the family

level, inventory of moss community may be helpful

in accurately predicting its species diversity.

Similar results have also been shown in the same

communities, but from a different landscape in the

same region of the Himalaya (Negi 2000).

Conclusions and conservation

implications: Moss diversity sharply declines from

the seasonally grazed high altitude Rhododendron

forest and alpine meadows to the highly disturbed

Quercus forest in the lower elevation. The richness

of mosses is related to the moderate levels of

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ABUNDANCE AND DIVERSITY OF MOSS COMMUNITIES OF CHOPTA-TUNGANATH

disturbance by grazing and other factors, such as

frequency of human visits for fuel wood and fodder

collection, which goes on throughout the year in

the Quercus forests. However, low temperature and

high humidity in the high elevation habitats of

Rhododendron and grasslands might have also

contributed to the rich diversity of moss. These

factors should be taken care of while designing

conservation plans. Apart from livestock grazing,

tourism has emerged as the major land use pressure

in the high altitude zones of the

Chopta-Tunganath. Its increasing demands may

lead to overgrazing of higher altitude grasslands

and excessive wood collection from the woodlands,

leading to severe damage to the moss communities,

including the loss of rare species. Thus, the

dynamics of biodiversity of moss in relation to the

livestock grazing and tourism as major land use

activities in the Himalaya needs further research.

Acknowledgements

I thank Professor Madhav Gadgil for

inspiring me to work in this interesting area of

research. Thanks are due to Dr. Nehal Aziz for

identifying the species. Local hospitality by

C.P. Bhat and his organization DGSM in the

study area and field assistance by Bharat Singh

Rawat were invaluable. Discussions with

Drs. N.V. Joshi, Mallikarjun Shakarad, Robert

and Utkarsh Ghate were fruitful. Financial

support from Ministry of Environment and

Forests, and Department of Science and

Technology, Government of India is

acknowledged. Last but not the least, thanks are

due to Dr. P.S. Ahuja, Director, Institute of

Himalayan Bioresource Technology, for kindly

extending the Institute’s infrastructure facilities

to revise the manuscript.

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Chopra, R.S. (1975): Taxonomy of Indian Mosses.

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New Delhi.

Gangulee, H.C. (1969-72): Mosses of Eastern India and

Adjacent Regions — A Monograph. Vol. I-III.

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Gaston, K.J. (Ed.) (1996): Biodiversity: A biology of

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Ludwig, J.A. & J.F. Reynold (1988): Statistical Ecology.

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Mark, S.A. & K.B. Roger (1984): Cluster analysis. Sage,

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Negi, H.R. ( 1 996): Usnea longissima — the winter staple

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conservation value across taxa: A case study from

Garhwal Himalaya. Ph.D. thesis, Indian Institute

of Science, Bangalore, India.

Negi, H.R. (2000): Species richness and turnover of moss

communities in Western Parts of Nanda Devi

Biosphere Reserve. Int. J. Ecol. Env. Sci. 26: 1-18.

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Community Ecology of Mosses: A case study from

Garhwal region of Western Himalayas. Int. J. Ecol.

Env. Sci. 23: 445-462.

Prance, G. T. ( 1 994) A comparison of the efficacy of higher

taxa and species numbers in the assessment of bio-

diversity in the Neotropics. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc.

Lon. 345: 89-99

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of irreplaceability: towards a measure of the

contribution of sites to a reservation goal. Biod. Con.

3: 242-262.

Ricklefs, R.E. & D. Schluter (1993): Species diversity:

regional and historical influences. In: Species

Diversity in Ecological Communities: Historical and

geographical perspectives. (Eds. Ricklefs, R.E. and

D. Schluter), University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

Pp. 350-363.

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Semwal, J.K. & R.D. Gaur (1981): Alpine flora of

Tunganath in the Garhwal Himalaya. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 78: 498-512.

Semwal, R.L. & J.R Mehta (1996): Ecology of forest fires

in Chir Pine forests of Garhwal Himalayas. Curr.

Sci. 70(6): 426-27.

Sundriyal, R.C. ( 1 992): Structure, productivity and energy

flow in an alpine grassland in the Garhwal

Himalaya. J. Veg. Sci. 3: 15-20.

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Whitaker, R.H. (1972): Evolution and measurement of

species diversity. Taxon 21: 213-251 .

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211-217.

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433

STATUS, ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF NARCONDAM HORNBILL

(AC EROS NARCONDAMI) IN NARCONDAM ISLAND,

ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS, INDIA1

( With three text-figures)

H.S.A. Yahya2 and Ashfaq Ahmed Zarri2’3

Key words: Narcondam hombill, Aceros narcondami , Andaman and Nicobar Islands,

status, behaviour, habitat, feeding, nesting, conservation

Narcondam Island is part of the submerged lines of hills which constitute the Andaman and

Nicobar (A & N hereafter) Archipelago in the Bay of Bengal (Abdulali 1971). The Narcondam

hornbill Aceros narcondami, endemic to Narcondam Island, is an interesting species from the

ecological and evolutionary point of view, and is also a Red Data Book (RDB) species (King

1981). It has been declared endangered due to its restricted range (Stattersfield et al. 1998). The

Island was recently declared an Important Bird Area (IBA) under the IBA programme launched

by Birdlife International and the BNHS in India. Considering the isolation of this important

species and scanty information on its ecology and biology, a short-term study was conducted in

March 2000. Line transect method was adopted for population estimation. Observations were

carried out to collect data on behavioural aspects like feeding, pre- and post-roosting behaviour,

nesting, vocalization and interaction with other species. Circular Plot and PCQ method were

used to estimate the tree density. Around 432 birds were estimated to be on the Island. Population

density estimate using line transect was 72 birds/sq. km. Twenty active nests were recorded.

Though the present population seems to be stable, the confinement of the hornbills on such a

small island makes them vulnerable to intrinsic and extrinsic threats.

Introduction

Island life exhibits features of special

interest. The sea is a barrier to its colonisation

by terrestrial life forms, but the species that are

once established frequently develop new features

in their isolated surroundings. A long established

sea barrier results in marked differences between

the animal and vegetation even of adjacent

islands. India has a number of islands both in

the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea, the former

being much larger and more habitable. The

islands in Bay of Bengal represent submarine

mountains, while the islands in the Arabian Sea

are entirely built by corals (Singh 1920).

‘Accepted May, 2002

department of Wildlife Sciences, Aligarh Muslim University,

Aligarh 202 002, Uttar Pradesh, India.

’Present address: Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road,

Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India.

The Narcondam hornbill (Aceros

narcondami) is an endemic bird. Scanty

information is available on its population,

ecology and biology, due to the remoteness of its

home, Narcondam Island. There are records of

only seven to eight visits, of not more than five

days, between 1873 and 1984. Prain(1893), Cory

(1902), Osmaston (1905) and John (1889) are

few records of the species. Hussain (1984) and

Ravi Sankaran (pers. comm.) in 1998 spent 1-3

months. Kemp (1995) has summarized

information and Ravi Sankaran (pers. comm.)

has discussed the current conservation problems

of this vulnerable species. A rough estimate given

by Ravi Sankaran indicated 290-320 birds. Apart

from these, there is no other comprehensive study

on the biology and ecology of the Narcondam

hornbills. Thus, the present study was conducted

to assess the present status, ecology and

behaviour of this isolated species.

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STATUS, ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF NARCONDAM HORN BILL

Hombills (Bucerotidae and Bucorvidae)

are a group of large, forest and savanna birds

restricted to the Old World tropics. There are

54 species of hornbills in the world (Kemp

1988), nine of which occur in India (Ali and

Ripley 1970). Only in the last decade, some

studies provided valuable insight into the

ecology of these unique cavity-nesting birds

(Mudappa 2000). The Indian hornbills are

secondary cavity-nesters, largely forest dwelling

species and predominantly frugivorous (Kemp

1976).

Study Area

Narcondam Island is one of the 323 islands

of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, which lie

in a long and narrow broken chain,

approximately north to south, sprawling like an

arc, and having an area of 8,293 sq. km. Around

80% land area is under forest cover. Narcondam

Island (13° 27' N, 94° 17' E) lies about 114 km

off Port Blair towards Myanmar (Fig. 1). It lies

about 500 km off the Mergui Archipelago and

about 300 km southwest of the Gulf of Martaban

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STATUS, ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF NARCONDAM HORN BILL

in Myanmar (Kemp 1995). It is logical to

presume a former connection from Cape Negris

at the southern end of Burma to Achin Head

(Cape Pedro) in Andalas (Sumatras) (Osmaston

1905)

The Island is an outcome of volcanic

actions from the Sunda group, and lies, with the

Nicobars, along one of the principal lines of

weakness in the earth’s surface. Wadia referred

to it as a craterless volcano composed wholly of

andesectic lava (Abdulali 1971). The total area

is approximately 6.8 sq. km, and the highest peak

is about 750 m above msl.

Legal status

The Island was recently declared a Wildlife

Sanctuary under the Wildlife (Protection) Act

1972. It falls under the jurisdiction of the DFO,

Mayabunder in the North Andaman. It was

uninhabited until 1969, when the Government

of India made a lookout post. A party of 1 7 police

personnel is deputed on the Island for three

months by rotation. A lighthouse has recently

been constructed on the southern edge of the

Island.

Climate

The climate of the Andamans group of

Islands is tropical wet and humid, with daily

temperature ranging from 27.8 °C maximum to

21.8 °C minimum. The Island receives both

southwest and northeast monsoons, from May

to October. At times, cyclonic storms occur

during this period, with rough weather conditions

almost throughout the season. The average annual

rainfall recorded for the Island from the nearest

weather station at Mayabunder is 3,055 mm, with

an average of 1 34 rainy days/year. July records the

highest and March the lowest rainfall.

Vegetation

Prain (1893) described some aspects of the

flora of Narcondam (Hussain 1984). The flora

of the Andaman and Nicobar group of Islands

has been described in detail by Parkinson (1923)

and Thothari (1960). The Island bears several

generations of old, dead and decaying trees,

interlaced with thorny creepers and luxuriantly

flowering tall trees. The vegetation can be divided

into littoral, deciduous, evergreen and moist

evergreen.

The flora on the highest zones of the hill

are mostly evergreen trees such as Dipt erocar pus,

Sideroxylon and Ficus. However, some deciduous

species (e.g. Semul Bombax insigne) are also

seen. The vegetation towards the summit is

mostly moist evergreen with several epiphytes.

The lower hills following the shoreline have both

deciduous and evergreen trees like Terminalia

catappa , T. bialata , Parishia insignis , Caryota

mitis and several thorny creepers.

The shoreline has some introduced species

such as coconut and banana. Apart from the

introduced species, we could identify Sterculia

religiosa , Barringtonia speciosa , Thespesia

populnea , Pandanus , Scaevola koenigii, Ipomea

biloba and Hibiscus tiliaceus. Good timber

species also occur on the Island.

Campsite and its environs

The police camp area is very picturesque

and is located on the eastern side of the Island.

A considerable area has been transformed into a

kitchen garden, with introduced plants, including

about 25 varieties of vegetables and fruits. Some

of the introduced species are growing like weeds.

Remarkable among them is Tulsi ( Ocimum sp.),

which can be seen in thick patches almost on all

sides of the camp. It has also started invading

the upper areas of the forest. Several trees of

Ficus , Terminalia catappa and a small mangrove

patch were also seen.

Methodology and Analysis

The Line Transect Method (Emlen 1971)

was adopted to estimate the density of

Narcondam hornbills. The computer program

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STA TUS, ECOLOGY AND BEHA VIOUR OF NARCONDAM HORNBILL

transect was used to analyze the data. The

program calculates density of objects at three cut

points and generates 95% confidence interval for

each estimate (Burnham et al. 1980). We also

calculated the density manually by the following

formula

D - n / 2LY

where D = Density, n = No. of sightings,

L = Total length walked and Y = Average

perpendicular distance

Feeding at the nest by males was studied

by shifts of observations on three nests, and three

complete days were spent on each nest. Food

items were identified by direct observation of

fruiting trees and indirectly from the debris

collected from the base of the nesting trees. Seeds

collected from the midden were catalogued.

Density of fruiting and nesting trees was

estimated by taking 10 m circular plots. The

general tree density of the study area was assessed

by the Plot Circular Quadrat Method (PCQ).

Plants of height greater than 5 m were considered

for this purpose. A herbarium of tree species was

collected and identified with the help of scientists

at the Botanical Survey of India, Port Blair.

Active nests were located by following the

breeding males, and by checking signs of the

previous year’s fecal remains (midden) at the base

of nest trees. At times, begging calls of the young

hornbills being fed by the males also helped in

locating active nests. A wooden boat was used

for observations along the periphery of the Island.

A hide was constructed at Nest No. 2 for regular

observations and photography.

Results

Population, status and distribution

The density of the hornbills was calculated

as 72 birds per sq. km. Considering the effective

hornbill habitat (6 sq. km), about 432 birds occur

on the Island. Flowever, a density of 83 hornbills

per sq. km was estimated by the Fourier Series

Estimator; percentage coefficient of variation was

8.9, lower limit 75.53 and upper limit 87.95.

The hornbills are almost uniformly

distributed on the Island, with no preference for

any landscape feature. Fig. 2 shows the number

of sightings in each group of perpendicular

distances. Most of the encounters were between

10-30 m of perpendicular distance.

50 n

Perpendicular Distances (m)

Fig. 2: Number of sightings in each group of perpendicular distances

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

437

STATUS, ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF NARCONDAM HORN BILL

Nest site characteristics and distribution

There is no apparent preference for a

particular tree species for nesting (Table 1). Nests

were recorded on slopes, in valleys and on ridge

tops at different altitudes. Nests were

predominantly found in trunks of living trees,

some were also seen in partially dead tall trees.

Nest height varied from a minimum of 3 to 35 m

in the recorded nests, however, most of them were

10-20 m high (Table 1). One unusual nest was

recorded in the main trunk of a very thin tree

about 5 m above the ground.

The shortest distance between two nests

was 8 m. Other bird species also nested near the

hornbill’s nest: one nest of Alexandrine parakeet

( Psittacula eupatria) was just one metre above

the hornbill’s nest on the same tree, while another

nest of the olive-backed sunbird ( Nectarinia

jugular is) was 4 m away.

Most hombill nests were found facing east

or west. Nest cavities of hornbills are probably

used year after year, as evidenced by the remains

of an old machan (Platform) near Nest No. 2,

which was used by Sankaran in 1998. Nests were

almost uniformly distributed on the Island,

irrespective of altitude or other difference in

microhabitats and there was no clumped setting.

We found nests even just below the summit of

the Island (645 m above msl, Table 1).

Tree density

A total of 9,420 sq. m area was sampled to

estimate the fruiting and nesting tree density. 102

fruiting trees were recorded in sampled plots,

giving a total density of 1,080 individuals per

sq. km. Only 21 nesting trees were recorded in

the same area and their density was calculated

to be 222 trees per sq. km. However, the general

tree density was 5,160 trees per sq. km from a

sample of 50 circular plots.

Behavioural observations

Nest feeding'. The incarcerated adult

female and nestlings are dependent on the male

for providing food. A narrow slit was left in the

wall through which the male fed his mate

throughout the incubation and nestling period.

The male offered berries, regurgitated one by one

Table 1: Details ofNarcondam hornbill nests recorded during March 2000

438

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STA TUS, ECOLOGY AND BEHA VIOUR OF NARCONDAM HORNBILL

and shifted up to his bill-tip, to the female who

passed it on to the young. Older nestlings may

receive food directly from the male, but this was

not clearly visible.

The Narcondam hornbill is mainly

frugivorous like other hornbill species and has a

regular daily feeding schedule. Nest feeding

started at 0440 hrs and the last feeding was

recorded at 1705 hrs. Fig. 3 shows the average

number of feeding visits made by the male on

Nest Nos. 1, 2 and 3. On an average, the male

made 2.5 visits per hour. No feeding was

observed during heavy rain, as the wet male had

to cling strenuously on to the nest to feed the

nestling and female. Invariably maximum

feeding was done during morning hours (Fig. 3).

Food of the hornbill mostly constitutes of

large drupes, wild fig, and berries; also insects,

lizards and small animals. Nine species of fruits

were identified: Caryota mitis , Mystica

andamanica , Artocarpus chaplasha , Delinea

indica , Sideroxylon longipetiolatum , Ficus

scandens , F. glomerata , an unidentified Ficus

species and Syzigium cuminii.

Number of insertions per visit by the male

varied with the size of the fruit, 2-77 insertions

were recorded on Nest No. 1. However, mean

numbers of insertions was x = 23.5 ±18.7,

n = 32. Similarly, on Nest No. 2, 1-40 insertions

per visit were recorded, while mean number of

fruits fed was x = 15.4 ±11.6, n = 32.

Total time spent by the males on Nest No.

1 ranged between 1 and 11 minutes. However,

the mean time spent per visit was x = 1 5.4 ±4.37,

n = 32. Similarly, the range of total time spent

on Nest No. 2 was from 0.5 to 7 min, while mean

time spent was x = 2.81 ±1.6, n = 32. Once the

feeding was over, the male would clean its beak

on the branch a few times, and often preen for a

while before flying away.

Interactions with other species : On three

occasions, we observed 4-5 hombills mobbing

the white-bellied sea-eagle Haliaeetus

leucogaster and chasing it from tree to tree. No

apparent inter- or intra-specific competition for

nesting sites was recorded. Alexandrine

w

00

>

<D

o>

(0

1—

<D

<

0400-0800 0800-1200 1200-1600

Time interval (hrs)

1600-1800

Fig. 3: Feeding visits of male Narcondam hornbill in nest during different time of the day (n=3 days/nest)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

439

STATUS, ECOLOGY AND BEHA VIOUR OF NARCONDAM HORNB1LL

parakeets and common hill-myna ( Gracula

religiosa) were recorded nesting on the same tree

as the hombills. We did not notice any predators.

Once a hawk (unidentified species) was observed

soaring in the sky. However, considering its small

size, it did not appear to pose any threat to the

hornbills.

Feeding in group : While breeding pairs

were recorded feeding and collecting foods

largely individually or in groups of 2-3 birds,

large flocks up to 50 non-breeding birds were

regularly noted feeding, displaying or flying

together up and down the valley. The composition

of such feeding flocks is given in Table 2. They

were recorded almost throughout the day, but

were larger, more noisy and active during late

afternoons while preparing to roost.

Fighting, chasing, billing, calling and

preening were the common activities during

feeding and foraging. At times, two or more in

the group would fly up in the air, move in the

group, move zigzag up to about 1 00 m and then

descend. Similar acrobatics were performed

during pre-roosting and post-roosting activities.

While feeding in groups on the fruiting trees at

times, some were seen descending on the bush

and even catching insects, often as low as 1 m

above the ground. However, the breeding males

were recorded searching for insects more than

the non-breeding birds. Larger congregations on

fruit-laden trees (mainly Ficus spp.) were

observed almost every evening before roosting.

Congregations of 4-5 breeding males were also

observed occasionally, at times other than

Table 2: Activity and flock composition of Narcondam hornbill during March 2000

440

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STA TUS, ECOLOGY AND BEHA VIOUR OF NARCONDAM HORN BILL

feeding. On two such occasions, the males were

recorded mobbing and chasing white-bellied sea-

eagles from their nests.

Pre-roosting Behaviour : The roosting

pattern in the Narcondam hombill appears to be

“generally bird-like”, settling in the evening at

the approach of dark, and emerging early in the

morning. They roost in the foliage of the tree, in

groups, at a particular site. Pre-roosting activities

of non-breeding flock were recorded every day.

During this study, a flock of about 50 birds

(mainly non-breeding) was followed for 20 days,

one hour before settling time and one and a half

hours after they emerged from the roost.

Pre-roosting activity of the non-breeding

flock consists of loud calls, chase of members

and acrobatics. Such flocks comprised of several

males and females, all moving in a semi-circular

direction, from branch to branch and tree to tree,

at times alighting on low bushes. Feeding during

this period was noted to be very brief. At times,

they perched on foliage one on each top branch,

calling and preening alternately. The number of

birds in such flocks varied from 4 to 50 on

different days (Table 2). Pre-roosting activities

start around 1 600 hrs and lasted up to sunset. At

dusk, all birds would become quiet and leave the

foraging area in groups of 2, 3 or 4, all following

the same route southwest of the camp.

The most interesting pre-roosting

behaviour was the performance of acrobatics in

which one bird would fly high up in the sky and

then drop down haphazardly and zigzag. These

performances were reminiscent of the displays

of pigeons and doves, but while these select

particular branches to initiate the display and

return to almost the same perch, the Narcondam

hombill acrobatics were less organized. The pre-

roosting activities of the breeding pairs were not

very pronounced. While the females remained

inside the nest holes, the males kept feeding them

and the young until quite dark and then after the

last feeding moved to a nearby thick foliage.

Post-roosting activities'. Post-roosting

activities were less pronounced in the hombills.

After emerging one by one from the roost, the

birds rushed to nearby trees and started feeding

in small flocks. However, on overcast mornings

or after moderate rains the birds were noted

performing prolonged aerial dynamics as

recorded in the afternoons. During cloudy and

drizzle mornings, play behaviour of males and

females on fruiting trees was recorded to be more

elaborate. The first feeding in the morning lasted

about 1 5-20 minutes and then suddenly the whole

group would move in other directions one by one.

The breeding males were observed to

collect food immediately after emerging from

their roost and rushing to their nest. The first

feeding was recorded as early as 0440 hrs. No

siesta was recorded during day hours. However,

some birds especially the breeding males were

recorded resting on exposed branches, preening

and calling at times between two nest feedings

in the hotter hours of the day.

Calls and Vocalization : The call of the

hombill is a trisyllabic “ qua qua qua”. While

hopping and feeding on the fruit trees, it calls

“ quank quank” repeating about 1 00 calls/minute.

Similar calls were noted in non-breeding males

during display. At times, calling symphony of

two hombills was observed. Two males perched

on nearby trees called up to 5 minutes at a stretch,

responding "qua ’to each other. Since these calls

were heard near nesting trees, they could be

territorial calls. Flock of non-breeding young

hombills, called loudly during pre- and post-

roosting activities.

The hornbill was noted to be the most

vociferous bird on the Island, invariably uttering

loud shrill calls at all occasions. Most of these

calls were found to be associated with

maintaining the flock together. Territorial calls

by breeding males were quite pronounced, and

very helpful in locating their whereabouts and

nests. While carrying food to the nest, the male

starts calling from about 100-150 m away from

the nest, until it arrives to the nesting trees.

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441

STATUS, ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF NARCONDAM HORNBILL

Females incubating / brooding inside the nest

often responded to these calls with less noisy

croaking. When disturbed, a fast and repetitive

series of trumpeting sounds is uttered. These calls

were faint “ qua qua ” in low tempo, audible up

to about 50 m from the nest. These calls were

made in response to calls of males or to induce

him to bring more food.

Once a hornbill and a koel were observed

calling in competition with each other. The

hornbill called “ qua qua qua " three times, while

the koel responded with three uki ki kik ” almost

simultaneously and continued doing so for about

1.5 minutes. In flight, adult birds continuously

call ‘ka .. ka .. ka’. The female inside the nest

is generally silent, but some times utters a single

‘ krwaW if the male is late in offering the next

berry. The male, when alarmed, calls a halting

‘ ko .. kokokoko ..ko ..kok .. ko\ while the

female, when alarmed, emits repeated ‘ ktaawk

kok kok ’ similar to the alarm calls of the domestic

fowl (Hussain 1984). Males do not react to

human disturbance close to the nesting tree.

Food begging calls of the chicks : Begging

calls for food was often heard near the nests. The

male brings food near the nest, calling loudly

until it finally perches on the outer rim of the

nest. The chicks keep calling ‘ chew . . . chew . . .

chew\ continuously, like a sewing machine in

operation, until they are fed.

At times the chick can be heard calling,

even when the male is away. Although spotting

a nest in the presence of the highly vocal male is

easier, chick calls facilitate the process. We

located three nests by hearing such chick calls.

The chicks also make soft kee kee kee ... calls

on the approach of the male with food.

Discussion

In the past 400 years, 93% of the species

and subspecies of birds that have become extinct

have been island forms (King 1981). Most of

these were due to loss of habitat, smaller

population size, competition, predation, disease

or other catastrophes. Population regulation

factors become crucial for endemic species like

the Narcondam hornbill, since the Island size is

very small. Competition for nesting cavities and

food may also affect the hornbill population on

the Island. During our study, five different hole

nesting species of birds were recorded breeding.

No predator of the hornbill has been

recorded so far on the Island. Water monitor, the

only large reptile on the Island is known for its

egg stealing habits (Daniel 1983), and thus may

be possible predators. Hussain (1984) reported a

flying snake just near the hornbill nest. Mobbing

of koel and white-bellied sea-eagle by the hornbill

has also been reported earlier.

The avifauna of Narcondam is not very rich

compared to any other moist deciduous and

tropical forest. The most obvious limiting factor

is the oceanic barrier and the Island’s remoteness.

The nearest island is the North Andaman. The

Coco Island of Myanmar is about 96 km, while

the contiguous forested islands of Diglipur and

Mayabundar (North and Middle Andaman) are

also quite far. Bird life even in these forests is

sparse.

From the density figures obtained, the

Narcondam hornbill is surely not facing any

danger of extinction, but is vulnerable due to

confinement and isolation. The population

seems to be stable at present. However, their

status and population should be constantly

monitored and disturbance to the Island should

be minimized.

The nest site selection by the hornbills

may depend on characteristics of nest cavity and

of the surrounding habitats (Klop et al. 2000).

Natural cavities are used by most species

although some smaller species may use old

barbet or woodpecker holes (Kemp 1976). Once

a suitable hole is selected, the entrance is

plastered with sticky materials (e.g. mud, feces,

wood shavings, saliva, fruit pulp, etc.) until no

more than a narrow slit is left open.

442

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

STATUS, ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF NARCONDAM HORNBJLL

During our study we found no particular

preference in nest cavity selection, but more

nests were seen on east and west facing slopes,

depending mainly on the availability of the

cavities. However, Muddapa (2000) has reported

preference for northeast aspect in case of

Malabar grey hombill ( Ocyceros griseus). The

nest site selection in general may depend on

other factors like height of nest, cover,

surrounding habitat, slopes, nearness of fruiting

trees and disturbance factors. Nests facing east

or west may get more sun light, which would be

helpful in keeping the nest hygienic and the

female/nestlings healthy.

Nests of the hornbill were recorded wide

apart and in different areas from shore to the

summit. Such a nesting pattern has been

described as anti-predatory strategy between

neighbours (Klop et al. 2000). The kind of

spacing, although, is the result of several

intrinsic and extrinsic factors.

Tree density

From the results, the density of nesting and

fruiting trees looks quite favorable for the present

population of hombills. The occurrence of such

a high tree density is feature of the tropical moist

forest ecosystem. Thus, the habitat is highly

suitable for species like the hornbills, which

require adequate nesting cavities in every

breeding season.

Breeding cycle

The breeding cycle of the Narcondam

hornbill is synchronous with food productivity

of forest (i.e., fruiting phenology). Like most

other bird species, hornbills are mainly

fruigivorus. They exhibit wide-ranging

movements to meet their specialized food

requirements (Poonswad 1995). Functionally,

they have been described as keystone naturalists

(Gilbert 1980) as they play an important role in

the dispersal of many rare rainforest tree species

(Kinnard 1998, Whitney et al. 1998).

Food

We identified nine species of fruits being

fed by the male during this study, while Kannan

and James (1997) reported 15 species of fruits

fed by the great pied hornbill ( Buceros bicornis).

In wreathed hombill ( Aceros undulatus) and the

Oriental pied hornbill ( Anthracoceros

albirostris) Dutta (2000) has reported 51 plant

species exploited and dispersed by the hornbills.

Insect food in the breeding time may be because

of the increased demand of calcium or animal

proteins for the faster growth of the juveniles.

Though we represented data on mean

number of time spent on the nests, sometimes the

bird spent exceptionally long time near the nest,

but such visit data has not been included for

calculations and the values were treated as outliers.

Mobbing of the predators seems to be a

common phenomenon and has been reported

earlier (Abdulali 1976). Though eagles are

unable to catch the nestling, they may be potential

predators to fledglings and probably due to this

reason the hombills are hostile to the eagles. The

water monitor lizard ( Varanus salvator) may rob

female and young from the nests. However, as

pointed out in case of the Malabar grey hombill

( Tockus griseus) by Muddapa (2000), such

possibilities are remote.

Narcondam hornbills did not show any

obvious inter- or intra-specific competition for

nesting and feeding resources due to the

availability of adequate number of nesting trees

and fruit species on the Island. However, this

study started after the pairs had mostly settled

for nesting. Such competition might have existed

in the initial stages of nest site selection.

Like barbets ( Megalaima spp.) and many

other birds (Yahya 1987, 1990) hornbills follow

a regular pattern of pre and post-roosting

activities. They congregate at sunset flying high

in irregular follow my leader style over fixed

routes for roosting in selected patches of giant

bamboo or thinly foliaged trees (Ali and Ripley

1983).

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

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STATUS, ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF NARCONDAM HORNBILL

Recommendations

1 ) There should be no further expansion of the

camp and a meterological sub-unit should

be maintained with the available staff to

keep track of the physical environment. The

vegetation structure and composition of the

Island should be studied properly. Research

on the habitat requirement, breeding

success and behaviour is important for the

rational management of this endemic

species.

2) Hussain ( 1 984) suggested captive breeding

and introduction of the species on to some

ecologically similar nearby and uninhabited

island. We support his idea of introduction,

as giving an alternate home may bring

additional security for this isolated species.

3) Most of the introduced goats, which were a

serious problem on the Island have been

removed recently. Still one can see groups

of three to four feral goats near the campsite

or else where occasionally, and should be

removed immediately.

Refer

Ali, S. & S. D. Rjpley (1970): Handbook of the Birds of

India and Pakistan, compact edition. Oxford

University Press, Oxford, New York.

Abdul ali, H. (1971): Narcondam Island and notes on

some birds from the Andaman Islands. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 68 (2): 385-412.

Abdulali, H. (1976): The fauna of Narcondam Island: Part

1 Birds. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 71(3): 496-505.

Burnham, K.P., R.D. Anderson & J.L. Laake (1980):

Estimation of Density from Line Transect Sampling

of Biological Populations. Wildlife Monogr. No. 72,

Pp. 202.

Cory, C.P. ( 1 902): Some further notes on the Narcondam

Hombill. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 14(2): 372.

Daniel, J.C. (1983): The Book of Indian Reptiles. Bombay

Natural History Society, Oxford University Press,

Mumbai. Pp. 60.

Dutta, A. (2000): Seed Dispersal by Hombills in Tropical

Forest in Arunachal Pradesh. XIV Annual Research

Seminar. Wildlife Institute of India, (unpublished)

Emlen, J.T. ( 1 97 1 ): Population densities of the birds derived

Acknowledgments

We thank the British Ecological Society

for a grant to conduct this study. We are also

indebted to Mr. S.C. Sharma, Addnl. I.G. of

Forests, Ministry of Environment and Forests,

Mr. V.K. Mehta, Under Secretary Ministry of

Defense and Mr. K.K. Padmanabhan, Under

Secretary Ministry of Home Affairs. Mr. D.

Banerjee DIG and Mr. Thala Commandant Coast

Guards very generously provided us the passage

to the Island. H.S.A. Yahya thanks the then Vice

Chancellor A.M.U. Aligarh for granting leave

for this study and Shri R.N. Swami, Chief

Secretary A & N Islands for support. Dr. P.D.N.

Rao, Deputy Director Botanical Survey of India,

Port Blair helped in identifying the herbarium.

This study was made possible with the

cooperation of the police party at Narcondam

Lookout Post. Our sincere thanks to all of them

especially, to Shri. R.M. Yadav, in-charge Look

out Post, Mr. Ratan Kumar, Mr. Thangachan and

Mr. Tiwari. Mr. Augustin Kerketta and Fabiyanus

were very helpful during our fieldwork.

E N C E S

from transect counts. The Auk 88: 3 1 3-342.

Gilbert, L.E. (1980): Food web organization and the

conservation of the neotropical diversity. Pp. 11-34.

In: Conservation Biology (Ed: Soule, M.E. and B. A.

Wilcox). Sinauer, Sunderland, Massachusetts.

Hussain, S.A. (1984): Some aspects of the biology and

ecology of Narcondam Hornbill ( Rhyticeros

narcondam!). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81(1): 1-17.

John, J.H. St. (1889): Some notes on the Narcondam

Hombill ecology. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 16(4):

622.

Kannan, R. & D.A. James (1997): Breeding biology of

Great Pied Hombill Buceros bicornis in the Anamalai

Hills of South India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 94(3):

451-465.

Kemp, A.C. (1976): A Study of Ecology, Behaviour, and

Systematics ofTockus Hombills (Aves: Bucerotidae).

Transvaal Museum, Memoir. 20. 125 pp.

*Kemp, A.C. (1988): The Systematics and Zoogeography

of Oriental and Australian hombills (Aves:

Bucerotidae). Bonn. Zool. Beitr. 39: 315-345.

444

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

STATUS, ECOLOGY AND BEHA VJOUR OF NARCONDAM HORN BILL

Kemp, A.C. (1995): Bird families of the world. The

Hombills. Buceri formes. Oxford University Press,

Oxford.

Kinnard, M.F. (1998): Evidence for effective seed dispersal

by the Sulawesi Red-knobbed Hornbill Aceros

cassidix. Biotropica 30: 50-55.

King, W.B. (1981): Endangered Birds of the World. ICBP

Red Data Book, Smithsonian Institution Press,

Washington DC.

Klop, E., E. Curio & L.L. Las Timoza (2000): Breeding

biology, nest site characteristics and nest spacing of

Visayan Tarcitic Hombills (Penelopides paini paini)

on Panay Phillipines. Bird Conservation

International 10: 17-27.

Muddapa, D. (2000): Breeding biology of the Malabar Grey

Hornbill ( Ocyceros griseus ) in southern Western

Ghats, India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 97(1): 15-24.

Osmaston, B.B. (1905): A visit to Narcondam island.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 16(4): 620-622.

Parkinson, C.E. (1923): Forest flora of Andaman and

Nicobar Islands. Simla.

Poonswad, P. (1995): Nest site characteristics of four

sympatric species of Hombills in Khoa Yai

National Park, Thailand. Ibis 137(2): 183-191.

Prain, D. (1893): On the flora of Narcondam and Barran

Islands. J. Asiatic Soc. Bengal 62: 39-84.

Singh, N.I. (1920): The Story of Andamans. Vikas

Publishing House, New Delhi.

♦Stattersfield, A.J., M.J. Crosly, A.J. Long & D.C. Wege

( 1 998): Endemic Bird Areas of the World. Priorities

for Biodiversity Conservation, Birdlife Conservation

Series No.7. Cambridge. Pp. 745.

Thothari, K. (1960): Studies on the Flora of Andaman

Islands. Bull. Bot. Surv. of India 2: 357-373.

Whitney, K.D., M.K. Fogiel, A.M. Lamperti, K.M.

Holbrook, D.J. Stauffer, B.D. Hardesty, V.T.

Parker & T.B. Smith (1998): Seed dispersal by

Ceratogymma Hombills in Dja Reserve Cameroon.

J. Trop.Ecol. 14: 351-371.

Yahya, H.S.A (1987): Roosting behaviour of Barbets

Megalaima spp. In: Recent Trends in Ethology, (Eds.:

M. Balakrishnan & K.K. Alexander). Ethological

Society of India.

Yahya, H.S.A. (1990): Waking time of some birds in

Kumayun Hills. Newsletter for Birdwatchers 7(1): 21 .

* Original not referred.

■ ■ ■

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

445

NOTES ON NEW RECORDS OF HOOKTIP MOTHS, LEPIDOPTERA:

DREPANIDAE, FROM THE KUMAON AND GARHWAL HIMALAYA1

Peter Smetacek2

Key words: Hooktip moths, Drepanidae, Kumaon, Garhwal, Himalaya, Lepidoptera

Five genera and nine species are added to the known fauna of Kumaon and Garhwal Himalaya.

Information on the behaviour, ecology and distribution of ten Drepanid species is noted.

Introduction

The Drepanidae are often referred to as

Hooktips, since the forewing apex of many

species is hooked. It is chiefly a tropical and sub-

tropical family of moths with about 800 species

worldwide. Of these, about 107 species occur in

the Indian subregion (Jairajpuri 1991), mostly

in Northeast India.

The family is placed in the superfamily

Geometroidea and its closest relatives are the

families Cyclididae, Thyatiridae and

Epiplemidae. Two subfamilies are represented

in India, Drepaninae and Oretinae. Only the

former subfamily is dealt with in the present

paper. It is distinguished from Oretinae by the

presence of a functional proboscis in both sexes

and a frenulum in males.

Little is known about the early stages of

Indian Drepanidae. The present material is based

on records and observations concerning adults.

The known larval host plants of the Drepaninae

in India belong to Myrtaceae {Eugenia L.),

Rosaceae {Rubus L.), Palmae {Phoenix L.),

Fagaceae {Quercus L.) and Zingiberaceae

{Amo mum subulatum Roxb.). None of the

members of this family are known to be

chemically protected, and therefore they depend

largely on camouflage to avoid observation. Some

have gone so far as to shed nearly all of the scales

on their wings, leaving them practically

transparent. Settled with outspread wings against

'Accepted February, 2002

2Jones Estate, Bhimtal,

Nainital 263 136, Uttaranchal, India.

any background, they are very difficult to

distinguish unless one has observed them

settling.

In the systematic section, unless otherwise

mentioned, the known distribution of the species

has been excerpted from Hampson (1892). The

new records noted in this paper are with reference

to this information.

Location

The administrative division of Kumaon

occupies a section of the Himalayan range west

of Nepal. Together with the neighbouring

division of Garhwal, it constitutes the headwaters

of the Ganga river system. Osmaston (1927)

divided the ranges of Kumaon into five climatic

zones: the first is the submontane tract below

the southern foothills, called the Bhabar. The

second, which receives the heaviest rainfall in

the area (up to 300 cm annually), extends from

where the submontane tract meets the hills to

the crest of the outermost range of hills. The third

zone, which receives up to 200 cm of rainfall

annually, is the largest zone, extending from the

crest of the outermost hills to the crest of the

outermost mountains of the main range. The

fourth zone, which receives a maximum of

100 cm annually, is the main Himalayan range,

while the fifth is the trans-Himalayan area north

of the main range, which receives the least

precipitation annually, up to 30 cm. In the present

study, Drepanidae species have been recorded

only in the second zone in Kumaon, where the

Bhimtal valley and Maheshkhan are situated.

Two species have been recorded at Joshimath and

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NOTES ON NEW RECORDS OFHOOKT1P MOTHS FROM KUMAON AND GARHWAL HIMALAYA

Khiron. The latter two locations are in Garhwal

and, were Osmaston’s (1927) divisions to be

extended to Garhwal, they would be in the fourth

zone, i.e. the main range.

Bhimtal town lies 22 km by road southeast

of the district headquarters of Nainital, while

Maheshkhan lies roughly 19 km east of Nainital.

The main study site in Jones Estate, 2 km from

Bhimtal town, is at an elevation of 1 ,500 m while

Maheshkhan is 2,100 m above msl. Joshimath

(1,750 m) is a large town in Chamoli district of

Garhwal, while Khiron is a village and valley

south of the town of Badrinath in the same

district.

Duration

The present ongoing study has been

undertaken more or less continuously for two

decades and sporadically for a few years before

that. Hence, observations regarding relative

scarcity, annual generations, etc. are based on a

long term perspective. The observations were

more or less restricted to the Bhimtal valley and

its vicinity, and projections concerning the

distribution of species within Kumaon are

necessarily based on indirect data, as discussed

further on.

Attractants

All the specimens examined except

Macrauzata fenestraria Moore were attracted

either to mercury vapour lamps of 125 or 160W,

or to tungsten filament lamps of 60 or 1 00 W. In

some moth families, it has been observed that

females are less frequently attracted to artificial

light, sometimes not at all. In the present study,

both sexes of all species were attracted to light

except M. fenestraria, which was recorded under

exceptional circumstances, and Teldenia

vestigiata Butler, Drepana innotata Hampson

and Tridrepana sadana Moore, of which only

females have been recorded so far. As has been

discussed in the systematic section, this is

probably due to the absence of males from the

area within the ambit of the light, rather than

the unattractiveness of such light for them.

In the case of M. fenestraria , the specimens

were found dead in a pool where they had

evidently come to drink water. None of the other

species were recorded at water, but this does not

mean that they do not visit water to quench their

thirst.

None of the species was ever found on over-

ripe fruit, sap or other sugar based attractants.

However, it is not unlikely that they visit certain

flowers.

Material Examined

Drepanid species are known to be generally

scarce, and never found in large numbers. Several

of the species discussed are known by one or two

specimens from Kumaon. Such singletons are

almost certainly stragglers, although not

necessarily from outside Kumaon. The remaining

species appear more or less regularly, especially

Albara violacea Butler, Tridrepana albonotata

Moore and Callidrepana argenteola Moore. In

these cases, only a few specimens of all those

attracted were taken. The specimens not taken

were noted separately, but since they add nothing

new to the matter under discussion, all reference

to them has been omitted in this paper.

Photographs have helped place additional

specimens, as in the case of Tridrepana sadana

Moore and Drepana pallida Moore.

Flying Time

With the exception of Albara violacea , the

present paper deals with species that have so far

been recorded only during and immediately after

the Southwest monsoon, i.e. from June to

October. Several species of the family are on the

wing in spring, from February onwards, but they

have not been included here.

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447

NOTES ON NEW RECORDS OF HOOKTIP MOTHS FROM KUMAON AND GARHWAL HIMALAYA

All the species recorded from Bhimtal in

the present paper, except A. violacea , were on

the wing when relative humidity was over 30%.

Perhaps humidity is of importance in the

relatively drier area west of Nepal and these

species will have more broods annually in the

humid eastern Himalaya and N.E. India.

Dispersal and Population Dynamics

Although several of these moths are

robustly built, are powerful flyers and have

functional mouthparts, their power of dispersal

appears to be rather limited. With some moth

families, such as the Limacodidae, which lack

functional mouthparts, their limited power of

dispersal is understandable. Factors constraining

the Drepanidae, however, are still obscure.

Examples of this are Teldenia vestigiata ,

Drepana irmotata and Tridrepana sadana, but

especially Macrauzata fenestraria , which has not

ventured across the relatively short distance

between Maheshkhan and Bhimtal, at least

during the last three decades. The former three,

too, do not appear to be notable travellers, with

what seem to be odd stragglers reaching the study

site in Bhimtal.

As has been noted earlier, these moths are

never common. Population outbreaks have never

been noted, although population levels increased

during the years of heavy rainfall between 1979

and 1983, and subsequently plummeted in the

wake of repeated forest fires in the post- 1984

period, which was followed by several drought

years during the late eighties.

Zoogeography

At the generic level, the known Drepanid

fauna of Kumaon includes Macrocilix Butler,

Macrauzata Butler, Auzata Walker, Deroca

Walker, Bapta Stephens, Oreta Walker and

Albara Walker. The present paper adds Teldenia

Moore, Leucodrepana Hampson, Callidrepana

Felder, Drepana Schrank, Tridrepana Swinhoe

and Spica Swinhoe. The new records of

Leucodrepana and Drepana are not remarkable,

since one or more species of Leucodrepana were

expected to be found along the Himalaya above

2,500 m, and species of Drepana had been

recorded both east and west of Kumaon, so one

species or other was certain to be found.

The new records of Teldenia , Callidrepana

and Tridrepana are not unusual, since they are

widespread in the Indo-Malayan area. Given the

Indo-Malayan area affinities of most of the

Lepidopteran fauna of Kumaon, their absence

was more remarkable than their presence. The

interesting record is that of Spica from the main

range. A number of other moth and butterfly

species are restricted to the main range, even

though conditions exist that would probably

support their populations in the outer ranges

(Smetacek, P. unpublished data). The factors

restricting the distribution of such species to the

main range will certainly prove to be interesting

when they are discovered.

It is not certain that Spica does not occur

in the outer ranges. However, if it did, its habit

of being attracted to light and sitting there the

whole day, even in towns, would have drawn

attention to it. It has been recorded at 3,800 m

in Nepal (Ebert 1966), so it might be a high

elevation species, therefore restricted to the main

range. The presence of this species in Joshimath

at 1,750 m elevation might repay further study

in understanding its ecology better.

Systematic Section

Macrauzata Butler

1889. Illust. Typ. Spec. Lep. Het.

in the Brit. Mus. vii: 43.

Macrauzata fenestraria Moore

1867. Proc. zool. Soc. Lond.: 639.

Material Examined: 4 exs.: 4.vi.l998

Maheshkhan 2,100 m x 4 (2 male, 2 female).

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NOTES ON NEW RECORDS OF HOOKTIP MOTHS FROM KUM AON AND GARHWAL HIMALAYA

Forewing Length: 22-26 mm.

Expanse: 60-66 mm (Hampson 1892);

46-54 mm ( mihi ).

Distribution: Kangra (Himachal Pradesh),

Sikkim; Japan.

Remarks: Hampson (1892) described only

the female, for which the above measurements were

given. Of the material examined, the males are

smaller with a forewing length of 22-23 mm, while

both females have a forewing length of 26 mm.

All the specimens examined are considerably

smaller than those examined by Hampson.

The specimens were found dead, floating in

a small pool formed by a forest stream, along with

a large number of other Lepidoptera, especially

butterflies. It is likely that the water of the stream

was poisoned by insecticides and other chemicals

from the apple orchards near its source, for several

butterflies that came to drink water while I was

there died and ended up floating on the water.

All four specimens retrieved from the water

are in reasonably good condition, with the wings

intact and the pattern readily discernible. The

latter matches Hampson ’s ( 1 892) description and

depiction.

This seems to be a very local moth, for

though it appears to be established at 2,100 m

elevation in Maheshkhan forest, it has never been

recorded from the Bhimtal valley, which is 600 m

lower but adjoins Maheshkhan valley and is only

a few air-kilometres away. It is robustly built, with

a functional proboscis, so the distance should be

easily within its potential dispersal range.

Watson and Whalley (1983) depict a

Japanese species of the genus as Macrauzata

maxima Inoue, so fenestraria probably does

not occur there, although Hampson included Japan.

Teldenia Moore

1882. Lep. Ceyl. ii: 119.

Teldenia vesligiala Butler

1880. Ann. Mag. Nat Hist. (5) vi: 222.

Material Examined: 14 exs.: Males:

9.viii.2001, 1 5 . viii.200 1 , 1 7. viii.200 1 ,

18.viii.2001, 20.viii.2001; Females: 29.vii.2001,

8.viii.2001, 12.viii.2001, 16.viii.2001, 17.viii.2001

x2, 20.viii.2001, 3 1 .viii. 1997, 5.ix.l997.

Forewing Length: 10-12 mm.

Expanse: 25 mm (Hampson 1892);

22-26 mm {mihi).

Distribution: Sikkim, Nagas; Sri Lanka.

Remarks: The present record extends the

known distribution of the genus and species

westward to Kumaon. Only one brood has been

noted, but there would probably be a second brood

earlier in the year. It is a small, inconspicuous

moth, easily overlooked since it is not common

and never appears in numbers. It is commoner

in some years than in others, eg. in 200 1 it was

commoner than in the proceeding years.

The specimens examined match Hampson ’s

(1892) description and depiction. In the matter of

size, some are a little smaller and others a little

larger than the specimens examined by Hampson,

which were males. Therefore, it appears that there

is little difference in size between the sexes.

The species is on the wing during periods

of high atmospheric humidity, generally over

35% indoors and over 40% outdoors. It has been

bred on Eugenia firma (Myrtaceae) in Sri Lanka

according to Sevastopulo (1940). This tree does

not occur in Kumaon, but three other species of

Eugenia do (Osmaston 1927), all within a

15 km radius of the main study area. If this moth

feeds only on species of Eugenia in Kumaon,

the present records are probably from the upper

limit of its altitudinal range, since the larval host

plant does not occur above this altitude.

Leucodrepana Hampson

1892. Faun. Brit. Ind. Moths I: 333;

Fig. 231 (male).

Leucodrepana idaeoides Hampson

1892. Faun. Brit. Ind. Moths I: 333;

Fig. 231 (male).

Material Examined: 1 ex.: 2 1 .vii. 1 992

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449

NOTES ON NEW RECORDS OF HOOKTIP MOTHS FROM KUMAON AND GARHWAL HIMALAYA

Khiron, Garhwal 3,600 m.

Forewing Length: 14 mm.

Expanse: 33 mm (Hampson 1 892); 30 mm

( mihi ).

Distribution: Sikkim 3,048 m

Remarks: The single specimen examined

was attracted to a campfire on a meadow just

above the tree line. The present record extends

the known distribution of the genus and species

westward to Garhwal from the previously known

localities in Sikkim and the Khasi Hills. The

species will almost certainly be found in similar

localities in Kumaon, although it has not been

recorded so far. The present record also extends

the altitudinal range by about 550 m, from the

previous record by Hampson of 3,048 m to

3,600 m.

The specimen examined is slightly smaller

than Hampson’s type material. Whether this is

within the acceptable limits or is characteristic

of the western population will only be clarified

by examining more specimens. The flight of this

moth is weak and erratic. It settles with the wings

held flat against the substrate in the manner

adopted by most Drepanidae.

Drepana Schrank

1802. Fauna Boica II: 155.

Drepana pallida Moore

1879. Desc. New Lep. Ins. Coll. Atkinson.

Het.: 84.

Material Examined: 6 exs.: 13.vii. 1977;

1 2. vii. 1 990; 16.X.1993 (Females); 7.ix.l974;

9.ix.l997; 25. ix. 1995 (Males).

Forewing Length: 20-26 mm.

Expanse: 44 mm (males), 60 mm (females)

(Hampson 1892); 42-56 mm (mihi).

Distribution: Sikkim.

Remarks: A new record for Kumaon. This

and the next species extend the range of the genus

to Kumaon. It is bivoltine, with one brood on

the wing in July and the second in September

and October. It is a well established, if not very

common insect in the Bhimtal valley. It ascends

to at least 1,730 m, for I have noted it in the

nearby town of Bhowali.

Females are generally larger than the males

and have less brown suffusion on the wings. In

fact, the light brown ground colour noted by

Hampson (1892) varies considerably, with some

specimens almost whitish and others suffused

with brown. In other respects, the specimens

match Hampson’s description. The flight is rapid

and direct.

In the matter of size, one male examined

was smaller than the material examined by

Hampson, while the females were not as large as

Hampson’s material. The latter seems a

consistent trend, for some other females,

examined in photographs, do not appear to be

larger than 56 mm.

Drepana innotata Hampson

1892. Faun. Brit. Ind. Moths I: 335.

Material Examined: 1 ex.: 26.viii.1997

(Female).

Forewing Length: 20 mm.

Expanse: 36 mm (Female) (Hampson

1892); 44 mm (mihi).

Distribution: Kulu (Himachal Pradesh).

Remarks: The single female is the only

specimen of this species seen so far in Bhimtal.

It extends the known distribution eastwards to

Kumaon. It is rather larger than the type material

examined by Hampson. He stated that the wings

are hyaline with a few scattered white scales, and

absolutely without markings. However, the

specimen examined has two very faint black

postmedial spots on veins Culb and M3 of the

forewing.

It is likely that this moth will be more

frequently met in suitable localities, such as

broadleaf evergreen forests at slightly higher

elevation than the main study site, e.g. above

1,800 m. Such forests are home to other semi-

hyaline or hyaline Drepanids such as members

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NOTES ON NEW RECORDS OF HOOKTJP MOTHS FROM KUMAON AND GARHWAL HIMALAYA

of the genus Deroca Walker. The specimen

examined was certainly a straggler in the process

of dispersing the species. It seems that, like

Macrauzata fenestraria , these moths do

not generally travel far from favoured localities.

However, the present record indicates that

it is capable of greater dispersal than

M. fenestraria.

Albara Walker

1866. Cat. Lep. Het. Brit. Mus.,

London xxxv: 1566.

Albara violacea Butler

1889. Illust. Typ. Spec. Lop. Het.

in the Brit. Mus. vii: 42, pi. 124, fig. 7.

Material Examined: 7 exs.: 12.iii.1991,

1 .iv. 1991, 6.iv.2002, 13.vi.1983, 16.vii.2001,

20.ix.2000, 2.xi.2000.

Forewing Length: 17-19 mm.

Expanse: 38 mm (Hampson 1892);

36-40 mm ( mihi ).

Distribution: Dharamsala (Himachal

Pradesh).

Remarks: A new record for Kumaon

which extends the known distribution of the

species eastwards. It is rare in the Bhimtal valley.

There appear to be three annual broods, one in

spring, the second in summer and the third in

autumn.

The specimens examined add some

information to the known expanse of the species

with the specimens examined by Hampson

forming a mean. In other respects, they do not

differ from the description.

The appearance of this species in Kumaon

is not unexpected, unlike Spica luteola.

The other member of the genus found in

Kumaon, A. lilacina Moore, is much commoner

with an extended flying period. It is likely

that other species of the genus will be recorded

from biotypes not covered in the present

study.

Callidrepana Felder & Felder

1867. Reise Frig. Novara Lep. pi. 83,

fig.l 1 . Erkl. p. 2.

Callidrepana argenleola Moore

1859. in Horsfield & Moore, Cat. Lep. Ins.

Mus. Hon. East Ind. Co. Lond. II: 369.

Material Examined: 13 exs.: 27.viii.1997;

3 1 . viii. 1 978; 5.ix.l997; 6.ix.l995 x2; 7.ix.l983;

1 0.ix. 1 997 x 2; 1 3 .ix. 1 977; 25. ix. 1 999; 1.x. 1 992;

9.x. 1998; lO.x.1998.

Forewing Length: 15-22 mm.

Expanse: 35-45 mm (males); 50 mm

(females) (Hampson 1892); 34-46 mm {mihi).

Distribution: Sikkim; Burma; Sri Lanka;

Java (Hampson 1 892); India to Taiwan, Malaya,

Java, Sumatra, Borneo, Sulawesi (Barlow 1982).

Remarks: The present records extend the

known distribution of the genus and species to

Kumaon. There appears to be a single extended

annual generation, which is on the wing from

the end of August to mid-October. The lack of a

spring generation may indicate the greater

importance of high atmospheric humidity levels,

rather than temperature or day length, in

governing emergence patterns.

It is among the commoner Drepanids in

the Bhimtal valley. This appears to be the

altitudinal limit of the species, since I have not

seen it at higher elevation.

The specimens examined agree with

Hampson’s (1892) description in all respects

except in the size of the females, which are not

as large as the specimens examined by Hampson.

Tridrepana Swinhoe

1895. Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond.: 3.

Tridrepana albonotata Moore

1879. Desc. New Lep. Ins. Coll. Atkinson.

Het.: 83.

Material Examined: 9 exs.: 15. vii. 1990;

25. viii. 1993; 31. viii. 1999; 10.ix.1977; 10.ix.1999;

1 1 .ix. 1977; ll.ix.1998; 25.ix.1999; 14.X.1995.

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NOTES ON NEW RECORDS OF HOOKTIP MOTHS FROM KUMAON AND GARHWAL HIMALAYA

Forewing Length: 14-20 mm.

Expanse: 34-38 mm (Hampson 1892); 30-

42 mm ( mihi )

Distribution: Sikkim; Nilgiris (Tamil

Nadu) (Hampson 1892); Oriental Tropics

(Barlow 1982).

Remarks: A new record for Kumaon. This

and the next species extend the known

distribution of the genus to Kumaon. Although

not a common insect, it is remarkably regular in

the appearance of the brood, as can be seen from

the records above that are more than twenty years

apart. It seems that there is one extended brood,

on the wing from the end of August to mid-

October, with a smaller brood in July. It is also

possible that the July record is that of an

individual that emerged unusually early.

The specimens examined match the

description given by Hampson (1892) as well as

the male illustrated in Barlow (1982). However,

the males are smaller and the females larger than

the material examined by Hampson.

The species is well established in the

Bhimtal valley, which is probably near its upper

altitudinal limit. It might be commoner at lower

elevation. Like several other Drepanids, it is on

the wing during the wettest period of the year,

which suggests that atmospheric humidity plays

a major role in governing emergence patterns of

the species.

Tridrepana sadana Moore

1865. Proc. zoo 1. Soc. Lond.: 817.

Material Examined: 3 ex.: 19.iv.2001

(female), 20.ix.2000 (male), 1 1 .x.1998 (female).

Forewing Length: 20-24 mm.

Expanse: 40 mm (male) (Hampson 1 892);

42 (male), 48-52 mm (females) (mihi).

Distribution: Sikkim.

Remarks: The specimens examined are

placed tentatively under this species. It is a new

record for Kumaon, from where this genus was

hitherto not reported.

At least two other specimens of this

species, identified from photographs, have been

recorded in the Bhimtal valley previously.

The specimens examined are rather similar

to the figure of Tridrepana fulvata Snellen in

Barlow (1982), except for the size of the discal

patch and the submarginal spots below the

forewing apex, which are black in the specimen

examined but brown in the figure. T. fulvata is

from outside Indian faunal limits.

The specimens examined differ from

Hampson’s description of T. sadana in the

following respects:

On the forewing recto , there is a brown-

ringed white spot in the cell. A similar spot is

situated at the lower angle of the cell, at the top

of the large red-brown patch. There are traces of

a postmedial line. On the hindwing recto , there

is a brown-ringed white spot at the upper end of

the cell and a similar, but smaller spot at the

lower end of the cell.

The verso surface is unmarked, except for

an obscure speck at the end of the cell and three

prominent submarginal brown specks below the

apex, which are repeated on the recto surface. The

cilia below the apex of the forewing are brown.

The reason that the specimen examined has

been placed tentatively under this species despite

the abovementioned differences is that if this is

an undescribed species or a species unknown to

me, it will be possible to place it correctly on the

basis of the points mentioned above.

There appear to be two annual generations,

one in spring and the second in autumn. It is

certainly a very rare moth in the Bhimtal valley.

Spica Swinhoe

1889. Proc. zool. Soc. Lond.: 424.

Spica luteola Swinhoe

1889. Proc. zool. Soc. Lond.: 424, pi. 44 fig. 10.

Material Examined: 4 exs.: 29.viii.1993,

Joshimath, Garhwal 1,750 m x3; 2.ix.l993

Joshimath, Garhwal 1,750 m.

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NOTES ON NEW RECORDS OF HOOKTIP MOTHS FROM KUMAON AND GARHWAL HIMALAYA

Forewing Length: 16-18 mm.

Expanse: 34 mm (Hampson 1892); 34-

38 mm ( mihi ).

Distribution: Sikkim (Hampson 1892);

Nepal (Ebert 1966).

Remarks: The present records extend the

known distribution of the genus and species to

Garhwal. Since it is known from both east and

west of Kumaon, it will almost certainly be found

in Kumaon. It is only known from the main

Himalayan range and since little work has been

carried out in this range in Kumaon, the fact

that it has so far not been recorded is not

remarkable.

It is attracted to tungsten filament lamps

and all the specimens were collected at different

locations in Joshimath town in the morning,

below lamps that had been left on all night. The

flight is rather weak and fluttering, unlike the

Noctuids, which it superficially resembles. It

seems to be the only Indian Drepanid besides

Cilix glaucata Scopoli that rests with its

forewings over its hindwings, both draped

laterally over the abdomen, in the position usually

adopted by Arctiids and Noctuids.

It was not recorded from other localities

in Garhwal around Joshimath, where studies

were carried out earlier in August. The brood is

probably not on the wing until the end of August,

as in the case of Callidrepana argenteola.

However, in Nepal, Ebert (1966) found it about

the village of Khumjung (3,800 m) in the main

Himalayan range in July. Possibly, Joshimath is

near the lower limit of its altitudinal range.

Discussion

Hampson (1892) recorded 14 species of 9

genera from the Himalaya west of Nepal, of

which one species was treated as a Geometrid by

him. No species were specifically recorded from

Kumaon at the time. Subsequently, members of

all nine genera, except Cilix Leach, have been

recorded from Kumaon. Cilix will probably be

found at higher elevation, i.e. above 1,600 m or

in the main Himalayan range eventually. It has

not been recorded mainly because no one has

really looked for it.

The present paper adds five genera, i.e.

Teldenia , Leucodrepana , Callidrepana ,

Tridrepana and Spica, and nine species to the

known Drepanid fauna of Kumaon and Garhwal.

The new records in the present paper constitute

c. 35% of the Drepanid fauna of this area, in

terms of species as well as genera. There are

several unidentified species in my collection, so

the figure for species, if not for genera, will

increase.

The difficulty with surveying the

Drepanidae is that firstly, in this area, they are

on the wing for a rather limited period, the exact

timing varying from species to species, as well

as with altitude, local weather conditions and

probably several other factors not understood at

present. Secondly, they are local insects, not

given to much travelling, unlike large moths such

as the majority of the Hawkmoths. Therefore,

the observer has to be in the right place at just

the right time. Thirdly, they are generally scarce

insects. Although it is possible that some species

are common in favourable habitats, they are never

attracted in large numbers to artificial light, the

only known attractant at present. It is not

remarkable for this family that some species, like

Drepana innotata , have been recorded only once

in over twenty years at the main study site,

although it will probably be found to be well

established in a biotype not far from Bhimtal in

due course. M fenestraria has not even appeared

so far at the main study site, although it is

evidently well established a few air-kilometers

awav in Maheshkhan.

j

In keeping with the trend observed in the

Sphingidae (Smetacek 1994) and butterflies

(Smetacek 1995, 2001; unpublished data) in

Kumaon, most of the new records are Indo-

Malayan species or genera. The range of only

two species is extended eastwards. These are

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

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NOTES ON NEW RECORDS OF HOOKTIP MOTHS FROM KUMAON AND GARHWAL HIMALAYA

Albara violacea and Drepana innotata. While

the former appears to be a well established

resident, the latter is a straggler but presumably

not from very far away. It is impossible to say

whether the remaining new records are recent

colonists or have been established for centuries,

since there is no reference material to fall back

upon. Therefore, the present material must serve

as base-line data for future studies.

It is noteworthy that except for Drepana

innotata and Tridrepana sadana, none of the

species display any variation from the material

described by Hampson or, in the case of

Tridrepana albonotata , from the Malayan

specimen illustrated in Barlow (1982). There

seems to be very little geographical variation

among the species treated in this paper. Nor has

any seasonal variation been noted among them.

The only difference between Hampson ’s

specimens and the present ones appears to be in

the matter of size, but even in this, there are no

consistent trends and most of the differences may

be attributed to the greater number of specimens

examined in the present study.

The flying time of Drepanids appears to

be remarkably regular in this area, with hardly

Refer

Barlow, H.K. (1982): An Introduction to the Moths of

S.E. Asia. Malayan Nature Society, Kuala Lumpur. Pp.

305, pi. 51.

Ebert, G. (1966): Beitrage zur Kenntnis der

Entomologischen sammelgebiete der Nepal-Expedition

1962. Ergebn. Forsch. Unternehmen Nepal Him. Liefg.

5:121-136.

Hampson, G.F. ( 1 892): The Fauna of British India including

Ceylon and Burma. Moths Vol. 1. Taylor & Francis,

London. Pp. xxiii + 527.

Jairajpuri, M.S. (Ed.) (1991): Animal Resources of India.

Protozoa to Mammalia. Zoological Survey of India,

Calcutta. Pp. xxvii + 694.

Osmaston, A.E. (1927): A Forest Flora for Kumaon.

Government Press, Allahabad. Pp. xxxiv + 605.

Sevastopulo, D.G. (1940): On the food-plants of Indian

any stragglers. This is not often the case in other

moth families. Minor upsets in the weather are

often enough to cause the unseasonal appearance

of Noctuids, Geometrids and members of several

other families. Even the unusually early

Southwest monsoon in 1999 and 2000 in this

area did not affect Drepanid emergence patterns

at all. During drought years and in the wake of

major forest fires, populations tend to drop,

sometimes steeply, but the same can be said for

all other moth families.

Although two species in two genera, i.e.

Leucodrepana idaeoides and Spica luteola have

not been recorded from Kumaon so far, the fact

that they have been recorded from both east

(Nepal and Sikkim) and west (Garhwal) of here

implies that they will almost certainly be found

in similar habitats in Kumaon.

Acknowledgements

A Times Fellowship 1991 enabled me to

visit Joshimath and Khiron in 1992. 1 am grateful

to the Times of India Group for this; to Kumar

Ghorpade for literature and to the editor for

valuable suggestions.

NCES

Bombyces (Heterocera). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 41:

817-827.

Smetacek, P. ( 1 994): An annotated list of the Hawkmoths

(Lepidoptera: Sphingidae) of Kumaon, N. India: a

probable case of faunal drift. Rec. zool. Surv. Ind.,

Occasional Paper 156 : 1-55.

Smetacek, P. (1995): A new altitudinal and range record for

the Copper Flash butterfly ( Rapala pheretimus Hew.)

(Lycaenidae). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92: 127-128.

Smetacek, P. (2001): Resolution of the controversial

western limit of the range of Delias acalis God.

(Lepidoptera: Pieridae). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 98:

298-300.

Watson, A. & P.E.S. Whalley (1983): The Dictionary of

Butterflies and Moths in colour. Peerage Books,

London. Pp. xiv + 296.

454

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

REVISION OF FIVE KNOWN SPECIES OF FAMILY ASSAMIDAE,

LANIATORES: OPILIONES, ON THE BASIS

OF TYPES AND IDENTIFIED SPECIMENS DEPOSITED

IN THE ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA NATIONAL COLLECTION,

BY ROEWER (191 1-1939)'

( With forty-five text-figures)

D.B. Bastawade2

Key words: Revision, types, Opiliones, Palpitores, Laniatores, Assamidae, Puria dorsalis ,

Assamiella marginata , Neassamia aborensis, Anassamia rufa, Assamia punctata

Several new genera and species of the Indian Opiliones of suborders Palpitores and Laniatores

have been described by Roewer (1911-1939). About 30 species under Suborder Palpitores have

been revised by Deshpande (1987), but many are yet to be studied and redescribed. Laniatores,

which requires revising and updating, is another major Suborder of Opiliones, constituting 2

large and 2 small families, with a large number of species described from the Indian subcontinent.

This communication deals with the revision of 5 species belonging to the Family Assamidae, on

the basis of types and identified specimens deposited by Roewer in the National Collection of the

Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata. The species dealt here are Puria dorsalis (Roewer), Assamiella

marginata (Roewer), Neassamia aborensis (Roewer), Anassamia rufa (Roewer) and Assamia

punctata Roewer.

Indian Opiliones are divided into two

major suborders: Palpitores, commonly termed

as Daddy long-legs, having unarmed, slender

palps bearing distally a minute spine each, body

generally large, with smaller numbers of long

prominent spines and with comparatively long

legs. Laniatores, with broad, expanded and

shovelled-in palps armed on inner margins with

long, pointed, curved spines and also ending in

long piercing spines; body generally smaller with

a number of small, tuberculate spines, legs

generally short and weak. Indian Laniatores are

composed of four families 1. Oncopodidae,

2. Assamidae, 3. Phalangodidae and

4. Gonyleptidae (Martens 1972-78). Families 2

and 3 are larger, with 67 and 12 genera

respectively, while 1 and 4 are minor, with only

‘Accepted September, 2000

Zoological Survey of India, Western Regional Station,

Vidya Nagar, Sector No. 29, Post Box No 3053,

Near Akurdi Railway Station, Rawet Road,

Pune 41 1 044, Maharashtra, India.

2 and 1 genera each. Roewer (1911-1939) has

described numerous new genera and species

under both these suborders, and many of the types

and identified specimens have been deposited in

the National Collections (NC) of the Zoological

Survey of India (ZSI), Kolkata. About 30 species,

belonging to the suborder Palpitores, have been

revised and 1 new genus and 1 1 new species

added by Deshpande ( 1 987). The types of Indian

Laniatores remain to be studied and revised. This

is an attempt to redescribe five species of Family

Assamidae on the basis of types and identified

specimens deposited in the NC, ZSI, Kolkata.

1 . Puria dorsalis (Roewer)

(Figs 1-1 1)

1914. Assamia dorsalis : Roewer, Arch.

Natur., 80A (9): 106-132.

1923. Puria dorsalis : Roewer, Die. Weber.

Erde .: 1116.

Lectotype: 1 9 Yellowish orange, light

yellow on appendages, dorsum finely granular,

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

455

REVISION OF FIVE KNOWN SPECIES OF FAMILY ASSAMIDAE

Figs 1-11: Puria dorsalis (Roewer), 1. Carapace, dorsal aspect, 2. Carapace & abdomen, lateral aspect,

3. Chelicera (basal segment), ventral aspect, 4. Movable and immovable fingers of chelicera, lateral aspect,

5. Palp, lateral aspect, 6. Tarsus & claw of leg I, lateral aspect, 7. Tarsus & claw of leg IV, lateral aspect,

8. Ovipositor, ventral aspect, 9. Penis, ventral aspect, 10. Penis (distal portion), ventral aspect,

1 1 . Penis (distal portion), lateral aspect

456

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC 2002

REVISION OF FIVE KNOWN SPECIES OF FAMILY ASSAMIDAE

more granular on anterior portion, anterior

margin with a pair of short median spines, with

a pair of more tuberculate spines on each side,

lateral margins smooth, bearing small tuberculate

spine at level of median eyes, anterior margin

supported by a granular sub-marginal ridge, few

granules tuberculate and raised with an anterior

median spine anterior to the pair of median eyes,

ocular tubercle also raised, granular, with a pair

of small tuberculate spines, wider than long,

followed by a prominent median furrow, posterior

4 segments superficially marked by faint sutures,

each with a pair of small to medium tuberculate

median spines, posterior margin tuberculate but

a sub-median pair prominent and large, rest of

the tergites also bear same tubercles on posterior

margin, last tergite bears 10-12 small tuberculate

spines (Figs 1 & 2). All tergites finely granular;

female ovipositor as in Fig. 8, male penis as in

Figs 9 (dorsal view), 10 (ventral view, only distal

portion) and 1 1 (lateral view, only distal portion).

Chelicera three segmented, 1st segment bulging

on anterior dorsal portion, basal segment almost

twice as wide as long, smooth except for

reticulate dorsal surface, armed with 7+2 ventral,

3+3 outer setae at base of movable finger, 4+4

on outer frontal surface and 3 inner/mesal setae

at the base of immovable finger, movable finger

armed with serrula of 8 minute teeth on inner

margins, immovable finger armed with 7 broader

cutting teeth on inner margins (Figs 3 & 4). Palp

with short trochanter, carinated, granular, one

or two distal granules denticulate; Femur laterally

flat, carinated, anterior and posterior carinae

crenulate, exterior carinae with 13-15 denticulate

granules, inner distal surface provided with sub-

apical small tuberculate denticle; Patella shorter

than femur, expanded laterally on dorsal portion,

carinated and inner carinae provided with 4-6

denticulate tubercles, outer carinae crenulate, but

weak, and a few denticulate tubercles present on

distal portion. Tibia longer than patella but

shorter than femur, almost quadrangular, inner

surface flat, marginated with strong but smooth

carinae and outer carinae provided with a large

pointed apophysis, few spines and tubercles

supporting the apophysis, inner carinae also

smooth and obsolete but armed with two

elongated, pointed spines without apophysis.

Metatarsus shorter than tibia, more flat, widened

on outer portion provided with 2 long, 2 moderate

and 4-5 small spines in series, inner ventral

margin with two long spines but shorter than

present on tibia. Tarsus with spines, elongated,

sharp and curved but shorter than metatarsus.

Inter-carinal space on all segments smooth. Legs

with coxae I granular, all granules tuberculate

and arranged in three rows, first row with 7-9

larger granules, distally armed with a pair of

claws (Fig. 7), II-IV with a few obsolete granules,

leg I with 6 digits in metatarsus, leg II with 12

digits while legs III & IV bear 7 digits each,

distally armed with a single claw each (Fig. 6).

Measurements: Cephalothorax 5.17 mm

long.

Material Examined: Lectotype 8 $ 9, 7

dd; Locality: Helwak, 2000' elev., Koyna

Valley, Satara district, Maharashtra; Coll. ?

[initials on label] Roewer, 1914, No. 3091, ZSI,

Type Regn No. 2127/17.

Paralectotypes: 1) 1 9, 1 d Tambi, 2500'

Koyna valley, Satara district, Coll. F.H. Gravely,

Table 1: Measurements in mm for the palp and legs I-IV of Puria dorsalis

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

457

REVISION OF FIVE KNOWN SPECIES OF FAMILY ASS AMIDAE

24-26.iv.1912; det. ?? Roewer, (1914) No. 3087,

ZSI, Type No. 2124/17.

2) 1 9 East side of Koyna valley, 3500'

Satara district, Coll. F. H. Gravely, 24.iv.1912;

det. ?? Roewer, 1914, No. 3098, ZSI Type No.

2132/17.

3) 19, Helwak, Koyna, 2000' Satara district,

Coll. F.H. Gravely, 28-30.iv.1912, det. ?? Roewer,

1914, No. 4003, ZSI Type No. 2103/17.

4) 1 9 , 2d d* Naithal, 2000’ Western Ghats,

Satara district, Coll. ?, dt. ?, det. Roewer 1914,

No. 3096, ZSI Type No. 2130/17.

5) 1 9 , Palghar, Ratnagiri district. Coll. ??

Agharkar, 1 .xi. 1912, det. Roewer, 1914,

No. 4001, ZSI Type No. 2100/17.

6) 2c?d' Mumbai (Bombay), Coll.?, dt.?,

det. ?? Roewer, 1914, No. 3079, ZSI Type No.

1559/17.

7) 1 <?, Hill track garden, Coonoor, S. India,

Coll. Capt. Samuel, det. ?? Roewer, 1914,

No. 3069, ZSI Type No. 1552/ 17.

8) Id, Hill above Barkud, 200-500' Puri

district, Coll. F.H. Gravely, 1 1-13. xi. 1912,

det. ?? Roewer, 1914, No. 4004, ZSI Type

No. 2101/17 (kept in micro-vial).

2. Assamiella marginata (Roewer)

(Figs 12-21)

1912. Assamia marginata : Roewer, Arch.

Natg. Berlin, 78(3): 38.

1929. Assamiella marginata : Roewer, Die

wetr. der Erde : 1116.

Lectotype: 1 9 dorsum finely granular

throughout and granules concentrated in furrows,

lateral margins and around tubercles, anterior

margin with a short median spine and two lateral

spines, longer than median, margins supported

with smooth sub-marginal ridge, surface

medially raised into an erect, elongated spine,

more than as high as ocular tubercle, lies between

anterior median marginal spine and ocular

tubercle; ocular tubercle with a pair of median

eyes, wider than as long and also as high, with

an anterior and a posterior pair of rudimentary

tubercles, median furrow distinct, shallower

laterally, posterior portion with four sutures, all

with few larger scattered granules and 3 rd with a

pair of backwardly directed spines; tergites and

stemites finely granular, with granular posterior

margins (Figs 12 & 13). Female ovipositor as

Figs 17 & 18 and male penis as Figs 19 (ventral

view), 20 (dorsal view, only distal portion) and

21 (lateral view, only distal portion). Chelicera

three segmented, 1st bulging on anterior dorsal

portion, basal segment almost twice as long as

wide, dorsal surface covered with obsolete ridges

— otherwise smooth — with a single seta at base

of inner margins of movable fingers, followed

by one pair of setae, 4 setae on inner margins, 3-

4 on outer surface at the base of movable fingers,

ventral surface with 1 seta at the base of movable

finger, and 2-3 short setae in series in middle

portions, immovable fingers armed with 6 small,

triangular cutting teeth grouped 3+3 on inner

margins, movable fingers provided with a serrula

7-8 rounded teeth (Figs 14 & 15). Palp with

elongated trochanter, widened distally, provided

with a pair of ventral tuberculate granules,

carinated but carinae weakly crenulate. Femur

compressed laterally, bent inward, carinated and

outer or exterior carinae coarsely crenulate with

18-20 crenulated tubercles (Fig. 16), inner or

interior carinae with continuous crenulations.

Patella shorter than femur, widened on distal

portions, almost quadrangular on middle

portions, carinated, inner carinae with even,

small, sparsely spinulate crenulations ending

distally into sub-tuberculate spines, exterior

carinae weakly crenulate to obsolete. Tibia

shorter than patella, wider at distal inner-lateral

portions, margins ending in an apophysis, armed

with a strong spine and an additional sub-

tuberculate spine, inner carinae armed with

2 long spines and a few short spines, outer carinae

weakly crenulate to obsolete. Metatarsus wider

on outer margin, inner surface concave, lateral

outer margin ending spiniform, armed with

2 long, pointed and few short spines; inner

458

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

REVISION OF FIVE KNOWN SPECIES OF FAMILY ASSAMIDAE

Figs 12-21: Assamiella marginata (Roewer), 12. Carapace, dorsal aspect, 13. Carapace, lateral aspect,

14. Chelicera, ventral aspect, 15. Movable and immovable fingers of chelicera, lateral aspect,

16. Palp, dorso-lateral aspect, 17. Ovipositor, ventral aspect, 18. Ovipositor (left enlarged portion), ventral

aspect, 19. Penis, ventral aspect, 20. Penis (distal portion enlarged) ventral aspect, 21. Penis (distal portion

enlarged) lateral aspect

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

459

REVISION OF FIVE KNOWN SPECIES OFFAMIL YASSAMIDAE

Table 2: Measurements in mm for palp and legs I-IV of Assamiella marginata

margin armed with 2-3 elongated spines, other

carinae smooth and obsolete. Tarsus spined but

spines shorter than metatarsus, curved and

pointed sharply (Fig. 16). Legs I-IV coxae

.granular, coxa I with 5-6 tuberculate granules

on anterior distal end, proximal inner margin

with a series of 7-8 granules, strongly tuberculate,

middle portions with rows of 9-10 granules,

while posterior margins bear 10-11 tuberculate

granules; coxae II with 11-12 granules on

anterior margins, 10 granules on median rows,

8-9 in posterior rows; coxa III with 8-9 granules

on anterior and on posterior margins; coxa IV

with a few tuberculate granules on outer surfaces,

posterior margins with 2-4 tuberculate granules;

sternite I with 2-4 elongated tuberculate granules

on lateral sides at coxal levels. Leg formula 243 1 .

Measurements: Cephalothorax 3.52 mm

long.

Type-Data: Lectotype 1 <?, 2 $ 9 , Locality:

Misty hollow, Western sides of Dawana Hills,

2200’, Coll. F.H. Gravely, 22-30.xi.1911, det. ??

Roewer, 1912, ZSITypeNo. 1182/17.

3. Neassamia aborensis (Roewer)

(Figs 22-28)

1913. Assamia aborensis : Roewer, Rec.

Indian Mus., 8: 203-207.

1935. Neassamia aborensis : Roewer,

Veroff. dtsch. Kolonial-u. Ubersee-Mus. 1(1): 36.

Lectotype: 1 9 Cephalothorax thickly but

finely granular, forming granular ridge along

anterior submarginal line, posterior margin with

small, inconspicuous spinules, three pairs of

lateral prominent spines (middle spine less

conspicuous, short), no spine between anterior

median spine and ocular tubercle, ocular tubercle

wide, thickly granular on anterior portion with

3 pairs of prominent granules, 1 moderate and 2

rudimentary pairs of tubercles on posterior

margin, shallow but distinct furrows on posterior

lateral and posterior median portion of eyes (Figs

22 & 23). Abdominal tergites and stemites also

with fine but sparse granulation. Female

ovipositor as in Figs 27 & 28. Chelicera bulging

on outer portion of 1st segment, granular on

exterior portion, basal segment globular and

granular, with 3 spinulate bristles on inner

surface, 3 at base of movable fingers and 2-4 at

base of immovable fingers, immovable finger

with cutting inner edge bearing 5-6 minute teeth,

whereas movable fingers with inner edges

bearing 8-10 very minute teeth (Fig. 24). Palp

with elongated trochanter, with 1 or 2 sub-

tuberculate granules on distal ventral surface.

Femur laterally compressed, partially twisted

inwards, carinated, outer carinae with 8 large

and 1 1 small double-headed tuberculate crenules,

inner carinae weakly crenulate to obsolete on

proximal portions. Patella shorter than femur,

expanded or dilated distally, quadrangular,

carinated, inner carinae sparsely and weakly to

poorly crenulate, ending distally in erect sub-

denticulate spines. Tibia shorter than patella,

expanded on outer sides and armed with strong

apophysis with elongated acutely pointed spines,

inner ventral margins crenulate, armed with

2 elongate sparsely separated spines, outer

carinae obsolete. Metatarsus shorter than tibia,

expanded on inner side, margin armed with 2

widely separated strong spines, a few other spines

short and stout, only inner ventral carinae

460

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

REVISION OF FIVE KNOWN SPECIES OF FAMILY ASSAMIDAE

Figs 22-28: Neassamici aborensis (Roewer), 22. Carapace, dorsal aspect, 23. Carapace, lateral aspect,

24. Chelicera, ventral aspect, 25. Palp, dorso-lateral, aspect, 26. Tarsus of leg III, lateral aspect,

27. Ovipositor, ventral aspect, 28. Ovipositor (enlarged), ventral aspect

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REVISION OF FIVE KNOWN SPECIES OF FAMILY ASSAMIDAE

Table 3: Measurements in mm for the palp and legs I-IV of Neassamia aborensis

obsolete present and inner surface with only a

few tuberculate spines. Tarsus shorter than

metatarsus, curved and sharply pointed into claw

(Fig. 25). Legs I-IV: coxa I ventrally covered with

bunch of tuberculate granules on distal portions,

anterior margin with 8-9 tuberculate granules

and middle rows of 9-10 granules, coxa II

anterior margins with 1 1 granules, coxa III with

10-11 granules on outer margins, coxa IV with

7-8 weak granules on anterior margins. Leg

formula 243 1 .

Measurements: Cephalothorax 3.8 mm

long.

Type-Data: Lectotypes 29 9 Locality:

Upper Rotung, Abor Hills, NEFA (now Arunachal

Pradesh), Abor expedition 31.xii.1911, det.

Roewer, ZSI, Type No. 1312/17; IE, Locality:

Sirpo, Nr. Parjing, 1500’ Abor Hills, NEFA (now

Arunachal Pradesh), Coll. M. De Courey, March,

1912, det. Roewer, ZSI, Type No. 1307/17.

4. Anassamia rufa (Roewer)

(Figs 29-36)

1 927. Assam ia rufa: Roewer, Weutn. Weber

/, 26(2): 359.

1935. Anassamia rufa\ Roewer, Veroff.

dtsch. Kolonial-u. Ubersee-Mus. 1(1): 36.

Cotype: 1 9 Cephalothorax closely and

finely granular but granules congregated in

furrows and margins, some tuberculate granules

present along lateral submarginal portions,

anterior margin with a short median and two

lateral tuberculate spines, with submarginal

tuberculate granular ridge, median tubercle spiny

between anterior median marginal spine and

ocular tubercle, ocular tubercle wider than long

and as high, bearing an anterior and a posterior

pair of small tuberculate spines, with a pair of

eyes, posterior median furrow distinct, a few

tuberculate granules between furrow and ocular

tubercle, 3 pairs of median spines placed on

elevated portion at distance from anterior margin

I: 3.52, II: 3.85 & III: 4.18 and separated from

each other by I: 1.32, II: 0.83 & III: 0.72

respectively, lateral margins smooth and

posterior margin evenly granular (Fig. 29).

Tergites and sternites finely granular with

posterior granular margins. Female ovipositor

short, swollen and spinous as in Fig. 36, and

male penis as in Figs 33-35. Chelicera three

segmented, 1st segment bulging dorsally on

anterior base of immovable fingers on outer

surface, 3 setae on inner surface, 4-5 at the base

of movable finger, 6-7 small and stout spines on

inner masal surface, movable fingers armed with

serrula of 11 minute teeth on inner margins,

immovable finger armed with series of triangular,

pointed cutting teeth (Fig. 31). Palp with tubular

trochanter, armed with a few tuberculate granules

on distal ventral portion, femur laterally

compressed, slightly inwardly bent, carinated,

exterior carinae armed with 13-14 delicately

crenulate tubercles, interior carinae crenulate but

weak distally. Patella shorter than femur, broad

distally, carinated, carinae sparsely crenulated

on exterior portions, inner carinae armed with

4-5 short spines. Tibia shorter than patella,

expanded on inner portions, carinated, expanded

edges with distal apophysis and armed with a

strong spine each, edges carinated and provided

with a few spines, inner margins with 2 spines.

Metatarsus shorter than tibia, also expanded on

462

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

REVISION OF FIVE KNOWN SPECIES OF FAMILY ASSAMIDAE

Figs 29-36: Anassamia rufa (Roewer), 29. Carapace, dorsal aspect, 30. Chelicera (3 segments), lateral

aspect, 3 1 . Movable and immovable fingers of chelicera, lateral aspect, 32. Palp, dorso-lateral aspect,

33. Penis, ventral aspect, 34. Penis (distal portion enlarged) ventral aspect, 35. Penis (distal portion

enlarged) ventral aspect, 36. Ovipositor, ventral aspect

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

463

0.1 mm

REVISION OF FIVE KNOWN SPECIES OF FAMILY ASSAMIDAE

Table 4: Measurements in mm for the palp and legs I-IV of Anassamia rufa

outer sides, almost rounded, armed with 2 long

and a few short spines, carinae weakly crenulate.

Tarsal spine short, curved and acutely pointed.

Legs LIV: Coxa I anterior margin with

6 dentiform granules, posterior margin with

12-13 granules, but only 6-7 distal granules

dentiform, ventral median portion covered with

row of 1 0- 1 1 granules but only 5-6 distal granules

dentiform; Coxa II with 9-10 dentiform granules

only on proximal and middle portions; Coxa III

with 4-5 dentiform granules on anterior margin

and 7-8 on posterior margin; Coxa IV broader,

with a few tuberculate granules on anterior

margin and only 2 smooth, flat granules on inner

margin; Leg formula 1324.

Measurements: Cephalothorax 5.28 mm

long.

Type-Data: Lectotype 4 $ , Id1, Locality:

Birbhum district (now in Assam), det. Roewer,

1924, No. 5583, Indian Museum Type Regn No.

1054/18 (now ZSI).

5. Assamia punctata Roewer

(Figs 37-45)

1924. Assamia punctata : Roewer ??

Lectotype: 19, Cephalothorax almost

smooth except a few large granules interior to

anterior sub-marginal ridge of 7-8 tuberculate

granules, with a median upright spine, anterior

margin with a median and two lateral spines,

both median and lateral equal in length and

pointed, ocular tubercle wider than long, and as

wide as high, with two pair of spines, anterior

pair small and obsolete, posterior pair short,

stumpy, but pointed, a pair of median eyes, black

at the base, median furrow distinct in middle

portion, posterior portion with 3 upright spines,

backwardly directed, and placed at distance of

2.3, 3.0 & 4.2 respectively from anterior margin,

3rd placed on posterior margin, few granules

tuberculate (Figs 37 & 38). Tergites almost

smooth to weakly but finely granular, posterior

margins granular, weakly to poorly tuberculate;

sternites smooth except sternite I with 3-4

tuberculate granules on lateral portions. Female

ovipositor as in Fig. 45, male penis as in Figs 41

(ventral view), 42 & 43 (ventral view, only distal

portion) and 44 (ventral, only distal portion

enlarged). Che licera three segmented, 1st segment

bulging on dorsal anterior portions, granular on

inner portions, basal segment twice as long as

wide, ventral surface with 4+3 spinulate spines,

4 at the base of immovable finger, and 3 at the

base of movable finger towards ventral side, 1

seta at the base towards dorsal side, movable

finger armed with serrula of 9-10 small teeth in

series on inner margin, immovable finger

provided with a series of 6-7 small, pointed,

cutting teeth on inner margin (Fig. 39). Palp with

trochanter tubular but broad distally with 1-2

tuberculate granules on ventral distal end. Femur

laterally compressed, flatter in middle portion

and curved inwardly, carinated, exterior carinae

with 14 dentiform granules, interior carinae

weakly crenulate. Patella shorter than femur,

expanded distally, concave, carinated, weakly

crenulate, inner carinae ending in short, pointed

spines. Tibia shorter than patella, almost

quadrangular, expanded laterally on ventrolateral

margin, carinated and outer ventral carinae

provided with few small spines and strong

464

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REVISION OF FIVE KNOWN SPECIES OF FAMILY ASSAMIDAE

37

Figs 37-45: Assamia punctata Roewer, 37. Carapace, dorsal aspect, 38. Carapace, lateral aspect,

39. Movable & immovable fingers of chelicera, lateral aspect, 40. Palp, dorso-lateral aspect, 41. Penis,

ventral aspect, 42. Penis (distal portion enlarged) dorsal aspect, 43. Penis (distal portion enlarged) ventral

aspect, 44. Penis (distal portion further enlarged) ventral aspect, 45. Ovipositor, ventral aspect

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

465

REVISION OF FIVE KNOWN SPECIES OF FAMILY ASSAMIDAE

Table 5: Measurements in mm for the palp and legs I-IV of Assamia punctata

apophysis on distal portion, armed with

elongated spines and supported anteriorly with

smaller spines (Fig. 40), inner ventral margin

weakly carinated with 2 elongated spines and a

few short spines. Metatarsus shorter than tibia,

flat but concave on inner surfaces, outer margin

expanded with 2 strong and a few small spines,

inner ventral marginal carinae smooth and

obsolete but provided with 1 pair of elongate

spines. Tarsus shorter than metatarsus, strongly

spined, bent inwardly and acutely pointed. Legs

I-IV: coxa I ventrally covered with tuberculate

granules arranged in two rows, middle row with

1 0 strongly tuberculate granules on distal portion,

anterior margins with 6-7 tuberculate granules;

coxa II sparsely granular, 6-7 tuberculate

granules on anterior margin, 9-10 tuberculate

granules on inner margins, coxa III sparsely

granular, 6-7 tuberculate granules on anterior

margin and 11-12 on posterior margin, coxa IV

granular distally, a few granules present on

posterior distal margin; Leg formula 243 1 .

Measurements: Cephalothorax 4.29 mm

long.

Type-Data: Lectotype: 19, Id1, Locality:

Third camp to Misty Hollow, Dawana Hills, 490-

2400', Coll. F.H. Gravely, 22-30.xi.1911; det.

Roewer, M. 1924, ZSI Type No. 1220/17.

Acknowledgements

I thank the Director, Zoological Survey of

India, Kolkata and the Officers-in-Charge of the

different regional stations of ZSI for facilities to

enable me to do this work, for sanctioning study

tours to Kolkata, and for the types and identified

Opilione material. I also thank the Artist section

of the Western Regional Station, Pune for ink

drawings. I thank various Officers and staff of

this Institute for their kind cooperation and help.

I sincerely thank Dr. H.V. Ghate, Head,

Department of Zoology, Modern College, Pune

for his keen interest, and for improvements to

the manuscript.

References

Deshpande, J.P. (1987): Taxonomic studies on some

Phalangids from India, Ph.D. Thesis. Babasaheb

Ambedkar Marathwaua University, Aurangabad. Pp.

1-266.

Martens, J. (1972): Opiliones aus dem Nepal-Himalaya, I

Genus Sabacon Simon. Senckenbergiana biol. 53(3/

4): 307-323.

Martens, J. (1973): Opiliones aus dem Nepal-Himalaya,

II: Phalangiidae und Sclerosomatidae.

Senckenbergiana biol. 54(1/3): 181-217.

Martens, J. (1977): Opiliones aus dem Nepal-Himalaya,

III: Oncopodidae, Phalangodidae, Assamidae.

Senckenbergiana biol. 57(4/6): 295-340.

Martens, J. ( 1 978): Opiliones aus dem Nepal-Himalaya,

IV: Biantidae. Senckenbergiana biol. 58(5/6): 347-414.

Roewer, F.C. (1911): Opiliones aus Brit. India und

Sarwak, Arch. Naturg. Berlin, 2-3 (11): 161-188.

Roewer, F.C. (1913): Arachnida II: Opiliones. In: Zool.

Res. Abor Exped., 1911-12, Rec. Indian Mns. 8: 203-

207.

Roewer, F.C. (1914): Funfzehn Opilioniden./hr/?. Naturg.

Berlin. 80A(9): 106-132.

Roewer, F.C. ( 1 9 1 5): 1 06 Neue Opilioniden. Arch. Naturg.

Berlin. 8 1A(3): 1-150.

Roewer, F.C. (1929): Revue Susse de Zoologie. Annls.

Mus. d’ Hist. Nat., deGeneva 36(21): 609-39.

Roewer, F.C. (1935): Alte und neua Assamiidae weitere

Weberknechte VIII. Veroff. dtsch. Kolonial-u. Ubersee-

Mus. bremen, 1(1): 1-168.

Roewer, F.C. (1939). On a collection of Indian Opiliones

of the Govt. Mus. Madras. Rec. Indian Mus., 41: 407-

408.

466

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

CLADOCERAN FAUNA OF MALDA DISTRICT, WEST BENGAL1

S.V.A. Chandrasekhar2 and Tapas Chatterjee3

Key words: Cladocera, Taxonomy, Malda district, West Bengal

The paper deals with Cladocera from six ecological niches in Malda district of West Bengal. This

study yielded 1 5 species of Cladocera from the district. It is the first systematic documentation of

Cladocera from this district.

Introduction

The contributions of Gurney ( 1 906, 1 907),

Brehm (1950,1953), Sharma (1978),

Chandrasekhar (1998) Chatterjee and

Chandrasekhar (1999), Venkataraman and Das

(1993); Venkataraman et al. (2000) reported on

cladoceran fauna from West Bengal. The present

paper describes material collected from different

ecological niches in Malda district, West Bengal.

Although the present record of cladoceran fauna

of West Bengal is 41 species, no literature on

Malda district is available. As a result of this

study, 15 species of Cladocera referable to 11

genera from 4 families are recorded. This is the

first authentic document on this group from the

district.

Malda district (25° 03' N and 88° 09’ E)

is the gateway to northern West Bengal and

three major rivers, Ganga, Mahananda and

Tangan, pass through the district. It is a low-

lying area, prone to frequent floods. Mango and

rice cultivation, sericulture and pisciculture are

the three major economic activities of the

district.

Material and Methods

Material was collected by the second

author from a number of water bodies by towing

‘Accepted September, 2000

2Freshwater Biological Station, Zoological Survey of India,

1-1-300/B Ashoknagar, Hyderabad 500 020,

Andhra Pradesh, India.

’Department of Biology, Indian School of Learning,

I.S.M. Annexe, Dhanbad 826 004, Jharkhand, India.

plankton net (No. 25) in its sublittoral regions.

The catch received in a plastic bottle at the end

of a net was transferred to plastic containers and

preserved in 4% formal. The material was

identified with the help of keys in Michael and

Sharma (1988), and Battish (1992). Ocular

micrometre were used to take measurements.

The list of localities with the period

of collection is given in Table 1. Specimens

have been deposited in the Freshwater Bio-

logical Station, Zoological Survey of India,

Hyderabad.

SYSTEMATIC ACCOUNT

Phylum: Arthropoda

Class: Crustacea

Sub class: Branchiopoda

Order: Cladocera

Family: Daphniidae

Scapholebris kingi Sars, 1 903

Material examined: Female; length

0.58 mm, width 0.37 mm; MRDM.

Description: Carapace more or less

quadrate, head depressed, rectangular, with

posteroventral corner produced into a spine;

posteroventral margin of valves almost straight,

ventral margin ciliated; anterior region of head

almost rounded, ventral margin concave; large

eye, short and blunt rostrum; small antennules;

post abdomen short and broad, rounded at

posterior end with 5-6 anal spine.

Distribution: India: Assam, Bihar,

Kashmir, Nilgiri hills, Rajasthan, Meghalaya,

Tamil Nadu and West Bengal, extralimital:

Africa, Australia, North America, Sri Lanka,

Germany, China, Thailand, Indonesia.

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467

CLADOCERAN FAUNA OF M ALDA DISTRICT, WEST BENGAL

Table 1 : Sampling site and period of collection of Cladocera from Malda district of West Bengal

Simocepltalus exspinosus (Koch, 1841)

Material examined: Female, length

1 .0 mm, width 0.7 mm; MPAV.

Description: Carapace oval; dorsal margin

almost straight, but forming curve before joining

the posterior protuberance; posterior part of the

dorsal margin distinctly denticulate, head small

and triangular; eye situated at vertex. Postabdomen

broad, slightly narrow apically; 10-12 anal spines;

claw long with a distinct pecten.

Distribution: india: Meghalaya, Karnataka

and West Bengal, extralimital: Cosmopolitan.

Family: Moinidae

Moina micrura Kurz, 1 874

Material examined: Female, length

0.3 mm, width 0.18 mm; PAVN.

Description: Head large, rounded anteriorly;

small spindle-shaped antennule with distal sensory

hairs; eye large, valves oval shaped, reticulate with

rounded posterior margin; postabdomen short, with

a few thick, ciliated, anal denticles; with long and

curved claw, 3-7 teeth present at ventral base of

claw; concave margin of claw with fine setae.

Distribution: india: West Bengal, Nilgiri

hills, Bihar, Karnataka, Punjab, Haryana,

Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu, extralimital: Africa,

Syria, Russia, France, Philippines.

Family: Macrothricidae

Echinisca triserialis (Brady, 1886)

Material examined: Female, length

0.6 mm, width 0.45 mm, MRAV.

Description: Body roughly oval in shape,

dorsal margin slightly arched compared to

ventral margin, with serrations; antennule

cylindrical and widened distally; head and eye

large, postabdomen large, moderately broad,

bilobed; short, curved claw.

Distribution: india: West Bengal,

Rajasthan Bihar, Meghalaya and Kerala.

extralimital: Australia, Philippines, Sri Lanka,

Morocco, Russia, France.

Family: Chydoridae

Subfamily: Chydorinae

Chydorus sphaericus (O.F. Muller, 1776)

Material examined: Female; length

0.53 mm, width 0.48 mm; RSCC.

Description: Body spherical; valves

rounded at posterodorsal and posteroventral

corners, with pentagonal reticulations; rostrum

pointed; postabdomen short, with 7-10 denticles;

preanal comer projecting, lateral setae in several

groups and arranged in single row; claw with

two basal spines and setae on the concave margin.

Distribution: india: West Bengal, Bihar,

Kashmir, Ladakh, Nilgiri hills, Punjab and

Meghalaya, extralimital: Cosmopolitan.

Chydorus ventricosus Daday, 1898

Material examined: Female; length

0.4 mm, width 0.3 mm; MRDM.

Description: Body almost oval,

posterodorsal and posteroventral corners of valves

rounded, valves with polygons enclosing pigment

patches and dots; long rostrum with pointed, Y--

shaped rostrum notch at the tip; postabdomen

elongated, slightly tapering distally and distinct

preanal comer with 9-10 marginal spines and 4-7

468

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

CLADOCERAN FAUNA OF MALDA DISTRICT, WEST BENGAL

lateral group of setules; claw with long slender

basal spine and setae on concave margin.

Distribution: india: Nilgiri hills, Gujarat,

Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Maharashtra and

West Bengal, extralimital: Sri Lanka, China,

Java, East Africa.

Dunhevedia crassa crassa King, 1853.

Material examined: Female; length

0.5 mm, width 0.45 mm; MPAV.

Description: Body oval; posteroventral

corner of valves with denticle; ventral margin

with feathered setae, middle seta longest;

postabdomen oval with 15-18 spines; claw with

basal spine.

Distribution: india: West Bengal, Gujarat,

Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and Kerala, extralimital:

Holarctic region, Ethiopia, Indo-Malayan, Russia

and Australian region.

Subfamily: Aloninae

Alona davidi davidi Richard, 1 895

Material examined: Male; length 0.9 mm,

width 0.7 mm MRDM.

Description: Body oval; valves with

polygons; posterodorsal and posteroventral comers

of valves rounded; antennules not reaching apex

of rostrum; postabdomen narrowing distally;

preanal margin slightly shorter than postanal

margin; claw with one basal spine; setae present

on proximal part of concave margin.

Distribution: india: West Bengal.

extralimital: Ethiopian region, Haiti.

Alona davidi punctata (Daday, 1 898)

Material examined: Female; length

0.6 mm, width 0.5 mm; MRAV.

Description: Body suboval; dorsal margin

of head forming smooth curve with dorsal margin

of valve; ventral margin of valve projecting in

middle, with feathered setae passing on the

posteroventral comer into a row of short setules,

which continue on posterior margin; rostrum blunt,

plate of labrum rounded; postabdomen widest in

the middle, tapering distally, with 10-12 groups of

lateral anal spines and groups of fine setae, claw

with one basal spine and setae on concave margin.

Distribution: india: West Bengal and

Tamil Nadu, extralimital: Ethiopian and

Australian region, Argentina.

Alona pulchella King, 1853

Material examined: Female; length

0. 35 mm, width 0.22 mm; MRDM.

Description: Body almost quadrangular in

shape; posterodorsal and posteroventral corners

of valves rounded; rostrum blunt, antennules not

reaching apex of rostrum; keel of labrum

posteriorly curved; postabdomen with almost

straight margins, lateral setae in groups, distal

seta longest in each group - basal spine present

on claw, setae absent on concave margin of claw.

Distribution: india: Gujarat, West Bengal

and Tamil Nadu, extralimital: Australia, Sri

Lanka, Philippines, Russia.

Leydigia acanthocercoides (Fischer, 1854)

Material examined: Female; length

0.54 mm, width 0.5 mm; MRAV.

Description: Body almost oval and

compressed; valves with longitudinal lines; head

shield with rounded posterior margin; rostrum

short, blunt, directed slightly ventrally; ocellus

larger than eye; postabdomen broadly rounded

and margin concave with large lateral groups

with two setae in each; claw without basal spine.

Distribution: india: West Bengal,

Rajasthan and Gujarat, extralimital: Ethiopian,

Indo-Malayan, Neotropical and Europian-

Russian region.

Oxyurella singalensis (Daday, 1898)

Material examined: Male; length

0.52 mm, width 0.33 mm; MRDM.

Description: Valves with dots on ventral

side, posterodorsal and posteroventral comer of

valves rounded; postabdomen uniformly wide but

slightly tapering distally; anal spines confined

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

469

CLADOCERAN FAUNA OFMALDA DISTRICT, WEST BENGAL

to rounded dorsal end of postabdomen; first leg

with a blunt hook; claw large with two basal

spines, the large one some distance from base

and the small one near the base.

Distribution: india: West Bengal and

Kerala, extralimital: Ethiopian, Indo-Malayan

region, China.

Oxyurella tenuicaudis (Sars, 1862)

Material examined: Female; length

0.6 mm, width 0.44 mm; MRDM.

Description: Body oval, posteroventral

corner rounded with row of spinules on inner

side; rostrum blunt, directed ventrally,

postabdomen narrowing distally, with 12-13 anal

spines, of which distal one very large, a small

spinule near claw.

Distribution: india: West Bengal.

extralimital: Holarctic region, European part of

Russia.

Kurzia latissima (Kurz, 1875)

Material examined: Female; length

0.87 mm, width 0.68 mm; MRDM.

Description: Posterodorsal and

posteroventral comers rounded; head and valves

forming semicircular dorsal arch; rostrum long,

antennules not reaching apex of rostrum;

postabdomen long, narrow, slightly tapering

Refer

Battish, S.K. (1992): Cladocera. In: Freshwater

Zooplankton of India. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co.

Ltd., New Delhi. Pp. 130-172.

Brehm, V. (1950): Contribution to the freshwater fauna of

India, Part I & II. Rec. Indian. Mus. 48(1-3): 9-28.

Brehm, V. (1953): Indische Diaptomiden,

pseudodiaptomiden und Cladoceran. Ost. Zool. Zeit

4: 241-345.

Chandrasekhar, S.V.A. (1998): Cladoceran diversity of

Baroni pond, Adra, West Bengal. J. Andaman Sci.

Assoc. 14(1): 46-49.

Chatterje, T & S.V.A. Chandrasekhar (1 999): Cladocera

from a canal in Jawaharlal Nehru Park, Bumpur, West

Bengal. J. Andaman Sci. Assoc. 15(2): 81-82.

Gurney, R. (1906): On some freshwater entomostraca in

the collection of the Indian Museum, Calcutta. J.

distally, with 12 marginal anal spines; claw with

basal spine, setae present on concave margin of

claw.

Distribution: india: West Bengal.

extralimital: Holarctic, Neotropical region and

European part of Russia.

Euryalona orientalis (Daday, 1898)

Material examined: Female; length

0.6 mm; width 0.46 mm; SWBCH.

Description: Body quadrangular, ventral

margin with blunt process, ventral middle margin

of valves with setae arising at some distance from

margin; valves with concentric rows of weak dots

at their margins; antennule reaching apex of

rostrum; postabdomen narrow, slightly curved

with about 20 anal denticles; basal spine present

on claw; setae present on proximal half of

concave margin of claw.

Distribution: india: West Bengal and

Tamil Nadu, extralimital: Indo-Malayan,

Ethiopian and Neotropical region.

Acknowledgements

We thank the Director, Zoological Survey

of India (ZSI), Kolkata and Officer-in-charge,

Freshwater Biological Station, ZSI, Hyderabad

for facilities.

NCES

Asiatic Soc. Bengal (N.S.). 2: 273-281.

Gurney, R. (1907): Further notes on Indian Freshwater

Entomostraca. Rec. Indian Mus. 1: 21-33.

Michael, R.G. & B.K. Sharma (1988): Fauna of India and

adjacent countries: Indian Cladocera (Crustacea:

Branchiopoda: Cladocera). Zoological Survey of

India Publ. 262 pp.

Sharma, B.K. (1978): A note on a freshwater cladoceran

from West Bengal. Bangladesh J. Zool. 6: 149-151.

Venkataraman, K. & S.R. Das (1993): Freshwater

cladocera (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) of southern

West Bengal. J. Andaman Sci. Assoc. 9: 19-24.

Venkataraman, K, S.R. Das & N.C. Nandi (2000):

Zooplankton diversity in freshwater wetlands of

Haora District, West Bengal. J. Aqua. Biol. 15(1 &

2): 19-25.

470

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW SPECIES OF AMBLYANTHUS A. DC., FAMILY MYRSINACEAE,

FROM ARUNACHAL PRADESH, INDIA1

( With one text figure)

G.S. Giri, S.K. Das and H.J. Chowdhery2

Key words: State Flora, Arunachal Pradesh, Myrsinaceae, new species, Amblyanthus

A new species of Amblyanthus from Arunachal Pradesh is described. The new species is closely

allied to A. multiflorus Mez.

While studying herbarium specimens in

connection with the State Flora of Arunachal

Pradesh, the authors came across some

interesting specimens collected from the Upper

Subansiri district (S.K. Das). A critical study of

the specimens and scrutiny of the literature

revealed it to be a new species of the genus

Amblyanthus A. DC. The same is described here

with illustrations. A diagnostic key to the Indian

species of the genus is also provided.

Amblyanthus obovatus Giri, Das et

Chowdhery sp. nov. A. multiflora Mez, affinis

sed distinguenda foliis obovatis vel obovato-

oblongis, chartaceis, basi manifeste inaequalibus,

apice acutis, petiolis longioribus (15-32 mm),

inflorescentiis confertis paniculatim umbellatis,

sepalis 1/3 connatis ad marginem fimbriatis,

petalis 1/3 connatis ad marginem integris.

Holotypus lectus S.K. Das subnumero

3997A ad locum 10 km e Sippi c. 250 m, die

25. iv. 1988, district Superior Subansiri

(Arunachal Pradesh) India et positus in CAL;

Isotypi 3997B et 3997C positus in ARUM.

Erect shrubs, 5-6 m tall, branches

herbaceous, terete or slightly compressed when

young, striate, gland-dotted younger parts

ferruginously furfuraceous, older parts glabrous,

bark thick, reddish. Leaves alternate, usually

obovate, sometimes obovate-oblong, (22-)25-30

(-32) x (8-)9-l 1 (- 1 2.5) cm; base distinctly

'Accepted April 2000

2 Central National Herbarium, Botanical Survey of India

P.O. Botanic Garden, Howrah 711 103, Kolkata,

West Bengal, India.

unequal, one side always 2-6 mm above the other,

subrotund to sub truncate; apex acute; margin

crenulate to undulate-crenate, recurved, with

submarginal glands below crenatures, glands

oblong or ellipsoid, 1-2 mm long, brownish;

midrib depressed above, much raised beneath,

lateral nerves opposite to alternate, 25-30(-35)

on either side, nervules oblique, lateral nerves

usually forked or branched near margin, ending

in submarginal glands; lamina chartaceous, on

drying turn blackish above, dark brown beneath,

both surfaces glabrous, profusely dotted with

brownish glands beneath, glands minute or

conspicuous, round, oval or elliptic; petioles

strong, deeply channelled, 1.5-3. 5 cm long,

glabrous. Inflorescence axillary, condensed,

paniculately umbellate; peduncles 5-7 cm long,

slightly compressed, ferruginously furfuraceous;

bracts oblong, 5-8 x 2. 5-3. 5 mm, boat-shaped,

apex acute, ferruginously furfuraceous and gland-

dotted outside, glabrous inside. Flowers many,

flower buds nearly globose, 2-3 mm diam;

pedicels stout, angular, 0.5-1. 5 mm long,

ferruginously furfuraceous, brownish gland-

dotted; bracteoles 2, adpressed at base of calyx,

subulate. Calyx 1/3 connate at base, lobes 5, ovate

to suborbicular, c. 1 x 1 mm, apex acute or obtuse,

margin fringed, ferruginously furfuraceous,

scattered gland-dotted outside, glabrous inside.

Corolla pinkish, 1/3 connate at base, lobes 5,

ovate to suborbicular, 1-1.5 x 1-1.5 mm, deeply

concave, margin hyaline, entire, both surfaces

glabrous, scattered gland-dotted, glands

brownish. Stamens 5, included, filaments very

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

471

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Fig. 1 : Amblyanthus obovatus sp. nov., A. Habit; B. Flower bud; C. Calyx (split open);

D. Corolla (split open); E. Stamens; F. Gynaecium; G. Ovules; H. Part of leaf margin

472

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

short, free, attached at very base of corolla;

anthers connate along whole length of margin,

broadly ovate, 0.75 x 0.5 mm, basifixed, dorsally

punctate along connective. Ovary oval to

ellipsoid, 0.5-0.75 mm long, glabrous, ovules

3-4, uniseriate; style columnar, c. 0.5 mm long,

slightly dilated towards apex; stigma lobed. Fruit

not seen.

Type: Arunachal Pradesh, Upper Subansiri

district, 10 km away from Sippi, c. 250 m,

25.iv.1988, S.K. Das 3997A (Holotype CAL);

3997B & 3997C (Isotypes ARUN).

FI.: April-May.

Habitat: In primary forests on thick humus

along riverbank.

Note: Amblyanthus obovatus sp. nov. is

allied to A. multiflorus Mez, but can be

distinguished by obovate or obovate-oblong,

chartaceous leaves with prominently unequal

base and acute apex, longer petioles (15-32 mm

long) inflorescence condensed, paniculately

umbellate; sepals 1/3 connate with entire

margin. Species of Amblyanthus A. DC. may be

superficially confused with those of

Amblyanthopsis Mez, mainly by habit and

leaves. But the genus Amblyanthopsis Mez is

characterised by free stamens, whereas the

stamens of Amblyanthus A. DC. are connate, at

least the anthers.

A diagnostic key to the Indian species of

Amblyanthus A. DC. is given below.

Key to the Indian species

of Amblyanthus A. DC.

1 . Inflorescence terminal 2

— Inflorescence axillary 3

2. Leaves lanceolate, sepals connate up to middle

A. glandulosus

— Leaves ovate-oblong, sepals connate up to 1/3

at base A. praetervisus

3. Leaves lanceolate, base equal, acute; sepals and

petals 3/4 connate A. multiflorus

— Leaves obovate or obovate-oblong, base

distinctly unequal subrounded to subtruncate;

sepals and petals 1/3 connate A. obovatus

Acknowledgements

We thank the Director, Botanical Survey

of India, for facilities and encouragement, and

Dr. N.C. Majumdar, ex-Scientist, Botanical

Survey of India, for the Latin diagnoses.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

473

A NEW SPECIES OF PUNTIUS HAMILTON (PISCES: CYPRINIDAE) FROM

KALAKAD MUNDANTHURAI TIGER RESERVE, TAMIL NADU, INDIA1

( With three text-figures)

M. Arunachalam and J.A. Johnson2

Key words: Kalakad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, Tamiraparani river, Cyprinidae,

Puntius fcannikattiensis sp. nov.

Kalakad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (KMTR) is an important forest reserve for the origin of all

the streams and rivers of the Tamiraparani system. Various streams and rivers of Tamiraparani

river basin harbour several endangered and endemic fishes. Here we report a new species of the

genus Puntius Hamilton from the Kannikatti region of KMTR. It was collected from the headwater

streams of Tamiraparani river. Puntius kannikattiensis sp. nov. differs from the closely related

species Puntius fasciatus in its morphometric characters and body colour pattern.

Introduction

Podigai hills, the core zone of Kalakad

Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (KMTR), have

many streams and rivers, which form the major

river Tamiraparani, a perennial east-flowing

system in Tamil Nadu. The Tamiraparani has

rich ichthyofauna, with a high degree of

endemism. Puntius arulius tambraparniei ,

Horalabiosa joshuai (Silas 1953) and Garra

kalakadensis (Rema Devi 1 992) are endemic to

this basin. Johnsingh and Vickram (1987) first

documented the fish fauna of this sanctuary.

About 70 species of fish, including several

endangered large barbs like Tor khudree ,

Hypselobarbus curmuca, H. kolus , H. dubius and

H. dobsoni are found in this region (Rema Devi

et al. 3 997, Arunachalam and Sankaranarayanan

1999). Because of its species richness and high

degree of endemism, a detailed investigation on

the fish habitats and ecological structure of fish

assemblages in selected streams and rivers has

been undertaken. As a part of the study, we

collected good numbers of Puntius species from

the different headwater streams of Tamiraparani

'Accepted December, 1999

2Sri Paramakalyani Centre for Environmental Sciences,

Manonmaniam Sundaranar University,

Alwarkurichi 627 412, Tamil Nadu, India.

river in the Kannikatti region (above Karaiyar

reservoir), amongst which on close examination

we found a new species of Puntius Hamilton. It

differs from the closely related P fasciatus by

several morphometric characters.

Study Area

The Kannikatti region of KMTR is located

west of Karaiyar reservoir (8° 35’ 00"-8° 40'

30" N and 77° 15'-77° 25' E) in Tirunelveli

district, Tamil Nadu (Fig. 1). It is an important

core area for Project Tiger, and has thick and

dense Moist Evergreen Forest. The eastern slope

of this region is one of the important watershed

areas, draining the perennial streams Ullar,

Karaiyar, Kowthaliyar and Inchikuliyar. These

tributaries join to form the major east-flowing

river Tamiraparani. Inchikuli river and Ullar

stream join to form the popular Banatheertham

waterfall. The sampling site Ullar is located 5

km from the Banatheertham waterfall at 600 m

above msl. It is a second order stream, with a

maximum width of 10 m. The streambed

comprises mainly of bedrock, large boulders and

sand. There are 2 large pools and 3 riffles in a

100 m stretch. Water temperature was noted as

19 °C, and air temperature 21 °C. Both the river

banks are occupied by deep, dense Semi-

474

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Fig. 1: Map of major streams/rivers in Kannikatti region of Kalakad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve

Evergreen Forest, mostly old growth of overstorey

trees (60-80%), the overhanging vegetation

provides cover (80%) to fishes. The new species

described here is also recorded from other

tributaries like Inchikuliyar and Karaiyar of this

region. Puntius kannikattiensis sp. nov. is a

bottom dwelling fish, mostly found in the slow

flowing streams and backwaters of channels. It

hides under boulders, cobblestones and leaf litter

in the stream.

Material and Methods

Fishes were collected by mono filamentous

gill nets (8 and 12 mm mesh size), drag net and

scoop net. All counts and measurements were made

from specimens preserved in 10% formaline.

Hubbs & Lagler (1958) were followed for

morphometric measurements. The examined

material P. fasciatus was collected from the

streams, of Wynaad, Kerala (part of Nilgiri

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

475

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Biosphere Reserve), Kallar river, Sangilipuzha

stream and Achankoil river in the southern Kerala

part of the Western Ghats. All were preserved and

deposited in the Sri Paramakalyani Centre for

Environmental Sciences (SPKCES),

Manonmaniam Sundaranar University,

Alwarkurichi, Tamil Nadu. ANOVA was

performed to distinguish the two closely related

species using morphometric characters and

multiple comparison was performed using TUKEY

Test.

Abbreviations: SL standard length; HL head

length; ED eye diameter; IOW inter orbital width;

sd standard deviation; ZS 1/SRS Zoological Survey

of India/Southem Regional Station.

Puntius kannikattiensis sp. nov.

Holotype: ZSI/SRS F. 6147, 52.0 mm SL,

ex. Ullar, a tributary of Tamiraparani river, above

Karaiyar reservoir, Kannikatti region (Kalakad

Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve), Tirunelveli

district, Tamil Nadu, India. Altitude 600 m, 80°

35' 30" N and 77° 20' 35" E, Coll. M.

Arunachalam and J.A. Johnson, 5.viii.l998.

Holotype was deposited in the Zoological Survey

of India, Southern Regional Station, Chennai.

Paratypes: ZSI/SRS F. 6148, 2 examples,

51-53 mm SL; SPKCES F. 4 (19 ex., 35-60 mm

SL) same locality as holotype and Inchikuliyar,

Karaiyar streams of Tamiraparani river, Coll. M.

Arunachalam and J.A. Johnson, 5.viii.l998.

Materials examined: 23 specimens, 31-

45 mm SL of P. fasciatus, from streams of Wynaad

(type locality 1 0.viii. 1997), Kallar river (4.i. 1998),

Achankoil river (12.x. 1997) and Sangilipuzha

(5. i. 1998) in the Kerala part of Western Ghats,

Coll. M. Arunachalam and J.A. Johnson.

Diagnosis: Puntius kannikattiensis is a small

species reaching 60 mm SL. It is distinguishable

from the closely related species P. fasciatus by the

insertion of the dorsal fm nearer to caudal fm base

than to tip of snout (vs. midway between tip of

snout and caudal fm base in P fasciatus ), in having

smaller eye (eye diameter 23.3-28.6% HL, vs. 29.0

-33.3 %) and having little space between vent to

origin of anal fin (vs. no space in P. fasciatus). It

also differs from P fasciatus in its body colour and

markings. In adults, the entire body is blackish-

brown; the juvenile has two black blotches, one

below the dorsal fin and one oval blotch at caudal

peduncle (blotches indistinct in adults) vs. pale

yellow colour body with three black vertical bars

in P. fasciatus.

Description: The general body shape and

appearance are shown in Fig. 2. Morphometric

data from holotype and paratypes of

P. kannikattiensis , P. fasciatus and the statistical

analysis are given in Tables 1 & 2.

Head and body compressed laterally, dorsal

steeply arched and belly slightly rounded. Eyes

placed dorsolateral ly, visible from both dorsal and

ventral aspects. Snout conical and nares placed

closer to the eyes than to tip of the snout. Mouth

inferior, arched, and lips fleshy, continuous at

angle. Barbels two pairs, maxillary: first pair

long, nearly twice the eye diameter. Dorsal fin

origins above 7th scale of lateral line, inserted

closer to caudal fin base than to tip of snout, with

2 simple and 8 branched rays, the last one

branched to the base. Pectoral fin with 1 simple

and 11 to 13 branched rays, and not reaching

the pelvic fin. Pelvic fin originates just opposite

the origin of dorsal fm, with 1 simple and 7

branched rays. Anal fin originates a little after

the vent, with 2 simple and 5 branched rays, last

one branched to the base. Caudal fin forked, with

9+8 branched rays. Lateral line complete with

20-22 scales. Predorsal scales 7, preanal scales

16 and circumpeduncular scales 12. Transverse

scale count between lateral line to dorsal fin

origin and pelvic fin origin is Vi 3+1+2 Vi.

Coloration: Live specimens are blackish-

brown overall. Head and dorsal up to lateral line

deep black. Ventral side brown. Body with two

black round blotches: one below the dorsal fin

extends just above the lateral line, another oval-

shaped blotch at 14- 16th lateral line scale of

476

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Fig. 2: Lateral view of a) Puntius kannikattiensis, 54 mm SL, Male, b) P. kannikattiensis, 47 mm SL, Female

caudal peduncle (more distinct in smaller

specimens). Eyes deep red, all fins black.

Preserved specimens in formalin: dorsal and

lateral portion dark brown, ventral portion light

brown, black blotches not clear (Fig. 2).

Sexual dimorphism: Males deep black,

tubercles on front of snout, and extended laterally

below the eyes, also on the lower jaw. Black

blotches on the body not clear. Fins and lips deep

black. In females: snout plain, no tubercles on snout

or lower jaw. Lips white, fins pale yellow to dull

white; entire body blackish-brown, blotches

distinct.

Distribution: Ullar stream, Karaiyar

stream and Inchikuli river of Tamiraparani,

Kannikatti region, Kalakad Mundanthurai Tiger

Reserve, Tirunelveli district, Tamil Nadu.

Etymology: The species is named after the

type locality Kannikatti Reserve Forest region,

Kalakad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve,

Tirunelveli district, Tamil Nadu.

Discussion

Puntius kannikattiensis sp. nov. differs

from all Puntius species known so far. However,

it is closely related to Puntius arulius and

P. fasciatus (Jayaram 1999). There are more

differences than similarities between these two

species. Puntius arulius has a single pair of

maxillary barbels (Silas 1953) while

P. kannikattiensis has 2 pairs. It differs from

P. fasciatus recorded from various streams in the

Kerala part of Western Ghats in having smaller

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

477

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Table 1: Morphometric measurments of Puntius kannikattiensis (Holotypes and paratypes) and P. fasciatus

eye (25.9% HL vs. 30.8%) with less 10 W (67.8%

ED vs. 76.6) and larger body scales. The more

distinct character is the insertion of dorsal fin

closer to caudal fin base than to tip of the snout.

Table 2: Multiple comparison of characters by

one-way Anova and mean values by Tukey Test (* = p<0.5)

Characters Anova F-value Tukey Test

n.s = not significant

In P. faciatus , the body bears 3 vertical black

bars: the middle one is broad and extends to the

ventral surface. In P. kannikattiensis there are

two black blotches, one below the dorsal fin

extended above the lateral line, and the other

oval, at the caudal peduncle (more distinct in

juveniles), vs. three black bars in P. fasciatus.

Additionally, P. kannikattiensis has the largest

size scales with broad focus region formed of

number of radiating striae and more number of

incomplete lateral striae (Fig. 3) vs. small scales,

simple focus area without radiating striae (few

radiating striae are found in scales from caudal

peduncle region) and less number of complete

lateral striae in P. fasciatus. Based on ANOVA,

almost all the morphometric characters show

differences except i) eye diameter/interorbital

width and ii) height of caudal peduncle/length

of caudal peduncle in P. kannikattiensis and

P. fasciatus. Also significant results from Tukey

test show that the two species are distinct for

characters such as body depth, width, predorsal

length, caudal peduncle length, eye diameter and

478

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

1 mm

Fig. 3: a) Scales from behind opercule, b) Lateral line, c) caudal peduncle,

Puntius kannikattiensis (above) and P. fasciatus (below)

snout length/SL and eye diameter and snout

length/HL. The distribution of P. fasciatus is

restricted mainly to west flowing streams/rivers

of Kerala (except the east flowing ones of Nilgiri

Biosphere Reserve, Jayaram 1991, 1999).

Therefore the occurrence of this new species from

an east flowing river of southern Tamil Nadu is

of special interest.

Acknowledgements

We thank Mr. R.P.S. Katwal, IFS, Chief

Wildlife Warden, Chennai, Dr. V.K. Melkani,

IFS, Field Director and Conservator of Forests,

Mr. Sivasankaran, Forest Ranger, KMTR,

Tirunelveli for permission to carry out this work.

M.A thanks the Ministry of Environment and

Forests, Govt, of India for financial support (No.

30/20/97/RE, dtd 23.2.1998). J. Antony Johnson

thanks the Council of Scientific and Industrial

Research (CSIR) for Senior Research Fellowship

(No. 8/297 (9)/98- EMR-I-SPS). We also thank

Dr. RT. Cherian, Officer-in-charge, and Dr. K.

Rema Devi, Scientist, Zoological Survey of India,

Southern Regional Station, Chennai for her kind

cooperation in identification.

References

Arunachalam, M. & A. Sankaranarayanan (1999):

Fishes of Gadana river in Kalakad Mundanthurai Tiger

Reserve. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 96(2): 232-238.

Hubbs, C.L. & K.F. Lagler (1958): Fishes of the Great

Lakes region. Revised edn. Grandbrook Inst. Sci. 26:

1-113.

Jayaram, K.C. (1991): Revision of the genus Puntius

Hamilton from the Indian region. Rec. zool. Surv.

India., Occ. pap no. 135: 178.

Jayaram, K.C. (1999): The freshwater fishes of Indian

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

479

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

region. Narendra Publ., Delhi, India. Pp. 551.

Johnsingh, A.J.T. & D. Vickram (1987): Fishes of

Mundanthurai Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84(3): 526-533.

Rema Devi, K. (1992): Fishes of Kalakad Wildlife

Sanctuary, Tirunelveli district, Tamil Nadu, India. Rec.

Indian Mus. 92: 193-209.

Rema Devi K., T.J. Indra, MB. Raghunathan, M. Mary

Bai & M.S. Ravichandran ( 1 997): Ichthyofauna of the

Tamiraparani river system, Tamil Nadu. Zoo s print

12(7): 1-2.

Silas, E.G. (1953): New fishes from the Western Ghats,

with notes on Puntius arulius. Rec. Indian Mus. 51:

27-38.

■ ■ ■

480

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

TWO NEW SPECIES OF PUNTIID FISH

FROM THE YU RIVER SYSTEM OF MANIPUR1

( With two text-figures )

Laifrakpam Arunkumar2’3 and Hijam Tombi Singh2

Key words: Puntius yuensis, Puntius meingangbii , Yu river system, Manipur

Two new puntiid species namely, Puntius yuensis and Puntius meingangbii are described from

the Yu River system of Manipur. These species belong to the puntio group in having no barbels,

twenty to twenty-four lateral line scales and nine predorsal scales.

P. yuensis is very similar to P. puntio but easily distinguishable by its serrated simple dorsal ray,

incomplete lateral line scale pores, distinct yellow colour at the caudal peduncle, meristic and

morphometric characters.

P. meingangbii differs from its nearest species P. phutunio and P. gelius by the two distinct black

bands on the lateral sides of the body, distinct red coloration on the flank of the body and caudal

fin, serrated unbranched dorsal ray, dorsal fin with three black bands and eight prepelvic scales.

Introduction

Manipur is a northeastern state surrounded

by hills and with a distinct geographical entity.

Its drainage system can be divided into three river

systems, the Barak river system, the Manipur

river system and the Yu river system. Hora (1921)

wrote that the interest in the ichthyofauna of

Manipur lies in the fact that the State is drained

by two distinct drainages: the western half, by

the Barak-Brahmaputra drainage and the central

and the eastern half, by the Chindwin drainage.

The Barak-Brahmaputra drainage of Manipur is

represented by the Barak river system, which

drains the western part of the State and finally

enters the Brahmaputra river system of India.

The Chindwin drainage of Manipur is

represented by the Manipur river system and the

Yu river system, which drains the central and

eastern part of the State respectively, both finally

entering the Chindwin-Irrawady river system of

Burma (Myanmar). Eastern parts of the State

'Accepted December, 1999

department of Life Sciences,

Fishery Laboratory, Manipur University,

Canchipur 795 003, Manipur, India.

'Present Address: Department of Zoology,

Mayai Lambi College,

Yumnam Huidrom 795 008, Manipur, India.

covered by the Yu river system and its

neighbouring areas of Myanmar were also known

as the Chindwin of Meaner.

The Puntiid fishes of the genus Puntius

Hamilton are widely distributed in Manipur as

reported by several workers: Hora (1921)

reported six species from Manipur. Menon (1952,

1954) mentioned nineteen species of fishes

including/! clavatus,P conchonius, P. phutunio ,

P sarana and P. ticto, which were collected from

the central valley and its surrounding hills. Datta

and Laishram (1984) reported nine species of

Puntius from Manipur. Vishwanath Singh and

Tombi Singh (1986) described a new species P.

jayarami from the Chakpi stream of Manipur

and Chakpikarong (24° 18' N, 93° 95' E), 80 km

south of Imphal in the Manipur river system of

Manipur. Tombi Singh (1991) listed ten species

of Puntius from this State. Talwar and Jhingran

(1991) listed forty-six species of the puntiid group

from India and its adjacent countries. Jayaram

(1991) revised the genus Puntius Hamilton from

the Indian region and listed fifty-three species

under ten groups and fourteen complexes.

Arunkumar and Tombi Singh (1997, 1998)

reported 80 species of fishes including 7 species

of Puntius and described a new species Puntius

morehensis from the Yu river system of Manipur.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

481

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

During field surveys in Manipur in 1997

and 1998, specimens of two undescribed species

were collected from the Yu river system,

Manipur. They are herein described as new

species namely, Puntius yuensis and Puntius

meingangbii.

Material and Methods

Fishes were collected from the Yu river

system of Manipur and their fresh colours were

noted. The fishes were then preserved in

10% formalin and brought to the Fishery

Laboratory of Manipur University. The

specimens were identified from Jayaram (1991)

and Talwar and Jhingran (1991). All the

catalogued and uncatalogued Puntius species of

the Manipur University of Museum of Fishes

(MUMF) were studied in detail and compared

with the new species collected recently. Finally,

the identified specimens were catalogued and

deposited in the Natural History Section of

Manipur State Museum (NHSMSM) and the

Manipur University Museum of fishes (MUMF).

Puntius yuensis sp. nov.

Fig. 1

Manipuri name: Ngakha-Hangampal

Holotype: MUMF 500/1 A, 58.0 mm TL,

44.0 mm SL, Maklang river, 21 km from Moreh,

Manipur, 24.ii.1997, Morning, 200 m above msl,

Coll. L. Arunkumar.

Para types: MUMF 500/4 A, 12 ex., 38.0-

68.0 mm TL, 29.0-55.0 mm SL, Moreh Bazar,

110 km from Imphal, Manipur 24.ii.1997,

Evening, 220 m above msl, Coll. L. Arunkumar.

NHSMSM 5645.

Diagnosis: A Puntius species of the puntio

group, distinguished by distinctive yellow

coloration in the caudal peduncle and encircled

by a single distinct black band. A distinct black

blotch present at the lateral line scale inside this

black band. Dorsal spine serrated posteriorly.

Lateral line scale pores incomplete. 8 predorsal

scales. 7 prepelvic scales and 14 preanal scales

present.

Description: Branchiostegal rays 4; D. 2/

7; P. 1/10-12; V. 1/6-7; A. 2/5; C. 17-19; L.l.

21-22; L.tr. 414/2 Vi. Body not fairly deep, dorsal

profile slightly elevated and arched. Snout plain.

Mouth subterminal. Lips thin and plain. Barbels

absent. Dorsal fin inserted nearer to the base of

caudal fin than to tip of snout. Lateral line

incomplete with 6 to 9 pores. Pectoral and pelvic

fins are more or less equal in length. Pelvic fin

not touching the anal opening.

Circumpeduncular scales 10 to 11. Lateral line

to anal fin origin scales 2!4. 8 predorsal scales

are present. Width of mouth is more or less same

as intemasal distance. Last unbranched dorsal

ray less than length of head and depth of body.

Fig. 1: Puntius yuensis sp. nov., paratype (MUMF 500/4A). 55 mm SL. Lateral View

482

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Proportional measurements of holotype

and paratypes (in parentheses): Length of head

of occiput 15.52 (11.76-15.79) in total length.

Length of caudal fin 3 1 .84 (23.64-3 1 .84), length

of head at occiput 20.49 (14.55-20.70), predorsal

length 54.64 (43.66-59.17), prepelvic length

50.00 (43.66-52.3), preanal length 78.18 (62.11-

80.00), length up to preanal opening 72.99

(60.24-77.51) and width of body at dorsal

fin origin 18.18 (13.79-18.18) in standard

length.

Depth of head at occiput 90.98 (50.00-

90.90), internasal distance 27.32 (12.5-27.32),

height of caudal peduncle 54.64 (41.66-58.47),

length of caudal peduncle 72.99 (58.47-72.09),

length of dorsal fin base 52.08 (50.00-62.5),

height of head at occiput 81.96 (66.66-81.96),

length of snout 36.36 (20.83-36.36), length of

pectoral fin 72.99 (66.66-75.18), width of head

at nares 36.36 (25.00-36.36) and width of head

at neck 63.69 (57.59-33.69) in length of head.

Height of caudal peduncle 75.18 (71.42-87.71)

in percentage of its length.

Colour: Body light yellowish. Dorsal light

brown. Tip of anterior dorsal fin red. Caudal and

anal fin light yellowish. Pectoral and ventral fin

blackish. 18th and 19th scales of lateral line at

caudal peduncle bear a black blotch with a black

band.

Etymology: The type locality of the fish

(Yu river system) gives the specific name of the

fish.

Discussion: P. yuensis is known only from

the Yu river system of Manipur at the lower zones

of Maklang river and Lokchao river near Moreh.

In the presence of a single band, it is most similar

to P. puntio. However, P. yuensis differs from

P. puntio in the presence of serrated unbranched

dorsal ray, incomplete lateral line scale pores (6

to 9 vs. 23), less number of pectoral branched

rays (10 to 12 vs. 15), distinct yellow coloration

on the caudal peduncle region, length of head

(17.66 to 23.09 vs. 25.00) in total length, and

diameter of eye (86.95 to 100.00 vs. 133.33 to

200.00). The comparison of meristic and

morphometric characters of P. yuensis and

P. puntio is shown in Tables 1 and 2.

Puntius meingangbii sp. nov.

Fig. 2

Manipuri name: Ngakha-Meingangbi

Holotype: MUMF 50 1/1 A, 44 mm Total

length, 34 mm Standard length. Moreh Bazar,

Moreh 110 km from Imphal, Manipur,

24.ii.1997, evening, 220 m above msl. Coll. L.

Arunkumar.

Paratypes: MUMF 501/2A, 11 ex., 39-

45 mm TL, 30-35 mm SL, locality and collector

same as Holotype. Uncat, MUMF, 14 ex; 41-43

mm TL, 30-33 mm SL, Manipur. NHSMSM

5646.

Diagnosis: A Puntius species of the puntio

group, distinguished by the distinctive

Fig. 2: Puntius meingangbii sp. nov., Paratype (MUMF 50 1/2 A) 35 mm SL. Lateral View

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

483

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

485

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

combination of the following characters, only two

black bands: one descending to the middle of

the pectoral fin and the other across that portion

of the anterior caudal peduncle which is above

the anal ftn; caudal fin and the flank of lateral

side distinctly red. Dorsal fin with two to three

black bands. Dorsal spine serrated posteriorly.

8 prepelvic and 12 preanal scales are present.

Lateral line incomplete with 6 pores.

Descriptions: Branchiostegal rays 4,

D. 2/8, P. 1/15, V. 1/7, A. 2/5, C. 18, L.l.

2 1 -23, L.tr. 5 14/3 !4. Dorsal and ventral profiles

arched equally. Head short conical. Mouth

terminal. Barbel absent. Dorsal fin slightly nearer

to the base of caudal fin. Last unbranched dorsal

ray less than length of head and depth of body.

Width of mouth more or less equal to intemasal

distance. Length of dorsal fin base greater than

height of caudal peduncle. 8 predorsal scales.

Proportional measurements of holotype

and paratypes (in parentheses): Depth of body

27.32 (25.64-26.66), length of head at end of

lateral operculum 22.72 (20.00-23.09) and length

of head at occiput 13.64 (13.79-15.38) in total

length. Length of caudal fin 29.4 1 (28.57-30.03),

length of head at occiput 17.66 (17.73-20.00),

width of body at dorsal fin origin 14.70 (16.66-

17.15), width of body at anal fin origin 11.75

(11. 42-13. 33) length up to preanal opening 70.92

(68.96-75.18), preanal length 73.52 (71.42-

78.74), prepelvic length 44.24 (45.87-53.47),

predorsal length 47.16 (51.54-53.47), length of

head at the end of lateral operculum 29.41

(25.77-30.03) and depth of body 35.33 (33.33-

34.36) in standard length.

Interorbital distance 40.00 (33.33-44.44),

length of head at occiput 68.24 (66.66-68.96),

diameter of eye 25.00 (22.22-27.77), length of

pectoral fin 88.42 (87.29-89.29), depth of head

at occiput 60.24 (78.12-78.12), length of snout

25.00 (22.22-27.77), internasal distance 20.00

(22.22 - 22.22), length of caudal peduncle 60.24

(66.66-78.12), height of caudal peduncle 50.00

(44.44-55.55) and length of dorsal fin base 60.24

(57.80-72.46) in head length at the end of lateral

operculum.

Colour: Dorsal side of body greenish to

blackish. Dorsal fin with 2 to 3 (mainly 2) black

bands. Pectoral fin blackish. Ventral and anal

fin blackish-red to red. Tip of snout black with

minute black dots. Caudal peduncle spot present

on the 16th to 18th scales along the lateral line.

3rd and 4th lateral line scales bear the first black

blotch.

Etymology: From the Manipuri word

‘Meingangbi’ meaning red coloured tail; allusion

to the ground colour of body, treated as an

adjective in apposition.

Discussion: Puntius meingangbii is widely

distributed in Manipur State. It is easily

distinguished from P. phutunio by the distinct

red coloration of flank and caudal fin, with two

black bands on the lateral sides of body. In P.

phutunio , four black bands are present on the

lateral sides of body instead of two black bands.

The dorsal fin base of P meingangbii is greater

than the height of caudal peduncle but it is less

in P. phutunio. The meristic characters are also

different from P. phutunio , namely branched

ventral rays (7 vs. 8), unbranched anal rays (2

vs. 3), total caudal rays (18 vs. 19) and lateral

line scale to origin of dorsal fin scales (5!4 vs.

3Vz) and prepelvic scales (8 to 7 vs. 5 to 6) (Table

1). The morphometric characters are also

different from P. phutunio , namely height of head

at occiput (66.66 to 68.96 vs. 84.61 to 100),

length of snout (22.22 to 27.77 vs. 28.57 to 33.33)

in length of head, and diameter of eye (62.5 to

75.18 vs. 75.00 to 133) in interorbital distance

(Table 2).

P. meingangbii also differs from P gelius

in the following distinctive characters: last

unbranched dorsal ray less than length of head

and depth of body, branched ventral rays (7 vs.

8), unbranched anal rays (2 vs. 3), total caudal

rays (18 vs. 19). Preanal scales (12 vs. 13),

prepelvic scales (8 vs. 6), depth of body (33.33

to 35.33 vs. 23.81 to 30.77) in standard length.

486

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Height of head at occiput (66.66 to 68.96 vs.

66.67 to 100), length of snout (22.22 to 27.77

vs. 33.33 to 40.00), diameter of eye (22.22 to

27.77 vs. 33.33 to 50.00) in percentage of length

of head, (100.00 vs. 79.19 to 100) in percentage

of snout, (62.5 to 75.18 vs. 75.19 to 100) in

percentage of interorbital distance (Table 2).

Materials Compared: Puntius gelius ZSI,

F. 1 3073/1 , 1 ex., 20.00 mm SL, Dhamtari Bazar,

Mahanandi. Puntius phutunio ZSI, F.2 120/2,

3 ex., 2 1 .00-22.00 mm SL, Darrang, Assam. ZSI,

F.2518/2, 2 ex., 38.00-38.5 mm SL, Medha,

Satara district; collected by S.P. Agharkar.

Refer

Arunkumar, L. & H. Tombi SrNGH (1997): On a collection

of fishes from the head waters of Yu-River system

with four new records in Manipur. J. Freshwater

Biol. 9(3-4): 126-133.

Arunkumar, L. & H. Tombi Singh (1998): Puntius

morehensis , a new species of Cyprinid fish (Pisces:

Cyprinidae) from the Yu-River system of Manipur,

India. J. NATCON. 10(2): 253-257.

Datta, N.C. & I.S. Laishram (1984): Zoogeographical

significance of the ichthyofauna of Manipur, India.

Inti. J. Acad. Ichthyol. (Proc. IV AISI) 5: 83-93.

Hamilton, F. (1822): An account of the fishes found in the

river Ganges and its branches. Archibald, Constable

& Co; Edinburgh Hurst, Robinson & Co., London.

Hora, S.L. (1921): Fish and fisheries of Manipur with some

observations on those of Naga Hills. Rec. Indian

Mus. 22:165-214.

Jayaram, K.C. (1991): Revision of the Genus Puntius

Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful to University

Grant Commission (UGC), New Delhi, for

providing financial assistance to carry out the

investigations under the Special Assistance

Programme (SAP) of the Life Sciences

Department, Manipur University. The first

author is especially grateful and obliged to Drs.

A.G.K. Menon, Maurice Kottelat, Peter K.L. Ng,

Kelvin K.P. Lim, Tan Heok Hui,Mohd. Zakaria

Ismail, T.R. Roberts, Y. Taki, G.G. Teugels and

W. Vishwanath for co-operation.

N c E s

Hamilton from the Indian region (Pisces:

Cypriniformes, Cyprinidae. Cyprininae). Rec. zool.

Surv. India, Occ. Pap. 135: 1-178.

Menon, A.G.K. (1954): Further observation on the fish

fauna of Manipur State. Rec. lnd. Mus. 52:

21-26.

Menon, M.A.S. (1952): On the collection of fish from

Manipur, Assam. Rec. lnd. Mus. 50: 265-270.

Tombi Singh, H. (1991): Ecobiology of hill stream fishes

of Manipur with special reference to culturable

possibilities. Final Technical Report. D.S.T.E; Govt,

of Manipur. 50 pp.

Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran. (1991): Inland fishes of

India and adjacent countries. Oxford & IBH Publ.

Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Pp. 250-295.

Vishwanath Singh, W & H. Tombi Singh, (1986): A new

species of the genus Puntius Hamilton from

Manipur. Rec. zool. Surv. India 83: 129-133.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

487

DESCRIPTION OF A NEW IDIOCERINE GENUS PERIACERUS,

HEMIPTERA: CICADELLIDAE, AND TWO NEW SPECIES

FROM INDIA AND SRI LANKA1

( With twenty-nine text-figures)

C.A. VlRAKTAMATH2 AND C. PARVATHI2’ 3

Key words: Periacerus gen. nov., Periacerus bidentatus sp. nov., Periacerus lankensis sp. nov.,

India, Sri Lanka

Periacerus gen. nov. (type species: Idioscopus lalithae Viraktamath) is described. The new genus

and the Airotropical genus Pandacerus Webb share similar structure of second pair of gonapophyses

including the apical hyaline region and male style. Basally constricted clypellus, longer laterofrontal

sutures above antennal pit, distinct basal lobe of subgenital plate, dorso-lateral fracture of the

male pygophore, in addition to closed inner and median anteapical cells of fore wing and the

transversely striated upper part of face distinguish Periacerus from Pandacerus. Two new species,

Periacerus bidentatus sp. nov. (from India: Coimbatore, Mudigere) and Periacerus lankensis

(from Sri Lanka: Hakgala) are described and illustrated. A key to species is also provided.

Introduction

During the study of the Idiocerinae of the

Indian subcontinent with a view to evaluate the

taxonomic value of female characters, it became

apparent that Idioscopus lalithae Viraktamath

is misplaced in the genus Idioscopus Baker.

Viraktamath (1979) mentioned that the species

deserves the “erection of a new genus as it forms

an atypical member of Idioscopus ”. Recently, a

collection of leafhoppers from the Natural History

Museum, London (BMNH) became available for

the study. These collections included two more

species closely related to /. lalithae ,

strengthening the ground for the erection of a

new idiocerine genus for their reception.

Periacerus gen. nov.

Type species: Idioscopus lalithae

Viraktamath.

Ochraceous with a dark brown to black

band on posterior margin of pronotum. Vertex

'Accepted March, 2000

department of Entomology,

University of Agricultural Sciences,

GKVK, Bangalore 560 065, Karnataka, India.

’Present Address: Regional Research Station,

Mudigere 577 132, Karnataka, India.

without black spots. Face with or without black

spots adjacent to ocelli.

Head broader than pronotum. Face

including eyes wider than long. Length of inner

margin of eye 0.8-0.86 perpendicular length of

face below eye. Lateral frontal sutures extending

beyond antennal pits to half distance between

ocellus and antennal pit. Male antenna with a

subapical disc. Transclypeal sulcus absent.

Lateral areas of clypellus in basal 0.66 strongly

depressed beyond which clypellus is widened.

The ratio of maximum width of clypellus to

minimum width is more than 1.5. Lora raised,

their upper extremity reaching half-length of

frontoclypeus. Gena below antennal pit obliquely

rugose. Ratio of interocular to ocellocular is 1:2.

Area of head above ocellus transversely striate.

Scute! lum longer than pronotum. Fore wing with

four apical and three anteapical cells, the latter

closed behind; outer anteapical cell 0.33-0.25 as

long as median, appendix large, wider than width

of any anteapical cells. Hind femoral spinulation

2+1. Hind tibial spinulation R, 20 ±3, R2 8 ±1,

R3 9 ±1. Hind basitarsus with three platellae on

transverse row with one seta on either side.

Male eighth sternum well sclerotized with

anterior pair of prominent apodemes. Ninth tergum

with well-developed pair of dorsal apodemes. Anal

488

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

collar well developed, caudaily produced into a

bilobed process. Tenth segment well sclerotized.

Pygophore with dorsolateral fracture, 0.2 as high

as long, without processes. Subgenital plate well

sclerotized held vertically, broader than height of

pygophore, with long hair-like marginal setae,

basal segment prominent. Style elongate, preapical

lobe lateral, prominent with 2-3 long setae,

apophysis with expanded apical process laterally.

Connective T-shaped, with well-developed dorsal

keel. Aedeagus U-shaped, compressed, dorsal

apodeme well developed, shaft elongate, with or

without a pair of short processes, gonopore

subapical on caudal margin.

Ovipositor extending well beyond

pygophore. Gonocoxae I with an angular

projection on ventral margin; gonapophysis I

with rounded posterior basal shoulder and

anterior outer shoulder; striations extending to

0. 75 of length. Gonapophysis II broadest in

proximal 0.33 with denticulate area saw-like,

occupying 0.75 of total length; denticles

prominent with an apical hyaline region.

Remarks: Periacerus looks similar to the

Afrotropical genus Pandacerus Webb (1983) as

both the genera share similar structure of second

pair of gonapophyses including the apical hyaline

region. However, basally constricted clypellus,

longer latero-frontal sutures above antennal pit,

distinct basal lobe of subgenital plate, dorso-

lateral fracture of the male pygophore, in addition

to closed inner and median anteapical cells of

fore wing and the transversely striated upper part

of face distinguish Periacerus from Pandacerus.

Etymology: Periacerus alludes to the place

of collection of the type species namely Periyar

Wildlife Sanctuary, “cerus” is commonly used in

the generic ending of the subfamily Idiocerinae.

Key to species of Periacerus

1. Face with median black stripe extending from

frontoclypeus to basal half of clypellus (Fig. 9);

rounded lobe of anal collar process crenulate (Fig.

13) (Sri Lanka: Hakgala) lankensis sp. nov.

— Face without such a stripe (Figs 1, 22), or if

present, light brown extending the entire length

of frontoclypeus and clypellus with a chocolate

brown spot; round lobe of anal collar process

entire (India) 2

2 . Aedeagal shaft with a pair of short processes (Figs

27, 28) (India: Coonoor; Mudigere)

bidentatus sp. nov.

— Aedeagal shaft without processes (India:

Thekkadi) lalithae Viraktamath

Periacerus lalithae (Viraktamath) comb. nov.

Figs 1-7

Idioscopus lalithae Viraktamath, 1979:

177-179, Figs 22-32. Holotype d\ India [UAS,

examined]

Viraktamath (1979) has adequately

described the species. The following are the

additional characters.

Female genitalia: Hind margin of seventh

sternum caudaily produced with a median notch.

Gonocoxae and gonapophysis as in Figs 3-7.

Material examined: Holotype cT, india:

Kerala: Thekkadi [Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary],

26.iii.1977, C.A. Viraktamath Coll. (UAS).

Paratypes 3 9 , data as for holotype but 1 9 collected

on 26.iii.1977 by B. Mallik, 19, collected on

27.iii.1977 by S. Viraktamath (UAS).

Remarks: It is closely related to P. lankensis

but can be readily distinguished by the strongly

apically hooked aedeagal shaft, more prominent

expansion on the apophysis of style. Pronotal

coloration is very variable. In darker specimens,

the pronotal band is darker than in lankensis and

in darker females the facial stripe is brownish with

part of clypeus chocolate brown to black.

Periacerus lankensis sp. nov.

Figs 8-20

Ochraceous. A median stripe on lower half

of frontoclypeus running entire length of

clypellus, a lateral stripe on either side of this

running on lateral margin of lower half of

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

489

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs 1-7: Periacerus lalithae (Viraktamath), 1. Face, 2. Female ovipositor, 3. Gonocoxa I, 4. Gonocoxa II,

5. Base of gonapophysis I and gonocoxae, 6. Gonapophysis I, 7. Gonapophysis II

(Scale line indicates 0.1 mm)

490

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs 8-14: Periacerus lankensis sp. nov., 8. Head and thorax, 9. Face, 10. Head and thorax, profile,

11. Fore wing, 12. Male eighth sternum, 13. Male genital capsule, 14. Subgenital plate

(Scale line indicates 0.1 mm)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

491

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs 15-20: Periacerus lankensis sp. nov., 15. Style, 16, 17. Different aspects of apophysis of style,

18. Connective, 19. Connective and aedeagus, lateral view, 20. Aedeagus, ventral view

(Scale line indicates 0. 1 mm)

492

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs 21-29: Periacerus bidentatus sp. nov., 21. Head and thorax, 22. Face, 23. Head and thorax, profile,

24. Male genital capsule, 25. Apical half of left style, 26. Same right style, 27. Aedeagus, lateral view,

28. Same, ventral view, 29. Female genitalia (Scale line indicates 0.1 mm)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

493

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

frontoclypeus, extending on to lorum dark brown.

Transverse band on posterior margin of pronotum

brownish, lateral areas of band darker. A central

large spot on anterior half of scutellum brownish.

Fore wing with apical half of clavus mesad of

outer claval suture greenish-yellow; venation

dark brown. Fore and mid tarsi, apical 0.33 of

fore and mid tibiae dark brown to piceous.

Male genitalia: Pygophore gradually

increasing in depth caudally, with strong

apodemes on anterior margin both dorsally and

ventrally. Anal collar process bifid caudally. Style

as in Fig. 14. Connective broad basally, 1 .5 times

as long as wide at base. Aedeagal shaft slender,

compressed, apex slightly hooked.

Female: Unknown.

Measurements: Male 4.90-5.50 mm long

and 1.60-1.70 mm wide across eyes.

Material examined: sri lanka: Holotype d,

“Hakgala, Ceylon, v.1911” (BMNH).

Paratypes: 2d, data as for holotype

(BMNH).

Remarks: See under P. lalithae.

Periacerus bidentatus sp. nov.

Figs 21-29

Ochraceous. A broad area on vertex,

continued on face to ocelli, posterior marginal

band to pronotum with a median anterior

projection, two spots on scutellum and wings

brownish. A latero-dorsal spot and a ventral spot

to each ocellus in female and antennal disc in

male piceous. Ocelli vitreous or pink. Costal

margin yellowish; veins brown.

Male genitalia: Pygophore increasing in

depth caudally, with anterior dorsal and ventral

apodemes. Anal collar process caudally bifid,

dorsal fork broader with truncate apex compared

to ventral fork. Subgenital plate broadest at basal

half. Style as in Fig. 22. Aedeagal shaft not hooked

apically, anterior margin serrated, with a pair of

short ventrally directed lateral processes near

gonopore.

Female genitalia: Hind margin of seventh

sternum slightly medially produced without a

median notch. Gonapophysis I and II as in

P. lalithae.

Measurements: Male 5.80-6.00 mm long

and 1.75-1.76 mm wide across eyes. Female

6.40 mm long and 1.95 mm wide across eyes.

Material examined: india: Holotype d,

“Muthikolam, 3000” [910 m], Coimbatore Dt.,

S. India, 23-26.ix.[19]38” and on reverse of the

label “B.M.-C.M. Expdn to S. India, Sept.-Oct.

1938” (BMNH).

Paratypes: Id, data as holotype

[stylopised], 1 9 , “Coonoor, 6,000 ft [1,820 m], S.

India, 22-23. iv.[19]37” and on reverse of the label

“B.M.-C.M. Expdn to S. India, April-May 1937”

(BMNH). Id, india: Karnataka: 19 km W of

Mudigere, 6.vi.l980, C.A. Viraktamath Coll. No.

227 (UAS).

Remarks: Externally this species

resembles P. lalithae. The type series are teneral

except for a male from Mudigere and hence the

coloration of pronotum is not very well

developed. The black spots on the face are also

variable in male and female. The species can

readily be recognised by the short processes on

the aedeagal shaft in addition to facial coloration.

Acknowledgement

We are grateful to Dr. M.D. Webb (BMNH)

for allowing us to borrow leafhopper material

used in this study and also for his comments on

the relationships of the genus Periacerus with

Pandacerus.

References

Viraktamath, C.A. (1979): Four new species of Idioscopus Webb, M.D. (1983): The Afrotropical idiocerine

(Homoptera: Cicadellidae) from southern India. leafhoppers (Homoptera: Cicadellidae). Bull. Brit.

Entomon. 4: 173 -181. Mus. Nat. Hist. (Ent.) 47: 211-257,

494

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

MEL1CERTUS SIMILIS, A NEW SPECIES OF PRAWN, DECAPODA: PENAEIDAE,

FROM INDIA1

( With six text-figures)

Angsuman Chanda and Tanmay Bhattacharya2

Key words: Melicertus similis sp. nov., Penaeidae, prawn, shrimp

A new species of penaeid prawn Melicertus similis from Andaman Sea at Port Biair in India is

described. This new species is similar to Melicertus canaliculatus (Olivier 1811) but can be

distinguished from it by the presence of a short ischial spine on the first pereiopod, absence of

disto-median projection on petasma, a chisel-shaped anterior plate on the thelycum and a wide

gap between lateral plates.

Introduction

The genus Penaeus was subdivided into

six subgenera (Holthuis 1980). Recently, these

subgenera were raised to generic rank by Perez-

Farfante and Kensley (1997). The genus

Melicertus is represented by two species in the

Indian sub-region namely, M. canaliculatus

(Olivier 1811) and M. latisulcatus (Krishinouye

1 896). The materia! on which the present paper

is based was collected by Dr. H.C. Roy of the

Zoological Survey of India (ZSI) in 1952 and is

preserved in the ZSI collection. The species status

of this collection had remained undetermined

since then. The specimens are apparently similar

to M. canaliculatus (Olivier 1811). Close

examination, however, revealed it to be a species

hitherto undescribed and new to science. A

detailed description is given below.

Much of the terminology used in the

description is after Perez-Farfante (1976).

Carapace length is the distance between the

orbital margin and the mid-posterior margin of

the carapace, and total length is the distance from

the apex of the rostrum to the telson.

Melicertus similis sp. nov.

(Figs 1-6)

Material examined: Port Blair, Andaman

Is., Bay of Bengal, 24.iii.1952; holotype: 1

'Accepted May, 2000

department ofZoology, Vidyasagar University,

Midnapore 721 102, West Bengal, India.

female, 75 mm; allotype 1 male, 59 mm,

paratypes: 3 females, 75-80 mm & 3 males, 59-

60 mm; all from the same locality.

The types are deposited in the reference

collection of the Zoological Survey of India Regn.

No. C4622/2 (holotype), C4624/2 (allotype) and

C4623/2 (paratypes).

Description

Rostral tooth 10-11/ 1 (10 in male; II in

female), ventral tooth placed beyond the frontal

dorsal teeth. Rostrum reaching almost to tip of

antennular peduncle, curving downward up to

ventral tooth, reaching its greatest height at fifth

tooth, distal non-toothed portion slightly

upcurved. Post-rostral carina feebly sulcate, post-

rostral sulcus nearly half of carapace length.

Dorsal carina extending up to 0.95 of length of

carapace from anterior margin.

Gastro-frontal sulcus deep, bifurcated

posteriorly, small carina causing this bifurcation

reaching nearly one-third length of sulcus;

gastro-frontal carina prominent and extending

to orbital angle, forming blunt supraorbital spine.

Antennal spine long. Gastro-orbital carina

pronounced, ending near the orbital angle.

Hepatic spine prominent and short orbito-frontal

sulcus narrowing posteriorly and reaching

hepatic sulcus, cervical sulcus reaching orbito-

antennal sulcus from upper side of hepatic spine,

branch iocardiac carina very thin.

Antennular flagella very small and

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

495

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs 1-6: Melicertus similis sp. nov., 1. Lateral view, 2. Dorsal view of Petasma,

3. Ventral view of Petasma, 4. Appendix masculina, 5. Thelycum, 6. First pereiopod

subequal, one-fourth length of peduncle.

Prosartema not exceeding the basal segments

stylocerite attaining mid-length of basal

segment.

Third maxi lliped extending up to second

antennular segment. First pereiopod extending

up to the base of first segment of antennular

peduncle, second extending beyond half of the

first antennular segment, third extending up to

third antennular segment. Fourth extending up

to tips of stylocerite and fifth up to the mid-length

of first segment of antennular peduncle.

Dorsal carination extending from middle

of fourth abdominal somite up to end of sixth

somite with a downward curved tooth. Telson

without spine, sixth somite with 3 lateral

cicatrices.

Petasma reaching the level of coxa of fifth

pereiopods. Median lobe separated from lateral

lobe by a shallow smooth depression, lateral lobe

slightly curved ventrally.

Distal piece of appendix masculina is

slightly longer than its width, symmetrical and

oval, the distal half of anterior surface covered

with small setae. Basal piece twice the length of

distal piece.

Anterior plate of thelycum chisel-shaped,

anterior portion slightly ridged, postero-ventral

surface concave, posterior part wide and leaves

a considerable gap to the seminal receptacle. A

496

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Table 1 : Distinctive characters of three related species of Melicertus

wide gap between two lateral plates; dorsally

these are concave; anteriorly they are narrow and

curved on the outside.

Body colour: Body uniformly creamy

white in preserved specimens.

Distribution: Known only from the type

locality.

Etymology: The specific name ‘ similis ’

relates to the similarity between the new species

and M. canaliculatus in appearance.

Discussion: The new species is similar to

Melicertus canaliculatus (Olivier 1 8 1 1 ). A close

examination also shows some similarities with

M. longistylus (Kubo 1943). The structures of

the petasma and the thelycum justify a distinct

species status. The shape and size of the anterior

thelycal plate is quite different. It is completely

chisel-shaped in M. similis , nearly pentagonal

in M longistylus but absent in M. canaliculatus.

Lateral plates are quite close in both

M. longistylus and M. canaliculatus as

compared to those in M. similis. Telson of

M. longistylus has three pairs of lateral movable

spines, but in M. similis there is no lateral spine.

This character relates the new species to

M. canaliculatus (Olivier 1811). These three

species may be distinguished by the features

listed in Table 1 and a diagnostic key for all

the Indo-Pacific species of Melicertus which is

given below.

Key to species of Melicertus

1 . Telson with movable spine 2

— Telson without movable spine 5

2. Presence of sulcus on post-rostral carina, one

ventro-rostral tooth 3

— Absence of sulcus on post-rostral carina, one

ventro-rostral tooth

M. marginatus (Randall 1840)

3. Gastro-frontal sulcus bifurcate 4

— Gastro-frontal sulcus trifurcate

M. plebejus (Hess 1856)

4. One ischial spine present on first pereiopod ....

M. longistylus (Kubo 1943)

— Ischial spine on first pereiopod absent

M. latisulcatus (Krishinouye 1896)

5. Anterior thelycal plate absent

M. canaliculatus (Olivier 1811)

— Anterior thelycal plate chisel-shaped

M. similis sp. nov.

Acknowledgements

We thank Dr. J.R.B. Alfred, Director,

Zoological Survey of India, Koikata for facilities.

One of the authors (AC) is grateful to Zoological

Survey of India. Ministry of Environment and

Forests, Government of India for grant of a research

fellowship and to Dr. Tusarendu Roy, Officer- in-

Charge, Crustacean Section, Zoological Survey of

India for making the collection available for study

and for guidance. The authors are also grateful to

Dr. L.B. Holthuis fqr his critical comments.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

497

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

References

Holthuis, L.B. (1980): FAO species catalogue. Vol. 1

Shrimps and prawns of the world. An annotated

catalogue of species of interest to fisheries. FAO Fish.

Symp. (125)1: 261.

Perez-Farfante, I. (1976): “A redescription of Penaeus

canaliculatus (Olivier 1811), a wide ranging Indo-

West Pacific shrimp (Crustacea, Decapoda,

Penaeidae)”. Zool. Meded. Leiden 50(2): 23-37.

Perez-Farfante, I & B. Kensley (1997): Penaeoid and

sergestoid shrimps and prawns of the world. Keys

and Diagnoses for the Families and Genera. Memoirs

du Museum national d'Histoire naturelle 175: 233.

498

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

REVIEWS

1. MEDICINAL PLANTS by S.G. Joshi. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd.,

New Delhi. Pp. 491 (24 x 18 cm). Price Rs. 495/-.

With increasing interest Ayurveda, the

ancient Indian system of medicine, has become

popular in the western world, and many books

on medicinal plants are available in the market.

This book provides information on medicinal

plants belonging to 106 families, arranged in

alphabetical order, starting with Acanthaceae

and ending with Zygophyllaceae, thereby

making it easy to refer.

Besides the botanical name of each plant,

it also has synonyms of the plant along with

English and vernacular names wherever

available. The names in Sanskrit, which are

often used in Ayurvedic books, are also given

under each species. There are separate indices

for Botanical names, and names in English,

Sanskrit and other Indian languages.

The author has also given the habit and

habitat of each species, the chemical composition

of the plant and parts used in Ayurvedic

medicines, followed by Therapeutics. The

‘shlokas’ in Sanskrit describing the properties

of the plant are given in Devnagari as well as

Roman script, along with properties like Rasa,

Guna, Virya, Vipak among others, making it

useful for the students of Ayurveda. In the

foreword, Vaidya M.G. Wadalkar of Tilak

College of Ayurveda, Pune has explained the

Ayurvedic terms used in the book for different

properties of the plant. In the preface, the Late

Dr. V.D. Vartak, ex Director, Maharashtra

Association for the Cultivation of Science, has

mentioned the history of Ayurveda and herbal

medicines.

There is an error in numbering the families:

Family Iridaceae and Juglandaceae have been

numbered as XLVIII and Family Lamiaceae as

XLIX in the text and contents page, instead of

XLVIII, XLIX and L respectively; this should be

corrected in the next edition.

The black and white illustration of each

species along with the text adds value to the

book, which is an excellent reference not only

for students and practitioners of Ayurveda, but

also for students of botany and others interested

in herbal medicine.

■ NARESH CHATURVEDI

2. MONITORING TIGERS AND THEIR PREY: A MANUAL FOR RESEARCHERS,

MANAGERS AND CONSERVATIONISTS IN TROPICAL ASIA, Edited by K. Ullas

Karanth & James D. Nichols. Published by Centre for Wildlife Studies, Bangalore.

Pp. 193 ( 25.5 x 20 cm). Price Rs. 395/-.

In India, long term and short term

monitoring of wildlife populations is either non-

existent or of a dubious nature. Despite the noise

made during meetings, that census and

monitoring of wildlife should be done annually,

especially in major protected areas, we still do

not have a good monitoring system that can

withstand the scrutiny of science. Our wildlife

census varies from the farcical (giving the exact

number of rats, pythons, mongoose in a large

tiger reserve!) to fairly accurate (lions in and

around Gir). Even with good field experience,

counting animals accurately is a difficult job, with

chances of an error at every stage. If inexperienced

and/or uninterested persons, with little or no

knowledge of techniques, conduct census then

inaccurate figures are inevitable. That is why either

the population estimates are low or very high

(generally the latter in the case of the glamorous

species such as tigers, leopards, rhino).

This book will help us learn proper census

and monitoring techniques of wild animals. Both

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

499

REVIEWS

Dr. Ullas Karanth and Dr. James Nichols are

well-known field biologists, each with more than

20 years of experience. Ullas has done pioneering

studies on the ecology of the tiger, mainly in

Nagarhole and Bandipur, while James is known

for his work on animal population dynamics and

wildlife management, with a special focus on

estimation of demographic parameters.

Monitoring tigers and their prey consists

of 13 chapters, each complete in its own,

including references. Ullas is the co-author of

12 out of the 13 chapters, so basically it is his

book. Wherever necessary, good line diagrams,

maps and graphs are given which makes

explanation easy. Knowledge of basic statistics

is required to fully understand the various

methods of density estimation. If a person does

not have basic knowledge, he/she should not

undertake a census or monitoring exercise in

the first place.

The editing is not up to the mark. Perhaps,

in the second edition, the authors should take

the help of a professional editor. The size of the

book makes it difficult to carry in the field. These

are minor drawbacks and should not prevent its

wide use in India and other countries. Now

managers should not be able to say that a good,

easy to understand and inexpensive manual on

monitoring is not available. Instead of building

another hideous watchtower or a waterhole to

spend unutilized funds before the end of the

financial year, I request forest officials to

purchase copies of this valuable book. It should

be present in each protected area and in each

range office. Once it is widely used, I hope we

will not hear Ullas’s lament “Lack of resources

or training should not be used as an excuse to

practise substandard science.”

■ ASAD R. RAHMANI

500

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1. PALE HEDGEHOG PARAECHINUS MICROPUS IN SOUTHEAST RAJASTHAN

The pale hedgehog Paraechinus micropus

has long been considered a species inhabiting

deserts and arid plains of India. According to

Prater (1988), the hedgehog is confined to the

dry desert zone of Kutch, Sindh, Punjab and the

former NWFP and the neighbouring tracts. Its

presence in the wetter, greener parts of southeast

Rajasthan was established when some villagers

of Thegda village accidentally caught a specimen

5 km from Kota city (25° 10' N, 75° 52' E) on

February 14, 2000. The animal was brought to

me, photographed, kept to recuperate for two days

and later released in the habitat where it was

caught. Kota receives more than 60 cm rainfall

per annum. Thegda village is situated on the

banks of Right Main Canal and is famous for

guava ( Psidium guajava), orchards and vegetable

fields. Later, Dr. Himmat Singh and I searched

for possible hideouts of hedgehogs and found pale

hedgehog holes under jujuba bushes Zizyphus

jujuba , which were used as diurnal hideouts by

the animal. The long-eared Hemiechinus auritus

(Kuowa) as well as pale hedgehogs were seen

only west of the Aravalli range by Dr. Himmat

Singh (2000).

My enquiries revealed that a pale

hedgehog was caught in a factory, not very far

from Thegda village in 1996. Again in December

2000, some tribals were found selling four pale

hedgehogs as pets at Raipura village, about

8 km from Kota city. All these animals were

released in the wild. On further investigation

during field trips, I was told that this species is

found east of Deoli which is 95 km west of Kota

and receives an average rainfall of about 40-

50 cms. It is now well established that the pale

hedgehog has adapted itself to wetter habitats

and is found further east than was earlier

presumed.

October 8, 200 1 RAKESH V YAS

2-P-22, Vigyan Nagar,

Kota 324 005, Rajasthan,

India.

References

Prater, S.H. (1988): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay Singh, H. (2000): Ecology of Small Mammals in Hilly tracts

Natural History Society and Oxford University of Rajasthan. Ph.D. Thesis submitted to Jodhpur

Press, Bombay. Pp. 324. University, Jodhpur.

2. SIGHTING OF THE SMOOTH OTTER (LUTRA PERSPICILLATA) IN NAGAI DISTRICT

ALONG THE BAY OF BENGAL

During a survey of migratory birds along

the River Uppaner in Sirkali Taluk, Nagai District

of Tamil Nadu State, we came across an otter on

February 9, 2000 at 1630 hrs. We set out on a

boat from Soorakkadu village, near the town of

Sirkali and moved downward towards the ocean,

near the village of Thirumulaivasal. About

1,200 m from the sea, we saw an otter coming

out of the water. We stopped the boat and observed

COAST, TAMIL NADU STATE

the otter for about three minutes. After seeing

us, the otter turned around and moved on to the

nearby Pros op is juliflora vegetation. We walked

along the river and saw several footprints and

remains of the otter’s fish food. The habitat has

a coconut farm and an abandoned shrimp farm.

Interview with locals indicated a small otter

population inhabiting the area with no apparent

sign of hunting pressure. This is the first recorded

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

501

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

case on the occurrence of this species from this

area (Nagai district). Three species of otters

namely the Asian small-clawed otter (A onyx

cinerea ), smooth otter (Lutra perspicillata) and

Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra) occur in India.

Although the smooth otter is found throughout

India, little is known about its population status

and distribution in Tamil Nadu. Otters in general

are becoming increasingly rare outside of national

parks and wildlife sanctuaries, and are threatened

in many areas due to poaching, habitat

destruction and reduction in prey biomass

(Foster-Turley et al. 1990). Otters are at the top

of the food chain and they are indicators of habitat

quality. When pollutants such as heavy metals

and organochlorines like PCBs contaminate the

environment, otters are among the first species

to disappear (Mason and MacDonald 1986). The

sighting of an otter along the coastal area in

Nagai district indicates that this species can

survive in an unprotected area if the environment

is healthy and if locals do not harm them. Further

surveys are vital to estimate the population status

of otters outside protected areas in Tamil Nadu

State.

We thank Mr. Poo Munian for arranging a

boat for the survey, and Mr. G. Natarajan for

accompanying us in the field. We also thank their

families for hospitality.

August 2 1 , 200 1 G. AGORAMOORTHY

S.M. Govindasamy Nayakkar

Memorial Foundation,

4 Thittai Road, Thenpathy 609 111,

Sir kali Taluk, Nagai District,

Tamil Nadu, India.

MINNA J. HSU

Sun Yat-sen University,

PO. Box 59-157,

Kaohsiung 80424, Taiwan.

References

Foster-Turley, RS. MacDonald & C. Mason (1990): Otters. An Action Plan for their Conservation. International

Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Gland, pp. 126. s

Mason, C.F. & S.M. MacDonald (1986): Otters: Ecology and Conservation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,

pp. 236.

3. IDENTIFICATION OF DORSAL GUARD HAIRS OF STRIPED HYENA

HYAENA HYAENA (LINNAEUS, 1758) HYAENIDAE: CARNIVORA: MAMMALIA

( With one plate )

Hyaena hyaena , an efficient nocturnal

forest scavenger, is distributed in northern and

eastern Africa south to Tanzania, Asia Minor to

Arabia, Iran, Transcaucasia, Turkmenia, India

and Nepal (Honacki et al. 1982), but it has not

been recorded from the countries east to the Bay

of Bengal (Ellerman and Morrison-Scott 1966).

The hyena is included in Schedule III of the

Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 amended in 1991.

The species has declined rapidly due to habitat

destruction and persecution by human beings and

is thus declared ‘Vulnerable’ (Tikader 1983).

Koppikar and Sabnis (1976, 1977),

Chakraborty and De (1995), De and Chakraborty

(1995), Chakraborty et al. (1996, 1999) and De

et al. (1998) worked on the trichotaxonomy of

different Indian carnivores. For identification,

very little information is available on skin

derivatives as well as hairs of hyena, except for

that given by Koppikar and Sabnis (1976).

Samples were collected from each of the

following dry preserved specimens present in the

National Zoological Collection of the Zoological

Survey of India, Kolkata: 2 examples (ld\ 19,

Sunder, Balaghat, Chhattisgarh); 2 examples

(2d*, Zoological Garden, Kolkata).

502

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

De, J.K. & R. Chakraborty: Hyaena hyaena

Plate 1

Figs 1 -4: Cuticular scale and medulla structure of dorsal guard hair of Hyaena hyaena ,

1. Surface structure: 40x, 2. Surface structure: lOOOx, 3. Medulla structure: 400x,

4. Medulla structure: lOOOx

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

503

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Five spots with a diameter of 5-7 mm,

almost equidistant from each other, were selected

at the mid-dorsal region and guard hairs collected

with a fine forceps from each spot. During

collection, very often the woolly hair would get

mixed with the guard hair, which were sorted

before processing them further. The sample size

varied from 30-50 in number.

For macro- and microscopic studies,

samples were washed in different grades of

acetone or carbon tetrachloride. To study

cuticuiar scales, a thin film of clear varnish was

drawn on a microscopic slide and dry treated hair

was. put on it to get the cast, and allowed to dry

for 8-10 hours. Before examination under the

microscope, the hair sample was pulled off gently.

To study the medullary structure, hairs were cut

into pieces and treated separately with carbon

tetrachloride for 4 hours and then mounted on

glass slides with Canada balsam-xylol (70:30)

solution. Detailed methodology is available in

Chakraborty and De (1995) and Chakraborty et

al. (1996).

Structural nomenclature of cuticuiar as

well as medullary configuration was adopted

from Moore et al. (1974) and Brunner and

Coman ( 1 974). Mean and standard deviation are

mentioned in parenthesis.

The findings are summarized below:

A. Physical Characters

Colour. Seal brown at tip, paler towards

root, cream-buff at base; Total length : 30-96 mm

(60 mm ±25.5); Diameter. Apical: 30-80 p (58p

±15.36), Middle: 70-170 p (1 18 p ±32.49), Basal:

80-150 p (113 p ±34.94); Shape and Nature’.

Straight, banded, without shield, number of

bands usually 2, but rarely 3.

B. Surface Structure

(Plate 1: Figs 1 & 2).

Scale Pattern’. Irregular wave; Scale

Count: 175-335 (295 p ±0.22) per millimetre of

hair length; Scale margin distance : Intermediate;

Scale margin: Crenate; Side to side scale length

(SS): 57.25-71.5 p (64.26 p ±5.04); Proximo-

distal scale length (PD) : 1.8-13.9 p (10.75 p

±2.05).

C. Medulla

(Plate 1: Figs 3 & 4)

Medullary configuration’. Simple unbroken

cellular; Medullary Index : 0.56-0.59 (0.57

±0.002)

D. Cross section: Elliptical

In recent years, trichotaxonomy has gained

significance for identifying mammals. Flausman

(1920) stated that hairs of H. hyaena have

‘Imbricate-Crenate’ cuticuiar scale structure,

whereas Koppikar and Sabnis (1976) stated that

“no scales are visible and the borders are plain”.

But our study reveals that there are well-

developed cuticuiar scales in H. hyaena. Scale

pattern is ‘Irregular wave’ and the scale margin

is ‘Crenate’ (Plate 1 : Fig. 1 & 2). Thus, we agree

with Hausman (1920).

According to Hausman (1920), hairs of

H. hyaena have continuous nodose medulla,

whereas Koppiker and Sabnis (1976) observed

that in the proximal and medial region the

medulla is continuous, while in the distal region,

it is fragmented. But our studies show that the

medullary configuration is ‘Simple Unbroken

Cellular’ (Plate 1: Figs 3 & 4) with medullary

index, 0.57 ±0.002.

Colour, shape, nature, scale pattern, scale

margin and scale margin distance of dorsal guard

hairs of H. hyaena are almost identical in all the

4 specimens studied so far. It is also found that,

the measurements of cuticuiar scales and

medullary configuration and medullary index

have a similar trend in all the specimens studied,

but length and diameter of the same vary a lot.

Cross-sectional structure is elliptical,

which is quite different from other carnivores

studied so far, but in Mustelidae and Procyonidae

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

505

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

it is rather elliptical (Teerink 1991).

Medullary configuration and index, colour,

shape, and nature, scale pattern, structure,

margin and distance, cross-sectional structure

may, therefore, be considered to identify

H. hyaena using the dorsal guard hairs.

Acknowledgements

We thank Dr. J.R.B. Alfred, Director,

Zoological Survey of India for permission to carry

out this study. We are indebted to Dr. S.

Chakraborty, Scientist ‘E’ for suggestions and

encouragement.

April 4, 2002 J.K. DE

R. CHAKRABORTY

Zoological Survey of India,

F.P.S. Building,

27, J.L. Nehru Road,

Kolkata 700 016,

West Bengal, India.

References

Brunner, H. & B.J. Coman (1974): The Identification of

Mammalian Hair. Inkata Press, Victoria, Australia.

Pp. 196.

Chakraborty, R. & J.K. De (1995): Structure and pattern

of cuticular scales on mid-dorsal guard hairs of

Marbled Cat, Felis marmorata charltoni Gray

(Mammalia: Carnivora: Felidae). Rec. zool. Sitrv.

India. 95(1-2): 65-70.

Chakraborty, R., J.K. De, S. Chakraborty (1996):

Identification of dorsal guard hairs of Indian species

of the Panthera Oken (Carnivora: Felidae).

Mammalia 60(3): 473-480.

Chakraborty, R., J.K. De, S. Chakraborty (1999):

Identification of dorsal guard hairs of the species

of Indian lesser cats (Carnivora: Felidae).

Mammalia 65(1): 93-104.

De, J.K. & R. Chakraborty (1995): Structure and pattern

of guard hairs of crab-eating mongoose, Herpes tes

urva (Hodgson) (Mammalia: Carnivora:

Herpestidae). Proc. zool. Soc., Calcutta, 48: 33-36.

De, J.K., S. Chakraborty, R. Chakraborty (1998):

Identification of dorsal guard hairs of five Indian

species of Mongoose, Herpestes Illiger (Mammalia:

Carnivora). Mammalia 62(2): 285-295.

Ellerman, J.R. & T.C.S. Morrison-Scott (1966): Checklist

of Palaearctic and Indian Mammals. Brit. Mus. Nat.

Hist. London. Pp. 810.

Hausman, L.A. (1920): Structural characteristics of the hair

of mammals. Amer. Nat. 54: 496-523.

Honacki, J.H., K.E. Kinman & J.W. Koeppl (1982):

Mammal species of the world. Allen Press, Inc. &

The Association of Systematics Collections,

Lawrence, U.S.A. Pp. 694.

Koppekar, B.R. & J.H. Sabnis (1976): Identification of hairs

of some Indian Mammals. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

73: 5-20.

Koppikar, B.R. & J.H. Sabnis (1977): Further studies on

the identification of hairs of some Indian mammals.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 74: 50-59.

Moore, T.D., L.E. Spence & E.E. Dugnolle (1974):

Identification of the dorsal guard hairs of some

mammals of Wyoming. Wyoming Game and Fish

Dept. Bull. No. 14. Cheyenne. Pp. 77.

Teerink, B.J. (1991): Hairs of West-European Mammals.

Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Pp. 223.

Tikader, B.K. (1983): Threatened Animals of

India. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

Pp. 307.

4. THE STATUS OF GAUR BOS GAURUS

IN NORTH CACHAR HILLS DISTRICT OF ASSAM

( With one text-figure)

The gaur Bos gaurus H. Smith is widely

distributed in northeastern India. However,

except for a survey in north Bengal

(Bhattacharyya et al. 1997) and a status report

from Dibang Valley district, Arunachal Pradesh

(Choudhury 1999), no significant work on this

bovine has been done in the region. The North

Cachar Hills district (24° 59'-25° 49' N, 92° 3 1'-

93° 28' E) of Assam is a known gaur area. During

field visits between 1986 and 1997, information

on the species, both past and present was gathered

from the district. I report the findings here.

506

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Till 1950s, the gaur was widespread and

common all over the northern areas of the district.

Stracey (1963) reported a large population with

some majestic bulls in the same area. In the

southern half, which is dominated by the lofty

Barail Range (rising beyond 1 ,900 m above msl),

the species was less abundant, possibly due to

the mountainous terrain. In the northern areas,

the main forest type is deciduous, while in the

south it is evergreen. Topographically, the

northern areas are rolling plateau while in the

south the mountain slopes and cliffs are steep.

At present, a small number of gaur occur

in the Langting-Mupa Reserved Forest (RF),

(493.4 sq km) and in the Sarkihading Range in

the north, and northeast respectively and

Krungming RF (108.4 sq. km) in the northwest.

One female calf was captured in Krungming RF

in the early 1980s and sent to the Assam State

Zoo at Guwahati. Stray animals still survive in

the unclassed forests between Sangbar and

Umrangsu (proposed Khorongma Wildlife

Sanctuary), also in the northwest. In the main

Barail Range, the gaur is no longer found, but

stragglers are still met with near Laike, near the

Assam-Nagaland border, Simleng river area in

the southwest, and the catchment area of Jenam

river towards the southeast. Stray individuals are

occasionally met with in the basin of the Diyung

river between Haflong and Dihangi.

The population in the northeast is

contiguous with that of Dhansiri RF in Karbi

Anglong and Intanki Wildlife Sanctuary in

Table 1 : Measurements (in cm) of horns of some gaurs

examined in north Cachar Hills district

Sp (specimen)- 1 : Upper Hmartlangmoi;

Sp-2: Lower Hmartlangmoi; Sp-3: Dihangi; m: male

Nagaland (Choudhury 1997). Both these areas

have a sizeable gaur population.

The first major threat to the gaur came at

the end of the 19th century when the hill section

railway, between Lumding and Badarpur, was

constructed, which divided the entire habitat into

two. Along with the railway came hunters from

outside. But the situation was not still bad, till

the rinderpest of 1966, which took a heavy toll

in Langting-Mupa RF and adjacent areas

(Choudhury 1995). The population recovered to

a great extent and in the 1970s, the species was

‘common’ at places although it could not reach

its former abundance. New settlements had

started coming up in many of the areas, including

reserve forests, in the late 1970s followed by

logging. The latter increased significantly in the

1980s, but took a menacing turn in the 1990s.

Bulk of Langting-Mupa RF and adjacent

unclassed forests suffered heavily, both due to

logging as well as encroachment. A number of

timber-based industries, especially sawmills,

came up in many places like Maibong, Langting,

Flatikhali, Mandardisa, Diyungmukh and other

areas. These factors along with the local growth

of human population have resulted in

degradation and alteration of the habitat. Easy

availability of firearms has resulted in increased

poaching for meat as all the local tribes: the

Dimasa Kacharis, Kukis (Hmars, Thadous,

Biates, Rangkhawls Paites), Jemi Nagas, Jaintias

and Karbis relish gaur meat. The gaur population

declined drastically.

It is difficult to make an accurate

population estimate as the animals are extremely

shy due to regular persecution and are rather

thinly distributed. However, after visiting all the

known and potential areas and interviewing local

hunters/poachers and other tribal villagers, it was

generally estimated that 80-120 gaurs were there

in Langting-Mupa RF in 1992-94 while 10-20

in Krungming RF in 1997. Elsewhere, 10-20 still

survive in the unclassed forests between Sangbar

and Umrangsu, 6-10 in the Jenam river basin,

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507

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1: Map of North Cachar Hills District, Assam showing the distribution of gaur

and a fluctuating population of 20-50 in

Sarkihading Range. The last named area is

contiguous with Dhansiri RF of Karbi Anglong

district and Intanki Wildlife Sanctuary of

Nagaland. In Dhansiri, a healthy population of

a few hundred (up to 400) survives (Choudhury

1993, 1998) while a Forest department census

in 1978 sighted 67 in parts of Intanki. In Simleng

river, Laike areas and Diyung basin (Dihangi

area) perhaps less than 20 survive. The

population in Langting-Mupa RF will now be

less than 100 as there is no sign of check on

logging as well as hunting. The total habitat

available for the species in the district is above

500 sq. km (Fig. 1).

Presence of domestic stock in the

encroachments and ‘Forest Villages’ is a

potential source of diseases like anthrax, foot-

and-mouth, and rinderpest.

Habitat destruction and poaching with

guns and rifles continue to be major threats, and

unless conservation measures such as creation

of protected areas and enforcement of the Wildlife

(Protection) Act are taken, the future of the

animal is bleak. The beginning of insurgency

since mid-1990s all over the district has made

the situation worse. Ultramodern arms such as

the AK47 rifle are now available to the extremist

guerrillas, and the Forest Department Officials

are threatened. An unknown number of wild

animals, including the gaur have been killed,

mostly by the villagers and hunters/poachers

while timber smugglers have a free run.

Part of Krungming RT, ‘Khorongma’ area,

Sarkihading Range and parts of Langting-Mupa

RF need to be brought under the protected area

network once the situation improves.

July 1 9, 200 1 ANWARUDDIN CHOUDHURY

The Rhino Foundation for Nature in NE India,

C/o The Assam Co. Ltd., Bamunimaidam,

Guwahati 781 021, Assam, India.

508

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

References

Bhattacharyya, S., A.U. Choudhury & C.G. Biswas

(1997): A collaborative study on gaurs (Bos gaurus

H. Smith) in north Bengal, West Bengal, India. WWF-

India, Eastern Region, Calcutta. 79 pp. + maps.

Choudhury, A.U. ( 1 993): A Naturalist in Karbi Anglong.

Gibbon Books, Guwahati. 88 pp. + maps.

Choudhury, A.U. (1995): Mammals of Southern Districts

of Assam. Cheetal 34(2): 10-17.

Choudhury, A.U. (1997): The imperiled biodiversity of

Nagaland. Sanctuary Asia XVII(2): 38-45.

Choudhury, A.U. (1998): Dhansiri Tiger Reserve. Revised

proposal. The Rhino Foundation for Nature in NE

India, Guwahati. 30 pp. + map.

Choudhury, A.U. ( 1 999): The gaur Bos gaurus in Dibang

Valley district of Arunachal Pradesh. J. Bombay nat.

Hist.Soc. 96(2): 311-313.

Stracey, P.A. (1963): Wildlife in India. Ministry of Food

& Agriculture, Govt, of India, New Delhi.

5. DISTRIBUTION AND STATUS OF THE GAUR BOS GAURUS IN NAGALAND

( With one text-figure )

The gaur Bos gaurus H. Smith is still

widely and sparsely distributed in northeastern

India, however, it is a rather poorly documented

species. Except for a survey in north Bengal

(Bhattacharyya et al. 1997) and some brief status

reports (Choudhury 1992, 1993, 1995, 1999,

2001), no specific work solely for this species

has been taken up in the region. Its distribution

in Assam has been mapped recently (Choudhury

1997a). Here I report the past and present status

of the species in the state of Nagaland (25° 10'-

27° Of N, 93° 17-95° 15' E) (area: 16,579 sq.

km) (Fig. 1) as ascertained during field visits in

1991, 1992, 1996 and 2001. The area was

referred to in the past as the Naga Hills of Assam,

as the entire area is hilly with small plains near

Dimapur. The highest peak is Mt. Saramati

(3,842 m above msl) on the India-Myanmar

border. Mt. Japfu (3,043 m above msl) is the

second and is on the Barail range. The lowest

evaluation is in the riverbeds near Dimapur (less

than 150 m above msl).

Some information on gaur in Nagaland is

given in Choudhury (1997b). The current

distribution of the species is mostly confined to

Intanki Wildlife Sanctuary in Dimapur district.

Some of the animals from this population also

wander up to near Jalukie, Samjuram (both in

Dimapur district), Peren and Tening (Henima)

(both in Kohima district) (Fig. 1). Being located

near the Assam-Nagaland border, the animals

move freely between Intanki and Assam’s

Dhansiri Reserve Forest (Choudhury 1998) and

also to the unclassed forests of Assam’s North

Cachar Hills district and occasionally to

Manipur’s Tamenglong district. Small numbers

of gaur are thinly distributed in the forests along

the India-Myanmar border in Tuensang, Mon

and Phek districts. An occasional animal is

encountered, mostly wandering from Assam, in

the Singphan Reserve Forest of Mon district,

which also share borders with Assam and

Arunachal Pradesh. There are no recent reports

from other districts, although a few survived in

Mokokchung, Wokha and Zunheboto even in the

early 1980s.

During field visits, I examined and

measured 1 1 preserved horns (seven in the Forest

Museum, Kohima; three in Samjuram village

and one at Zunheboto) of the animals shot in

different parts of Nagaland. Three of these were

large. The measurements of some are listed in

Table 1 . The animal from Zunheboto was killed

by local hunters in the foothills area of Saramati,

Tuensang district in 1967. In 1938-40, villagers

near Ajikami village in Akuloto sub-division of

Zunheboto district killed a bull after it had

injured some villagers. It reportedly came to mate

with a semi-wild cow mithun Bos frontalis (S.

Hukiye, pers. comm.).

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509

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

In the Barail range stretch between Peren

and Kohima, the gaur is not found now, save for

stray animals. In the late 1980s, the hunters from

Khonoma village had shot two in Dzukou area

(T. Sakhire, pers. comm.). Around Peren, the

gaur was not uncommon till the 1980s; now it is

very rare. In 1999-2000, 4-5 came from the

northwest (Intanki and adjacent areas). In

February 2000, one was shot near Tening town.

It reportedly came from the North Cachar Hills

district of Assam (Huki, pers. comm.). In 1974-

75, two were reportedly snared with a rope near

Nkio village, near Tening. Both the horns are

now with the Range Officer of Jalukie (I

examined them). In 1981, a bull and a cow were

shot near Samjuram village.

Poaching for meat was the main reason for

the decline of the gaur from larger parts of

Nagaland as its meat is relished. Destruction of

habitat by felling for wet paddy cultivation (in

Jalukie-Rangapahar areas) and jhum elsewhere

was also a major factor. Although no specific

record of large-scale occurrence of rinderpest

could be found, perhaps there was casualty in

1966 in southwestern Nagaland when this

dreaded disease took a heavy toll in the North

Cachar Hills district of Assam (Choudhury

1995).

510

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 1 : Measurements of some gaur horns (in cm)

It is generally estimated that less than 100

gaur are present in the Intanki Wildlife Sanctuary

and adjacent areas. During a census in 1978, the

Forest Department staff sighted 67 gaurs. With

improvement in protection measures, the number

will rise both due to local growth as well as

movement from the Dhansiri Reserve Forest of

Assam. In the latter area, a healthy population

of a few hundred survives (Choudhury 1993). In

the forests along the India-Myanmar border,

some 20 to 30 may still occur. Elsewhere, less

than 1 0 may be estimated as stragglers. The total

habitat available for the species in Intanki and

adjacent areas is about 250 sq. km.

It seems that the Intanki Wildlife Sanctuary

is the only area where a viable gaur population

could survive for long. Unfortunately,

enforcement is virtually non-existent, while

poaching, felling and encroachment threaten this

protected area. Since it is the only potential area

in the entire state of Nagaland where not only

gaur but sizeable populations of elephant Elephas

maximus , sambar Cervus unicolor , tiger

Panthera tigris could survive, adequate

protection must be given to the Sanctuary. Some

adjacent forests should be added to increase its

area from 202 sq. km to at least 300 sq. km and

the Sanctuary should be declared a National Park

— the first in the entire state. New guard posts

with well-armed personnel and radio-network

should be established. Intanki Wildlife Sanctuary

has records of some other globally threatened

species such as the marbled cat Felis marmorata ,

clouded leopard Neofelis nebulosa and the white-

winged duck Cairina scutulata as well as the

largest population of hoolock gibbons Hylobates

hoolock in Nagaland. Presence of the Dhansiri

Reserve Forest (770 sq. km) across the border in

Assam is an added advantage for the gaur and

other species of Intanki. Reported cases of

poaching of the gaur and other animals should

be dealt with firmly.

For their help during the field study, I thank

M.I. Bora, Akato Serna, Khekhiho Sohe, Thomas

Kent, S. Hukiye, Hakim, Kierang, Rasam and

Hiareurangbe.

Dec. 12, 2001 AN WARUDDIN CHOUDHURY

The Rhino Foundation for Nature in NE India,

C/o The Assam Co. Ltd., Bamunimaidam,

Guwahati 781 021,

Assam, India.

References

Bhattacharyya, S., A.U. Choudhury & G.G. Biswas

( 1 997): A collaborative study on gaurs ( Bos gaums

H. Smith) in north Bengal, West Bengal, India.

WWF-India Eastern Region, Calcutta. 79 pp. +

maps.

Choudhury, A.U. (1992): Wildlife in Manipur — A

preliminary survey. Tigerpaper XIX(l): 20-28.

Choudhury, A.U. (1993): A Naturalist in Karbi Anglong.

Gibbon Books, Guwahati. 88 pp. + maps,

illustrations.

Choudhury, A.U. (1995): Mammals of Southern Districts

of Assam. Cheetal 34(2) : 10-17.

Choudhury, A.U. (1997a): Checklist of the Mammals of

Assam. Revised 2nd edn. Gibbon Books and Assam

Science Technology & Environment Council,

Guwahati. 103 pp. + maps, illustrations.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

511

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Choudhury, A.U. ( 1 997b): The imperilled biodiversity of

Nagaland. Sanctuary Asia XVII(2): 38-45.

Choudhury, A.U. (1998): Dhansiri Tiger Reserve. Revised

proposal. The Rhino Foundation for Nature in NE

India Guwahati. 30 pp. + map.

Choudhury, A.U. ( 1 999): The gaur Bos gaurus in Dibang

Valley district of Arunachal Pradesh. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. 96(2): 311-313.

Choudhury, A.U. (2001): The gaur in Mizoram, India.

Tigerpaper XXVII (3): 30-3 1 .

6. ALBINO GAUR AT THE NAGARHOLE NATIONAL PARK, KARNATAKA

( With one plate)

On Apr i 1 1 1 , 200 1 , at about 063 0 hrs, while

going around Nagarhole National Park, in

Kodagu district, Karnataka State, I spotted a herd

of gaur Bos gaurus at a salt lick on the

Chikkapala road. To my great surprise and

wonder, an albino calf was moving in the herd.

The sun had not risen, the day was cloudy and

the light very poor. But fortunately, my camera

had a 400 ASA film and 80-200 lens with f 2.8

aperture (Plate 1, Fig. 1), which helped me take

several good pictures of the calf, even though

the light was poor. The calf was entirely snow-

white, and it was about six months old. I have

been going to all the sanctuaries of Karnataka

for the last three decades, but it was for the first

time that I saw an albino gaur. My friends T.N.A.

Perumal and Dr. S.R. Jayaprakash, both from

Bangalore, and Arunthavaselvan T.R.A of

Coimbatore were with me. It was a rare sighting

worth recording.

May 30, 2001 S.G. NEGINHAL

# 643, 9th Main, 2nd Cross,

III Stage, III Block,

Basaveshwaranagar 560 079,

Karnataka, India.

7. OCCURRENCE OF THE WILD WATER BUFFALO BUBALUS ARNEE

IN MIZORAM AND MANIPUR

( With one text-figure )

The Asiatic wild water buffalo Bubalus

arnee Kerr ( bubalis Linn.) has become very rare

all over its former range. It is common only in a

few protected areas of Assam, e.g. Kaziranga,

Manas and Dibru-Saikhowa. Information on the

current status and distribution is given by

Choudhury (1994). The species usually occurs

in tall grasslands in the plains. However, its

presence in the Balpakram National Park of Garo

Hills, Meghalaya and adjacent areas (Choudhury

1994) has been a matter of curiosity as well as

question. But it seems that the small grassy

patches along the rivers and streams, in the

depressions and on tableland in hilly areas, also

harbour buffalo populations, apparently in lower

density than the plains. After the Balpakram

experience, I had reason to believe that the wild

buffalo also occurred in other hilly regions of

northeastern India in the recent past, although

no documentation had been done. However,

because of hunting pressure from various tribal

groups, it has vanished from most such areas.

During a recent visit to Mizoram in

February 2001, 1 came across a massive horn of

a bull wild buffalo at a house in Aizawl city, the

state capital. On enquiry, I came to know that it

was collected from Vaitin, a village in Aizawl

district, in far northern Mizoram (24° 12' N, 92°

58' E) (Fig. 1). The interstate border with

Manipur is not far from the village, about 5 km

only. The buffalo was reportedly shot around

1976 inside Manipur. The locality of shooting

512

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Neginhal, S.G.: Bos gaurus

Plate 1

Fig. 1 : Albino gaur at a salt lick on the Chikkapala road

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

513

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

was in Tipaimukh area of Churachandpur

district, Manipur ( c . 24° 12' N, 93° 00' E), not

far from Vaitin. The villagers of both Manipur

and Mizoram were aware of the presence of a

few wild buffaloes in the area in the 1 960s and

early 1970s. This particular specimen was well

known in Vaitin area of Mizoram and adjacent

areas of Manipur till its death for its majestic

horns, and it reportedly had a massive body. Its

horns measured (in cm): maximum spread 1 52.0;

tip-to-tip (span) 105.0; sweep across forehead

278.5; individual horn (right) 130.0; individual

horn (left) 125.0; girth at base (right) 44.0; girth

at base (left) 44.5. The conspicuous characteristic

of the horns that I noticed was fewer curves.

The area where small numbers survived

till the 1970s is near the confluence of the Tipai

(Tuivai) river with that of the Barak. Along both

these rivers, there were narrow grassy plains with

tall reeds such as Phragmites karka , Neyraudia

reynaudiana , Arundo donax and Saccharum

spp., providing habitat for small numbers of wild

buffaloes. The larger horn size of some domestic

buffaloes in northeastern Mizoram and

southwestern Manipur also indicates the

occurrence of wild buffaloes in the area in the

recent past.

There are no reports on the occurrence of

wild buffalo in Manipur and Mizoram in the

recent past (Choudhury 1994, Gee 1964, Stracey

1963). However, there are records from

Hailakandi and Cachar districts of southern

Assam, of which some sites were very close to

northern Mizoram (Choudhury 2001) (see Fig.

1).

Poaching for meat by the Mizo, Kuki

(including Hmars), and Paite tribes, was the main

reason for the elimination of wild buffalo

population in the area. Clearing for wet paddy

cultivation in the narrow river valleys has also

resulted in loss of habitat, which was already very

small. This record confirmed that the wild buffalo

existed in Manipur and Mizoram even in 1970s,

but is now perhaps ‘locally extinct’ from these

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515

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

two states.

I thank F. Sap Bawia, retired Deputy

Registrar of Cooperative Societies, Mizoram, and

his wife for help and also allowing me to examine

and measure the horn, N.R. Pradhan (ACF) for

helping to organise the field visit, and R.

Sangkhama (Range Officer) and Hakeem for

accompanying me.

June 1 , 200 1 ANWARUDDIN CHOUDHURY

The Rhino Foundation for Nature in NE India,

C/o The Assam Co. Ltd., Bamunimaidam,

Guwahati 781 021,

Assam, India.

References

Chcudhury, A.U. (1994): The decline of the wild water

buffalo in north-east India. Oryx. 28(1): 70-73.

Choudhury, A.U. (2001): On the occurrence of the wild

water buffalo Bubalus arnee in the Barak Valley

district of Assam. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 98(2):

270-272.

Gee, E. P. ( 1 964): The Wild Life of India. Collins, London.

Pp. 183

Stracey, P.D. (1963): Wild Life in India: its conservation

& control. Ministry of Food & Agriculture,

Department of Agriculture, Government of India,

New Delhi. Pp. 281.

8. GREY HERON ARDEA CINEREA SCAVENGING ON CATTLE CARCASS

On January 1, 2000 at 1830 hrs while

returning from a bird watching trip to Gangapur

Dam, 14 km west of Nashik (Maharashtra), we

saw 35 Indian white-backed vultures Gyps

bengalensis roosting on two large mango

( Mangifera indica) trees. As it was dusk, we could

not investigate why the vultures were attracted to

the mango trees. The next day, at 1600 hrs, we

reached the same site. While approaching the

mango trees, we saw 1 8 black kites Milvus migrans

migrans circling low over a pair of cow carcasses

200 m ahead. There were also a number of house

crows Corvus splendens, two Indian white-backed

vultures Gyps bengalensis and three dogs feeding

on the carcasses. Surprisingly, we also found a grey

heron Ardea cinerea watching the carcasses from

a distance of c. 40 cm. It began edging towards

the carcass and then suddenly and swiftly came

upon the kill, and tearing a chunk of meat moved

2 m away to feed on it. This is strange behaviour

on the part of the grey heron, which normally feeds

on fish, frogs, etc. (Ali and Ripley 1983). Snow et

al. (1998) mentioned the food of grey heron as

chiefly fish, amphibians, small mammals, insects

and reptiles; occasionally crustaceans, molluscs,

worms and plant material. Grey heron scavenging

on a carcass in grasslands is quite unusual.

June 9, 2000 BISHWARUP RAHA

13, Hemant Vihar,

Vir Savarkar Nagar,

Off. Gangapur Road,

Nashik 422 005,

Maharashtra, India.

References

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of

India and Pakistan (Compact Edition). Oxford

University Press, New Delhi.

Snow, D.W., C.M. Perrins, R. Gillmor, Brian Hillcoat,

C.S. Roselar, Dorothy Vincent, D.I.M. Wallace

& M.G. Wilson (1998): The Birds of the Western

Palearctic. Concise Edition. Vol. 1, Oxford

University Press, New York.

516

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

9. ATTEMPT BY A CATTLE EGRET BUBULCUS IBIS COROMANDUS

TO FEED ON AN ADULT HOUSE SHREW SUNCUS MURINUS (LINN.)

On March 17, 2000, around 1600 hrs, 1

heard the frantic squeaking of a house shrew

Suncus murinus (Linn.) coming from the paddy

fields adjacent to my house. A cattle egret was

seen making vigorous attempts to catch

something, which was not visible to me. On

scanning the spot through my binoculars, I found

to my utter surprise that it was a full grown house

shrew, trying to escape. By then, the egret had

somehow managed to catch the shrew. Then

something went wrong and the shrew in a bid to

defend itself got hold of the lower mandible of

the egret in its mouth. The puzzled egret ran

here and there, jerking its neck to free itself from

the shrew. The egret had to work hard to free its

beak. The shrew, though injured, escaped.

As per All and Ripley (1987), the food of

cattle egret consists chiefly of insects and to a lesser

extent of tadpoles, frogs and lizards, but there is

no mention of any mammal species in its diet.

May 23, 2000 ASHISH SHUKLA

L. I. C. of India

Jharsuguda Branch Office,

PO/Dt. Jharsuguda 768 202,

Orissa, India.

Reference

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Compact Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan, 2nd edn. (Reprint 1989). Oxford

University Press, Delhi.

10. OCCURRENCE OF NORTHERN SHOVELLER ANAS CLYPEATA LINN.

IN KOLE WETLANDS OF THRISSUR, KERALA

The Kole wetlands in Thrissur district are

one of the important wintering grounds for

migratory birds coming to Kerala. The area lies

between 10° 20'-10° 40' N and 75° 58'-76°

IT E, extending over about 11,000 ha. Kole

wetlands are situated below sea level and

paddy is cultivated during October to April, after

draining the water. During monsoon (June to

September) the whole area is inundated.

As part of ecological studies on wetland

birds initiated in 1998, we have been surveying

the area regularly. During these surveys a flock

of 28 northern shoveller Anas clypeata Linn,

was recorded on December 15, 1999 along

with a group of 1,656 garganey Anas

querquedula (Bluewinged teal). Twenty

individuals were sighted again in the same

place on December 21, 1999, after which

the birds were not sighted in the locality,

because the area was drained for paddy

cultivation.

Only a few sight records of the northern

shoveller are reported from Kerala. Recently,

Zacharias and Gaston (1993) have reported the

species from Wynaad. Ali (1984) and

Neelakantan et al. (1993) have not reported the

species from Kerala and according to Zacharias

and Gaston (1993), Ali omitted the species by

error. This is the second area-specific report of

the species from Kerala and also confirms the

earlier observation of Ali and Ripley (1 983) that

the northern shoveller was found in small parties

in association with garganey.

July 19, 2000 C. SIVAPERUMAN

E.A. JAYSON

Division of Wildlife Biology,

Kerala Forest Research Institute,

Peechi, Thrissur, Kerala 680 653, India.

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517

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

References

Ali, S. (1984): Birds of Kerala. Oxford University Press,

Delhi. Pp. 444.

Ali, S. & S. Dillon Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds

of India and Pakistan. Oxford University Press.

Delhi. Pp. 737.

Neelakantan, K.K., C. Sashikumar & R. Venugopalan

(1993): A Book of Kerala Birds. World Wide Fund

for Nature-India. Trivandrum. Pp. 146.

Zacharias, V.J. & A.J. Gaston (1993): The birds of

Wynaad, Southern India. Forktail 8: 11-23.

1 1 . BLACK-SHOULDERED KITE ELANUS CAERULEUS VOCIFERUS (LATHAM)

PREYING ON WOOD SANDPIPER TR1NGA GLAREOLA LINNAEUS

During our studies on wetland birds of Kole

area in Thrissur district, we observed a black-

shouldered kite Elanus caeruleus vociferus

(Latham) capturing a wood sandpiper Tringa

glareola Linn, from a paddy field on January 6,

2000. After capturing the prey the kite landed

on a nearby bund. The sandpiper was alive and

the kite tried to kill it. Observing through a

telescope (20x) we saw the kite removing the

feathers from the wings and feeding on the flesh

and bones. It took 35 minutes to completely

consume the prey. The wood sandpiper was

caught from a flock of birds numbering around

50. The Kole wetland covering an area of

11,000 ha is spread over Thrissur and

Mallapuram districts. The area lies between 10°

20’- 10° 40‘ N, and 75° 58'-76° 11' E.

Refer

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of

India and Pakistan. OUP, Delhi. Pp. 737.

Lamba, B.S. (1970): Blackwinged kite Elanus caeruleus

Lamba (1970) had reported black-

shouldered kite catching a wounded green pigeon

(yellow-legged green-pigeon) Treron

phoenicoptera in flight. According to Ali and

Ripley (1983), locust, grasshopper, crickets, other

insects, lizards, field rats, mice, young and sickly

birds are the recorded food items of the black-

shouldered kite. Its feeding on migratory species

like the wood sandpiper is not reported so far

and this is an addition to its list of prey.

March 3, 2001 C. SIVAPERUMAN

E.A. JAYSON

Division of Wildlife Biology,

Kerala Forest Research Institute,

Peechi, Thrissur 680 653,

Kerala, India.

NCES

vociferus (Latham) taking in flight a wounded green

pigeon Treron phoenicoptera (Latham). J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 66(3): 622.

12. LEAF-PRESENTING AS POSSIBLE COURTSHIP BEHAVIOUR

BY PIED FALCONETS MICROHIERAX MELANOLEUCOS

Pied falconets Microhierax melanoleucos

(Blyth) are distributed from the foothills of the

eastern Himalaya through southern China, Laos

and northern Vietnam. Despite this wide range,

rather little is documented about their breeding

behaviour, and Grimmett et al. (1998) comment

that the juvenile remains undescribed. We present

here incidental observations of behaviour

apparently connected with breeding, made during

a trip to Northeast India in 1998 (Hombuckle et

al. 1998).

A small group of at least four pied falconets

Microhierax melanoleucos was observed on the

top of a tall, open tree near the Deban HQ of

Namdapha National Park, Arunachal Pradesh,

on February 24, 1998 at c. 0800 hrs. JH observed

one with a large leaf in its bill, which it proceeded

to offer to a neighbouring bird. This bird accepted

518

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

the leaf in its bill, but soon dropped it and neither

bird made any attempt to retrieve it. The other

birds, perched a little further away, soon flew

off, as did the presenting bird a few minutes later.

Shortly after, DA also saw this behaviour

reenacted on some dead, bare branches in the

canopy of probably the same tree. At least one

falconet was seen flying with a large leaf

( c . 1 5 cm long) held in its feet, before alighting

on a bare branch. It transferred the leaf to its bill

and presented it to another bird, which then

dropped the leaf almost immediately.

Three weeks later, on March 12, in the

Kolomi area of Dibru-Saikhowa Wildlife

Sanctuary, Assam, DA saw two pied falconets

land on the top of a dead tree and again witnessed

this unusual behaviour.

Presenting of food items as a courtship

ritual is well known among raptors (Cade 1982);

moreover, leaves are used by several species as

nest material. However, the presenting of leaves

seems to be very unusual.

The first record of this kind of behaviour

is by Naoroji (1997) who observed the courtship

behaviour of collared falconets Microhierax

caerulescens on April 16, 1993. He commented

that, prior to mating, there would be an extended

courtship ritual in which the female would

usually remain perched on a bare branch while

the male would fly off. Prior to returning, the

male would often pluck a dried sal leaf with his

feet and deposit it in the nest hole, sometimes

perching alongside the female with the leaf before

depositing it in the nest.

Pied falconets are recorded as breeding in

old barbet and woodpecker holes from March to

May (Delacour and Jabouille 1931, Ali and

Ripley 1987). Caldwell and Caldwell (1931)

remark that (in China) the eggs are laid ‘upon a

bed of leaves and bits of grasses in a cavity of a

tree.’ However, Baker (1935) while noting that

their nesting behaviour was poorly known,

recorded only beetle elytra and other insect

remains as nest lining. Etchecopar and Hue

(1978-83) also refer to the nest being of insect

remains, while Delacour and Jabouille (1931)

state that the eggs always lie on a bed of insect

debris, beetle elytra and butterfly wings. Neither

they nor La Touche ( 1 93 1 ) or Baker mention any

leaves being present in nests of pied falconet,

though Baker comments on leaves in the nest

holes of the collared falconet. This is puzzling,

since the behaviour we observed would seem to

be stereotyped.

At 0923 hrs on March 15, in Panbari Forest

near Kaziranga National Park, PIH observed two

pied falconets perched together about 20 m up a

tree on a dead snag. The pair was about 20 cm

apart, with the female facing away from the male.

He was bobbing from an exaggerated vertical

position to the horizontal about once per second,

and calling frantically. This was a fairly loud, very

excited, rapid-fire sequence of slightly hoarse,

chattering notes - 'jiff jiff jiff jiff jiff-.' which

gradually slowed, and reminded PIH of the food-

begging calls of fledglings of several other raptor

species. This behaviour continued for a few

seconds, after which copulation occurred, with the

male continuing to call for about 20 seconds

afterwards. The pair then flew off. This was a rather

brief observation by PIH, and neither leaf-

presenting nor clumping and allopreening,

(thought by Naoroji to help maintain the pair bond

of collared falconets), were seen.

Closely perched collared falconets were

noted by Sparks (1965) to often face away from

each other in captivity, probably to prevent

agonistic responses.

Our observations are presumably earlier in

the breeding cycle than those witnessed by

Naoroji, but suggest that pied falconets may show

some similarities in courtship and mating

behaviour to collared falconets. The offering of

leaves, presumably by the male, may be a first

stage in initiating interest ir. mating and nesting

behaviour in the female.

Kemp and van Zyl (1998) recorded collared

falconets breeding cooperatively. Etchecopar and

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519

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Hue (1978-83) note that pied falconets can be seen

in groups of 5 or 6, and this together with our

observation of a group at Deban in February

suggests that pied falconets may also sometimes

breed cooperatively. Clearly this species, regarded

as ‘Vulnerable’ by BirdLife International (Collar

et al. 1 994), requires considerable further study.

November 25, 2000 DESMOND ALLEN

PAUL I. HOLT

JONHORNBUCKLE

1158 NoGa YaCho,

Machida Shi,

Tokyo 195-0053,

Japan.

References

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Compact edition of the

Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. 2nd

edn. Oxford University Press, Delhi.

Baker, E.C.S. (1935): The Nidification of Birds of the

Indian Empire. Vol. 4. Taylor and Francis, London.

Cade, T.J. (1982): The falcons of the world. Collins,

London.

Caldwell, H.R. & J.C. Caldwell (1931): South China

birds. Hester May Vanderburgh, Shanghai.

Collar, N.J., M.J. Crosby & A.J. Stattersfield (1994):

Birds to watch 2, the world list of threatened birds.

BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK.

Delacour, J. & P. Jabouille (1931): Les oiseaux de

1’Indochine fran^aise, 1 p. 62 Paris: Exposition

Coloniale Internationale.

Etchecopar, R.D. & F. Hue (1978-1983): Les oiseaux de

Chine , de Mongolie etde Coree, Papeete. Editions

du Pacifique, Tahiti.

Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1998): Birds of the

Indian Subcontinent. A&C Black: London.

Hornbuckle, J., D. Allen, P. Holt & K. Kazmierczak

(1998): North-East India: 20th February- 13th

March 1998. OBC Unpublished report.

Kemp, A.C. & A. van Zyl (1998): Cooperative breeding

by Collared Falconets Microhierax caeruiescens.

Forktail 13: 131-132.

La Touche, J.D.D. (1931): A Handbook of the Birds of

Eastern China, 1 . Taylor and Francis, London.

Naoroji, R. (1997): First breeding record of the collared

falconet Microhierax caeruiescens for the

Indian subcontinent in Corbett National Park,

Uttar Pradesh. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 94(2)

267-272.

Sparks, J.H (1965): Clumping and allopreening in the Red-

thighed Falconet Microhierax caeruiescens

burmanicus. Ibis 107 : 247-248.

13. UNUSUAL ASSOCIATION BETWEEN A PAIR OF SARUS CRANES

GRUS ANTIGONE AND SIBERIAN CRANE GRUS LEUCOGERANUS

AT KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK, BHARATPUR

A strong bond was observed between a pair

of sarus cranes Grus antigone Linn, and a female

Siberian crane Grus leucogeranus Pallas during

1997-98. It was first observed in September

1997, a few days after the two captive bred

Siberian cranes left the Park and one died. Four

captive bred Siberian cranes had been released

in the Park during February 1997, as part of an

International effort to augment the dwindling

population of Siberian cranes.

The lone female Siberian crane, Baharami,

foraged in block F in the northeast region of the

Park and a pair of sarus was regularly seen in

the same block. Baharami gradually started

feeding with the sarus without evoking any

agonistic reaction from them, and by the second

week of September she had also started roosting

with them. They would roost just a few feet aw^y

from each other. The cranes vocalised, displayed,

foraged and roosted together as a close-knit flock

by early October. The sarus cranes would threat-

display if their conspecifics attacked Baharami

and would chase them away. They would even

attack the wild Siberians if they tried chasing

Baharami. An approaching dog or man would

elicit loud unison calls and the two sarus cranes

would alert each other. Most of the time, at least

one of the three cranes would look around while

520

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

feeding, probably keeping watch for predators.

Baharami would also show agonistic behaviour

on the approach of perceived threat, and would

threat display with widespread wings and

stabbing action. She would try to come between

the sarus cranes and the threat, and would shield

them with spread wings. Baharami continued

to remain in the company of the sarus even after

the two released Siberian cranes — Annber and

Alkonost — had come back to the Park during

December 1998. She continued to display,

vocalise and fly with the sarus. Baharami would

even go for some time into the neighbouring

wheat field with the sarus and would attempt to

feed. She would, however, come back and spend

time in a lake in the Park near the Park wall.

She would respond to their unison call and

would join them as soon as they came back.

Probably due to her food preference, she did not

forage in the wheat fields. Siberians are known

to feed exclusively within the jheels and rarely

leave water (Sauey 1985).

After February, the sarus started going

outside the Park to forage in the agricultural

fields. Initially, Baharami would go with them,

but she stopped joining them after some time.

However, she would immediately go towards

them when they returned to the Park. This

association continued till the last week of May

1998, when the sarus cranes left the Park due to

adverse ecological conditions.

Usually, the sarus does not tolerate the

presence of Siberians and chases them away.

Sauey (1985) found the presence of sarus to be

the most serious disturbance factor, second only

to human presence. During the present study,

similar observations were recorded, except for

R E F E

Brown, W, ( 1 992): Hybrid crane observed in New Mexico.

The Unison Call 4(2).

Sauey, R. (1985): The Range, Status and Winter Ecology

of the Siberian Cranes Grus leucogeranus. Ph.D.

Thesis, Cornell University, Ithaca. N.Y., USA.

this pair of sarus. Sauey (1985) states that the

interactions are usually intense where the feeding

territory of Siberian and breeding territory of

sarus overlap. However, some unattached sarus

roost in a flock with Siberians, as there is no

clash of interest.

Probably, the pair of sarus were young, still

unmated and had not established territory. They

did not breed in the following breeding season

of 1998 and were observed nesting unsuccessfully

during 1999. So, they formed a flock with

Baharami, who was still a young two-year-old

female. Young and females are usually more

tolerated by congenerics (Sauey 1985).

Close association between birds of either

sex has been reported between congenerics,

when they flock together (Viess 1982), but we

have not come across any report of a pair of a

species developing a close association with a

congeneric individual. Variation from normal

behaviour is expected from captive-bred

individuals, but the sarus were wild. Hybrids

have been recorded between congenerics during

a release programme (Brown 1 992), but they are

considered the undesirable fallout of

experimental conditions.

March 31, 2000 GARGI

*VIBHU PRAKASH

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road,

Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India.

* Present Address: BNHS Field Station,

F-23, HMT Colony, Pinjore 134 101,

District Panchkula, Haryana,

India.

ENC E S

Viess, D.L. (1982): Dominance and social behaviour in a

mixed species flock of cranes In : Proc. Crane Workshop

(Ed: Lewis, J.C.) 25-26 August 1981, Grand Teton

National Park, Wyoming, USA. National Audubon

Society, Tavernier, Florida, USA. Pp. 219-229.

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

14. OBSERVATIONS OF SQUATTING POSTURE

ADOPTED BY CHLA MYDOTIS UNDULATA (JAQUIN)

( With one plate)

As is well known, the houbara

( Chlamydotis undulata) is a species inhabiting

open spaces with light ground cover from where

it can see all round. It is alert and wary, preferring

to trust its legs to escape from danger. However,

it takes to its wings when hard pressed. At times,

it squats low and freezes on the ground to escape

detection. Before doing this, the bird warily walks

on, moving the head and neck backwards and

forwards a few times, and then suddenly squats

down flush with the ground behind a clump of

grass, other vegetation or next to a stone, and

sometimes on the bare ground where from a

distance it appears like a lump of dried-up cattle

dung. Some authorities state that while taking

up this posture to hide, the houbara stretches out

its neck along the ground. Be that as it may, I

have observed this behaviour many times, but

never have I seen this species stretch its neck

out along the ground. All the individuals I had

seen freezing folded their neck backwards

towards the body with their neck and head

pressed down almost between the shoulders.

Considering the practical aspects of this

instinctive behaviour, if a bird were to stretch its

neck forward, the colour of the neck, being lighter

than that of the upper parts of the houbara’s body,

would be quite conspicuous and so would not

escape the sharp vision of a predator, particularly

a raptor, whereas the neck bent backwards

towards the body provides better camouflage.

Besides, it would not be convenient or easy for

an individual to crawl along the ground in a

crouching position, as this bird often does, with

an outstretched neck. While squatting doggo

against a clump of vegetation, the houbara

constantly keeps it sharp, wary eye on the pursuer

and moves round, keeping the clump between

itself and the intruder, whereas with a raptor

hovering above it keeps absolutely still. I have

observed the same habit of squatting low in

Ardeotis nigriceps and Sypheotides indie a.

April 20, 2000 M.K. HIMMATSINHJI

Jubilee Ground

Bhuj, Kutch, Gujarat, India.

15. A BREEDING COLONY OF RIVER TERN STERNA AURANTIA ,

SMALL PRATINCOLE GLAREOLA LACTEA

AND RED- WATTLED LAPWING VANELLUS INDICUS AT LONAVLA

INS Shivaji at Lonavla in Maharashtra has

a sprawling 400 hectare campus surrounded by

hills of various heights. The hillocks around the

plain campus were instrumental in creating a

draining basin or rivulet. An artificial lake of

about 1 sq. km with an islet of approximately

400 sq. m has been created by bunding the rivulet.

The islet cannot be approached by any means

and it is submerged in water during the rainy

season from June to September every year.

About 500 river terns Sterna aurantia

breed on the islet in the company of small

pratincoles Glareola lactea (100-120

individuals) and red-wattled lapwings Vanellus

indicus (150-200 individuals). On enquiring, we

were told that they are breeding on the islet

since the early 1980s. In the evening of March 3,

2000, we observed hundreds of them incubating

their eggs, some of them chasing invading

crows.

During the monsoon months when the islet

is submerged under water, the birds with their

522

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Himmatsinhji, M.K.: Chlamydotis undulata

Plate 1

Fig. 1: The sqatting posture seen above is more likely to be adopted

by a houbara in the wild

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

M.K. RANJITSINHJI

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

chicks roost on the adjoining high grounds and

some of them move to occupy the bank of the

Tata Lake near Lonavla town.

Acknowledgement

We are grateful to Cdr. Ramesh Babu of

INS Shivaji for conducting us through their Eco-

park, including the lake and islet, and for more

information on the breeding terns described in

this note.

February 6, 2001 S. UNNITHAN

G.V.K. UNNITHAN

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road,

Mumbai 400 023,

Maharashtra, India.

16. RUDDY TURNSTONE AREN ARIA INTERPRES LINN.

AT PHULERA LAKE, RAJASTHAN

On September 5, 1999 we were at Phulera

Lake, Jaipur district, hoping to see some early

migrant birds. The first glimpse of the lake was

not very promising, as the lake was dry. Rather

disappointed, we decided to proceed to Sambhar

Lake. Nevertheless, before leaving, H.S.S.

decided to have a look at the few birds on the

lake. While scanning the birds, he noticed a

ruddy turnstone Arenaria interpres Linn.

The bird was on the northern side of the

lake, where part of the lake bed is covered with

small stones. This part of the lake is usually

inundated, but that year it was almost dry, save

for one extremely shallow patch of water.

The bird was a male in breeding plumage

with distinctly patterned black and white upper

parts and extensive orange-brown on scapulars

and wing coverts. We observed the typical feeding

method for more than 1 0 minutes before it flew

away. In flight, its bold white wing bar and

elongated white patch on the back, and white

upper tail coverts were clearly seen.

There are not many inland records of the

ruddy turnstone in the Indian subcontinent.

According to Ali and Ripley (1980) there are

‘very few definite records of overland migration

in India’. They describe it as an ‘exceptional

vagrant inland’. Roberts (1992) writes that it has

not been sighted on inland freshwater bodies in

Pakistan. Ali and Ripley (1980) mention records

of the species from Lucknow (Uttar Pradesh)

Patna (Bihar), Sambhar Lake and Bharatpur

(Rajasthan) and Manipur in the last 95 years.

However, it has also been recorded from

Najafgarh near Delhi (Ganguly 1 975) and Harike

in Punjab (Robson 1997). Our sighting of the

species at Phulera is an addition to the existing

inland records.

June 9, 2000 HARKIRAT SINGH SANGHA

B-27, Gautam Marg,

Hanuman Nagar,

Jaipur 302 021,

Rajasthan, India.

HARSH VARDHAN

C-158-A, Dayanand Marg,

Tilak Nagar, Jaipur 302 004,

Rajasthan, India.

References

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1980): Handbook of the Birds of Roberts, TJ. (1992): The Birds of Pakistan Vol. 2, Oxford

India and Pakistan, Vol. II, Second edn. OUP, New Delhi. University Press, Karachi.

Ganguly, U.( 1975): A Guide to the Birds of the Delhi area, Robson, C. (1997): From the Field: India. Oriental Bird

ICAR, New Delhi. Clllb BulL 25: 63_64-

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

525

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

17. OCCURRENCE OF THE INDIAN SKIMMER

RHYNCHOPS ALB1COLLIS SWAINSON IN ASSAM

The Indian skimmer Rhynchops albicollis

Swainson is resident in the Indian subcontinent,

ranging from Pakistan, North and Central India

(not recorded south of c. 16° N) and east through

Nepal and Bangladesh. Subject to local migration,

depending on water conditions, populations of the

bird have declined during the last few decades and

it is now considered globally threatened (Collar et

al. 1994).

On November 27, 1999, S. Rochelle (a

tourist from the USA) and I were out on a jeep

safari in the Kohora (Central) Range of Kaziranga

National Park (26° 35'-25° 45' N and 93° 05'-93°

40' E). At about 1210 hrs, while passing through

Mona Beel (a perennial oxbow lake), I saw two

tem-like birds settle among a group of common

teal Anas crecca along the side of the wetland.

The birds appeared to have dark wings and looked

strikingly different from the ubiquitous river tern

Sterna aurantia. After driving along the beel for a

few hundred metres while the sun was behind us,

I stopped to take a closer look. On observation

through a pair of lOx binoculars and a 20x

telescope, I noted the following characteristics:

A long-winged bird about the size of a crow

(larger than the river tern of which there were

several nearby) — dark blackish-brown wings

projecting beyond the tail; black crown and nape

contrasting with white forehead; white sides of

neck forming a white collar; rest of underparts

glistening white; large red beak with the lower

mandible longer than upper; legs red. I recognized

the birds as Indian skimmers, the pied plumage

and beak being distinctive of the species.

The birds were seen at the same place the

following day and they remained in the area till

December 2, 1999. T. Gullick and E. Stanford

(birdwatchers from Spain and the UK respectively)

were among others who had also seen the birds.

The status of the Indian skimmer in

Northeast India is poorly known. Ali and Ripley

(1981) mention that the bird affects the placid

expansive reaches of rivers with sandbanks, and

include the Brahmaputra river system in its range.

However, there have been no recent records of this

species from the region. In their more recent work,

Grimmett et al. (1998) have excluded Assam from

its range. In December 1998, B.N. Talukdar

(Assistant Conservator of Forests, Assam State

Forest Department) and I surveyed c. 700 km (the

course of the Brahmaputra in Assam is 720 km)

stretch of the Brahmaputra river, from Dhubri

(Indo-Bangladesh border c. 90° E) to Oriamghat

(Assam-Arunachal Pradesh border c. 95° E), but

could not find any skimmers. The habitat along

the river was found to be highly disturbed (more

so west of Guwahati) and chances of the river

supporting any skimmer population is slim. I have

not come across this bird during my seven years of

bird watching in the Kaziranga National Park, nor

has there been any other record (Barua and Sharma

1999). Hence, this record is noteworthy.

I would like to thank Rishad Naoroji,

Dr. Asad R. Rahmani and B.N. Talukdar for all

their help.

October 16, 2000 MAAN BARUA

Barua Bhavan, 107 M.C. Road,

Uzan Bazaar, Guwahati 781 001,

Assam, India.

References

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1981): Handbook of the Birds of Collar, N.J., M.J. Crosby & AJ. Stattersfield (1994):

India and Pakistan. Vol. 3. Oxford University Press, Birds to watch 2: The World List of Threatened Birds.

New Delhi. Cambridge: BirdLife International.

Barua, M. & P. Sharma (1999): Birds of Kaziranga Grimmett, R.,C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1998): Birds of the

National Park. Forktail 15: 47-60. Indian Subcontinent. London: Christopher Helm Ltd.

526

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

18. BLUE ROCK PIGEONS FORAGING ON TAMARIND LEAVES

On April 9, 2000 I was observing birds in

my garden when I noticed four blue rock pigeons

Columba livia flying into a tamarind

(Tamarindus indica) tree. As I observed them, I

was surprised to see them plucking at the tender

newly sprouted tamarind leaves. Initially I

thought they were just plucking at the leaves,

but on a closer look I saw that they were eating

the young leaves. Tamarind leaves are sour to

taste. It is difficult for me to tell whether it was

the taste of the leaves that had attracted the blue

rock pigeons or whether they were eating them

for fibre.

This is the first time in my 20 years of bird

watching that I have seen blue rock pigeons

foraging on tender tamarind leaves.

May 4, 2000 SATYASHEEL N. NAIK

Naik Hospital,

781/782, Shukrawar Peth,

“Laxmi Chhaya”, Opp. Jain Mandir,

Pune 411 002, Maharashtra, India.

19. UNUSUAL NESTING MATERIAL IN THE NEST

OF BLUE ROCK PIGEON COLUMBA LIVIA GMELIN

The blue rock pigeon Columba livia is one

of the most common birds in the urban

environment of Hyderabad (Andhra Pradesh). It

breeds throughout the year and nests near human

habitations on rafters, in comers of ceilings among

other places. I have noticed many nests in the twin

cities of Hyderabad and Secunderabad on rooftops,

window sills, apartments, and places of worship,

made entirely of twigs, leaves and feathers.

During May 1999, I made an interesting

observation on the nesting behaviour of the blue

rock pigeon in my hostel building at Secunderabad.

On May 22, 1999, I came across a pair of blue

rock pigeons bringing nest material into my room.

The nest was being built on top of an almirah, a

regular nesting site of pigeons. At 0630 hrs, the

half built nest was seen to be made up of dried

neem leaves, twigs, feathers, roots, grass and dried

pods of Acacia. After two hours, I was surprised

to see ten black hairpins, a ring, a black hair clip,

and a bangle, all made of black metal, and a key

ring, bottle top, and three pink aluminium bangles,

in the nest. All these items except the bangle had

been picked up from my table while I was away. It

is interesting that the birds preferred metal items.

The birds were found in the nest for two days before

they abandoned it. Another abandoned nest, with

six pink bangles, a black hair clip and fifteen black

hairpins was found on May 3, 1999.

There have been notes on the peculiar

nesting habits of urban dwelling birds. Lamba

(1963) and Alterogi and Davis (1976) described

extensively the urbanization in the nest building

of house crow Corvus splendens splendens in

various cities. Lamba (1968) has reported a wire

nest of red-vented bulbul Pycnonotus cafer. This

shows that the rapid changes in the urban

environment affect the nesting behaviour of birds.

July 10,2000 V.P. SONIYA

Zoological Survey of India,

Fresh Water Biological Station,

1-1-3 00/ B Ashok Nagar, Hyderabad 500 020,

Andhra Pradesh, India.

References

Alterogi, R. & T.A. Davis (1979): Urbanisation in nest

building of Indian House Crows ( Corvus

splendens). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 76(2): 283-

290.

Lamba, B.S. (1963): The Nidification of some common

Indian Birds - Part 1 . J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 60:

121-133.

Lamba, B.S. (1968): Wire nests of red-vented bulbul,

Pycnonotus cafer (Linnaeus). J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 65: 122.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

527

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

20. ORIENTAL TURTLE-DOVE STREPTOPELIA ORIENTAL1S :

A NEW SPECIES FOR THE THAR DESERT

While conducting surveys for diurnal

raptors near Bikaner, Rajasthan we sighted an

Oriental turtle-dove Streptopelia orientalis at

Kodamdesar near Gajner on October 4, 1999.

The bird was observed drinking water at

1715 hrs with about 15 Eurasian collared-dove

Streptopelia decaocto from a puddle near the

village water tank. The bird was immediately

distinguishable by its stocky pigeon-like build.

Its reddish-brown scaly patterned back,

chessboard like spots on each side of the hind

neck and dark tail, edged with white, looked quite

striking compared to the uniformly plain

Eurasian collared-dove.

The species is not listed in the checklist of

the birds of the Thar Desert of Rajasthan, which

summarises the bird records of three surveys

between February 1993 and May 1994 (Rahmani

1 997). H.S.S. has been regularly visiting the Thar

since 1 986, but has never come across this species

before (Sangha 2002). This is the first record of

the species from the Thar Desert to the best of

our knowledge. Ali and Ripley (1981) write that

this dove avoids ‘semi desert tracts’ and give

northern and peninsular India as its wintering

range. Grimmett et al. (1998) and Kazmierczak

(2000) do not mention this area in the distribution

of this species.

Although this is the first record for the

Thar Desert, it is not unexpected. The

development of the Rajasthan Canal (Indira

Gandhi Nahar) and its feeder channels in the

Thar Desert, have transformed the landscape to

a considerable extent. Extensive plantations

along the canals, increase in irrigated crop fields,

and development of waterbodies due to seepage

along the canals has increased the avian diversity

in the area and many species that were not

recorded earlier have become common.

July 1 1 , 2000 HARKIRAT SINGH SANGHA

B-27, Gautam Marg,

Hanuman Nagar,

Jaipur 302 021, Rajasthan, India.

RISHAD NAOROJI

Godrej Bhavan,

4-A, Home Street,

Fort, Mumbai 400 001,

Maharashtra, India.

References

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1981): Handbook of the Birds of

India and Pakistan, Vol. 3, Second Edn. Oxford

University Press, New Delhi.

Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1998): Birds of

the Indian Subcontinent. Christopher Helm,

London.

Kazmierczak, K. (2000): A Field Guide to the Birds of the

Indian Subcontinent, Pica Press, Robertsbridge, UK.

Rahmani, A.R. (1997): The effects of Indira Gandhi Nahar

Project on the avifauna of the Thar desert. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 94: 233-266.

Sangha, H.S. (2002): A supplementary note on the

avifauna of the Thar Desert (Rajasthan). J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 99(1): 120-126.

21. BREEDING RECORD OF THE SYKES’S NIGHTJAR

CAPRIMULGUS MAHRATTENSIS (SYKES) IN HARIKE, PUNJAB, INDIA

The Sykes’s nightjar Caprimulgus

mahrattensis is listed as a rare resident and

winter migrant in India (Grimmett et al. 1998).

Its breeding in India has been recorded in Kutch

(Abdulali and Hussain 1971), while it is

suspected to breed in Punjab, Saurashtra and

Rajasthan (Ali and Ripley 1987, Grimmett et al.

1998).

528

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

On May 1997, two chicks of the Sykes’s

nightjar were located on the bank of River Satluj

in Harike, Punjab. The overall appearance of

the adults was light sandy/greyish; the head was

not streaked heavily as in other Caprimulgus

species; and the white spots on the outer

primaries were clearly visible in flight. The iris

was darkish brown with white bristles over the

gape. The birds sometimes gave a continuous

churring or purring call at dusk. The identity of

the birds was further confirmed by comparing

the photographs taken with the specimens in the

collection of the BNHS.

The nest was located on a sand bank under

a sparse Tamarix bush ( c . 60 cm), approximately

2 km downstream of the Harike Barrage. The

nest was observed for three days during the early

mornings and late evenings. The parents were

observed brooding with their wings spread during

the hot hours of the day. The chicks could not be

located at the nest site after the third day.

However, the adults stayed on in the vicinity of

the nest for another five days, and occasionally

Refer

Abdulali, H. & S.A. Hussain (1971): Extension of the

breeding range of Sykes’s nightjar Caprimulgus

mahrattensis (Sykes) in Indian limits. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 68(2)\ 452.

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Compact Handbook of the

did the broken-wing display, indicating the

presence of chicks in the area. This is the second

confirmed record of the Sykes’s nightjar breeding

in India, and the first for Punjab, and is worth

recording.

Acknowledgements

I thank the Oriental Bird Club and Per

Undeland for sponsoring my study in Harike.

Mr. Gurmit Singh, Director Wildlife, Punjab,

Mr. Neeraj Gupta, Warden Harike Bird Sanctuary

gave me excellent support. The staff at Harike

was always forthcoming with help and assistance.

I also thank Dr. A.R. Rahmani, Dr. Vibhu

Prakash and Dr. Ranjit Manakadan of the BNHS

for their support and encouragement.

May 20, 2002 MIHIR N. DEV ARE

Janardan Bhavan,

Chabildas Road, Dadar,

Mumbai 400 028, Maharashtra,

India.

NCES

Birds of India and Pakistan. 2nd Edition. Oxford

University Press, Delhi.

Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp ( 1 998): Birds of the

Indian Subcontinent. Oxford University Press,

Delhi.

22. SIGHT RECORDS OF THE SAND MARTIN RJPARJA R1PAR1A

IN SOUTHERN INDIA

On February 11, 1998, on a birdwatching

trip to the Nellore district of Andhra Pradesh, I

came across a congregation of over 100 sand

martins Riparia riparia flying low over the lush

green paddy fields. They were hawking insects

in the company of other swallows and flew

around uttering Cherr-Cherr calls. I am quite

familiar with these sand martins as I have seen

them on several earlier occasions in the

neighbourhood of Madras (now Chennai)

(Santharam 1985), near Kaliveli Tank

(Santharam 1987), Sullurpetta marshes on the

Sriharikota Road and also at Kavaratti Island,

Lakshadweep (Santharam et al. 1996). Details

of these sightings are presented in Table 1.

However, this recent sighting is perhaps most

noteworthy as it had the largest numbers present

to date. The site was located in the vicinity of

Pennakki Village Tank, off the Gudur-Kota

road.

The sand martin can be easily told apart

from common swallows ( Hirundo rustica ), with

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

529

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 1 : Sight records of sand martin Riparia riparia

which it often appears to associate, from its size

and colouration. It is smaller than the swallow

and lacks the long tail feathers. The colouration

is distinctly dull, being grey-brown and white in

contrast to the glossy steel-blue and pinkish-

white of the common swallow. Besides, the sand

martin has the grey-brown breast band, which

can be easily noticed, even in overhead flight.

On a previous occasion, while watching the birds

perched on low Calotropis bushes at the Adyar

Estuary, I could make out that the ear coverts

and wings appeared darker, and a faint white

mark (arc-shaped) was noticeable over the eye

in most of the birds. Their legs were brown and

Refer

Ali, Salim & S. Dillon Ripley (1983): A Handbook of

Birds of India and Pakistan (Compact Edition).

Oxford University Press.

Phillips, W.W.A. (1963): The birds of the Maidive Islands,

Indian Ocean. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 60: 546-

584.

Santharam, V. ( 1 985): On the occurrence of Collared Sand

Martin {Riparia riparia ) in Madras. Blackbuck

1(2): 36-37.

the bill dark in colour.

According to the handbook (Ali and Ripley

1983), this species is confined to northern India.

It is said to be “widely but sporadically distributed;

partly migratory, partly resident; subject also to

considerable local movements, as yet little

understood”. It has been recorded in the Maldives

in small numbers, usually between September and

November and once in May (Phillips 1963,

Strickland and Jenner 1977). All of my sightings

have been between October and April.

I am sure the sand martin is commoner in

Southern India than it is believed. Possibly, it is

often overlooked among flocks of swallows. I hope

this note will induce other readers to look out for

this bird in their locality, especially in winter.

According to the birds of the Indian

subcontinent ( 1 998) by Grimmett et al., the sand

martin has recently been split into two species

— pale martin {Riparia diluta) and sand martin

{Riparia riparia) based on minor colour

variations and calls. The former has greyer upper

parts and less distinct breast band. The birds I

had seen had quite distinct breast bands and were

more brown in colouration, and hence were

presumably Riparia riparia.

May 8, 2000 V. SANTHARAM

Institute of Bird Studies & Natural History,

Rishi Valley Education Centre,

Rishi Valley PO. 517 352.

Chittoor District,

Andhra Pradesh, India.

E N C E S

Santharam, V. (1987): Notes from my diary. Blackbuck

3(1): 22-24.

Santharam, V., D.N. Mathew, George Mathew & Tara

Gandhi (1996): Recent additions to the bird list of

the Lakshadweep Islands. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

93: 95-97.

Strickland, M.J. & J.C. Jenner (1977): A report on the

birds of Addu Atol (Maidive Islands). J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 74: 487-500.

530

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

23. POSSIBLE NEW RECORD OF STURNUS MALABARICUS BLYTHII

IN VALSAD DISTRICT, GUJARAT

Atul Ltd. lies about 80 kin south of Surat

(Gujarat) and 200 km north of Mumbai, in Valsad

district, Gujarat (South). It is a wellknown, large

industrial complex for the manufacture of

chemicals of colours, dyes and pesticides. On

August 1 5, 1999 between 0630 hrs and 0830 hrs,

we visited Atul Limited to survey a heronry

located in the complex. We recorded 9 species of

water birds in the heronry, and 20 or 21 other

species in the whole complex.

We observed quite a large number of birds

of genus Sturnus under the roofs of the factory

sheds, where steel columns were being used as

their roosting sites. Flocks of different sizes were

leaving the complex for their foraging sites when

we reached the complex early in the morning.

Our attention was drawn to the different

species in the flocks of mynas. They were cheeping

noisily perched on the canopy of one of the beef

wood trees Casuarina equisetifoiia in the complex.

We observed them for at least half an hour, before

they flew away to the west towards the estuary of

the Par river. They were smaller in size and sleeker

in body shape than the other mynas, and had

conspicuous whitish head and neck.

Through our binoculars, the body appeared

overall grey on the upper parts, and on the

underparts there was rufous on the belly and

flanks, with a contrasting bright white head,

nape, neck and breast area. With the help of the

24. STURNUS MALABARICUS

The white-headed subspecies blythii of the

grey-headed starling Sturnus malabaricus was

recently sighted at a few places in Gujarat State.

One bird was observed feeding on sorghum

( Sorghum bicolor ) grains from a standing crop

at Anand during February 1992 (BMP). On June

10, 1996, 50+ birds were observed feeding on

ripened fruits of neem Azadirachta indica at

COMPACT HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND

Pakistan (second edition) and birds of the Indian

subcontinent, we confirmed that the species we

saw was the white-headed subspecies blythii of

the grey-headed starling Sturnus malabaricus.

We counted a total of 75-80 birds of Sturnus

malabaricus blythii in a single flock, along with

1,000+ common myna (A cridotheres tristis'y

100+ bank myna ( Acridotheres ginginianus ), 40-

45 Brahminy myna {Sturnus pagodarum) and 20-

25 rosy starling {Sturnus roseus).

The occurrence of 75-80 individuals is the

largest number of S. malabaricus blythii recorded

from Gujarat in recent years. Dr. Salim Ali,

during his survey of the birds of Gujarat {JBNHS

52:374-458,735-802, 1954- 1955) had collected

one specimen of S.m. blythii from Ajwa- Vadodara

district. There are two other published references

on the occurrence of this subspecies from Gujarat.

B.M. Parasharya and S.N. Varu (see page 53 1 of

this issue) report that this subspecies is a regular

visitor to Gujarat. They beiieve that one recorded

nesting by M.K. Himmatsinhji might also be S.m.

blythii.

May 24, 2000 PIYUSFI PATEL

Avi Arcade,

Opp. Doctor House,

Halar Road, Valsad 396 00 J,

Gujarat, India.

BLYTHII IN GUJARAT STATE

Kevdi village on the outskirts of Ratanmahal

Wildlife Sanctuary (BMP). One pair was

observed regularly entering a cavity of a mahua

Madhuca indica tree on July 13, 1999 at

Jambughoda Wildlife Sanctuary. The pair may

have been engaged in breeding activity.

One of us (SNV) had seen a single bird in

April 1980 in the Gir Forest. On March 28, 1999,

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

531

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

one bird was recorded at Loriya Village of Bhuj

tehsil, Kutch.

At least three specimens of S.m. blythii

have been collected from Gujarat. During his

bird survey of Gujarat, Dr. Salim Ali collected a

specimen on October 29, 1945 at Ajwa,

Vadodara district (Ali 1954). In the BNHS

museum, there are two specimens one collected

from Ajwa, Vadodara district and another from

Valsad district (Abdulali 1978). Ali and Ripley

(1983) mentioned that one specimen of this

subspecies was collected from Ahmedabad too,

however, they did not refer to Ali (1954) or to

Abdulali (1978). Recently, Patel et al. (1999)

observed 70-80 birds of S.m. blythii on August

15, 1999 at Atul, Valsad. (see page 531 of this

issue)

Earlier, Himmatsinhji (1 970) recorded four

Sturnus malabaricus near Mandvi, Kutch and a

nesting pair near Wankaner (Surendranagar

district). However, he did not specify the

subspecies. His description of the female of the

nesting pair indicates that it might be S.m. blythii.

Without naming the subspecies, Monga and

Naoroji (1984) reported 30 birds near Timba,

75 km north of Vadodara. They have also

reported a nesting pair in June near Vadodara.

Mehta et al. (2000) had observed 400-500 birds

every April between 1980 and 1984 in the Gir

Forest (subspecies not mentioned). None of the

specimens of S.m. malabaricus was collected

Refer

Abdulali, H. (1978): A catalogue of the birds in the

collection of the BNHS-21. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 75(2): 373-384.

Ali, S. (1954): The Birds of Gujarat, Pt. II. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 52(4): 735-802.

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of

the Indian Subcontinent. Oxford University

Press.

Dharmakumarsinhji, K.S. (1954): The Birds of Saurashtra.

Times Press, Bombay.

Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1998): Birds of the

Indian Subcontinent. Oxford University Press,

from Gujarat (Abdulali 1978).

There are very few sight records of this

species from Gujarat during the last 55 years.

Dharmakumarsinhji (1954) in birds of

saurashtra did not list the species. It is never

seen regularly anywhere in Gujarat, indicating

seasonal movement (Ali and Ripley 1983,

Grimmett et al. 1998). Two nesting records from

Gujarat (present report and that of Himmatsinhji)

are noteworthy. It is evident that the distribution

of S.m. blythii given by Ali and Ripley (1983)

and Grimmett et al. (1998) needs revision. The

species that occurs and also breeds in Gujarat is

S.m. blythii.

June 9, 2000 B.M. PARASHARYA

AINP on Agric. Ornithology ;

Gujarat Agricultural University,

Anand 388 110, Gujarat, India.

S.N. VARU

Junavas, Temple Street,

Madhapur, Bhuj 360 020,

Gujarat, India.

C.K. BORAD

AESHITA MUKHERJEE

National Tree Growers ’

Cooperative Federation,

Anand 388 001,

Gujarat, India.

NCE S

Delhi.

Himmatsinhji, M.K. (1970): Greyheaded Myna Sturnus

malabaricus (Gmelin) in Kutch. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 67(2): 332-333.

Mehta, S., T. Mehta & S. Mehta (2000): Gir na

sansmarano. Vihang No. 8, pp. 19. (In Gujarati)

Monga, S.G. & R. Naoroji (1984): Birds of the Rajpipla

forest — south Gujarat. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

80(3): 575-612.

Patel, P., M. Jat & N. Patel (1999): Northernmost

extension of Sturnus malabaricus blythii. Vihang

No. 7, pp. 11. (In Gujarati).

532

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

25. HOUSE CROW CORVUS SPLENDENS VIEILLOT

FEEDING ON MIDGES

On June 24, 1999 at around 1830 hrs

while walking along the embankment of the

Hussain Sagar lake (constructed in 1660-70, in

the twin cities of Hyderabad and Secunderabad

to supply drinking water to the people during

the reign of Ibrahim Qutub Shah), we observed

unusually large swarms of the midge Kiefferulus

spp. (Diptera: Chironomidae) everywhere along

the lake bed. Interestingly, about 12-15 house

crows ( Corvus splendens splendens) were seen

feeding voraciously on these insects, pecking at

them one by one from the pavements. Within a

minute, the crows had consumed about 140

insects. Even though it was dusk, the crows

continued to feed till 1915 hrs.

The house crow is a known scavenger and

takes practically everything that can be eaten.

Ali and Ripley (1983) recorded many insects

including winged termites, grasshoppers,

beetles, ants and moth larvae in their diet. But

nowhere have midges been reported on their

menu.

Chironomids are well known as

bioindicators of water quality. The larvae or

blood worms were commonly reported from

Hussain Sagar (Chandrasekhar 1998). They play

a primary role in accumulation and transmission

of contaminants in the eutrophic lake.

Chironomid larvae function at a fundamental

level in the aquatic food chain as the natural

diet for fish, diving ducks and for other aquatic

insects.

Refer

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of

India and Pakistan (Compact Edition). Oxford

University Press, New Delhi.

Chaudhari, P.K. & S. Chattopadhyay (1997): Insecta:

Diptera: Chironomidae. State Fauna Series: 3. Fauna

Despite their non-biting habit, the midges

are reported to be involved in human allergic

diseases causing bronchial asthma,

conjunctivitis, hay fever, seasonal rhinitis and

skin hypersensitivity. The midge larvae may

often serve as mechanical carriers of pathogens

from polluted water, e.g. Legionella causes

bronchopneumonia in humans (Chaudhari and

Chattopadhyay 1997). Apart from these health

hazards, the swarms are a nuisance to two

wheeler traffic. A very large roost of house crows

was seen near the lake on a tamarind tree. The

good lighting and availability of easy prey

provided these flying municipal workers to

operate during twilight hours.

Acknowledgements

We thank the Director, Zoological Survey

of India and Officer-in-Charge, Dr. S.Z. Siddiqi

for encouragement and facilities and Dr. Girish

Maheshwari, School of Entomology, St. John’s

College, Agra for identification of the midge

species.

Oct. 1 6, 2000 MUHAMMED JAFER PALOT

V.P. SONIYA

Zoological Survey of India,

Freshwater Biological Station,

1 -1 -300/ B Ashok Nagar,

Hyderabad 500 020,

Andhra Pradesh, India.

NCES

of West Bengal (Ed.: Director, ZSI). Part 7: 163-224.

Chandrashekar, S.V.A. (1998): Macrobenthic fauna of

Lake Hussain Sagar, Hyderabad with reference to

mollusks and chironomid larvae. Rec. zool. Surv. India

96(1-4): 1-5.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

533

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

26. SIGHT RECORD OF THE LITTLE PIED FLYCATCHER

FICEDULA WESTERMANNI SHARPE IN ANDHRA PRADESH

Pittie (1986) reported the first sighting of

the little pied flycatcher Ficedula westermanni

Sharpe from the Narsapur forest (17° 45' N &

78° 17' E) in Andhra Pradesh. On Nov. 10, 1997,

while birding on the Gundla Brahmeshwaram

Plateau (Eastern Ghats, at 775 m above msl) in

the Gundla Brahmeshwaram Metta Wildlife

Sanctuary located south of the Nagarjunasagar-

Srisailam Tiger Reserve (15° 53-16° 42' N; 78°

30'-79° 28' E), I saw a small bird with black upper

plumage and white underparts, white wing patch,

a long, broad, white supercilium and the sides

of tail white near the base. The bird was later

identified as the little pied flycatcher. The

specimen could not be photographed as my

colleague with the camera was some distance

away and by the time he reached the site the bird

had disappeared!

According to Ali and Ripley (1983), this

species winters up to Surguja and is a frequent

visitor along well-wooded streams. Earlier

records in Andhra Pradesh are also along a well-

wooded stream (Pittie pers. comm.). The

individual I sighted was on a teak ( Tectona

grandis) tree near the Forest Rest Flouse about

150 m from the Gundlakama river that originates

a short distance away.

Prabhakar et al. (1994) reported its

presence in the Western Ghats, particularly from

the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. The bird recorded

by me was most likely a winter vagrant and a

new record of the species for the Eastern Ghats

in Andhra Pradesh.

I thank Mr. Aasheesh Pittie of the

Birdwatchers Society of Andhra Pradesh for

encouragement and the CSIR, New Delhi for a

fellowship.

July 5, 2000

C. SRINIVASULU

Wildlife Biology Section,

Department of Zoology’,

Osmania University,

Hyderabad 500 007,

Andhra Pradesh, India.

References

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley ( 1 983): Handbook of the Birds of District, Andhra Pradesh. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

India and Pakistan (Compact Edition). Oxford 83(3): 665-666.

University Press, New Delhi. Prabhakar, A., V. Gokula & G. Umapathy ( 1 994): A new

Pittie, A. ( 1 986): Occurrence of the little pied flycatcher record of little pied flycatcher from Nilgiri Biosphere

(Muscicapa westermanni) in Narsapur, Medak Reserve. N.L.B. W. 34(3): 33.

27. BLUE-THROATED FLYCATCHER CYORNIS RUBECULOIDES

VIGORS IN THE THAR DESERT

On October 6, 1999 at Kishangarh,

Jaisalmer district near the Indo-Pak border, we

noticed a flycatcher in a Prosopis chilensis tree

at the Border Security Force (BSF) outpost. The

bird (not more than 3 m away) was immediately

recognized as a male blue-throated flycatcher

Cyornis rubeculoides Vigors. It wfas making

typical at ial sorties to swoop on insects,

returning each time to a different perch. We

observed and photographed it over a period of

two hours from 1450 to 1700 his.

The bird was an adult male with dark blue

upperparts including exposed portions of wings

and tail. A contrasting azure patch was quite

prominent on the lesser wing-coverts. The

forecrown, ear coverts and throat were dark blue.

The throat looked almost black when the bird

was perched in the shade. Demarcation of the

534

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

blue throat from the orange-rufous breast and

pectoral region was distinct. The belly and vent

were white, washed with buff. The bill was black

with visible rectal bristles.

According to Ali and Ripley (1996) it

winters in scattered areas, in the hills of southern

India to Belgaum southwards to Kerala, Tamil

Nadu, the Eastern Ghats, Bihar, Orissa, West

Bengal, the plains and foothills of Bangladesh

and southern parts of Sri Lanka. Grimmett et al.

(1998) describe the distribution and status as

breeding in the Himalayan foothills from

Pakistan (Margalla hills) east to Arunachal

Pradesh, and northeast India, wintering in East

Himalayan foothills, south to Bangladesh,

southwest India and Sri Lanka, with scattered

records from elsewhere in India. Both these

works do not record the species from the Thar

desert and Rajasthan. However, there is one

recent record from Rajasthan (Robson 1997). A

blue-throated flycatcher was recorded by Paul

Holt at Bharatpur in February 1996. Our sighting

at Kishangarh constitutes the first record of the

species from the Thar desert and the second from

Rajasthan.

June 9, 2000 HARKIRAT SINGH SANG HA

B-27, Gautam Marg,

Ha numan Nagar,

Jaipur 302 021,

Rajasthan, India.

RISHAD NAOROJI

Godrej Bhavan,

4-A, Home Street, Fort,

Mumbai 400 001,

Maharashtra, India.

References

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1996): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan, Vol. 8, Second Edn. Oxford University

Press, New Delhi.

Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1998): Birds of the Indian Subcontinent. Christopher Helm, London.

Robson, C. (1997): From the Field. India. Oriental Bird Club Bull. 25: 63-64.

28. UNUSUAL BEHAVIOUR OF PURPLE SUNBIRD NECTARIN1A ASIATICA

On a routine visit to the Lingambudhi lake

and its surroundings, I happened to witness

unusual activity of the purple sunbird Nectarinia

asiatica (Latham).

The purple sunbird, in breeding plumage,

was perched on an Acacia leucophloea tree. On

the same branch, a small bee-eater Merops

orientalis Latham was also present at a distance

of about half a metre. Both were simultaneously

taking off, presumably after invisible insects, and

occupying the same place after every sortie. After

some sorties, the sunbird sat by the side of the

bee-eater and started picking up something from

the rump and under tail of the bee-eater. I could

not make out what the sunbird was pecking at.

This continued for 5-6 minutes.

Then the sunbird started pulling the tail

feathers of the bee-eater. The disturbed bee-eater

now showed its unhappiness by turning its head

towards the sunbird and opening its beak as if

to scare it away. This action prompted the

sunbird to move off the branch, but it continued

pulling at the tail feathers by hovering over the

bee-eater.

The bee-eater changed its position to avoid

this annoyance, but the sunbird would not relent.

Unable to withstand the continued disturbance,

the bee-eater chased the sunbird out of my

view.

July 10, 2000 A. SHIVAPRAKASH

48, Hemavathi, RMP Colony,

Kuvempunagar,

Mysore 570 023,

Tamil Nadu,

India.

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

29. SIGHTINGS OF ORTOLAN BUNTING EMBER1ZA HORTULANA

AT THE GRASSLAND AROUND GANGAPUR, NASIK

The Gangapur Dam, 14 km west of Nasik,

in Maharashtra, is surrounded on all sides mostly

by grasslands and crop fields of wheat, harbara,

tomato and cabbage. Heteropogon contortus,

Cynopogon martinii and Dichanthium annulatum

are the three major grass species of the grassland.

The grassland is the major habitat for

wintering buntings, namely the grey-necked

bunting Emberiza buchanani, black-headed

bunting Emberiza melanocephala and red-

headed bunting Emberiza bruniceps. They have

been regularly observed in large flocks for the

last four years between October and March in

the grasslands and cultivated lands.

Some of the other wintering migrants seen

in large numbers are the greater short-toed lark

Calandrella cinerea (now C. br achy dactyl a),

yellow wagtail Motacilla flava , citrine wagtail

Motacilla citreola and common swallow

Hirundo rustica.

On November 19, 1997 while we were

photographing a flock of buntings, seven

buntings, which looked different from the above

mentioned three species landed in a semi-

ploughed field. On close observation, we saw the

yellow moustachial streak extending to the hind

neck, the prominent grey head, yellow throat and

breast and the yellow eye-ring, which tallied with

the description of the Ortolan bunting Emberiza

hortiilana. The birds were photographed, and the

photographs sent to the BNHS and confirmed as

those of the Ortolan bunting.

The birds were seen around the same area

till February 1998. The sighting of this species in

Nasik is not only the first record for Maharashtra,

but also an authentic record for India after 27 years.

The last record for India was at Delhi in 1970

(Jackson and Gaston 1972). This species has been

sighted regularly in subsequent seasons in small

numbers at the same site by the bird watchers of

the Nature Conservation Society of Nasik. Hence,

the status of this species in India could be changed

from ‘vagrant’ of Ali and Ripley (1983), to an

uncommon winter visitor.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Dr. A.R. Rahmani,

Director, BNHS, and Dr. Ranjit Manakadan,

Dr. Saraswathy Unnithan and Dr. S. Balachandran,

all BNHS scientists, for their help in identification

and for reading through this manuscript.

March 3 1 , 2000 BISHWARUP RAHA

13, Hemant Vihar,

Vir Savarkar Nagar,

Off. Gangapur Road,

Nasik 422 005, Maharashtra, India.

S.R. GUDSOORKAR

Department of Zoology,

HPT Arts and RYK Science College,

Nasik 422 005, Maharashtra, India.

References

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of Jackson, P.F.R. & A.J. Gaston (1972): Ortolan bunting

India and Pakistan (Compact Edition). Oxford Emberiza hortulana Linn, near Delhi. J. Bombay

University Press, New Delhi. nat. Hist. Soc. 69(3): 654-655.

30. SIGHTING OF THE ROCK BUNTING EMBERIZA CIA

LINN. IN RANTHAMBORE NATIONAL PARK, RAJASTHAN

Ranthambore National Park, an area of 12' N and 76° 23' - 76° 36' E in the southeastern

392.5 sq. km, is located between 25° 54' - 26° part of Sawai Madhopur district, Rajasthan. The

536

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

average elevation of the Park is 350 m above

msl. The temperature fluctuates from 48 °C in

summer to as low as 2 °C in the winter. During

the rainy season, which extends from July to

September, the Park receives about 800 mm of

rainfall. It has a Mixed Dry Deciduous and Thom

Forest, predominantly comprising of Anogeissus

pendula. The following observation was made

during a 1 7-day trip to the Ranthambore National

Park in January 2000.

Ali and Ripley (1987) recorded three

subspecies of the rock bunting Emberiza cia —

the Himalayan, the Tibetan and the Transcaspian.

The Himalayan subspecies E. cia stracheyi is

restricted to the Western Himalaya, through

Kashmir and Nepal. The Tibetan subspecies

E. cia khamensis is found in southeastern Tibet,

northern Arunachal Pradesh, Bhutan, Sikkim

and eastern Nepal. Interestingly, the

Transcaspian subspecies E. cia par is known to

exist all the way from the NWFP, Ladakh, Lahul

and Spiti (summer grounds) to Punjab foothills

(below 600 m), Ambala (Haryana), Delhi and

Dehra Dun (wintering grounds). There is also a

mention of a specimen from Varanasi (Benares,

Uttar Pradesh). All the three subspecies are

known to be common wherever they exist.

I saw a pair of E. cia , in all probability

E. cia par (Transcaspian subspecies), the paler

of the three subspecies, on two separate occasions

in Ranthambhore on 20th and 23rd January, 2000

respectively. On both instances, it was seen in

the evening in open grassland interspersed with

Anogeissus pendula and Acacia sp. In fact, a pair

was once seen along with a flock of white-capped

buntings E. steward. The lateral black crown

stripes and the bluish-grey throat of the male

E. cia easily distinguish it from E. steward ,

which has an uniform grey crown with a

conspicuous black throat patch. While E. steward

winters regularly in many parts of Rajasthan, the

range of E. cia within Rajasthan is unknown.

Grimmett et al. (1999) and Kazmierczak

(2000) have shown the species in Maharashtra

in the distribution maps without giving specific

references. These are interesting records, and in

case we consider them bonafide, the bird should

also occur along the corridor that links

Maharashtra to its summer grounds in Himachal

Pradesh and Ladakh. In the light of such an

assumption, it is not improbable to find the bird

in Ranthambore (east Rajasthan) during winter,

when the birds, in a bid to escape the severe cold,

scatter from their breeding grounds situated in

the higher reaches of the Himalayas. The sighting

invites us to investigate its distribution in other

regions of Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh.

November 25, 2000 ANISH P. ANDHERIA

2, Sagar Building, VP. Road,

Andheri (West), Mumbai 400 058,

Maharashtra, India.

References

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Handbook of the Birds of Indian Subcontinent. Oxford University Press.

India and Pakistan (Compact Edition). Oxford Kazmierczak, K. (2000): A Field Guide to the Birds of the

University Press, New Delhi. Indian Subcontinent. Pica Press, Robertsbridge,

Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp ( 1 999): Birds of the UK.

31. FRUIT AND NECTAR RESOURCES IN A MOIST DECIDUOUS FOREST

AND THEIR USE BY BIRDS — A PRELIMINARY REPORT

It is important to identify key plant on frugivory and nectarivory and on related

resources used by wildlife to effect conservation aspects like seed dispersal and pollination abroad,

and management actions (Kannan and James very little is known about these topics in our

1999). While there have been extensive studies country, but for a few studies e.g. Rajasekhar

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

537

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

(1995); Karthikeyan (1996); Thirumurthi and

Banumathi (1998); Santharam (1996a, b);

Athreya (1996) and Shahabuddin (1993) and

references therein.

In this note, I report some findings on the

use of fruit and nectar resources by birds in the

Peechi-Vazhani Wildlife Sanctuary in Thrissur

district, Kerala, which were made between

September 1991 and May 1993 while studying

the ecology of woodpeckers. The data is limited

and may be treated as preliminary findings. I

have concentrated mainly on species other than

Ficus and Bombax which are well known as the

major sources of fruits and nectar respectively,

and attract the greatest number of bird species

(Ali and Ripley 1983, Athreya 1996).

1 kept notes on the flowering and fruiting of

the more common and conspicuous plants in the

Moist Deciduous Forest and the teak Bom box ceiba

plantation at five 10 ha plots in the Peechi-Vazhani

Wildlife Sanctudry. All the sites were within 100

m elevation. No data was collected during the peak

of the monsoon (June-August). Birds visiting the

trees for foraging on nectar and fruits were noted

at all available opportunities.

The flowering/fruiting schedules of the

important ‘bird’ plants are given in Table 1,

which shows that there is a tendency for the

nectar and fruit resources to be available more

in the dry months (January- April). Most plant

species offer fruits or nectar for short periods of

two months or less, with the exception of the

Ficus spp. and mistletoes ( Loranthus ). In both

these cases, several species are clumped together

and hence the pattern of longer availability with

short gaps.

Data on the various bird species that visited

different plants offering fruits and nectar is

presented in Table 2. This lists 12 plant and

43 bird species from 10 and 16 families,

respectively. Twelve of the birds listed were seen

feeding on nectar alone, 22 only on fruits while

nine species were observed feeding on both fruits

and nectar. Members of three families,

Dicruridae, Dicaeidae and Nectariniidae

consumed nectar alone. Six species of

woodpeckers were found feeding on both nectar

and fruits.

Table 1: FloweringTruiting phenology

Month

538

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 2: Plants visited by birds for nectar/fruits

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539

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 2: Plants visited by birds for nectar/fruits ( contd .)

Bird Visitors

Dicruridae

Ashy drongo

( Dicrurus leucophaeus )

White-bellied drongo

( Dicrurus caerulescens)

Spangled drongo

( Dicrurus hottentottus)

Greater racket-tailed drongo

{Dicrurus paradiseus )

Sturnidae

White-headed starling

{Sturnus malabaricus blythi )

Common myna

(Acridotheres tristis)

Jungle myna

{Acridotheres fuscus )

Common hill-myna

{Gracula religiosa)

Corvidae

Indian treepie

{Dendrocitta vagabunda )

House crow

{Corvus splendens )

Irenidae

Gold-fronted chloropsis

{Chloropsis aurifrons)

Jerdon’s chloropsis

{Chloropsis coch inchinensis)

Asian fairy-bluebird

{Irena puella)

Pycnonotidae

Grey-headed bulbul

{Pycnonotus priocephalus)

Ruby-throated bulbul

{Pycnonotus melanicterus gularis)

Red-vented bulbul

{Pycnonotus cafer )

White-browed bulbul

{Pycnonotus luteolus)

Plant Species

6

10

11

12

V

v

V

v'

✓

540

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 2: Plants visited by birds for nectar/fruits ( contd .)

Plant species codes; 1 . Careya arborea, 2. Helicteres isora , 3. Firmiana colorata, 4. Loranthus spp., 5. Sterculia guttata,

6. Lannea coromandelica , 7. Macaranga peltata, 8. Persea macrantha, 9. Zizyphus oenoplia, 10. Grewia tilaefolia,

1 1. Dillenia pentagyma, 12. Cleistanthus collinus

Macaranga peltata attracted the greatest

number of birds (22 species), followed by

Helicteres isora (16 species) and Persea

macrantha (9 species). A few other plant species

not included in the list which also attract birds

are: Clitoria ternatea - 7 bird species, many of

which consume floral parts as well as nectar

(Santharam 1997); Albizia odoratissima - which

flowers in April, attracting several sunbirds that

feed on its nectar; Etythrina and Lantana also

attract several birds.

Even without accounting for other bird

species that could be seen on Ficus and Bombax

and several other plants, the present study based

on casual notes revealed that nearly 40% of the

forest avifauna consumes nectar and / or fruits

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541

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

in a Moist Deciduous Forest of the Western

Ghats. This list does not include several typical

frugivores and nectarivores and so the actual

figure could be much more — 50% or more of

the species. The reason for this food habit is the

presence of a large number of plants that produce

nectar and fleshy fruits in the tropics that are

adapted for bird and mammal consumption

(Howe and Smallwood 1982). For instance, in

the Dry Evergreen Forests of southeastern India,

72% of the native woody plants possess fleshy

fruits (Narasimhan et al. 1993), which can be

eaten by birds.

A critical study of the dispersal patterns of

seeds, their germination rates and level of seed

predation could determine how dependent these

plants are on birds as well as other mammalian

agents for their dispersal and survival. These, in

turn, could indicate the conservation priorities

in the Moist Deciduous Forests.

Some interesting observations were made

on the foraging behaviour of some birds, feeding

on the aril late seeds of Sterculia guttata from

the dehisced follicle. Many of these fruits were

present on terminal branches and access was

possible only by hovering. At least three of the

seven bird species (Oriental magpie-robin

Refer

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of

India and Pakistan (Compact Edition). Oxford

University Press, New Delhi.

Athreya, V.R. (1996): List of avian frugivores recorded at

four species of fruiting strangler figs at Karian Shola

Wildlife Sanctuary (sic). Western Ghats, India.

Newsl. for Birdwatchers 36(2): 34-35.

Howe, H.F. & J. Smallwood (1982): Ecology of seed

dispersal. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 13: 201-228.

Kannan, R. & D.A. James (1999): Fruiting phenology and

the conservation of the great pied hombill ( Buceros

bicornis) in the Western Ghats of Southern India.

Biotropica 31(1): 167-177.

Karthikeyan, S. (1996): Bird attracting trees and birds of

Shevaroys and Kolli Hills. Newsl. for Birdwatchers

36(3): 49.

Narasimhan, D., John Mathew, Kavin Paulraj, S.M.

Copsychus saularis, Asian fairy-bluebird Irena

puella and white-throated ground thrush

Zoothera citrina cyanotus) feeding on this tree

were seen hovering to pick the seeds. The white-

throated ground thrush was found to be more

arboreal in its feeding habits than is suggested

by its name. It visited four tree species besides

Ficus spp. for fruits and also fed on the nectar of

Bombax ceiba , often about 1 5 m from the ground.

Acknowledgements

This study was conducted during my

doctoral research on woodpeckers and funded by

the Wildlife Conservation Society, New York,

USA. I thank Dr. N. Sasidharan of Kerala Forest

Research Institute, Peechi who helped with the

plant identification.

May 4, 200 1 V. S ANTH ARAM

Institute of Bird Studies

& Natural History,

Rishi Valley Education Centre,

Rishi Valley RO. 517 352,

Chittoor District,

Andhra Pradesh,

India.

NCES

Selvarathinam & P. Dayanandan (1993):

Frugivorous birds and the conservation of dry

evergreen forest. In: Bird conservation — strategies

for the Nineties and beyond (Eds: Verghese, A. et

al). OSIpp. 28-30.

Rajasekhar, B. (1995): Observations of frugivory of

Michelia nilagirica — A shola forest tree. Newsl.

for Birdwatchers 35(5): 81-84.

Santharam, V, (1996a): Visitation patterns of birds and

butterflies at a Helicteres isora Linn. (Sterculiaceae)

clump. Curr. Sci. 70: 316-319.

Santharam, V. (1996b): Helicteres isora — a keystone

species. J. Bombay, nat. Hist. Soc. 93: 316-317.

Santharam, V. (1997): Flower eating by birds in India.

Forktail 12: 157-161.

Shahabuddin, G. (1993): Avian frugivory on Persea

macarantha (sic), an evergreen tree species, Peechi-

542

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Vazhani Wildlife Sanctuary. News/, for

Birdwatchers 33(2): 20-2 1 .

Thirumurthi, S. & C.P. Banumathi (1998): The Melia

azadirachta tree — a keystone species for

frugivorous birds in Himachal Pradesh. News! for

Birdwatchers 38(4): 68-69.

32. CLEOME SCAPOSA DC., CAPPARACEAE — A RARE SPECIES FOR SAURASHTRA

( With one text-figure)

While surveying the vegetation of

Saurashtra University Campus, Rajkot,

Saurashtra, Gujarat an interesting species of

Cleome was observed near a puddle of stagnant

rainwater in a small colony and in isolation on

gravelly sandy soil. On critical examination, the

specimen was identified as Cleome scaposa, a

species reported earlier by Shah (1978) as

occurring in Saurashtra. However, it has been

not documented by Thaker (1910), Santapau

(1962), Santapau and Janardhana (1967) and,

Bole and Pathak (1988). Its habit and habitat

with a brief description and illustration is given

here.

Cleome scaposa DC. Prodr. 1: 239, 1824;

FI. West Pak 34: 30, 1973.

Herb, annual, 10-18 cm tail. Slender, erect,

unbranched, hairy with glandular hairs. Leaves

simple, suborbicular to ovate-elliptic, scabrous;

petiole 5-15 mm long, ciliate hairy; upper leaves

almost subsessile. Inflorescence raceme lax,

elongated, increasing up to 14-15 cm in fruit,

Fig. 1: Cleome scaposa DC.; A. Habit, B. Sepals and petals, C. Flowers, D. Fruit, E. Seed

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543

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

filiform, ultimately spreading. Sepals elliptic

hairy, pubescent. Petals oblong-obovate,

yellowish. Stamens 6, about as long as petals,

not exserted. Capsule linear, slender, 1.5-3 cm,

often spreading and accurately curved, glabrous

or slightly glandular, many seeded, style minute;

seed glabrous, minutely granular, brown black.

FS. & Fr.: July- September.

Present status: Very Rare.

Habitat: Gravelly, sandy, soil near water

bodies.

Specimen examined: PSN 891a.

March 29, 2001 PS. NAGAR

Department of Biosciences,

Saurashtra University,

Rajkot 360 005,

Gujarat, India.

References

Bole, P.V. & J.M. Pathak (1988): Flora of Saurashtra. Part

II & III. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta. Pp. 545.

Santapau, H. (1962): The Flora of Saurashtra. Saurashtra

Research Society, Rajkot. Pp. 270.

Santapau, H. & K.P. Janardhana (1967): The Flora of

Saurashtra (Checklist). Bull. Bot. Surv. India 8:

Suppl. 1 : 1-58.

Shah, G.L. (1978): Flora of Gujarat. Part I & II. Sardar

Patel University, Vallabh Vidyanagar. Pp. 1074.

Thaker, J.I. (1910): Vanaspati Shastra - Barda Dungami

Jadibuti teni Pariksha anae Upyog. Gujarati Printing

Press. Bombay, pp. 717 (2nd revised edition; Ed. B.G.

Shah (1952): Sastu Sahitya Vardhak Karyalaya,

Ahmedabad. Pp. 733).

33. OCCURRENCE OF HIBISCUS RADIATUS CAV. (MALVACEAE) IN PUNJAB

During November 1999, some fruiting

plants were observed growing in a wasteland at

Patiala. In 2000, the specimens were gathered

while flowering and fruiting, and the species

identified as Hibiscus radiatus Cav. This species

has not been reported earlier from Punjab

(Sharma 1990, 1994). Further, in the most recent

work on the Malvaceae of India (Paul 1993), its

range of distribution has been recorded from

several states, but not from any state of northwest

India including Punjab. Apparently, it is a new

introduction to the flora of Punjab State. Brief

information about the specimen collected is given

below.

Hibiscus radiatus Cav. Diss. 3:

150,t.54.f,2. 1787; Masters in Hook f. FI. Brit.

India 1: 325. 1874; Paul in Sharma and

Sanjappa, FI. India 3: 327.f.90.1993.

Description: Erect undershrub, up to

1.5 m tall. Stems covered with long simple hairs

and bulbous-based retrose prickles, ultimately

glabrescent. Leaves 3-15 x 1.5-12 cm, palmately

3-5 (-7)-lobed nearly to base; lobes variable,

linear to lanceolate, ovate to oblong or obovate,

coarsely or sharply serrate, acute to acuminate,

glabrous or with stout hairs on veins beneath;

petioles 2-15 cm long, unarmed or sparsely

aculeate; stipules 5-8 mm long, linear, bristly.

Flowers solitary, axillary, showy, 5-6 cm across,

purple with a darker centre; pedicels up to 2.5 m

long, jointed, pubescent below the joint.

Bracteoles (epicalyx - segments) 8 or 10, 1.5-

1.8 x 0.15-0.2 cm, linear, acute, forked at apex,

covered with bulbous-based bristles 1-2 mm long,

often with an appendage on the inner side

towards apex. Calyx 1.8-2 cm long, accrescent

and stiff in fruit; lobes ovate to deltoid, long -

acuminate, glabrous inside, bristly outside. Petals

obovate, sparsely hairy outside. Staminal tube

1.5-2. 2 cm long with laxly arranged anthers

throughout. Ovary 5-7 mm long, globose, white-

hirsute; style-arms purple; stigmas capitellate,

dark purple. Capsules 2-2.5 x 1.2- 1.5 cm, ovoid,

shortly beaked, bristly, longitudinally 5-valved.

Seeds 4 mm across, scabrous, brown.

Notes: The species under report belongs

to the section Furcaria characterized by prickly

stems, linear to lanceolate bracteoles forked at

544

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

apex and prominently 3-veined calyx-lobes.

Within this section, this species is likely to be

confused with the closely allied species

H. aculeatus Roxb. (syn. H. furcatus Roxb.)

because of prickly petioles and pedicels, non-

foliaceous stipules and similar flowers. However,

the latter species is a rambling or trailing

undershrub which has undivided leaves or if

leaves 3-5-lobed then lobed up to about middle

only, ovate-lanceolate stipules and smaller fruits

(1.2- 1.5 cm long). Further, there are two

important features in which the description given

here differs essentially from the one given by Paul

(1993) who describes pedicels 2-4 mm long and

flower yellow with dark purple centre. However,

in both these features the description given above

matches with the one provided by Cooke (1958,

pedicels 0.5-1 inch long) and Masters (1874,

Refer

Cooke, T. ( 1 958): The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay.

Vol. 1 . Repr. ed. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta.

Masters, M.T. (1874): Malvaceae. In: Flora of British

India, (Ed.: Hooker, J.D.), Vol. 1 . L. Reeve & Co.,

London.

Paul, T.K. (1993): Malvaceae. In: Flora of India, (Eds:

corolla yellow with a crimson centre or all

purple).

FI. & Fr.: September-December.

Illustration: Paul ( loc . cit.)

Material examined: Urban Estate, Patiala;

coll. M. Sharma 16669, 16670 (PUN).

Acknowledgement

I am grateful to Dr. D.K. Singh, Joint

Director, Botanical Survey of India, Dehra Dun,

for herbarium and library facilities.

March 29, 2001 M. SHARMA

Department of Botany,

Punjabi University,

Patiala 147 002, Punjab, India.

N C E S

Sharma, B.D. and M. Sanjappa), Vol. 3. Botanical

Survey of India, Calcutta.

Sharma, M. (1990): Punjab Plants, Checklist. Bishen Singh

Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun.

Sharma, M. (1994): Additions to “Punjab Plants,

Checklist”. Indian J. For. 17: 353-355.

34. EXTENDED DISTRIBUTION OF TWO RARE AND

ENDANGERED TAXA FROM TIRUNELVELI HILLS,

WESTERN GHATS, TAMIL NADU

During plant explorations in the Kalakad-

Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (KMTR), Tamil

Nadu, special attention was given to relocate the

rare and threatened taxa, which resulted in the

relocation of two species namely Memecylon

flavescens Gamble (Melastomataceae), and Ilex

denticulata Wall, ex Wight (Aquifoliaceae)

(Henry et al. 1978, Nair and Henry 1983, Nayar

and Sastry 1990, Sivarajan and Mathew 1996).

They were critically studied in the Botanical

Survey of India, (MH), Coimbatore. The

specimens are deposited in St. Xavier’s College

Herbarium (XCH), Palayamkottai. The present

finding extends the known distribution of these

species. For easy identity, short descriptions

including phenology, ecology and distribution are

given.

Memecylon flavescens Gamble Kew Bull.

1919:226. 1919 & FI. Pres. Madras 1:503. 1997

(rep. edi.); K. Vivekananthan in Nair & Henry,

FI. Tamil Nadu 1:160. 1983; Ahmedullah & Nair,

End. PI. Indian Region 1:109. 1986; Sivarajan

& Mathew, FI. Nilambur 3:270. 1996.

Shrub to 1 m; branchlets sub-terete,

glabrous, woody. Leaves decussate-opposite,

elliptic-ovate, 2-5 x 1.5-2. 5 cm, membranous,

glossy, yellowish-green when dry, base cuneate,

margin entire, recurved, apex obtuse-acute with

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

retuse. Flowers sessile, 4-7 mm, in axillary-

lateral tubercled racemes; bracteoles oblong, to

1.5 mm; Calyx-lobes 4, ovate, to 1 mm, acute

apex. Petals 4, blue, orbicular-ovate, 2x2 mm.

Stamens 8, equal, to 3 mm. Ovary globose,

1 mm. 1 -celled, papilose; ovules 6-10, central

placentae. Berry globose, 7x6 mm, dark purple.

FI. & Fr.: March- August.

Ecology: Rare in Evergreen Forests and

Sholas between 700-1,500 m.

Distribution: india: Tamil Nadu -

Kanyakumari, Nilgiri. Kerala - Avalanche,

Kundha.

Specimens Examined: Tamil Nadu -

Kanyakumari district, Upper Kodayar 1,500 m,

7.viii. 1 996, Manickam, 10047 XCH; 1,500 m,

17. iv. 1996, Manickam & Murugan 12630 XCH;

Mahendragiri ?±700, 27.iii.1999, Murugan et

al. , 18664 XCH; Nilgiri district. Avalanche,

2,000 m, 28.iii.1972, K. Vivekananthan, 79350

MH.

Ilex denticulata Wall, ex Wight, 111.

2:t.l42. 1850; Hook. f. FI. Brit. India 1:600.

1 875; Gamble, FI. Pres. Madras 1 :200. 1997 (rep.

ed.); Ramamurthy in Nair & Henry, FI. Tamil

Nadu 1:72. 1983.

Tree, to 4-6 m; branchlets pubescent, sub-

terete, Leaves alternate, elliptic-oblong, 5-8 x

3-5 cm, membranous, glossy, glabrous, base

acute, margin obscurely serrate, revolute, apex

obtuse-acuminate; nerves 5-7 pairs, obscure,

looped; Petiole 1 cm, pubescent. Female flowers

pale yellow, 5-8 mm diametre in axillary-umbel

to 2 cm; Pedicel slender, 1-1.5 cm, puberulous;

Peduncle 0. Calyx-tube cupular under 0.5 mm;

lobes 4, ±0.25 mm. Petals 4, oblong 3x2 mm,

pale yellow. Staminodes 4, equal, to 2 mm,

alternate to Petals. Ovary globose, 1.5 mm, 4-

celled; Ovules 1 in each locule, apical placentae.

Stigma sessile, 4-lobed, thick.

FI.: March

Ecology: Rare in Evergreen Forests at

±1,500 m.

Distribution: India (Tamil Nadu -

Coimbatore, Madurai, Nilgiri, Salem and

Kanyakumari districts) and Sri Lanka.

Specimens Examined: Tamil Nadu -

Kanyakumari district, upper Kodayar, 1,000-

1,500 m, lO.iii. 1 998, Manickam & Murugan,

14863 XCH; ±1,275 m, 27.iii.1984, Gopalan,

144877 MH; Nilgiri district, Longwood R.E.,

2,075 m, 12.xi.1990, Vajravelu, 71384 MH.

Acknowledgements

We thank the University Grant

Commiss ion of India, for financial assistance and

Chief Conservator of Forests, Tamil Nadu for

permission to undertake field work. We thank

Dr. R. Gopalan, Botanical Survey of India,

Coimbatore and Dr. V. Chelladurai, Survey of

Medicinal Plant Unit (Siddha), Palayamkottai for

help.

January 24, 200 1 C. MURUGAN

V.S. MANICKAM

M.M. JOSEPHINE

V. SUNDARESAN

Centre for Biodiversity and Biotechnology,

St. Xavier’s College (Autonomous),

Palayamkottai 627 002,

Tamil Nadu, India.

References

Henry, A.N., K. Vivekananthan & N.C. Nair (1978): Rare and Threatened Plants of South India. J. Bombay, nat. Hist.

Soc. 75: 684-687.

Nair, N.C. & A.N. Henry (1983): Flora of Tamil Nadu Vol. I. 72 & 160 pp.

Nayar, M.P. & A.R.K. Sastry (1990): Red Data Book of Indian Plants. Vol. III.

Sivarajan, V.V. & P. Mathew (1996): Flora of Nilambur. 270 pp.

546

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

35. OCCURRENCE OF BUTEA MONOSPERMA VAR. LUTEA (WITT.) MAHESHWARI

IN RAJASTHAN

During my posting in the forest areas of

southern Aravallis in Udaipur district, I came

across many trees of the yellow flowered Butea

monosperma var. lutea which is still not

included in any of the floras of Rajasthan State

(Bhandari 1990; Sharma and Tiagi 1979; Shetty

and Pandey 1983; Shetty and Singh 1987, 1991,

1993; Singh 1983).

The red flowered species of Butea

monosperma is very common in Udaipur district

and is mostly confined to the foothill forests;

the yellow variety is rare, but can be

seen in the same habitat. B, monosperma var.

lutea closely resembles B. monosperma , except

that it has yellow flowers. Occurrence of the

yellow flowered Butea in Rajasthan is worth

recording.

The Bhils and other tribals of Udaipur

district consider the yellow flowered Butea trees

sacred and never cut them.

Refer

Bhandari, M.M. (1990): Flora of the Indian Desert.

Published by MPS Repros, Jodhpur. Pp. 1=435.

Sharma, S. &. B. Tiagi (1979): Flora of Northeast

Rajasthan. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi &

Ludhiana. Pp. 1=540.

Shetty, B.V. & R.P. Pandey (1983): Flora of Tonk

District. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta. Pp.

1=253.

Table 1: Location of B. monosperma var. lutea in Udaipur dist.

January 24, 2001 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA

Nahargarh Biological Park,

2, Suresh Nagar, Durgapura,

Jaipur 302 018, Rajasthan, India.

NCES

Shetty, B.V. & V. Singh (1987): Flora of Rajasthan,

Vol. I. Botanical Survey of India. Pp. 1-451.

Shetty, B.V. & V. Singh (1991): Flora of Rajasthan,

Vol. II. Botanical Survey of India. Pp. 452-860.

Shetty, B.V. & V. Singh (1993): Flora of Rajasthan,

Vol. III. Botanical Survey of India. Pp. 861-1 246.

Singh, V. (1983): Flora of Banswara, Rajasthan. Botanical

Survey of India. Pp. 1-312.

36. NOTES ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF BAUHIN1A WALLICHII MACBR.

AND B. OVATIFOLIA T. CHEN, LEGUM1NOSAE: CAESALPINIOIDEAE

Nayar(1996: 160, 180) included Bauhinia

wallichii Macbr. and B. ovatifolia T. Chen in

the list of endemic plants of “North Eastern

India” and “Arunachal Pradesh Himalaya”

respectively. The distribution of B. wallichii was

given as “Arunachal Pradesh, Assam,

Meghalaya, West Bengal and adjacent

Bangladesh.” The same distribution for

B. wallichii was also given by Sanjappa (1992:

7), but they probably overlooked the publication

of Larsen and Larsen (1980: 195) where it was

stated that the species is distributed from India

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC 2002

547

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

(Silhet, Assam) to Myanmar and northern

Vietnam. Recently, it has also been reported from

southeastern Yunnan in China (Zhang and Chen

1996) and from northern Thailand (Larsen

1999). Therefore, considering the actual area of

distribution, B. wallichii should not be referred

to as an endemic species.

As regards B. ovatifolia , Nayar (1 996: 1 80)

gave the distribution as “Arunachal Pradesh and

adjacent Tibetan hills.” Sanjappa (1992: 4) and

Chowdhery et al. (1996: 392) have also reported

this species from Arunachal Pradesh. In the

course of my study on the Bauhinias, I have,

however, found that only one collection

( J . Joseph 48504 - CAL) from the forest around

Tihun in Lohit district, Arunachal Pradesh comes

Refer

Bandyopadhyay, S., K. Thothathri & B.D. Sharma (1993):

On an interesting collection of Banhinia (Leguminosae:

Caesalpinioideae) from Arunachal Pradesh. JBNHS

90(1): 120. See errata in JBNHS 90(2): 326.

Chowdhery, H.J., G.S. Giri, G.D. Pal, A. Pramanik &

S.K. Das (1996): Materials for the flora of Arunachal

Pradesh (Eds.: Hajra, P.K. etal.) 1: 1-693. Botanical

Survey of India, Calcutta.

Larsen, S.S. (1999): Bauhinia wallichii J.F. Macbr.

(Leguminosae: Caesalpinioideae), a species new to

Thailand. Thai For. Bull. (Bot.) 27: 25-29.

very close to B. ovatifolia , but its identity has

yet to be confirmed (see Bandyopadhyay et al.

1993). I do not know the source from which the

distribution of B. ovatifolia in Arunachal Pradesh

has been taken by the aforesaid authors, but if it

is based on J. Joseph 48504 (CAL) then it would

be appropriate to treat B. ovatifolia as endemic

only to the type locality (Tianyang, Guangxi) till

its occurrence in Arunachal Pradesh is

confirmed.

June 26, 2000 S. BANDYOPADHYAY

Botanical Survey of India,

P.O. Botanic Garden,

Howrah 711 103, West Bengal,

India.

ENCES

Larsen, K. & S.S. Larsen (1980): Bauhinia. In: Flore du

Cambodge du Laos et du Vietnam (Eds.: Aubreville,

A. & J.F. Leroy), 18: 146-210. Paris.

Nayar, M.P. ( 1 996): “Hot spots” of endemic plants of India,

Nepal and Bhutan. Tropical Botanic Garden and

Research Institute, Thiruvananthapuram.

Sanjappa, M. (1992): Legumes of India. Bishen Singh

Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun.

Zhang, D. & T. Chen (1996): Three species of Bauhinia

L. (Leguminosae) new to China. J. Trop. Subtrop. Bot.

4(4): 16-17.

37. PITS WITH INFLATED TRICHOMES ON UNDER SURFACE OF LEAVES

OF BAUHINIA MALABARICA ROXB., LEGUMINOSAE: CAESALPINIOIDEAE

( With one plate)

Bauhinia subgen. Piliostigma sect.

Piliostigma is represented in India by two species,

namely Bauhinia foveolata Dalz. and

B. malabarica Roxb.

Dalzell (in J. Linn . Soc. 13: 188. 1872)

while describing B. foveolata mentioned, “The

structure of the under surface of the leaf is very

curious. There are numerous pits within the small

areolae of the reticulations; and each is tenanted

by one minute seed-like body attached to the

cavity by a fine thread.”

The aforesaid seed-like body is actually an

inflated trichome that was also known by various

other terms in the past (see Tucker et al. in Bot.

J. Linn. Soc. 88: 291-301. 1984).

In the course of my study, I have observed

that a few to many fine pits (some of them not so

prominent as in B. foveolata) with an inflated

trichome in each of them are present within the

areolae of the reticulations on the under surface

548

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Bandyopadhyay, S.: Bauhinia foveolata Dalz.

Plate 1

A

Fig. 1: Bauhinia foveolata Dalz; Scanning electron micrograph of pits with inflated trichomes

on the under surface of a leaf. Source: K.V. Billore 116174 (CAL). Marker segments = 10 pm.

J

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

549

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

of the leaves of B. malabarica too, which have

not been reported earlier. They were present in

most but not all the specimens studied in CAL.

Further, the pits are not so closely situated as in

B. foveolata leaves except sometimes near the

leaf margins. The inflated trichomes in the fresh

leaves are at first hyaline, later yellowish to rusty.

Finally they shrink and wither away after

maturity of the leaves.

Many pits with inflated trichomes were

also present on the under surface of the seed leaf

of B. malabarica , observed on seedlings that

grew under the trees of B. malabarica cultivated

in Division 21 of the Indian Botanic Garden,

Howrah. Das (1996) also studied the seedlings

of the same tree by germinating some seeds

received from me (Das, pers. comm.). However,

he did not mention pits with inflated trichomes

on the under surface of the leaves.

The voucher specimen (15. v. 2000,

Bandy opadhy ay 105) of the seedlings of B.

malabarica has been deposited in CAL.

Acknowledgements

1 am grateful to Dr. N. Paria for showing

me the Ph.D. thesis referred here and to the

Scientist-in-Charge, R.S.I.C. for the use of PSEM

500.

January 24, 2001 S. BANDYOPADHYAY

Botanical Survey of India,

P.O. Botanic Garden,

Howrah 711 103, V/est Bengal, India .

Reference

Das, D.C. ( 1 996): Seedling morphology of some Indian Leguminosae with reference to taxonomy. Ph.D. Thesis (unpubl.).

University of Calcutta, India.

38. SEEDLING MORPHOLOGY OF BAUHINIA FOVEOLATA DALZ.,

LEGUMINOSAE: CAESALPINIOIDEAE

{With one text-figure)

Bauhinia L. subgen. Piliostigma (Hochst.)

Kurz sect. Piliostigma is represented in India by

two species, namely Bauhinia foveolata Dalz. and

B. malabarica Roxb. Studies on the seedling

morphology of the latter species were carried out

by Troup (1921), Das (1996), and Das and Paria

(1999). The latter, however, overlooked the

publication of Troup (1921) where the seedling

morphology of three more species, namely

B. racemosa Lam., B. purpurea L. and B. variegata

L. were described in detail. I describe here the

seedling morphology of B. foveolata , which is

endemic to India and found in semi-evergreen

forests from 450-1,000 m in Gujarat, Dadra &

Nagar Haveli, Maharashtra and Karnataka.

Eleven seed samples were scarified with a

razor and sown in the soil at a depth of about

5 mm in September 1999. Six of the seeds

germinated and the seedlings started protruding

above the soil surface after three days. The average

maximum and minimum temperature during that

period were 32.5 °C and 26.5 °C respectively. The

seedlings took another 65-73 days to reach the

4th leaf stage. One of the seedlings in the early 4th

leaf stage has been deposited as a voucher specimen

(13.xi.1999, Bandyopadhyay s.n.) in CAL.

Measurements of different parts of the

seedlings, given here up to the 4th leaf stage, are

those for the fully mature parts.

Duke and Poihill (1981) have been followed

for terms like phaneroepigeal and foliar cotyledon.

Seedlings phaneroepigeal, 14-16.5 cm high

at 4th leaf stage. Primary root 9-10 cm long,

whitish-brown, terete, tapering; secondaries

moderate in number, very fine, fibrous. Hypocotyl

1.2- 1.7 cm long, whitish-green, arched at first,

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

551

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1 : Bauhinia foveolata Dalz.; a-j. Different stages of seedling up to the 4th leaf stage (Scale = 1 cm)

552

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

finally slightly curved or straight, stout, initially

increases in diameter towards root, terete,

becoming tetrangular and grooved near the foliar

cotyledons, glabrous. Cotyledons 2 (exhibit up and

down nyctinastic movement but do not fold like

leaves - also see Fiji 1952: 295, 302), opposite,

foliar, 2.3-2. 9 x 1 .6-2.0 cm, yellowish-green at first,

finally green, wither through yellow to brown at

4th leaf stage, slightly fleshy, elliptic, sometimes

slightly asymmetric, entire, obtuse at apex, more

or less so at base, glabrous, 5 -nerved (the young

foliar cotyledons appear to be 3 or 4-nerved),

middle one bifurcates near apex; petioles c. 2 mm

Song, green, flattened above, semi-lunar in T.S.,

with prominent pulvinus at distal end; interpetiolar

region with hair-like outgrowths. Stem green,

erect, slender, slightly angled, somewhat zigzag

at nodes, at first pubescent, finally glabrescent.

Leaves alternate, 2. 0-3.2 x 3. 0-4.0 cm, Is* leaf not

much smaller than others, green, suborbicular to

broadly ovate, 9 (1st leaf) -11 (2nd to 4th leaves)-

nerved (nerves clearly visible to the naked eye

except those near extreme leaf-base), bifid a 1/5

their length into subacute to broadly obtuse lobes

at apex, mucronate between lobes, shallowly

cordate at base, upper surface glabrous, lower

surface pubescent mainly along nerves and with

fine pits within areolae of reticulations; pits not so

closely situated as in mature leaves, each pit with

a hyaline inflated trichome (see Tucker et al 1 984),

which finally turns yellowish to rusty; petioles 1 .3-

2.4 cm long, green, herbaceous, dorsally grooved,

with deep green pulvinus at both ends, pubescent,

finally glabrescent. Stipules 2, minute, green, free,

lateral, narrowly ovate, falcate, pubescent,

deciduous.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to Dr. (Mrs.) V.S. Ghate,

Agharkar Research Institute, Pune for sending me

some seeds collected from Nirnbachi Wadi, near

Kashele in April 1998 and to Dr. N.D. Faria,

Botany Department, Calcutta University for his

help and encouragement. 1 am grateful to the

anonymous reviewer for his constructive

suggestions. Dr. L.B. Chaudhary, National

Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow and Dr. W.

Greuter, Botanischer Garten und Botanisches

Museum, Berlin kindly provided me with

photocopies of literature.

November 15, 2001 S. BANDYOPADHYAY

Botanical Survey of India,

P.O. Botanic Garden, Howrah 711 103,

West Bengal, India .

References

Das, D.C. (1996): Seedling morphology of some Indian

Leguminosae with reference to taxonomy. Ph.D. Thesis

(unpubl.). University of Calcutta, India.

Das, D.C. & N.D. Paria (1999): Seedling morphology in

identification of some Indian species of Bauhinia L.

(Caesalpiniaceae). Feddes Repert. 110(5-6): 375-379.

Duke, J.A. & R.M. Polhill (1981): Seedlings of

Leguminosae. In: Advances in Legume Systematics

Part 2: 941-949, (Eds.: Polhill, R.M. & P.H. Raven).

Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.

Pul, L. Van Der (1952): The leaf of Bauhinia. Acta Bot.

Need. 1(2): 287-309.

Troup, R.S. (1921): The silviculture of Indian trees. 2: 337-

783. Clarendon Press, Oxford.

Tucker, S.C., S.R. Rugenstein & K. Derstine (1984):

Inflated trichomes in flowers of Bauhinia

(Leguminosae: Caesalpinioideae). Bot. J. Linn. Soc.

88: 291-301.

39. SYZYGIUM NEESIANUM ARN. (MYRTACEAE) — AN ADDITION TO THE INDIAN FLORA

(With one text-figure)

During a visit to Kodayar hills, specimen of a tree species of Syzygium Gaertner

Kanyakumari district, Tamil Nadu, an interesting (Family Myrtaceae) was collected. The characters

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

553

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1: Syzygium neesianum Arn.; A. Twig, B. Flower bud, C. Corolla, D. Flower without corolla,

E. Stamen, F. Pistil with calyx, G-H. Ovary (L.S. & T.S.)

554

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

2 mm

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

of this species do not agree with those of any

known species of the genus from India. The tree

was identified as Syzygium neesianum Arn., an

endemic species of Sri Lanka (Ashton 1981). The

present discovery is of great phytogeographical

interest, and the specimens from Kodayar hills

are identical to the Sri Lankan specimen housed

in the Madras Herbarium (MH), Botanical

Survey of India (Southern Circle), Coimbatore.

A short description with illustration is provided

to facilitate identification.

Syzygium neesianum Am., L. Nova. Acta.

Phys: Med. Acad. Caes. Teop. Carol. Nat. Cur.

18: 335. 1836; Thw., Enum PI. Zeyl. 117: 1843;

Alston in Trimen, Handb. FI. Ceylon 6: 116.

1931; Ashton in Dassanayake & Fosberg, Rev.

Handb. FI. Ceylon 2: 442. 1981. Eugenia

neesiana Wt., Ic. PI. Ind. Or. t. 533. 1843; Duthie

in Hook.f., FI. Br. India 2: 493. 1879.

Small tree, to 6 m; branchlets terete,

glabrous. Leaves opposite-decussate, oblong-

lanceolate, 5-8 x 2-3.5 cm, coriaceous, glabrous,

chocolate brown when dry, base subacute to

subcordate, margin entire, slightly recurved, apex

obtusely acuminate; lateral nerves many, sub-

parallel; petiole 3 mm long, thick. Flowers 4 mm

across, white, in terminal corymbose cymes, to

5 cm long; peduncle 3-10 mm long, terete; rachis

4-angled; pedicel up to 2 mm long; bract

inconspicuous. Calyx-tube up to 3 mm long,

glabrous; lobes 4, short, obscure. Petals 4,

orbicular, up to 2 mm long, calyptrate, fugaceous.

Stamens many, unequal, filaments filiform,

2-4 mm, cream; anthers ovate, c. 0.5 mm. Ovary

inferior, globose, to 2 mm long, 2-loculed; 3-6

ovules in each, with central axile placentae; style

filiform, subulate, to 4 mm long; stigma simple,

acute at apex.

Specimens examined: india: Tamil Nadu,

Kanyakumari district: Kodayar (upper)

Manickam & Murugan XCH 12454; Kerala —

Idukki district: Meenmutti, Mohanan, MH acc.

No. 151501; Quilon district, Naduvanoor —

Kadavu path, Mohanan MH Acc. No. 113376;

Quilon district: way to Thenmalai, Mohanan MH

Acc. No. 117379; Trivandrum district:

Bonnacard, Mohanan MH Acc. no. 117381. sri

lanka: MH 60885 (s.no. L.P. 735).

Note: The specimens collected from Kerala

and kept in MH, are misidentified as Syzygium

caryophyllatum (L.) Alston, but they belong to

S. neesianum Arn. due to the presence of leaves

with sub-cordate base and, acuminate apex and

calyx with 4 lobes.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the UGC for financial

assistance. We thank Dr. R. Gopalan and Dr. V.

Chelladurai for their suggestions and critical

evaluation of the manuscript. We are grateful to

the Field Director, Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger

Reserve, India for permission to undertake the

field studies.

March 30, 2001 C. MURUGAN

V.S. MANICKAM

V. SUNDARESAN

Centre for Biodiversity and Biotechnology ;

St. Xavier’s College (Autonomous),

Palayamkottai 627 002,

Tamil Nadu, India.

40. SOME NEW RECORDS OF ASTERACEAE FOR THE STATE OF MAHARASHTRA

While carrying out intensive plant

explorations in southwestern Maharashtra, three

members of Family Asteraceae were collected,

which on critical study were identified as

Cyathocline manilaliana Raju and Raju, Laggera

alata (D. Don) Sch.-Bip. Ex. Oliver and Wedelia

glauca (Ort.) S.F. Blake. Genus Cyathocline

Cass, and genus Laggera Sch.-Bip. ex Koch, are

represented by three species each and genus

Wedelia Jacq. is represented by five species in

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

555

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

India (Rao et al. 1988; Hajra et al. 1995a, b;

Prabhakar Raju et al 1999).

Wedelia glauca (Ort.) S.F. Blake, a

member of Compositae-Heliantheae is a native

of Central Argentina, Uruguay and extreme south

of Brazil. It is a well-known indigenous “weed”

in Central Argentina and declared as an

agricultural pest. It is toxic to livestock when in

fruiting stage (Burkat and Carera 1953). It is

poisonous for grazing cattle; in cows it causes

abortion of the foetus in a few hours after

consumption. The symptoms are somewhat like

hydrocyanic acid poisoning (Bhattacharya et al.

1995).

The voucher specimens are deposited in

the Herbarium of the Shivaji University,

Kolhapur (SUK).

Cyathocline manilaliana Prabhakar Raju,

C. and R.R. Venkata Raju in Rheedea 9(2): 151-

154. 1999.

Erect, aromatic herb; stems often

dichotomously branched from the base,

glandular, pubescent. Leaves simple, radical and

cauline, cauline leaves alternate, sessile,

uninerved from base, nerves prominent below;

puberulous and glandular on both surfaces,

coriaceous; uppermost ovate; lower spathulate

or oblong, lyrately lobed. Heads few, in terminal,

compound corymbs, heterogamous, not rayed.

Involucral bracts two seriate, shorter than florets,

often recurved, glandular hairy. Receptacles cup-

like, glabrous. Female florets numerous, tubular,

filiform, pink, densely glandular-pubescent,

3-lobed, pappus absent. Bisexual florets few,

pink-purple, thinly glandular-pubescent, 5-lobed.

Stamens 5; anthers sagittately auricled at the

base, pappus absent.

FI. & Fr.: December-April.

Specimen examined: Salunkhe 1320.

Locality: Yeralwadi in Satara district,

Maharashtra, India.

Note: Earlier it was known only from the

type locality: Pochera fields, Adilabad district,

Andhra Pradesh State. The present report extends

its distribution to Maharashtra.

Taxonomic note: The original author of

the species referred his specimens to S.R. Yadav

(one of the authors), who confirmed that it was

an undescribed species. It differs from

Cyathocline lutea Law ex Wight (yellow flowers)

in its pink-purple flowers and C. purpurea

(Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) O. Kuntze in possessing

white-woolly globose vegetative propagules on

stem bases, radical and cauline leaves and deeply

sagittate anther base with sharp auricles.

Laggera alata (D. Don.) Sch.-Bip. Ex.

Oliver in Trans. Linn. Soc. 29: 94: 1873; Pant

in Hajra et al. (ed.) FI. India 13: 148. 1995;

Cooke, FI. Pres. Bombay 2: 80. 1958 (Repr. Ed.)

Erigeron alatum D. Don. Prodr. FI. Nepal.

171.1825. Blumea alata (D. Don) DC. Prodr. 5:

448. 1836; Hook.f. FI. Brit. India 3: 271.1881.

Erect, branched, stout herb, stem winged;

stems and branches clothed with glandular

pubescence. Leaves sessile, decurrent on stem

forming entire wing, 2.5-10 x 1-3 cm, oblong,

obtuse or subacute, serrate-dentate or rarely

entire, pubescent on both surfaces. Heads few,

in leafy racemes, 1-1 .5 cm in diameter; peduncles

axillary, solitary, often drooping; bracteate.

Involucre campanulate; bracts many seriate, the

outer lanceolate, acute, much shorter than inner,

pubescent outside, the innermost scarious,

subglabrous, linear, acuminate. Corolla of

bisexual florets purplish. Achenes dark brown,

puberulous, faintly ribbed, appressedly hairy,

villous; pappus white.

FS. & Fr.: December-May.

Specimen examined: Sardesai 1907.

Distribution: Here and Panhala in

Kolhapur district.

Note: Earlier it was known from Assam,

Bihar, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya

Pradesh, Manipur, Orissa, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu

and Uttar Pradesh.

Wedelia glauca (Ort.) S.F. Blake, in

Contrib. Gray Herb. n. ser. 3(52): 39. 1917.

Pascalia glauca Orteg. Hort. Matr. Dec. 39. t.

556

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

4. 1797; Bhattacharya etal., J Bombay nat. Hist .

Soc. 92: 136-137. 1995.

Perennial herb. Stem with longitudinal

striations, scabrous. Leaves simple, opposite,

distichous, base narrow, apex acuminate,

generally 1-2 dentate in lower part of lamina.

Heads solitary in the leaf axils, 1-1.5 cm in

diameter, heterogamous, radiate. Disc florets

hermaphrodite, fertile, involucre hemispherical;

peduncles hairy; bracts 2-seriate; outer linear,

shortly acuminate, acute or rounded at apex,

inner lanceolate, acuminate. Palea membranous,

folded, oblong-lanceolate, acute. Florets

bisexual; corolla yellow; ligulate in female

flowers, 5-fid at apex. Style branched in the

appendix, hairy at the apex. Achenes obovoid,

more or less compressed, cuneate, ragulose or

glabrous, ray flattened above. Disc tetragonal,

laterally compressed. Pappus minutely scaly,

short.

FI & Fr.: December-April.

Specimen examined: Shimpale 101.

Distribution: Islampur in Sangli district.

Note: Earlier it was known only from

Refer

Bhattacharya, A., M.C. Biswas & H.S. Debnath (1995):

A new genus for India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92:

136-137.

Burkat, A. & M.N. Carera (1953): Estudios Sobre

Malezas Morphologia Vegetativa y Germinacion del

“Sunchillo” ( Wedelia glauca). Darwiniana, t. 10, No.

2: 113-144.

Prabhakar Raju, C. & R.R. Venkata Raju (1999):

Cyathocline manilaliana (Asteraceae) — a new species

from Andhra Pradesh, India. Rheedea 9(2): 151-154.

Tirappur, Coimbatore from the State of Tamil

Nadu.

Acknowledgements

We thank Liliana Katinas, La Plata,

Argentina; the Head, Department of Botany,

Shivaji University, Kolhapur, the Principal,

Krishna Mahavidyalaya, Shivnagar, Rethare Bk.,

District Satara, for facilities and the Botanical

Survey of India, Western Circle, Pune for

herbarium and library facilities.

November 15, 2001 C.B. SALUNKHE

Krishna Mahavidyalaya , Shivnagar,

Rethare Bk., Satara 415 108,

Maharashtra, India .

V.B. SHIMPALE

M.M. SARDESAI

S.R. YADAV

Department of Botany,

Shivaji University,

Kolhapur 416 004,

Maharashtra, India.

:nces

Rao, R.R., Hi. Chowdhery, P.K. Hajra, S. Kumar, P.C.

Pant, B.D. Naithani, B.P. Uniyal, R. Mathur & S.K.

Mamgain (1988): Florae Indicae Enumeratio -

Asteraceae. BSI, Calcutta.

Hajra, P.K., R.R. Rao, D.K. Singh & B.P. Uniyal (1995a):

Flora of India, Asteraceae (Anthelmideae-Heliantheae).

BSI, Calcutta, pp vii. + 454.

Hajra, P.K., R.R. Rao, D.K. Singh & B.P. Uniyal ( 1 995b):

Flora of India, Asteraceae (Inuleae-Vemonieae). BSI,

Calcutta, pp. vii + 411.

41. EMENDING OF AN ENDEMIC AND CRITICALLY ENDANGERED SPECIES

CINNAMOMUM WALA1WARENSE KOSTERM., FAMILY LAURACEAE,

OF KALAKAD-MUNDANTHURAI TIGER RESERVE, INDIA

( With one text-figure)

Kostermans (1983) described a new fruiting specimens (26252 & 26301, K, L)

species, Cinnamomum walaiwarense based on collected during July 1976 in the southern

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557

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1: Cinnamomum walaiwarense\ A. Flowering twig, B. Node, C. Sericeous hairs, D. Flower,

E. Longitudinal section of flower, F. I row stamen (ventral side), G. I row stamen (dorsal side),

H. II row stamen (ventral side), I. II row stamen (dorsal side), J. Ill row stamen (ventral side),

K. Staminode (dorsal side), L. Staminode (ventral side); M. Ovary; N. Cross section of ovary

tropical wet evergreen forest of Walaiwar

Cardamom Estate at about c. 1 ,000 m above msl

in West Tinnevelly, currently the Kalakad-

Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (KMTR) in India.

Narrow distribution and sparse population within

the KMTR make this species endemic and

critically endangered. During the inventory in

1999, flowering specimens were collected. Based

on the floral characters and an illustration, the

earlier description is emended here.

558

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Cinnaniomum walaiwarense Kosterm. in

Bull. Bot. Surv. India 25:119. 1983.

Tree, up to 15m high and 1 1 5 cm dbh;

bark very smooth, light brown, c. 0.6 mm thick;

live bark c. 3 mm thick, light brown, slimy,

without odour. Wood white, odourless.

Branchlets: tender ones sericeous, quadrangular;

mature ones subterete to terete, subglabrous to

glabrous, densely and finely subsericeous at

apical end; hairs 0.2-0. 3 x c. 0.02 mm. Terminal

buds small, with similar indumentum. Leaves

opposite, chartaceous, oblong-lanceolate, 5-14.7

x 1.9-4 cm, acute or acuminate at base, entire at

margin, obtusely acute, subacuminate or

acuminate at apex; glabrous, smooth, glossy

above; densely and finely sericeous below;

midrib slender, prominent, impressed above;

raised and canaliculate below, glabrous above,

subsericeous below; subbasal lateral nerves till

acumen base, prominent above, raised and

canaliculate below; secondary nerves faint,

parallel, horizontal, 2-4 mm apart; petioles 8-

14 x 1-2 mm, sericeous, subterete, concave

above, convex below. Panicles axillary, up to

8.5 cm long; tender ones quadrangular,

sericeous; matured ones subterete or terete,

glabrous; primary branchlets up to 6.5 x 0.12

cm; secondary branchlets up to 20 x 0.8 mm;

tertiary branchlets up to 5 x 1 mm; pedicels up

to 4 x 1 mm, quadrangular, sericeous; bracts

deciduous. Flowers c. 4.4 x 4.4 mm. Tepals in

2 rows, 3 + 3, ova , sericeous, c. 3x2 mm.

Stamens 9, in 3 rows, 3 in each row; I row

antitepalous, introrse, eglandular, c. 2.6 x

0.6 mm; II row antitepalous, introrse,

eglandular, c. 2.2 x 0.6 mm; III row antitepalous,

extrorse, opposite to I row, glandular, c. 2.2 x

1 mm; glands 2 on each filament, cordate, glabrous,

c. 0.45 x 0.45 mm; anthers 4-celled, elliptic,

opening up by forward flaps. Staminodes 3,

opposite to II row, sagittate, stipitate, densely

sericeous to sparse above, c. 1 .8 x 0.4 mm. Ovary

superior, ellipsoid, 1 -celled, glabrous, c. 1.7 x

1.1 mm; ovule solitary, pendulous; style

glabrous, c. 1 x 0.2 mm; stigma subpeltate,

c. 0.2 x 0.2 mm. Immature fruits ellipsoid,

apiculate. Perianth tube cup-shaped, deep, rather

fleshy, conspicuously and longitudinally ribbed,

slightly more than half of basal part of tepals,

indurate, persistent; cup base obconical, merging

into obconical short pedicel, c. 5x4 mm.

Specimens examined: Tamil Nadu,

Tirunelveli district, Kakachi, 7.iv.l999, c. 800 m,

M.B. Viswanathan & U. Manikandan 3859.

Local name: Elavangam in Tamil.

Note: Kostermans ( l.c .) distinguished this

species from Cinnamomum travancoricum by the

leaf shape and by its much shorter indumentum

on the panicles. Longer and quadrangular

pedicels, ovate tepals and sericeous hairy nature

of the tepals and stamens further distinguish C.

walaiwarense.

Acknowledgements

The senior author sincerely thanks the

Ministry of Environment & Forests, New Delhi,

for funding the project. Mr. U. Manikandan is

thankful for the Senior Research Fellowship

awarded. The authors acknowledge Mr. R.P.S.

Kotwal IFS, Chief Wildlife Warden, Chennai,

and Dr. V.K. Melkani IFS, Field Director &

Conservator of Forests, Project Tiger,

Tirunelveli, for permission to carry out research

in the Tiger Reserve and to collect specimens.

The help of the project staff, Mr. S. Pandidurai,

S. Baskar and A. Lakshmikanthan, in the field

and Mr. H. Sankar Artist, for illustration, is

acknowledged.

November 15, 2001 M.B. VISWANATHAN

U. MANIKANDAN

Sri Paramakalyani Centre

for Environmental Sciences,

Manonmaniam Sundaranar University,

Alwarkurichi 627 412,

Tamil Nadu,

India.

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

42. A NOTE ON THE ADDITIONAL HOST RANGE

FOR THE GENUS KORTHASELLA VAN TIEGH. FAMILY LORANTHACEAE,

FROM NILGIRIS, SOUTHERN INDIA

During floristic studies in the Mukkurthi

National Park in November 2000, we were able

to collect a number of rare and endemic plants

of the Nilgiris. In addition to the above, our

research team also collected a curious semi-

parasitic plant in the Mukkurthi Dam area, later

identified as Korthasella japonica (Thunb.)

Engler (Family Loranthaceae). While collecting

the parasitic plant, the host plants were also noted

and identified. The literature (J.S. Gamble and

C.E.C. Fischer, FI. Pres. Madras, 1957 [Repr.

Ed.]) indicates that the genus Korthasella

normally grows only on Rhododendron arboreum

J.E. Smith subsp. nilagirieum (Zenk) Tagg.

(Family Ericaceae), whereas our observations

revealed that it can also grow on species like

Canthium neilgherrense Wight var. chartaceum

(Gamble) Swam in. (Family Rubiaceae), Ilex

wightiana Wall, ex Wight (Family Aquifoliaceae)

and Ternstroemia japonica (Thunb.) Thunb.

(Family Theaceae). We conclude that the above

mentioned species form additional hosts for

Korthasella in the Nilgiri hills, and hope that

further intensive explorations will throw more

light on its host range.

March 30, 2001 V.S. RAMACHANDRAN

Department of Botany,

Kongunadu Arts and Science College,

G.N. Mills Post, Coimbatore 641 029,

Tamil Nadu, India.

S. PAUL RAJ

Mukkurthi National Park &

Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary,

U d again and al am, Tamil Nadu,

India.

43. REDISCOVERY OF A CRITICALLY ENDANGERED SPECIES

PHYLLANTHUS BEDDOMEI (GAMBLE) MOHANAN, EUPHORBIACEAE,

FROM KALAKAD-MUNDANTHURAI TIGER RESERVE IN INDIA

(With one text-figure)

Gamble described a new species of Reidia,

R. beddomei based on the collections of R.H.

Beddome from Chokkampatti in Tirunelveli

hills, and T.F. Bourdillon from Travancore hills,

at about 1,640 m, in 1925. Mohanan in 1985

transferred this species to Phyllanthus and made

a combination — Phyllanthus beddomei . Using

this literature, specimens collected from the

Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (KMTR)

of Tirunelveli District, Tamil Nadu, were

identified. Dr. N.P. Balakrishnan, expert on

Euphorbiaceae, confirmed the identity. This

species was rediscovered after a lapse of about

73 years in 1998. There is no specimen in MH.

Its populations are found only in one locality,

the species deserves the critically endangered

threat category. The species is described with

related details and illustrated to help

identification for facilitating conservation.

Phyllanthus beddomei (Gamble)

Mohanan in J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 6: 480. 1985.

Reidia beddomei Gamble In Kew Bull. 1925:

331. 1925 & FI. Pres. Madras 1293. 1925 & 2:

904. 1957 (repr. ed.).

Subshrub, up to 2 m high, branches spirally

arranged towards apex, glabrous. Leaves

alternate, obliquely ovate, 2-3.7 x 0.7- 1.2 cm,

truncately obtuse at base, entire and thickened

at margin, apiculate at apex, coriaceous, green

above, pale green below, punctate, glabrous

560

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1A-M: Phyllanthus beddomei; A. Twig, B. Bract, C-G. Male flower: C. Flower, D. Outer tepal,

E. Inner tepal, F. Gland, G. Anthers with stamina! column; H-K. Female flower: H. Flower, I. Tepal,

J. Ovary, K. Cross section of ovary; L. Capsule and M. Seed

above, glaucous below, obscurely 10-14 nerved;

petioles brown, c. 2 x 0.5 mm; stipules brown,

linear-deltoid, truncate at base, hyaline at margin,

glandular at base inside, c. 4.5 x 1 mm. Flowers

unisexual, axillary, in clusters, surrounded by

numerous bracts; bracts linear-lanceolate, c. 3 x

0.6 mm, acuminate at apex, glabrous. Male:

Pedicels filiform, c. 3.5 x 0.2 mm, glandular

striate, glabrous.

Tepals 4, broadly ovate, unequal, whitish-

yellow, tinged pinkish-brown, obtusely rounded

at base, entire at margin, mucronate at apex,

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561

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

striated; outer larger, c. 1.8 x 1.2 mm; inner

smaller, c. 1.3 x 1 mm; striations glandular,

visible outside, invisible inside. Disc glands 4,

whitish-yellow, alternate with tepals, glabrous,

c. 0.6 x 0.8 mm; midrib prominent; side nerves

obscure. Stamens 4; filaments yellow, connate,

c. 0.5 mm long; anthers 4, yellow, dehiscing

transversely, c. 0.4 x 0.6 mm. Female: Pedicles

glandular striate just above middle, broadened

towards apex, c. 16 x 0.02-0.12 mm. Tepals 5 or

6, ovate, subequal, c. 3x1.3 mm, pinkish-brown,

tinged whitish-yellow, connate at base, distantly

crenate-dentate at margin, bluntly acute at apex,

striated; striations glandular, visible outside,

invisible inside; midrib prominent; side nerves

obscure, 8-10. Disc glands combined as fleshy

ring, c. 0.2 x 2.2 mm. Ovary yellow, globose,

3-valved, glabrous, c. 0.6 mm across; styles 3,

each bifid from base, glabrous, c. 0.8 x 0.1 mm.

Capsules subglobose, smooth, 3-lobed, 2-seeded

in each lobe, glabrous. Seeds 6, trigonous, brown,

minutely pubescent, c. 4x2.1 mm.

Specimens examined: Tamil Nadu:

Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, 8° 20-8°

53' N and 77° 10'-77° 35' E, Aruvatheeti,

c. 490 m, 1 9. viii. 1 998, M.B. Viswanathan,

N. Ramesh, M. Maridass & U. Manikandan 1149.

Acknowledgements

The senior author thanks the Ministry of

Environment & Forests, New Delhi, for funding

the project. Mr. U. Manikandan is thankful for

the Junior Research Fellowship awarded.

We acknowledge Mr. R.P.S. Kotwal IFS, Chief

Wildlife Warden, Chennai and Dr. V.K. Melkani

IFS, Field Director & Conservator of Forests,

Project Tiger, Tirunelveli, for permission to

carry out the research in the Tiger Reserve

and collect specimens. We are indebted to

Dr. N.P. Balakrishnan and Dr. P. Daniel, Deputy

Director of MH, for confirming the identity and

for permission to consult MH respectively.

Mr. H. Sankar, Artist, is thanked for the

illustration.

March 29, 2001 M.B. VISWANATHAN

N. RAMESH

M. MARIDASS

U. MANIKANDAN

Sri Paramakalyani Centre

for Environmental Sciences,

Manonmaniam Sundaranar University,

Alwarkurichi 627 412,

Tamil Nadu, India.

44. REDISCOVERY OF PHYLLANTHUS ROTUNDIFOLIUS KLEIN EX WILLD.,

EUPHORBIACEAE, AFTER 101 YEARS (1899-2000)

IN KANCHIPURAM DISTRICT, TAMIL NADU, SOUTH INDIA

( With one text-figure)

The Flora of Tamil Nadu (II: 238.1987)

records the distribution of Phyllanthus

rotundifolius Klein ex Willd. in Chengalpattu,

Ramanathapuram, Thanjavur and Tirunelveli

districts. The Madras Herbarium, Coimbatore,

holds 5 sheets from Chengalpattu; 4 from

Ramanathapuram; 5 from Thanjavur; 4 from

Tirunelveli district and 1 from Puthukottai

district. The Chengalpattu district (now

Kanchipuram district) collections were from

Elliots’ Beach - Madras and Sadras Beach during

1883, 1899 and 1900. All determined by J.S.

Gamble in 1915.

This is a rediscovery after 1 0 1 years ( 1 899-

2000) from Kanchipuram district, Tamil Nadu

(RHT 61774 from Mamallapuram Sand dunes -

6. i. 2000). I got only 3 plants of this threatened

species in an overgrazed area. Mayuranathan,

P.V. reported this (Flowering Plants of Madras,

p. 264) in 1929 and later workers could not locate

562

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1: Phyllanthus rotundifolius Klein ex Willd; 1. Habit, 2. Inflorescence, part d, 3. Flower, 4. Bract,

5. Perianth-lobes, 6. Staminal column with disk, 7. Stamen 9, 8. Flower, 9. Bract,

10. Perianth-lobes, 11, 12 & 13. pistil: entire, l.s. & t.s., 14. Fruit, 15. Seed (RHT 61774)

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563

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

this plant during the revision work (p. 248) in

1994.

Phyllanthus rotundifolius Klein ex Willd.

Sp. PL 4: 584.1805; Hook.f. FI. Brit. India. 5:

299.1887; Gamble, FI. Madras 2: 903. 1957

(repr. ed.); Henry, A.N. FI. TN. II: 238. 1987.

Prostrate herbs with long, woody, thick tap-

root; stems round or compressed, glabrous;

stipules linear, white, c. 1.5 x 0.4 mm. Leaves

simple, alternate, fleshy, sub-orbicular to

obovate-spathulate, 2 x 2 - 4 x 4 mm, glabrous

above, glaucous below, base rounded-cuneate,

margin entire, apex obtuse or rounded, apiculate;

petiole to 1 mm, pale yellow. Male flowers: 2-3

per axil, usually together with one female flower;

male flowers: pedicels 0.5 mm long; tepals 6,

elliptic, 0.3 x 0.2-0. 7 x 0.5 mm, pale yellowish-

green midrib; stamens 3, small, filaments

connate in the lower half; anthers to 0.3 mm

across. Female flower: pedicel to 0.8 mm long;

tepals 6, the outer ovate, 1.5 x 1.2 mm, the

3 inner obovate, 1.8 x 1 mm, obtuse, white with

a broad median green band; ovary sessile,

subglobose, 0.5 x 0.7 mm, smooth; styles free,

to 0.4 mm, at first suberect, later divaricate to

spreading, bifid stigmas, slightly swollen at apex.

Capsules depressed-subglobose, 1 x 2 mm,

smooth, yellowish-brown; fruiting pedicels up to

2.5 mm; persistent outer tepals c. 2.5 x 1.4 mm,

inner tepals c. 2.5 x 1 .5 mm; seeds 6, light brown,

c. 1 x 0.5 mm, sharply triquetrous with 6-7

longitudinal ridges on the dorsal facet, and 5-6

concentric ridges on each ventral facet, with

numerous transverse striae between the ridges.

FI & Fr.: January.

Distribution: Very rare; seen only in

Mamallapuram sand dunes close to beach area,

Kanchipuram district RHT 61774 dt. 6.L2000.

Acknowledgements

I thank Miss D. Selva Raja Prabha for the

sketches and Mr. Rajasekharan for composing

the illustrations in the computer.

March 29, 2001 FR. K.T. AUGUSTINE S.J.

Rapinat Herbarium,

St. Joseph’s College,

Tiruchirapalli 620 002,

Tamil Nadu, India.

45. ADDITIONS TO THE ORCHID FLORA OF MAHARASHTRA

Orchidaceae is one of the largest and

economically important families. More than

25,000 species of more than 600 genera are

recorded under the family. About 130 genera and

900 species have been recorded from India by

J.D. Hooker (1872-1897). For Bombay State,

Cooke (1901-1908) reported 31 genera,

85 species and two varieties. Santapau and

Kapadia (1966) extended the list of orchids to

116 species and three varieties belonging to 37

genera. Sharma et al. (1996) recorded 34 genera,

109 species and three varieties for the State of

Maharashtra.

During our field studies in southwestern

Maharashtra, we came across four rare and

interesting orchids: three terrestrial and one

epiphytic. On critical examination, they were

identified as Epipogium roseum (D. Don) Lindl.

Gastrochilus flabelliformis (Blatt. & McC.)

Saldh., Pachystoma senile (Lindl.) Reichb. f. and

Zeuxine gracilis (Breda) Bl. The genera

Epipogium and Pachystoma are reported for the

first time from Maharashtra. Genus Epipogium

is represented by 3 species, Gastrochilus by 12

species, Zeuxine by 1 5 species and Pachystoma

by a single species in India (Karthikeyan 1989).

The voucher specimens are deposited in

the Herbarium of the Shivaji University,

Kolhapur (SUK).

Epipogium roseum (D. Don) Lindl., in

J. Linn. Soc. 1: 177. 1857; Sant, in Proc. Nat.

in. Sci. India 24 B: 138; Sant. & Kapad. Orch.

564

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Bombay 237 . 1966. Limodorum roseum D. Don,

Prodr. FI. Nep. 30, Febr. 1825. Galera rosea Bl.

Bijdr. 416, f. 3, Dec.-1825. Epipogium nutans

Reichb. f., Bonpland. 5a: 36. 1836; Hook. f. FI.

Brit. India 6: 124. 1890.

Perennial herb; tuber ovoid, horizontal

with few short intemodes. Scapes leafless, JO-

25 cm long, hollow, fleshy, greyish-yellow.

Flowers drooping, pedicellate, bracteate; pedicels

recurved. Bracts shorter than ovary. Sepals

hyaline. Petals white, not very spreading,

3 -nerved. Lip as long as or rarely longer than

the sepals, concave, irregularly crenulate with

the sides raised at the base; upper surface

minutely waited in two rows; column white with

reddish-brown spots. Spur short, bulbous,

pointing backwards. Stigmatic surfaces at the

base of column prominent. Ovary broadly ovoid,

drooping, pale yellow.

FI. & Fr.: April-June.

Exsiccata: Sardesai-2035.

Very rare, terrestrial saprophytic herb

collected only once on the way to Vishalgad from

Amba. Grows in deep shade and is very delicate.

Distribution: Gajapur in Kolhapur district.

Gastrochilus flabelliformis (Blatt. &

McC.) Saldh., FI. Hassan district (Mss.);

Saccolabium flabelliformis Blatt. & McCann,

Rev. FI. Pres. Bombay, 16: 722. 1932.

Small epiphytic herb. Leaves 2-5, narrowly

oblong, falcate with purple tinge and dots, apex

unequally 2-lobed. Flowers many in corymbose

racemes. Flowers bracteate; bracts persistent.

Sepals obovate-oblong, spreading, fleshy, yellow

with red blotches near tip. Petals obovate-oblong,

spreading, fleshy, yellow with red blotches near

tip, slightly shorter and narrower than sepals.

Lip minutely lobed with cup-shaped hypochile;

epichile slightly deflexed and minutely fimbriate

on the outer edges. Column short, footless, wings

purple. Pollinia two, globose with slender

caudicles.

FI. & Fr.: March- July.

Specimen Examined: Sardesai-2502.

Distribution: Dodamarg in Sindhudurg

and Vasota in Satara district.

Pachystoma senile (Lindl.) Reichb. f.

Bonplandia3: 250. 1958; Hook. f. FI. Brit. India

5: 812, 1888; Sant. & Kapad., Orchid Bombay

191, 1966. Apathuria senilis Lindl., Gen. Sp.

Orchid. 130. 1831.

Terrestrial rhizomatous herb. Leaves 1-2,

narrowly oblong-lanceolate or acicular,

subplicate. Scape 20-30 cm long, erect, sheathed

in basal region, glabrous. Flowers 5-6, secund,

bracteate, pedicellate in lax racemes, never

opening widely, glandular-pubescent. Bracts

hyaline, membranous, many nerved, glabrous.

Pedicels erect at anthesis, recurved in fruiting.

Sepals entire, 5-nerved, shortly pubescent, wider

than petals. Petals narrowly spathulate, 3-nerved,

pinkish. Lip 3-lobed, clawed at base, sparsely

pubescent, mid-lobe larger than side lobes and

purple. Disc with 5 prominent longitudinal,

parallel ridges. Column arched, glandular

pubescent at the base. Pollinia 8.

FI.: February-March.

Specimen examined: Bachulkar-323.

Distribution: Koyana Nagar in Satara

district, Maharashtra.

Zeuxine gracilis (Breda) Bl. FI. Jav. n.s.

56. t. 1 8. f. 2. t. 23D. 1 858; Sant. & Kapad. Orch.

Bombay 171. 1966. Psychechilos gracile Breda,

Gen. Sp. Orchid Trim. t. 9. 1827. Monochilus

affine Lindl., Gen. Sp. Orchid. 487. 1840.

Zeuxine affinis Benth. ex Hook.f FI. Brit. India

6: 108. 1890. Z. blatteri Fisch. in Gamble FI.

Madras Pres. 1456. 1928.

Delicate herbs, 10-25 cm tall. Rhizomes

creeping, sheathed at nodes; fleshy, dark green.

Leaves 2-6, olive-green or greyish-green,

sheathing at base, subsessile. Spikes glandular,

pubescent mixed with long hairs, with 2-3

sheathing bracts. Flowers 3-7 in spikes. Sepals

subequal, entire, 1 -nerved, glandular-pubescent.

Petals entire, 1 -nerved, gland dotted, pale-

pinkish or pinkish-white. Lip fleshy, strongly

saccate at the base, with 2 curved papillae within

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

565

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

the sac. Anther ovoid, pale pink. Capsules

ellipsoid, glabrescent.

FI. & Fr.: February- April.

Specimen examined: Sardesai-2045.

Rare undergrowth in deep shade and moist

places.

Distribution: Chandgad, Dajipur, Here

and Patgaon in Kolhapur district.

Acknowledgements

We thank the Head, Department of Botany,

Shivaji University, Kolhapur; the Principal,

Refef

Cooke, T. (1901-1908): The Flora of the Presidency of

Bombay. London. (BSI Reprint). Calcutta, Vols.

I-IIi, 1958.

Hooker, J.D. (1872-1897): The Flora of British India.

London. Vols. 7.

Karthikeyan, S., S.K. Jain, M.P. Nayar & Sanjappa

(1989): Florae Indicae Enumeratio:

46. ADDITIONS TO THE

While investigating the flora of Dakshina

Kannada and Udupi (erstwhile South Kanara)

districts of Karnataka, I came across four species

of plants not previously recorded from

Karnataka. The following list gives their

correct nomenclature, distribution and,

flowering and fruiting seasons. The species have

been arranged alphabetically. All specimens are

deposited at the Botanical Survey of India and

in the Herbarium of the Poornaprajna College,

Udupi.

1. Desmodium scorpiurus (Swartz)

Desvaux, Journ. de Bot. Ser. 2, 1: 122. 1813;

Dhruvan Tandyekkal & Philip Mathew, Rheedea

5(2): 177-179, Fig. 1. 1995. Hedysarum

scorpiurus Swartz, Prodr. Veg. Ind. Occ. 107.

1788 (Fab aceae).

A native of tropical America. In India, it

has been reported only from Kerala. This plant

Vivekanand College, Kolhapur for facilities and

the Botanical Survey of India, Western Circle,

Pune for permission to work in the herbarium

and library.

January 24, 2001 M.M. SARDESAI

*M.P BACHULKAR

S.R. YADAV

Department of Botany,

Shivaji University, Kolhapur 416 004,

Maharashtra, India.

* Department of Botany, Vivekanand College,

Kolhapur 416 003, Maharashtra, India.

ENCES

Monocotyledonae. Botanical Survey of

India.

Santapau, H. & Z. Kapadia (1966): The Orchids of

Bombay. Govt, of India Press. Calcutta.

Sharma, B.D., S. Karthikeyan & N.P. Singh (1966): Flora

of Maharashtra State - Monocotyledons Botanical

Survey of India, Calcutta.

FLORA OF KARNATAKA

appears to be a recent introduction to coastal

Karnataka.

FI. and Fr.: December-May.

Exsiccata: Udupi district: Udupi, growing

along roadsides, October 23, 1999, KG. Bhat

11334.

2. Quisqualis malabarica Bedd., Icon. PI.

Ind. Or. 1: 33, t. 155. 1874; Clarke in Hook.f.,

FI. Brit. Ind. 2: 460. 1878; Gamble, FI. Pres.

Madras 469. 1919; Gangopadhyay and

Chakrabarthy, J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 21(2): 332,

Fig. 15. 1997 (Combretaceae).

This endemic species is so far known only

from Kerala and Tamil Nadu. The recent

collection of this species from Dakshina Kannada

is a new record of its extended distribution in

S. India.

Gangopadhyay and Chakrabarthy ( l.c .) in

their key for the species of Quisqualis,

566

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

distinguish Q. malabarica from Q. indica L. by

tetramerous flowers. But in my specimens, the

flowers are consistently pentamerous. Moreover,

there is no reference to tetramerous flowers in

Q. malabarica in the floras cited above.

FI. and Fr.: January-March.

Exsiccata: Dakshina Kannada district:

Panaje, growing near an arecanut garden,

January 29, 2000, K.G. Bhat 11346.

3 .Scaevola plumieri (L.) Vahl, Symb. Bot.

2:36. 1791; Gamble, FI. Pres. Madras 734. 1921.

S. lobelia Murr., Syst. Veg. ed. 13, 1774, nom.

illeg.\ Clarke in Hook.f., FI. Brit. Ind. 3: 421.

1881; Cooke, FI Pres. Bomb. 2: 70. 1904.

Lobelia plumieri L. Sp. PI. 929. 1753, p.p.

(Goodeniaceae).

A rare sand-dune plant, collected near the

sea from Padubidri. It closely resembles

S. sericea Vahl, but the leaves are smaller and

the drupe is purple.

FI. and Fr.: June-December.

Exsiccata: Udupi district: Padubidri,

growing near the sea on sand, August 1 0, 1 999,

K.G. Bhat 11311.

4. Spermacoce assurgens Ruiz & Pavon,

47. SOME NEW RECORDS FOR

During extensive and intensive plant

exploration in Maharashtra, 2 species of

Eriocaulon, namely Eriocaulon martianum Wall.

Ex Koem., and E. palghatense Ans. & Balak.,

and 2 species of Utricularia , namely Utricularia

malabarica Janarthanam & Henry, and

U. minutissima Vahl were collected, which form

new records for the State.

The voucher specimens are deposited in

the Herbarium of the Shivaji University,

Kolhapur (SUK).

Eriocaulon martianum Wall, ex Koem.,

Linnaea 27: 642. 1856; Ans. and Balak. Fam.

Eriocaul. India 107. 1944; Cook, Aquatic and

Wetland Plants of India, 197. 1996. E.

quinquangulare var. martianum (Wallich) Fyson,

FI. Peru 1: 60, t. 92. 1798; Sivarajan et al., Proc.

Indian Acad. Sci. (Plant Sci.) 97(4); 351, fig.

44-50. 1987. S. laevis sensu auct. mult.: Verde.,

FI. Trop. E. Africa Rubiac. 1 : 357. 1976; Deb &

Dutta, J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 5: 1051 . 1984, non Lam.

1792. Borreria laevis auct. mult.: Bremekamp

in Pulle, FI. Suriname 4: 289. 1934, non (Lam.)

Griseb. 1861 (Rubiaceae).

A native of tropical America. In India, so

far, known only from Kerala and Nicobar Islands.

FI. and Fr.: October-November.

Exsiccata: Dakshina Kannada district:

Mangalore, growing along the roadside, October

25, 1999, K.G. Bhat 11335.

Acknowledgements

I thank Dr. M.K. Janarthanam of Goa

University, Dr. S. Karthikeyan, Pune and P.S.

Venkatram Daitota for their help.

January 24, 2001 K. GOPALAKRISHNA BHAT

Department of Botany,

Poornaprajna College ,

Udupi 576 101, Karnataka, India.

THE STATE OF MAHARASHTRA

J. Ind. Bot. 1: 204. 1921.

Erect acaulescent herb. Leaves Song, linear

acuminate, glabrous. Peduncles glabrous. Head

3-4 mm across, globose-subglobose. Receptacle

columnar villous. Involucral bracts erect, elliptic,

acute, chartaceous, glabrous, straw coloured.

Floral bracts, oblanceolate-cuneate, acuminate,

chartaceous, hairy towards apex, grey. Male

flowers: sepals 3, connate to form open spathe,

obovate, 3-lobed, lobes acute, grey, glabrous.

Petals 3, subequal, ovate, hairy, each with black

gland. Anthers 6, globose, black. Female flowers:

pedicles minute; sepals 3, free, elliptic, falcate,

flat, acute, equal, glabrous or sparsely hairy.

Petals 3, free, equal, spathulate, obtuse or acute,

hyaline, sparsely hairy. Ovary stalked, obovoid-

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567

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

globose; style 3-fid. Seeds oblong-obovoid,

obtuse; cells of seed coat transversely elongated,

aligned in vertical rows; appendages ribbon-like

band or rectangular structures from transverse

radial wall.

FI. & Fr.: September-December.

Specimen Examined: Bhuskute 224.

Distribution: Hazara falls, Darekasa in

Bhandara district.

Note: Earlier if was known from Madhya

Pradesh and West Bengal.

Eriocaulon palghatense Ans. & Balak.

Fam. Eriocaul. India 111, f. 37. 1994.

Erect, acaulescent herb. Leaves linear,

acute or subacum’.iate, glabrous. Peduncles few

to many, glabrous. Head 1.5-2 mm across, ovoid

or globose, black. Receptacle globose or

cylindrical, glabrous. Involucral bracts oblong-

obovate, obtuse or rounded at apex, entirely black,

glabrous, chartaceous. Floral bracts oblanceolate,

acute or subacute, hairy towards apex, grey or

black. Male flowers: pedicels minute. Sepals 3,

united into spathe, 3-lobed, obovate; lobes obtuse,

hairy towards apex, black. Petals 3, minute,

glabrous, each with black gland. Anthers 6,

black. Female flowers: sepals 3, equal, free,

linear-lanceolate, acute or subobtuse, black, hairy

at apex. Petals 3, free, linear-spathulate, obtuse

or subacute, hyaline. Ovary ovoid-ellipsoid; style

3-fid; stigma filiform. Seeds oblong, obtuse; cells

of seed coat transversely elongated, arranged in

vertical rows; appendages ribbon-like band from

transverse radial wall.

FI. & Fr.: July-September.

Specimen Examined: Gaikwad 5101.

Distribution: Achirne and Malwan in

Sindhudurg, Hatkhamba and Pavas in Ratnagiri

district.

Note: Earlier it was known only from the

type locality in Kerala.

Utricularia malaharica M.K.

Janarthanam & A.N. Henry in J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 86(1): 84. 1989; Janarthanam & Henry

in Biadderworts of India, 68-69. 1992.

Herb; rhizoids glandular, branched. Leaves

3-nerved, obovate, rounded at apex. Traps

globose; mouth basal with two simple subulate,

glandular appendages. Racemes 2-5 cm long,

1-4 flowered; bracts basifixed, one nerved;

pedicels winged, erect in anthesis and recurved

in fruit. Calyx lobes ovate; upper lobe acuminate

at apex; lower lobe 2-3 -dentate at apex. Corolla

blue with white tinge; upper lip truncate at apex;

lower lip suborbicular, bigibbous at base and

hairy in throat; spur slender, acute at apex.

Capsule ovoid, uniformly membranous. Seeds

ovoid; testa reticulate, cells elongated, smooth.

FI. & Fr.: August-December.

Specimen Examined: Sardesai 289.

Distribution: Achirne, Malvan,

Vaibhavwadi in Sindhudurg, Hatkhamba and

Masebav in Ratnagiri district.

Note: Earlier it was known from Kerala,

Karnataka and Goa.

Utricularia minutissima Vahl, Enum. PI.

1: 204. 1804; Janarthanam & Henry in

Biadderworts of India, 72-74. 1992. Cook,

Aquatic and Wetland Plants of India, 241.1996.

Herb; rhizoids simple, glandular, rarely

branched; stolons glandular, sparsely branched.

Leaves linear, 1 -nerved. Traps subglobose; mouth

lateral, circular with one subulate appendage.

Racemes 2-3 cm long, 1-4 flowered. Scales and

bracts basifixed; pedicels terete, erect. Calyx

lobes slightly unequal, ovate, hooded, papillose

outside; upper lobe obtuse at apex; lower lobe

notched at apex. Corolla pink with white tinge;

upper lip oblong, ciliate along margins, rounded;

lower lip shallowly 3-lobed, raised at base and

hairy in throat; spur straight, horizontal, notched

at apex. Capsule obliquely ovoid, compressed,

uniformly membranous. Seeds globose, testa cells

more or less isodiametric.

FI. & Fr.: August-September.

Specimens Examined: Bhuskute 554,

Sardesai 294.

Distribution: Achirne, Malvan, Shiroda in

Sindhudurg, Pali, Hatkhamba, Masebav in

568

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Ratnagiri, and Gonditola in Bhandara district.

Note: Earlier it was known from Goa,

Karnataka, Kerala, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, and

Uttar Pradesh.

Acknowledgements

We thank Dr. M.K. Janarthanam, Reader,

Department of Botany, Goa University, Goa for

confirming the identity of Utricularia species and

valuable suggestions in preparation of the

manuscript; the Head, Department of Botany,

Shivaji University, Kolhapur; the Principal,

Bhawabhuti Mahavidyalaya, Amgaon, Bhandara

for facilities and the DST for financial assistance.

January 24, 2001 M.M. SARDESAI

S.P GAIKWAD

*S.M. BHUSKUTE

S.R. YADAV

Department of Botany,

Shivaji University,

Kolhapur 416 004, Maharashtra, India.

* Department of Botany,

Bhaxvbhuti Mahavidyalaya,

Amgaon (S.E. Rly),

District Bhandara 441 902,

Maharashtra, India.

48. ADDITIONS TO THE GRASSES OF MAHARASHTRA

( With three text-figures )

During our survey of southwestern

Maharashtra, three species of grasses were

recorded for the first time for the state of

Maharashtra. Short descriptions and illustrations

have been provided for each of them. The

specimens have been deposited in the Herbarium

of Shivaji University, Kolhapur.

1. Bhidea fischeri P.V. Sreekumar &

B.V. Shetty in Kew Bull. 42(3): 683-685. 1987.

Fig. 1.

Annual, tufted, 15-35 cm tall, simple or

branched; upper nodes villous, lower glabrous.

Leaves lanceolate, 2-7 x 0.1 -0.5 cm, acute.

Racemes 2, 3-7 cm long; joints villous on one

side. Sessile spikelets lanceolate, 9-10.5 mm

long, awned; callus acute, densely silky villous.

Lower glume lanceolate, 5 -nerved, acuminate.

Upper glume oblong, 3-lobed at apex with

4-5 mm long arista. Lower lemma ovate-

lanceolate, 3-nerved, keels winged, epaleate.

Upper lemma oblong-elliptic, 3-nerved, apex

notched, awn geniculate, 55-65 mm long. Palea

ovate, subacute. Lodicules 2. Stamen 2. Pedicels

turbinate, villous on one side. Pedicel led spikelets

empty, oblique, lanceolate, 8-10 mm long. Lower

glume lanceolate, 7-9 nerved, acuminate. Upper

glume lanceolate, 3-nerved, acuminate.

A rare grass growing on lateritic plateaux.

FI. & Fr.: August-October.

Distribution: Ratnagiri: Pawas, Salunkhe

8227; Sindhudurg: Devgad, Yadav 8387.

2. Chloris pycnothrix Trin. Gram. Unifl.

234. 1824; Brito & Mathew in Mathew, FI.

Tamil. Carnatic 3: 1821. 1983 Fig. 2.

Annual, tufted, 15-55 cm tall, simple or

branched. Leaves broadly linear, 1-10 x 0.2-

0.6 cm, apex mucronate. Spikes 3-5, digitate, 2-

5 cm long; rachis filiform. Spikelets closely

pectinate, subsessile, ovate-lanceolate, 1.8-

3.2 mm long. Lower glume ovate-lanceolate,

1 - nerved, acuminate. Upper glume ovate-

lanceolate, 1 -nerved, acuminate. Lower lemma

ovate-lanceolate, 1 -nerved, apex notched,

2- toothed, awn capillary, 6-20 mm long. Palea

linear-lanceolate, 2-nerved, acute. Rachilla

slender, hairy, lodicules 2, stamens 3.

A rare grass growing near moist places.

FI. & Fr.: September-December.

Distribution: Satara: Pusegaon, Salunkhe

8657.

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569

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1: Bhidea fischeri P.V. Sreekumar & B.V. Shetty; 1. Habit, 2. Ligule, 3. Joint, 4-11. Sessile spikelet:

4. Spikelet, 5. Lower glume, 6. Upper glume, 7. Lower lemma, 8. Upper lemma, 9. Palea,

10. Stamens and pistil, 11. Caryopsis, 12-15: Pedicelled spikelet: 12. Spikelet, 13. Lower glume,

14. Upper glume, 15. Lower lemma

570

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Fig. 2: Chloris pycnothrix Trin.; 1. Habit, 2. Ligule, 3. Spikelet, 4. Lower glume, 5. Upper glume,

6. Lemma - Lateral view, 7. Lemma - back view, 8. Palea, 9. Stamens & pistil, 10. Rachilla, 11. Caryopsis

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 3: Sporobolus wallichi Munro & Trin.; 1. Habit, 2. Spikelet, 3. Lower glume, 4. Upper glume,

5. Lemma, 6. Palea, 7. Stamens and pistil

572

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

3. Sporo bolus wallicki Munro ex Trin. in

J. Bot. 27: 171. 1889; Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 7:

248. 1896; Bor, Grass. Bur. Cey. Ind. Pak. 634.

1960. Mathew, Mat. FI. Tamil. Carnatic 401.

1981. Fig. 3.

Perennial, tufted, 5-15 cm tall, simple or

sparingly branched. Leaves linear, 5-15 cm long,

acute. Panicles effuse, ovate-oblong, 4. 5-8. 5 x

2-3 cm, rachis slender, branches filiform,

pedicels capillary. Spikelets lanceolate, 1-1.5 mm

long. Lower glume oblong, nerveless, truncate.

Upper glume oblong-elliptic, obscurely 1 -nerved,

acute. Lemma ovate-lanceolate, 1 -nerved, acute.

Palea ovate-oblong, obscurely nerved, subacute.

Lodicules minute, stamens 2.

Rare in open grasslands on rocky soil.

FI. & Fr.: July-September.

Distribution: Kolhapur: Shivaji University

Campus, Salimkhe 8897.

Acknowledgements

We thank Dr. T.A. Cope, Royal Botanical

Garden, Kew, U.K. and Dr. J.F. Veldkamp,

Rijkesherbarium, Leiden, The Netherlands for

identifying the species..

June 26, 2000 C.B. SALUNKHE

Department of Botany,

Krishna Mahavidyalaya,

Shivnagar 415 108, Maharashtra, India.

S.R. YADAV

Department of Botany,

Shivaji University, Kolhapur 416 004,

Maharashtra,

India.

49. VEGETATION AND PHENODYNAMICS OF WETLANDS

OF CENTRAL RAJASTHAN

( With four text-figures)

Studies of low-lying areas, including

temporary ponds and pools, were initiated in

India by Biswas and Calder ( 1 937), Misra ( 1 946),

Ratnam and Joshi (1952), Mall (1961), Vyas

(1964), Zutshi (1975), Bhardwaja (1980), Gopal

(1986a, b), Bhardwaja and Gena (1987), Sharma

K.C. and R. Sharma (1992), Sharma R. and K.C.

Sharma (1992), and Anon. (1994). The gently

sloping marginal area here exhibits a lush-green

carpet of wetland plant species. The shallow

middle area remains covered with water during

the rainy season, getting exposed gradually to

the slushy bottom stage and supporting

hygrophilous vegetation during winter. This

study reveals that wetlands bear transitional

species interspersed with true aquatics, mesic

terrestrials, hygro-halophytes, ephemerals,

ephemeroids (grasses), poikilohydrics and dried

bed plants (Vijay 1999, 2000). In these

fluctuating ecosystems, patch dynamics is

extremely important. Patches of relatively well-

delineated areas of vegetation arise from the

visible distribution of populations. These patches

keep changing with time (Bohmer and Richter

1997). Some unique wetland plants like Marsilea

spp., Polygonum spp., Ammania baccifera ,

Bacopa monnieri , Cyperus spp., Scirpus spp.,

grow in all zones of wetlands. Zones in

vegetational mats occur in patches from the

margins towards the centre. In cracks and

crevices, Glinus lotoides and Polygonum

plebeium grow profusely. It is well known that

wetland plants show fluctuating phenology or

phenodynamics, which is totally dependent on

the availability of water. Centripetal movement

and centrifugal movement of both water and

vegetation is an interesting phenomenon of

wetlands, and arborescent habit is rare due to

fluctuating water levels with slushy beds

containing no vegetation. In some small ditches

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC 2002

573

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

with slushy beds, dried bed species like Glinus

lotoidss, Heliotropium spp., and Polygonum

plebeium occur. These wetland species growing

in temporary ponds show “Terrestrialization”:

-> Aquatic Marsh Terrestrial (mesic) ->

Xeric (Kangas 1990).

Phenology (Kumar et al. 1980, Reich and

Borchert 1982, Vijay 1997, 2000, Singh et al.

1998) of wetland plants comprising seed

germination (Sg), vegetative growth (Vg),

flowering (FI), fruiting (Fr), seed maturation

(Sm) and death (D) pattern were observed and

recorded. Phenodynamics of some taxa are

described.

Study Sites: The central Aravalli region

of Ajmer was the study area. The Aravallis run

about 692 km, northeast (near Delhi) to southeast

of Gujarat (Palampur). The central Aravalli

covers the entire Ajmer region (26° 25'-26° 35'

N, 74° 37-74° 42' E; 481.89 m above msl). The

three study sites are Anasagar, Boodha-Pushkar

and Lohagal wetland (Fig. 1).

Materia! and Methods: Vegetation

analysis was done during 1997-2000. Field

identifications were done with the help of extant

Floras (Sharma 1958, Duthie 1903-20, Bhandari

1978, Cook 1996). Diphenyl ring was

emphasized for phenological studies as indicated

below:

Feb Mar Jun Jul

Dec Nov Oct Sep

Observations: In all, 102 species

belonging to 33 families, comprising grasses,

sedges, non leguminous, leguminous plants and

lower plants, were recorded in the study area.

As the water recedes, the marshy vegetation

shows an interesting zonal distribution.

Fig. 2 reveals that the aquatic phase starts

in July, wetland stage extends from November

to February. The dry phase, beginning at the end

74°

November

December

26 c

January

October

September

m’rmyrn

iwmrn)

rm;rrmr

rrm-m')

?rrm

r/rmry’

• * \y wr rrtrr.

■ ----- - - v rm vtwv\ February

ivijjPHrrfyri'

rrrnrrty

r/rm rrLw*

<pftyyyyyf)

. Pattern /. . J yfiyyyy-yfj

u yn

March

April

August

< »**»»•«•••* • * 4

d" May

»:♦ *#•••* * # M

June

26°

Fig. 1: Map of the study area

Legends: Aquatic Phase;

Y Y Y Wetland Lush-green Phase;

• • • • - Dry Phase

Fig. 2: Showing Centripetal Movement Leading to

Terrestrialization

574

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 1: Species composition of Ajmer, central Rajasthan wetland

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575

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 1: Species composition of Ajmer, central Rajasthan wetland ( contd .)

576

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 1 : Species composition of Ajmer, central Rajasthan wetland ( contd .)

Sr. No. Name of Plant Family Flowering Locality

Season

(D) Sedges

of February, continues till June. The maximum

vegetation occurs in medium water conditions

when terrestrialization is initiated and sequence

of vegetation is affected. The gentle sloping

marginal zone exhibits a carpet of wetland

species, with ‘terrestrialization’ occurring at the

middle zone, which is covered with water during

the rainy season, gradually getting exposed in

winter, supporting lush-green marshy vegetation.

During the dry months the water level recedes

further and at its minimum the ponds and puddles

support characteristic vegetation consisting of

Glinus lotoides , Alternanthera sessilis.

Polygonum plebeium , Paspalidium geminatum ,

Ammania baccifera , Eclipta prostrata ,

Gnaphalium pulvinatum , Bacopa monnieri ,

Phyla nodiflora , Grangea madraspatana ,

Polypogon monspeliensis, Portulaca spp., and

Cynodon dactylon. Some hygro-halophytes, such

as Heliotropium supinum , Suaeda fruticosa and

Cressa cretica (Table 1), also appear on the

exposed soil.

Phenodynamics: Phenological observa-

tions of Heliotropium curassavicum, Glinus

lotoides , Cressa cretica and Ammania baccifera

inhabiting the wetlands were recorded during the

study period (1997-99), (Figs 4A-D).

From Fig. 4 (A-D) it is evident that

phenology fluctuates with the availability of

water, humidity and temperature. Striking pheno-

variations/pheno-rhythms were observed for the

period under study, which emphasizes variations

in phenophases corresponding to climatic

variations in the terrestrialization process. It may

be mentioned that 1997 was a period of excess

rainfall at Ajmer, as indicated in the

ombrotherms for 1997-99 (Fig. 3).

A. Heliotropium curassavicum - a soft soil

plant, with germination of seed generally in

November and December. But in 1997, no

germination occurred due to excessive flooding.

In April and May 1998, germination occurred,

but flowering, fruiting and seed maturation was

not completed because of heavy rainfall in July

(Fig. 4A)

B. Glinus lotoides - A dry bed or cracked

soil plant of the wetlands. It showed seed

germination only in June 1998. In 1997-98 and

up to February 1999, Glinus lotoides was totally

absent from these sites (Fig. 4B)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

577

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

<u

3*

3

■+■>

03

tm

<u

e.

E

£

jo

3

r*»

2.

3

Fig. 3: Ombrothermic diagrams showing wet and dry phase during the study period

578

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

Rainfall in mm Rainfall in mm

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

(A) Heliotropium curassavicum

1. In normal condition

(B) Glinus lotoides

1. In normal condition

3. In 1998 v

s-v,^

oo

(C) Cressa cretica

(D) Ammania baccifera

1. In normal condition

FlVg HFr

o^z>

SgVg SgVg

2. In 1997

3. In 1998

Vo

7,*Se Flpr

m m _£r

oo

4. In 1999

ssXs 2yg

So

D ^ r

Fr"l Flfr'

1. In normal condition

oo

Abbreviations: Sg-Seed germination; Vg- Vegetative growth; FI-Flowering; Fr-Fruiting;

Sm-Seed maturation; D-Death; • - Water Flooding

Fig. 4: A-D Phenodynamics of some Wetland plants

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

579

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

C. Cressa cretica - Under normal

conditions, phenology starts from November, but

in 1 997 germination did not occur the whole year

due to flooding and continued till March 1998.

In April 1998, seed germination and vegetative

growth started, but flowering and fruiting did

not occur due to flooding till December 1998.

Seed germination began only in January 1999

(Fig. 4C)

D. Ammania baccifera - Characterized by

various colours during growth with seed

germination in August. In 1997, however, no

seed germination occurred in August and this

continued till April of the next year, i.e. 1998.

Germination took place in May 1998, and

reflooding in July 1998 permitted the plant to

reappear in November 1998 (Fig. 4D).

Discussion: Wetlands are highly

productive ecosystems with prolific biodiversity.

They are significant in terms of water

purification, microclimatic regulation, locking

and storing nutrients, recharging of water table

and as habitats for wildlife. The extant

Refer

*Anon. (1994): Wetland mapping. In: Wetlands of India

(Project Report), (Eds.: Garg, J.K., T.S. Singh and

T. V.R. Murthy). Pp. 240. Space Applications Centre

(ISRO), Ahmedabad.

Bhandari, M.M. (1978): Flora of the Indian Desert. MPS

Repros, Jodhpur. Pp. 1-435 (2nd edn, 1990).

Bhardwaja, T.N. (1980): Recent advances in our

knowledge of the water fern Marsilea. In: Aspects

of Plant Sciences III. (Ed.: Bir, S.S.) Today &

Tomorrow’s Publ., New Delhi, pp. 39-62.

Bhardwaja, T.N. & C.B. Gena (1987): Status survey of

pteridophytic flora of Rajasthan with special

reference to endangered ferns and fern allies. Indian

fern Journal 4: 47-50.

Biswas, K. & C.C. Calder (1937): Handbook of common

water and Marsh plants of India and Burma. Govt,

of India Publication, Delhi.

Bohmer, H.J. & Michael Richter (1997): Regeneration

of plant communities - An attempt to establish a

typology and azonal system. Plant research and

development 45: 74-88. Inst, of Scientific

Cooperation. Tubingen Federal Republic of

degradation of wetlands calls for intensive

ameliorative measures. Striking pheno-variations

and pheno-rhythms were observed, indicating the

impact of microclimatic factors.

Cultivation, human activities and land

encroachment for building purposes poses

various threats to wetland vegetation. Ponds,

puddles and water reservoirs supporting these

wetland plants are gradually being eliminated

in the study area, due to cultivation at Boodha

Pushkar, urbanisation, waste disposal and water

pollution due to professional washing at

Anasagar, and growth of Prosopis chilensis at

Lohagal site. This calls for a concerted effort to

save wetland vegetation in and around cities like

Ajmer. We hope that this study will succeed in

drawing attention to this need.

October 1,2001 S.K. VIJAY

T.N. BHARDWAJA

Department of Botany

M.D.S. University, Ajmer 305 001,

Rajasthan, India.

E N C E S

Germany.

Cook, C.D.K. ( 1 996): Aquatic and wetland plants of India.

Oxford University Press. Delhi, pp. 385.

Duthie, S. (1903-20): Flora of upper Gangetic plain. Vol.

I-III, Repr. Ed. 1960. Botanical Survey of India,

Howrah.

Gopal, B. (1986a): Vegetation dynamics in temporary and

shallow fresh water habitats. Aquat. Bot. 23: 39 1 -

396.

Gopal, B. (1986b): Wetland Ecosystem: An appraisal.

Veroff. Geobot. Inst. ETH. Stiftung. Rubel. Zurich.

Pp. 362-371.

Kangas, PC. (1990): Long-term development of Forested

wetlands, Ecosystem of the world 15. Elsevier

Science Pub. Amsterdam, Netherlands.

*Kumar, A., P. Kumar & M.C. Joshi (1980): Phenological

observations on herbaceous vegetation around

Pilani. Indian J. Ecol. 7: 84-87.

Mall, L.P. (1961): Ecology of drying ponds. J. Indian

bot. Soc. 40: 139.

*Misra, R. (1946): A study in the ecology of low lying

lands. Indian Ecol. 1: 45-52.

580

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

♦Ratnam, B.V. & M.C. Joshi (1952): An ecological study

of vegetation near about a temporary pond in Pilani.

Proc. Rajasthan Acad. Sci. 3: 45-59.

♦Reich, P.B. & R. Borchert (1982): Phenology and

ecophysiology of the tropical tree, Tabebuia

neochrysantha (Bignoniaceae). Ecology : 294-299.

Sharma, K.C. & R. Sharma (1992): Trophic evaluation of

an urban wetland of Ajmer, Rajasthan. Inteclo’s IV

International Wetland Conference, Ohio State

University, Columbus. Ohio, USA.

Sharma, Renu & K.C. Sharma (1992): Floristic diversity

of wetlands of Aravalli ecosystem, a survey of

Anasagar lake of Ajmer. National Seminar on

Ecological Restoration of Aravalli Hill ecosystems

of Rajathan at Ajmer. DST, Jaipur.

Sharma, V.S. (1958): The flora of Ajmer. J. Bombay nat.

Hist.Soc. 55: 129-141.

♦Singh, A., P.K. Ralhan & R.P. Singh (1998): Phenological

studies on conditioned stocks of Shisham

(Dalbergia sissoo Roxb.). Indian J. Ecology 26(1):

114-122.

Vuay, S.K. ( 1 997): Phenological observations of some rare

vascular plants of Pushkar Valley, Ajmer (Abstract).

Proc. of Nat. Conf. on Environment &

Ecodevelopment of Pushkar Valley of Rajasthan.

Pp. 11.

Vijay, S.K. (1999): Ecomorphological investigations of

wetland plants in selected sites of Ajmer with special

reference to Amphibiousness (Abstract).

International Conference on Tropical Aquatic

Ecosystems, Nainital, India. Pp. 137.

Vijay, S.K. (2000): Phenological observations of marshy

wetland flora of Ajmer, Central Rajasthan

(Abstract). Proc. of the 87th ISCA Pune. Pp 74-76.

Vyas, L.N. (1964): A study of hydrophytes and marsh

plants of Alwar and environs. JIBS 43: 1 7-30.

Zutshi, D.P. (1975): Association of macrophytic vegetation

of Kashmir lakes. Vegetatio 30: 61-62.

♦Not seen in original.

50. TYPHONIUM HORSFIELDII (MIQ.) STEENIS, FAMILY ARACEAE,

A NEW REPORT FOR INDIA

( With one text-figure )

While revising the Indian Araceae, it was

found that a specimen at CAL which had been

collected in Mizoram by B. Godfrey and labelled

as Arisaema tortuosum (Wall.) Schott var.

curvatum (Roxb.) Engl, had been later

determined as Typhonium horsfieldii (Miq.)

Steenis by Nicolson, a well-known aroidologist.

A perusal of literature reveals that this species is

confined to Java in Indonesia. As the specimen

in question is from Mizoram, the species becomes

an addition to the flora of India. A detailed

description and an illustration (Fig. 1) are

provided to facilitate identification.

Typhonium horsfieldii (Miq.) Steenis in

Bull. Jard. Bot., Buitenzorg Ser. 3,17: 403. 1948;

Backer & Bakh. f., FI. Java 3: 123. 1968.

Sauromatum horsfieldii Miq., FI. Ind.-Bat. 3:

196. 1856; Engl, in A. DC., Monogr. Phan. 2:

571. 1879. Type: Java(U). Typhonium fallax'N.E.

Br. in J. Linn. Soc., Bot. 18: 260. 1880; Engl.,

Pflanzenr. (IV. 23 F) 73: 121, f. 17 F - N. 1920.

Heterostalis pedata Schott in Ann. Mus. Bot.

Lugduno-Batavum 1: 278. 1864, non Typhonium

pedatum Schott 1857. Typhonium pedatum sensu

Engl, in A. DC., Monogr. Phan. 2: 613. 1879,

non Schott 1857.

Cormous herb; corm c. 0.9 x 0.8 cm,

subglobose. Cataphylls 3-3.5 cm long. Leaves

pedatisect; petioles 10-40 cm long, sheathing;

leaflets 7-9, sessile, lanceolate, acuminate;

middle leaflet 5. 5-7. 5 x 0.6-1 cm; lateral leaflets

gradually becoming smaller, 1.2-5. 5 cm long.

Peduncle 4-20 cm long; spathe 8-10 cm long;

tube 2-3 cm long, oblong, convolute; limb 6-7 x

2-2.5 cm, oblong-lanceolate, cuspidate. Spadix

5.8-10 cm long. Pistillate-flowered portion

0.2-1 x 0.4-0. 6 cm. Neuter-flowered portion

2-2.2 cm long followed by stipe c. 7 mm long.

Staminate-flowered portion 0.7-1 x c. 0.3 cm,

terminating in a stipitate appendix. Pistillate

flowers c. 1 x 0.5-0. 8 mm, dense; ovary ovoid,

2-ovuled; stigma capitate, coronate. Neuters

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

581

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

,'3 2 mm

Fig. 1: Typhonium horsfieldii (Miq.) Steenis; A. Habit, B. Spadix, C Pistillate flower,

D. Staminate flower, E. Neuters

582

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

elongate-clavate at base, 1 .5-2.5 mm iong, linear

above, 4-5.5 mm iong. Staminate flowers

c. 0.5 mm long; anthers broadly ovate, shortly

stalked, dehiscing by apical slits. Appendix 2.2-

5 cm long, cylindrical.

FL & Fr.: Not known.

Distribution: india: Mizoram, world:

Indonesia (Java).

Specimen examined: mizoram: Lushai

hills, Aijal, B. Godfrey 527 (CAL).

Acknowledgements

KS thanks the Director, Botanical Survey

of India, Kolkata, for a Senior Research

Fellowship. Mrs. C. R Malathi, Sci. Asst., made

the figure.

March 29, 2001 K. SASIKALA

E. VAJRAVELU

R DANIEL

Botanical Survey of India,

Southern Circle,

TNAU Campus,

Lawley Road P.O.,

Coimbatore 641 003,

Tamil Nadu, India.

51. LECTOTYPIFICATION OF POLYSTICHUM SQUARROSUM (D. DON) FEE VAR.

BEDDOMEI MANICKAM & RAJKUMAR, FAMILY DRYOPTERIDACEAE

Polystichum squarrosum (D. Don) Fee is a

tropical fern with morphological diversity and

taxonomic complexity. Rajkumar and Manickam

(Pak. J. Biol , 2(3): 755-758, 1999), while analysing

the spore morphology of Polystichum squarrosum

have observed two distinct types of perine and have

construed them as two varieties. The specimen with

winged smooth hyaline perine have been placed

under var. beddomei and the crescent dark brown

penned specimens have been placed under var.

squarrosum . Of 20 specimens, they have found

5 specimens (XCH 241, 350, 419, 897, 922) to be

var. beddomei and the rest (XCH 9, 29 1 , 307, 3 19,

320, 415, 434, 443, 470, 56 1 , 684, 7 1 3, 738, 824,

867) to be var. squarrosum. Unfortunately, var.

beddomei has not been typified. Hence, as per the

ICBN rules it is lectotyped here. The lectotype has

been selected from the specimens preserved at

St. Xavier’s College Herbarium (XCH),

Palayamkottai.

Polystichum squarrosum (D.Don) Fee var.

beddomei Manickam & Rajkumar, Pak. J. Biol.

Sci, 2(3): 755-758, Fig. 3a (1999).

Lectotype: India, Tamil Nadu, Nilgiri

Hills, Thottabetta (2,650 m), 24.x. 1991,

Manickam, XCH 419.

Acknowledgement

I thank the Department of Science &

Technology for financial assistance through the

Young Scientist Award scheme (HR/SX/B-21/

97).

July 16, 2001 S. DOMINIC RAJKUMAR

SPK Centre for Environmental Sciences,

Manonmaniam Sundaranar University,

Alwarkurichi 627 412,

Tamil Nadu,

India,

52. A COMPARATIVE STUDY ON THE REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY

OF THREE INDIAN SPECIES OF MARSILEA

A comparative reproductive biological

study was conducted on three Indian Mars ilea

species of the coromandeliana group. The species

having monomorphic megaspores showed

microsporal aberrations, while those with

megaspora! aberrations had normal microspores.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

583

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Release mechanism of the mega and microspores

from their sporangia was different in these

species.

Marsilea L., Family Marsileaceae, is a

thoroughly investigated genus of amphibious

pteridophytes. It is the most versatile fern genus

morphologically and ecologically, while its

reproductive biology exhibits a close

correspondence to its morphological and

ecological plasticity, unlike the other two genera

of the family — Regnellidium and Pilularia —

as well as other heterosporous aquatic ferns. The

different habitats and ecological adaptations

from aquatic to sub-terrestrial, terrestrial to

extreme xerophyte fully concurs with a wide

spectrum of reproductive mechanism

(Bhardwaja 1966). Gupta (1962) and Bhardwaja

(1980) have published facets of the biology of

this genus.

Three Indian species of Marsilea L.,

namely Marsilea coromandeliana Willd.,

M. kedarmalii (Bhardwaja et al. 1994) and

M. shashibalii (Bhardwaja et al. 2000) were

selected for this study. Ripe sporocarps of the

species were collected. Five sporocarps of each

species were scarified and kept for germination

in a petri dish containing tap water. The various

stages of sexual reproduction in the three species

of Marsilea from sorophore extrusion to

sporeling formation were constantly monitored

with a stereoscopic binocular microscope.

For sporal studies, ripe sporocarps of these

plants were boiled in a 5% aqueous solution of

potassium hydroxide (KOH) and allowed to cool

to burst open the sporocarps. The sori from these

ruptured sporocarps were squashed in

acetocarmine. The sporangial contents were

classified as per Loyal and Kumar (1979).

Spore morphology of all the three species

of Marsilea L. shows that the megaspores are

somewhat longer than broad, ellipsoidal or ovate

in general outline. Megaspores of Marsilea

coromandeliana Willd. exhibit polymorphism,

which has not been found in the other two closely

allied species — M. kedarmalii Bhardwaja et al

and M. shashibalii Bhardwaja et al . Megaspore

polymorphism in Marsilea coromandeliana

Willd. matches that of Isoetes coromandeliana

L. , another heterosporous pteridophyte (Gena

1980).

It was observed that while normal

monomorphic megaspores are found in

M. kedarmalii Bhardwaja et al. and

M. shashibalii Bhardwaja et al. their

microsporangia exhibit microsporangial

aberrations. Along with the normal large and

small microspores within the microsporangium,

aberrant microspores were found in the

microsporangia. [Microsporangium possesses

normal microspores, monads and deformed

spores.] This has also been reported earlier in

M. hirsuta R.Br. by Feller (1953) and in

M. minuta L. by Loyal and Kumar (1979).

M. coromandeliana Willd. which is known to

have polymorphic megaspores, showed normal

monomorphic microspores. All the 64

microspores present in a microsporangium of

M. coromandeliana Willd. were found to be of

uniform size and shape.

Detailed observations regarding spore

liberation, development of male and female

gametes and sporeling formation have been

recorded in Tables 1 and 2. Interspecific

differences regarding these aspects of

reproductive biology were seen.

Gupta and Bhardwaja (1956) have done

considerable research on the morphology and

systematics of the genus Marsilea L. Gupta

(1962) has studied variations in size and shape

of the vegetative organs and differentiation into

xerophytic and hydrophytic forms in his

monograph on Marsilea L. The occurrence of

microsporangia lacking normal microspores may

be attributed to the fact that increasing dryness

of the habitat leads to the formation of larger

number of megasporangia (Bhardwaja 1966).

The available nutrition is thus utilized maximally

in the formation of megaspores, and smaller

584

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 1: Comparison of gametophyte and sporeling development

in the three Marsilea species

Table 2: Sporocarp contents of three Marsilea species

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

585

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

numbers of normal microspores, and aberrant

spores of various types are thus more frequent.

Both increasing dryness and temperature are

responsible for spore variation in Marsilea L.

(Shattuck 1910).

Aspects of heterospory, specially

microsporal aberrations, so frequent in some

species of Marsilea L., have been studied in detail

by Bhardwaja and Wadhwani (1984), and

Bhardwaja (1986). Sen (1989), Soni (1989) and

Wadhwani (1989) have discussed apogamy and

parthenogenetic development of sporelings in

Marsilea L. and have correlated microsporal

aberrations with apogamous and parthenogenetic

sporeling formation.

Refer

Bhardwaja, T.N. (1966): Sporal aberrations in relation to

leaf morphology in water fern Marsilea. Nova

Hedwigia 12: 405-415.

Bhardwaja, T.N. (1980): Recent advances in our

knowledge of the water fern Marsilea. In: Aspects

of Plant Science, HI. Pp. 39-62.

Bhardwaja, T.N. (1986): Microsporal aberrations in the

heterosporous fern Family Marsileaceae. J. Indian

Bot. Soc. 65 (supplement): 39.

Bhardwaja, T.N. & C. Wadhwani (1984): Aspects of

heterospory in the genus Marsilea. International

symp. towards understanding the Biology of

Pteridophytes, Chandigarh, pp. 52-54.

Bhardwaja, T.N., M.LC. D’ Souza & C.B. Gena. (1994):

A new species of Marsilea L. from India. Indian

Fern Journal. II: 49-52.

Bhardwaja, T.N., T.S. Joseph & C.B. Gena (2000): A new

species of Marsilea L. from Rajasthan, India.

Indian Fern Journal.

Feller, M.J. (1953): Etudes sur les Hydropteridales II.

Sporocarps et sporogenese chez Marsilea kirsuta

R.Br. La Cellule 55: 307-377.

Gena, C.B. (1980): Cytotaxonomical morphological and

experimental studies of genus Isoetes L. in

Rajasthan. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Rajasthan,

Jaipur.

Acknowledgement

We thank the University Grants

Commission, New Delhi for financial assistance.

December 19, 2001 T.S. JOSEPH*

C.B. GENA

Department of Botany, Government College,

Ajmer, Rajasthan, India.

* Address for correspondence:

Aromatic and Medicinal Plants Research Stn,

Kerala Agricultural University,

Odakkali, Asamannoor,

P.O. Ernakulam district 683 549,

Kerala, India.

ENC ES

Gupta, K.M. (1962): Marsilea — Botanical monograph.

CSIR, New Delhi. Pp. 1-113.

Gupta, K.M. & T.N. Bhardwaja ( 1 956): Indian Marsileas:

their morphology and systematics. 1. Marsilea

aegyptiaca Wi lid. with remarks on present

systematic position of Indian species. J. Bombay,

nat. Hist. Soc. 53: 423.

Loyal, D.S. & K. Kumar (1979): Cytological observations

on some natural populations of Marsilea minuta

L,, their reproductive mechanisms and evolutionary

features. In: Recent researches in plant sciences,

(Ed.: Bir, S.S.). Pp. 229-236.

Sen, S. (1989): Apogamy/Parthenogenesis in Marsilea —

an analytical study. International symp. on present

and future Perspectives in Pteridology, Jaipur.

Pp. 58.

Shattuck, C.H. (1910): The origin of heterospory in

Marsilea. Bot. Gaz. 49: 19-40.

Soni, K.C. ( 1 989): Some aspects of the biology of Marsilea

of western Rajasthan. International symp. on

present and future Perspectives in Pteridology,

Jaipur. Pp. 144-145.

Wadhwani, C. (1989): Microsporal/sporal variations in

some species of the heterosporous fern Marsilea

L. International symp. on present and future

Perspectives in Pteridology, Jaipur.

586

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

53. A COMPARATIVE ECO-ANATOMICAL STUDY

ON THE RHIZOME OF THREE INDIAN MARSILEAS

(With one plate)

A study was conducted on the variations

in the Rhizomes of the three Indian species of

Marsilea L. namely, Marsilea coromandeliana

Willd., Marsilea kedarmalii (Bhardwaja et al.

1994) and Marsilea shashibalii (Bhardwaja et

al. 2000). Marsilea coromandeliana Willd. and

M. kedarmalii Bhardwaja et al were collected

from the southern states of Kerala and Tamil

Nadu respectively. M. shashibalii Bhardwaja

et al was collected from Kota district, Rajasthan

and studied to investigate the eco-anatomical

variations present among the three species.

Genus Marsilea L., well known for its

amphibious nature, flourishes with equal ease

in aquatic as well as in strongly xeric habitats

(Bhardwaja 1966). It is, therefore, possible to

categorise its various species as xeromorphic,

amphibious or hydromorphic forms. Anatomical

studies of ferns and fern allies, with special

reference to stelar system, have been extensively

investigated during the last century. Pande ( 1 923)

reported the presence of dictyostele in the tubers

of Marsilea erosa L. and oil as the storage

product in its cortex. But a critical study of this

genus with special reference to land and water

forms has not been made so far.

Land and water forms of all the three

species were cultivated in the botanical garden

of the Government College, Ajmer, Rajasthan.

Different cultural practices were followed for

land and water forms (D’ Souza et al. 1 993). Land

fonns were raised in pots, and given a measured

quantity of water on alternate days. Water forms

were raised in pots placed under water in a tank.

Hand and microtome sections of the

rhizome were taken using the Tertiary Butyl

Alcohol (TBA) Method for dehydration followed

by paraffin embedding. 10-15 mm thick sections

were stained using Safranine-Fast Green and

mounted in DPX.

The study shows that there are a number

of significant anatomical variations in the land

and water forms of the three species of Marsilea.

The epidennis is thin-walled in the water

forms, whereas it is thick in the land forms.

Among the three species, M. shashibalii

Bhardwaja et al. has the thickest epidermal wall

The inner cortex is parenchymatous in the water

forms, whereas it is sclerenchymatous in the land

forms. All the water forms have abundant

aerenchyma in the outer cortex, compared to the

land forms. In the land form of M shashibalii

Bhardwaja et al , aerenchyma is nearly absent.

The inner cortical cells of the land forms

contained starch grains. These were abundant

in the land form of M. coromandeliana Willd.,

but absent in the water forms of all the three

species.

The stelar perimeter of the rhizome in the

land forms is comparatively larger than that of

water forms. The Signification of xylem elements

reveals differences in land and water forms. The

Sand forms having thicker lignin deposition,

while water forms have poor Signification of

tracheides. The pith in land forms is highly

sclerotic, particularly in M. coromandeliana

Willd. The pith of all the water forms was

characterised by the presence of tannin cells.

Tannin is known to provide protection against

microbial growth in water plants (Farkas and

Kirlay 1962).

Thus, Marsilea L. shows adaptation to a

wide range of habitats from aquatic to

subterrestrial, terrestrial and xerophytic. Gupta

(1962) stated that water is an important

ecological factor in bringing about variations in

size and shape of vegetative organs, and has

probably led to the differentiation in terrestrial

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

587

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

and hydrophytic forms in Marsilea L. Allsopp

(1963) observed that land and water forms show

striking phytochemical differences. Wadhwani

(1983) reported that land and water forms of

M. diffusa Lepr. respond differently to the same

cultural regime. Water forms of Marsilea L. are

reported as more labile to hypothermia than land

forms (Joseph 1998).

In this study, all the three species of

Marsilea L. exhibited significant morphological

variations between land and water forms.

Evidently, the amount of water available had a

great impact on the morphological and

anatomical differences in land and water

forms.

Acknowledgement

We thank the University Grants

Commission, New Delhi for financial assistance.

December 1 9, 200 1 T.S. JOSEPH*

C. B. GENA

Department of Botany, Government College,

Ajmer, Rajasthan, India.

* Address for correspondence:

Aromatic and Medicinal Plants Research Stn,

Kerala Agricultural University,

Odakkali, Asamannoor,

P. O. Ernakulam district 683 549,

Kerala, India.

Refer

Allsopp, A. (1963): Morphogenesis in Marsilea. J. Linn.

Soc. (Bot.). 58: 417-427.

Bhardwaja, T.N. ( 1 966): Sporal aberrations in relation to

leaf morphology in the water fern Marsilea. Nova

Hedwigia 12: 405-415.

Bhardwaja, T.N., M.I.C. D’Souza & C.B. Gena (1994):

A new species of Marsilea L. from India. India Fern

Journal 11: 49-52

Bhardwaja, T.N,, T.S. Joseph & C.B. Gena (2000): A new

species of Marsilea L. from Rajasthan, India. India

Fern Journal.

D’Souza, M.I.C., T.N. Bhardwaja & C.B. Gena (1993): A

comparative study of vascular tissue of some Marsilea

species-1 Xylem. Indian Fern Journal 10: 92-97.

e n c e s

Farkas, G.L. & Z. Kirlay (1962): Role of phenolic

compounds in the physiology of plant diseases and

disease resistance. Phytopath. 44: 105-150.

Gupta, K.M. (1962): Marsilea - Botanical monograph.

CSIR, New Delhi. 1-113.

Joseph, T.S. (1998): The effect of hyperthermia on the

ecophysiological forms of south Indian Marsileas.

S.B. Academic review VII (2): 77-81.

Pande, S.S. (1923): Some observations on the biology of

Marsilea. Proc. Lahore Phil. Soc. 4: 1-28.

Wadhwani, C. (1983): Study of microsporal aberrations

and parthenogenesis in some species of heterosporous

fern Marsilea L. Ph.D. thesis, University of

Rajasthan, Jaipur.

588

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Joseph, T.S. and C.B. Gena: Marsilea spp.

Plate 1

Fig. 1: Magnified view of rhizome: T. S. of M. coromandeliana Willd. showing cell wall

thickness, starch grains and aerenchyma (Land form)

Fig. 2: Magnified view of rhizome: T. S. of M. kedarmalii Bhardwaja et al. showing cell

wall thickness and aerenchyma (Land form)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002

589

ERRATA

In Vol. 99(2), August 2002

Page 300 for Miscellaneous Note No. 13. read the title as:

SIGHTING OF A RUFOUS-NECKED STINT CALIDRIS RUFICOLLIS (PALLAS)

ON INDIA'S WEST COAST

Page 348 for Miscellaneous Note No. 34, second column, 4th line

For: Wynter-Blyth (1957) does not mention Alpinia calcarata Rose., occurrence and successful

rearing of Grass Demon Udaspes folus Cram., and Restricted Demon Notocrypta curvifascia Felder

& Felder on Alpinia calcarata confirms it as a new larval food plant for both the species.

Read: Wynter-Blyth (1957) does not mention Alpinia calcarata Rose., as the food plant of both

Grass Demon Udaspes folus Cram., and Restricted Demon Notocrypta curvifascia Felder & Felder.

The occurrence and successful rearing of Grass Demon Udaspes folus Cram., and Restricted Demon

Notocrypta curvifascia Felder & Felder on Alpinia calcarata confirms it as a new larval food plant

for both the species.

Page 379 for Miscellaneous Note No. 49, Table 1

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