JOURNAL

BOMBAY

Aatwral History Society.

No. 1.] “BOMBAY, JANUARY 1886, — LVol. Ill,

WATERS OF WESTERN INDIA.

Part V.—SIND.

(By a Member of the Society.)

Tuu first and most important point as regards the higher

vertebrates is that Sind is only a sub-tropical country, and the

aquatic birds, in particular, belong largely to the Palearctic

fauna.

Secondly, we have not here a great river receiving affluents, but

one which discharges distributaries, so that spawning fish pushing

up stream do not here leave the Indus, but come to it.

Thirdly, we have to deal with a rainfall so small and uncertain that

it is a negligeable quantity. Some researches in which the present

writer was concerned went far to support a theory conceived by the

chief of Indian meteorologists, viz. that Upper Sind receives no rain

from the sea, but only gets its own evaporation partly returned in

occasional showers. It is certain that the rainfall has greatly

diminished since powerful and settled governments took the bridling

of the Indus in hand, and prevented it from forming annually a

shallow sea, with vast evaporation. My own opinion is that the

ancient river will one day re-assert its sway, and that one of the most

fearful catastrophes ever felt by any country will leave what we

2 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

now call Upper Sind a desert, and make Sibi, or some place

thereabouts, the freshwater port of Central Asia.

But up to the present the biped has the best of it, though the

tension and vicissitudes of the struggle can only be appreciated by

those who have been in it. On this head I need only sum up by

saying that the Indus, in Upper Sind, flows down a channel in the

centre of a ridge, which ridge itself runs down the left, or eastern

side of a wide shallow trough, and is continually trying, like all

waters flowing at an angle to the Equator in the northern hemisphere,

to shift its channel to the right or western side. On the eastern

side the pressure is less ; and the area below river level, population

and cultivation are far inferior. But even here much land is lower

than the flood level, and accordingly we have in Upper Sind two

unequal populations dependent for their daily bread on getting

a certain amount of Indus water,and for bare existence as terrestrial

beings on keeping out the surplus.

There are analogous cases in Holland, still more in Egypt and

Lombardy; but these are small areas in comparison, and moreover

are much more thickly-populated, so that they have stronger means

of resistance to the powers of the waters. If the tremendous energy

of the “ pax Britannica” is allowed to hold head against the Indus

for a few more centuries, it may accumulate a population as numer-

ous, and as well able to fight the river as those who dwell by the

Nile or the Po.

In the meanwhile a single campaign interrupting the engineers

might at any time bring about the cataclysm. It is perhaps per-

missible to conclude this sketch by observing that although the

Sindi cultivator is very far below the Dutch peasant in every respect,

he has no cause to envy the wretched labourers of Northern Italy,

and still less so as regards the fellaheen of Heypt servi servorum.

Of all agricultural classes in this presidency, the Sindi cultivators

are the best fed and most independent. They get meat, most of

them, once or more a week, plenty of good fish, which concerns our

subject, and dairy produce. If they don’t like one landlord, as land is

more abundant than hands, they can choose another at their plea-

sure; their stature and bearing show all this, in Upper Sind at least.

The human animal, at any rate, can thrive in the plain of the Indus,

and if its climate is to strangers simply infernal, the natives are

used to it, and know no better. In dealing with any other country

these details would be irrelevant; but in Sind all animals, and

WATERS OF WESTERN INDIA. 3]

especially man, live upon the Indus, and are justly termed aquatics

from the Commissioner and the General down to the last Bhang

and Mohana.

The Indus, as abovementioned, has in Sind no affluents but distribu-

taries. Near the coast these become mouths, things common enough

with great rivers. But higher up they are canals under human

control, or “lets,” that is natural and uncontrolled overflows.

Those hollows, in which, after the subsidence of the snow-fed inun-

dation, water still remains, are called ‘“‘Dhands” (arms) and

“ Kolabs” (deep waters), and all of these swarm with life.

The highest aquatic mammal after Homo sapiens, is the Otter

(Lutra nair). It is rathera puzzle with the otters that the same spe-

cies seems to vary greatly in size with locality. The otter of Sind is

nearly as big againas that of our peninsular provinces, but no larger

than in Bengal or Malabar. But the same occursin Europe. Ionce

had an admittedly large specimen weighed on a particular river in

Ireland, and it turned the scale at 16lbs. avoirdupois. But weights

exceeding 20lbs are common in the British Isles, and you may see

25lbs. and 28lbs. recorded in the (field often enough. ‘The lesson

is that the genus Lutra and its species are subject to great local

variation in this respect.

The next aquatic mammal is a very strange one, the Indus Porpoise,

or “ Bullan” (Platanista gangetica). I prefer to treat this remark-

able animal as identical with the Gangetic species, because all I have

to say will apply to either, and the specific distinction is very doubt-

ful, consisting chiefly in the superior size of the few specimens

obtained from the Indus. It is very difficult of capture, as are all

the freshwater cetacea, and I myself exhausted money and influence

in vain in the effort to obtain a specimen. A native chief is said to

have been more fortunate, and to have applied his captive to a most

extraordinary use.

The “Bullan” resembles the ordinary mammalian dolphins proper

(not the fish wrongly so called) in general outline, having a fusiform

body and long pointed snout, with teeth in both jaws. It differs

from them in having little or no back fin, and from the common

porpoise of Hurope, and the Steno and Neomeris of our seas in

having (asalready mentioned) along rostrum or beak-like snout, The

same difference (with minor ones) distinguishes it from the nearest

other freshwater cetacea; (Orcella fluviatilis of the lrrawady) and

on the whole its nearest living relatives are supposed to be the Hy-

A BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

peroodon, a large whale of the North Atlantic, and Inia, a porpoise or

dolphin of similar habits which is found in the great rivers of South

America.

When we know moro of those of China, it seems not unlikely that

we may find something of the sort there.

It is by no means evenly distributed; indeed, nothing is on the

Indus. Where there are towns, their rubbish and sewage probably

attract fish; at any rate these and the “ Bullans” are most common

in such places. The water-fowl, on the other hand, are most common

on undisturbed reaches, and the crocodilia are very locally distributed,

whereof more anon. Some parts of the great river seem absolutely

desert in every way.

Amongst aquatic birds the great Sarus Crane, essentially a tropical

form, is rare. The White Siberian Crane (Grus leucogeranus) is

recorded, in my opinion, very doubtfully, as a rare straggler from

the north. The Grey Crane (Grus cinerea) is common enough in

winter, but the Demoiselle Crane rare. We have here all the

southern plovers, and the Chettusiz are abundant, and the Huropean

Lapwing occurs pretty frequently. Hsacus recurvirostris is said to

be known as the “ Chota Taltir” or ‘small sort of Houbara’’ (Otis

macqueent), but this is probably the result of a confusion between it

and Uidicnemus crepitans, the Lesser Stone Plover or BastardFlorican,

which certainly does bear that name, and deserves it by its habits,

which the former bird does not. Two swallow plovers, Glareola

orientalis and torqwata, breed here, and G, lactea occurs in consider-

able numbers, and may breed. Squatarola helvetica, the Grey

Plover proper, is abundant in places in the cold weather, chiefly on

the sea shore, and so on throughout their tribe. We have all

the black-and-white marine plovers, and probably most of them

breed.

Of the Raptores (which might fairly have claimed precedence), we

have the White-tailed Sea-eagle, or Brne (Haliwtus albicilla), the

trey-backed Sea Hagle, as on the Konkan coast (this latter breeds

near Sakkar), and the Ring-tailed Sea Hagle, also breeding, This

last bird has one old-established eyrie in a sacred pipal tree near

Bori Bunder Railway station, where the birds do not seem to care

twopence for the continual throng of men and noise and steam of

the engines. The Osprey is common, and said to breed. Syilornis

cheela is reported, but I have not seen it, and the Peregrine Falcon

hunts ducks so constantly that it may almost be called a bird of the

WATERS OF WESTERN INDIA. 5

“waters. In Sind, at any rate, its haunt is always near water.

Circaétus gallicus is reported; I have not seen it.

The Harriers abound, especially the Marsh Harrier. This, a large

Buzzard, and the Dwarf Hagle frequent marshy ground and the

edge of water. Mr. Hume has recorded his Malvus major and the

Grey Kite (Elanus cwruleus), occurs on the Indus; the Brahminy

Kite is pretty common, and breeds, and so does the Fish Owl

(Ketupa ceylonensis). The aquatic raptores, it will be observed,

retain a strong tropical element, though, on the whole, the Palearctic

forms slightly predominate, and are by far the most noticeable.

_ Of Kingfishers we have one northern species, the Huropean King-

fisher, Alcedo ispida, said to breed; and one tropical, Alcedo benga-

- lensis, which it is said does not. Halcyon smyrnensis and Ceryle

rudis, both of which breed in Sind, are sub-tropical forms extending

from the Mediterranean to the Equator. I, knew a:kingfisher to

breed in a suspended grass-woven nest, probably originally the work

of a Ploceus or allied bird, in the bank of a canal near Shikarpur.

I supposed the bird to be A. bengalensis, but it was probably A.

ispida. We have here none of the Malayan forms like Ceyx, or

even Pelargopsis.

Amongst Storks, Sind possesses the great Adjutant, the Jabiru

( Mycteria australis), the true Black Stork, more frequent here than

in our former provinces, but only a winter visitor; the Black White-

necked Stork, a resident, and the Huropean Stork, abundant in the

cold weather only. ‘The Grey and Grass (Purple) Herons abound,

with several species of White Egrets and Dwarf Herons, Night

Herons, and Paddy-birds innumerable. Nearly all breed here.

The European bittern is not very rare in the cold weather; and of

dwarf bitterns, Ardetta flavicollis, cinnamomea, sinensis and minute

occur, and probably all breed. The first and last certainly do.

The Spoon-bill is common in the cold weather. I do not think

it breeds here; but the Pelican Ibis, Shell Ibis, White, Black, and

Glossy Ibises all do, especially in the marshes and islands of what

is called the Hastern Narra, now the uppermost branch of the Indus

on its left bank, draining off towards the Great Desert, east of the

Ghar Hills.

In Sind, the Snipes and their allies are all of northern types,

with one exception, the Painted Snipe, which breeds here. The

Woodcock is not recorded from Sind. Of the Parrine we have the

Water-Pheasant (Hydrophasianus chirurgus), which is resident, but

6 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIDTY.

not the more tropical Bronze-winged Jacana. Amongst Gallinulinc

the Purple and Bald Coots are abundant, the latter especially occur-

ring locally in flocks of many hundred birds. The Watercock

(Gallierex), unknown in our Peninsular provinces, isfound here. I

do not know whether it breeds, but this is likely. The aterhen

and Crakes are numerous, but not peculiar, except Porzana minuta,

an outlier from the Upper Asian region.

Passing on to the swimming birds proper, the sub-tropical charac-

ter of the Avifauna becomes still more marked. Swans, probably

Cygnus olor, have been seenand shot. The Flamin gois common, going

somewhere north to breed in June, and returning in September.

The Grey Lag Goose is locally abundant in winter, and the Barred-

headed Goose, Anser indicus, not much less so; and Anser albifrons,

a decidedly Palearctic bird, occurs. The tropical Black-backed

Goose is only found as a straggler, The Small Whistling Teal,

however, abounds and breeds, and is commonly known by the

quaint name of “ Inundation Duck,” as if it were a distinction

amongst ducks to thrive upon inundations. I doubt whether the

larger and less common Great, Whistling Teal, Dendrocygna fulva,

breeds here. The Brahminy Duck or Ruddy Sheldrake is common

enough, but not resident; the true Sheldrake, a sub~arctic bird, is

an uncommon cold-weather visitor. It has, I think, no breeding

places in any climate warmer than that of England.

The first and most important true duck is the typical and essen~

tially northern Mallard, which abounds in the cold weather. With

it come the Shoveller,Gadwall, Pintail,and Widgeon, the Red-headed,

Red-crested, White-eyed, and Tufted Pochards, all in great num-

bers. The sub-tropical Marbled Teal, rare in Gujarat and unknown

almost in the rest of this Presidency, is a common cold weather

visitor here. Its nearest relatives are not the teals, but the gadwalls.

The Spot-billed Duck is a resident, the Golden Hye and Scaup

are rare cold weather visitors, so are the Red-breasted Merganser,

the Googander, andthe Smew. The Tropic birds and a Gannet

(our old friend Sula cyanops) occur on the coast, but cannot be said

to frequent it.

The White Pelicans, more or less, are cold weather visitors, and

the Grey Pelican is a resident, all occurring in considerable num-

bers (allowing for the great size and voracity of these birds), |

They are tamed, or rather confined, by the fishermen of the

Indus, who eat them and make oil of their fat.

WATERS OF WESTEEN INDIA.

The European, Chinese, and Little Cormorants abound, and all

three: are said to breed in Sind. As regards the first-named, this

seems to require further examination.

The Snake Bird undoubtedly abounds and breeds here,

Of true Teals, the Grey and Garganey (“ blue-winged”’) Teal are

common in winter, and the Siberian Querquedula formosa (or gloct-

tans) has been obtained.

The essentially tropical Cotton Teal (which is not a teal at all, but

a dwarf goose) does not, I think, occur in Sind. I have one report

of the Bengali Pink-headed Duck occurring as a straggler, but it

cannot yet be called a recorded species.

The universal Dabchick is common, and the Crested and Black~

necked Gulls occur, the latter especially near the mouths of the Indus.

Of Seafowl proper we have one, Petrel, Oceanites oceanica, and

a shear water, Puffinus persicus. The gulls and terns are abundant,

much more so than in the Konkan region, and, as might be expected,

show a strong northern element. The strange Skimmer (Rhyn-

chops) is locally abundant on the Indus.

ReEptives.

Amongst the Chelonia, or tortoises and turtles, Sind offers nothing

‘new worth noticing in such a paper as this, except that (as might

be expected) the aquatic species are more developed in the Indus

| than they commonly are in the lesser fresh waters hitherto noticed.

In suitable places, and especially near such large towns as Sakkar,

where food is abundant, they reach dimensionsat which an alderman

need not sneeze. Of tortoises there are two species of Pangshura,

with 5 claws on the fore fect and 4 behind, P tentoria and

smith. Neither reaches a foot long, as hitherto observed. Of

Batagur there are three species—Dhongoka, Baska, Thargi—all with

the same unguiculation, but approaching or reaching 2 feet in

length, a great size for an aquatic tortoise.

Of turtles we have the small Hmydla granosa, seldom attaining to

a foot in length, Trionyx gangeticus and Ohitra indica, of which

the last-named attains three feet long, and the former two, and

probably both measurements are often much exceeded. The

marine turtles of Sind are Chelonia virgata, the Indian Green Turtle,

and Cawana olwacea, and enough has been said of them before,

In the next group, however, we come on an important novelty.

if Crocodilus porosus does not seem to have been identified here. C.

8 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

palustris is suet abundant, and I need waste no edie on the sft

told tale of its ugly sanctuary and disgusting rites near Karachi. But

we find here a new reptile quite out of place in this half-western land.

This is the Gavial, or Gharyal, or fishing crocodile (Gavialis gange-

ticus), characterized by its dentition and long snout, resembling to

some extent those of the garfishes, and particularly suited to the

capture of fish, and certain modifications of the nostrils, enabling it

to remain for a very long time under water. It is, moreover, much

less active on the shore than the broad-snouted crocodiles proper, and

is seldom accused of the murder of terrestrial mammals in the shal-

lows, or on the beach. This curious creature has its head-quarters

in the great rivers which debouch into the head of the Bay of

Bengal; and one allied genus (Tomistoma or Rhynchosuchus)

extends at least as far east as Borneo. It has no representative in

the New World, whose alligators indeed show a form rather less

purely aquatic than that of our crocodiles proper, the limbs

being less fin-like. Only one Old World alligator has been re-

ported, a rare Chinese species. ‘Three species of Monitors (Varanus

and Psammosaurus) are found, often in considerable numbers,

especially the common “Ghorpur” (Stndice, Goh), which used to

trouble memuch in Shikarpur by invading a poultry-yard carefully

fenced against all other intruders. Smooth mud walls, hard as

stone, defied rats and snakes, while cats and raptorial birds were

excluded by a strong net covering the whole enclosure. But the

“Qohs” climbed the wall, worked through the net, and played Old

Harry with eggs and young birds. One comfort was that they were

notable do much in the gymnastic way when gorged ; and usually

paid for the night’s meal by the penalty of “infang thief” in the

morning. I have not myself had occasion to note anything

particular about the freshwater snakes of Sind, and the Amphibia

(which in common parlance we class with reptiles) present no

peculiarity worth noticing here. Mr. Murray notices no special

genera of either, and only a few new species, a sea-snake, a toad

and a frog.

The Fishes, too, belong ‘ciouilie to genera and species already

noticed, but there are some points about their distribution and.

habits worthy of attention.

The typical Mahseer, Barbus tor, which eee does not occur

in any other west-flowing waters of this Presidency, is certainly

an inhabitant of the Indus, although, within our boundary, that

WATERS OF WESTERN INDIA. 9

river does not afford the alternation of rocky rapids and deep reaches ;

wherein the Barrajute and its other favourite streams abound.

; wae : :

which is found in the hill

streams of the western border, is probably not specifically identical.

The small but sporting ‘‘ Mahseer,’

Indeed, I have reason to suspect that there are several species, but I

have not fished those waters myself, nor have I any specimens

to goon. I do not think that any Oreinus (mountain barbel) has

yet been identified in Sind, But a careful and keen-eyed observer,

who unfortunately was not an ichthyologist, reported “an unmistak-

able trout” to me, as occurring in a stream on the east slope of the

Kirthar Range, above the Mehar and Larkhana country. It seems

probable that these may have been Oreini of the type known further

north as “ Himalayan trout.”

Without specimens before him, no testimony yet available will

justify a naturalist in accepting an Indian species of Salmo.

Amorgst the Labeos we find again an old acquaintance, Labeo

rohita, which we parted with in the great east-flowing rivers of

the Deccan plateau. :

Here it is abundant, underthe name of “ Dumbro,” and ranks

in the fish-trade of Sind second only to the “ Palla,’’ whereof more

anon. In towns remote from the Indus it is the principal fresh fish.

The “ Palla,” like all Clupeide, dies shortly after capture, and rots

soon after death ; and here it is confined to the main stream,

The “ Dumbro,” on the other hand, bears confinement in water

well; and, even when dead, stands some time and transport.

One of the chief ‘“‘Dumbro ”’ fisheries is at the head works of the

Hastern Narra Canal, were what is called a “regulating bridge” (7.e-

a bridge whose arches are sluices ofa rough sort) forms afall. I have

already pointed out that the Indus, in Sind, has distrébutaries

instead of tributaries (with the unimportant exception of what little

water from the western Border hills may occasionally find its way

in by the Aral). /

A consequence of this is that when the annual inundation sets all

large breeding fish on the run, their course up stream is towards the

main river, not from it, as in waters turned right-side up, and so

the “Dumbros” run up the Narra from their winter quarters in

many a marsh and ‘ kolab.”

At these headworks they find the fall, and what is worse, a lot of

nets hung before it in rectangular timber frames, and as they leap at

the obstacle they fall back into the nets.

BOMPAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

The fishermen, on taking them ont, thread them by the eyes,

with a huge iron needle, on a line whereof the end is made fast to a

stalee in the water; and, having so bestowed the morning’s take, belay

the needle-end of the line to another stake, and wait for their cus-

tomers, who know well when and where to come. I have often

seen 5 or 6 dozen of Dumbro, averaging well over a stone weight,

many over 20 lbs., on such a line, and the first impulse of any

civilized man is to put a violent end to such a cruelty,

The reasons why this cannot be done are matters of administration,

and not of zoology. wie

To the end of my own time on those waters, I never could endure

the sight of that line of blinded fish, but I am bound to admit that

their gestures were not expressive of agony, and from what we know

of the nervous system of fishes, it is probable that their sufferings are

much less than a highly-organized mammal can conceive.

Indeed, even the inferior mammals, and especially the ruminants,

seem to be gifted with a marvellous insensibility to torture, which

any one who has seen in India the sacred bovine race under the

hands of its worshippers, may well thank God for, if the poor brutes

can’t do it for themselves. This, however, is a digression.

{I am informed, not very credibly, that the “ Dumbros” can

be caught in the Narra, below this bridge, “with flies, just like *

salmon.” If this is true, the sport is probably the best rod-fishing

in this Presidency.

Amongst catfishes the Padi (Wallago atfw) is much the finest

and most palatable in the Indus, but the English name is usually

given there to a much commoner species of Rita, called in Sind,

“* khaggo.”

This fish is easily caught with hook and line, but little esteemed,

because, though the flesh is good enough, there is very little of it

after deducting a huge bony head and a lot of spines and fins. It

expresses its disgust by an odd grunting noise, something like

that of the Huropean gurnet. This spelling, “ gurnet” is now

treated by Hnglish writers as inaccurate, and the right thing is sup-

posed to be “ gurnard” from the French “ grognard,” ( “ grunter ”’

or “grumbler”), But all editions of Shakspeare (I Henry IV., Act

iv., scene 2,) have “ soused gurnet,” which was, apparently, in no

better reputation in Falstaft’s day than soused “khaggo” in Sind,

and probably for the same reason, namely, that there is so little

meat on the fish. The flavour, in each case, is as good as that of

WATERS OF WESTERN INDIA. I

many fish more highly reputed; but an old fisherman’s joke is that

“the flesh on a gurnet’s head is all poison” (there being none), and

our catfish is in the same case.

The murrells abound in some of the kolwbs, and reach a great

size. Ihad once an odd experience in shooting at one across a

channel, The heavy bullet, driven by four drachms of powder, not

only cut the fish’s head off, but knocked the body clean out of the

water on to the bank. He wasn’t a very large fish, but there was

enough of him for breakfast and dinner.

T never got an eel in Sind, but I heard of them, and no doubt

they are there, only, as elsewhere in India, the local tackle is made

up for other fish, and the eels escape it. If you want te catch eels

in large quantities, you must fish for them with their own gear;

except in the case of bottom fishing in some European waters,

where they are apt to come unwished for, they might fairly say not

quite uninvited.

But all these and many others are mere accidents and superfluitics

in Sind. When a man there talks of fish he means §“Palla,” as

sure as aman using the same word on '{weed or Shannon means

salmon.

The capture and distribution of this fish are the chief livelihood

of some thousands of persons. To the remaining population of the

province it is an important article of food, and, in short, the whole

business is one of the great freshwater fisheries of the world. Here

alone does the Government of Bombay make a serious revenue from

fisheries, and that on this fish alone, or almost alone, claiming one-

third of the produce or its equivalent. The great riparian jaghirdars

do the same, and the claim is never disputed. Having premised so

much, it is time to say something about the Palla himself, and the

first thing to say is that the term “Salmon of the Indus” is a

“‘chee-chee” abomination, not.to be used amongst Christian men. I

have said before of the mahscer that he was about as like a salmon

as a buceaneer is like an officer of the Royal Navy. Alb four are

pugnacious aquatic creatures, and that’s all,

But when it comes to the poor Palla, the comparative mammal

must not be a buecaneer, but the most timid coaster of the mosé

timid nation, a Loochoo Islander perhaps, or an Otaheitan.

The Mahseer does, indeed, resemble a salmon in taking a fly,

although, as he would rather take anything else, the resemblance

stops there. But the poor Palla never thinks of hurting a fly or

12 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY»

anything else; he resembles the salmon in being anadromous and

good to eat, and that’s all. He is in fact the Indian Shad.

The English Shad or Allice is not a very common fish, and I

believe is only important in the Severn. It is, however, worth

while to notice the similarity of ‘‘ Allice” and “ Hilsa”’ or “ilisha,”

the Bengal name of the Palla. “ Alausa” is a Latin name, but

whether taken from the West orthe Hast does not appear. At any

rate, the Shads are now properly c lassed as gigantic Sprats (Clupea),

and our fish is Clupea dlisha, and is the most important of the

breed in freshwater, except, perhaps, the Shad of the United States,

which is also the subject of a great fishery.

The difference between Shads and other Sprats is—firstly, that

they run up rivers to breed (are anadromous), and secondly, that

they are the giants of the genus Clupea. I have not my Sind notes

at hand, but can safely say that the Palla usually exceeds 3lbs.,

and very rarely 6lbs. in weight when in decent condition (fresh-

run). But some have been weighed in my presence over 7lbs. just

out of the water.

In that condition the flavour of the Palla is very much that of a

fresh herring, but likeall the tribe he decays rapidly. <A really

fresh Palla is one fish on the table, and one two hours caught in

another, After six hours he is very often quite inadmissible aw

naturel, The Sindis, however, are great hands at salting, drying,

and kippering him, and I remember with affection several ladies

whom the customs of the country never permitted me to thank in

person, but to whom I yet stand indebted for breakfasts that

Donegal or Perthshire could not have beaten.

Winally I have, with regret, to say of the Palla that ho is most sin-

fully bony, so that the anatomising of him in a manner to make

him eatable is one of the fine arts of Sind, and that his roe, though

well flavoured, is so dry as to require cent. per cent. of butter

before you can swallow it.

So much for the Palla himself, but I shonld not have described

the waters of Sind if I had not more to say about his capture, which

depends upon methods showing an odd mixture of barbarous

mechanical ignorance with a profound knowledge of one of the least

commonly known seerets of nature.

In the snow-fed Indus, the upper water, warmed by the sun, always

retains its place, and, as elsewhere, flows at a much higher rate of

speed than the colder and silt-laden bottom-water. ‘To the Palla

WATERS OF WESTERN INDIA. 18

pushing up stream, this is obviously a good reason for swimming

low ; just as we, in the like case, choose the dead water under the

bank.

The Sindi provides himself in the first instance with an Y-shaped

pole over 20 fect long, and supplies the fork with netting, till he

has something like an huge hideous landing net. Having next

secured an ‘“embarcation” (whereof I shall discuss the varieties

hereafter), he launches himself on the Indus, and drifts down stream

holding his net vertically. As he floats with the rapid surface-

current, the resistance of the slow bottom-water makes his net bag:

up-stream, just as a steamer outstripping alight breeze leaves her

smoky pennant behind her. Into the open mouth of this the Palla,

pushing up with the crazy impulse of all spawning fish, runs

headlong, and warns the fisherman of his presence by a chuck, as

he strikes the pocket of the net. It is probable that he would

hardly have sense enough to back out, but all trouble of considering

the matter is spared him. On feeling the ‘ chack,” the fisherman,

with a sharp upward turn of his arms, causes the long purse of the

net to turn once on itself, effectively twisting in the prisoner, and

then shortens the shaft and net, hand over hand, till he can get hig

finger and thumb into the latter’s gills, through which, if he has no

boat, he straightway runs a needle and thread of the sort already

described in treating of the “* Dumbro.” Some scrupulous Mussul-

mans are said to cut the Palla’s throat with a knife, according to

the formulas of the law. But I never saw this done myself; it is

clearly unnecessary from a common-sense point of view in most cases ;

and the Sindi fishermen notoriously consider the gills as the result

of a throat-cutting performed by the Prophet himself, to sanction

to their usage even fish otherwise unclean (the large scale-less

Sibiridcea). Under certain circumstances, presently to be noticed,

there is another reason for the use of the knife.

The Palla fisher, when he has got to the bottom of his “cast” or

drift, must get up to the top of it again, as best he can, and de

capo to the end of his working day. His most famous and

extraordinary craft is an earthen pot, and since the wise men of

Gotham went to sea in a bowl, nothing quainter has beenseen. The

Palla-pot is a huge, lenticular-shaped, neckless and bottomless jar.

By the last phrase I mean that, like many Indian pots, it has no

bottom capable of holding it upright. This being launched, the

fisherman balances himself on one shoulder of it, and floats down

14 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

as described. While he has only to hold the net upright, this is

all fair sailing, but when it comes to getting in a fish, no Caucasian

has ever made outhow he maintains his balance, which is so ticklish

that the knife must then really be brought in to quiet the fish

before it is consigned to the hold of this queer ship. If he overlies

the hole, a strange disaster befalls him. For even the top water of

the Indus is cooler than the air in a pot that has been lying on its

broiling shores, and the rapid contraction of the contained air on

cooling will hermetically seal, for a time, the pot to the stomach of

any one who allows himself to loll over its mouth. It is said that

this disaster overtook the only European who ever dared to be

skipper of a “ Palla-pot,” a mythical Major, whose vagaries are fast

becoming good food for the folk-lorists and Solar legend hunters.

Where the drift is long, the ponderous pot would obviously be

inconvenient on the return-trip, and in such places it is usually

replaced by gourd floats, the needle and thread arrangement serving

to secure the fish. But both of these vessels are most appropriate to

the neighbourhood of markets for fresh fish.

Now there are long reaches of the Indus almost desolate (but for

the Palla-fishers), and on these the fishery is conducted with a view

to salting or drying the take. Here we have another ship, the

“ Palla-Dhundi” or “Shad-punt.”? The simple architecture of its

hull is not very unlike that of a Thames punt. Over this, a few

tamarisk poles and mats form a sort of spar-deck, under which the

ship’s company live by day, and over it they sleep at night, as

in their atrocious climate every man secks the slightest available

elevation to sleep on, in the hope of getting whatever breeze may

be stirring.

A “ Palla-Dhundi” is a queer little Noah’s ark. There will be

init one or two Mohdnas (the fisher caste of Sind), their wives and

children, a couple of goats, landed here and there to browse on the

often desolate shore, a dog or two, and possibly a cat. It has

probably a dozen outriggers, each of which, under favourable

circumstances, sustains a half tame pelican or heron. The pelicans

are eaten and their oil sold (asa native medicine). ‘The herons

are sold as subjects for falconry, which is a very living sport in

Sind. It is said that both otters and cormorants are kept to help

in the fishery, but I cannot now remember having seen either so

used, though both are often caught by the Mohanas, who are great

fowlers and hunters, as well as fishermen.

WATERS OF WESTERN INDIA. 15

The women help to work the boat with an efficiency worthy of

Black-eyed Susan, but it issaid that they ought not, by rule, to catch

fish, nor the men to trespass on their province of selling it. They

are stalwart viragos, and stout asserters of women’s rights, to an

extent which shocks all good Mussalmans of Sind. The “ Dhundis”

generally work in great fleets, and assemble at riverside camps,

which become fishing-ports for the time being, where their owners

settle accounts with the contractors who have bought the fishery

of each district from Government, or the great riparian landholders.

The due of these is usually one-third of the take, and they generally

purchase most of the rest, with much squabbling, stoppages of pay,

frequent strikes, and an enormous amount of cheating in a sort

of “Tommy shop” barter. However, all are pretty well matched,

and cannot dispense with cach other.

In any country but India, capital, law, and education (such as it

is, viz. knowing how to cast an account) would be too much for the

operative. But the Mohana caste is a vast localized trade’s union,

and the contractor who could not come to some settlement with the

fishermen of his own district would not be able to import others.

The Mohana himself is troubled with no scruples, or rather his wife,

who does the bargaining, is not, and so everytbing finds its level

comfortably enough in the end.

In this sketch of the waters of Sind, I have omitted one of the

most remarkable, the Manchar Lake, because enough has been said

about it in this Journal by Captain Becher. TI have, moreover, been

somewhat more sketchy than usual in dealing with the superior

vertebrates, but these havea local authority of their own, Mr.

Murray, whose work is probably in the hands of all those working

on the spot, and people at a distance want only the more striking

outlines of such a matter. He has not, I think, yet published the

part of that work relating to fishes, but it is not my business, in such

rough notes as these, to forestall him; and the molluscs have been

noticed in a paper in his own Magazine.

I might indeed have dwelt upon the rare Horse Marine and River

Pirate, who occur (me teste) on the Indus, in the Khairpur State.

But these animals, with the extinct Centaur and Sphynx, and the

barely surviving Hesperian Gormagon, belong rather to the domain

of the Anthropological Society.

There is, however, one very remarkable thing to be noticed in

the zoology of the Indus, which may fitly be dealt with here.

16 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

My readers will have noticed that it contains one cetacean, one

erocodilian, and one fish, which do not occur elsewhere in waters

flowing into the Arabian Sea, but abound in those that meet the

Bay of Bengal. These are Platanista gangeticus, Gavialis gan-

geticus and Labeo rohita.

The cetacean, like all other cetaceans, cannot landat all. The

reptile is the most aquatic of all the crocodilia, and its movement

ashore is confined to crawling on toa sand bank fora nap. The

fish (a thing necessary to specify in India, where we have several

fishes quite at home out of water), is a high Cyprinoid, and incap-

able of terrestrial movement. How did they get there?

The answer is in one of the strangest chapters of recent geology,

known to Indian professors of that art as the “ Legend of the Lost

River.’’

Many of my readers know that the great and ancient rock

formations of the Peninsular proper are separated from the loftier

but more modern Himalayas, and Afghan and Belooch hills, by a

great elbow-shaped plain, the west part of which forms the valley of

the Indus and great Indian Desert ; while the Hastern is the region

of the Ganges and its tributaries. The former is mostly sand,

and the latter mostly loam, but they melt into each other between

the Jamna and the Satlej at an almost imperceptible watershed,

nearly due south of the famous Siwalik Hills, and pretty well

identified with the legendary land of Kurukshetra, the cockpit of all

decisive Indian wars, from the time of the Mahabharat until a new

element of battle arose out of the sea. ;

Here, all Indian legends say, flowed a sacred stream, the Saras-

wati, which joined the Jamna, and is still supposed, by a pious

fiction, to do so at Prayaga or Allahabad. In that region the

Saraswati is not now recognizable to the modern geographer. But

about the doubtful watershed there are certain ancient channels

that fill in time of great rain. And by the help of these, and of our

modern knowledge of the laws that govern rivers, we can piece out

the story of the Lost River.

It probably did originally join the Jamna, and drain into the

Bay of Bengal. But being a river of the Northern Hemisphere,

flowing at an angle to the Equator, it was bound (by laws which

need not here be discussed in detail) to bear upon its right, or

western bank, and probably did so until, in some year of mighty

floods, it cut through the contemptible watershed, and turned ‘its

NOTES ON A COLLECTION OF BUTTERFLIES. i

waters westwards into the great drainage system of the Indus,

carrying with at its Bengali fauna. The upper springs of the Saras-

wati, following the same law, have long since become those of

what we now call the Satlej, and of the drainage channels of the

plains of Kurukshetra, the greatest still turns westwards, and its

overflow is absorbed in the Great Desert, or, if it gets into the sea

at all, does so by the Indus drainage system. It must be remem-

bered that, at the remote semi-historical age spoken of, the Satlej

itself, and all the other rivers of that system, must have flowed far

east of their present course.

There is nothing new in the hypothesis advanced. Peter the

Great’s Scotch surveyor found the Oxus flowing into the Caspian,

which now flows into the Aral, though the old channel was redis-

covered by the expeditions of Peter’s last descendant. The west-

ward movement of the Indus itself is graven on the rocks with more

than an iron pen, beside the ruins of Alor, and is indeed matter of

almost modern history.

K ESWAL.

NOTES ON A COLLECTION OF BUTTERFLIES MADE

IN BURMAH BETWEEN SEPTEMBER 1885 AND

DECEMBER 1886.

By Linur. E. Y.° Warson.

Communicarep py Jamus A. Murray, Vict. Nat. Hist. Inst.

Tne butterflies in the following list were caught at Ran goon from

September to December 1885, and again from May to September

1886, at Beeling, Upper Tenasserim, from January to April 1886 ;

and at Poungadaw, Upper Burmah, during October and November

1886.

The majority of specimens were caught in the pineapple gardens

at Rangoon. These gardens, which extend for three or four miles

from Rangoon on either side of the Prome Road, contain a

considerable amount of low scrub jungle, interspersed with trees,

chiefly jack-fruit, and abound in butterflies, especially Hesperidee.

Beeling is a village about sixty miles to the north of Moulmein.

Here the jungle consists largely of bamboo, with a fair proportion of

large trees. The butterflies caught comprise a considerable number

of comparatively rare species, and some which, to the best of my

knowledge, are as yet undescribed. ‘The most prolific collecting

18 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIBTY.

grounds were the beds of the small mountain streams, especially at

the higher elevations.

Poungadow is a small village just across the old frontier, and

about thirty miles to the north-west of Thayetmyo. Here the

jungle consists almost entirely of low bushes, very inferior to

either Rangoon or Beeling from a butterfly point of view, though

owing to the difference in rainfall, several species occurred which

were not obtained elsewhere.

In the following notes, where no remark is placed against a species,

it may be presumed it occurs commonly at all three places, and

where any one place is omitted, itis intended to imply that the

species did not occur there to my knowledge :—

J. Danais vulgaris, Butler.

Common at Beeling ; occurs at Rangoon but rarely,

« D. limniace, Cramer.

. D. aglea, Cramer.

4, D. agleoides, Felder.

Males common at Rangoon and Beeling ; females rare.

5. D. gautama, Moore.

One male. Beeling.

6, WD. septemtrionis, Butler. ;

Beeling, but not common.

7. D. chrysippus, Linneeus.

8. D. genutia, Cramer.

9. D. hegesippus, Cramer. |

Common at Rangoon ; not seen elsewhere.

10. Huploew rogenkoferi, Felder.

One male, Beeling.

1]. Huplea margarita, Butler.

Occurs rarely at Rangoon and Beeling.

12, Huplea crassa, Butler.

One female at Beeling.

13. Ewploa erichsonii, Felder.

Common at Beeling; rare in Rangoon.

14. HE. rhadamanthus, Fabricius.

Not uncommon at Beeling; females rare. ;

15. H. castlemani, Felder. !

One specimen seen in Rangoon flying among the tree-tops.

Three or four Rangoon caught specimens in the Museum

at Pangoon,

NOTHS ON A COLLECTION OF BUTTERFLIES. 19

16. H. midamus, Linneus.

17. 4H. modesta, Butler.

One male at Beeling.

18. #H. gedarti, Lucas.

19. #H. subdita, Moore.

One male, Beeling.

20. H. alcathe, Godt.

Moderately common, Beeling.

21. H. limborgti, Moore.

Rare at Beeling.

22. H. grotei, Felder.

One male, one female, Beeling.

23. H. hopei, Felder.

Beeling, one male,

24, Mycalesus anaviordes, Marshall,

Beeling, rare.

25. M. medus, Fabricius.

26. M. runeka, Moore.

27. M. blasius, Fabricius.

28. M. mineus, Linneeus.

29. M. perseus, Fabricius.

30. M. malsara, Moore.

Rangoon and Beeling, common.

31. Lethe mekara, Moore. -

Two males, one female, Beeling.

32. tL. europa, Fabricius.

33. DL. rohria, Fabricius.

Beeling, not common.

34, Zophessa, sp.

Poungadaw one specimen, very much battered, probably

Z. yama, Moore.

35. Yphthima philomela, Johansen.

36. Y. avanta, Moore.

Beeling, one male.

37. Y. huebneri, Kirby.

38. Hrites angularis, Moore.

Beeling, not uncommon at moderate altitudes, but very

difficult to catch, as it is only found im thick bamboo

jungle. I found the best plan to have them driven

towards me.

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SocrEry,

39. Melanitis leda, Linneeus,

40. M. aswa, Moore.

41. M. bela Moore.

Beeling, not common,

42, M. ismene, Cramer.

43. Hlymnias undularis, Drury.

Beeling, common, Rangoon, rarely,

44, KH, leucocyma, Godt,

Besling, one male, one female,

Poungadow, one female,

45. Dyctis vasudeva, Moore.

Beeling, one specimen,

46. Discophora tullia, Cramer,

47. Ergolis merione, Cramer.

48. HH. ariadne, Linneus.

49. Huripus halitherses, Doubleday. Hewitson.

Becling, one female. ;

50. Oupha erymanthis, Drury. |

51, Atella sinha, Kollar,

Beeling, a few specimens.

02, A. phalanta, Drury,

53. A. alcippe, Cramer,

Beeling, not uncommon.

04, Cethosia eyane, Drury.

Beeling, Rangoon, common,

55, Cethosia biblis, Drury.

Beeling, common,

56. Cynthia erota, Fabricius,

Beeling, one female,

o7. Precis iphita, Cramer,

58. Junonia asterie, Linneeus,

59. J. almana, Linneus,

| 60. J. atlites, Linneous.

61. J. lemonias, Linneus,

62. J, hierta, Moschler,

63, J. orithya, Linneous,

64. Neptis hordonia, Stoll,

65. Neptis plagiosa, Moore,

Beeling, common.

Neptis varmana, Moore.

NOTES ON A COLLECTION OF BUTTERFLIES.

67.

68.

, 69.

fue

41,

72,

Neptis kamarupa, Moore.

Rangoon. Beeling, not uncommon,

Neptis adipala, Moore.

Beeling, one specimen. —

Neptis ophiana, Moore.

Beeling, a few specimens.

Neptis martabana, Moore.

Poungadaw, one specimen.

Neptis jumba, Moore.

Cirrhrochroa mithila, Moore.

Beeling, not uncommon. Occurs

Rangoon.

Hypolimnas bolina, Linneous.

Common everywhere. H. maissvpus not seen.

Penthema darlisa, Moore.

Beeling, one specimen.

Parthenos gambriseus, Fabricius.

rarely at

Var. apicalis not uncommon, Rangoon and Beeling.

Lebadea attenuata, Moore.

Beeling, common.

Limenitus procris. Cramer.

Rangoon, Poungadaw, common.

Athyma inarina, Butler.

Rangoon, one specimen, female.

Athyma perius, Linneus.

Athyma krisna, Moore.

Poungadaw, one specimen.

Sympheedra dirteea, Fabricius.

Poungadaw, common.

Huthalia lepidea, Butler.

Rangoon, Beeling, common.

Huthalia wiphiones, Butler.

Beeling, one female.

Huthalia gahnu, Moore.

Huthalia kesava, Moore.

Rangoon, Beeling, common.

Buthalia discispilota, Moore.

Beeling, a few specimens.

Huthalia garuda, Moore.

Rangoon, Beeling, common.

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

Huthalia lubentina, Cramer.

Rangoon, not common.

Euthalia anosia, Moore.

Beeling, one female.

90. Rhinopalpa vasuki, Doherty.

100.

101,

102.

103.

104.

105.

106.

107,

108.

109.

110.

V11.

Beeling, two specimens.

Cyrestis nivea, Linken-somier,

Beeling, common.

Cyrestis risa, Doubleday, Hewitson.

Kallima inachis, Boisduval.

Beeling and Poungadaw rarely.

Charaxes athamas, Drury.

Zemeros flegyas, Cramer.

Rangoon and Beeling, common.

Abisara angulata, Moore.

Beeling, not uncommon.

Curetis sp.

Common, Rangoon, Beeling.

Gerydus biggsit, Distant.

One specimen, Beeling.

Paragerydus boisduvali, Butler.

Common, Poungadaw, Beeling.

Paragerydus sp.

One specimen, Rangoon.

Allotinus unicolor, Felder.

Very common at Rangoon.

Spalgis epius, Westwood. [ Common,

Neopithecops zelmora, Butler. Rangoon, Beeling.

Cyaniris placida, Moore.

Beeling.

OC. transpectus, Beeling.

Chilades varunasia, Moore.

C. laius, Cramer.

O. putli, Kollar.

Chilades sp.

Poungadaw.

Castalius rosimon, Fabricius.

Rangoon, Beeling.

C. ethion. Rangoon, Beeling.

CO. rocus, Godt. \ Poungadaw, not common.

NOTES ON A COLLECTION’ OF BUTTERFLIES

O. elna, Hewitson.

Poungadaw.

Castalius sp.

Rangoon.

Zizera karsandra, Moore.

4. pygmea, Snelein.

4. sangra, Moore.

Nacaduba ardates, Moore.

N. celestis,

Beeling.

N. kerriana, Distant

Beeling, one specimen.

» Nacaduba sp.

Beeling.

2. Nacaduba sp.

Rangoon, Beeling.

. Nacaduba sp.

Rangoon, Beeling.

. Nacaduba sp.

Near Beeling.

. Jamides bochus, Cramer

Rangoon, Beeling, not common.

. Catochrysops,

. Catochrysops strabo, Fab.

. Lampides elianus, Fab.

- Lampides elpis, Godt.

. Lampides sp., Beeling, not common.

- Polyomnatus boeticus, Linn.

» Megisba mahya.

Beeling.

Lycaenestes sp.

Rangoon and Beeling, rare.

. Darasana pa ramuta.

Rangoon, one specimen.

. Horaga sikkima,

. Horaga sp.

Common.

. Horaga lisides,

Beeling, one specimen,

» Myrina lapithis, Moore.

24 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

140. Spindasts lohita, Horsf.

Rangoon, Beeling, common.

141. Spindasis sp.

Poungadaw, one specimen,

142. Satadra elea

Rangoon, rare.

143. Tajuria mantra, Feld.

Beeling, one specimen.

144. Tajuria sp. (longinus ?)

Poungadaw, one specimen.

145. Lolaus anysis,

Beeling, one specimen.

146. Cheritra jafira. Horsf.

Rangoon, Beeling, common

147. Sithon jangala.

Pegu, Rangoon, common.

148. Hypolycena etolus, Fabr.

Beeling, rare.

149. Nilasera centaurius, Fabr.

Rangoon, Beeling; common.

150. Narathura ameria, Hew.

Beeling, a few specimens only.

lol. Narathura sp.

Beeling, rare.

152. Narathura, sip.

Beeling, rare.

153. Surandra quercitorum, Moore,

Rangoon, not uncommon.

154, Rapala orseis, Hewitson.

Rangoon, a few specimens.

155. Rapala schistacea, Moore.

Rangoon, Beeling, a few only.

106. Rapala amisena, Hewitson.

Rangoon, two specimens.

157, Rapala sp.

Rangoon, not uncommon, but local.

158. Baspa melampus, Cramer.

159. Vadebra petostris, Butler.

Rangoon, Poun gadaw.

160. Loaura atymnus, Cramer.

Pe Oe oer nnn

NOTES ON A COLLECTION OF BUTTERFLIES. 25

161. Thamala miniata.

Beeling, rare.

162. Nychitona aiphia, abr.

163. Delias hierta (var indica), Hubner.

164. Delias agostina, Hewitson.

Common at Beeling and Poungadaw.

63, Delias pasithe, Linneus.

Common at Beeling.

166. Catopsilia catilla, Cramer.

167. Catepsilia crocale, Cramer.

168. Catopsilia pyranthe, Linneus.

169. Tertas hecabe, Linneous.

170. Tertas sari, Horsfield.

171. Terias harina, Horsfield.

Common at Beeling, occurs at Rangoon,

172. Tertas sp.

Beeling, rare.

173. Tertas, sp.

Rangoon, ene specimen.

174, Terias, sp.

Beeling, common.

475, Terias, sp.

Poungadaw, common.

476. Tertas leeta, Boisduval.

Only seen onee on the Sittang river

in N. Tenasserim.

177. Ivias pyrene, Linneeus.

178, Teias sp.

Beeling, common.

179. Catophaga hippoides.

Rangoon, Beeling, commen,

180. Catophaga, sp.

Beeling, rare.

181. Appias libythea, Fabr.

Beeling, rare.

182. Hupkina phrynne, Fabricius.

Common.

183. Huphina lea, Doubl.

Rangoon, a few specimens.

184. Huphina sp. Peungadaw, common.

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

185. Huphina sp.

Poungadaw, common.

186. Pieris soracta,

Rangoon, Beeling, not common.

187. Hebomoia glaucippe, Linneus

188. Nepheronea gea, Felder.

189. Ornithoptera pompeus, Cramer.

Common at Beeling and Poungadaw.

190. Papilio antiphates, Cramer.

Beeling, common.

191. Papilio sarpedon, Linneeus. i

Beeling. i

192. Papilio ewrypylus, Linnzus.

Beeling, common

198. Papilio agamemnon, Linn.

194. Papilio ertthoniws, Cramer.

195, Papilio helenus, Linneus

Rangoon, rare.

196. Papilio pammon, Linneeus.

197 Papilio doubledayi, Wallace.

Rangoon. Beeling common,

198. P. aristolochia, Fabricius.

199. P. androgeus, Cramer.

Rangoon, Beeling, common.

200. P. panope, Linneous.

Rangoon, Beeling, common.

201 P. dissimilis, Linneous.

Rangoon, Beeling, common.

202. Papilo sp.

Beeling, a few specimens. ;

203. Leptocircus virens.

Beeling, common.

204, Badamia exclamationts, Fabr.

205. OChoaspes harisa, Moore.

Rangoon, Beeling, common.

206. Hasora badra, Moore.

Rangoon, common.

207. Hasora chromus, Cramer,

Rangoon, rare.

208. Paduka glandulosa, Distant. Beeling, one specimen.

NOTES ON A COLLECTION OF BUTTERFLIES,

. Matapa aria, Moore

. Pithauria murdava, Moore.

Beeling, a few.

. Chapra matthias, Fabr.

. Chapra sp.

. Parnara semamora, Moore.

Beeling, rare.

. Parnara austeni,

Rangoon, common,

0. Parnara sp.

Poungadaw, rare.

. Parnara sp.

Rangoon, common.

. Telicota bambusa, Moore.

Beeling, rare.

. Padmona goloides, Moore.

. Padmona dara.

. Padmona palmarum.

Beeling, rare.

. Padmona sp.

Beeling, two specimens.

. Ampittia maro, Fabricius.

. Satarupa bhagava, Moore.

. Thanaos indistincta, Moore.

. Lagiades ravi, Moore.

. Tagiades pralaya, Moore.

. Abaratha vasava, Moore.

Beeling, rare.

. Abaratha sura, Moore.

. Gangara thyrsius, Fabr.

. Hyarotis adrastus, Cramer.

Poungadaw, rare.

. Coladenia dan, Fabr.

. Udaspes folws, Cramer.

. Plesioneura alysos, Moore.

. Plesioneura asmara, Butler.

. Plesioneura aurivitata, Moore.

Beeling, rare.

. Astictopterus salsala, Moore.

. Astictopterus subfasciata,

28 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

238. Astictopterus olivascens.

Beeling, rare.

239. Astictopterus zamites, Butler.

240. Astictopterus diocles, Moore.

241. Hatpe beturia, Hewitson.

242. Halpe sp.

Rangoon, rare.

243, Halpe sp.

Rangoon, rare.

244, Suastes aditus.

245. Saragesa dasahare, Moore.

246. Taractocera segara.

247. Hesperia sp,

Poungadaw, rare.

248. Baracus septentrionwm.,

Beeling,, rare

249. Isoteinon cepiala,

Beeling, rare,

260. Lsotetnon atkinsont, Moore,

Rangoon, common.

251. Isoteinon sp.

Beeling, rare.

252 Lsoteinon sp.

Beeling, rare.

NOTH ON VIGNA VEXILLATA.

By van: Ruy. A. G. Cann,

Visttors to Matheran will have noticed here and there growing?

beside the pathway on the hill in October the sweet pea or

Vigna veaillate, but no botanist seems to have noticed the ingenious

contrivance by which it secures the fertilization of the flower.

When in full bloom it is of a pale violet; colour with deeper shades

on certain parts of the petals. The centre of the flower has a couple

of yellow spots reminding one of the Heartsease.

The stamens and pistil are hidden from view; these are enclosed

m the keel on the flower’s right side below. This sheath-like keel

is in the form of a panther’s claw, pointing towards the centre of the

flower. At the end of the claw is a small aperture, whilst near the

base in front and under one of the ale of the flower is a prominent

bump. ‘The carpel lies along the inside of the convex cutve of the

NOTES ON VIGNA VEXILLATA. 29

sheath, having a distinct bend inwards about the middle of the curve;

this bend actsas a powerful lever on the style. The stigma is found just

inside the aperture at the end. The pistil is arranged as in the pea

and is inside the sheath.

Having thus described the flower we will see how all these

appliances are brought into play for the purpose of fertilization.

The insect in search of honey makes for the yellow centre of the

flower, alighting on the lip or ale which lies on the hump. Forcing

its head into the centre of the flower, all its weight is exerted in press-

ing down the hump, which acis on the lever in the carpel and forces

the style so far through the aperture as to cause the stigma to rub

against the insect’s back, and so obtain the pollen which has been

brought from another flower. On the insect retiring the style

springs back again into its place. —

But if we look again at the sheath we find that the aperture is too

small to admit of the stamens protruding at the same time as the

pistil, but become crowded together inside the opening of the sheath.

Here another curious contrivance is provided. Along the end of

the style on the inside of the curve, after the stigma, is placed a

brush with the hairs projecting outwards. As the style projects this

brush carries off the pollen from the anthers and leaves it on the

insect’s back to fertilize the next flower it may visit. During my

short stay at Matheran I did not have an opportunity of noticing an

insect visit one of these flowers, but the projecting style curves so

exactly over the spot where the insect would be situated to secure

the honey that there seems but little doubt that this is the process

that is gone through.

Any one taking one of these flowers in the hand and depressing

the keel only as much as would be done by a bee at work will notice

the end of the pistil suddenly appear to the extent of nearly half an

inch, bringing with it the brush charged with yellow pollen, which it

has carried with it on its way through the opening in the sheath.

It would be interesting if any one could prove by observation that

my conjecture is a correct one. A. G. Cann.

Since writing the above, Dr. T. Cooke has pointed out to me that

Prof. Miiller in his “ Fertilization of Flowers,” has remarked on all

these peculiarities of the papilionacex, but Miller says: “ In all these

groups, the stigma and the pollen are applied to the wnder side of

the bee,” which leads mo to think that this particular flower has not

come under the Professor’s notice.

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

MARATHI NAMES OF PLANTS.

WITH A GLOSSARY,

By Bricape-Surczon W. Dymock.

(Continued from page 242.)

Paspalum scrobiculatum, Linn.

Pastinaca glauca .....esseeeees

4 GTANGIS 2. .cec-svecsves

« Shekakul .

Pavetta indica, Linn..-..........

Pavonia odorata, Willd..........

Pedalium Murex, Linn........+.

Peganum Harmala, Ltnn.......

Penisetum aureum..........6..+-

ye cenchroides, Rich...

typhoideum, Rich.

” ”

Pentapetes phcenicea, Iinn ...

Pentaptera .......occecceseee evens

Pentatropis microphylla, W.

and A.

Perilla ocimoides, Linn..........

Periploca aphylla, Dene, ......

Peristrophe bicalyculata, Nees

Petrea volubilis, Jacq. .........

Peucedanum grande, C. B.

Clarke.

6 graveolens,

Benth,

3 Dhana, Dalz.

Phalaris muricata ......, rater

Phaseolus aconitifolius, Jacq...

4 adenanthus, G, f

Meyer.

Mungo, Linn, variety

” pauciflorus, Dalz ...

ey THOUUUUS..2.52.0-00+0 is

oy UENDOLOS, Ab ise. 05.0

(wholesome). aire ettay or tz Gord harik

or kodrt (poisonous), arsererttay or ATs

Majara harik or kodrt.

See Peucedanum Dhana, var. Dalzellii.

See Peucedanum grande.

See Tordylium Shekakul.

qrazr Papti.

aArerarar Kala vala, qpasr Vala.

atrzt Karonté, afere or~ay Gokhstr or

Gokhstrak, arsfaiirae Malvigokbra.

eam Hirmal, geqz Ispand.

awata Miultom. :

aad Dhiman.

araty Bajri, TANT Sajgtra,

srr Dangli.

araey gat Tambari dupari, art Dapari.

See Terminalia,

faacizr Singrota,

qtaet Paéngali.

trate Ransher, qzrg Barai.

aret Pramas Ghati pittpdépard.

fasradt gat Vildyati vkshi.

garnet Baphali.

stfamar Atichhattra, 3g Shépu.

amrae Koland.

qcarer Dharcharo.

az Math.

gatse Halaud.

HTS TT Kalémig, sere Urid.

waa Ranmig.

aa Mig, P. Mungo ; Linn, var. radiatus.

sivras) Jangli math, qarvar Muknyd,

stwae Arkmath,

GLOSSARY. 3]

Phaseolus trinervius, Heyne...

Phaylopsis parviflora, Willd...

Phenix dactylifera Linn.

(fruit),

» Sylvestris, Row}. ....

” 9 (fruit).

Phrynium capitatum, Willd...

% dichotomum, Rowd,:

Phyllanthus distichus, Mill.

Arg,

a Emblica, Zinn....

5 lanceolarius, Mzil/-

Arg.

‘5 madraspatensis,

Linn.

Niruri, Miill-Arg..

49 reticulatus, Poiret.

a retusus, Rowb......

3 TUTbMAtUS 62.16...

5 urinaria, Linn. ...

Physalis Alkakengi, Willd. ...

> Indica, Lan... s.r... -.-

5 minima, Zann. var.

indica.

» peruviana, Linn. ....

5 Bommiferas: Ais. ..4. us

Picrorhiza Kurroa, Royle

(rhizome)

Pimpinella Anisum, Zinn. ......

S MONCH. 2. ...sc0oens

Pinellia tuberifera, Tenore (tu-

bers),

Pinus Deodara, Loud. (wood)

» Gerardiana, Wall. (nuts).

», longifolia, Rowb.(turpen-

tine)

Piper Betle, Linn. ......00.

Seoeee

gaat Mukni, qzayt Matki, aire Mungir.

qrazt Vayati, trrarsafy Rdnmaushi, arfezt

Wahiti.

wear Khirmd, arttay Khérik (impa.)

..| Pare Shindi, qaze Khajdr.

writin Kharik,

wesrat Kidali.

gray Pati.

wrasiaqaet Raidvala, eeartast Harp-

harevari.

3stq@ or saa Avala or Ayala, BMAsH

Amalaka, sttqapenrat Avalkathi,

Arar Bhoma.

mata Kanochha.

ae sqrq@r Bhui dvali,

qraaq or gqa7t, Pavan or Piivan.

See Securinega Leucopyrus.

ale Gaer Kéntépuvan, Melanthesa turbinata,

Wight.

ale we sttqeet Lal bhui Avali,

aArnast Kaknaj.

Facazat or Facatet, Chirbutli or chirboti.

araarey Thanmori.

| Grq2t Popti, taqréy Tankari.

See Withania somnifera.

azar Kutki, arangy Balkaru (impd.)

stata Anistin, wraretat Erva doce (Port.)

(impd.)

area Bhalga

auaeraee Zaravandégird (false, impd.)

eaqere Deodir, aAeateqere Teliyadeod4r

(impd.)

Fasarar Chilghozd (impd.)

warfare Gandhabiroz4, ate Chirel (¢mpd.)

qr Pénvel, arrae Négvel, aracae

Képtravel.

BOMBAY N

ATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

PipensObabay Bl. diel ae.

» Cubeba, Linn. f, (fruit),-

longuth, Dinas asl.

i GLO0t)

nigvum, Linky sitive)

ofticinarum C.D’ C. (long-

pepper)

eee ee reese e vores

ooreeerae

sylvestris

trioicum

” Ber dee eerceronseee

Pisonia morindifolia, Plum, ..

Pistacia cabuliea, Stocks (resin)

integerrima, Stewart,

(galls).

Lentiscus, Linn. (resin).

vera, Linn. and Pistacia

Khinjuk, Stocks (galls

4 (nuts) ...

Pistia stratiotes, Linn. ..

”

aeseee

Pisum arvense, Linn.

ww Sativuiny Lo.

Pithecolobium bigeminum,

Benth.

Pithecolobium dulce, Benth....

Pittosporum floribundum, W,

0 A,

Plantago Ispaghula (seed)......

re major, Linn. (seed)...

Platanthera Susanne, Lindl...

syqay Chavek.

arArer Kankoli,

(impd.)

aarey frst Pipli, Bengali,

faqs wes Pipli mil.

aaract fat; Kali miri.

Hret frrst Mothi pipli.

aararaat Kababchini

Sratifacat Dongri mirchi.

aArMtas Kokarvel, P. nigrum, Linn. vat.

trioicum .

frre arfsz Chini sdlit.

aqeamt Mastaki (¢mpd.)

ArRSTa Kakardshingi (inpd.)

eat aeaant Rimi mastaki (impd.)

wefatar Gulpists, gars, Buzganj (impd.)

freat Pista (impd.)

sat Prashni, apsts Gondala, eq Sher-

vel,

Rare Kalai.

arerrr Watana.

avasrer Kachlord.

frsradt Faay Vildyati chinch.

Aener Vehkli.

geqy@, Ispaghul. P. ovata, Forsk. (impd.)

arteat Bartang (impd.)

mrarar Kaldbi,

Plectranthus incanus, Lank.....

Plectronia didyma, Hook. f....

Pluchea lanceolata, Oliv. ...

Plumbago capensis, Spr.........

coécinea, Boiss

aeoeee

o zeylanica, Linn......

Plumeria acutifolia, Poiret. ...

Poa cynosuroides ..

ene raesvaeree

Pogostemon Patchouli, Pelle.

i purpuricaulis .,

ares straret Lal agharé,

areas Arsul,

qraizrar Patirdsnd.

edifaaen Udi chitrak, qreifraar Kale-

chitrak,

@reraaa Lal chitrak.

Paaa Chitrak,

wear or @rarat, Khéirchampé or khir-

chapha,

See Eragrostis cynosurioides, Retz,

qta Paénch, aréyqra Mélipaénch.

qtayet Pangld, P. parviflorus, Benth,

GLOSSARY.

i Poinciana elata, Linn............

« pulcherrima, .......<,|

55 regia, Bojer ....... :

Polyalthia cerasoides, Benth.

and H, f.

. longifolia, Benth.|

| se

Polyanthes tuberosa, Linn.

Polygala chinensis, Linn. ......

Polygonum aviculare, Linn. ...

o chinense, Linz. ...

glabrum, Wuld.....

Polypodium quercifelium, Spr.

45 vulgare, Linn. ...

Polyporus officinalis, Zrves.....

Pongamia glabra, Vent.......-..

| Populus euphratica, Olwv.......

Porans LACEMOSA sevssarss server

Porphyra vulgaris, dg........ e

Portulaca oleracea, Linn. ......

e quadrifida, Linn.

a tuberosa, Row. ......

Potomogeton pectinatus, Linn.

Pothos oficimalisic:)...s0o

» pertusa ...........:. oale es

Lindl.

(fruit).

Premna latifolia, Rowd..........

Prangos abularia,

f=)

Ny NTMI ONtana,. 0.02605:

» scandens, Rowd.

» serratifolia

Procris ramiflora, Lam .....

Prosopis spicigera, Linn. ......

Prunus amygdalus, Batllon....

@zaer Sandesra.

See Ceesalpinia pulcherrima.

+ WHat Gultura, WHAT, Gilmohar, aara-

at Kamkimkeéshar.

aq Him.

siaseaart Jdmbhul deodar.

aaset Gilchhari, Tee, Gilshabiu.

asar Négli.

Batt qzay Keshri-bandak.

qtas Paral.

THUTSST Or TRUST Raktarohida or rak-

trora.

aramratt Ashvakatri, arfarar Bashing.

faanst Bisfaij (zmpd.)

array, Gharikiin.

aca or RUA, Karan or kara], qaaa Sukh-

chain.

ara or aqara, Bhan or bahan.

boxes are made of the wood.)

ay Bhauri, wtpar Gariyd. P.

Clarke.

wa Las.

ant: Kifah, ary are Mothi ghol.

waate RAnghol, cradte Raighol, Fasare

Chilghol.

ate Linak.

ra Phas.

(The Sind

malabarica,

See Scindapsus officinalis.

See Scindapsus pertusus.

PRaransas Phitérasdliytin (¢mpd.)

gqarét or gaeq Ghanori or ghanéri.

See Mappia tomentosa.

sjqcqea Chambarvel, aqartt Chambari.

wqrer aeqes Khard narvel, syroy Aran. Prem-

na integrifolia, Linn.

waite Khargol.

ait Shami, qaet Sami, aaet Shamra, qaqa

Savandal, avaét Kandi,

qara Badam.

34,

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIn'TY,

Prunus armeniaca, Linn, ...

», bokhariensis

5, Mahalib, Lent iri ian

» Puddum, Moxb....06....

Psidinm, PYG, ..s0.-.---.

Psophocarpus tetragonolobus,

Neck.

Psoralea corylifolia, Linn.......

Pteris aquilina

Pterocarpus Marsupium, Row.

wy santalinus, Linn. f

Pterospermum acerifolium,

Willd.

», suberifolium, Lam.

Ptychotis ajowan .2:.4:.1....-..

Puneeria coagulans ...... vie

Punica Granatum, Linn........

(double

flowers),

Wall.

? ”

Putranjiva Rexburghii,

eVICLUVUM ICICI o..c0t.s, 1

Pyrus Cydonia (seed) ........,

Pythonium Wallichianum, ,..

Schott.

Quercus infectoria, Oliv. (gall.)

Quisqualis indica, Lznn..........

Randia dumetorum, Lam.......

yy culiginoss, Di Cuca,

Raphanus sativus, Linn.

rc iy var, cauda-

tus..

Rauwolfia serpentina, Benth...

Reinwardtia trigyna, Planch ..

Remusatia vivipara, Schott.

Khamnus Wightii, W. & 4...

Rhazya stricta, Dene. .........

Rheum officinale, Baill.

Rhinacanthus communis, Mees

Rhizophora mucronata, Lam.

area Zardali.

srgararer Ald

Huds, var. insititia.

Tara Gavla, qspaq Mahdlab.

Taare Padmakdshta.

Ye Pert. P. Guyava, Raddi.

qreqet Charpatti, aparet Chaudhari,

ra 14 s *

bokhaéré. P. communis:

araat Bavanchi.

year Nétsa.

fayer Bibla, erat Honi, srraa Asan,

tm~aey Rakta chandan, cats Ratdnjli.

ar H-AIT Kunak-champé, aeorffarey Karni-

kara.

aqane Michakind,

See Carum copticum.

See Withania coagulans.

stare Andr, erfeaq Dalimb,

weary Gulnar.

arrTTaT Jivanputra.

See Chrysanthemum indicum.

See Cydonia vulgaris,

gare Shevdlé. This term (Linga temples)

is applied to Arum flowers generally.

arse Majtphal, arar Mayé.

faaraat aay Vildyati chaméli.

yes Gél, iene Gelaphal, rare Peralu,

frye Mindhal, afer Monigeli.

ger? Pendhari, aE Pendhra, Fee Pendhar,

aa Mula.

arate Mogri.

ena or eeat, Herkai or harki,

aq Abai.

ears, Rukhali.

cmmitifest or taqrer, Raktarohida or raktrora.

@qzt Sevar.

| Raa ware Revan khatai.

Mcpin 5 :

aarayety Gajkarni.

atee Kindal,

GLOSSARY.

Rhus coriaria, Linn. (fruit) ...

Ricinus communis, Linn. ......

Rivea ornata, Chois. .......2 ...

», hypocrateriformis, Chois.

Rosa damascena, Mill. .........

glandulifera, Rowd, °....

29 °

Rostellularia procumbens ......

Rottlera dicocca, Road, .......

tinctorie ..6.

Rourea santaloides, W. § A. ...

Rubia cordifolia, Linn .........

Rubus lasiocarpus, Smith. ......

”

Ruellia glutinosa...

oy HDDRICAEA 2 5, os

infundibuliformis

Rumex sp. (fruit) .

yy © 6Vestearius, Linn... ss. 5)

Rungia repens, Nees .......-.+0.

Ruta graveolens, Linn. var-

angustifolia.

Saccharum Munja

‘ officinarum, Linn,.°

F spontaneum, Linn..

Saccopetalum tomentosum, H.

TSE

Sagenia coadunata..,....-..0..+.

Sageroca leurias.....76:. 0-2-2.

Sageretia Brandrethiana. Aitch.

Sagittaria obtusifolia, Linn

Salacia prinoides, D. C....

Salix caprea, Linn........-.-+.++-

» tetrasperma, Roxb. ...

Galmalia malabarica

Salsola frutiosan...(.Jec..00 i

Salvadora oleoides, Dene. ......

» persica, Garcin.

Salvia plebeia, R. Br.

Sanseviera Roxburghiana

eeerceres

faarae Simtk (impd.)

atet Erandi.

@iz Phand.

mModtear Kalmilata.

wararst ats Giilaba-che-jhaér.

..| atzarqeat Kantéshevati.

See Justicia procumbens.

-| Geer Petdri.

See Mallotus philipensis.

aarer Vardhara.

afsre Manjishta, garét [tari.

wns Gauriphal.

See Strobilanthes glutinosus.

See Phaylopsis parviflora.

See Crossandra undulefolia.

weeaqe] Gulhamaz (impd.)

SAL Alhaa, or qyaarar, Chika, chakwat,

or chakota,

aret fraaraver, Ghati pitpdpard,

gara Stiddb. Corrupt form in Marathi gare

Sutdp.

at Sar, facet Sirki. 8. Sara, Rowd.

Ba Us.

at Kangard, Hrat Kash, ae Bart,

farar Kairni, att Kari, aq Hum.

HIACATT «ATA © Kajriyaché bashing.

Beach fern.

See Bocagea Dalzellii.

time Gdngar.

| aoe Nalkitit.

faaasatet Nisalbondi.

azasH Bedmishk (impd.)

qrast Valunj, aqtaar Bitasa.

See Bombax malabaricum.

See Sueeda fruticosa.

wife Khaékhin.

wiper Khakhin, Cia Pilu,

aAtHa Kamarkas.

qarana Ghanasphan, araet Gokarna.

zeylanica, Willd.

S-

36 BOMBAY NATURAT HISTORY SOCIETY.

Santalum album, Linn. ....... ..| za Chandan.

Sapindus trifoliatus, Linn ...... fear Rithd.

Sapium baccatum .,....... wee...| See Excoecaria baccata.

sy — sebiterum: ,.,.c;:te ...| See Croton sebiferum.

Sapota tomentosa .......... .....| See Sideroxylon tomentosum.

Saraca indica, Linn... serene stam Ashok, sitaa Aosag, SAGA Asupéla,

Sarcostemma brevistigma, W.

§ A

. viminale

Sauromatum pedatum, Schott.

Saussurea Lappa, C. B. Clarke

Seevola Keenigii, Vahl.

Schleichera trijuga, Walld. ...

Schrebera Swietenioides, Row,

spheerocarpa,

A, Braun.

Scilla hyacinthoides, Linn. ...

Schweinfurthia

indica

Scindapsus officinalis, Schott..,

AA pertusus, Schott...

Scirpus Kysoor, Rowd. .........

5, subulatus, Vel. 2.72)

Scolopia crenata. foc... ees p

Seutia indica, Brogn. ......

Securinega Leucopyrus, Miill-

Arg,

obovata, Mill-Arg.

Semicarpns Anacardium, i Linn.,

Sesamum indicum, Linn. ......

Sesbania aculeata, Pers,, and

procumbens, W, § 4.

wayptiaca, Pers,

» -grandiflors, Pers...

Sesili indicum, W. & A. ......

Sesuvium portulacastrum, Linn,

Setaria glauca, Beauv.

see ee ete?

sy WRIA; tenth et ts

araqe@a Somvel,

aan Phok. S. intermedium, Dene.

are Loth, yzeaake Bhasmkand.

az Kusht, gqez Upalét, sqreq Chokh,

year Bhadrak.

areata Koshimb, aaa Kiisamb.

arnet Mokari, Sq Mokh.

afaqra Sanipat.

azz Bhuikand.

See Urginea indica.

arat Fader Gajpimpal.

wyaahs or waa, Ganeshkand or ga-

neshvel.

arat Kachard, eeafer Phirvin.

warar Lavala.

feare, Hintéli.

fanz Chimat.

asada Vorepuvan.

areca Kodarsi.

fazay Bibba.

die Til, adie

til:

tratataty Ranshevari,

Mothetil, Aveta Mardhe-

arazt Shevari, saat Jayanti.

stared or saaecar, Agasti or agastiya, FIar

Hadga.

frets stsara Kirminji, Ajvan.

grat Dhapa.

arate Kolkhindar, rare Kolar, yprast

Bhadali.

Bret mimety Kéli-kingani, asat atarft

Karvi-kangani.

GLOSSARY,

Setaria verticillata, Beauv,

Shorea robusta, Gdrtn. .........

(resin. )

” 9

Sida acuta .....

“po

cordifolia, Linn

Lecereesvare ee

» Thomboidea, Rowb..........

Sideroxylon tomentosum, Row.

Sinapis campestris

ereaeree re

EB)

juncea

CEs ccs se Resise

Sisymbrium Irio, Linn. (seeds).

Smilacina fusca

see ereseecorsenees

Smilax China, Zinn . ..........

* officinalis, Humb. et

Bonpl.

ovalifolia, Rowbd.

”

bE)

Smithia sensitiva, A¢,

blanda

Solanum Duleamara, Linn

see secs

”

giganteum, Jacq......

indicum Dinn, .........

”

gia JaCQuinl 2.6 t tk.

» lycopersi¢um. »......0.;

», Melongena, Linn. ......

» ) Merum, Linn iia.

s, trilobatum, Zinn.....

», tuberosum, Linn

Sonneratia acida, Linn. f. ......

Sopubia delphinifolia, G. Don.

Sorghum saccharatum, Pers...

vulgare, Pers

99 VEER ER, £ C79. a Pocee

$5 ” Vals

Soymida febrifuga, ddr. Juss...

Spatholobus Roxburghii, Benth

tee seeey

Spermacoce hispida, Linn,,...,

..| wsardiate Kutriyachichar, gyre Pandhir.

ara Shal.

wa Ral, erat Damar (impd.)

anet Tukati, ataartar Tiipkariy’. S. carpi-

nifolia, Linn.

PrAt Chikna, srarcate arstt Lobirsir-bhaji,

aeeat Sahadevi, syfaaeayr Atibald, S.

bifolia, var. rhomboidea, Linn.

RisHIDS Kante-ktimbal.

rhom-

See Brassica campestris,

See Brassica juncea,

See Brassica nigra.

wratt Khakshi (impd.), trafaant Rantiki.

alistaret farargza Jhiprigéthi, Kirdit.

arataat Chobchini (impd.)

faaresdt aria. Vildyeti-sdlis.

gtza@a Ghotvel, wet Guti, feeeqeray Hinya-

shaka.

maar Kavala.

areracar Mothi-barki,

staqaqraaq Anabesdlab.

wat Kivi, frat Ching,

Torit Ringani, gest Dorli, Frazf Chin-

churti.

aftr Bhuiringani, amiifeaett

ringani. S. xanthocarpum, Schrad.

area Valvangi, Fart Welvan

persicum esculentum, Miller.

ar Baingan, afi Vangé,

aAratt Kamuni, qrararstt Kakamachi.

aiifeartt Mothi-ringani,

qzrzr Batata.

faat Tivar.

garet Didhili.

geqt Imphi.

sarge ondhald, sare Javari.

afer Stindiya, ara Shalt.

wey Rohan, qyarer Polara,

waaay Phalsan.

agqqzt Madanaghanti, azt=f) ypsfy Ghant

che bhaji, Frat Dhoti.

Kante-

gi, Lyco-

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

Spheeranthus indicus

Spilanthes Acmella, Zinn. var.

oleracea, Clarke.

Spinacia oleracea, Mill.......

Spondias mangifera, Pers......

Sponia Wightii:1...ciivduaces

Stemodia ruderalis,...ssssssveis

Stephanotis floribunda, Pozr.,..

Stephegyne parviflora, Korth.

Sterculia colorata, Rowd.....

foetida, Linn.

guttata, Roxb.

”

ceene vee

”

urens, Roxb

(gum)

villosa, Iowd,

” ee ee

9p VEER, AUONT SS soe sewn:

Stereospermum — chelonoides,

D.C.

4 suaveolens, D. C,

Streblusaspet, Lows). /cider 6.

Strobilanthes ciliatus, Nees

glutinosus, Nees.

” Heyneanus, Nees.

ixiocephalus,

Benth.

Stroemeria tetrandra............

Strychnos colubrina, Linn......

iy (wood)...

Ignatii, Berg

Nux-vomica, Linn...

oeceee

Potatorum, Linn, F:

Stylodiscus trifoliatus.. Tia

Styrax Benzoin, dry ie (esata

Suoeda fruticosa, Morsk

Sesteeves

ast Mindi, req ¥st Gorakh mindi, azar

_| qreay Palak.

» hudiflora, Mog

Soe oveconeee

az Kharak-shépu, arg Nai.

sTacaret Acharabondi.

syarst Ambard, weastar Ranambé, wztar

Khatamba, festtar Doldmbd, stqaep Amra.

array Kapashi, @earas Khargol. S. orien-

talis, Planch,

See Lindenbergia urticzefolia,

augtaa Migari vel.

meq Kadamb, gsaqot nee vule. HBT

Kalamb.

| @ratt Khaushi, arate Bhaikoi.

eqarx Deodar.

Wrsare Goldér, Fart Kiikar,

qigar Pandnik, aqraest Kavali, tees Kandul,

at Karai, arrqqe Séldhaval.

HCAS Karaigond,

qe~et Gilkhandar, Tee Udal.

aqrs@ Paral.

amram Kélgori, orét Padri, qrrmr Patala.

wiyzt Kharotdé, ater Karerd.

arar Karvi, ar Kara, area Karav, ara

Karvi,

qraet Vayati.

straer or stantr Akré or akré,

arat Karvi, &e.

See Cadaba indica.

aravaa Kajarvel,

mare Kanal.

araasy Ndgamishti,

araraét araet Gohdgari lakari. |

qdrar Papita. |

ara Kajra, waar Kichla.

fart Nivali, araay Katak, Paafarsr Chilbiji

faaesy Nirmali.

See Bischoffia javanica,

ae Ud, srara Lobaén (impd.)

arar Land, arcez Moras.

aca Moras,

wenn

GLOSSARY 39

Swertia affinis, Clarke.........06

» angustifolia, Zam ......

3 Olav amir. ve dcbes.

Ho) corymbosa, Waght... 43:

», decussata, Nimmo.....:.

3 paniculata, Wallis

Symplocos racemosa, Rowd.....

Synantherias sylvatica, Schote.

Syzygium Jambolanum .........

‘5 salicifoliurm: $i0.t...022

Tabernzemontana coronaria, Br.

dichotoma, Lowb,

Tacca pinnatifida, Forsh........

Hi seetes Pauulan: 5.57 .cccs, ee ge:

Tamarindus indica, Ling .:....

% »» _-@ipe pods):

Tamarix dioica, Rod. .........

S ericoides, 2othé.......

na gallica, Lann. . 606.0%

‘ LL) PGMS ETS...

% orientalis (galls) ....,

Tapinocarpus indicus, Dalz...

Taraxacum DVens-leonis ........

Taxus baccata, Linn. (leaves)...

Tecoma undulata, G. Dow......

Tectona grandis, Linn, .. ......

Tephrosia purpurea, Pers.....

4 SUDCLOSA | Jeces ieee

Terminalia Arjuna, Bedd......

s belerica, Rowd......

% Catappa, Linn. ...

3 Chebula Retz. ...

5 paniculata, 7.§-d,

- tomentosa, W. § 4.

Tetrameles nudiflora, R. Br...

Tetranthera apetala

: lancifolia

Bs monopetala .,,..,

farce Sildras.

geret TRtrsa Pahari kirdit.

faexcrsa Kirdit.

Hea ars Karvi nai,

Asst Paorstra Karvi shildjit.

aAeat ars Karvi nai.

rst Lodhra, eer Hurd.

qsrqz Vajr-mith, ggitgs Uzo-miith of Goa.

See Hugenia Jambolana.

See Eugenia lissophylla.

ame Tagar, afgz Néodét. ( aoraae Gantagar

var. with large clusters of flowers.)

fzza Tital.

atearare Sardechémar, Sqenrar Deokanda.

aearht Giljdferi, amgawe Makhmal.

twzeawa He Rozia chephul. T. erecta, Linn.

sqft Amli, Fa=y Chinch.

satat Fast Amb tir-chi-chinch.

are ate Lal jhau.

army Jhau, qe Sart.

arm Jhau.

afrarars Magiyd mai.

aftrarars Magiya mai. T. articulata, Vahl.

sHTaTet Dikarmingli,

CECE! Bhui patra. T, officinale, Wiggers.

aarp Barmi (émpd.)

THUPESST or TRUST, Raktarohida or raktrora.

ara Sag.

AUT Sarptokha, gegpaey Unhali,

See Mundulea suberosa,

THA Arjin, aree Shardul, fasta Pinjal.

ager Beherd, Sap Held, arér Ueldri, feter

Hirada, wast Ela.

ager Badim, qareét Tera Bangali baddm,

arearet fete Chamhari hiradé, cayypeifscer

Rangarihirada.

faa Kinjal, faraer Kijurd.

wa Ain, sya Asan, srg Ain.

staat Yet Jangli bhendi.

See Litseea tomentosa.

Jancifolia.

”

55 polyantha.

]

40 BOMBAY NAT

JRAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

Tetanthera Roxburghil .. .....

Thalictrum foliolosum, D. C...

Thespesia Lampas, Dalz ......

sy populnea, Corv......

Thevetia nereifolia, Juss ......

Thunbergia fragrans, Road

Tiaridium indicum, Lriyel......

Tinospora cordifolia, Miers

Toddalia aculeata, Pers.........

Tordylium Secacul, Mill. .....-

Tradescantia axillaris, Linn...

PsA discolor, Willd...

Traga involucrata, Mull-Arg..

Trapfa bispinosa, Rowb.....

Trewia vudiflora, Willd......

Trianthema intermedia bikie

micrantha 4s. iss.

Obcordata inscchenws

”

”»

Tribulus terrestris, Linn......

Tyrichodesma africanum, Br...

4 indicum; Br.....

Tricholepis glaberrima ....., ++.

”

Trichosanthes anguina, Linn...

cordata, Rowd......

procumbens........

i cucumerina, Linn.

dioica, ow) .....-

palmata, WOO sie.

”

Trigonella corniculata, Linn...

4 Fenum-g re c um,

Linn,

Triticum eestivum, Lam .....

Triumfetta pilosa, Roth.. .....-

n rhomboidea, Jacq...

Turnera ulmifolia, Dow 100+

See Litsaea sebifera.

friar Piyaranga (impd).

wraaetat are Rén bhendi che jhar.

Ura are Bhendi che jhar, feqeott Pimparni,

fratt Pimpari.

fraesr aroee Pivald-kanher.

atta Erivel for Fefaa.

yest Bhirindi. Heliotropium indicum, Linn.

. THIS Gilvel, stata Ambarvel, STATA

Amarvel, aaa Amritd, wesaeH Garidvel,

qt Gharol.

arer sae Mord-dgert.

antae fae Shekékulé misri.

zat Ichka, Aras Kajal.

BIS HAT Lal-kivar.

Hodt Kulti, aTeat Koléti, UIT Thora

dgiya, ara Kalavi.

fararer Shinghara.

qzretr Petari.

aqrat Vaho. TT. hydaspica, Bdyw.

wararat Fasarlani. T. pentandra, Linn.

warar Khapra, atar Narmada. T, monogyna,

Linn.

airaqe Gokhart, aut or azz Sardté or

Saranté.

qracarat Pdbarpani.

faat Ginghi, WraysTalt Gaozaban.

ararare Motabor.

See Volutarella divaricata.

qua Partil, sae Parval, qét~ Pandol.

waygae@ Ran parval.

RSEISTS Kartiparval (of the Concan),

REISS Kartiparyal (of Guzerat).

HiSTs or RISH Kaundal or Kavandal.

aica Tirap.

Way Methi.

ae Gahin.

mat aidt Kiitre Vandré.

faacet Nichardi.

fase Bhinjra.

Turroea virens,. Linn ceases vee

BIEL AST Kaptir-bhendi.

GLOSSARY Al

Tylophora asthmatica, W. §A.

i carnosa, Wall .....

: fasciculata, Ham...

4 mollissima, Wight..

Typha angustifolia, Linn......

Ulmas integrifolia, Rovd.......

Uncaria Gambier, Hunter (ex-

tract).

Uyaria lagopoides, D.C. ......

Urens lobata, Pani: \e.0....0.0:

Sitiuata, LAN siccescas.

Urginea indica, Kunth.........

%”

UW rOstionia 0.22. 56.i0 0. eoreee es

Urtica interrupta, Linn.........

Utricularia albo-ccerulea

Uvaria odoratissima

eeocee

soerecscesce

Vachellia Farnesiana

Cocte ree oF

Wall:

(root)

Valeriana Hookeriana, W. § A.

Vandellia pedunculata, Benth.

Vangueria edulis, Vahl

3 spinosa, Rowd.......

Vateria indica, Linn (resin)...

Valeriana Hardwickii,

seovsoesee

Ventilago Madraspatana,

Gartn.

Verbesina: bifloras V7) 0). ec

Vernonia anthelmintica, Willd.

conyzoides, Wight ...

divergens, Benth......

Viburnum fotidum, Waill.,....

Vicia Faba, Linn (seed) ......

», hirsuta, Koch

Vigna Catiang, Hndl......... -

”

eeocccoeores

vexillata, Benth .........

Vinca rosea, Rovb ......0.....

”

Viola odorata, Linn, (flowers).

suffruticosa

soeeeetetene aes

foaanrd? Pitkari, faa Pitmari, rare

Pitvel.

fenae Dikvel.

agaret Bhui dori.

Ayrarehr Moshaki.

wraare Rémbén, waarsty Ranbdjri.

araaor Vavald, qrger Papara, taarest Ainsa-

dara.

faat ara Chini kat (émpd.)

sqrt Davald, frsqor Pithvan.

qayet Vanbhendi,

..| erraartat Ran kapshi,

trqarat Raén kénddé, <atfaer Kochinda,

aramntar Kolkinds.

See Ficus.

arg Khajkil, Tatsat rérékolti, Ara

Agiya.

arsaratara Kdjat-chi-ghdns. \

ararag Kalé champa, froraetaar Vildyeti

chémpa.

See Acacia Farnesiana.

aacaaiet Tagarganthoda (émpd.)

araerTat Kalégavar.

aearaa Gadagvel.

are Ali.

Facatet Chircholi.

awe erat Safed damar, ara Chandrus

(empd).

wigae Khandvel arqey Lokhandi.

See Wedelia bifiora.

are Fait Kalé jiré, ag PAE Kart jiré.

ata Karalyé. eergat Sahadevi.

aeq¢ Bindar.

aca Narvel.

armat Bakalé (émpd.)

stat Ankri.

rere Choulai.

facaate Birambol, sgar Halil.

...| Barges Sadaphul.

naagawar Giilébanafsha (impd.)

See Lonidium suffruticosum.

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

Viscum album, Linn, (fruit)...

Vitex Negundo, Linn., and tri-

folia, Linn,

Se up Quality ee ie

Vitis araneosus, Dalz. .........

is “4 (HOOT): eas

» auriculata, Rowd...... ae

gy CALNOSH, IV-OUL vel ssc. d

5) GUSCOlOL, Dale, oss. is ee

by WIC, LNW osetia cs

»» Janceolaria, Rowb. ........ “a

» latifolia, HOt6s) Jan, ccsem

» quadrangularis, Wall.

» tepanda, Ws & A....ce

we Pubeedtis WG) A. ack co ae

» tomentosa

Voandseia subterranca (seed)...

Volutarella divaricata, Benth...

Webera cornbosa, Willd

Wedelia biflora, D. C..._.........

calendulacea, Less. ...

Withania coagulans, Dunal. ...

4 somnifera, Dunal. ..,

Woodfordia floribunda, Salish.

Wrightia tinctoria, Br. .........

” a (seed) ..1...

45 tomentosa, Roem et

Schult.

Xanthium strumarium, Linn...

Xanthochymus ovalifolius......

i Pictorius 40)

Xylia dolabriformis, Benth. ...

Zanonia indica, Linn........66-+:

Zanthoxylum alatum, Rowd....

fara aAracrare Kishmishé, Kavaliydn

(¢mpd.)

Frat Nirgindi, fast Nirguri, zarefy

Indrani, fesue Lingtr.

ery Sambhali, tomy Réntikd (:mpd.)

watae Bendarvel, dts Chorvel.

aareaaear Chamarmisli.

Risraes Kalivel. :

sist Odi.

aia wWatst ate Tambare panachi chand-

vel, astarae Telichavel.

qremrer Palkanda.

wariaqerarg@ Khajgolichavel.

arent N ddend.

avant Harsankar, aye Mhaisvel, wraet

Kharbiti, apart area Chaudari-

kandvel.

wee Gendal.

qatar Vansa,

gaa Shendvel,

gret Drdksha.

area ar Mosambi-chana.

arerae Baddward.

mre Kard.

gaat Sanki.

frasrarar Pivalamaka,

aAtHarst Kaknaj, qafeae Panirband.

apqargr Ashvagandé, fasr Tila, Hat

Kanchiki.

arsef Dhauri, qraép Dhayati ,»qraatDhasisi

Reaey Philsati, zane Dhaiphal.

atoreer Kaldkird,

ars szarq Gora indrajay.

aaASTHST Tambara-ktira.

ange Shankesvar.

See Garcinia ovalifolia.

See Garcinia Xanthochymus,

ae@ Yeril, siz Jamb.

Facazy Chirpiiti.

aarne Tejphal, aaa Tejbil.

mechan re tesmennnreertete

NEST OF THE CRESTED TREE SwiFt (DENDROCHELIDDN CORONATA) NATURAL SIZE,

Made of small pieces of bark cemented together with sativa to the dead Branch of @ Tree.

NESTING OF THE INDIAN HIRUNDINES. i)

Zanthoxylum Rhetsa, D. C..,| faa Tisal, fRa Triphal, FacKes Chir-

phal.

Zataria multiflora, Boiss. ...... erat Satar (impd.)

Lew Mays, Lint vce. aare Makai, gzt Buta.

Zehneria umbellata, Thwaites. Wraar or Wazt, Gometté or gométa.

sae paneriana. aad: ace axrest Varali.

Zinziber Cassumuner, Roxb. ... ata Nisan, qaartt FoF Malabari-halad.

ss oficiales Roscoe 242 stray Ald, stzay Adral.

99 5 (dry)........ | GF Stnth.

»» macrostachyum, Dalz. ataa Nisan.

Zizyphus Jujuba, Lam. .........| Ate Bor, x Bher, traatt Raibor.

e. fucosus, Lam.....,..- ary Toran.

43 vulgaris, Lam....... ..| sata. Unndb (tmpd.)

” xylopyrus, Willd. ...) gat Guti, afz Ghont, aeaet Bhirg uti,

Zygophyllum simplex, Linn ... qaatat Patlani.

AOrNB Ciplyla. co. vo. Treaty or act Nalabargi or barki.

“NESTING OF THE INDIAN HIRUNDINES.”

By Lizur. H. H. Barnes.

Tne Hirundines are popularly known as Swallows and Martins

(Hirundinine). To these I add the Swifts (Cypsellinw), as they

have many features in common, and together comprise one family

(Hirundinide). They are well represented in India, there being no

less than forty-five species supposed to occur within our limits, but

of this number five are somewhat doubtful. When we consider

that there are but four species frequenting the British Isles fexclud-

ing the Spine-tailed Swallow (Acanthylis eaudacuta), the Purple

Martin (Hirwndo purpurea), and the Alpine Swift (Cypsellus melba),

all of which are extremely rare visitors], we at once see how well

favoured in this respect India is compared with Great Britain.

Some of these are cold weather visitors only and do not remain to

breed, and the nidification of many is but imperfectly known. The

habitat of several is very restricted, while others again, although

generally distributed throughout the country, are yet extremely

local. For instance, the Palm Swift (Cypsellus batassiensis) is found

wherever the tar or toddy palm (Borassus flabelliformis) abounds,

but nowhere else. In the Hirundines the bill is very small, but the

gape is unusually large, reaching to a point below the eye. They

all feed exclusively on insects, usually small ones, such as mosqui-

toes, midges and gnats. These they invariably capture on the wing.

44 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

When they have young in the nest, they collect these insects into a

mass or ball which is retained in the mouth. The number thus

collected is almost incredible. Their long narrow wings are admir-

ably suited to an aérial life, and they are capable of sustaiming them-

selves on the wing throughout the whole day, without showing the

least sign of fatigue. At times they fly so high as to be barely

visible, while at others they only just skim the surface of a tank.

The toes of the swifts are all directed forward, enabling them to

cling to the slightest projection with perfect ease, but the swallows

do not possess this faculty. Some of them are exceedin gly beauti-

ful, but others are much less ornate, their colours ranging from the

bright steel-blue of the Wire-tailed Swallow (Hirundo jilifera),

(which is, to my thinking, the handsomest of the family), through

the sober brown of the little Sand Martin (Ootyle sinensis), to the

sombre-hue of the better known Swift (Cypsellus afinis). Their

nests exhibit great diversity, both as regards the style of architec-

ture and the materials used in their construction, but each indivi-

dual of a species builds a similar nest and makes use of the same

kind of material, so that an oologist of moderate experience on find-

ing a nest can tell at a glance to what species the little architect

belongs. The sites chosen for the nests differ still more than the

nests themselves. Some species attach them to the faces of perpen-

dicular cliffs; others to the eaves of houses. Some place them under

bridges or culverts. One chooses the leaf of a toddy palm; another

a decayed bough of an acacia tree; while another bores a hole in the

sandy bank of a river. Many breed in colonies, but the greater num-

ber singly. Some court the presence of man, others quite the reverse.

They are mostly birds of small size. One of the largest we have in

India is the Alpine Swift, which measures about nine inches in

length. The Common Chimney (Hirwndo rustica) and Wire-tailed

Swallows, the Dusky Crag (Ptyonoprogne concolor), and several

other Martins make half saucer oreup-shape nests. The first-named

does not breed in the plains of India, but on the approach of the

hot weather retires further north for that purpose. I found them

breeding freely in the Bolan Pass and also in Southern Afghanistan,

but the Wire-tailed Swallow and the Dusky Crag Martin breed

generally all over the country, rearing at least two broods in the

year, one in the spring and the other in the autumn. If the first

clutch of eggs be taken they will lay a second, and if that betaken,

a third in the same nest, ‘The nest of the Common Swallow is gene-

‘NESTING OF THE INDIAN HIRUNDINES,” 45

rally affixed to the rafters of an outhouse or other building, They

do not seem to mind the presence of man in the least. The nest

of the Wire-tailed Swallow is generally placed under the cornice of a

bridge, or under the bridge itself, sometimes under an overhanging

shelf of rock, but always in close vicinity to water. That of the Crag

Martin is placed under a projection in the face of a rocky cliff, far

from the haunts of man, or under the eaves of a house in his very

midst. The nests of all three are well lined with soft feathers, and

they often serve for a second brood, the feathers only being renewed.

The eggs, three in number, are very handsome, being white with a

delicate pink tint when fresh and unblown, thickly spotted and

speckled with bright red-brown and inky-purple, but the markings

on the eggs of the latter are not so bright or so well defined as on

those of the two former. The nest of the Mosque Swallow

(Hirundo erythropygia) is built after avery different pattern, but the

material used is the same, viz., mud, which the bird procures from

the banks of the nearest pond or river. Both sexes assist in making

the nest, which is of a peculiar shape, and has been, not inaptly,

described as retort-shape, or rather half-retort. It is usually affixed

to the roof of a cave, bridge, or culvert, or to the under-surface of

the ledge ofa rock. They construct a large bulb-like chamber, five

or six inches in diameter, with a tubular passage of varying length

reaching occasionally to quite nine inches, but in general the length

is not more than four or five. The male bird often goes on length-

ening this passage after the eggs are laid and while the female is

sitting on them. The nest is well lined with soft feathers, and the

eggs, three in number, are pure unspotted white. After the birds

have once chosen a site for a nest, they are very hard to drive away.

T have often broken open nests to see if any eggs had been laid, and

they have always been repaired, and I have eventually obtained

eggs from them. ‘To such an extent is the constructive faculty

developed in these birds that they often build two or more nests

before they are satisfied, and they are known to make a winter resi-

dence for themselves in which eggs are never found. They are

solitary breeders. Not so, however, the Cliff Swallows (Hirundo

fluvicola), whose immense clusters of nests often amount to from one

hundred and fifty to two hundred in number. They also build

retort-shape nests, but in quite a different fashion, the bulbs or

chamber portions being affixed to the under-surface of a shelving

rock, or under a bridge with the tubes hanging down or rather a

46 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

little outwards, the whole looking not unlike a huge honeycomb.

They are well lined with feathers, and the eggs, three in number,

vary a great deal in shape, size, and colour. About half of them are

pure unspotted white, and the remaining half are more or less

spotted, speckled, or streaked with yellowish-brown. These mark-

ings are, however, not very clearly defined. All the eggs of a

clutch are of the same type. They breed at least twice a year, nests

being found from July to April in most places where they breed-

These colonies are always near water. Their nests are occasionally

appropriated by the Common Swift. A cluster of these nests that I

found under a bridge on the Saugor road, about twenty miles from

Kareli, was jointly tenanted by Cliff Swallows, Indian Swifts, and

Common Sparrows (Passer indicus). The outer nests were occupied

by the Swifts and Sparrows and the inner ones by the Cliff Swal-

lows. The next birds are the Sand Martins (Ootyle riparia,

O. subsoccata, C. sinensis), of which it is still an open question

whether one, two, or three. species occur in India. I myself

have only met with one, and this is the Indian Sand Martin,

whose method of breeding is somewhat similar to that of our British

species, but the nesting holes seem much more scattered. They bore

holes in the sandy banks of rivers to the depth of one and a half to

more than four feet according to the relative hardness of the soil

and at the end of this hole or passage, which is somewhat enlarged,

they make a nest, composed of fine grass roots and feathers. The

eggs are pure, spotless white, and almost devoid of gloss. I have

never found more than three eggs in any one nest, but others speak

of finding as many as five. This completes the Swallows and Mar-

tins. The Swifts differ widely in many respects from the foregoing,

as do also their nests. Mud that entered so largely into their con-

struction is now no longer found, but in its stead agglutinated saliva

is most frequently used. The different species of swifts build very

dissimilar nests. The nesting of the Indian Swift is so well known

that itis almost superfluous to say anything about it, but frequently

common every-day objects are passed over unnoticed, and to meet

such cases as these I will briefly describe their nests. As a rule,

they breed together in great numbers, They often make a huge

cluster of nests, which they affix to the roof of a cave or other suit-

able place, with isolated nests or small clumps of two or three,

scattered here and there in close proximity to the central mass.

The bird frequents the busiest thoroughfares, as well as the most

“NESTING OF THE INDIAN HIRUNDINES.” 47

retired spots. Another favourite site for their nests is the space

between the rafters of a stable roof or verandah as well as under the

eaves of houses. Great numbers of them may now be seen breeding

in the verandah, under the Commisssry-General’s offices in the Fort.

Their nests, which take a considerable time to construct, are com.

posed of agglutinated saliva mixed with a few feathers and straws.

They are of no particular shape, being at times long and narrow,

occasionally almost round, but most often they are of a very irregular

oblong shape. Tbe eggs, three in number, are long narrow ovals,

of a pure glossless white. The birds seem to be always breeding,

for I see from my notes that there is not a month in the year in

which I have not taken eggs or found nestlings more or less callow.

I have never seen any Indian eggs of the Alpine Swift,

but Mr. Davidson, of Mallizaum, showed me both nests and

nestlings which he had obtained from the mountains in that district.

He says that the birds breed in deep clefts and fissures of almost

inaccessible rocks. On several occasions he made attempts to

secure their eggs. These places are always inaccessible from below.

and generally it is impossible to get on the cliffs above them, so as

to be able to let down a rope. In one or two places, however, they

breed on cliffs, above which people can walk with safety, and the

Bheels get down to them in the same way as they do to take honey.

A rope ladder is constructed of pieces of bamboo about fifteen inches

long, tied between two strong ropes, which are fastened to a very

thick rope.» The steps are two and a half feet apart, so that

a long ladder does not weigh very much, The thick rope is tied to

a tree if possible, if not it is held by a number of men and the rope

ladder hung over the precipice. A Bheel then ties a light rope

under his arms, and with the end held by people above who pay

out the rope, rans down the ladder which swings about in the wind.

In taking the nest of the Alpine Swift, however, the difficulty

lies in the fact that they breed in fissures stretching upwards

into overhanging cliffs. Many of these places the man cannot

get at, or even if he can the nests are out of his reach. During

the rains the people refused to try at all, on the ground that at

that scason the overhanging cliff would probably fall on them.

The specimen of nest shows where it was fastened to both sides of

the fissure. It is a very solid structure in comparison to that of the

Common Indian Swift. The Palm Swift is, as I have already said,

found throughout the plains of India, wherever the toddy tree

48 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCINTY.

abounds, and it is to the under-surface of aleaf of this tree that they

attach their tiny nests. ‘They are composed of fine vegetable down,

cemented together by the saliva of the birds. The upper edge of the

rim of the nest (which in shape resembles a watch pocket) is gene-

rally very hard and cordlike, but the remaining portion of it is much

softer. The eggs, three in number, are perfect miniatures of those

of the Common Swift. They are solitary builders, as a rule, gene-

rally not more than one or two nests being found on the same tree.

The Palm Roof Swifts (Cypsellus imfumatus) are stated by Dr.

Jerdon (I have myself never seen one), to attach their nests to the

palm leaves, used by the people in the Naga Hills to roof their huts.

The roofs consist of two separate layers, and it is to the upper

surface of the lower layer that the nests are attached. One of the

Edible Nest Swiftlets (Collocalia wnicolor) breeds in several places

on the Nilgiri Hills, as also on the Vingorla Rocks, from whence it

is stated that one hundredweight of nests are exported every season.

These nests are, however, much inferior in value to those of C. linchi

and O. spodiapygia, which are clear white. Both kinds are, how-

ever, esteemed a delicacy in China and fetch there a good price. I

will conclude my remarks with an account of the nesting of, per-

haps, the most interesting bird of all. I allude to the Crested

Tree Swift (Dendrochelidon coronata), which makes its nest against

the side of a dead branch, in shape like a very shallow half saucer,

which can easily be covered by a depreciated rupee, and it ig no-

where more than one-eighth of an inch in thickness, and is barely

half an inch in depth. As might be expected, a single egg only is

laid, which is of a pure glossless white. The nest itself is com-

posed of thin flakes of bark glued together with saliva.

My object has been to give a plain description, or rather

account, of the nesting habits of these, to me, interesting birds,

and I have avoided the use of scientific and technical terms as much

as possible,

CATALOGUE OF SNAKES IN THE SOCIETY’S COLLECTION.

OF THE

CATALOGUE

pra KES IN THE

Soorety’s

CoLLEcrion.

Families. i I Genera and Species. Locality.

}

I.—Typhlopidee .. «ee Typhlops porrectus ......) Bandora, Bombay.

(Blind Snakes.) | ee ee Cutch.

ee ; bee brahminus ...... Mauritius.

So ane a Poona.

See 1 Onye hocephalus acutus...| Neemuch.

eo ee (val pi ie Peres Carwar.

# I v re Alibag, Kolaba.

I: — Tortricidae ..| Ai | Cylindrophis maculatus... Ceylon.

(The Short-tail-; 1 \ ruius.........| Henzada, Burmah.

ed arth

Snakes)

TlI.—Pythonide .) 1 | Python molurus -...........| Lanowli.

(the Pythons )

L ” »

1 is reticulatus es,

2” ”

—

LV. 1 | Gongylophis conicus ......

‘

(wh ae 3 ee te

Sn: “kee |

By eres ee 39 ”

Gy ee | e Wo ae

01 tees | : ” ” settee

Be Os | I) ipyx Jean :......

” | 1 ” ” (ju

. ea ac 6 (juv. ee

V.—Acrochordidze

(The Wart |

Snakes.)

Lk Bee net gince Minit

VI.— Uropelt ide.

(Rough-tailed |

Harth Snakes.)

VII.—Zenopelti-

lee.

Cridescent |

arth Snakes ) |

VIIT.—Calamari- |

dee. |

(Dwarf Snakes.)

oe Aas |

oe ee

RS |

1X. —Homalopsi- |

dee. |

(River Snakes.)

L | Chersydrus granulatus ..,

I oe)

(juv.).-.|

Bombay.

Carwar.

Mergui Archipelago.

Moulnein.

Bombay.

”

Saugor, C. P.

Hingoli, Deccan.

Poona.

} ae ek

Poona.

Bombay Harbour.

”

Ho Bho

£ 9 ” eee

1 | Sillybura Blliotii |

1 a bicatenata.........|

2 i macrolepis ....., |

2 yy Say a1

i -y Shortii |

1 | Xenopeltis unicolor as

L | Aspidura trachyprocta ...

] | Feronia sieboldi

Voli ibm A ee

» »? bee nee canner

1 » So |

1 » %» |

A ” Se Ge

1 ” » (juv.)

3eleaum.,

Poona.

Khandalla.

Lanowli.

Henzada, Burmah.

Ceylon.

Saugor, C, P.

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

Families.

Genera and Species,

Locality.

[X.—Homalopsi-

dze—(contd.)

‘ teens

” Ose)

”» ‘aaa

” oove

” Lidl

” .

9 bi -

Fi Wess

” a

” oo

X.—Amblycepha-

lides.

(Blunt-headed

Snakes.)

XL.—Oligontidee

(Pilleted Ground

Snakes.)

XI1.—Lycodonti-

dx,

( Harmless-fang-

ed Snakes)

” o

” fences

» teenee

” Fave

9 oeeees

% ae

99 teases

cE) tees

” eee

PP roe taves

XIII. —Colubridee

Group 1-Coronel-

lina.

a on ee

Cerberus rhynchops ......

Fe ij ma

5 . Cones

» ” (ju Jie

9 ” (juv Jans

” ” Guy.) ..,

Ferdonia unicolor ......:.

a) ”

Hipistis hydrinas ...

” ” one

HF iy veoel

None.

Oligodon subgriseus ..,...

” ” .

2” ” oe

i Sr ee

3 ”

” ”

” 9

” ”

”» » vetees

” S78 ee ge aem,

” LA Ie SOG! Sa

Oligodon sublincatus ......

” spilonotts ......

” subpunctatus

” 0g te

” » (juv.)...

3 fasciatus (juv.)..

” (j uy.) >.

e ” es

Simotes Russellii .........

= » ran ron

is 55 cdeogiee

” ”

” ” Maat: _

a "i (juv )...

i Feoniatus ..crecses

4 ‘ wacest

Lycodon aulicus ss. .644

” 09 saa reenes

: ‘5 “rte

», (Ceylon variety).

" ” es

9 9

y ” ain

% ” ses

vs ” ornree

” ” © .

” ” scadhs

9 eee

Cyclophis calamaria ......

” ” vearee

Bombay Harbour.

Carwar.

Moulmein.

Bombay.

”

Deolali.

”

Colaba.

Khandalla,

Ceylon.

”

Carwar.

”

Ceylon.

Bombay.

Lanowli.

»”

Poona,

Bombay.

Poona.

Bombay.

”

FP:

”

Carwar.

”

Burmah.

”?

Thanna,

Bombay.

Ceylon.

Bombay.

”

Ceylon.

Bombay.

”

Poona.

Ceylon.

Mahableshwar.

a llicaicaStiati

CATALOGUE OF SNAKES IN THE SOCIETY’S COLLECTION. 51

Families. Genera and Species. Locality.

(Ground Colubers)) 1 | Cyclophia calamaria ...... Mahableshwar.

X11I.—Colubridw.| 1 | Ptyas mucosus (head) Bombay

Group II.-Colu-} 1 , ef jf oars ”

brina.

(Agile Colubers.)} 1 Yi 5 uy) 3 y

Wo es a i * (juv.) elds « i

5 17 eke 1 ” ” (juv.) »

i eon 1 % », foetus in egg s

Sas L ” x a9 see vee ”

3 ..| 1 | Zamenis diadema .........J Campbellpore.

” seers 1 yj Say caves Bhooj, Cutch.

i a 1 rc fasciolatus ...... Thanna.

” i ” Hoe ee Khandalla.

” 1 ” {ae eas Saugor, C. P.

» 1 iy ise aes Poona.

s i me ventrimaculatus.| Perim Island.

2” 1 ” iy an, Campbellpore.

” 1 | Cynophis Helena.....,......) Ceylon.

1 1 5 Malabaricus Mahableshwar.

[ee 8 a — Khandalla,

9 56h se ved 1 9 ee eens, ‘5

9) ete L D » (jav.) Lanowli.

” I ” Wo ees. Khandala.

XITI.—Colnbride.

Group IIL.-Drya-

dina. None.

(Bush Colubers)

XIII.—Colubride.| 1 | Tropidonotus quineune-| Bombay.

tiatus.

Group IV.—Nal-; £ a Hotei y

ricina.

(Amphib. Colu-| 1 4 variety ...| Ceylon.

bers.)

ee Shoals _ 4 AG ean Mahableshwar.

Fr in 1 4 (fcetal speci-| Bombay.

men in egg)

” aad 49 Guv.)...45,|, Poona.

Ne L i stolatus ...... Bombay.

” iL ” ” tennes ”

yo 1 - (foetal — speci- %

men in egg.)

” ” 1) = tte ewe ” :

” “a % ie iec| POODR.

4 x platyceps .. Thundiani,

9 29 ” . ”

% ” ey co Weaieas 39

” ” plumbicoler ..,| Saugor.

) ” # Kirkee,

” ” ” ”

” » i Carwar.

” x9 » paViee Deolali.

” » Hye lees Poona.

» ” ” aoneee ” *

» »” ee ea an ”

” 5 Beddomii ...... Mahableshwar.

” ” ” seenee ”

» ” punctatus......| Alibag.

29 \ » ” veeres 2?

BOMPAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

.-~Dendrophi-

de.

(Tree Snakes.)

is re

yy fe

x retin

i ve

X V.—Dryiophidee

(Gong-nosed

Tree Snakes.)

” Ponses

” aeeues

” seeeee

XVI.—Dipsadidee.

( Brown-headed

Tree Snakes.)

oy Sone

ory peeves

”? oe

9 sean

XVIT.—Psammo-

phidee.

(Desert Snakes.)

XVIil.—Hlapide.

(Venomous

Colubrine Land

Snakes.)

”

3 ean hs

Fi aan

”

i seen

4 Wiens

és Weekes

”

»”

a”

# Ponce

zn ieciyeas

Fy tee

” tees

XIX.—Hydrophi-

dee.

(Sea Snakes)......

” soaree

” sen ees

09 fencers ‘

”

9 eoares

” tee eeeees

” Aoneeeees

” . .

»” Poet en ses

»” Pea tereee

” see tenees

»” eee renren

a ll ell el ee ed

REE Re Re eee

Genera and Species.

Chrysopelea ornata ......

» ” Wifes

ee i GUY) ws

Dendrophis picta..

” 9

” a2

Passerita mycterizans

”

” + sae

” heen ee renes

» Dene raw eee

DUSAS SOOO] cov ccs causes ces

” ” Ei ae

” ”

2» ”

” LED *

Dipsas Ceylonensis.........

Dipsas triganata ........5..

Psammophis Leithii ......

Naga tripudians ....6...

” ” Sone

% » (foetus in egg)

A ye GUN)

te) ” (juv.) +.

‘Ss 5, (Keantial).

"9 a ae

Bungarus fasciatus

”? bed chy idiot

y arcuatus ..... reat

oo ” eee

a2 ”

” a9

” 9

a ii eae

Ophiophagus elaps (head)

L » (skin).

” on

Callophis nigrescens ......

‘ 6 an

35 trimaculatus ...

” ” aks

Hydrophis curta ....6....+0.

, A havestiavees

§ , MAINE +

ne TODUSES v3. 5045..

yy diadema

” ”

»” iy ” tee 04

45 aurifasciatus ..,

s BIGOlOn: cits

a cs, Sooocre

te 3 iheiti

* 33 oes

4 i es oe

5 % eaa seni

Locality.

Ceylon.

Carwar.

”

Surat.

”)

8S. Travancore

Thanna,

Bombay.

”

Ceylon.

Pooua,

Carwar.

Saugor.

tutnagiri.

Bombay.

”

Poona,

Alibag, Kolaba,

Poona.

Campbellpore.

Bombay.

”

Henzada, Burmah.

Poona.

Henzada, Burmah.

3 >

Bombay.

”

Saugor, C. P.

Ahmedabad.

Carwar.

Canara, (15-5).

Penang.

Mahableshwar.

Carwar.

Colaba, Bombay.

Bandora |,;

Persian Gulf.

Bombay Harbour.

Porebunder.

Alibag

Bombay Seas.

”

Persian Gulf.

Bombay Seas.

CATALOGUE

OF SNAKES IN THE SOCIETY’S COLLECTION. O98

Families.

XIX.—Hydrophi-

dee—contd,

ory peeeeenee)

XX.—Crotalide..

(OCrotali or

Pit Vipers.)

” see eeeres

XXT.—Viperid

(Vipers.)

” °

Pa ee el a ool ll noe eo

cll eel cell ell eel ee

Genera, and Species.

Loeality.

Hydrophis bicolor .........

ay ee x +

| ss Phipsoni... be

| ip Guntherii

| b cloris

” oo ¥

2 ” *s

” ” ¥

Trimeresurus trigonoce-

lus.

” ”

”? ”

io anamallensis

” ” oo

% ” tees

4 s, (head)

i carinatus ....:. |

" strigatus oes

Hypnale nepa ...........+.0

4 Wirtiok. aie

”? ” fin ai

” ”

”? ”

9 ee aoa

” sy tee een eee

Halys himalayanus ......

” ed dice

Daboia eleeans ..0..0......

5 sg (head)

e b> Bee

a 7 Pee

» cr

” ” |

39 a9 hc eT

HOhis CATING «...5.-vev005 |

” 2”? nae

” ” vee

” ”

ny 3 pees eas iss

% ”

” >

” ”

»” ”

2? ”

ty 99

Bombay Seas.

”

Kattywar Coast.

Bombay Seas.

Ceylon.

”

Khandalla, J

Monlmein.

Carwar,

”

Ceylon.

”

Carwar.

Thundiani, Punjab.

”

Sangor, C. P.

Hurda, C..P.

Bombay.

”

Ceylon.

Bombay.

Sind.

Bhooj, Cutch,

Mahableshwar.

Rutnigiri. '

”

Aden.

Ceylon,

Kirkee.

Hingoli.

Poona.

Ist January 1888.

H. M. PHIPSON,

Hon. Secretary, Reptile Section.

54 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCTETY.

THE “ FOLKLORE OF INDIAN PLANTS.”

Tsu following is a report of the lecture on the above subject given

g i ject g

by Dr. Kirtikar at the Sassoon Mechanics’ Institute on Monday,

the 9th January 1888 :—

From time immemorial plant life has always had its tales con-

nected with itself or with the places in which it grows. In

ancient Grecian and Roman literature we find that there are certain |

plants favourite to certain gods and goddesses. Bacchus is described

as ivy-clad. Allsculapius, the god of the physicians and physic,

wears a crown of laurel, because the tree is supposed to be a

powerful cure for disease of all kinds. The goddess Concordia

(concord) has her symbol illustrated by two right hands joined to-

gether and a pomegranate. Pax, the goddess of peace, is repre-

sented as being crowned with olives and laurel, bearing ears of corn in

her hands. Pluto, the king of the nether regions, is represented as

being sometimes crowned with Narcissus flowers (white daffodils),

and sometimes with cypress leaves. The god Hymenwus, presiding

q over marriages, and companion of Venus, is crowned with sweet

marjoram, and sometimes roses. Who can read without horror the

experience of AYneas as has been graphically pourtrayed by the

masterly pen of Virgil, when Adneas on landing on the Thracian

shore plucks a shoot of what is apparently a shaggy myrtle bush !

Drops of dark blood arise from where the shoot was torn off the

ground. He did it again, and again did blood ooze out of the up-

turned soil. At last a voice arose from the bosom of the soil “ Spare

me! Iam Polydorus, buriedhere. Let me enjoy repose in my grave,

murdered as I lie by the hand ofa Thracian monarch, who killed

me for my gold.” Take another instance from classic legends,

when Phaeton, one of the children of the Sun, mounted his father’s

chariot, and being unable to manage the fiery horses, set fire to

| heaven and earth, Jupiter struck him out of the chariot with

thunder, and cast him headlong into the river Po. Phacton’s

sisters mourned over the loss of their brother, and wept uncontrolled

by the side of the river. The gods in their compassion changed

the sisters into poplar trees. Proserpine, the queen of the infer-

nal regions, loved her husband Plato—the black god so much, lovely

i as she was, that sho in a fit of jealousy converted his mistress Mentha

~ into mint, a plant known after her name. We know again the

story of the youth Narcissus who was so infatuated with his own

beauty that he fell in deep love with himself. In the love of his

THE ‘FOLKLORE OF INDIAN PLANTts.”? 50

own matchless beauty he pined away, when at last the compassion

of gods turned him into a daffodil In our own day we speak of

“ successful’? men bearing the palm, from the ancient Roman custom

of giving the gladiator a palm tree branch, Our leading poet is called

the “Poet Laureate.” ‘The laurel is an emblem of peace and victory

in our day. In modern days our flowers have a language, which

finds no small pleasure, encouragement, and fruitful occupation to

two young loving hearts about to be united in the sacred bonds of

wedlock The lady love sends a beautifully pressed dried heart’s-ease.

The sweetheart swears constancy and warmth by enclosing a rose.

The lady-love sends a hly-of-the-valley—the sweetheart sends back

love-lies-bleeding, and so on till the orange blossom veil hands ever

the virgin wife to her ardently admiring husband. Nor is the vil-

lage tree, or the way-side bush, free from its own tale. Near Glas-

tonbury Abbey they say there is an old hawthorn tree that Sprang

up and at once threw out bud and blossom, when Joseph, the first

preacher of Christianity in Britain, thrust his staff into the ground to

convince the British Islanders that he had a divine mission to fulfil.

They all sing its praises. India is no exception to this universal

natural propensity of the human mind to connect tales of more or

less interest with the trees and plants we see around.

Have you seen the peepul (I"icus religiosa) tree yonder? It is dusk

now. Don’tyoupass by it. Don’t.stand under its rustling branches,

or you will be possessed of the spirits that haunt its deepening

shadow. Why should the peepul more than any other tree, say its

neighbour the acacia or babul, be haunted by spirits? There is no

more reason for this than there is for young Narcissus being looked

upon as turnedinto a daffodil in preference toa rose. Nobody has

seen these spirits in propria persond. It is all imagination. Good

spirits, according to other accounts, dwell on the different parts of

the peepul. Thus Bramha, the creator of men, is at the plate where

the roots strike the ground; Vishnu, the preserver, is at its middle ;

and Shiva, the destroyer, is at the top: The ghosts, or evil spirits,

are supposed to haunt the branches. It is possible that the idea

of evil spirits has struck the story-teller’s mind from the topmost

deity being inordinately fond of the company of goblins or demons.

What are these demons? Principally there are two—the Hedli,

a female, and the Munja, or an unmarried youth, a boy under or

about twelve. The Hedli is a ghastly figure, being the spirit of a

married woman dying during the lifetime of her husband. She is

56 BOMBAY, NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

dressed in a yellow sért. Her hair is dishevelled, her forehead

besmeared with red powder, and her eyelashes darkened with lamp-

black. She has the appearance of wildness, and her general demea-

nour betokens mischief, for death has been early, and the woman

has died before properly enjoying the world. The youthful Munja is

not so wild, havine died before he was old enough to appreciate a

worldly life. The spirit Munjé is at the best an indifferent spirit.

He is dressed in the fashion suited to his age and calling. Hisage is

boyish. He has just passed through the ceremony of the investiture

of the holy thread, but has died before the sacred girdle is off his

waist. He is nude, he carries with him a staff obtained from the

palas tree (Butea frondosa). He has the recently assumed sacred

thread across his left shoulder, He has his water bowl and his jholi,

or bag, to receive the alms he asks to sustain his body during the

period of his pupilage. Why such a tender and harmless spirit

should ever have been created by the story-teller beats my imagin-

ation. I can understand an angry, unsatisfied grown-up person,

male or female, being anxious to linger around the place dear to

him or her during life, and being angry and dissatisfied, they might

wear countenances horrid enough to terrify those whom they haunt;

but I cannot understand this of a boy, whose spirit, after his boyish

frolics, requires rest and peace, or whose lissome countenance

wants a more congenial home than the constantly rustling branches

of a shady peepul. There is no botanical reason why the peepul

should be haunted by evil spirits. In Bombay it grows. rather -

irregularly, but up-country I have seen its stem as perfect and ercct,

beautifully shining as it could be. The leaves lovely, delicately

tinted, perfect in their frame work, and altogether when the stem is

not irregular it is a lovely tree, though not productive of any edible

fruit. The presence of the Hindoo trinity gods, therefore, is more

suited to the general appearance of the peepul.

Far different in appearance is the Umbar tree, botanically called

the Hicus glomerata, at the foot of .which the guardian’ deity is

Datidtraya. The legend of the birth of this peaceful, all-powerful,

and all-protecting deity is highly amusing. You already know the

gods of the Hindoo trinity. Let me introduce to you their wives:

Savitri, wife of Bramha ; Lakshmi, wife of Vishnu ;and Parvati, wife

of Shiva. These three dutiful wives are extremely devoted to their

respective lords. The story is that there was a certain saint called

Atri, living happily with his devoted wife Anusay’. Though the

THR “ FOLKLORE OF INDIAN PLANTS.” 57

wives of the gods forming the trinity were highly devoted to their

respective husbands, it must be stated that Anusaya far surpassed

any known woman of her time in her devotion. Her entire submis-

sion to the will of her lord was well known. If ever, therefore, there

was an object of universal envy in this respect, it was the wife of

the humble saint Atri. He was powerful in his sanctity, and peace-

ful at home, not possessing much and yet wanting little. Rich in

the love of his wife, he was the happiest among the living. Any

god or goddess not quite at peace with his or her partner might have

usefully learnt a lesson from their singularly pure and perfect lives.

The gods of the Hindoo mythology, like all other mythic gods,

were not perfect gods, They had their own domestic vexations.

With a view, therefore, to have some “fun ” the heavenly peripa-

tetic chatterer Ndérad appears on the scene. Who is Nérad? As

I say, he is a peripatetic chatterer,—a messenger travelling between

the heavenly and mundane spheres, a walking newspaper, « living

encyclopedia, and a mellifluous singer like Orpheus of the Greeks.

He is an energetic bachelor, carrying the Vind (or a kind of

modified guitar) in one hand, and the chiplya in another (two chips of

wood with brass jingles held between the middle finger and thumb

and struck against each other, keeping time as the Vind is being

played upon); singing and dancing, full of liveliness and full of glee.

He isa man the very quintessence of wit and humour and of vast

resources, ready to create misunderstandings between friends and

compunions, and foment quarrels between foes, and as equally ready

with means, repairing wrongs resulting therefrom,—in plain words, a

consummate peace-breaker and mischief-maker, the very imp of

meddlesomeness, the minion of mockery, and with all this, a saint

born and brought up—and what is more strange, an ever-welcome

visitor of the immortal gods and mortal men, at whatever hour of

night or day he paid his visit! He had the power of mysteriously

disappearing from the lower to the higher world, and had no vehicle

to carry him from place to place. He vanished in the airy regions, but

when he was not disposed to be incognito the sweet strains of his ever

charming music announced his arrival. True to his calling he-paid a

visit to each of the wi ves of the three gods I have mentioned—Brahma,

Vishnu, and Shiva. He said to them that there wasa woman in an

humbler sphere of life who beat them all in her devotion to her lord

and in her hospitality. It was not meet, said he, that it should be so.

It was a disgrace to them that they of heaven were surpassed, What

58 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

could this chaff and banter of Narad’s do but rouse the green-

eyed monster? The virulence of the jealousy of his fair listeners was

boundless. They determined to try Anusaydé and to test her sense

of hospitality, and so they packed off their husbands to the dwelling-

house of this holy and humble pair. Leagues away they went, Brahma

from his Satyaloka, Vishnu from Vaikunth, and Shiva from Kailis,

influenced by the entreaties of their wives. They stood as beggars

at the door of Atri, asking alms, but imposing an absurd condition

that the alms should be given by the lady of the house, Anusaya, in

a state of perfect nudity. This is palpably a prohibitive condition

imposed with the sole object of putting to the severest test the

hospitality of the host, under the strong presumption that it will not

be fulfilled, the rules of hospitality will thereby be broken and the

object of the trinity eventually gained. The story reminds one of

Lady Godiva, the noble wife of the “grim Harl” of Coventry, who

was called upon to ride uncovered through the town, if she wanted

her hard-hearted husband to repeal an oppressive law, and thus

save hor subjects from heavy taxation. To return to our legend,

then, The Hindoo trinity thus stood at the Rishi’s door united in an

ach of self-immolation—for indeed self-immolation it was—as they

were demanding more than was their due as beggars or as guests,

and though they were supreme gods incognito, their act. was one

which no mind, human or divine, could ever look upon with appro-

bation or with complacency, under any circumstance—far less would

such a request be considered becoming on the part of guests and

beggars. But beggars have sometimes strange ways of demanding

alms. A woman’s true dowry is modesty. To venture to attack

that under the garb of hospitality, to make one’s own demand as a

guest, forgetting the commonest and plainest rules of hospitality, is

too much to bear for even a saint. Yet the husband of Anusaya

was up to the occasion. Hmbarrassed, yet serene and unmoved,

‘sweet as the primrose peeps beneath the thorn,’’ Anusaya, the

faithful wife and woman, says,to the three guests “your will be

done!” ‘To send them away unsatisfied would be a life-long

reproach. It would entail the loss of merit of former hospitalities.

It would mean a life of moral extinction. Her husband in the

meanwhile placed a potful of charmed water before his devoted wife,

dignified in what to others would have been perturbation, but

determined as a true woman always is, to do her duty to the last.

The lady sprinkled a little of this charmed water prepared by her

THE ‘‘ FOLKLORE OF INDIAN PLANTS.” 59

husband on each of the pseudo-beggars, and if I may venture to

express an opinion, it ‘ served them right.” For, behold! on the

sprinkling of the water they three lost their manly forms and

became tender babies. They were there in spirit, but their persons

were no longer those that could take impression from the surround-

ing world. The lady Anusay’ thereafter at once fulfilled the condi-

tion of nudity, flung her garments aside, and with a dignity charac-

teristic of a hostess she put the three babies to her breast, one after

another, and fed them in their state of perfect innocence, thus fulfil-

ling their demands without going beyond the bounds of modesty.

She sang lullabies and sent the babies to sleep. Time passes.

The husbands don’t return home. What’s become of them? The

Messenger of Heaven, Nérad, is again on the scene. He knows it

all, He is at the bottom of it. He informs the three wives,

anxious about the return of their gallant husbands, that their hus-=

bands had been metamorphosed into babies, and were now in the arms

of Anusaya, whom they had sent a trial. The laurel is the meed of

mighty conquerors. The cradle is now the meed of these preposter-

ous gods. You can imagine the consternation of the wives.

Implorings and apologies of a touching kind prevailed after this.

The time for claiming superiority was gone. ‘The contest was ats

an end. ‘Lhere was a fall, and the humble pair was victorious. The

Rishi was willing to forgive and forget. The charmed waters were

sprinkled over the babies, and. they became men again. To mark

the circumstance, however, and also to serve a lesson to future gene-

rations, this united action of the three gods was symbolized in

making a new deity by the union of three persons into one. This

was the birth of god Dattatraya, who is to be found at the foot of

the Umbar or Audumbar tree (Ficus glomerata). He has only one

body and six hands, but has three different heads, each representing

a god of the Hindoo trinity. He was conceived in holiness and in

the discharge of the solemn duty of hospitality, and is therefore a

noble deity, the prince of peace, and guardian of good deeds.

Let menowtake up the legend connected with another favourite and

frequently seen tree, the banyan tree, the Ficus indica, On the full

moon day of J eshtha this tree is worshipped by all married ladies that

they may escape the miseries of a widowed life. The story is: that

it was the worship of this tree that gave back to Savitri her husband

Satyaw4n, who was stung to death by a cobra during his wanderings

in the forest. . The legend of Savatri has attracted the attention of

60 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY soctEry.

Count Gubernatis, that distinguished Oriental scholar who was among

us some timeago. He has dramatized the story in Italian, which our

learned antiquarian scholar, Dr. Gerson DaCunha, has rendered into

English. There the story is given graphically though different from

mine. Suffice it to say here, that Nirad fi gures in this story also.

Here it was through his instrumentality that Sivitri know the mode

of recovering her husband from the Yama Rajah, King of the Infer-

nal Regions (the Indian Pluto). After having worshipped the plant

in the usual manner prescribed by the ritual, s anding by the side of

her husband’s body that had just breathed its last, she invoked the

lord of the nether world that her busband’s life might be restored.

‘The force of the worship of the banyan tree was so great that the King

of Hell was obliged to give up the spirit of the deceased husband.

Tt was no unmerited reward to a dutiful wife who had abandoned

her parents and all her dear belongings, her country, and her com-

forts, to wander in the jungles with her husband—a companion in

life to him as well as his deliverer, or regenerator after death,

What woman with her beliefs trained in this direction, will not simi-

larly worship a banyan tree if it is only to escape the sorrows and

miseries of a widowed life? And yet how many an Indian woman is

there at this day who has most devoutly worshipped the banyan every

year with renewed faith, and yetin the end not escaped the crushing

calamities of perpetual and relentless widowhood! If it had been in

the power of plants and bushes to avert human sorrow and lessen the

burden of human misery, the world would have been different! There

would have been no misery af all.

There are two or three plants which are connected with the life

history of the amorous god Krishna. They are the Tulsi (Ocymwm

sanctum), Kadamba (Nauclea Cadamba), and Pairijtak (Nyecanthes

Arbor-Tristis). The mythological character of Krishna is one of the

most marvellously complex that has ever been created, or even

attempted by any classical or modern writer. It is the leading

character of the great epic of the Mahibharat. The mainsprings of

his action are not simply dictated by a. life of sensual pleasure, but

if | may speak as a student of poetry, some parts of the life of

Krishna afford an illustration of undying personal attachment to. his

devotees and astounding self-sacrifice in the interest. of those who

trusted in him,

The birth of the Tulsi plant has a story of its own. The plant

wherever it grows or exists, assures us of the presence of Vishnu, and

Tun Sf FOLKLORE OF INDIAN PLANTS.” 61

Krishna being one of the incarnations of Vishnu (8th), his presence

is identically constant in the plant. There is a day in the

month of Kartik, the ]1th day in the first fortnight of the month

when the Hindoos celebrate a wedding of the image of Krishna

and the Tulsi plant. This plant is held in great veneration by

the ladies particularly. It is worshipped every morning by

those devout Hindoo ladies, who observe their ancient customs

rigidly. After worshipping they go round the pot, in which

the plant grows, a hundred times, or a thousand times, and im rare

instances, on exceptional occasions, a hundred thousand times.

Thus indirectly those who go through this apparently meaningless

worship, get the opportunity of taking exercise of an early morning

regularly, ending in a measure which is conducive to health. How-

ever that may be, whether the Tulsi plant is worshipped or not it

exists, or at any rate ought to exist, in the backyard or front of a

ITindoo’s house, or among his collection of plants if he has any.

The story told about the birth of this plant is this:—At the time

of the churning of the great ocean, when fourteen jewels came out

of the ocean, the goddess “ Lakshmi,” the gem “ Kaustubh ”

and the plant ‘ Pairijtak” fell to the lot Vishnu, who, as I

have already said, formed one of the trinity. The god was so

overjoyed, that tears came out of his eyes, trickled down his cheeks

and fell on the ground. From every drop of these tears sprang a

plant of Tulsi. There is yet another account of the origin of this

plant given very graphically by a writer in one of the recent num-

bers of the Indian Antiquary. I may summarize the story briefly as

t have heard it. The wife of a deity, named Jallandar, conceived a

secret affection for Krishna. Silently loving him, she pined away-—

and eventually died without a reciprocation of her attachment from

Krishna. After her death he realized the extent of her affection, and

mourned. sorely over the unrequited love of his admiring friend.

But it was no use. Her body had been burnt. Her angelic form

had disappeared “‘ earth unto earth and dust unto dust. ” Ashes

alone had remained. What could Krishna do but weep? It was

too late for anything else. He threw himself down on the hot

ashes of the broken-hearted woman, and wept bitterly in the deep

agonies of disappointment. From every drop of his tear, it is said,

arose a Tulsi plant. This story appears to better account for the

annual marriage of the god with the Tulsi plant, whereby he is

united in spirit with the symbol of her that had loved him fervently

62 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCINTY.

but fruitlessly in life, and had, alas too late! gained in death the

fruit of her secret affections.

The story of the Kadamba tree is a very amusing one. Krishna

found the Gopis—his female friends—bathing in the river Jumna

one day. He appeared unseen on the spot, and carried away their

garments, which he left hanging on the Kadamba tree. What

consternation this must have caused among the temporary losers of

the garments had better be imagined than described. It is a

terrible joke to practise on any body. But Krishna was full of all

sorts of pranks and practical jokes.

The story of the Périjatak plant is equally characteristic

of the character of Krishna. I have already said that the

Parijtak plant was one of the fourteen gems obtained from the

great churning of the ocean, and that Vishnu had become the happy

possessor of this sweet-scented tree. Here, again, let me bring

Narad on the scene to help’ my story. He happened to have a

flower from this tree which he had brought from the Paradise of

Vishnu, and presented to Krishna. In his deep devotion to Ruk-

mini, Krishna presented the flower to her in preference to any other

wife of his. This shows the disadvantage cf having more wives

than one. The news seems to have reached the ears of Satyabhama,

another dear wife of his. Who do you think wasthe bearer of this

tale to Satyabhami? Why? Narad, of course. His restless soul

would not remain quiet with simply presenting a rare sort of a flower

to a deity he was visiting. One mischief must supersede another.

How else are mischievous persons to find an occupation for them~

selves? What is the result of this report to Satyabhimé of the gift

of a flower of Nyctanthes from Krishna to Rukmini? Satyabhima

is electrified. Her lord Krishna, she feels, has slighted her. She

is mightily offended, She is disconsolate. Nothing will please her ;

nothing will pacify her. How dared Krishna thus ill-use ber ?

She can’t explain. Has she been wanting in her duty, or has

‘Krishna forgotten his former professions to her, or has Rukmini

got the better of her lord? She must not remain silent now.

Krishna must know from her how grievous her wrong has: been.

On his next visitto Satyabh4mé, Krishna finds the door of her

chamber locked up from within. No answer from her to his

knocks. The unsuspecting husband knows of no cause, for he has

given none for such treatment. He is unsuspecting because he

does not know that the chief mischief-maker on this occasion. is

THER “ FOLKLORE OF INDIAN PLANTS.’ 63

i Sienna ene a etemine wii Base ree Sasi ceese str eOn nT oe NSN OR ener NT

the peripatetic Narad. To return to the story. The door of the

chamber was at last opened to the repeated entreaties of the

knocker outside. On entry there was a scene, and on explanation of

the cause of anger, followed by apologies, coupled with much persua-

sion on the part of Krishna, Satyabhima was at once promised, not

only a flower of the tree, but the whole tree itself. The tree (root

stem, and branches all) was bodily transferred from Satyaloka by a

messenger specially sent there to the garden of Satyabhama. But

the story would not be complete if I did not tell you the sequel of it.

Satyabhima, full of pride, gathered therefrom a few flowers and sent

them in a golden case. as a present to Rukmini, her rival in love,

through her ladies-in-waiting. Itso happened that Krishna having

originally presented the flower to Rukmini, the Winds of the air had

known the first bent of his mind, and had accordingly daily wafted

abundance of Pdérijétak flowers from the garden of Satyabhim’ into

the garden of her rival Rukmini, so that when Satyabhami’s ladies-in-

waiting arrived at Rukmini’s house with the golden casket of a few

stray flowers, they found their mistress’s rival, much to their surprise,

rolling in a bed of the flowers! Their discomfiture was great. This

news was duly communicated by the ladies-in-waiting to Satyabhdma.

Thus her haughty spirit had a fall. She had to acknowledge, in

her heart much against her wish, that she had only the second place

in the heart of Krishna.

There is supposed to be a time when once in the year during the

Dewali holidays, on the 14th dark night of the month of Ashvin,

the plants in the jungles speak and give information to herbalists

wandering in the jungles. I have never wandered in the jungles

ati night, and certainly I would not do so on the principal night of

Dewali, for, like Christmas, Dewali comes but once a year, but if

ever Ido, I am doubtful if I should understand the language of

plants. There is, however, yet a sphere of usefulness for anybody

that wanders the jungles in India by day ; he may gather the herbs

and simples, and he may assist in the work of renovating the Bombay

flora. There is infinite variety in nature. ‘ Age cannot wither

her, nor custom stale her”; we may be able to examine old plants

with new eyes, and we may be able to identify and classify the vast

flora that yet lies insufficiently explored before us in this gorgeously

green country and superbly rich soil.

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIRTY.

ZOOLOGICAL NOTES.

PRocempines oF THE Zooiocican Socinry or Lonpon,

Parts 1.; Il. aANp? TU: oF 1887.

As the proceedings of the Zoological Society of London are not easy to get at in

this country for others than the Bombay members of the Society, the following

notes of the contents of the first three parts issued in 1887, as far as they refer to

this part of the world, may be of interest :—

Part I. notices the addition of the larger one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros

unicormis) to the Society’s menagerie, presented by H. H. the Maharajah of Cooch

Behar. There is an interesting article on the habits of the “Tree Trapdoor Spider °

of Graham’s Town,” which though not referring to the East, yet is of general interest;

hence its mention here: also descriptions and plates of certain Coleoptera” of

Ceylon, collected in 1881-82: alsoa report on some Echinodermata from the

Andamans, by Professor Bell, followed by an article with plates on a collection of

Reptiles and Batrachians from the Loo-Choo Islands. |

Part II. opens with a note on a Batrachian of the genus Cacopus (C. globulosus)

sent by Mr. Thurston of the Madras Museum, who wrote: ‘* On opening the

visceral cavity, which was enormously distended, the distension was found to be

caused by the presence of a mass of winged white ants, which when dried weighed

326 grains.” ‘the first article is an interesting one on the “ Experimental Proof

i of the Protective Value of Colour and Markings in Insects in reference to their

Vertebrate Enemies :”’ it spreads over 84 pages, full of particulars of many experi-

ments. A letter from the Rev. G. Fisk, C. M. Z.5., of Capetown, was read at

the meeting held on the 5th April, giving an account of how a mouse killed and

ate a poisonous snake, or more correctly two; they were “ young ‘ Ringhals,’

probably from 7 to 14 days old.” j

In Part ITI. Mr. Sharpe contributes some remarks on a collection of Birds from

Perak, followed by a description of some new Lepidoptera from Sikkim by H. J.

Elwes, viz., Lethe tristigmata, Zophoesa milleri, Chilades (2) pontis, Chilades

sinensis Nipoly cena virgo, and Saturnia royi. We then find a “Description of some

new and little known Indian butterflies, with notes on the Seasonal Dimorphism

obtaining in the genus Melanitis, by L. de Nicéville, F. B.S.” Nineteen butterflies

are figured. At the May meeting Mr. Sharpe read some notes on Specimens in the

Ilume Collection of Birds. This is No. 5 of these notes, and is on Syrnium

maing oyt.

At the June 7th meeting were read some remarks by the well-known A. O. H.

H onthe Gnu Goat on Takin (Budorcas taxicolor); three horns are figured.

Hh At the June 23rd meeting, a pheasant, Phasianus komarovi, from North Afghan-

istan, presented by Sir Peter Lumsden, was exhibited. A paper was read on a

zoological collection made at Xmas Island, Indian Ocean; it is well worth noting

that “ unfortunately one of the most interesting portions of the collection, viz., the

Lepidoptera, was destroyed on its way home, some pieces of camphor having

become loose and smashed all the specimens but two.” This paper is illustrated.

B. B. B.

PROCEEDINGS. 6

CORRESPONDENCE.

CAN SNAKES HEARP

TO THE EDITOR OF THE “ ASIAN.”

Srr,—Absence from home prevented my writing earlier anent this interesting

subject. I do so now, but before proceeding I may say that I fully agree with the

Honorary Secretary of the Natural History Society, Bombay, who wrote as

“The explanation lies I believe, in the fact that, although snakes cannot hear atr-

vibrations, they are particularly sensitive to earth-vidrations, und can, on a dry soil,

feel the footfall of any animal at a considerable distance. The result is that one

generally gets only a glimpse of the snake as it is making off, and, as the Irishman

said of the flea, ‘when you get to where he is, he isn’t there” Tree-snakes may,

however, be easily approached, as they lie coiled up in the branches of abush. The

‘checkered water-snake’ (Tropidonotus quincunctiatus, and the common ‘dhaman’

(Ptyas mucosus) may also constantly be seen lying on rocks ‘ basking,’ or more pro-

bably waiting for frogs or small fish. If there is any water between you and the

snake it naturally acts as a buffer to the earth-vibrations, and so long as the snake

does not see you, you may approachit and talk as loud asyou like without

disturbing it.”

Last week—Xmas—a juggler came round with snakes. I asked him why he

stamped his feet or kept dancing when playing his xagzur (musical instrument).

He replied, venomous snakes cannot hear air, but only earth, vibrations. TI tested

his assertion as follows:— _

(1.) I placed the garodiwallah in front of the cobra playing his nagzur and danc-

ing; as usual the snake was charmed.

(2.) I stood motionless in front and placed the juggler at the back of the Naja,

but only playing his horn without moving. The snake was quiet, with hood erect

and looked on/y at me.

(8.) We reversed positions, but the juggler played his pipe. I stood about three

yards behind the snake; there was not a move in it, although TI clapped my hands.

But when I moved the cobra turned round to see ‘who comes there”?

This is a very interesting subject, and I should much like to have the question

ventilated in your columns.

Icarpurt, 28th December 1887. Guoret Pore.

P.S.—I have a deaf-mute (a tailor); he seems to hear, or rather I should say

feel, the earth-vibrations. On the midday gun being fired he gets up and goes for

his khana. The gun is about three furlongs from my bungalow. The poor man

eannot hear the chiming of my clock above his head.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE Socrety’s Monruny Merrrines.

No Meeting was hold in October,

PRocERnDINGS OF THE MBETING HELD oN 81H NovEMBER 1887,

Tne usual monthly meeting of this Society took place on Tuesday, the 8th Novem-

ber, 1887, Mr. G. W. Vidal, C.S., presiding.

9 i

66 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

The following new members were elected:—Lieut.-Colonel J. Biddulph, Mr. Mi. b,

Cappel, 0.8., Mr. Ross Knyvett, Mr. HE. Thom, Mr. W. Gaye. Mr. G, Carstensen,

Dr. G. W. Cline, Colonel ‘T'wemlow, R. W., and Mr, Sitaram V. Sukhtankar.

Mr. H. M. Phipson, the Honorary Secretary, then acknowledged receipt of the

following contributions to the Society’s collections :—

Contribution.

Description. |

Contributor.

1 Whistling Thrush (ulive.)

2 Koels (alive)

2 Stuffed Fish

] Snake .......

1 Large Sand Piper (alive).

1 Kentish Ringed Plover

ee 2)

7 Vittle Stints (alive).........

1 Common Sand Piper

(alive.)

Snake (alive) .....:...sese

A quantity of Snakes and

Lizards,

A collection of Shells.........

A collection of Fossils ‘

2 Dolphins Loe

1 Hyena’s Skin ‘and Seal.

A quantity of Fish, Shells, ¢

Crabs and Marine Animals 5

6 Oyster Catchers .......6..,

2 Curlews

A quantity of Turtles’ Egos.

A quantity of Whales’ Teeth

A number of Fossils .,.......

1 Snake (alive) ..

i Fox(alivey «...

Snake «4.4

Hare (alive),

BOARS ci rccss es

Chameleon (alive) ..

par

Snakes ...., oe

Sambnr s Head = i

Yellow breasted Ground

Thrush (alive)

NOW Aeshna Sn

mH ORM eee

—

Large Grey Quails ..,...,..

Chameleon (alive) ........

African Partridges.........

BAS 2 circ cneresivicssiayies

slack Buck’s Leg .

Larves and pupe rof

Grey PALL, s2.45 100s tee

Snakes Hees Ti icc. cisterns

Yellow breasted Ground

Thrush (alive).

Snaks ose Hace

Snake (alive) ... ve

Hyzena’s Skull.....

Crocodile’s Skull,,

Jackal’s Skull .....

Panther’s Skull ..

Wild Cat’s Skull.,

Painted Bats

bom ts

nee

DO et el et et

A quantity of pec

1 Python's Skin ,

Myiophoncus horsfieldi ...

Eudynamis honorata .....,

Prom Aden, isc jucrien ton bine

Dendrophis picta ............

gialitis geoffroyi :

Aigialitis cantianus .........

Tringa minuta ........5...

Tringoides hypoleucos.., vats

Simotes russellii.......cscee ees

From Surat and Sind ......

From Sind ..

From, AliDaS oc. cccssscsesess |

Hysena striata i516. eases

Brom ADAG -siiei ves

Heematopus ostralegus......

Numenius lineatus a

From, Alibg gs oyu cevursspisies

yas 3 bengalensis ..

Zamenis fasciolatus ..

Lepus nigricollis ...... sew bae

Daboia elegans ...

Chameleo vulgaris

§ Echis carinata and {

) Gongylopis conicus j

Pron Maus. ia,

Pitta bengalensis ....10s0..5

With curiously deformed

beak.

Coturnix communis ,...+ e+

Chamelio vulgaris,,

From Zanzibar .,,

Kchis carinata

Curiously deformed ,,

EKryolii taprobana......

Psittacus erythacus .........

Tropidonotus stolatus ......

Pitta bengalensis ......... ia

Callophis nigrescens..,......

Passerita mycterizans

Hysona striate. <.ci.ii.s

Srocodilus palustris

Canis aureus ...., vA

Felis pardus ...,.,

Felis chaus........,

Kerivoula picta ...

Frou Warwat...i,

| Col Graeme,

Do.

Mr, T. Thorburn.

Mr, H. M. Phipson.

Mr, G, Ormiston, C.H,

Do,

Do.

Mr. I’, Gleadow,

Do,

Do.

Mr. W, FE. Sinclair, C.S,

whi

Mr, W.

Do,

My, T. Thorburn,

Do,

Mr. H. Connor, |

Mr, W. W. Saunders,

Miss Whitcombe,

Mr. N. V. Mandlik,

Mr, CO, E, Kane.

Mr, J. Hatch,

Dr, Mallins,

Capt A. Moore, R. N.

Mr J. Klingelhofer,

'. Sinclair, CS,

Mr, 8. P. Leggett.

Mr, G, Ormiston, C.K,

Mr. H. Barrett,

Mr, W. H. Ws alker,

Dr, oe

Dr. A, K. Stewart,

Mr. J, ae G

Mau. ©, Limjee,

Mr. H. Bicknell,

Mr, E, Thom,

tea)

Mr, Shankar Pandit,

Dr. Weir,

Mr, H. 8. Wise.

Do.

Do,

Do.

PROCEEDINGS, 67

Contribution. Description. Contributor.

6 Snakes Vy) Ophiophagus elaps, 3un-| Mr. N. S. Wise.

garus arcuatus, Typhlops

brahminus, Lycodon au

licus, Python molurus,

Hypnalé nepa (tl sree),

Trimeresurus — strigatus,

Onychocephalus acutus,

'Tropidonotus plumbi-

color, Simotes Russellii,

Oligodon subgriseus,

A number of Land Crabs and} From Karwar ....eiee, Do,

other Crustaceans.

5 Crocodiles’ Eggs ............ Crocodilus palustris ......... Do.

T Ligand. ica ii Gymnodactylus deccan- Do,

ensis.

A quantity of Scorpions and) From Karwar... Do.

Centipedes,

A quantity of Fungi From Aurungabad ..,..,... Mr, Frank Rose.

Nest of Alpine Swift . ..| Cypsellus melba........ | Mr. J. Davidson, C.S.

Nest of Palm Swift.. ..| Cypsellus battassiensis ... Do,

Nest of Crested Tree ‘Swift . Dendrochelidon coronata.. Do.

Several Birds’ Hees ........... Prom Vercaue (4. ccs --| Mr, W. Mahon Daley,

8 Birds’ nestai na wid.« iiu| From Rutideii nad ols Mr, Batch.

V Camel's Slew pia. fi 20k, Camelus dromedarius ..,... Mr, F. G, Lynde,

1 Chameéloom..cay oases Chameleo vulgaris ,.,......) Mr. Chas, B. deatty.

MINOR CONTRIBUTIONS FROM

Mr. Pestonjee J, Jhabvala, Dr, Weir, Miss Barnes, Mr, Clnbildas Imlloobhoy, Mr.

J. de Souza, Mr, H. Bicknell, Mr, W.F. Melvin, Mr, W.W Squire, Mr, H, Gan-

thorn, M. Kaikobad OC, Adenwalla, Mr, Tribhovundas Munguldas,

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE LIBRARY,

Proceedings of the Linnean society of N. 8. Wales, Vol. II., Part 2

Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria, Vols. XXII., XXIII,

A Catalogue of the Moths of Ceylon, Part I.

A Manual of Comparative Anatomy ‘of the Domestic Quadrupeds ; by Dr, N. H,

Eduljee Sukhia,

Procés-verbaux des Seances de la Société Royale Malacologique de Belgique, Tome

AVI.

Journal of Comparative Medicine and Surgery, New York, October 1887.

Mr, H, 8. Wise exhibited a large collection of butterflies, recently made by him in the

Canarese Districts, which was greatly admired, <A special vote of thanks was passed to

Mr, Wise for the numerous contributions to the Society’s Museum,

The Honorary Sceretary stated that Mr, R. A, Sterndale, who had edited the Society’s

Journal since Ist January, 1886, was now about to leave Bombay for Madras, This

news was received with many expressions of regret from the members present, and a

special vote of thanks was passed to Mr, Sterndale for the valuable services he had

rendered to the Society since its commencement. Lieut. H. E. Barnes then read a

most interesting paper on the Nesting of the Indian Hirundines, which will be found

in another part of the number of this Journal.

Procrppines or tue Mrerine natp on OTH Drormprr 1887,

Tue usual monthly meeting of this Society took place on Monday, the 5th December

1887, Dr. D, MacDonald presided, and a large number of members were present,

The following new members were elected: —Mr, A. Elliott, C.S., Captain R. C, Dixon,

Mr. H. W. J. Bagnell, C.8, Mr, John M, Heyn, Dr, W. E. Cates, Mr, E, Mitchell, Mr,

68 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

A, Leslie, Mr. W. J. B, Clerke, C.K., Mr. J. H. Symington, Rev. J. F. W. Gompertz,

Mr. Geo, H. Mason, Major Sawyer, and Dr. Balchandra K. Bhatvadekar.

Mr. H. M. Phipson, the Honorary Secretary, then acknowledged receipt of the

following contributions to the Society’ 8 collections i

Contribution, Descucion: | Contributor,

1 Snake GUVE) cies sot | Trimeresurus — erythurus,) Capt. Jones,

from Moulmein,

J Guscus (alive) :......4...-... Phalangista ursina ... Mrs, Potts.

1 Hamadrayad or King) Ophiophagus claps (12 “fect; Mr, H, T, Ommaney, C.S,

Cobra (alive). in length)

5 Trimeresurus anamallensis, ? ‘

SUNOS Sel eecevivi aaneiee Dipsas gokool, fon, Mr, Justice Scott,

Cynophis malabaricus ....., §

A Collectiog, of Birds: Skins; << (),....0¢.080 Marchese Giacomo Doria,

from New Guinea,

PB Saks (46) jy. ..ccstieessso 0 Daboia.elegans .,;+.......:..| Mr, J. Brand.

T SHRICG (AUIVE) i hecdecsr see. Gongylophis conicus ......... Mr, WH. G. Cowper.

J Snake (alive) Sillybura macrolepis......... Mr. H. Wenden,; C.K.

1 Snake (alive) ...| Hydrophis diadoma ..,...-.| Mr, J. M. Cursetjee.

1 Snake (UVC) 0h. Daboiaelegans Mr. Bulwant Jayaram.

1 Ostrich’s Hgg, laid in HAGE Mr. H. W. Barrow.

- Bombay. :

; Bake Gi ae Daboia elegans ...,.,.. iS Mr. C. KE. Kane.

1 Monitor (stuffed) Varanus draceena .,,..,......| Mr, ‘I’, Lhorburn,

1 Skull of a Hybrid be- sa aan E MeN ey Mr, Frank Rose,

tween a wolf and a dog.

MINOR CONTRIBUTIONS FROM

Rey, i, 8, Hall, Mr, T, Lidbetter, and Mr, G, W. Terry.

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

The Journal of Commparative Medicine and Surgery (27 numbers); the Records of

the Geologial Survey of India, Vol. XX., Part 3; Bulletin of the California Academy

of Science, Vol. Il., No. 6; Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, Vol.

I., No. 1;a File of the Asian from Mr, R, A, Sterndale; Viaggio di L. Fea in

Birmania, from the Marchese Doria. Transaction of the New Zealand Institute,

Vol, XIX; Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal,

Five handsome markhor heads and three ibex heads, mounted by the Society for Major

Pengree, BR. A., and collected by him in Cashmere, were exhibited,

Lieut, H. EK, Barnes also exhibited some beautiful specimens of Corals from Singapore,

collected by Mr, Nelson, s,s, “ Lalpoora.””

A special vote of thanks was passed to the Marquis Giacomo Doria, the Director of

the Museum at Genoa, for his contribution of rare birds’ skins from New Guinea.

A vote of thanks was also passed fo Mr, HI. T, Ommaney, ©.S., for his valuable pre-

sent of a full-grown live specimen of the Hamadryad, or King Cobra (Ophiophagus

elaps), which was greatly admired by all the members present.

The Honorary Secretary read a statement, received from Mr. Ommaney, containing

particulars relative to the capture of the snake in the Canarese jungles on the Hyder

Ghat Road,

Mr. W. F. Sinclair, C.8., then gave a most interesting lecture on the ‘ Common

Objects of the Sea Shore,’ which, owing to the lateness of the hour, he was unable to

finish, A vote of thanks was voted to Mr, Sinclair, and the meeting then ended,

BLACK ROCK-SCORPION (BUTHUS AFER)

(found at Khandala, Western Ghauts),

Exemplifying simultaneous twin - parturition.

Photo-Collotype, Survey of India Offices, Calcutta, February 1888,

pal

os &®

JOURNAL

OF THE

GS ie a ey

Aatural Pistory Society,

No. 2-] BOMBAY, APRIL 1888, [Vol. Ill,

WATERS OF WHSTERN INDIA.

(Supprumuntary Nore.)

Avrrur the publication of that part of these notes dealing with the

Konkan and Bombay Coast, several members made valuable additions

to my rough list of birds, and my own observations enable me now

to supplement that Chapter with some new details.

Amongst Cetacea, the Bhulga (Neomeris karachiensis) is now

represented by several specimens in the Victoria Museum and our

own. Formerly, I believe, Mr. Murray’s type specimen was unique.

Of the “ Gadha,” or large deep-water porpoise, we have got « fine

specimen, identified by Mr. Sterndale as Delphinus lentiginosus ;

which is, however, not always now distinguished as a separate

species from D. (Sotalia) plumbeus.

Amongst Birds, I have myself obtained a Swallow Plover

(Glareola orientalis), out of a flock of a dozen on the wide pastures of

Rewadanda; and a specimen of the Grey Plover (Squatarola

helvetica) was brought to me from the same place, which is a fayour-

able habitat for most Plovers. Mr. Inverarity first corrected my

belief that the Indian Golden Plover was at least rare here; and

since that I have found it myself in April and September in the

valley of the Kundlika, half-way between Rewadanda and Rone.

At this point there is a large area of grassy Saltmarsh, where the

70 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIRTY.

Golden Plover is said by the native fowlers to breed ; and this is not

impossible, as it does so in much more southern latitudes, and the

ground is as good an imitation as our Province can afford of the

breeding grounds frequented by its Huropean cousin,

Of the Hematopodide (misprinted Heemantopodides in my

paper) I have seen a good deal since it was written. I have veri-

fied the presence of the Crab Plover by inspection of a fresh speci-

men brought in to me from Nagaum Sands, and have received

seven of the Oyster-catcher, which deserves remark.

Jerdon gives the truncated bill as a characteristic of the genus

Heematopus, of which he mentions that ‘several species are

recorded, chiefly from America, one or two from Australia, and one

from Africa.” He identifies our bird with that of Hurope; and gives

the colouration of its bill as “ orange-yellow dusky anteriorly.”

These were the colours in all my specimens; and those of their

plumage agreed with what ho says of young birds before and after

the first month ; but in no case was the bill truncated.

I have several times killed and handled adult specimens in Ire-

land, and in all of these the truncation was as marked as in a clay

tobacco-pipe broken short off, and the colour a bright-red. Mr.

Murray, in the “ Vertebrates of Sind,” gives this colour (which f

have not seen in India), but does not notice the truncation of the

beak.

The editor of the Feld in a short answer to a note on the

subject, suggests that this may be the result of wear in use.

Lieutenant Barnes, whom I had the privilege of consulting, appeared

to lean to this view ; but in his book he has followed Jerdon.

The upshot of the matter is, so far, that the truncation of the beak

must disappear, as a generic character, from future notices of the

species. If it is to be retained as a specific character, our bird is

different from that of Europe, as our Golden Plover is; for a mere

result of wear cannot be treated as identifying either a genus or a

species, and if this is the cause of truncation, our bird may well

enough be identical with Hamatopus ostralegus, and the colowration

of the bill characteristic of the young bird only. The bird is a

permanent resident, and probably breeds here.

Amongst Longirostres I have lately obtained the Avocet Sand-

piper (Terekia cinerea) for the first time. The specimen was one

of a small flock on the Nagotna Creek, and I have observed a dozen

Avocets (Recurvirostra avocetta) on the salt-pans near Pen.

THE BIS COBRA. ral

Under the head of Anatidw, I have an important correction to

take, as a freshly-killed Mallard was lately brought in to me at

Nagotna. It was in full plumage, bar a few plumes; the curly tail

feathers were well developed, and after careful examination and

comparison with Jerdon’s description, there could be no doubt

about the bird. It is true that tame drakes sometimes assume a

plumage closely resembling that of their wild ancestors; but these

can, I think, generally be distinguished by the bill, which is more

yellow in the domesticated bird, except where the wild blood has

been very lately renewed by crossing. The proof, however, is

like that of puddings, in the eating. I instituted autopsy of

my bird upon that principle, and have no doubt whatever that he

was a genuine Mallard. his is, perhaps, the most southern record

ofthe species. “Our only Gannet”’ has been identified as &. cyanops.

Amongst fishes and reptiles I have no novelty worth recording

here; but of Molluscs I have received many specimens of Chitons

and Lingule,

Krswat.

THE BIS COBRA.

By GoW. Vinst, Cos;

(Read at the Soctety’s Meeting on 4th January, 1888.)

In that. charming and inimitable little book, “The Tribes on my

Frontier,’ which delights all who read it,—and of which our

Society has special reasons to be proud—there is a characteristic

description of the bis cobra, which will serve admirably as the text

of the remarks I have to make. ‘But of all things in this earth that

bite or sting the palm belongs to the bis cobra, a creature whose very

name seems to indicate that it is twice as bad as the cobra. Though

known by the terror of its name to Natives and Europeans alike, it

has never been described in the proceedings of any learned Society,

nor has it yet received a scientific name. In fact, it occupies much

the same place in science as the sea serpent, and accurate informa-

tion regarding it is still a desideratum. The awful deadliness of its

bite admits of no question, being supported by countless authentic

instances ; our own old ghorawalla was killed by one. The points on

which evidence is required are—first, whether there js any such

animal as the bis cobra; second, whether, if it does exist, it is a

72 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

snake with legs, or a lizard without them. By inquiry among na-

tives I had learned a few remarkable facts about it; as, for instance,

that it has eight legs and is.a hybrid between a cobra and that

gigantic lizard commonly miscalled an iguana; but last year a brood

of them suddenly appeared in Dustypore, and I saw several. The

first was killed by some of the bravest of my own men with stones,

for it can spring four feet, and no one may approach it without hazard

of life. ven, when dead, it is exceedingly dangerous, but, with my

usual hardihood, I examined it. It was nine inches long, and in

appearance like a pretty brownish lizard, spotted with yellow. Tt

had no poison fangs, but I was assured that an animal so deadly

could dispense with these. If it simply spits at a man, his fate is

sealed; for, excepting a few cunning Bengalees, no one knows any

muntra or charm which has power against it. Afterwards one

appeared in my own garden, and I made an attempt to capture it

alive with a butterfly net, my devoted butler’s hair turning grey as

he watched me from a great distance; but the bis cobra got off into

a hole. It escaped me once or twice again, and then finding I was

bent on catching it, it gradually changed colour like a chameleon

and grew larger at the same time, until in a few weeks it had deve-

lopedinto an unmistakable iguana. Some people would jump to the

conclusion that it wasa young iguana to begin with. My butler would

endure the thumb-screw sooner.”

It is, perhaps, an unusual proceeding to undertake to read a paper

on a certain animal and then to deny its existence i toto; but this

is what I have todo. ‘There is no doubt that a large number of

human beings do believe—and probably always will believe—in the °

existence of venomous lizards in India, and of the bis cobra in particu-

lar. If any such believers are present here to-day I hope to be able

to convince them that the mysterious bis cobra, of which we hear

now and again, is merely our old friend Mrs. Gamp’s own particu-

lar Mrs. Harris in another sphere of life—a transmigrated Mrs.

Harris, in fact, and that, as far as India is concerned, there “aint no

sech a person.” . ‘The origin of the word bis cobra is in itself a mys-

tery. It is neither wholly Oriental nor wholly Huropean, but appa-

rently a barbarous compound, which may be justly repudiated by all

decent languages, “1 H A” in his playful manner affects to be-

lieve the name implies that the animal is twice as poisonous as a

cobra. But the learned author of Hobson-Jobson will not admit

that the name has anything to do with either bis in the sonse of twee

THE BIS COBRA» 73

or cobra in the sense of snake; he contends that bis is bish, the Hin-

dustani word for poison, and that cobra is probably a corruption of

khopra or khapra, the vernacular word for “a shell” or “a skull.”

Hobson-Jobson is no doubt right about bis being dish, poison. But

his derivation of cobra from khopra, a shell, seems far-fetched and

fanciful. Had the term bis cobra ever been used to denote a veno-

mous cockle or a poisonous periwinkle, the derivation would have

been plausible enough, But though cockles, winks, et hoc genus omne,

may be poisonous in the sense that they sometimes disagree with

frail mortals, if indulged in too liberally, I don’t think they have ever

yet been called bis cobras, or endowed by the wildest romancers

with the attributes popularly ascribed to the latter. Iam inclined,

therefore, to believe that cobra in biscobra does after all mean cobra;

which, as we all know, is the Portuguese rendering of the Latin

coluber, a snake, and I can only conjecture that the original discoverer

of the bis cobra was rather mixed as to the distinctive characters of

snakes and lizards. Possibly the creature to which he applied the

name, and which has unfortunately not been preserved as a type

specimen, was one of the skinks, a family of lizards, which would be

very like snakes indeed, to all outward appearance, if they lost

their legs. The derivation of the name would be of little conse-

quence if we could fix the creature itself, and confidently refer it to

any single species. We are unfortunately used to all sorts of atroci-

ties in the nomenclature or mis-nomenclature of animals. We might

leave etymologists to wrangle over the name, if the identity of the bis

cobra were not such a hopeless puzzle. One day it is one lizard,

and the next day another. Almost every harmless lizard in its turn

seems to be branded as the genuine bis cobra. It is useless to

demonstrate that any particular species declared by “One who

-knows” to be the real article, is a common harmless lizard; for the

next day a totally different, but equally harmless, species will be

produced as the true bis cobra by ‘One who knows better.” All

the families into which lizards are divided contribute from time to

time to swell the ranks of venomous lizards. It is impossible to

give any exhaustive list, but I will here mention a few which figure

more often than others as bis cobras. First, there is the common

and well-known Indian water lizard or monitor (Varanus draccena),

the “ Ghorpad” of the Mahrattas, the “Goana” of Ceylon. This is

the species which is so frequently miscalled the iguana by Huropeans

in India, and probably identical with “HH A’s” brood of Dustypore

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

bis cobras. We have several specimens in our collection. The

stuffed monitor before us is too large for a bis cobra. But young

monitors, which are more conspicuously marked than their elders,

by white ocellz and dark cross bands, are often called bis cobras in

Sind and Cutch. The natives of Southern India are also said by

Dr. Shortt to hold monitors in deadly fear, Not only is their bite

fatal, but they hold on with such bull-dog tenacity, that they’ will

not relinquish their enemy till a donkey brays, which soothing noise,

according to local superstition, operates on them as a charm and

turns away their wrath. It is needless to say that the monitor is

quite innocent of venom, though its bite is no doubt severe, and

though it can administer a very punishing stroke with its tail.

Many funny stories are told of this species. Perhaps the funniest of

all is the old Mabratta legend that the ancestor of the well-known

family of Ghorpares, originally a Bhonsle, like Sivaji, changed his

name to Ghorpare after a very daring exploit he achieved with the

aid of a Ghorpad. This exploit was nothing less than the scaling

of a fort in the Konkan—hitherto deemed impregnable—by availing

himself of the services of a friendly Ghorpad to pull him up the wall

by means of a rope fastened to the animal’s tail. Now these lizards

have, as you see, very strong claws with which they can no doubt

hold on even more firmly than with their teeth. Their skin is also

remarkably tough, and for this reason is, I believe, in great demand

for tom-toms. But I should not advise any enterprising member

of this Society to follow the example of the ancestor of the Ghor-

pares, at all events unless the ditch below the fort wall he selects

for the experiment has a good ten feet of water init. Ghorpad—as

perhaps you know—is eaten and thought a great delicacy in various

parts of the country, especially in Ceylon. This seems strange

~ considering the horror in which it is held in other parts. Kelaart,

the naturalist, tells us that he had some excellent soup made of a

Ghorpad, and that it tasted very like hare soup. ‘his, however, is

another example which I should hardly recommend any one to follow.

Another and more handsomely marked species of this same family,

the ornate monitor (Psammosaurus scincus), the Chandengo of

Guzerat, is also not unfrequently passed off as the bis cobra, prob-

ably from its resemblance to the young of the common Ghorpad,

Thus the monitors which are forked tongued lizards contribute at

Jeast two species to the army of bis cobras. Next come the Geckos,

with short thick tongues and adhesive toes, some of which live in

THE BIS COBRA, fA

our houses and others in rocks and trees. This family contributes

more bis cobras than all the rest put together. In the North-West

Provinces, as I find froma letter from “Young Nimrod” in the Asian

of November 28rd, 1880, all Geckos are called bis cobras indiscrimi-

nately. Another correspondent of the same paper declares that the

bis cobra par excellence of the North-Western frontier is Hardwick’s

Gecko (Hublepharis Hardwickti, Gray), a stout-bodied nine inch

hzard, which is not very common. The same species is also, accord~

ing to Dr. Shortt, the bis cobra of India. “ Some years ago,” he

writes in an interesting note in the Madras Monthly Journal of Medi-

cal Science, “I saw some articles in the Madras papers about

this reptile (Hublepharis Hardwickit), which made it out to be the

most poisonous creature with or without four legs, and one or two

of the officers who were in service in Bengal mention that several sen-

tries were found dead at their posts from the bite of some creature,

which was afterwards found, and which I took to be, the bis cobrafrom

the description they gave of it.”” In Burmah, again, there are two large

Geckos (Gecko guttatus, Dana; and Gecko stentor, Cantor) which are

widely believed to be exceedingly venomous, and are consequently

held in great dread. These deadly reptiles are not, however, called

bis cobras, or by any other names conveying an idea of their poison-

ous vature. Their local name “ 'Tuctoo” is a very innocent one, and

merely an imitation of the loud note with which they and other

members of the same family frequently relieve their feelings; and

which sounds like “tuck,” “ tuck,” “tuck,” repeated in a crescendo

scale. Dr, Shortt had a specimen of Gecko guttatus sent to him for

examination by a correspondent with the following description :—

“This is the Tuckatoo of the Burmese, a large species of lizard found

in Burmah, inhabiting trees and seldom ever seen, and heard only at

dark and during the night: it is of a dark ash colour spotted with

red, but the old ones are much darker in colour, as are also the

spots. Their first cry begins with a croak, and then they sing out

tuckatoo, tuckatoo, quite slow and thenin a quicker time. The

same word is repeated for a few seconds, and then another croak,

and all is still. Their voice is quite loud and hoarse and heard at a

great distance. The Burmese, as well as other natives, dread

this reptile, as their bite is poisonous, and their hold so tenacious

that they can only be cut off the body of the person they fall on.

The Burmese say that when any one is bitten their body swells to a

great size, and they seldom live oyera day.” In Sonthern India again,

76 BOMBAY NATURAT HISTORY SOCTETY.

according to the same authority (Dr. Shortt), the Bengal Gecko

(Hemidactylus cocteaut, D. et B.), is dreaded, more especially the

larger kinds found about rocks and trees. Then again some gross

calumniator has dared to take away the character of our old friend

the chameleon (Chameleo vulgaris, Lin.), the Sasumba of Cutch, and

Guhira Sarad of the Deccan. Any one who has watched the child-

like and bland expression of the pet chameleon, whose life was made so

happy in these rooms by Mr. Phipson’s tender care, will find it hard

to believe that he is a deadly monster, whose bite is instant death.

Nevertheless, he has not been allowed to escape the stigma of being

called a bis cobra. According to Dr. Fairbank, he is the bis cobra

of Guzerat, and Dr. Shortt relates a story showing the extreme

dread in which he is held in Madras: ‘*When Zillah Surgeon of

Chingleput,” he writes, “ [ remember on one occasion a native came

running to my house: he was almost breathless, streaming with cold

perspiration, looking pale, skin cold, pulse small, holding the thumb

of his left hand in his right, and complaining of being bitten by a

chameleon on the tip of his left thumb, and requesting with tears

in his eyes that I would do something to save his life. Nothing

that I could say convinced him that the chameleon was harmless and

the bite not poisonous, but to satisfy the poor fellow I applied some

liquor ammonia to the part said to be bitten, where there was a

slight abrasion of the skin, and gave him a little brandy and water

to drink. He sat down for a time in my verandah, and then went

away apparently quite well. ‘That the man was in a great fright

about his life there was no doubt from the state of his pulse, skin,

and general appearance, when he presented himself to me.’ It is

needless to state that all the lizards mentioned above are perfectly

harmless. The Skinks, the ground lizards, the sand-fish lizards and

the pretty little Dragons, or flying lizards, have hitherto, it appears,

escaped the unneviable notoriety of being called bis cobras, So also

has the familiar Bloodsucker (Calotes versicolor, Dana). ‘This is odd,

as in his scarlet war paint the Bloodsucker is one of the most

formidable looking lizards we have. That very uncanny Australian

lizard, the Moloch, of which we have a good specimen here, is

another species which if found in this country would hardly escape

being called the true bis cobra. [havelittle doubt, however, that some

day, when the most credulous have begun to believe in the innocence

of monitors, geckos and chameleons, all the lizards mentioned above

will have their turn, They offer at least a wide field for the selec-

THE BIS COBRA Td

tion of future bis cobras. The belief in poisonous lizards is by no

means confined to India. It may safely be said that there is no known

species of lizard in the old world which is provided with glands

for secreting venom, or fangs through which to eject it. Nor are

there any lizards in India whose dentition is in any way suspicious.

It must, however, be admitted that there is rather strong evidence,

if not actual proof, as to the existence of a venomous lizard in

Mexico. This is the Mexican Heloderm (Heloderma horridum, Wieg-

mann), a species of the monitor family. Mr. Tegetmeier has writ-

ten an interesting account of this reptile in the Field of August 19th,

1882. The Heloderm was first described by Dr.. W iegmann in

1829. It had long been held to be venomous by the inhabitants of

g J

the tract in which it is found, that is the hot zone of Mexico Dr.

Wiegmann called attention to its peculiar dentition, which seemed

to confirm in great measure the popular belief in its poisonous

nature. For although there were no signs of poison glands, as in

the case of venomous snakes, it was found to have recurved grooved

teeth, through which its saliva, whether poisonous or not, could be

introduced into the puncture made by its bite. Dr, Wiegmann

himself does not appear to have believed that the Heloderm was

really a venomous species, and he made no experiments to test the

matter. Many years later,a French naturalist, Sumichrast, took up

the subject again, and wrote a more detailed account of the Helo-

derm in the Comptes Rendus of 1875. THe also procured and sent

preserved specimens to Paris. According to Sumichrast the animal

has a strong nauscous smell, and when irritated seerctes a large

quantity of glucy saliva. ‘In order to test its supposed poisonous

property”—I am quoting from Mr. Tegetmcier—** he (Sumichrast)

‘aused a young one to bite a pullet under the wine. In a few

minutes the adjacent -parts became violet in colour, convulsions en-

sued, from which the bird partially recovered, but it died at the

expiration of twelve hours. A large cat was also caused to be bitten

in the foot by the same Heloderm; it was not killed, but the limb

became swollen, and the cat continued mewing for several hours, as

if in extreme pain.’ Mr. Tegetmeier further writes that the dead

specimens sent to Wurope were carefully examined as to the charac.

ter of the teeth. Sections wero made, which demonstrated the

existence of a canal in each tooth, totally distinct from and anterior

to tho pulp cavity; but the soft parts were not examined with

sufficient care to determine the existence or otherwise of any

78 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

poison gland in immediate connection with the perforated teeth.

Nothing further was heard of the Heloderm until 1882, when a live

specimen, 19 inches long, was presented to the Zoological Gardens

by Sir John Lubbock. The arrival of this interesting stranger

caused quite a little sensation at the time amongst the naturalists of

Europe. Mr. Tegetmeier tells us that for some days it refused all

kinds of food. A live frog, a guinea pig, and several rats, however

fell victims to its bite. The frog died in convulsions immediately

after it was bitten. The guinea pig (bitten in the hind leg) died

convulsed in three minutes, while some young rats perished even

more quickly. After a time it was found that eggs were the

particular food which the Heloderm fancied, and these it disposed of

very readily. It was expected that further systematic experiments

would be made to test the poisonous character of this lizard, and

that the results would be published. Whether such experiments

have been made or not, and with what result I should be glad to

know; for I have not been able to come across any record of them.

Fortunately no “horrid” Heloderm has yet been found in India,

nor any other lizard with similarly suspicious teeth, to justify the

believers in the bis cobra. The origin of the belief in poisonous

lizards in this country is not easy to trace. Dr. Shortt, writing of

Southern India, thinks that a certain learned work in Tamil called

? which can be had

the Sittar Vedum, or work of the ‘‘ Seven Sages,’

in the bazaars for two or three annas, and which is a very popular

book, is to a large extent responsible for the absurd beliefs of that

part of the country. This book, he tells us, gives an account of all

poisonous animals, including in the same category snakes, centipedes,

spiders, beetles, lizards, dogs, cats, tigers, and monkeys. A similar

work is said te exist in Ceylon. As regards Bombay, the Deccan,

and the Konkan, I am inclined to think that Huropeans are quite as

much, if not more responsible than, natives for the propagation of

wild stories as to snakes and lizards. I have myself very seldom

heard a native of these parts asserting the deadly character of any

lizard, though they arevery ready to take away the character of the

most innocent snakes. ‘The touch of a lizard is, I believe, generally

considered a pollution by Hindus, but the bis cobra, according to”

my experience, is a creature of Kuropean, quite as much as of native,

imagination. Hindus, however, whether they believe any lizard to

be venomous or not, have some wonderful superstitions concerning

them, The omens portended by the various ways in which a lizard

-®

THE BIS COBRA. 19

can present itself to man or boy, wife or maid, are so many in num-

ber, that it must take a man or woman allhisor her life to learnthem.

This must be rather awkward, as the fulfilment cf the omen must in

many cases precede the knowledge of what is coming; and if the

omen is & bad one, deprive the victim of all chance of averting it by

recourse to the various mysterious ceremonies prescribed for the

purpose. If any one is interested in the subject, a paper on

*‘Omens from the falling of house lizards,” contributed to the Indian

Antiquary by Mr. K. Raghunathji, will repay perusal. From the

exhaustive list of omens given in this paper, we can see what will

happen to us when a lizard falls on any part of us from head to foot.

These omens have little or nothing to do with the subject of bis

cobras, and there is no time now to describe them in detail or to

attempt to trace their origin. I cannot, however, refrain from men-

tioning a few of them for your comfort, or discomfort, as the case

may be. Men will be glad to hear that if lizards fall on their

noses it is lucky. But the dividing line between joy and grief is so

very thin that if the lizard touches the tip of the nose the result is

extremely calamitous. This is like a warning to men with promin-

ent hooks not to carry their neses too high in the air. Men also

may or may not be pleased to hear that if a lizard falls on their left

cheek, they will be blessed with a sight of their deceased relations.

But the luckiest thing of all is for a lizard to fall on the scles of a

man’s foot; for then all his enemies will surely perish. This is an

event which I fear is not very likely to happen to many of us,

unless we habitually stand on our heads, or make a point of sitting

expectantly for hours together every day in the position taken up

by the Japanese gentleman in Chiarini’s Circus. Ladies will be

glad to know that if a lizard falls on their left cheek, they will meet

not their deceased relatives, but their beloved. There will be misery

if one falls on their right eye, but grass widows may be consoled by

the thought that a lizard on their left eye is a certain sign that they

will meet their absent husbands. Lastly, immense wealth and ‘a

Son are hers on whose left foot a lizard falls, and she will be rich

in grain if one falls on her toe nails.

VENOMOUS LIZARDS.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE ‘*BOMBAY GAZETTS.”

Srr,—In your article of 7th inst. you call attention to the following words,

which occur in the paper I recently read at a meeting of the Natural History

Society. * Tt may safely be said that there is no known species of lizard in the

eee

80 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

old world, which is provided with glands for seereting venom, or fangs through

which to eject it.” You ask, with reference to this passage, if the time has come

for saying that none of the Indian lizards are poisonous. If you refer to known

species—that is, species which have been examined, described, and named by

competent authority, your question may be confidently answered in the affirmative.

My remark is, of course, limited to sueh species. He would be rash, indeed, who

would deny the possibility of a venomous lizard being discovered in the old world.

There are still tracts in the Himalayas, and elsewhere in Asia, of whieh the

zoology has been very imperfectly, if at all, observed, and where the local bis-

cobras, if not bis-cobras, may at least turn out to be “‘boojums.” Nothing that I

have‘said is in any way inconsistent with the admission that another “horrid”

heloderm may be found in India, slight though the chanee of such discovery

may be. The assertion that there is no known species of venomous lizard in the

old world is, I need hardly say, not made as a hasty deduction from personal

observation. It expresses, as far as I can ascertain, the conclusion of all the

leading authorities on the subject. This conclusion is obviously strengthened by

the fact—to whieh I drew prominent attention in my paper—that. all the

specimens of lizards commonly produced as bis-cobras belong to species already

well-known to be innocuous.

You are quite right, however, in stating that the Statistical Abstract shows

that in 1884 and 1885 four to seven persons, respectively, were killed by lizards.

I might add that in each of the preceding years, 1882 and 1888, one person is said

to have died from a similar cause. Most of these casualties occurred, I believe,

in Guzerat. I have a dim recollection of having myself, while in Broach, examined

an inquest report declaring a man or a woman to have been killed by a chandengo

(the local name of the two harmless species of monitor lizards, Varanus dracena

and Psammosaurus scincus).

Some irresponsible critics affect to believe that the annual official returns as to

deaths caused by wild animals and snakes are not worth the paper they are printed

on; that all sorts of murders and dark deeds are covered conveniently and safely

by the mortality for which snakes and “ other animals ” are officially held respon-

sible ; and that “snake poison ”’ is merely a happy and conventional way of alluding

to the ‘cup of cold poison’? which terminates domestic disputes, and gets rid of

people who make themselves disagreeable. My faith in the accuracy of the

returns has never been materially weakened by these and similar reckless insinn-

ations. I will therefore admit, for the sake of argument, that these alleged

victims were really bitten by lizards, and died after being so bitten. I prefer to

meet whatever evidence the returns may give against me boldly and on its merits,

and scorn to shelter myself behind the plea that a man, declared by a village

punchayat to have been killed by a lizard, may have had a dose of arsenic.

But I reject the inference which the believers in the bis-cobra will naturally

draw from these reported deaths, Admitting that death in each of these cases

followed the bite of a lizard, it by no means follows that death was due to the action

of any poison. Those who, like myself, refuse to believe, on the evidence before

us, that there are any venomous lizards in this country, will say that the direct

and immediate cause of death in these cases was fright, and fright only aided

%°)

THE - BIS COBRA.

possibly by a diseased condition of the heart. I believe that nothing is more

certain than that grossly ignorant and superstitious subjects, bitten by harmless

snakes and even by lizards, do occasionally die from pure fright. Many doctors,

I fancy, could quote instances in support of this statement from their own

experience.

Here are two cases recorded by Dr. Russell, the pioneer of ophiology in Tndia,

from which those interested in the question may draw their own conclusions.

Case No. 1.—‘ Two sepoys at Rajamundri were bitten in the same night by the

same snake, which was described as being ‘scarcely six inches long, about the

size of a large goose quill, of a dark straw colour, a flat head, with two very small

eyes, which shone like diamonds, and behind each eye was a black streak about

three-fourths of an inch long.’ The first man bitten died after six hours. He

said and felt that death was inevitable directly he was bitten. The second man

bitten within a minute of the first, died within eleven hours. Neither man, it

appears, suffered visible pain or convulsions, but passed away in a kind of stupor.”

Case No. 2.—‘The porter of Mr. Bourchier, Governor of Bombay, a very stout

Arab, was bitten by a very small serpent, and died almost instantaneously after

exclaiming that a snake had bit him.” The italics are mine. Dr. Russell’s

information was got from the Governor’s son, Mr. James Bourchier, who spoke

from memory, and added ‘that the snake to which the man’s death was imputed

was by the Portuguese called cobra de morte; that in the course of twenty years

he had only seen two of them, one on the island of Bombay, the other in his

own house at St Thomas’s Mount, near Madras; that the length of the snake was

from six to nine inches; its thickness that of a common tobacco pipe; the head

black with white marks, bearing some resemblance to a skull and two cross bones ;

the body alternately black and white, in joints the whole length; and that its

venom is of all others the most pernicious.”

Dr. Russell, it must be admitted, has not suggested that the death of the two

Sepoys, and the very stout Arab, evidently stouter in body than heart, was due to

fright. He made no comments, and possibly believed that the snakes described

were as deadly as they were said to be. Very little was known in those days on

the subject of venomous snakes. Local superstitions were too deeply rooted to be

shaken by the little exact knowledge then available. The diminutive cobra de

morte was then a living tradition, and its existence not to be rashly questioned.

But ean any one now believe that the diminutive snakes deseribed, even if imma-

ture specimens of venomous species, were capable of causing the death, by their

potson alone, of the two sepoys andthestout Arab? From the descriptions given

it is impossible to say what the snakes in question really were. But they are

certainly more likely to have been harmless than venomous species, and the

description of Mr. Bouchier’s snake, to whose bite the stout Arab succumbed

“almost instantaneously,” reads uncommonly like that of the familiar and innocent

little Zycodon aulicus. This theory of death by fright is not a new one. In com-

menting on the same cases, in a chapter on the snakes of the Poona district, con-

tributed to the Bombay Gazetteer some years ago, I ventured the same explanation

of the cause of death, observing that the “cobra de morte, like the mythical bis-

cobra or poisonous lizard, has no real existence ; bub whereas the latter name is still

82 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIRTY,

applied to various spevious of lizards, known to be innocuous, the cobra de morte

is now, whatever it once was, a name and nothing more.” Dr. Fairbank also in

his “ Bombay Reptiles,” writes of the Ornate Ghorpad as follows :—“ It inhabits

Sind and Cuteh, and there it is called chandengo, and its bite

No lizard has a poison sac or fangs, The saliva may become

lizard gets much vexed as that of a wharf rat does. Some lizards spring fiercely

and bite severely, and some snakes that are not venomous do the same,

persons bitten by such reptiles have died, not from poison, but because

themselves poisoned.’?

The extract from Dr. Shortt?

is thought poisonous.

an irritant when the

and many

they believed

s note which I quoted in my paper on the bis-cobra,

is another good instance in point. There was a man bitten bya chameleon. As there

is only one species of chameleon in India there can be little, if any, doubt as to

the identity of the lizard. Few willbe bold enough to assert that the chameleon

is a venomous reptile. But the man believed it was, and his belief remained

unshaken. Despite all Dr. Shortt’s assurances, the symptoms of fright were

alarming enough. He was “almost breathless, streaming with cold perspiration,

locking pale, skin cold, pulse small,” &c. In this case the poor man did not

die. Why ?—Because he had faith in the doctor’s remedies, and was comforted by

brandy and water. A bread or sugar-pill would probably have had the same effect.

But what might have been the fate of that man without the doctor and his

brandy and water?—He would have gone to his house and his friends and

relations would have crowded round him, shrieking and wailing, telling him it was

all up with him, till the poor wretch would have been seized with convulsions

anddied. I have myself seen a woman as near death as possible under very

similar circumstances. She was working quietly in the garden. All of a sudden

she gave a shriek, and muttering something incoherently about a snake,

off into violent convulsions. The doctor was sent for, and he succeeded w

difficulty, and after some hours, in getting her round.

was a harmless one, and had not even scratched her! She admitted afterwards

that she had not been touched by the snake. But she had been told—and of

course believed—that if a certain snake’s shadow fell on her, she would certainly

die. The shadow of a snake did fall on her, and she would in all human proba-

bility have died had skilled medical aid not been at hand,

Thana District, Jan. 10.

went

ith some

The snake was killed, It

G W:. VIDAL,

THE NEAREST ALLIES OF THE HORSH.

By Vurerimnary Surcron J. HH, Srrzt, A.V.D.

(Read at the Society’s Meeting held on 6th February, 1888.)

In the whole range of Natural History there is no more compact

nor isolated group than that of the EHquide, which, ther

sents itself as a neat subject for special study. Wea

enquiry with great advantages, in that we

efore, pre-

pproach this

are very familiar with

THE NEAREST ALLIES OF THE HORSE. 83

two types of the group, the horse and the ass, in that the geogra-

phical distribution of the Hquide is very marked and limited within

certain ranges, and in that the members of the group are so striking

and interesting as to have received a good deal of notice from tra-

vellers and naturalists. ‘The difficulties in our way are that some

confusion has arisen in nomenclature, that observers have not been

exact and detailed enough either from a naturalist’s or from a horse-

man’s point of view, that many of the Equide are very wild and

difficult to approach, and, finally, that they are difficult of transport

and at first intolerant of confinement in our larger zoological

collections. The beautiful work by Cornwallis Harris on the large

game of South Africa must be specially mentioned on account of

its value to the naturalist and to the sportsman, and because I am

indebted to it for some of my illustrations.

Characters—The Kquide are odd-toed solidungulate animals in

which the hoof -attains its highest development. Several other

anatomical features of their limbs point to their swiftness of foot ;

for example, the femur has a third trochanter, the two facets on the

front of astragulus are very unequal, ‘They are all gramnivorous and

have, accordingly, a fairly simple stomach and capacious in testine, to-

gether with a special form of dentition not suited to rumination, but

with well marked diastemata or breaks in the tooth series. The dorso-

lumbar vertebree are not less than twenty-two in number, and horns

are not present asa normal character. Among the order Ungulata,

to which the Equidee belong, the rhinoceroses and tapirs of extant

genera and the paleotheride and the macrauchenide of the past

are included with the Equide as odd-toed or perissodactyla, the

differences between the horses and other odd-toed ungulates are,

however, very marked. All Equide are gregarious, the units of the

herds being family groups of eight to ten, and the size of the full

herd being determined by plentifulness of grass and freedom from

disturbance. The habitat is country firm under foot and somewhat

ary. There is a tendency to migrate in accordance with food sup-

plies to the plains in wet weather and to mountains in dry weather,

but in all countries occupied by Equide the plains are desert and

sandy throughout a considerable part of the year.

It will be observed that in every respect, and even in the minds

of naturalists, there is a tendency for the different equine forms -to

run into one another, whence has resulted much difference of

opinion as to classification of the group. Species run into species,

84 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

varieties are very common in some cases, the characters by which one

form is distinguished from another are observed to sink in impor-

tance the more thoroughly they are investigated, and it would seem

that there is quite as much reason for separating the Enropean man

from the Australian savage as there is for placing the zebra and

horse in distinct species. Sharply as the Hquide as a group are

defined, it is wonderful how few essential points of difference they

present among themselves. Some naturalists refuse to accept the

differences as more than specific, and thus describe each form as

Kquus. Others consider as horses those which have chestnuts and

castors, % ¢., “warts,” on both fore and hind legs, and classify the

asses and zebras together as being devoid of castors. The retention

of castors, though apparently avery petty matter, seems certainly

to havea value in systematic classification. Hamilton Smith goes

further and insists on giving the zebras and their allies a distinct

generic name, Hippotigris, and, considering their distinct googra-

phical range and apparently long special descent, the South African

Kiquidee seem worthy of this distinction, which leads us to the follow-

ing classification :—

EQUID Ai.

asi Diane nce. aes es ts ta 2 = i

Horses (quus). (Asinus). ZwBRAS (Hippotign

1. Equus. Aginus. * 1. Zebra.

2. Burchell’s Zebra.

3. Quaggs.

., Onager,

8. Hemippus.

OR ed

Teoniopus.

Hemionus,

It must be remembered that the carly naturalists especially have

confused certain of these forms, or, ab any rate, their names. Thus

but since then

hemionus was applicd first by Pallas to the kiang,

has been used for the onager or for hemippus. A less serious confu-

sion is the use of the term onager for the Assyrian wildass (As.

hemippus) instead of for the wild ass of Cutch; but competent

naturalists, such as Sclater, doubt whether there really is any differ-

ence between the onager and the hemippe, while others consider

taoniopus is also simply a variety of onager, Thus the asses would

tend to become only three forms, the true ass, onager, and the kiang.

Jiven this reduction is by some considered insufficient, and Asinas

vulgaris is taken to have direct and immediate relation with the

onager, either as progenitor or descendant; some observers specially

notifying Taniopus as the variety most directly related in descent

to the common domesticated ass, in support of which view we shall

‘

THER NHAREST ALLIES OF THE HORSE. 85

seo that the equines admii of enormous variation under natural aud

artificial influences. Again, hemionus (the kiang) is sometimes

spoken of as the wild horse, and has been confused with the

terpan or wild horse of Tartary. Cunningham is responsible

for calling it the wild horse, and others agree with him that its

voice is more like a neigh than a bray. Some state that the sound

it makes is like that of a mule. Moorcroft, Strachey, and other

say his cry is most like bre uying, and the balance of evidence 1

in favour of his being a true ass, though, as Jerdon points out, his

darker colour, small ears, and large size, as compared with the

onager, render him, when at a distance, liable to be mistaken for

a horse. We have elsewhere observed that the Tartars use the

term koulan indifferently for the terpan and the kiang, another

element of confusion. On the other hand, as we have seen, na-

turalists have in different cases applied the term hemionus to the

onager and the kiang, and it seems that the Tartars also call

onager, the koulan. dJerdon enumerates as follows the differences

between the ghorkkhur (onager) and. the kiang:

wanks. ] G peaie. | Kiang.

Doraal stripe ...seevesseres | Broader on the back, does! Broader over tail and ex

not extend to tail-tuft,) tends to tail taf [Sere

bordered with white, | times’ very obscure or

which extends broadly, wanting (Strachey) }.

to tail and along hind}

: margin of buttocks.

Shoulder stripe seseseeeee.| Darker blackish and well

marked.

Often only faintly visible.

[Sometimes distinct (Staa-

; chey) |.

JPheria) vee Guid lel Ae ee aay a aa Generally present. Absent.

White of uncer parts and|

belly well marked,

ee in his ps per on wild asses (Journal Asiatic Society, 1559,

p. 229, et seg.) seems to have confused the ghorkhur and the kiang.

age

J. com rightly considered them distinct (Jerdon).

We may now proceed to notice each form in turn :—

(1) Equus CABALLUS, the common or domestic horse, Hq.

antiquorum.

Mane and tail long and flowing ; hairs of tail over whole posterior

surface of stump.

Horny appendages— Kirg sots typically present on all four limbs,

chestnuts inside fore arms, castors inside hocks, warts rarely absent

on hind legs; ‘ the bay mare, Haglet, was without sallenders on the

hock joint.”— (Jamaica Times, 1845, Aug. 25.)

86 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

Colour—Various, principally bay and dun; occa sionally rufous,

mouse colour, white, dappled grey, &c.

Markings-—Dorsal stripe in some breeds; very occasionally faint

traces of shoulder stripes ; occasionally zebra marks about knee and

hock (especially on outside).

Size—Varies much; from about 9 hands to 17 hands, or average

of over 14 hands.

Habits—Gregarious, docile, and domesticable ; inquisitive; enor-

mous geographical range; much influenced by domestication.

Voice—A neigh.

Hars—Short and fine.

2. Asinus vutearis (Gray): Equus asinus, the common ass ;

As, domesticus (H. Smith). The lineal descendant of As, tacniopus

(Sclater and Darwin).

Mane and tail—Mane short, upright, irregular; tail has tuft at

extremity,

Horny appendages—No castors.

Colowr—Mouse grey ; varies to an extent.

Markings—List or “ dorsal stripe,’ cross shoulder stripe, which

varies much in length, breadth, and manner of termination, Some-

times absent, occasionally double or treble: may be forked at its

extremity, or bent into an angle as in the quagga and Burchell’s

zebra, Often zebra marks, especially on the fore limbs.

Size—Varics much from 9 hands to 17 hands.

Habits—Strong, hardy, sure-footed, much warped .by domestica-

tion. ‘In South America numerous asses have been allowed to

escape into the plains and multiply in a state of nature ; but they

never acquire the habits of their freeborn progenitors in the desert;

they linger near the places of their birth and fall an easy prey to

their enemies.’”’ (Low.) Onlylately known inSweden and Norway ;

not found in Burma. Four Syrian varieties (Darwin) :—

“(1) A light and graceful animal, with agreeable gait, used by

ladies ; (2) an Arab breed reserved exclusively for the saddle; (3) a

stouter animal used for ploughing and various purposes; (4) the

large Damascus breed with peculiarly long body and ears.”

Vowe—A bray.

Hars —Long and thick.

Head —Vorehead arched.

av:

Sg mmm

THE NEAREST ALLIES OF THE HORSE. 87

8. Equus onacur (Pallas); Asinus onager: As. indicus (Sclater) ;

Hq. hemionus of India (Auct) ; ghorkur, Asiatic wild ass of Cutch,

As. sylvestris (Pliny) ; As. hemionus (Gray); gour (Persian); Hq.

khur (Lesson) ; mistakenly koulan.

Mane and tail—Tail tuft short; mane blackish brown. Mane hog

and scanty.

Horny appendages—Ergot patches of thin horn on all four limbs;

chestnuts 8 in. by 2 in., thin horny patches ; no castors.

Colour —Pale isabella or sandy above with slight but distinct ru-

fescent tinge (Jerdon).. Lower half of muzzle, lower part of neck,

along each side of dorsal stripe along back, under belly, back of fore

limbs, round the front and outside of the elbows, front of the hind

limbs to the hock, and back.of the limbs to the hamstring white.

(Mare in Jodhpur Collection, 1887.)

Female in Victoria Gardens.—Muzzle and lower parts of body

and limbs white; slight zebra marks, both knees; large chestnut

horny patches; general colour rufous or isabella; tip of ears and

outer side of hind margin brown; mane upright, brown, decreases

from poll backwards; dorsal stripe zigzag between withers, very

wide to croup, along back and loins, narrowing on tail, and does not

run totuft, but terminates about half way.

Markings—Dorsal stripe chocolate brown: very broad at com-

mencement of croup, grows gradually narrow towards the mane, runs

to tail tuft (Mare in Jodhpur Collection, 887). Colour extends

slightly down outside of shoulder; sometimes double cross stripe

(Jerdon). Zebra marks on hocks posteriorly in female, zigzag

markings from stifle to below hock on outer side of limbs and from

outside of elbow to below knee in forelimb in male (Jodhpore

Collection). Limbs faintly barred, now and then strongly so;

narrow dark ring over hoof (Jerdon). Aebra marks on shoulder

in adult and still more in foal (Walker).

Size——11 to 12 hands.

Habits—Shy, difficult to approach; of great speed; lives in

troops each under a leader, on the plains in winter and mountains in

Summer. Bikaneer herd of about 150; foaling in June, July, and

August.

Voice—* A shrieking bray” (Blyth), or like that of a mule

(Tytler). ane

Hars—Sandy externally, white internally, with black tip and

outer border; longish (Jerdon), Certainly brownat tips in Jodhpur

85 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

specimens, riot ab ole smaller in eihpanien — those of

domesticated ass,

Head— Heavy, but well formed ; neck short; croup higher than

withers, which are scarcely developed.

Remarks—“ Nine-tenths are actually gelt by the teeth of the jea-

lous sire the moment they are foaled’ (Harris).* This animal is

sometimes captured alive, for sale to chiefs, by means of relays of

horses, which run it down, it requires an exceptionally good horse

when mounted, to fairly excel the wild ass in pace and endurance.

Sometimes he is captured by means of falcons or is shot; the flesh is

esteemed a great luxury. The hide is converted into the eommon

Turkish shagreen. The young are sometimes trained, butadults be-

come unruly. The onager is found in Cuteh, Guzere ut, Jeysalmir,

Bikaneer, Sind, Beloochistan, Persia, and Turkestan; its range

is to Deesa south, to 75° long. E., and to lat. 48° N. in Turkestan,

west if extends as far as the road running from Teheran to

Shiraz. I have a suspicion that not so very long ago the onager

extended into the Deccan. Specifica ally identical with As. vulgaris,

either progenitor or descendant (Cobbold), [Alayar Khan of

Mahmudabad sent out into the desert for a wild ass. One was shot

andbroughtin, Itwasas bigasa small mule, yellow dun with dorsal

stripe. . . . Ghorkur was seen in the desert towards Abiverd.

The Khoords describe a good horse by saying he can ride down a

wild ass. On the Attrek in the broad open vales wild asses (Roos-

tum said) are to be found in immense numbers. Between Sanghos

and Jahjerm near the brackish streams about four miles off the road

numberless fresh tracks, as though the whole herd had followed i

Indian file, were seen. The ground was very rough and billeen,

though quite rideable, rather heavy g going, being covered witha salt

sandy crust through which the horse’s feet sank at each stride * * *

Came suddenly ona herd of fourteen. The horses (after a march)

were done up in trying to chase them down (Col. Valentine

Baker) },

4. Hquus wemrprus (Is. Geof. St. Hilaire); As. indicus

Sclater); Hemippe: Syrian wild ass; wild ass of Scripture.

Voice~More like a bray than that of onager (Blyth). St.

Hilaire also notices this difference.

* This i is, “oF course, a ‘traveller's

THE NEAREST ALLIES OF THE HORSE. 8Q

‘ Hars—Shorter than onager (Blyth).

[ Head—Smaller than onager (Blyth).

Remarks—-Found in Syria, Mesopotamia, and North Africa.

5. Equus tmxtopus (Hengl.) As. teeniopus; Abyssinian wild ass.

Characters—As of Hig. onager; stripes frequent on hind legs.

Habitat—Abyssinia and the desert plains between the Nile and

the Red Sea.

Horny appendages—Hoofs as broad as those of a horse of fifteen

hands in height (Baker) ; remarkably large, wide, and firm,

Colour—A reddish cream tinged with the shade most prevalent

of the ground it inhabits (Sir S. Baker).

Markings—Cross bands on legs and shoulder stripes.

Size —13'3 to 14 hands, of a fine male (Baker).

Rayment shows that a small breed of donkeys in Muscat is

remarkable for hardihood, endurance, and viciousness, qualities to

| an extent due to constant crossing with the wild stallion from the

' Assyrian desert captured for the purpose (probably the hemippe).

Remarks—Supposed to be the nearest feral representative of the

domestic ass. ‘The perfection of activity and courage, and has a

§ high-bred tone in the deportment, a high actioned step when it trots

freely over the rocks and sand, with the speed of the horse when it

gallops over the boundless desert.” (Baker.)

6. Equus nemionus (Pallas): Kiang; Tschiketai; Thibetan wild

ass; kulan; the wild horse (Cunningham); djang (Tangutans),

Mane and tail—Mane dun (Moorcroft).

Colour—Upper parts dull ruddy brown or chestnut rufous hue

approaching bay, especially about the head; distinctly darker at the

flanks, where it abruptly contrasts with the white on the belly.

Coat varies according to season, smooth and rufous in warm weather ;

legs a pale straw. Darker in colour than onager.

Markings—Dorsal stripe black ; absent, obscure or well developed,

extending to tail tuft, broad on croup. No zebra stripes either

in adult or foal (Walker). Shoulder stripe sometimes distinct,

often but faint or rudimentary ; generally absent.

Size—Fourteen hands.

¥ Habits—Wary, swift, difficult to approach, inquisitive, lives in

small troops or herds in Thibet and Central Asia. Moorcroft saw

90 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

it in Ladak, and his pundit, Izzat Ullah, mentions wild agses in

Khoten ; extends into China eastward. Lives on plateaux at eleva-

tion of 15,000 to 16,000 feet above sea level. Fly at a trot, stop,

look back. Prejevalsky considers it the most remarkable animal of

the Kokonor Steppes. Itis found also in Tsaidam and North Thibet.

Often seen grazing in company with mountain sheep. Found in

troops ten to fifty strong, or in herds of several hundreds, in

Kokonor (Projevalsky). The young are born in May, but many die

before maturity (Prejevalsky).

Votce--Has given rise to much discussion as to whether he neighs

or brays. Prejevalsky heard his voice twice, once when a stallion

was calling back mares, the second time when two were fighting.

It is ‘a loud harsh neigh, repeated at short intervals, combined

with a bray.”

Hars—Moderate in length.

Head—Uarge and ugly ; forehead convex between eyes; centre of -

face narrow and keeled on sides.

Remarks—In. size and external appearance closely resembles a

mule (Prejevalsky). Is the most equine of wild asses, and differs

but little from the Terpan or wild horse of Central Asia, for which it

is constantly mistaken. Is also, especially by the Tartars, con-

fused with onager, both being called kulan. Gray discusses the

position of the infra-orbital foramen in the kiang and onager, also

certain differences in the skulls. I am inclined to consider these

differences as simply due to age not to specific influences. A com-

parative study of the skulls (and indeed of the skeletons in general)

of the Hquidee is much needed. When young they will become so

tame as to be led about like a horse, and will follow horses almost

everywhere (Charlton), Colonel Smith describes as the Yo-to-tze

also as Ag, equuleus vel Hippargus, an animal seen alive in a livery

stable near Park Lane, London, said to have been brought from the

Chinese frontier N.-H. of Calcutta. It had shoulder bands black,

three or four cross streaks (black) on knees and hocks ; well defined

black dorsal stripe to centre of tail; tip of ears, mane, and long

hairs of tail black. Gray thinks it may have been a cross between

the kiang and the domestic ass. The natives consider kiang

flesh a great delicacy and stalk the animals to shoot them after

drinking. They are very plucky when hit and hard to bring down.

They get very fat in autumn; when frightened they run down the

wind,

THE NEAREST ALLIES OF THE HORSE. 91

7. Equus quacca (Linneus): As. quagga; ‘ Female zebra”

(Edwardes) ; Hippotigris quagga (H. Smith); Hipp. isabellinus

(H. Smith); Ane isabelle (Le Vaillant). The quagga is the bravest

of equines, and so was occasionally domesticated by the Boers to be

turned out with the horses at night to protect the latter from pre-

datory beasts on which the quagga springs, beats them to the ground

with forehoofs, and tramples them to death (Nott).

Mane and tail—Hair extends nearer to base of tail than in other

equines, except horses (Lesson). Hog mane, banded alternately

brown and white; tail white.

Horny appendages—No castors—hoofs slightly concave beneath

and broader than in zebra. “ A foot which might serve as a model

to a veterinary student” (Harris).

Colour—Upper parts of hide rufous brown; lower parts of body

white ; legs white; stripes on forehead and temples longitudinal, and

on cheeks with narrow transversal stripes forming lineal triangular

ficures between eyes and mouth.

Markings—Stripes to centre of shoulder and back; stripes not so

deep in colour as those of zebra. Muzzle black. Dorsal line dark

and broad, widening over croup.

Size—18 to 18°2 hands, about 6 inches longer than that of true

zebra (Nott) : (8ft. 6in. long).

Habits—Courageous, sociable, peaceable, found in immense herds

in the open plains, travels in long files of many hundreds, parallel

with caravans (Harris). Is not seen north of the Vaal, and is

vanishing before civilization. Seems remarkably fond of the

brindled enu and ostrich, which graze with it, but does not mix with

its own more clegant congeners (Harris). Form compact, body

round, limbs robust, clean, and sinewy, with pace low and

laboured.

Voice—Like the bark of a dog, a shrill barking neigh, which its

name well imitates.

Ears-—Hquine. Flesh disgustingly oily and yellow.

Head and neck —Very large, which increases the apparent size of

the animal.

Remarks—Buckley considers that now the Burchell’s zebra is

generally called the quagga, and Harris’ quagga must have become

extinct, The zebras of all three kinds have been shot extensively,

because their hide forms good connecting bands for machinery.

Less fierce in disposition than the zebras and ‘of the whole family

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

unquestionably the species that is best calculated for domestication”?

(Nott).

8. Equus Buronaurit (Bennett); Hippotigris Burchellii (Smith) ;

As. Burchellii (Gray) ; Eq. zebroides (Lesson) ; Hq. montanus (?)

(Cuvier): Bonti Quagga (Cape Colonist); Dauw; Peechey or

Peet-sey (of Bechuanas): “Is the Quagga par ewcellence of South

African sportsmen” (Nott).

Mane and tail--Tail white, equine ; mane hog, banded black and

white ; mane 5 in. high.

Horny appendages—Hoof soles slightly concave, rather broad.

Colour and markings—Muzzle black ; head and upper parts of body

and upper part of legs sienna-brown, and with broad dark brown

bands not uniting above with dorsalline, which widens towards the

croup. Lower parts of body and of limbs and inside of limbs white :

bands less numerous than those of zebra. The degree and extent

of colouring varies much (Buckley).

Size—135 hands. 8ft. 6in,. from nose to point of tail (Harris).

Habits—Seems very fond-of the brindled gnu; found in herds of 80

to 100 (Harris). Buckley generally saw it, at least in the bush, in

parties of 8 to 10, his largest troop being about 40. Found on the

plains north of the Orange River, but migrates periodically in

accordance with exigencies of food supply. Hxtends into Abyssinia

and Congo. Is fierce, strong, fleet, and beautiful (Harris.) Stout

in build, admits of being tamed to a certain extent with consider-

able facility, and occasionally a half domesticated specimen is ex-

posed for sale in Cape Town with a rider on its back, but even in

the most tractable state to which it has yet been reduced it is

regarded as wicked, treacherous, obstinate, and fickle (H. Smith),

The late Lord Derby had several in his collection at Knowsley

Park, and was very successful in rearing foals (Nott), Figure

sturdy and graceful ; carcase round ; limbs clean and muscular, less

robust than those of the quagga.

Voice—A. shrill abrupt neigh, which may be likened to the

barking of a dog, as heard by a passer-by from the interior of a

house (Harris). \

Hars—Hquine.

Remarks—Has four mamme. Skin extremely valuable; flesh

much appreciated by natives, but its dark colour and yellow fat

render it anything but tempting to most white men (Nott).

Prens

THE NEAREST ALLIES OF THE HORSE. 98

9. Equus zespra (Linneous) ; Wilde-paarde (Dutch Colonists) ;

Hippotigris zebra v. campestris (Smith); Asinus zebra (Gray) ;

Hqaus montanus (Burchellii) ; Daw (or true zebra) of the Colonists ;

Hipp. antiquoruam (H. Smith). Louis Figuier states that the

Persians used to slaughter zebras (probably onagers) at their

religious festivals, and kept a stock of them for the purpose on a

small island in the Red Sea.

Mane and tail - End of tail a black tuft ; remainder of tail white.

Mane bushy, hog, and banded.

Horny wuppendages—Hoofs narrow, with hollow soles; no castors.

Colouwr—Creamy white, inside of legs and belly white ; muzzle

reddish or tan.

Markings—Striped of black colour over the body, head, and limbs,

the bands being narrow or wide, black, and sinuous, and uniting

with the longitudinal dorsal line. Those of body nearly vertical,

those of limbs horizontal and closer together than those on the

body.

Size—Under thirteen hands, exceeds eight feet in extreme length.

Habitat—Inhabits the hilly region of South Africa. Harris

gives his range from Abyssinia to the Cape. The Dutch farmers

used to catch foals and export them ‘‘ chiefly to Mauritius, where it

is said they were often whimsically trained to harness.” A Queen

of Portugal used to drive a team o f zebras, and Rarey tamed

one. Upwards of 160 in a troop ; is shy, fierce, obstinate, nearly

untameable, timid, supposed to be rapidly becoming extinct.

Voice—Subdued neighs like the gasps of a dying man (Ander-

son),

Hars—Long and widely opened.

Head—Light.

Remarks—Flesh coarse, oily, unpalatable; two mamme. There

is a small amount of written testimony to the occurrence of zebras

or onagers in the mountains of Spain between the 10th and 13th

centuries, probably imports from West Africa. They were widely

dispersed from Galicia to Hstremadura and Andalusia.

We are now in a position to enter more into detail with regard

to the general characters of the Equide, We find that all present a

mane or growth of long hair at the upper margin of the neck, which

varies in length, colour, and arrangement. It is most highly de-

94, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCINTY,

veloped in the male, and it is decidedly ornamental, whether as the

long flowing manelocks of the horse or the smart hogged append-

age seen in the other forms. It may be uniform in colour, is

generally darker than the rest of the body, or banded in accordance

with the striped condition of the neck; the bands may be black or

brown ; long hairs also grow on the tail, rendering it a beautiful

appendage and useful fly-flapper. Here also the horse has the

advantage, the hair being long and flowing, covering the whole of

the tip and outer part of the stump. Barchell’s zebra and the

quagga have the equine form of tail, but the capillary arrangement

is less striking. The other equines resemble the ass, in that the

long hairs are developed on the end of the stump as a tail tuft

resembling that seen in some ruminants. In the zebra the tip of

the tail is black and the rest white. Asa rule, the organ is darker

in colour than the rest of the body.

Of horny appendages, the hoofs vary in broadness and concavity of

sole, a point which seems to be much determined by, and to indi-

cate, the habit of the animal. Thus mountainous and sure-footed

equines have mule feet, t.e., hoofs upright, narrow, and hollow-

soled, as seen in the ass and zebra. Castors are absent in all forms

except caballus, but we have no distinct evidence as to whether

they are present or absent in the kiang: it seems they are some-

times not found in true horses. On the other hand, the chestnuts

and ergots seem present in all species; in the horse they are hard

and strong, inthe onager they are wide and soft horny patches.

Ergots may be absent, certainly in bigh-bred horses.

The colour varies from black to white, no rule can be given except

that the wild forms tend to sandy or rufous tint with lighter shades

of the lower parts of the body and insides of the limbs, also darker

“points,” 2.¢., muzzle, mane, tail, and legs, Domestication tends

to great variety in colour.

Markings attain their hightest development in the zebra as (a)

dorsal line from mane to tail of dark colour (black or brown) ; (d)

vertical body lines, of which the most persistent are those on the

centre of the shoulders, which are wide and forked at their free

ends, others are parallel with the branches of the forks; and (c)

the horizontal bands of the limbs. These markings reappear more

or less in all forms, the most frequent and constant being the dorsal

stripe or list, found asa characteristic even in some breeds of horses.

\t A cm i. vee "

Not much less frequent are shoulder stripes, and even the zebra

THE NEAREST ALLIES OF THE HORSE. 95

marks on knees and hocks reappear frequently im’ horses, Darwin

considers that if grey or red brown asses had been steadily selected

and bred from, the shoulder stripe would have been as generally and

| completely lost as in the horse. These markings are best seen in the

male ; often when present in the young they disappear in adults.

Size shows a neat gradation” from the wretched little 7-hand

donkey of the Maharattas up to the 16-hand dray horse ; it varies

enormously with domestication, but among the equines in the wild

. state seems to range from 1] hands or 12 hands (onager and zebra)

through 13 hands (quagga), and 13} hands (peechey) to 14 hands

in the kiang, and still more in the wild horse.

Aabits—All these wild equines are strong, hardy, swift-footed,

courageous, but shy, and curious in the extreme. They vary much

in tameability, but have ali been more or less brought under control,

and they exhibit as much variety in character as we see in domestic

horses. The liking of these animals for, and their ready association

with, other species is remarkable. All seem to be fond of the gnu,

and they do not object to the presence among them of so different

acreature asthe ostrich. The gregarious instinct seems stronger

in some forms, such as the zebra, than in others like the kiang, but

the size of the troops is probably determined much by the amount

of pasture available and the freedom from disturbance by man.

The same influences determine the range, both African and Asiatic

forms are retreating before the advancing steps of civilization, and

they all seem to frequent the mountains in hot weather and the

plains in cold, according to the amount of pasturage available. The

Kiang and zebra are most fond of mountains, the onager inhabits

hills and sandy deserts, and the peechey grassy plains, These

differences seem to be determined by local circumstances : in fact,

the equine adapts himself to the conditions of his surroundings.

The voice ranges from a neigh, so familiar in the horse, to a bray,

equally familiar in the ass. The intervening sounds seem to vary

as much as the tuneful notes of transport mules when the trumpet

sounds ‘‘ feed.”

The ears vary much in relative development as regards length,

sharpness of tip, and fineness, exhibiting every gradation between

the familiar auricle of the ass and the neat delicate corresponding

part in the horse.

. Our information as to osteological characters is very scanty, but

it suffices to show us that the differences are simply those of

96 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

ineasurement, 7.e., such as we look for in comparing the skeleton

of a man of one race with that of another.

As regards shape there is a general tendency to largeness of the

muzzle, backward setting of the eyes, shortness in the rein, and

imperfect setting on of the head. Neck short and stout, shoulder

upright, forearms and thighs moderate in length, limbs small

below the knee and hock, back short, barrel rounded and large,

quarters rounded, tail set on low, goose-rump. These general

characters are not those best adapted to man’s requirements from

horses, but they are suited to enable the unbridled and unmounted

equine to be swift in the extreme, sure-footed, and capable of remark-

able endurance. It is not only in respect to less suitability for man’s

requirements than the horse of civilization that inferences from the

study of the asses and zebras agree with those which, as on a previous

occasion we have seen, may be drawn from a study of wild horses.

The remarks made about wild horses, as regards uses, methods of

capture, geological range in time, also the physical characters of the

habitat may be extended tc the true feral Hquidee.

Traits of temper, character, inclinations, and habits are remark-

ably uniform in animals of the horse tribe. Tn the study of the ass

we might almost go over the same ground as that already

traversed in investigation of the horse; the uncertainty of origin, the

considerable range of variation, some remarkable limits in geogra-

phical range under natural influences, and extension of spread

under human influences, might be commented on. Writers on

natural history lay stress on the fact that the ass never really goes

wild as the horse is apt to do, and the zebras never really become

domesticated; but I doubt whether the former view could be

thoroughly established, and I have alr ady had occasion to direct

attention to th efact that the fierceness and untameability of the

zebras is somewhat overrated,

Previously we have drawn from such evidence as was to hand in

the form of geological remains, early art, testimony afforded by

horses in the present day, and otherwise, a sketch of what

we considered to be the primitive horse, and concluded that he

must have been remarkably like the wild asses and zebras of the

present day. One cannot help going still further backwards in

time, and surmising that there was a period when the equines

of the world were only of one kind, the ancestor of the horses,

asses, and zebras of to-day. Supposing this to have been the

THE NEAREST ALLIES OF THE HORSE 97

case, we may surmise that the ancestor in question was a sort

of dun brown in colour with hog mane, dorsal stripe, and probably

asinine tail. The lower part of his body and the inner sides of his

limbs were lighter in colour than the general ground of the skin,

he probably had zebra marks and castors; was rather small in size

(say 12 hands), had large head and ears, stout and rather short

limbs, narrowish mule feet. His habits were those of the wild

equines in the present day, but his range was much more extensive,

comprising Hurope, Asia, Africa, and America. In time he became

extinct in America after undergoing development in several direc-

tions probably ; in Central Asia he developed caballine characters

Buch as are seen in the kiang and terpan, and, as they proved use-

ful to man, were the cause of subjection of this branch of the family

to man and its enormous modification by art. In Arabia and

South-East Asia the asinine characters found favourable influences,

and some of them, as seen in the taniope and onager, also proved

useful to man, who brought artificial selection to bear in such a way

that the domesticated ass of the present day differs remarkably from

the onager, Finally, in Bast Africa to the extreme south, the

hippotigrine characteristics seem to have found scope for deve-

lopment. Man found this branch uncontrollable, and it pro-

bably affords us an example of the least changed descendant

of equus primigenius. It is generally now admitted that the theory

of descent can be accepted as a good working hypothesis,

It certainly receives support from study of the HEquide and,

on the other hand, would lead us to interesting conclusions with

regard to them. It would explain to us where the stripes of the

zebra come from, and why in South Africa the equines differ in

appearance from those of Asia and North Africa, Taking it into

consideration, we can to an extent understand that the inborn ten-

dency of the horses of all kinds to develop donkey stripes and zebra

marks, a tendency most often manifested in the foal of non-striped

races which in the South African forms, becomes exaggerated, so that

we areled through the quagga and Burchell’s zebra to the true zebras,

which exhibit striation to the full extent. The theory of descent as

regards zebras is much more satisfactory than that of mimicry. We

must consider it much more probable that equines spread to South

Africa and gradually become modified by surroundings than that

in the South African fauna there were developed animals showing

full equine characters but differing from the horses and asses in being

98 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

more striped. Geological and historical evidences are in favour of

the former view, and we find transitional specimens between the

different kinds of zebra, which lead to the belief that change is still

going on in the present day. It is interesting to note how the

quagega inclines to equine characters and the other two forms some~

what to those of the wild asses of Cutch and Thibet. This would

seem to indicate a tendency of the zebras to branch off into new

forms, as the original stock did, exhibiting equine, asinine, and

zebraic characters.

To conclude: Study of the feral equines enables us to determine

what are the essential characters of the group and to contrast them

with those found in the horse and the common ass warped by

domestication. It teaches us what are the natural conditions of the

horse, from which we may draw useful lessons as to preservation of

his health. It places us in a position to appreciate the enormous

influence exerted by man on the horse and ass. Some valuable

general conclusions on artificial and natural selection, on geogra-

phical and geological range, and on other important problems of

natural history can be derived from the study; and, finally, to the

sportsman and even to the student of economy our subject should

prove interesting and instructive. To the zealous student the

group of Hquide presents many problems to be solved and much

error and mawkish sentiment to be estimated at its true value in

the search for truth.

THE CONDITIONS FOR THE DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS

AND THE MEANS BY WHICH JT IS PERFORMED,

WITH SPECIAL REGARD TO INDIAN SPECIES.

By G. Carstensen, Cand. Hort. R.D.A.A. (Copenhagen),

F.R.D.H.S. (Copenhagen), Superintendent, Victoria Gardens,

Bombay.

(Read at the Society’s Meeting on 5th March, 1888.)

TuoucH it would be very tempting to give you a demonstration

of the vast number of picturesque features that are caused by the

natural association of plants, or to point out for you the striking

peculiarities of vegetation in various climates and regions, or, in

short, to describe the multifarious aspects of geographical distribu-

tion of plants, I shall resist the temptation, and confine my

remarks to some of the causes on which local flora depend,

THE CONDITIONS FOR THE DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS. 99

‘The more important of these causes are—the conditions for the

distribution of plants and the means of distribution. (Besides

these, a very important item is the comparative power of plants of

holding their own in the struggle for existence, a subject which

still requires the most careful study, and which I am not prepared to

deal with here.) The conditions for distribution of plants are

chiefly these, viz., the climate, the adaptation of plants for climatic

influences, the natural quality of the soil, and thenecessity of fertilisa-

tion for plants. You are all. aware of the very distinct features of

vegetation, as represented in different regions, countries, or even

localities of the same province. You will have noticed that the

vegetation of the seashore is very different from that represented

further inland; that the plants of our hills are to a great extent

of other species than those occurring in the plains, or that almost

every different locality has its peculiar flora. When we ask for

the reason of this, the reply will often be found in the various

natural conditions of the said locality, but what I especially wish

to point out to you is, that a little closer observation of the plants

themselves will prove that peculiarities in their structure or

apparently casual appendages make them particularly adapted for

the natural conditions presented by the locality, and that they are

of the utmost importance with-regard to distribution of the plants.

Bor the observation of this fact, as for so many important discoveries

‘n regard to natural objects, we are specially indebted to your great

Countryman, Charles Darwin, who pointed out the way, which has

been followed by several botanists, among whom I may mention

Dr. Hermann Miiller (Lippstadt), Dr. Friedrich Hildebrand

(Leipsic), Dr. A. Kerner (Vienna), and Professor Otto Kunze

(Leipsic), as authorities for many of the views expressed in my

paper. The field is, however, so vast, that the subject will probably

never be thoroughly exhausted. It is particularly interesting, not

only in affording ample evidence in support of the much disputed

theories of Darwin, but also in explaining the necessity of almost

very organ of plant life. Of the natural conditions for distribu-

tion of plants none is more decisive than the climate. The local

range of temperature is in many instances an absolute necessity for

the growth of plants, and by this circumstance the limits of dis-

tribution for every species of plants are generally fixed. As to the

exact range of temperature necessary for the individual species, the

requirements greatly differ, but it may be regarded as certain, that

100 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIBTY.

for every species there is a maximum and minimum of heat, which

the plant will endure without harm, while an excess will kill the

plant or at least prevent its distribution. It is a well-known fact

that the faintest touch of frost is sure to destroy a Dahlia or a

Heliotrope, while Chrysanthemums, Pansies and Datsies continue to

flower even in several degrees of frost, also that many seeds of

plants from colder climates, as of most Huropean weeds, do not even

germinate in a tropical climate, and that many annuals only grow

satisfactorily here in the cold season. On the other hand, most

Indian plants, when cultivated in Europe, require a certain amount

of artificial heat.. Some very interesting experiments and observa-

tions have been made with the grape-vine, I believe, by a German

botanist, who has succeeded in proving that this plant everywhere

and under different natural conditions, requires the same total amount

of degrees of heat for performing its growth and producing good

fruit, and it may be regarded as certain that the same total amount

of sunlight is necessary to produce the full chemical qualities of the

grape, as colour, flavour, and sweetness.

The limits of distribution for plants of the same species with regard

to influence of temperature are sometimes very extensive. The rose,

for instance, grows to perfection as far north as Sweden up to 60°,

_N.L., though there certainly requiring protection in winter, and is at

the same time satisfactorily cultivated here in Bombay. This fact

may, however, partly be attributed to cultivation and to properties

thereby acquired. But even among wild plants, several species with

an equally large range of distribution, occur, as Solanum nigrum,

which is a very troublesome weed all over Hurope, and not uncommon

here in India, though perhaps originally introduced. Other plants

have but a very limited range of distribution, as the Mangosteen,

Garcinia mangostana, which is truly wild in the Malay Peninsula,

but even in Bombay, not 20° farther North, isa very tender plant,

though the same genus is represented by other species as Garcinia

indica, the kokum, and Garcinia wanthochymus, which both yield

pleasant acid fruits.

A similar demonstration of these facts is pointed out in the Hon’ble

Mr. Justice Birdwood’s excellent Catalogue of the Flora of Matheran

and Mahableshwar, by comparing the vegetation of the ascents with

that of the top of the hills, and which I need not further explain.

By close observation of the plants of the same species or genus,

wo shall find that they greatly vary even within the same range of

THE CONDITIONS FOR THE: DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS, 101

temperature according tolocality, and that this variation is chiefly due

to adaptations for excesses of temperature or to more or less

developed means of protection against climatie influences. Here we

never experience any severe cold, and I need not dwell upon the

means by which plants are protected against the injurious effects

of a low temperature, but shall only mention that these are often

j similar to those intended for protection against heat; in many

cases, however, the medium of protection is the snow, which

fact explains the tenderness of many Alpine plants, when cultivated

in temperate regions. The heat of our climate is at times very

trying, not only for man but also for plants, and most of orr plants

are therefore provided with means of protection against the heat

and aridity of the long dry season. The Indian tropical flora is in

comparison to that of more temperate climates singularly rich in

arboreous species, a fact that may be accounted for by the greater

resistance of a woody structure to excesses of heat. I cannot here

deal with the structure of the wood and the stem of a plant, bat

must restrict my remarks to point ont that it is especially adapted to

protect the plantsagainst climatic exigencies, and that in this respect

perhaps the cork, the liber or bast, and the bark are very important

parts of the wood. It is therefore not surprising to find that both

cork and liber are frequently very conspicuous in Indian trees. I have

bt (fact only seen very few where the cork is not clearly visible, if

not otherwise, then by lenticels on the young shoots, especially

When these are glabrous. It is alsoa well known fact that many

Indian trees are rich in fibre, which is generally the produce of a

well developed liber.

r . ’ . oa

The next object for observation is the pubescence or harriness of

plants, which though apparently insignificant, is of the utmost

importance for protecting plants. As far as I have been able to

judge from observation of plants that have as yet come under my

notice, I think it is a fact that most herbaceous plants, when

completing their growth during the rains, are more or less glabrous ;

while those species, which continue their growth during the dry

Season, are generally more or less hairy. You will notice this by

observing the weeds of this season. Asan example, I shall mention a

few of the numerous species of the genus Blumea, which is singularly

interesting also in other respects. The most common species,

Blumea membranacea muralis, which grows on old walls and on the

inside of wells, has almost completed its growth when the dry

102 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

season gets in, is quite glabrous below, only glandular-pubescent on

the upper parts, and quite scentless. The common Blumea Wigh-

tiana is distinguished by its dense, almost velvety pubescence, and a

most pleasant mint-like fragrance ; it grows with its nesrally, Blumea

(now Laggera) aurita on rnbbish-heaps, and as a weed of the cold

season in gardens and fields, The last-mentioned species is perhaps

less hairy, but has a much stronger turpentine-like fragrance, as also

the yellow flowered Blumea laccra, common on roadsides. Finally,

we have the mountain forms, Blumea glamerata and Blumea

Maleolmi, both of which are densely woolly, silvery white and

strongly scented.

ut also within the same species the degree of pubescence is

very variable according to season of growth and locality. One of

our most common weeds, Gynandropsis pentaphylla, is generally nearly

smooth in the rains, brt at this time of the year always more or less

hairy, and Hydrocotyle rotundifolia is glabrous in shady positions,

but hairy when exposed to the sun.

Similar observations with regard to other plants have led toa

eorrect conception of the importance of hairs for plants. The

protection they afford is manifold, chiefly against excessive heat;

and I shall only mention a few of the more important capacities of

the hairs. When closely set they shade the tender parts of plants

against the burning rays of the sun, when very dense and white

they reflect the heat; by force of capillarity they always absorb

even the smallest quantity of moisture from the air, and finally they

serve the plants by retaining the dew.

In citing the various species of Blwmea, I laid stress on their

fragrance. I did so, as this peculiarity is also highly protective

against heat. You may all have experienced the cooling and refresh-

ing effects of applying perfume to the skin, a circumstance, which

I need hardly tell you is caused by the rapid evaporation of all

essential oils. Now the fragrance of plants is due to exactly the

same cause, evaporation of essential oils, and we may therefore

conclude that such plants are constantly cooled and refreshed, in

order better to resist the heat. But besides, Chemistry teaches us

that the result of this mechanical action is the formation of resinous

substances, which are probably deposited on the surface of plants

_ and thus further check the evaporation, chiefly during the hottest

and driest parts of the day. The viscidity of many aromatic plants

tends to prove this view,

THE CONDITIONS FOR THE DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS. 108

Most Indian trees and shrubs have a glossy green foliage, e.g., the

leaves are coriaceous or have a strong culicula (the outer coat of

the epidermis). he protection of the mesophyll, or the inner parts

of the leaves, is not only due to the close texture of the cuticula, but

also to its glossy nature, by which quality the rays of light and

heat are reflected. ‘Trees and shrubs with tender foliage as a rule

shed their leaves in the dry season, unless these are hairy or

protected by other means. Among these I shall mention the

periodical movements of leaves, especially the regular folding up of

the leaves at nightfall, as we meet with in many Acacia, Mimosa,

Albizzia, Pithecolobium, and which is frequently called the sleep of

plants.* his peculiar phenomenon is probably a very necessary

provision which, though caused by the absence oflight, is actually

intended for exposing thé underside of the leaflets to the full benefit

of absorbing moisture during the night. Suclr leaves have as a

rule channelled petioles, which are probably meant for retaining

the dew.

The leaves of other plants, as of the curious forms of Cactaceous

plants and leafless Huphorbias, are frequently ‘transformed into

spines or scales as in Opuntia Dillent and Euphorbia Tirucalli, im

order to reduce their evaporation and to enable the plants to with-

stand heat and drought. All sueculent plants, of which the common

Aloe, so frequently seen suspended in front of shops im the bazaar,

is a good example, are similarly well adapted to flourish im the

driest localities.

Tubers, bulbs or rhizomes, which in India are represented by

numerous species of Aracew, Zingiberacer, Amaryllidee, Ferns, &c.,

are other structures that preserve the plants during the dry season,

when their annual top dies away. The pseudo-bulbs, fleshy stems

and quast-parasitic roots of Orchids are similar contrivances.

Finally the milky juice of plants, so characteristic in the genus

Vuphorbia, in many Ficus, and several Asclepiads, the secretions of

wae or other vegetable fats, and the resinous substances found on

many plants, may also be regarded as protection against heat, but

more probably. as an adaptation for sudden changes of tempera-

ture,

Next to severe cold, excessive heat and drought, the wird is the

most active of climatic agencies. Though in many respects very

* Since I wrote this, | have observed that the leaves of Cassia marginata expose

their upper surfaces during the night, but in this case the under side is very hairy.

164 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIBTY.

destructive to vegetation, the wind is nevertheless a most nec essary

assistant for the distribution of plants, which I shall presently show.

The fatal effect of strong winds or of constant monsoon winds is

well illustrated in sail and the trees at Malabar-Point form one

of the most interesting sights of this city. We see there how the

Nandruk-trees only grow toa few feet above the ground, and then

are forced to continue their growth in a horizontal direction, or how

the trunk of a common pra in the struggle for existence has

assumed a shapo which may be almost compared to that of a wind-

ing serpent. Itis a well known fact thatthe more exposed points of

elevated plateaus or mountains are frequently destitute of trees,

or that the species found in such localities by their peculiar

structure are singularly adapted to resist the force of the wind, while

ravines and other sheltered places are often conspicuous by the

richness of their vegetation. It is also a common experience, that

many of the beautiful Indian trees will not grow when exposed to

the full force of the monsoon, though this fact is not always due to

the force of the wind only, bat more frequently to the numerous

particles of salt that are brought from the sea by the wind On the

other hand, most palms, as the Cocoanut palm and common Date

palm, abound and flourish in the immediate neighbourhood of the sea.

It has even been said that the sea breeze is absolutely necessary

for many palms, This statement is however amply contradicted | by

the successful culture of most palmsin European hot-houses ; the

truthis probably that dry land winds prove dangerous to their

growth.

The means by which trees are protected against the fatal effects

of wind, which often seriously affect their distribution, are either

sheltered localities or peculiar structures of the root, stem, or crown

of the tree. Of sheltered localities I have already mentioned ravines,

and may further add dense forests and sheltered plains, but occa-

sionally plants of the same species associate in large clumps, and

thereby mutually protect each other. Among the structures of trees,

with regard to protection, may be mentioned deep growing tapering

roots, a frequent occurrence in arboreous plants ; a solid or flexible

trunk, as we find in most palms, to which is sometimes added a ten-

dency to grow against the wind, as in the Cocoanut palm ; peculiar

swelling of the stem, as in the West Indian Oreodora regta ; or a conti-

nual ae of woody leaf scars, as in Phenix he estris, the common

date palm. Other trees havea very large and dense ly-leaved crown, as

content

peepee

sspears

THE CONDITIONS FOR THE DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS j05

the wild mango, or are strengthened by rooting pillars or secondary

stems, formed by aérial roots, as the Banyan, Pandanus and Rhizo-

phora. By all these structures the individual strength of the tree is

enhanced and its resisting power increased, while other trees are so

constructedas to reduce the extent of the resisting surface. Ina few

Indian trees, as in Hriodendron anfractuosum, one of our silk-cotton

trees, and in Termindlia catappa, the “ Badam,” all the branches are

horizontally arranged in regular whorls, between which there is

ample room for the wind to pass. Similar structures are found m a

great many Coniferce, noticeably in Araucarias, where also the small

linear or scaly leaves tend to expose a very small surface to the ac-

tion of the wind. Such a limited development of the leaves is a com-

mon feature in many plants, as in most Australian Leguminous plants,

in Casuarinas, Tamarix and many others. Very finely divided,

pinnate or bipinnate leaves, as in Poinciana, Mimosa, Albizzia, Sc., do

perhaps render similar services to the plants, which seems to be the

more necessary as the wood of such trees is frequently very brittle.

The next and last of climatic agencies of which ¥ shall speak are

rain, humidity and moisture. Of these the local annual rainfall is

chiefly important for distribution of plants, in fixing certain hmits,

but also humidity of the atmosphere and moisture of the ground are

important items. A certain quantity of each of these is necessary

for all plants; but it is and will always be extremely difficult to

ascertain the exact requirements of the different species, and we can

only by experience learn that one requires next to no supply of

water or damp air, while another requires to be constantly soaked.

How plants are protected against a minimum of rain or moisture

has been mentioned in connection with their protection against heat,

and it only remains to be seen how they are guarded against ex-

cesses. In this respect may be mentioned local shelter, woody

structure, bark, cuticula of the leaves, secretions of waa and fatty

substances and a layer of condensed air, that frequently surrounds

the leaves of many plants and prevents their wetting, as in the fronds

of Maidenhair-ferus, which when dipped in water look as if they

were silvered and remain perfectly dry. The parts of plants most

susceptible to the effects of “ain and moisture are the flowers or at

least the soxual organs, which are in most cases more or less pro-

tected. Their means of protection are however too numerous to

be recorded here, and I shall only mention a very few, as the fre=

quent nodding position of the flower, the closing of the petals at night

196 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

and in rainy weather, and the season of flowering. Other means

are at the same time intended for protection against the attacks

of animals, birds and insects, or serve as adaptations for attracting

and aiding insects in performing fertilisation, &c., a subject on

which several books have been written, and which is far too compre

hensive to be more than hinted at here.

Tn connection with this, I may mention that plants are by nume-

rous means protected against the attacks of animals, birds and

insects ; but these being of lesser importance for the distribution

of plants, may be omitted here,

By a closer observation of the facts of which I have pointed out a

few of the most striking, I think we will arrive at the following

conclusion :—“ That the distribution of plants greatly depends upon

their capability of adapting themselves to a particular climate,

upon their means of protection, and upon their adoption of new

habits under altered circumstances.”

The next condition for the distribution of plants is the natural

quality of the soil, which is in a few cases of importance. I beg you

to remark, that I say a few cases, because the popular conception, or

rather deception, is that the quality of the soil is almost everything

for the successful growth of plants. With regard to a few plants

possessing a particular quality of extracting prepared food from the

ground, it is no doubt trae, but the rule is that only the physical

condition and not the chemical composition of the soil is of importance,

as it has been amply proved that plants derive by far the greatest,

amount of nourishment from the air, and that the few mineral sub-

stances that are actually necessary for the growth of plants are

nearly always present in sufficient quantities in any kind of soil,

We may therefore conclude that the quality of the soil is very in-

significant with regard to the distribution of plants, and when at all

of importance, may be partly attributed to climatic agencies,

Tt is however not sufficient that climate and soil offer favourable

conditions for the growth of plants ; their distribution will also

depend upon the perfect development of their flowers and fruits ; or

upon a satisfactorily performed fertilisation; unless the plants possess

other means of distribution than seeds. Fertilisation is not always

the result of a favourable climate, but is frequently caused by the’

presence of a particular insect or plant.” It is well known that:

the Vanilla grows luxuriantly and) flowers freely in India, but.

also that it uever seeds, except when artificially fertilised, a fact

THE CONDITIONS FOR THE DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS. 107

which is due to the absence of a particular insecb which abounds

in the native country of the Vanilla. A still more interesting

example is afforded by the rust of the wheat, caused by a species

of fungus, Puccinia graminis, which in order to survive must ger-

minate on the leaves of the Barberry, where the fertilisation is

performed. This fact was first observed by the late Danish Professor

Oersted, and has been practically corroborated by the good

results of almost eradicating the common Barberry in Denmark,

where it was formerly very frequent. Similar mutual relations

between plants are common among several other species of fungus.

The most important assistants to fertilisation are wind, dew and

insects, and rarely water.

Having now mentioned the most important conditions for the

distribution of plants, I shall proceed to deal with the means by

which it is performed.

The most natural way of propagation of plants is by seeds, and the

different agents that assist in spreading or distributing these are

wind, water, animals, birds, insects, and plants themselves.

The most active of these agents is the wind, and very frequently

fruits and seeds are specially fitted to derive the full advantage of its

action. As examples I shall mention the feathery tailed fruits of

“ Trayeller’s joy,” of which at least one species, Clematis Gouriana,

is common in our jungles; in this case the elongated styles serve

as appliances for flight; or the pappus of most of the com-

mon Composite; beautiful, feathery, in the now common, but

originally introduced T'ridax procumbens, or-hairy in Blumeas,

Vernonia cinerea, Emilia sonchifolia and many other common

weeds. Here the calyx or the outer perianth of the florets

is adapted for flight. Hairy appendages of other kinds, comas,

are frequent on seeds of several Asclepiads, as Calotropis

gegantea, Asclepias curassavica, Cryptostegia grandiflora, and in

many Apocynes as Anodendron paniculatum, Dr. Macdonald’s seed-

traveller, &c., and in a great many other plants. The hairy

appendages of seeds in the cotton-plants, Gossypium, in silk

cotton trees, Hriodendron anfractuosum and Bombax malabaricum

Serve a double purpose, ¢. g., as appliances for flight and as a means

of adhesion to the skin of animals. Other appliances for flight

are the winged fruits and seeds, as of Combretum, Terminalia

glabra, the “ Ain,” which on account of its 5-winged fruit has been

ealled Pentaptera, Hiptage Madablota, many other Malphigiacee,

108 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

Cardiospermum Halicababum, Begonias, many Unubelliferous plants,

grasses, &c., where the entire fruit is winged; of all Bignoniacee, as

Oroxylum indicum and Heterophragma Roaburghi, the horse radish

tree, Moringa pterygosperma and many Sterculiacee, as Pterospermum

acerifolium, P. suberifolium, Melochia velutina, &c., and in several

other plants, where the seeds are winged. Occasionally the fruit is

enclosed by a withering calyx or bracts, that serve as appliances

for flight, as in Physalis and Bougainvillea. Very small seed

which are of frequent occurrence and the spores of cryptogamous

plants are also largely distributed by the wind. Finally, the actual

force of the wind materially assists other plants in dropping their

heavy fruits, which on account of their often round shape then

continue their fall for some distance. In the case of the famons

Rose of Jericho, Anastatica hierochuntica, and afew Selaginellass,

the entire shrivelled plant, with seed and all, is carried away by

the wind.

The action of water in regard to distributing seeds is of less im-

portance now than in former periods. But in the times of the

great physical revolutions which our globe has undergone, before

assuming its present shape, and long before the existence of man,

the great majority of plants must have been distributed through

the agency of water,—it is at least very difficult otherwise to explain

the wide range of distribution for certain species, which have been

preserved and identified in a fossil state. It is moreover pro-

bable that the sea of those periods has been free of salt, and

consequently not so injurious to plant life as it at present is. This

theory has, however, been severely disputed. It is remarkable to

notice that adaptation of fruits and seeds for distribution by water

is now-a-days mostly found in such plants that are nearest allied to

the gigantic herbs of former periods, asin the fruits and seeds of

several palms, and in the spores of many cryptogamic plants. The

structure of the cocoanut is a good example of such fruits. Under

the hard shell is found a thick layer of fibre, which is evidently

intended for keeping the nut afloat, while the kernel abounds in

fatty substances, which further protect the germ against the in-

jurious effects of water. In other palm fruits, as in the African

oil palm, Elais guineensis, the fibro is replaced by a layer of fat or

solid oil, which may bo regarded both as an adaptation for floating

and as a protection against water. Tho largo distribution of

especially the cocoanut palm in all tropical countries, as also the

;

THE CONDITIONS FOR THE DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS. 109

splendid vegetation of many Coral islands may, to a certain extent,

be attributed to distribution by the sea, though it is a fact that salt

water will kill most germs of plant life, unless they are protected

by the above or similar means. Other fruits and seeds—some-

times whole plants—are occasionally distributed by -fresh water,

rivers, streams, or floods, but as s whole, this agency cannot be

considered a very important one. More active is the rain, and in

colder climates the snow and the ice. The principal action of rain

in regard to distribution of plants is to bury the seed inthe ground,

and as a whole to assist inthe germiuation of seeds. Seeds of some

plants, as many Geraniacee, several grasses, &c., are hygroscopic—

a quality which by alternative expansions and contractions causes

a certain movement, probably intended for shifting the seeds from

one place to another; and according to observations by F. Darwin,

for burying the seeds in the ground.

Though animals, birds, and insects but too freq uently damage our

choicest plants and fruits, their assistance in the distribution of

plants is very important, and seeds and fruits are frequently a dapted

to take advantage of this fact.

The hairy or woolly appendages of seeds and fruits, which I have

mentioned as adaptations for flight, as also the pubescent and tomeu-

tose seeds that frequently occur in Malvaceous plants, &c., are

often of such a nature that they adhere to the skin of animals,

and ure distributed by these. In other cases seeds and fruits are pro-

ages, which cause them to stick to the skinsof animals. Such

vided with hooks, bristles, awns, glands, tuber

es, or similar append-

structures are common features in many grasses, Umbellifera,

Composite, Rubiacew, &c., and are frequently met with in common

Weeds, as in Achyranthes aspera, Sida carpinifolia, Mimosa pudica,

Paracaryum, Plumbago zeylanica, &c. More direct is the agency

of monkeys, flying foxes, and larger birds, which are frequently

attracted by the colour and fragrance of the succulent fruits, eat

them and throw the seeds away, often at a considerable distance

from the place of production. Birds as a whole are still more active

distributors of plants, at least of those numerous species that have

a berried, baccate or drupaceous fruit. Such fruits have generally

a gay colour, are frequently sweet and aromatic, and are altogether

well suited to tempt the birds. Experience has also established the

fact that many seeds fail to germinate, unless having passed through

the birds. Such seeds may, however, succeed when submitted

110 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

to fermentation. This is the case with many Indian species

of Ficus, and you will all have observed how frequently plants of

“ Peepul,” Fisus religiosa, “ Banyan,’ Ficus indica, and “ Umbar’’

Ficus glomerata, spring up on walls, roofs, and on stems of other

plants, &c., on places where the seeds could not have been deposited

except by birds. The naturalisation in India of several plants, as

the Guava, the Custard apple, Lantana camara, Passiflora suberosa,

Rauwolfia canescens, Rivinia, and many others may be explained by

the action of birds. It is, however, worth noticing that the seeds of

such fruits are generally well protected, either by a hard shell or by

acrid qualities, as in the custard apple and the guava. Several

species of plants are said to be distributed by the aid of insects, and

as examples of such have been mentioned oranges, limes, papayas

and coffee.

The plants themselves have occasionally fruits, that in force of

their peculiar structure, greatly assist in spreading the seeds.

Such fruits are the elastically bursting seed-vessels of Oxalis corni-

culata, Balsams, Momordica Balsamina, Rungia parviflora, Calotro-

pis gigantea, &c. The sudden bursting of the fruit, even when not

elastic, will frequently occasion a shock, sufficiently strong to

spread the seeds. In other cases the seeds remain in the fruit after

its bursting, but have then generally some other adaptation for

distribution, as the winged seeds of Pterospermums, the shining

bright red seeds of Adenanthera pavonina, which, probably owin g to

their colour, are carried away by birds or insects, or the birds

are attracted by the gay colour of the pericarp, asin Sterculias,

Taberne montana erispa, Gymiosporia Rothiana, Momordica ;

Charantia, &c. The sweet arillus of many seeds, as found in

Pithecolobium dulce, is probably a similar adaptation.

A very peculiar feature, evidently intended to effect a dense

growth of plants of the same species, within suitable localities, &c., at

the same time protecting the seed against salt water, is represented by

some of our sea shore plants, which form the well known Mangrove

swamps, as Rhizophora and Algiceras. In these the ripe seed ger-

minates on the mother plant, and with its long radicle and narrowly

adpressed leaves forms a stick-like plant. This, when finally Separa-

ing, buries itself in the mud, where it, on account of its shape, is

singularly adapted to withstand the movements of the tide. A

somewhat similar example is afforded by Crinum asiaticum, where

the seeds frequently germinate in the capsule and form small bulbs,

THE CONDITION FOR THE DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS. 111

Only lately I noticed that the spores of an aquatic fern brought from

Rutnagherry, a species of Ceratopteris, germinate and form their

prothallium on the lower portion of the plant.

Many plants principally owe their distribution to other parts than

to seeds, which then occasionally fail to come to perfection. Such

plants areas arule much more difficult to destroy than seedlings.

The parts which serve to distribute the plants are, in such cases,

bulbs, tubers, rhizomes, but principally stoloniferous roots, as in many

common grasses, as Cynodon dactylon, Sporobolus diander, Chloris

barbata, Dactylis lagopoides, &c., or rooting stems or runners, as in

Hydrocotyle asiatica, H. rotundifolia, Ozxalis corniculata, Ipomoea

biloba and I. aquatica, Lippia nodiflora, &c. Rarely the flower stem

is creeping and gives rise to new plants, asin the not uncommon

Launea pinnatifida. Among Indian plants a few reproduce

themselves by parts of the leaves, as Bryophyllum calycinum.

All the artificial means of propagation are founded on the fact

that every part of a stem or leaf has the power of forming a new

plant, when brought under favourable conditions, and I think they

are too well known to require mention here.

But in considering the means of artificial propagation, it is only

natural to think of cultivation as a cause, and a very important

one too, of distribution of plants. By this not only a vast number

of economical and ornamental plants have been distributed over the

whole globe, but many plants have also unintentionally been natu-

ralised in foreign countries as followers of cultivated plants. In

regard to cultivation I may venture to say that in no other branch

of natural science have so successful and astonishing results been

obtained through the influeuce of man. The prosperity of most

countries does in fact to a great extent depend upon cultivation, and

I do not think I exaggerate when saying that by far the greatest

part of the enormous Indian trade is due to cultivation, all the

principal articles of export being vegetable products.

Such astounding results have however not been obtained with-

out labour, the object of which bas been to create better varieties,

partly by selection and partly at the cost of extinction of the natural

means of protection and adaptation for distribution found in the-

original plants.

Great successes in cultivation have been achieved in India, but

I do not think that it is sufficiently appreciated that such results

are frequently in the first instance due to experiments in botanical

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCENTY,

gardens, among which the Calcutta garden has taken the lead by

distributing such important plants as tea, cinchona, potatoes and

most Hnglish vegetables. There still remains a vast field for further

progress, either by introducing exotic economical plants, or what

I think ig still more important, by careful examination of the quali-

ties of the vast number of Indian plants, and how these may be

improved and turned to account by cultivation.

The Hon’ble Mr. Justice Hart proposed a vote of thanks to Mr.

Caxsteusen for his interesting lecture, and the meeting then ended.

HINTS ON COLLECTING AND PRESERVING

HYMENOPTERA.

By Caprain C. T. Binenam,

Deputy Conservator of Forests, Rangoon.

Hymunoprnrsa.—Ants, bees, and wasps can be collected and pre-

served in spirits: but somehow such specimens when set out and

placed in the cabinet never look well. Ordinary methylated spirits,

rectified spirits of wine, whisky, brandy, gin, or whatever alcoholic

medium individual collectors fancy, all alter or cause the colour of

delicately marked specimens to fade, render them brittle, and invari-

ably clog the tufts of fine hair and the down which adorn so large a

number of the species belonging to this order. Ants alone do not

suffer so much, especially if good methylated spirit, diluted with

about one-third of its quantity of distilled water, is used.

Bees and wasps should be killed in an ordinary insect collecting

bottle, containing cyanide of potassium made into a paste with plas-

ter of Paris. <A killing bottle just as effective can be made with far

less trouble in the following way :—Take an ordinary four or eight

ounce wide-mouthed bottle, or for very large insects, a prune jar

does very well, fit with a tight cork long enough to project well

above the rith of the bottle and give a good hold to the fingers.

Put a lump or two of eyanide of potassium at the bottom, and cover

over this to the depth of an inch or an inch and a half with coarse

dealwood saw-dust (the coarser the better), Lastly, wedge a piece

of thin cardboard, pierced with large pin holes and cut down exactly

to the size of the inside of the bottle, on the top of the saw-dust.

In very hot dry weather it will be as well before putting in the card-

board on the top to damp the saw-dust slightly. The advantages

HINTS ON COLLECTING AND PRESERVING HYMUNOPTERA. 113

of this bottle are that it can be prepared or renewed in a few

minutes, and that its effectiveness lasts for so long a period. I have

bottles at present in use that I prepared more than two years ago.

When the overlying cardboard gets saturated with the cyanide and

rotten, a fresh piece should be put over it, which ought also to be

pierced with pin holes. Occasionally, from the jolting a collecting

bottle gets in the collector’s pocket or wallet, the saw-dust and

cyanide get loose, and the latter is apt then to injure with its weight

and the shaking any delicate specimens there may happen to be in

the bottle ; but with a little care in occasionally pressing down the

cardboard with the top of a pencil say, such mishaps can well be

avoided. The reason I have recommended dealwood saw-dust is

that having once prepared a bottle with teak saw-dust, I was sur-

prised to find specimens of wasps I had caught and left in the bottle

for a day or two change colour in a most wonderful manner; yellow

was the only colour affected, and this changed to a bright crimson,*

a pleasing esthetic contrast with black no doubt; but the deuce

and all if the specimen altered in colour happens to be your sole

example of a rare species. What it was in the teakwood and cyan-

ide of potassium blending that affected the yellow colours in the

insects Iam not chemist enough to determine. Dealwood saw~-

dust seems to be unaffected by the cyanide.

For capturing Hymenoptera an ordinary butterfly-net will do,

only the meshes of the mosquito gauze of which it is made should

be somewhat fine, otherwise diminutive Chryside, Scoliade and

Matillide: will manage to creep out.

As soon after capture as possible, the insects if large should be

pinned into a pith or cork lined store-box, or if very tiny fixed with

a little pin’s-head drop of clear gum on the apex of a small isosceles

triangle cut out of thin cardboard (ordinary visiting come in handy

here), and with a pin passed through the cardboard put into the

store-box. When the pin is put into the insect itself it should be

passed through the thorax, and out at the breast between and a little

behind the front pair of legs. Jn all cases use long pins, so as to

keep the insects well clear of the floor of the box or cabinet-drawer.,

It is not absolutely necessary but with all, except the smallest insects,

to facilitate examination, it is better to set out the wings horizon-

* T can give any brother collector specimens of Pelopeus spirifex and Polistes

hebreeus, colours brilliant crimson and black—unique, I assure them,

114 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

in the natural position of the insect walking as possible. For this

setting boards similar to those used for butterflies will be required.

If Hymenoptera are collected simply with a view to transmission

by the post, after killing in the cyanide bottle they can be put into

little triangular envelopes of paper, as butterflies very often are, each

insect, however small, requiring a separate envelope. ‘hey will not,

however, keep long thus, the fat-bodied heavy bees especially getting

mouldy, greasy, full of mites, and often rotting. For quick trans-

mission, however, this method of collecting answers very well, a num-.

ber packing into a small box.

Hymenoptera as a rule affect. bright sunny spots and flowering

trees and shrubs. My experience is that insects belonging to the

families Sphegidee, Pompilide and Larride keep as a rule to low

bushes, and are often to be found walking on the ground in an ex-

cited eager way searching for spiders, grass-hoppers, &c., with which

they store their mud nests. Scoliade are sluggish creatures and

can be picked off flowers with a pair of forceps. Mutillide, Ichneu-

monide and Tenthredinidee are brutes to find and catch, and when

caught, to preserve with legs, antenns, and ovi-positors intact.

Formicidae (ants) are everywhere. They can, as I have already

said, be collected in spirits ; but specimens should always be set up

fixed by a drop of gum on cardboard triangles as described. It is

difficult often to get hold of males and queens, and the collector has

nearly always to fight for them. In default, however, one is thank-

ful to get hold of the workers or neuters.

I shall be thankful if any of the readers of this magazine will

collect hymenoptera and send them to me packed in paper envelopes

in a small tin-box by post. In return I will engage to send back all

specimens sent, naming such as I am able to identify, or to exchange

for them Burmese hymenoptera, or named specimens in paper of

Burmese butterflies,

SOME COLD WEATHER NOTES FROM GUZBRAT.

By Caprain E. F. Becuur, L.A... F.Z.S,

Tus last cold weather in Guzerat has been chiefly remarkable for

the scarcity of snipe, the cause of which was want of late rains, large

jheels, in which snipe last year were shot in Decem ber, being dry by

the end of October,

Duck have also been scarcer, lam told, than last

octet seinenoamernie in

SOME COLD WEATHER NOTES PROM GUZERAT. 113

year even in places where there was plenty of water. The snipe

have evidently gone on to other places, I hear from Kirkee, for in-

stance, that it has been a very good snipe year there. Quail have also

been scarce, and I have never seen them in any numbers. ‘The most

numerous duck have been the Gadwall (Chaulelasmus streporus), the

White Eye (Nyroca ferruginea), the Tufted Duck (Z’. cristata), the

Spotted Bill (Anas peecilorhyncha), and of course the Shoveller (Spa-

tula elypeata)., Of these the Gadwall was in most numbers; the

Shoveller was not so numerous, as I was given to understand would

be the case.

Sportsmen are very apt to call the Tufted Duck, the Golden Eye,

from the fact of its having golden irides. This may give rise to error,

as the Golden Hye is the accepted name of Clangula glaucion, which,

according to Barnes, has only twice been recorded in India. The

Spotted Bill was very common, but it is liable to be thought more

numerous than in reality, as it is a large, slow-flying bird, and at

Once attracts attention.

Anodd Pochard (J. ferina) was occasionally seen in the bag, as also

the Red-crested (FP. rufina). The Mallard (Anas boschas) was seen

a little oftener both in the bag and out. The Brahminy Duck

(Tadorna casarca) was, I think, in about equal numbers to the

Mallard. During October on one occasion I saw on two tanks large

numbers of the Pintail (Dafila acuta). Since then T have only seen

an odd one or two occasionally, and never a flock.

A Widgeon I never saw shot or noticed alive. As regards the

Teal—the Common Teal (Querquedula erecca)—was common. Of the

Garganey (Q. circia) I only saw a few, and none in full plumage. ‘The

Marbled Teal (Ch. angustirostris) was fairly common, which I believe

is unusual. This species can easily be passed over, when flying, as a

duck, on account of its large expanse of wings. ‘The Cotton Teal

( Nettopus coromandclianus) at the commencement of the season was

to be seen on nearly every tank, but latterly it became decidedly

rare. Several Whistling Teal (Dendrocygna javanica) were noticed

from time to time.

The only Goose I saw shot was the Grey Goose (Anser cinereus).

Geese flying over were frequently seen, which were no doubt of this

Species,

On one occasion near Dungarwa, on approaching @ very “ ducky”

looking tank, my shikari told me that there would be no duck there,

as there were several muggers in it, and, true enough, there was not

LEG BOMBAY NATURAI HISTORY SOCIETY,

a single duck or coot to be seen on the surface. This seems strange,

as on other tanks, where muggers also live, I have seen plenty.

One early morning a long single rank of Pelican flew over, doubt-

less Pelicanus javanicus; there were a great number of them. This

is the only occasion on which I saw a pelican of any species, except

ouce, when I saw a solitary individual of the above.

Tern were numerous. The only specimen I shot was the Whiskered

Tern (Lydrochelidon hybrida). Ido not remember seeing many

Gulls proper.

I did not notice any Spoonbills until December; I do not know

whether it is well known what.a good bird it is for the table; its

method of feeding is peculiar, advancing rapidly and moving: its

bill from side to side, in fact zig-zag.

A female Florican was shot in November, and I saw another

during December.

I see that Barnes in his “ Birds of Bombay” gives as the common

name for the Common Crane Kullum, and for the Demoiselle Crane

Karonch, which I presume is the same as Koong; in Sind the con-

trary was the case,

Our last day’s duck-shooting was on the 18th February, when the

majority seemed to have acquired that strong flavour called “ fishy,”’

on which account we did not go after them any more, as it would

have been useless slaughter.

I did not examine every Snipe we shot, but I did a good number,

and did not come across a single Pintail.

Flamingo were very common near Dungarwa; on one large tank

[ think their numbers might be reckoned by thousands, and from a

httle distance, when they were all on the wing together, their white

plumage made it a most beantiful sight: all I saw were Pheenicop-

terus antiquorum.

from birds to beasts. I believe that Ahmedabad District has been

famous for the number of avtelope. Last year two French gentlemen

destroyed a great number, over a hundred they say, with the result

that in places where last year were hundreds, there now are hardly

any, and none with any heads worth obtaining. In January I

was in the neighbourhood of Parantij and Sonasan, a well-known

locality for buck. I saw one with six inch horns and a doe. The

number of snipe, &c., also shot by the above two sportsmen (?) was

enormous and useless. They arrived in the country with the highest

introductions, and the District Officers were requested to do all

ON THE LEPIDOPTERA OF KARACHI AND Is NEIGHBOURHOOD. 117

they could to put them in the way of getting sport, with the above

result, They have reappeared again this year on the scene of their

former massacre.

“ye ee 5] at 5 Ni 2 “y ie

Since writing the above, 1 have heard that the Nal Cup cannot

be run in the usual country, as the pig have left the neighbourhood

on account of want of water.

ON THE LEPIDOPTERA OF KARACHI AND ITS

| NEIGHBOURHOOD.

By Cot. C. Swinuon, F.LS., F.2.8., &e,

PART II.

HETEROCERA.

SPHINGIDA.

Macroglossa stellatarum.

Sphinx stellatarum, Linn., Syst. Nat. 1, 2, p. 808 (1767).

One specimen, July, 1879 ; it ig a common insect at Quetta and in

the Bolan.

Macroglossa gyrunss

Macroglossa gyrans, Walker, Viii., p. 91 (1856).

July, 1885, Very plentiful for about a fortnight.

Muacroglossa belis. ;

Sphinaw belis, Cram., Pap. Exot.,i., p- 147, pl. 94, f. C. (1776).

Macroglossa assimilis, Swainson, Zool. Ill., Ser.i., vol. irs

pl. 64 (1820).

2» zena, Boisd., Spec. Gén. Lep. Hist., 1875, 1.,

p. 337%,

9 pyrrhulla, Boisd., |. ¢.; ps 338.

Common in July, 1885.

Cheerocampa elpenor.

Sphine elpenor, Linn., Faun. Sttec., p- 288 (1746).

One example identical with the British type received from the

Municipal Museum taken in Karachi,

118 BOMBAY NATURAL HisToRY socinty.

Cherocampa theylias

Sphina theylia, Linn., Syst. Nat. 12, 808, 24 (1767).

» bechavie, Fabr. Sp. Ins. ii., 148, 89.

», pluto, Fabr. Sp. Ins. ii., 148, 40.

» pinasirina, Martyn, Psyche, pl. 80, f. 85 (1797).

» octopunctata, Gmel., Syst. Nat. i., 5, 2886.

One taken in July, 1886, and three in the following September.

Cherocampa celerto.

Sphine celerio, Linn., Syst. Nat. x,, 491 (1758).

3 tisiphone, Linn. |. e. 492.

Hippotion ocys, Hiibn., Verz. bek. Schmett, 135, 1451 (1816).

Deilephila inguinalis, Harris, Ex., p. 93, pl. 28, f. 1.

November and December.

Cherocampa oldenlandic.

Sphina oldenlandie, Fabr., Sp. Ins. ii., 148 (1781).

Xylophanes gortys, Hiibu.» Samuel. Hxot. Schmett. Zutr.,

f, 513, 514 (1825),

December.

Cherocampa alecto.

Sphine alecto, Linn., Syst. Nat. x., p. 492 (1758).

»,, oretica, Boisd., Ann. Soc. Linn., Paris, vi, p. 118,

pl. 6, f. & (1827).

Very plentiful in July, 1886, One taken in August and three in

September,

Cherocampa nessus,

Sphina nessus, Drury, Ill. Ins, Exot. ii, p. 46, pl. 27, f. i,

(1773).

» equestris, Fabr. Ent. Syst. ti., p. 365 (1773).

Cherocampa rubicundus, Schanfuss-, Nunquam Otiosus i.,

p. 13, (1870),

One taken October, 1879.

Deilephila livornica.

Sphina livornica, Esper., Ausl. Schmett. ii,, pp. 87, 196, pl.

8, f. 4 (1785),

lineata, Fabr., Sp. Ins, iis, 14

1, O4,

ethene

ON THE LEPIDOPTERA OF KARACHI AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD. 119

March and May, 1879-80. July, August an d September, 1886, in

great plenty.

Daphius nerit.

Sphinw nerti, Linn., Syst.

March, April and May, very common,

Nat. i, 2, p. 798 (1767).

Polyptichus dentatus.

Sphinw dentata, Cram., Pap. Exot. ii, p. 42, pl. 125, f. G.,

UH.

Two taken in October, 1885.

Acherontia styx.

Acherontia styx, Westw., Cab. Or. Ent., p. 88, pl. 42,f.3

(1848).

duly and August very common.

Protoparce orientalis.

Protoparce orientalis, Butler, Trans. Zool. Soc. ix., p. 609,

pl. 91, f. 16 and 17, larva and pupa (1876).

March to September. Very plentiful during July, Angust and

ptember,

Nephele hespera.

Sphina hespera, Fabr., Syst. Bnt., p. 546 (1775).

chiron, Cram., Pap. Exot. 11, p- 62, pl. 187, f. HE (1 779).

4» didyma, Fabr., Sp. Ins. ii., p. 148 (1781).

» morpheus, Hibn., Verz. bek. Schmett., p. 183 (1816).

Peregonia obliterans, Walker, xxxi., 28 (1864).

One taken in August, 1886.

Hemaris hylas.

Sphine hylas, Linn., Mant. i., p- 039 (1771).

picus, Cram., Pap. Exot. ii. p. 83, pl. 141, f, B (1777).

December, 1885,

120 ROMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

s BOMBYCHS,

“ ZYGMNIDR.”

Syntomis cysseds

Sphinw cyssea, Cramer, Pap. Exot. ivy., p. 124, pl. 355, f. B

(1782).

4ygena collaris, Fabr., Hint. Syst. iii., i, 388, 7 (1793).

Syntomis schwnerrha, Boisd., Mon. Zyg., p. 112, pl. 7, f. 1

(1829).

4 cuprea, Prittivitz, Stett. Ent. Zeit., p. 277 (1867).

dune, 1885; February, March and April, 1886, in great numbers.

Psichotoé duvancelii.

Psichotoé duvancelii, Boisd., Mon. Zyg., p. 129, pl. 8, f. 5

(1829).

Three examples received from Jurruck, near Karachi.

Kuchromia polymena.

Sphine polymena, Linn. Syst. Nat. ii, 806, 40 (1766),

Several examples received from Mr. Murray, taken in July, 1882.

AGARISTIDA,

Aigocera venulia.

Phaloena venulia, Cram., Pap. Uxot. it, 107, pl. 165, f& D

(1779).

One taken in July, 1882; two in August, 1886,

NycrroLipm,

Harias insulana.

Tortrix insulana, Boisd., Faune Ent. Madag., p. 121, pl. 16,

f, 9 (1838)

Harias frondosana, Walker, xxvii., 204 (1868).

», simillima, Walker, xxxv., 1775 (1865).

Common in February; also from September to November,

ON THE LEPIDOPTERA OF KARACHI AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD, 121

Farias speiplena.

Aphusia speiplena, Walker, xis 105

Micra partita, Walker, sa e-abil, ONE

August and September in great numbers.

Harias tristrigosa.

Farias tristrigosa, Butler, P. Z. S., 1881, p. 614.

Common throughout the year.

LITHOSIDAL.

Hypstna.

Lacides fieus.

Noctua ficus, Fabr., Ent. Syst. iii., 27, 62.

August, 1886.

LLIrHosinz.

{ 26

' Devopeia pulchella.

Tinea pulchella, Linn., Syst. Nat. 1., 2, 884.

Common throughout the year.

| Detopeia lotria.

| Phalena noctua lotrie, Cram., Pap. Exot. i1., p. 20, pl. 109,

| £. B (1777).

Hubb River, November, 1879.

) 27

Deiopeia thyter.

Deiopeia thyter, Butler, Trans. Ent. Soc. 1877, p. 361.

Hubb River, November, 1879.

ARCTIDE.

Creatonotos interrupta.

Linn., Syst. Nat. Phul. i, v., p. 2503,

116.

Bombyz francisca, Fabr., Mant. Ins. ii., pp. 181—200 (1787).

March, 1886,

Phalena interrupta,

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

Aloa lactinea.

Phalena lactinea, Cram., Pap. Exot. ii., 58, pl. 133, f. D.

Bombyw sanguinolenta, Fabr., Desc. Ins. Ind., pl. 33.

A variety without the red collar was in great plenty in August,

1885, and July, 1886.

LIpARIDzA.

Charnidas testacea.

Oyenta testacea, Walker, iii., p. 685.

May, 1886.

Lelia pallida.

Lelia pallida, Moore, Trans. Ent. Soc. 1884, p. 35.

Plentiful in August, 1885, and a few in September and October ;

taken also in the same months in 1886.

Artava pusilla.

Artaxa pusilla, Moore, Lep. Ceylon ii., p. 86, pl. 112, f. 14

(1882).

Euproctis pygmea, Moore, Desc. Lep. Coll. Atk. i., p. 48,

(1879) (nom spreoc.)

Males common from April to October; the female (probably an

apterous insect) is unknown,

Somena subnotata.

Orvasca subnotata, Walker, xxxii., p. 502, & (1865). 1

August and November, 1879; February, 1880.

Thiactdas postica.

Thiacidas postica, Walker, v., p. 1028.

August and September.

NOTODONTID 4.

NoroponTina.

Anticyra combusta.

Anticyra combusta, Walker, v., p. 1092.

Dinara lineolata, Walker, vii. p. 1699 (1856).

One taken at Karachi, date not noted.

esha irdidaaiciinaanasace

ON THE LEPIDOPTERA OF KARACHI AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD. j

[Xe]

Ingura subapicalis.

Abrostola subapicalis, Walker, xxui., p. 883,

Ingura recurrens, Walker, xv. p. 1779.

Plentiful in July, 1886.

CALPINAl.

Oresia vagabunda.

‘ ° . 4 pera 122 wie 447

Oresia vagabunda, Swinhoe, P.Z,.8., 1884, p. 519, pl. 47,

$25:

May, 1880,

LASiOCAMPIDA,

Taragama ganesa.

Bombyx ganesa, Lefebvre, Zool, Journ, iii., p. 211 (1827).

x iva, Lefebvre, loc. cit.,; p.. 210.

Megasoma albicans, Walker, vi.» 1450.

May and September.

Chilena similis.

Chilena similis, Walkers Va DP. WO

Hyderabad, April, 1886.

Cossipat.

Zeuzera bivittata.

Zeuzera bivittata, Walker, xxxii., p. 686.

Two taken in July, 1886, and one in the following mouth.

Zeusera acronyctoides. a oF

Brachylia acronyctoides, Moore, P. Z. 8., 1879, p. 411, pl. 34,

f. 4,

April and May.

Phragmatecia feda. : sey 9

Phragmatecia feda, Swinhee, P.Z.8., 1884, pe ole, pl. 47,

i243

January, February and March.

BOMBAY NATURAL HisTORY sociity.

NOCTUES.

LevucaNnip,

Leucansa loreyt.

Leucania boreyt, Duponchel, Hist. Nat. Lep., france iv., p. 81

* kos | I a 3 > | 5)

pl. 100, t. 7.

February to May.

44,

Sesamea inferens.

Leucania inferens, Walker, ix., p. 105.

Hyderabad, April, 1886.

A » “April,

H phiorHibas,

Wi 45

Ve Heliothis peltigera.

Noctua peltigera, Denis, Wien. Verz., p. 89.

» barbara, Fabr., Wnt. Syst. iii., 2, iit., 884.

» jlorentina, Ksper., Schmett., iv., pl. 188, f. 2.

» seutigera, Bork., Hur. Schmett., iv., 98, 87.

» stramtnea, Donov., Brit. Ins ii., pl. 61. 1

Phalena alphea, Cramer, Pap. Exot. iii., 99, pl. 259, f. F.

—

June to October common.

Heliothis armigera,

Noctua armigera, Hiibn., Noct, ii., p. 180, pl. 79, £. 370

(1804). .

January, 1880, in great numbers; July and August, 1885 ; |

September, 1886,

Heliothis rubrescens.

Thalpophily rubrescens, Walker, xv., p» 1681 (1858),

May, 1885 in great numbers, and ayain in October, 1886,

ES ase onnottacneeio

Adisura leucanioides.

Adisura leucantoides, Moore, P.Z.8,, 1881, p. 368.

Mugegur Pir, August, 1880.

AGONTID A,

Xanthodes stramen.

Xanthodes stramen, Guenée, Noct. 1i., 210, 976,

~ Ly Qr . \ ‘ +

September, 1885; July August, and September, 1886.

ON THE LEPIDOPTERA OF KARACHI AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD. 125

Xanthodes imparata. :

Xanthia imparata, Walker, X., 467,

July, 1886.

Xunthodes innocens.

Xanthodes innocens, Walker, p. 1752.

September, October and November.

Xanthodes arcuata.

Xanthodes arcuata, Walker, xii., p. 779.

February, 1880.

Tiuphasta catenula.

Noctua catenula, Sowerby, Brit. Mus. 29, pl. 14.

Desmophora elegans, Steph.s Cat. Brit. Mus. 6398

Miani, February, 1886; Karachi, June, 1886.

Huphasia catenula. oO

Huphasta calenula, Walker, XXxiil., p. 780.

September, 1885.

Acontia costalis.

Acontia costalis, Walker, Xxxil., 784.

Aueust, 1885.

Acontia basifera.

Acontia basifera, Walker, Xu., 799.

Hubb River, September, 1885; Karachi, July, August and

September, 1886.

Acontia crocata.

Acontia crocata, Guenée, Noct. ii., 218, 989.

August, 1886. 58

Acontia scanda.

: x Beara ple 108, tf 275

Acontia scanda, Felder, Reise Novara, pl. 108, f. 27, @.

September, 1886.

Acontia hortensis. Sgr

Acontia hortensis, Swinhoe, P, Aews 1884, p. O17, pl. 47, f. 7.

September, 1880 and 1885.

126 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

Bankia opella.

Acontia opella, Swinhoe, P. Z. 8., 1885, p. 456, pl. 27, f. 16.

September, 1835; in great numbers in July and August, 1886,

Tarache inda.

Acontia inda, Felder, Reise Novara, pl, 108, f. 23, @.

September, 1886,

Marimatha lactea.

Marimatha lactea, Swinhoe, P. Z.8., 1884, p. 522, pl. 48, f. 7, i

May, 1880; September, 1885,

HRASTRIDm.

HKrastria futilis.

Krastria futilis, Swinhoe, P. Z. S., 1884, p. 517, pl. 47, f. 8.

March, 1880.

ANTHOPHILIDA,

Thalpochares rivula.

Thalpochares rivula, Moore, Desc. Lep. Coll. Atk. ii., p. 140

(1882).

July, 1885; April, 1886,

Anthophila derogata.

Micra derogata, Walker, xii., p. 825 (1857).

Hubb River, August, 1880.

Anthophila zamia.

Anthophila zamia, Swinhoe, P.Z.S., 1884, p. 518, pl. 47, f. 12,

April, 1880.

Anthophila bulla.

Anthophila bulla, Swinhoe, P.Z.S., 1884, p. 518, pl. 47, f, 9.

From October to January common,

Micra chalybea.

Micra chalybea, Swinhoe, P. Z. S., 1884, p. 518, pl. 47, f. 10.

September and October common.

ON THE LEPIDOPTERA OF KARACHI AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD. 127

Micra furia.

Micra furia, Swinhoe, P. Z. S., 1884, p. 519, pl. 47, f. 13.

September, 1880.

Mera balua.

Micra balue, Swinhoe, P. Z. 8., 1884, p- 519, pl. 47, f. 14.

August to October common.

Leptosia quinaria.

Leptosia quinaria, Moore, P. 4, §., 1881, p. 371.

September to November.

ORTHOSIDA-

Orthosia infrequens.

Orthosia infrequens, Swinhoe, P.Z.8., 1884, p. 517, pl. 4%

told;

July, 1880,

Nocrinipz.

“3

Agrotis aristifera.

Agrotis aristifera, Guen. Noct. i., p. 266 (1852).

2 vi Walker, x., p» 348 (1806).

February, 1880; April, 1886.

Agrotis segetum.

Agrotis segetum, Schiff, Wien. Verz., p. 252 (1776).

Hyderabad, April, 1886.

Spelotis undulans. a

Spelotis unduluns, Moore, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (5) 1, il

p. 235.

November, 1880.

APAMIIDE.

Llattia cephusalis.

Tlattia cephusalis, Walker, xvi., 209.

Miana inornata, Walker, XxXil., 677.

Perigea leucospila, Walker, xxxiil., 683, 6

August, September and October common

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

Caradrina sabulosa.

Caradrina sabulosa, Swinhoe, P.Z.S., 1884, p.516, pl. 47, f. 6.

April, May and June.

Caradrina venosa.

Caradrina venosa, Butler, Hnt. Mo. Mag., xvii. p. 111. (1880)

November, 1880.

Oaradrina insignata.

Daradrina msignata, Walker, x., 295.

May, June and July.

Spodoptera cilawm,

Spodoptera cilwwm, Guenée, Noct. 1., 156, 249.

‘5 insulsa, Walker, xxxii., 648,

All the year round, Very plentiful in August.

Prodemia nubes.

Spodoptera nubes, Guen., Noct.1., 155, 6 (1852).

‘5 filtwm, Guen. Noct. 1., 156

Prodenia imfecta, Walker, ix., 196 (1856).

o insignata, Walker, ix., 197.

Agrotis transducta, Walker, x., 344, Q.

Laphygma squalida, Walker, xxxii., 652, 6. /

Prodenia venustula, Walker, xxxii., 654, 2.

Agrotis submarginalis, Walker, xxxu., 699, 9.

Prodenia permunda, Walker, ix., 723, 9.

Faken on board the steamer leaving Karachi, October, 1886

A rather variable insect, common in most parts of India, easy of

identification, but Walker appears to have given a new name to

every shade of colour it assumes.

Prodenia littoralis.

Hadena littoralis, Boisd., Faune Hint. Madag. Lep., p. 91,

pl. 18, f. 8, 2 (1834).

Neuria retina, Freyer, Beitr. Schif. v., 161, pl. 478, f. 2, 3,

5 @ (1846).

Prodenia celigera, Guen., Noct.i., p. 164, & Q (1852).

: testaceoides, Guen., Noct, i., p. 165, pl. 6, £..7, 9

” glauecistriga, Walker, ix., 197, 6 (1856).

ON THE LEPIDOPTERA OF KARACHI AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD. 129

sr : .

Prodena subterminalis, Walker, ix., 197, 2.

» declinata, Walker, XL, (20, G-

April, 1886. Also a common insect, rather variable in colour, with

fe)

name given for every variation.

Laphygma exigua.

Noctua exigua, Hiibner, Samm. Bx. Schm. Noct., f. 362.

July to October, common.

Ozarba itwarra.

Ozarba itwarra, Swinhoe, P. Z. 8. 1855, p. 452, p27, 14.

Very common in August and September, 1886.

PLUsIDm.

Plusia chrysttina.

Phalena noctua chrysitina, Martyn, Psyche, pl. 21 (1797).

Noctua aurifera, Hiibner, Ent. Schmett., Noct., pl. 98, f. 463.

Kipra, near Karachi, April, 1886.

Plusia verticillata.

Plusia verticillata, Guenée, Noct. it, 344.

November to March.

Plusia eatrahens.

Plusia extraheus, Walker, xii,, 929.

March and April; July and August.

Huriiripa.

Hutelia discistriga.

Tutelia discistriga, Walker, xxxii., 823.

July, August, and September.

GoNnoPrERIDE.

Cosmophila «anthindyma.

Cosmophila wanthindyma, & Boisduval, Faun. Ent. Madag.

Lep. p. 94, pl. 18, f. 7 (1834).

» indica, 2 Guenée, Noct. iii., 896, 1206 (1852).

Cirredia variolosa, Walker, xiil.. 790.

July, August and September.

130 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIBTY.

Gonitis involuta.

Gonitts involuta, Walker, xiii., 1003 (1857).

» basalis, Walker, xiii., 1004, @.

Tiradiata colligata, Walker, xxxiii., 870 (1865),

Common in June,

PoAaPHILIDm,

Poaphila reflexa.

Plecoptera refleca, Guen., Noct. ii., 481, 1308.

TLrigonodes grammoides, Walker, xv., 1833.

Poaphila simplex, Walker, xv., 1840.

» hamifera, Walker, xxxtii., 992.

June, July and August.

XYLINIDA.

Jarasana lativitta.

Jorasana lativitia, Moore, Desc. Lep, Coll. Atk. ii, p. 132,

July, 1879; April and May, 1886.

CATEPHIDA.

Anophia olivascens.

Anophia olivascens, Guen., Noct. iii., 48, 1379.

September, 1886.

HypoGRAMMIDm. |

94 |

Selepa docilis. |

Selepa doctls, Butler, P. Z. 8., 1881, p. 619. i

April and May ; September to December common.

Plotheia cenea.

Othora enea, Swinhoe, P. Z. §., 1884, p. 520, pl. 48, £ I

July, 1880.

PoLyDESMIDM.

Pandesma quenavadi.

Pandesma quenavadi, Guen., Noet, ii., 338, 1310.

Cerbia fugitiva, Walker, xiv., 1365,

June, July and August in great: numbers.

ON THE LEPIDOPTERA OF KARACHI AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD. 131

Pandesma similata.

Pandesma similata, Moore, P. Z. 8., 1888, p. 24.

Cocoons from Shikarpur emerged April, 1879,

Pandesma devia.

Pandesma devia, Swinhoe, P. Z. 8. 1884, p. 520, pl. 48, f.3,

May, June and July.

HoMoprErRip™.

Homoptera vetusta.

Polydesma vetusta, Walker, XXxii., 875,

April to July.

100

Alamis infligens.

Homoptera infligens, Walker, xui., 1068.

July, August and September.

101

Alamis umbrina.

Alamis umbrina, Guen., Noct. iii., 4, 1821.

5 albicinata, Guen., Noct. ili., 4, 1322.

July and September, 1866.

OPpuIDERIDE.

102

Argadesa materna.

Phalena noctua materna, Linn., Syst. Nat. ii., 840, 117 (1767).

Noctua hybrida, Fabr., Syst: Ent. 598, 11 (1775).

May and July, 1885.

103

Othreis fullonica.

Phalena noctua fullonica, Linn., Syst. Nat. ii., 812, 16 (1767).

Noctua discorese, Fabr., Sp. Ins. u.; 212, 15; Syst. Ent.

593 (1775).

Phalena noctua pomona, Cramer, Pap. Exot. 1., 2, 122, pl.

td, ft. CUE}.

July, 1886,

HISTORY SOCIETY.

BOMBAY NATURAL

OMMATOPHORIDA.

104

Patula macrops.

Phalena attacus macrops, Linn., Syst. Nat. 225 (1768).

Noctua bubo, Cram., Pap. Exot, ii., p. 114, pl. 171, f. A.

BG (122).

July, 1886,

Bunprpm.

cS 105

Hamodes aurantica.

Hamodes aurantica, Gnen., Noct. ii. £05, 16038.

January, 1880.

OPHIUSIDE.

106

Thyas coronata,

Noctua coronata, Fabr., Syst. Ent. 596, 24 (1775).

leonita, Fabr., Syst. Ent. 596, 25.

ancilla, Fabr., Ent. Syst. in., 2, 17 (1794).

od.

Corycia majica, Hiibner, Samml, Hxot. Schmett, ili., p. 32,

f. 5385, 536.

August, 1856.

107

Ophiodes seperans.

Ophiodes seperans, Walker, xiv., 1357.

July, 1886, in great numbers,

108

Achwa melicerte.

Phalena noctua melicerte, Drury, Ins... p. 46, pl. 23, f. 1

(£079).

Noctua tigrina, Fabr., Sp. Ins, 218 (1781).

Very common in July, 1882, and again in July, 1886,

109

Serrodes inara.

Phalena inara, Cram., Pap. Exot. iii, p. 78, pl. 239, f. EH.

July, 1886.

110

Ophiusa albivitta.

Ophiusa albivitta, Guen., Noct, iii,, 271,

J uly,

;

ON THE LEPIDOPTERA OF KARACHI AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD. 133

111

Ophiusa stwposa.

Noctua stuposa, Fabr., Ent. Syst. Hl, 2, eo, 1bo (1790).

Ophiusa festinata, Walker, Xiv-s 1432 (1858). |

{ July, 1886. ||

112

Ophiusa olympia.

Ophiusa olympia, Swinhoe, P. Z. S., 1885, p. 466.

Taken on board the steamer leaving Karachi, October, 1886.

{

1138

Ophiusa arctotenia.

Ophius arctoteenta, Guen., Noct. ii., 272.

July, 1886.

KUCLIDIDA.

lis

Acantholipes affinis.

Docela affinis, Butler, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 5,

vol. V. (1880), p. 225. |

October to May, common. i

117

Acantholipes acervalis.

Acantholipes acervalis, Swinhoe, P.Z.S., 1886, p. 451.

September, 1885, and January, 1886.

118

Trigonodes hippasia.

Phalena noctua hippasia, Cramer, Pap. Exot., i. p. 99, pl.

250, f. B (1782).

Trigonodes compars Walker, xvi., 1451 (1857).

January to June, common.

: ReMIGiUDH.

119

Remigia archesia. |

Phalena noctua archesia, Cramer, Pap. Exot. iii., p. 145, pl.

o78, f. FG, &14 782).

Remigia bifasciata, Walker, xxxili., p. 1014 2 (1885),

July and August.

134 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY:

Remigia frugalis.

Noetua frugals, Fabrv., Ent. Syst. i., 2, p. 188 (1794).

Remigia translata, Walker, xxxiti., 1015, 2 (1865).

July to October, common,

121

Remigia arefacta.

Remigia arefacta, Swinhoe, P. Z.S., 1884, p. 52, pl. 48, f. 2.

May, 1880. :

(To be continued.)

LG NOTES.

ZOOLOGICA

HOT WEATHER NOTES IN THE CENTRAL PROVINCHS, 1887.

By Captain HF BrcuiR hk. A, i. ZS.

Last hot weather (1887) I spent in the jungles in the Central Provinces, not

very far from Nagpore. The following are extracts from notes I wrote down at

the time :—

During April I noticed a great number of might jars flying about at dusk and

dawn with their perfectly noiseless flight. Iwas unable to identify the species. They

for the most part used to make a constant chirping noise like a cricket. I fancied

at the time that it was to attract the various chirping insects in the grass, who would

answer, and thus disclose their whereabouts. I[ could not tell the difference between

the sound of the night jar’s chirp and that of the insect. A great number of large

Cicade always used to be seen in the evening and early morning which used to

take that locust-lke flight. Ihave a note on the 22nd April: “In the evening, in

the jungle, there were in one place hundreds if not thousands of Cicade seated

on the small trees, which flew off as we passed, to the great danger of our eyes.”’

On the 17th April I shot two couple of pintailed snipe and eat them ; they were

not good. I did a good deal of sitting up in machans with, as usual, no success,

Something always occurred to spoil my chance. On one occasion a tiger woke me

upin the early morning by killing the buffalo which I had tied up. It is an abused

method of shikar, but I fail to see the reason ; for any one who takes an interest in

other than the “ beasts of the chase ”’ it is most delightful. I used to take my bed-

ding, notebook, water bottle aud couple of chapatties for dinner ; send all natives

back to camp, and spend the whole night there. After one of these nights I find

have written: “ There seem to be distinct periods of insect annoyance and otherwise,

commencing from about 4 p.m. First, innumerable flies, principally a black T-like

fly, of sluggish and pertinaceous habits : one’s eyes are the principal points of attack.

As the sun goes down they disappear, and the Cicade turns up with a deafening

chorus, but this ceases as darkness sets in, and then the mosquitoes have their

time ; but I always found that the 12 feet or so of machan above the ground is

above the thick mosquito stratum; in the same place, but at water level, I have

been driven away by them, clothes affording no protection, as they drove their

lancets right through. Soon after taking up my position, some jungle or spur

EE ——

ZOOLOGICAL NOTES. 135

conscious of my presence. Various birds utter their (to me) strange and loud notes ;

the monkeys leap from tree to tree, and numerous green parrots and crows,

(C. culminatus) fly past. My machan overlooks a small pool in a nullah, overhung

with some reeds and bushes. Round the edges are a great number of bulbuls, and

of a small bird, which I could not identify, but whose characteristic was black,

with a conspicuous white wing patch, and about the size of a Munia. These were

busily engaged in their evening drink, and had taken possession of the adjaceut

bushes, where also could be seen the Paradise Flycatcher in its full plumage, both

]

fowl come and peck about by my tree. and perhaps a peacock or two, quite un- |

of white and brown, with streamer tail and erectile crest ; also one or two of the

short-tailed brown birds. 1n the trees are a number of brown yultures. I could

not identify them, as I always mix them up, and noted general colour brown, with i

white chest, patch of ruff and white under the wings, bare or white patch on the

thighs ; but to my surprise, when I came to look at Barnes’ book, I found that this

was not enough for identification. These I had disturbed from their attack on the

half-eaten carcase. One or two Halcyon smyrneusts took occasional dives into the

pool. I thought at first that these | saw were smaller than the usual run of -H.

smyrnensis. Now and then a vulture wings his heavy fight from one tree to another

with a great flapping of wings. I also see on the reeds and bushes one or two blue

fiyeatchers (Hypothymis azurea), a green bee-eater (Viridis) taking occasional |

short flights after some choice morsel. A solitary Scavenger Kite—more familar

perhaps with human beings—which has all this time been sitting gorged and

drageled on a branch, sets the example of beginning again, and flops down near |

the carcase ; of course one or two black crows have all this time been pecking away

or standing on the sand close to, but on the kite’s approach they only take a |

surreptitious snatch now and then. -I next notice asolitary Yellow Wagtail (? sp.) |

and a babbling announces the approach of the band of seven (M. ferricolor), but

they have picked up a waif on the road. ‘They all crowd into a little hollow where |

a little water lies, and where there is scarcely room for one. Several magpies fly

amongst the trees, one or two Drongos(B. atra) jein the assemblage on the bush,

and about 5 p.m., the cicada chorus commences. A white-bellied Drongo(O.

ee@rulescens) next arrives, and as the sun gets very low, three or four green pigeons

rattle past. A small hawk dashes past, causing a general stampede. Later on,

when all the small birds have gone to roost, this or another small hawk comes to

drink. A large red squirrel, as it goes from tree to tree, adds variety to the

scene, and jast before sunset a number of doves perch in the trees. One or two

vultures pick about the carcase with an occasional squabble. A solitary white

but takes no notice of the carcase: a solitary Roller . |

neophron flies up the nullah,

flies over about 6-15.

“ Two vultures which have been exploring the chest cavity of the dead buffaloappear

to have found some choice morsel, which they cannot keep secret, for all the other

anda half with a great

vultures, which had been looking on for about an hour

flapping of wings, suddenly join in, and begin tearing the carcase in all places, inso-

much that I fear that there will be nothing left for the ger if he comes. With the

last gleams of sunshine the vultures fly off, but a crow keeps on till the last.

y Monkeys noisily approach, grunting and jumping from tree to tree, or running

136 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

oi the ground, and the strident call of the peacock re-echoes through the jungle ; a

loud shrill-voiced bird repeats its one note, answered by two others in different

parts of the jungle ; then more join in.

* Two large owls (?sp.) come and have a drink and a bathe, making a hoarse low

whistle. A night-jar flits past with its squeaky note, and later a large yellow thing

noisily drops down from the bank and drinks, and I— but what is the use of raking

up old sores! :

“T should have mentioned that I saw another bird, which I noted as a black

drongo-like bird, with erectile crest and a long almost filamentous tail feather, with

a widened web at the end. This, I suppose, would be Dissemorus paradiseus. What

is particularly noticeable in the jungle to the dweller in cantonment is towards

evening the number of loud-voiced birds, with peculiar notes; but I could never

manage to get near enough to identify.”

I have a note on the 30th May: “ I have not noticed any squeaking night-jars

lately ; perbaps those which have this call are a particular species ; nor lately have I

heard the doves ‘put all straight, though there are plenty about. I have always

been defeated in trying to ascertain what dove is always repeating ‘ pud all straight.

It may not strike other people, but the words seem as plain to me,as ‘Did he do it?

of Lobivanellus indicus. 1 hear ‘put all straigh? at all hours of the day and night.”

One evening I saw a small hawk, about the size of a merlin, but whieh I could

not identify, flying off with some bird almost as large as itself, which turned out to

be the Golden-baeked Woodpecker (B. auranéius).

I saw many sambur during May, but they had all shed their horns; there were

plenty of horned cheetul. The Barking or Rib-faced Deer also appear all to have

shed their horns carly as April.

Whilst sitting in a machan, I frequently experienced the rain, which is alluded

to in the “ Indian Forester” of October 1878 thus: “An American tree, which also

yields a sweet nutritious food, has been much more successful than the larch.

Vhis is the Péthecolobium saman, a native of Peru, which from its supposed property

of inducing local showers is, in that country, known as the ‘ Rain tree?” An

exact description and explanation of the phenomenon, which gave rise to this

name, has only quite recently been given in the columns of the English periodical

Nature by Dr. Dyer, who quotes from the eminent South American traveller, Mr.

Spruce, as follows: “ A little after 7 o’clock we came under a lowish spreading

tree, from which with a perfectly clear sky overhead a smart rain was falling. A

glance upwards showed a multitude of Cicadas sucking the juice of the tender

young branches and leaves, and squirting forth slender streams of limpid fluid.

. We had barely time to rote this when we were assailed by swarms of a large black

ant, * * * which ants were greedily licking up the fluid as it fell.’ Iam glad

that my experience fell short of the ants.

I close this with a small episode, of which the moral is that people should

be careful in recording the oceurrence of any unusual beast or bird, which is not

in the hand. One morning I was taking up a newcamp near a jungle tank, and

on approaching my camping ground, I passed along a track, through a little long

grass, talking to the natives who accompanied me, about where I should camp. After

passing this and going on along the edge of the tank fur about 200 yards, I happened

ZOOLOGICAL NOTHS. 137

to stop and look round, and saw a yellow animal bounding away through some very

thin jungle about 400 yards away. I at first thought it was a deer; and I

even put my rifle up in a careless sort of way, then I saw a long tail, and my

thoughts ran to a neelghai ; the two natives also saw it. We went on, I being

rather puzzled at the action and the tail of the beast. Presently, my chokra

came up (who had been following me at about 200 yards) in an excited state, and

said that as he was following me through this bit of grass, about twenty yards from

the track, he saw a tiger crouching facing the path. He, naturally, being a

servant and not a shikar, shouted out‘’ Bagh,” and the tiger went off into the

jungle, and this was the beast we saw, and the others, who were behind, saw

it as well. The inexplicable part of the business was that neither I, nor the two

natives, who were both shikaris, and had seen lots of tigers, identified it as a

tiger when we saw it. The only explanation I can offer is that a tiger was the last

thing we expected to see, and we had been seeing on the way lots of deer of sorts.

SIMULTANEOUS TWIN PARTURITION OF BUTHUS AFER, THE

BLACK ROCK SCORPION.

An illustration will be found facing page 69 of this number of the Journal, which

has been reproduced from a photograph taken by Mr. F. J. Kingsley. It consists

of a common Black Rock Scorpion (Buthus afer) preserved by the Rev. Fr. Dreck-

mann, S. J., in the act of giving birth to two young ones simultaneously.

The Rev. Fr. Dreckmann writes as follows regarding this unique specimen :—

“Tt was caught with many others in Kbandalla, during May, 1886, and was after-

wards brought down to Bombay. They did not, however, survive their capture

very long, but in a few months all succumbed to voluntary starvation. They were

tempted with different kinds of food, but all to no avail, only now and then they

would feast upon one of their number, and when the young ones appeared they

were most greedily devoured by their elders. About the middle of June the young

ones began to make their appearance. As soon as they were born they climbed

upon the backs of their mothers, probably to -be out of reach of her jaws, and it

was noticed that the increase of the family was always by pairs. A closer examina-

tion settled beyond doubt two points : Ist, that at least this kind of scorpion is

strictly viviparous, not ovo-viviparous, as stated by Duncan (“Transformation of

Insects”) and others ; and, 2nd, that the birth of the pair takes place simultaneously,

though very often one of the twins would be somewhat in advance of the other.

The specimen presented to the Society was placed in alcohol and killed during the

process of parturition, so as to be in evidence about the two points in question.

“ Last May we were unfortunate, as all our scorpions died befure any young ones

were born; this year, however, Rev. Father Meyer, whose special pets they are,

intends to take great care of them, and hopes to rear a sufficient number to be able

to study their life-history, about which very little appears to be known. :

“T have seen it stated that scorpions are such savage creatures that they are

bound to lead a strictly solitary life, as the stronger one of two scorpions would

invariably killand eat the weaker one. This is a calumny, I think, as we have

often found as many as 16 (two old ones and fourteen half-grown) under one stone,

and as 14 was also the greatest number of young ones born by any one female in

_captivity, the presumption is that those 16 represented an undivided family.”

138 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIBTY,

Many writers on the subject refer to the double oviducts, which are apparent on

dissection, but the Rev. Fr. Dreckmann appears to have been the first to notice

and record the remarkable simultaneous twin parturition of this species of scorpion,

The subject is one of the greatest interest, not only for the naturalist, but to the

physiologist, and it is to be hoped that other members of this Society will contri-

bute the result of their observations.

Mr. Lionel de Nicéville, F. E.S., has obtained from Mr. J. Wood-Mason, the

Superintendent of the Indian Museum, Calcutta, tbe following interesting note on

the simultaneous viviparous twin parturition of the Black Rock Scorpion :—

“ Nothing, so far as I know or can discover, having been placed on record about

the parturition of scorpions, I cannot say whether the twin births you have observed

are usual or unusual. Such a poimt indeed is only to be settled by a multitude of

observations of the same kind as that which you are about to record; but whether

they are the rule or only occasionally happen, would be readily explained by the

bilateral symmetry of the genital organs, by the development of the embryos in

pairs, and by the symmetrical action of the muscular mechanism of parturition.

That scorpions bring forth living young, and do not lay eggs, has been, I need

hardly say, long (more than fifty years) known to science.”

CORRESPONDENCE.

THE PROTECTION OF GAME.

Tun President of the Ahmedabad Municipality having asked the Bombay

Natural History Society for an opinion as to what game birds and animals should

he protected in the neighbourhood of Ahmedabad, under Act 20 of 1887, the

following answer has been sent in reply :-—

From the Honorary Secretary, Natural History Society, Bombay ;

To the President, Ahmedabad Municipality. ,

Bombay, 28th April, 1888.

Dzar Sir,— I duly received your letter No. 248 of 3rd inst., and have laid the

same before the Committee of the Society, who have expressed their opinion that

any Act for the local protection of game, in order to be effective, should be as

simple as possible.

They are of opinion that game in the neighbourhood of Ahmedabad would be

sufficiently protected if it were made illegal for any one (not being a cultivator) to

be in possession of game, living or dead, between the 15¢h of June and the Lbth of

October (unless, of course, the possessor could prove that it came into his keeping

prior to the 15th June).

An exception should be made in favour of cultivators of the soil, who might be

allowed to kill such animals and birds as are destructive to crops; but game so

destroyed should not be offered for sale.

I attach a list of the game birds and animals which, in the opinion of the

Committee, should be protected. You will observe that the Grey Partridge and

Grouse have been included in this list, although they both breed much earlier.

The above is the opinion of the Committee of the Society as regards the preserva-

tion of game, but I am requested to add that, as naturalists, the Committee would

be glad to see all birds protected during the rains (#. e., 15th June to 15th Octo-

ber).— Yours, &c., H. M. Purirson,

Honorary Secretary.

PROCEEDINGS.

139

List OF GAME BIRDS AND ANIMALS,

Name.

Time of Breeding.

Remarks.

gig I re ern

Bustard

Florican ca

Grey Partridge ...

Painted: Paroridge. 46. ... sce cs

QUEL Av. navy sd eee

PGB, HOW] sae (ee osc ssceedsoet oojent

Ducks ss

Jungle Fowl,

Spur Fowl

Hares day fog entice renats x

Antelopes (i. e, Nylghai,

Black Buck, Chinkara,

Bekri, &c.)

Deer, (Sambur, Chital, &c).

..(July to September ........4.

«(July to October (i.e seesesvee eee

. [August to October «.. 0.1

»|May to July sees

JAG BL S6ASODN: civics rey ncses eee

Cold weather principally

UMLY COOGtODCT “se. vss. sce.

Janvary to April, August

and September ves

August to October ...

Do.

Do. on 86 swine doy

Principally during the rains.

Do.

..{Grouse of sorts.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE MrEtING oF 4TH JANUARY, 1888.

Tur usual monthly Meeting of the Members of the Society took place on Wednesday,

the 4th January, and was largely attended. Dr. D, MacDonald presided,

» The following new members were elected :—Mr, HE. Giles, Captain K. Macaulay, Mr,

Henry J. Eunson, C.E., Mr. G. C, McMullen, Mr, Shripad Babajee Thakur, C.S.,

Dr. D, A. DeMonte, Colonel C, E, Hussey, Mr. A. F, Appleton, A.V.D., Mr, C. E.

Crawley, and Mr, J. C, Parker,

Mr, H. M, Phipson, the Honorary Secretary, then acknowledged receipt of the

following contributions to the Socicty’s collections :—

ConTRIBUTIONS IN DucumBEr 1887.

Contributions, Description, Contributor.

A quantity of Shells and) From Alibag ........... seoeee.| Mix, WE. Sinclair, C.8.

Corallines,

PSPOG cas ieee Bungarus arcuatus 4... Mr, A. E, Tittle,

1 Monitor (alive)... Varanus dracena. .,... wave as Mr, Sitaram V. Sukthankar,

2 English Pheasants and

1 Wootleoek: ke Mr, J. C, Anderson,

1 Owl (alive)

21 Birds’ Eggs.

d Snake

2 Snakes (alive) ..,

1 Snake Bird

Mountedss) 60 wsssseiiecds

Struthio camelus i

Crocodilus palustris .

Viverra civettina ....

Erinaceus collaris ..,.

Felis viverrina ....... 2

Trimeresurus anamallensis,

Strix javanica ....... esata

From Baroda... ++.

Daboia elegans ...

Ptyas MUCOSUS ....40-6.

Plotus melanogaster ..,

Chelonia virgata ..,....60+5-

Mr. G. C. McMullen,

Dr. L. B. Dhargalker,

Mr. Percy Benn,

Rev, J. Abbott.

Mr, H, T. Ommaney, CS,

Mr, F. Gleadow.

Mr. H. Littledale,

Mr. H., Littledale,

Mr, Lang.

Dr. D. DeMonte,

H, HE, Lady Reay,

Dr. J, F. Gonsalves,

140 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

Mr, N.S, Symons exhibited two mounted mahseer (Barbus tor) caught by him in the

Bowani River, in 1883, which weighed 723 lbs., and 65} Ibs. respectively.

The Honorary Secretary gave notice that at the February meeting the committee

would propose that all persons joining the Society after the 1st March next be charged

an entrance fee of Rs, 10.

Dr, G. A. Maconachie was re-elected a Vice-President of the Society.

ContRiBvTiONs To THN LipRARy.

Prachin. Sodhsangrah, from WH. H. Maharajah of Bhownugger. The Ibis, 1873 to

1878, Messrs. Thacker & Co. Proceedings of the Yoological Society, 1878 to 1885,

Messrs. Thacker & Co. Flora of British India (Hooker), Part XIV., Bombay

Government. hist of the Birds of India (Hume), Mr. Frank Rose. The Journal of

Medicine, No. 96-8, from Dr. T, L, Phipson.

Dr. D. MacDonald exhibited a curiously deformed foetus of a domestic cat.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE M@ETING HELD ON 61H FeBRuaRy, 1888.

‘Tw usual monthly meeting of the Members of the Society took place on Monday

the 6th February, Dr. D. MacDonald presiding.

The following new members Were elected :—Brigadier-General Pottinger, Mr. D.

McLauchlan Slater, Mr. H. Freeborn, Colonel J. Hibbert, Mr. C. N. Clifton, C. E.,

Mr. G. P. Robinson, Lieut. D. Madhowrao, N.A., Dr. Shantaram Vinayak Kantak,

Mr. Dady Hormusjee ©. Dadysett, Captain H. §. B. Hodgkinson, Mrs. Pearson,

Mr. Furdoonjee Jamsetjee, Mr. J. 5. Mure, Mr. D. A. Glazebrook, Mr. H. Chalmers,

Mr. H. RB. Cobbold, and Mr. Bomanjee Hduljee Modi.

The following contributions to the Society’s collections were acknowledged :—

CONTRIBUTIONS DURING JANUARY.

Contributions Description. Contributor.

J Snake’...és 06 cee sreroetss |) Sitnotes Russellii j..5:..41| Miss H. Atkinson.

1 Boar's Skull Sus Imdictis ...a0..ac0n.| Dr, DeMonie.

J Sriaice. cyan ieee Lycodon striatus...........| Mr. BR. A. Sterndale.

1 Dolphin Delphinus plumbeus ..,... Mr. F. A. Little.

1 Pelican Pelecanus philippensis ...| Mrs. Sheppard.

Bark Cloth.......... | Brom Zanzibar va ceciesss Mrs. Gallagher.

1 Spotted Owlet (alive) ...| Carine brama ........+5 woo] Mr. P. R. Valladares.

1 Freshwater Fish (weigh-

ing 74 lb8) ss... .| Bagaring Yarrellii’......... Dr. A. Stewart.

1 Marbled Teal ..........0.+.{ Querquedula pr aicenie

tris. cosn| Mr, J. D. Inverarity.

1 Oryx’s Head «...s From Somali "Conat. caeuss ces Capt. W. G. Forbes.

1 Crocodile......+.+.. Crocodilus palustris ...... Dr. DeMonte.

Egg of the Indian Br Kupodotis Hdwardii ..... Mrs. Pearson.

1 Chameloot 4 ascccirc ves Chamecleo vulgaris ........| Mr. 8. A. Bulkley.

1 Crocodile’s Head .........} Crocodilus palustris ...... Mr. A. R. M. Simkins.

1 Wood Snipe ..... Gallinago nemoricola ...... Mr. T. RB, Bell.

1 Fish (mounted) 40 Tbs. . Barbus Malabaricus ...... Mr. H. M. Phipson.

1 Owl (alive) ...csecsereeseeees Strix javanica......s....-..| Mx. H, Littledale.

Minor Contributions, from Dr. Weir, Mr. G. Carstensen, and Mr. Strong.

Contributions to the Library.—Proceedings, Linnean Society of N. 8. Wales, Vol.

IL. part 3; Records of the Geological Survey of India, Vol XX., part 4; Comparative

Anatomy of Vertebrates (Owen), Mr. J. Westlake; Catalogue of the Moths of India

(Cotes and Swinhoe), Verhandlung der Zoologisch Botanischen Gesellschaft in

Wein, Vol. XX XVII., Nog. 3 and 4.

3 a

PROCEEDINGS, 14]

Mr. H. M. Phipson announced that the following books had been deposited in the

Society’s Library by him on loan for the use

The Rod in India (Thomas),

The Thanatophidia of India (Fayrer).

Malabar Fishes (Day).

Natural History, Reptiles (Wood).

Insects Abroad (Wood).

The Aurelian (Harris).

Pro. Zoo. Society, January to June, 1887,

Utilization of Minute Life (Phipson).

Malay Archipelago (Wallace).

The Sportsman’s Handbook (Ward).

Transformation of Insects (Duncan).

Animals and Plants under Domestication

(Darwin).

General Structure of the Animal Kingdom

(Rymer Jones), Wild Animals (Fortuné

Nott.)

of the members :—

-A Naturalist’s Rambles in China Seas

(Collingwood),

History of Mammalia.

Handbook of Cashmere (Ince).

Fish and Fishing (Manley).

Chapters on Evolution (Wilson).

Siberia in Hurope (Seebohn).

The Student’s Darwin (Ayveling).

Notes on Collecting (Laylor).

Studies in Animal Life (G. H. Lewes).

Game Birds of India (Jerdon).

Animal Creation (Rymer Jones).

Animal Locomotion (Pettigrew).

Destruction of Life by Snakes in India.

Beetles (Duncan).

Matheran Hill (Smith).

Mr. H. M. Phipson exhibited a fine specimen of the Malabar carp (Barbus

Malabarieus), which weighed about 40lbs.

It was caught by him near Poona in

December last, and had since been mounted by him for the Society’s collection.

Mr. H. L. Barton exhibited several heads of deer, wild cat and monkey mounted

by him for members.

The accounts for the year 1887 were then

by the Honorary Treasurer, Mr. H. M. Slater,

at the Bank of Bombay on 31st December la

the accounts be passed.

submitted and explained to the meeting

from which it appeared that the balance

st was Rs, 688-13. It was resolved that

The following resolution was then proposed by the Chairman, seconded by Mr.

J. H. Steel, and carried unanimously :—“ That in future an entrance fee of Rs. 10

be charged to all persons joining this Society

PROCEEDINGS OF THE MBETING HELD ON 5TH Marcu 1888.

‘Te usual monthly Meeting of this Society took place on Monday, the 5th March,

Dr. D. MacDonald presiding. Mr.'T, D. Mackenzie, C.S., was elected a member,

The Honorary Secretary then acknowledged the following contributions :—

ConrRIBUTIONS DURING FEBRUARY.

Contribution.

Description.

Contributor.

qd. Bees Womb)... 8.5. | From Aurungabad ......... Mr. Frank Rose.

1 Bittern

2 Snakes (alive) vette

A quantity of Barnacles ...

Orchid Bulbs 2.35 oo ,

A number of Beetles ......

20 Sugkes ec,

Eggs of Rock Horned Owl.

1 Grey-breasted Tragopan

(alive).

2 Flying Squirrels ........ :

1 Jungle Cat .......... “

2 Snakes oe

1 Chameleon... ..

4 Musk Deer's Stalls’...

1 Jackal’s Skull fis aectes

t Poes Sin 4.

I Albino Parrot s...400.4.

Ll Otter’s Sicall i...

a Botaurus stellaris

Echis carinata...... .

Mounted

From Surat .....

From Zanzibar....

From Sikkim \

Bubo bengalensis ........+-

Ceriornis blythi ............

Pteromys oral and another

Felis Chavis ....0. -seseeeseres

KEchis carinata.......

Chamzleo vulgaris ...

From Cashmere .....+-eeres

Canis aureus *......

Vulpes bengalensis

JUGEPA NOAP vs ce cee cca cen reece

Mr. J. D. Inverarity.

Mr. H. M. Phipson.

Japtain Dixon.

Mr. F. Gleadow.

Rey. Etienne Baur.

Mr. Paul Moéwis.

Mr. J. L. Lushington,

Mr. f. Mercer,

Mr. R. A. Straw.

Da.

Mr. H. Buckland.

Mr. P. Reynolds, C.E.

Mr. KE. L. Barton.

Do.

Rev. E. S.Hall.

Mr. G. P. Millet, C.8.

aes ; ~~ ome — smi ng ea al

JOURNAL

OF THE

Oo WES Ak:

datunal History Soviety.

ail 4

No. 3-] BOMBAY, JULY, 1888, [Vol. Il.

UNSCIENTIFIC NOTES ON THE TIGER.

By J. D. InvVerariry.

(Read at the Soctety’s Meeting on 9th April, 1888.)

Tue title of this paper will have given you notice that I do not

make any pretensions to the learned and scientific attainments of

the gentlemen who have instructed and amused us by the able

papers hitherto read at our monthly meetings. One of the chief

pleasures of shikaring, to my mind, is the observation of the manners

and customs of the animals one pursues. I keep a journal when in

the jungle, so I have been able to correct my memory by reference

to notes made at the time. When I was looking up materials for

this paper, I was surprised to find how many small but valuable

details I should have forgotten without the aid of my journal. I

meant to have astonished you with some exceptionally large tigers,

but as my notes show them to have been considerably smaller than

I should have imagined, if trusting to memory alone, I am unable

to do so. In fact, I find that I have never killed or seen killed a

tiger that measured so much as 10 feet. The size of tigers gives

rise from time to time to animated discussions in sporting books

and in sporting newspapers, Some maintaining that tigers of 11, 12

or even 14 feet have been slain, others fixing about 10} feet as the

hmit. The accepted mode of measurement is to run the tape from

{

}

144

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

the tip of the nose to the end of the tail, as the tiger lies on his side

on the ground, following the curves of the body. If this method is

fairly adopted, a tiger in Western India or the Central Provinces of

over 10 feet. will be found to be very uncommon. A large number

of adult tigers will be found to be under 9 feet, and I think my-

self that the majority of tigers are under 9 feet 6 inches. The

largest tigress, in my own experience, measured 9 fect 1 inch: they

usually measure about 84 feet. There very probably is an occasional

Chang among tigers of abnormal size, which may account for some

of the exceptional measurements one reads about. If, however, one

measures out 12 feet on the wall of a room and sketches in a tiger

in the space measured out, one realizes that a 12-foot tiger would

astonish one. Colonel Peyton, who had a very long experience in

the Canara forests, mentions in his very interesting article on Tigers

in Vol. 15 of the Bombay Gazetteer only five being shot in Canara

over 10 feet, the largest being 10 feet 24 inches. Mr, Mulock, of

the Bombay Civil Service, who has been at the death of as

many tigers as any one on this side of India, tells me that to the

best of his recollection he has only seen one or two over 10 feet.

Mr. Sanderson in his book gives 9 fect 6 inches as the largest he

killed, Captain Forsyth mentions, I think, only two over 10 fect.

The usual mode of arriving at the size of tigers, though convenient,

and. giving one a fair general idea, is sometimes deceptive, owing to

the tail (which is included in the measurement), varying in length

in different animals, so that a stoutly built tiger with a short tail

does not have justice done tohim. The skull tells you at once whether

the tiger was a large or smallone. Mr. Sterndale, in his “ Mammals

of India,” has elaborate calculations showing from the measurement

of the skull what length the tiger who owned the skull ought to

have been. I have here the skulls of three tigresses which mea-

sured 8 feet 9inches, 8 feet 6 inches, and 8 feet 5 inches, respectively,

You will notice that there is hardly any difference in the size or

general character of the skulls. Hereis the skull of a9 feet linch tiger

which is much bigger in every way. The skull and frame of a tiger

would, however, always be larger and stouter built than a tigress

of the same length. Here is the skull of an 8 feet 9 inches tiger,

Jompare it with the skull of the 8 feet 9 inches tigress, and you

will see the difference.

Tigers are supposed to breed only once in three yéars, which is

unsatisfactory intelligence for the sportsman. The only reason for

UNSCIENTIFIC NOTES ON THE TIGER. 145 ll

this is that their cubs stay with the mother till they are about two

years old; so if the tigress should lose her cubs she would, no doubt,

breed again sooner. The period of gestation is said to be thirteen

weeks: from two to four cubs are usually brought forth. <A litter

of five cubs is said by Colonel Peyton (ude supra) to be not uncom-

mon. The late Major Neill, of the Central India Horse, told me of

one case in his own experience of six unborn cubs being found in a

tigress that was shot. The tigress, however, rarely rears to

maturity more than two cubs, and sometimes only one. I have never

seen myself a tigress accompanied by more than two well-grown cubs:

nor have I seen tracks of a larger number with their mother. Col.

h Peyton (wbi supra) mentions three instances of tigresses having

been shot in Canara, when accompanied by a well-grown family of

five, and I have heard of more than one authentic instance of four

cubs coming out in a beat with their parent. The cubs remain

with their mother until they are about two years old. There is no

particular breeding season, as young cubs have been found at all

periods of the year; but I believe that most of the cubs are born

from February to May. I daresay my belief is wrong, but itis based

on the age of cubs onesees in the hot weather, the size of their tracks

one sees then, and the likelihood that they would be born at a time

of the year when the food of the mother is more easily procurable.

In the months of March, April, and May the water supply of a coun-

try is much diminished, and the deer and hog, which are the natural

food of the tiger, necessarily congregate where the water remains,

Sn anna

and are not so widely scattered as they are at other seasons; and it

follows that the tigress has then less trouble in hunting for her |

prey than she otherwise would have. Wild animals and birds in |

Hurope are born and hatched at a season when a plentiful supply of

their food is produced by Mother Nature. I am not sure, however,

that this holds good in the Hast, where there is nosevere cold climate |

or winter to contend with.

No one seems to know to what age a tiger will live. Individual |

tigers are well-known to the native shikaris, who have, however, no |

idea of time as measured by years. They don’t know their own

ages, and no reliance can be placed upon their accuracy in anything

relating to time. The only reliable information I have on the sub-

ject is from Colonel J. Hills, of the Engineers, who informed me

that he shot a tiger that had been wounded by the district officer

of the time, sixteen years before, by an Enfield bullet in the neck.

146 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIRTY.

The bullet was found by Colonel Hills still in the animal. This

tiger had one foot smaller than the others, and so his tracks could

always be easily identified, He was an adult tiger when hit with the

Enfield bullet, and so must, at any rate, have been 19 or 20 years old

when shot by Colonel Hills. What is the weight of a tiger I have

no personal knowledge. Some years ago, in The Field, the weight

of a 9 feet 8 inches tiger was given as 355 lbs., and of a 9 feet

for a tiger and about 17 stone for the lady. Mr. Sanderson, in his

delightful and accurate book “Thirteen Years among the Wild

Beasts of India,” says a very bulky well-fed male weighed by him

was 8493 lbs. Captain Forsyth, in his ‘‘ Highlands of Central

India,” one of the best written books about Indian sport, says that

the ordinary tiger weighs 450 or 500 lbs., and that one he shot

must have touched 700 lbs. at least. This animal, however, was not

weighed. I believe that the majority of tigers are under 850 lbs.

I judge, however, entirely from comparison with other animals, such

as deer, the approximate weight of which is known to me. It is

well known that a tigress teaches her cubs to kill by disabling the

animal attacked, so that 1b cannot escape from the onslaughts of the

cubs. ‘Two years ago, I came on an instance of this where the kill

was an old bull nilghai, who had been wending his way down a

shallow nullah to a water hole. ‘The tigress had been lying in wait

about twenty yards from the water behind the stump of a dead tree ;

there was no cover where she lay; her seat was easily seen in the

sandy soil. She had two cubs, about ten months old, with her, but

there were no signs of their having lain near her, so, I presume,

they were hiddenin the jungle until the proper time came. The nil-

ghai had passed within three yards of the tigress, who had rushed

out and seized him by the right foreleg just below the shoulder,

breaking the bone. The cubs then, I think, had joined in and

killed by tearing at the flanks and disembowelling the poor brute.

I was out stalking and came on the spot by chance, about 9 a. m.

Both hind quarters of the nilghai had beon completely eaten. ‘There

were no marks on the neck or forequarters except the one grip of

the tigress on the right leg. It had been eaten on the spot where

it was killed. I took a photograph of the nilghai. You will

see there is no mark on the throat, the usual place of seizing.

The face of the animal has also a peculiar painful expression, which

one uever sees on an ordinary kill, The branch of a tree that you

tigress as 235 lbs., from actual weighments, which is about 25 stone .

eats:

lith. London.

MEAL

ris “ip

( from a pri

‘

Wierd. vies

UNSCIENTIFIC NOTES ON THE TIGER, 147

see in the photograph lying almost across the kill was freshly

broken off a tree on the bank of the nullah. It appeared to me

that after eating the tigress had ascended the bank and reared herself

up on her hind legs, resting her forequarters on the branch, which

broke with the weight. The tigress and two cubs were sitting

close by in the water hole, and gave vent to a series of growls

as I approached, but finding I was not intimidated, sneaked off up

a kind of ditch overgrown with grass without my seeing them,

although I was within fifteen yards, They returned to the nilghai

the next night, and finished it. I have here a photograph of the

nilghai after the second night. You will see nothing is left except

the head, bones of the legs, ribs, and some skin. You will

also perceive from the surroundings that the carcase had been

dragged to another spot before being eaten. I also returned at

daylight, but the tigers had then left. I shot the tigress late

in the afternoon. She vomited up large strips of the nilghai’s skin

in a perfect state, not digested at all, and as 1 shot her at least

twelve hours after she had been eating, it appears that skin ig not

easily digested. One of the cubs, about the size of a panther,

was algo killed ; the other escaped. Only last week when out stalking

in the Haster holidays, I found the carcase of an old bull nilghai

that had escaped from a tiger, but died of the wounds inflicted on

it, probably from blood-poisoning. It had been dead about a day.

he tiger had seized it by the hind leg immediately above the

hock, hamstringing the leg. He had also bitten through the other

hind leg in the same place, but had not hamstrung this leg. The

nilghai had somehow got away. I could not find any other marks of

the tiger on it, although there had probably been some scratches

with the claws, as the vultures had made a few holes where the skin

had, no doubt, been gashed. The holes made by the tiger’s teeth

were full of maggots, bred while the animal was alive, the rest of

the carcase being comparatively fresh. T took a photograph of the

hind leg, which shows clearly the teeth marks immediately above

the hock. You will see they are too large and too wide apart to

have been caused by a panther. The large hole shown in the

picture in the thick part of the leg had been made by vultures, of

which there were many sitting about waiting until decomposition had

proceeded far enough to enable them to get through the tough skin.

I fancy this tiger must have been a young inexperienced one, or

the nilghai would not have got away. Opinions differ as to the

148 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

mode in which a tiger usually kills his prey. Some say that he

seizes by the throat, others by the nape of the neck from above. I

have examined scores of kills with special reference to this point,

and in every case (except one) the throat had been seized from

‘below. The exception was an old boar that had been seized

by the back of the neck from above, ITalso once came across a

man that had been seized by a man-eater by the nape of the

neck. Strange to say lie recovered. He was the last of a single

file of several villagers, and on the tiger seizing him, his comrades

turned and drove the tiger off him. He was insensible, and

had no idea when he came to his senses what had happened to

him. He eventually recovered, The victim being seized, all

authorities agree that the neck is dislocated by a wrench. I have

never been able to understand how this dislocation takes place.

A wrench, one would suppose, would throw the animal over

before dislocation could occur. I have always doubted whether

dislocation does take place. I have never noticed any external

appearance of it, but I don’t place much reliance upon that, as the

body is generally stiff before one gets to it. Actual dissection,

which one is not usually inclined for under a hot sun, I have never

tried. The hunting leopard (the tame one) appears to me to kill

by simple pressure on the windpipe; for the ones I saw did not even

break the skin with their tecth, and I don’t see why a tiger should

not kill by that means. If any of you will get a friend to clutch

your windpipe with even moderate violence, you will find it renders

you quite powerless. It is by pressure on the windpipe that garot-

ters succeed, I have always understood. On the other hand, I have

seen more than one instance where adult tigers and panthers having

seized have failed to kill, when they have had it all their own way,

and not been frightened off. ‘This I cannot account for, as the

wounds in the throat in such cases have appeared to be the usual

ones. It is only by accident, if at all, that tigers in killing sever

any important vein or artery. The natives will tell you that they

do and suck the blood. Ihave never found any blood to speak

of that has flowed from the throat wounds. I once heard a tiger

take a bullock out of a herd within 300 yards of me and was on

the spot immediately. The tiger had sneaked off, either frightened

by the shouts of theherdsman, or because he heardme. The bullock

was dead. Hardly any blood flowed from the wounds, which were

in the usual place in the throat. Very large and powerful animals,

UNSCIENTIFIC NOTES ON THE TIGBR. 149

like the bull bison and bull buffalo if attacked at all, are, | think, in

the first instance, attacked from the rear with a view to disable them.

A few years ago I shot a very large solitary bull buffalo that had

been attacked by a tiger in this way a short time before. The tiger

had leapt on his quarters, fixing his claws on both sides of the root

of the tail, and also fastening on with his teeth. ‘here were long

cuts down both hind legs made with the claws. The wounds were

healing well, and the buffalo was none the worse. Having killed, the

tiger invariably according to my experience (though some writers

say he occasionally begins elsewhere), begins eating at the hind

quarter. Why he should do so I don’t know. He polishes off one

hind quarter, and generally both. Sometimes he leaves the stomach

and intestines in statu quo. Sometimes he will remove the stomach

and make a neat parcel of it a little on one side. If a tiger and a

tigress are together when they kill, they finish an ordinary-sized

animal at one meal, leaving only the head. In such a case,

I fancy the second one cats at the fore quarter. I have a photo-

graph here of a bullock killed and partly eaten by two-pan-

thers. One, you see, has eaten at the hind, and the other at the

fore quarters ; and it is probable that tigers would do thesame. On

the other hand, the tigress and cubs, I told you of, all ate at the hind

quarters of the nilghai. Here is a photograph of a wild buffalo ealf,

killed and partly eaten by a tiger; also one cf a larger but tame

buffalo similarly treated.

These will give you a good idea of the appearance of the dinner

after the tiger’s first meal. The latter photo. also clearly shows

the tiger’s grip on the throat when killing. With the exception of

_the nilghai previously mentioned, I have never seen an animal eaten

where it was killed. It is always dragged a short distance, ‘and

sometimes for a considerable way, before the eating begins. It is

dragged, not lifted clear offthe ground. Having gorged himself,

he sometimes lies up close to the kill, but as often as not, especially

in the hot weather, if there are hills anywhere about, he will goa

long distance from the kill before he lies up for the day. I think

ia the hot weather he prefers to get into

a hill side under some shady tree

the reason is that

some cave, or to lie out high up on

where he gets the breeze, rather

phere of low jungle. Atany rate, LT have frequently found them pass

through very likely looking heavy jungle near the kill, and proceed

long distances to hills before lying up. As @ general rule, the tiger .

than stop in the close hot atmos-

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

returns to his kill the next night as soon as itis quite dark. He then

finishes what is left if the killis an ordinary bullock or deer. He

never eats at the place he ate the night before, but drags it forty

or fifty yards before beginning operations. If you sit up over a kil]

it is necessary to tie it by the fore leg to a tree, otherwise the tiger

will walk off with it as soon as he arrives. This occurred to me

sitting over a natural kill of a boar. The tiger picked it up and

walked off without stopping a second. If you tie it, the tiger does

not seem to mind, but will stop andeat. He takes about two hours

steady cating to finish the forequarters of abullock. I timed a small

tigress two years ago. She came and ate for ten minutes and then

went away for twenty minutes, I think to havea drink. She returned

and ate without stopping for two-and-a-quarter hours. Just as the

moon was getting up, she finished, and walked quietly off. Though

J was within ten yards, the whole time up in a tree, I could not see

at all, so did not fire. Jt is no use firing a random shot on these

occasions. You probably only wound or miss, altogether frightening

the animal out of the country. A little self-control and patience will ,

give you a better chance another day. This particular tigress I

turned out in a beat next day, but did not get a shot.

Tigers on occasions are cannibals. The male is said by the

natives, probably with truth, to kill and eat the cubs. Mr, Mulock

once fired at a tiger, and shortly afterwards fired at what he sup-

posed to be the same tiger. He killed them both, but thought he

had only killed one; and so one was left dead in the jungle. A

third tiger came during the night aad had dinner off it. This tiger

also returned the next night, and had another meal. I havea photo.

here of the tiger so eaten, I have read of other instances of tigers

eating the dead carcase of one of their own kind, but have not seen

any such instance myself. They will also eat the dead carcase of an

animal they have not themselves killed. Mr. Raitt, of the Bombay

Uncovenanted Service, was killed by a tiger that the evening before

had fed on the body of a bear that Raitt had shot. Tigers are sup-

posed to kill once in five or six days, and this; no doubt, is generally

the case, as a tiger does not trouble himself to hunt much for a few

days after a heavy feed; but if they get the chance, they will kill

whenever they can. A tigress I was after last year killed, on three

consecutive nights in different places, never returning to the kill.

Some years ago a tigress killed on fourteen consecutive nights. She

returned to the same place every night, and found a fresh bullock

UNSCIENTIFIC NOTES ON THE TIGER. 151

tied up in the place of her old kill. Wewere engaged with other

tigers some distance off, hence the necessity of keeping her in the

neighbourhood till we arrived. There is no real cruelty in tying

out baits for tigers. At any rate, few tigers would be killed with-

out baits, and the one sacrificed saves the lives of all the other

animals that the tiger would kill if he was not shot. So ‘on the,

principle of the greatest happiness of the greatest numbers, tying

out would be justifiable. But I also believe that animals killed

by a tiger suffer little, if anything, beyond an instinctive panic for

a few seconds. Dr. Livingstone has recorded in his travels in South

Africa, that when he was seized by a lion, the shock produced a

stupor and dreaminess in which there was no sense of pain or feel-

ing of terror, though conscious of all that was happening, and he ex-

presses his opinion that this peculiar state is produced in all animals

killed by the carnivora, and is a merciful provision of our Creator

for lessening the pain of death. I have conversed with both EKuro-

peans and natives who have been boned by tigers and panthers, and

they all confirm this view. Animals, until the moment the tiger

arrives, are unconscious of their fate, and the probability is that Dr.

Livingstone’s opinion is well founded; that at the moment of attack

they get stupified and insensible to fear or pain. I once saw a

bullock ina beat lie down and stretch his neck out flat on the

ground, as if for concealment when the tiger approached. After the

tiger had been shot, the bullock rose and began grazing. Jam in-

clined to think that the fear of the bullock in this case was caused.

as much by the noise of the beat as by the presence of the

tigers A tiger sometimes kills immediately after having fed

if he comes across a fresh bullock. Last year I shot a tigress

that had first killed a stray bullock, about three hundred

yards from one of my ties-up. Having eaten the hind quar-

ters, the tracks led to the tie-up. This she killed and dragged

away into an adjacent hill. On another occasion, after eating

killed five buffalo calves, out of a herd of eight

the tie-up, a tiger

They all lay close together within a

calves that had strayed near.

space of twenty yards, and not more than

Jl of them had been seized by the throat,

200 yards from where the

tiger had been eating. A

and were otherwise uninjured. It is possible that the tiger in this

surbed by the calves coming near where he was

ad sallied forth and killed them. But

case had been dist

eating, and being annoyed, h

I do not think so, as I could not find any tracks returning to the kill.

52 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

Vultures take good care not to descend on a kill if the tiger is near.

They perch on the trees above, and one is often led to a kill by see-

ing them. If they do descend on the kill, the tiger kills them if he

catches them. One I found so killed seemed to have been caught

and crushed with the paw. The “sledge hammer stroke of the

fore paw of the tiger” one reads about, I have never come across.

No kill I have ever seen bore any marks of it. Four men have been

seized by tigers cither in my immediate presence or when I was

close by. In every case the tiger clutched them with his claws,

exactly as you might clutch a person’s arm with your fingers; and

there was no sign of a blow further than you would expect from a

violent seizure. ‘Tigers wander immense distances during the night.

They are very partial to easy going, and if there are any tigers

about, one of the best places to look for their track is along the

i jungle roads and footpaths, to which they will sometimes keep for

miles. They also roll in the dust of the roads, and take a dust bath.

They don’t hke moving in the heat of the day; the hot ground

burns the pads off their feet, and makes them quite raw. A. wound-

ed tiger I followed a whole day, had the thick leather pad of his

paws completely removed from this cause, two days after he was

first wounded in the hind legs, This tiger killed a bullock,

and made a good meal; when shot his feet were in the state

described. They are also fond of sitting in pools of water in

the heat of the day. I have three times found them enjoy-

ing a cool bath. ‘Tigers seldom climb trees. I have a pho-

tograph here of’ a tree in Salsette that was climbed by a

man-eater. He attacked two men, one went up this tree to the fork

of the right hand branch, the other es raped. The tiger went up the

tree, but could not quite get to the fork where the man was. He

then came down and hid in the jungle near. Poor Pandoo, for such

was his name, thinking the coast was clear, descended and made

tracks for his village, no doubt congratulating himself on his escape,

when the tiger seized him and ate him. The inquest report stated

‘that Pandoo died of the tiger eating him; there was no other cause

of death. Nothing was left except some fingers, which probably

belonged to the right or left hand.” Such was the inquest report.

The above facts were stated to me by my friend Mr. Mulock, who

took the photo, of the tree I have shown you. It seems extraordi-

nary that the remains of Pandoo did not consist of more than

some fingers, but I tell the tale as it was told to me.

UNSCIENTIFIC NOTES ON THE TIGER. 8)

You would think that a tiger was a conspicuous object in the

jungle, but the contrary is the case. His yellow skin blends with the

colours of the dried-up grass, and the black stripes correspond with

the flickering shadows thrown by the stems of the grass, leaves and

branches of the trees, so that when the animal is motionless, it is

almost impossible to see it. The real danger of following a wounded

tiger on foot is the difficulty of seeing the brute in time for action.

Darwin is inclined to attribute the handsome appearance of the

tiger to sexual selection, and considers the theory that its colour is

intended as a means of concealment unsatisfactory, and he instances

the zebra (who lives on open plains) as an animal, whose stripes can

be of no use for that purpose. It is, however, certain bhat every

wild animal, however conspicuous its colours and appearance may

be when seen in Zoological gardens, is extremely difficult to make

out when motionless in its native wilds; and I have little doubt

that a zebra on his native plains would be found not to be so

visible an object as at first sight might seem to be the case. At all

events, if a tiger remains perfectly still, the odds are you will walk

right up to him without seeing him. The younger tigers are hand-

somer than the older ones; the coats of the latter are less vivid in

colour and have a faded appearance.

Natives have many pleasing delusions about tigers. They believe

that the ghosts of a man-eater’s victims ride on his head, warn him

of danger, and point the way to fresh victims ; and, in one instance

T heard of where a shikaree had been killed by a man-eater, the

general opinion was it was no use to try for the tiger, as the ghost

of the shikaree was up to all the dodges and would in fallibly warn

the tiger. They also think that you get the courage of the tiger

by eating its flesh; that unless the whiskers are singed off, the

spirit of the tiger will haunt you, or (as T readin an old. book) you

will be turned yourself into a tiger in the next world; that the fat of

a tiger 1s a specific for rheumatism, that the number of lobes in the

liver correspond with: the number of years the tiger has lived, that

the claws if*worn are a charm against the evil eye. The small bone

embedded in the muscles hetween the shoulder and neck ofa tiger

is also acharm. ‘This bone is a rudimentary clavicle or collar-bone.

In some places, too, there is a superstition that God allows the

tiger one rupee a day for his food, so that if he kills a bullock worth

Rs. 5, he won’t kill again for five days. If it is worth Rs. 10 he

won’t kill again for ten days, and so forth. I have also read that

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

the possessor of the whiskers of a tiger obtains unlimited power ever

the opposite sex, but I cannot from personal experience vouch for

the truth of this statement. I will now wind up this rather

desultory paper by showing you the photo. of two tigers with

their skins taken off. My lady friends tell me this is a nasty one,

but nasty or not, it gives you a very good idea of the immense

muscular power of a tiger’s forearm, and reminds one of the saying

that beauty is only skin deep.

NOTES ON THE ORIGIN OF THE BELIEF IN THE

B1S-COBRA.

By ds hy Die Gama, TMi KORG:

(Lead at the Soctety’s Meeting on 7th May, 1888.)

I wap the pleasure some time since to listen in these rooms to a

very interesting paper by Mr. Vidal on the Bés-cobra. Mr. Vidal,

supposing that the bis-cobra belonged to some one of the lizard

families, and that it was a very poisonous lizard, or, according to

some, that it was twice as poisonous as_ the Cobra-de-Capello, says

that. sach an animal as the Bis-cobra never existed, because there

has not yet been found a poisonous lizard in India. The more one

studies the subject on the lines Mr. Vidal takes, the more one

feels inclined to yield to the belief that there never has been such

an animal in existence, and the descriptions given of it by the

natives area myth. But looking at the subject in a different light,

I think that there exists an animal which, in the 16th century, had

the name of Bis-cobra, but which subsequently came tobe known,

both scientifically and popularly, by other names, and which is

neither a cobra nor a lizard.

When we desire to verify accounts of facts sent down to posterity

by tradition, we should not criticise them merely through the im-

proved means of investigation which have been placed in our hands

by recent discoveries, It is necessary to transport ourselves to that

period of time, when those facts are supposed to have occurred, and

we should examine them by having regard to. the amount of the

information which was available to the people then living, and to

various other circumstances which probabl y may have influenced the

NOTHS ON THE ORIGIN OF THE BELIEY IN THE BIS-COBRA. 155

result a their enquiries. You all know what treatment Galileo

received for having ascertained the earth’s movement. If we were

to judge of the result arrived at then through our present know-

ledge of astronomical subjects, we should be astonished at the

condemnation of Galileo by the Inquisitors at Rome for his discovery,

which forms the basis of all the astronomical calculations of the

present day. But then we must remember that the fact occurred in

the year 1615, when superstition and religious autocracy reigned

supreme. History has sent down to us accounts of facts which were

exaggerated according to the feelings and ways of observation of

the writers who wrote when those facts occurred, or were supposed

to have occurred. Cobra-de-Capello itself had once been fabulously

described and painted in Italy with more hairs on its ee than a

bear has. Capello in the Italian language means hair and a hood as

well. In giving the description of the cobra, the writer, who had

never seen a Cobra-de-Capello before, said that it had long, thick

and grizzly hair, and illustrated it so. Had not that impression

about the cobra been corrected by subsequent travellers in the Hast,

Huropeans would still have believed that the Cobra-de-Capello was

a cobra-bear.

In order, then, to ascertain the existence of the Bis-cobra, we

must go back to the period of time at which, so far as we can dis-

cover, the term came into use in India, and find out its origin, and

the reasons which led to its application to the animal, which was

given that name, bearing in mind particularly that the term must

have been applied to some animal having something to do with the

Cobra. It is by means of this method of enquiry that I intend

shortly to examine the origin of the belief that such an animal as

the Bis-cobra existed. ‘

First as to the origin of the term. The term Bis-cobra is not of

Oriental origin. It is simply a Portuguese expression, which seems

to have undergone contraction long since by a process, similar to

that which the native servants, jugglers, and vendors use now-a-days

to contort English phrases.

The term Bis-cobra is Bicho-de-Cobra. contracted.

The word Cobra being, in Portuguese, the equivalent of coluber

and angwis in Latin, the earlier Portuguese in India, with whom the

use of the word must have commenced, applied it to all sorts of

snakes, and some lizards and worms, but their acquaintance with

Natural History being very limited, they naturally classified the

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCINTY.

animals they met with, but which they had not scen before, according

to their most prominent features and appearances. For example,

they named the snakes thus ; the nag, on account of its hood, they

called Cobra-de-Capello; the gonoos or the Daboia, on account of its

beautiful mosaic skin, they named Cobra-de-Aleatifa, or carpet snake ;

the water snakes they called Cobras-de-agoa, and so on: even some of

the lizards they called cobras.

Permit me to read to you by way of illustrating the above stated

view, namely, that the earlier Portuguese in India classified the ani-

mals they saw, according to appearances, the description of Cobra-

de-Capello given in his work called * Oriente Conquistudo ao Jesus

Christo,” by the Jesuit Father, the Rev. Francisco de Souza.

Although this work was published in the year 1710 it had been

written previous to the year 1697. It treats of the Portuguese

Conquests from the year 1542. I believe that it is the most

elaborate and one of the first descriptions of the Cobra-de-Ca-

pello ever given at that time, although mention is madeof the Cobra

by Garcia de Orta, Fathers Jo&o Lucena, Daniel Bartoli, Bastian

Gonsalves, Fernéo Mendes Pinto and others. ‘The despatches from

the Portuguese Viceroys and other contemporary authorities and

letters from private individuals to their friends also refer to it. The

passage, which I translate into English as literally as possible, is

as follows :—

“The Cobra-de-Capello is so called, because it has a cartilaginous

skin on its head, which opens and closes. When it is Open, it re-

sembles a monk’s hood, and more appropriately a lady with patas

and monhos. [The patas and monhos were a peculiar head-dress

worn at that time by the Portuguese ladies, which spread out on

both sides of the face having the concavity forwards.] It isa very

ferocious animal. When enraged, it extends its hood, raises half its

body from the ground, and throws off such puffs, that with them it

kills chickens, hens and middle-sized quadrupeds. Its length is

from five to seven spans, and its breadth is proportionate toits length.

Its belly is white, the sides yellow and the back ofa dark grey with

black points. On the open hood there can be seen two perfect SS

[esses] of a black colour placed side by side. Although it is very

fierce, it becomes so charmed at the sound of a juggler’s pipe, that

it comes out of its hole to enjoy the melody nearer, then the juggler

catches it, and shuts it in a basket, and with his tricks so tames it,

that he makes it dance along with a rat, but its dancing movements

NOTES ON THE ORIGIN OF THE BELIEF IN THE BIS-COBRA. 157

are limited to moving the upper-part of its body from side to side

with the open hood, and this at the sound of the pipe and that of a

small tambourine, which the country people call ‘daca’ or ‘dak? On

the application of the juice of certain herbs to the nose, it becomes

so drowsy that a child seven or eight years old, naked as he is, as

T have often seen, takes it in the hand with the greatest ease and

confidence, and does what he pleases with it.

‘He places it round his neck asa necklace, sometimes across the

shoulder, at others around his waist asa belt. Occasionally he puts

its head in his mouth, trusting perhaps in the virtues of the herbs

he has chewed. The jugglers go about in the villages with these

tricks to make their living, but it happens sometimes that the cobra

bites them and then it invariably killsthem. This Cobra is worship-

ped by the Gentoos, who always rear it in their pagodas, and some

of them rear it in their houses out of devotion ; to such kindness the

cobra makes a return to its benefactors by killing one of their sons

or daughters. The Gentoos say that the machine of the whole

world rests on the head of one of these cobras, which must be of a

very large size, but when they are asked where does that cobra rest

its tail, they do not know how to reply. The most efficacious remedy

against the bites of these cobras, and those of any other venomous

animals, is the virtue, which a family of idolaters, called Man-

drecaros, has in curing them. The members of that family, by

‘aking a little water in their hands out of a well or a fountain, and

giving it to drink, and throwing some on the head of the bitten

individual, cures him infallibly. Only the males and the unmarried

girls of the family enjoy this privilege. They cannot receive any

remuneration for the cure. If, however, they accept any money, the

remedy loses its efficacy. When any one of them is called to cure a

bitten person, and he cannot attend to him personally, it is enough

if he sends water which he has drawn by his own hands. Nor is it

necessary that he should touch the water. It is sufficient for the

purpose if he has drawn it by some vessel. Not long ago a descen-

dant of this family became a convert at Margio, and after being

baptised retained the same virtue. He was employed as an interpre-

ter of the Margéo Church, and seeing him make such easy and

admirable cures, I tried to examine the principle and the basis of

such a singular prerogative, but he could not tell me anything,

except that it was a privilege which his family had enjoyed from

centuries immemorial. After this man became a Christian, he had

158 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

a son, whom I baptised, and without much ado I say that he actually

makes similar cures as his father did before.”

It is said that people believed then, and I think they believe even

now, that the Cobra-de-Capello is dreadful not only in its bite, but

also in the revenge it takes on any person who molests it. It is

supposed that if the cobra is not killed outright when it is once

hurt by any person, some time or other it will seek out the offender

and kill him. When the cobras are in pair and the male happens

to be killed, the female is said to be sure to revenge herself sooner

or later on the assassin of the male. It is also said that the cobra

will traverse a large expanse of water, such as rivers, lakes, d&c., in

order to take its revenge. ,

These are some of the traditions regarding the cobra, and they

enable us to compare the information which people had at the time

of the Portuguese conquests with that of our own days. I pass

now to the other animal, which the word bis prefixed to the word

cobra brings into existence.

Having shown that the word cobra is a Portuguese word, it is not

unreasonable to infer that the word which is prefixed to it might

also be Portuguese in its origin, and it appears to me that it is so,

and that the word is bicho made into bis by the process of contrac-

tion I have hinted at before. The original idea conveyed by the word.

bicho in the Portuguese language is that ofan animal which bites, no

matter what. Whether it bites man or beast, wood, clothes, or the

earth, it is called in Portuguese the bicho of such and such a thing.

By amplification the term has been applied to all living beings from

wan and beast to the microscopic bacteria. For instance, the ex-

pression biche homem means a man whoisa mischievous animal,

cunning and mischtef-making. A lion, a tiger, a cobra or any other

animal, when it is larger than its ordinary dimensions, or when any

one of them has made large depredations, admiration or fear of it

would be usually expressed in the Portuguese language by saying

“he um bicho tremendo,” “it is a tremendous beast.” Any animal,

then, that bit the cobra or killed it habitually, would becalled Bicho

de Cobra. With your permission [am going to translate to you a

passage on the subject from a book published in Goa in 1568. The

‘author of it is Dr. Garcia de Orta, who lived in Goa for more than

thirty years, and who was once the owner of the island of Bombay.

It is as follows (he speaks to his friend Dr. Ruano) :—

“Jn the beautiful island of Ceylon, though it is full ‘of a large

NOTES ON THE ORIGIN OF THE BELIEF IN THE BIS-COBRA. 159

quantity of luscious fruit, birds and wild game; there is also a large

number of serpents, which the people call Cobras-de-Capello, and

which we would call in Latin Regulus serpens. [He meant most

probably the king cobra, Ophiophagus elaps, a specimen of which

we lately had in the cage in the other room. |

“On account of these, God created in that island the cobra tree, and

ifs use in cobra bites was discovered, because there are in this island

some bichos (animals) resembling the ferrets, which are called quit

(others call them quirpele), and which very often fight with these

serpents, If the bicho knows that it is gomg to fight with a ser-

pent, or ifit is afraid of it, it goes and bites a piece of the root of

the plant which is above ground, and chews it, then it moistens its

hands with the juice of the plant and applies it to the head, and to

those parts which it knows the cobra will bite in its spring. It

fights with the cobra, biting it and scratching it until it kills it; if

it does not kill the cobra, or if it finds it stronger than itself, then

the bicho called quil or quirpele goes to the root, and applies its juice

again and repeats the fight with the cobra, and thus kills it and con-

quers. By these means the Sinhalese came to know that this tree

and its root were of use in cobra bites; and the Portuguese believed

in the virtue of this plant, both by what the country people told

them, and by what they found out by their own experience, and

made use of the plant against the poison. They also saw with their

own eyes, that the story of the fight of the bicho with the cobra was

only too true, and in order that you may be more certain of this if

you are not tired, I shall relate to youathing which a Franciscan

friar, worthy of belief and a virtuous man, saw at Negapatam, a con-

tinent near that island of Ceylon.” On his friend requesting him

to relate the story, he thus continued: ‘ Many Portuguese men have

thése bichos domesticated and tamed in their houses for killing rats

and for fighting with cobras de capello which the joguees carry and

by means of which they beg alms. These joguees are Gentoos, who

go about begging, besmearing their, bodies with ashes. They are

venerated by the Gentoos, and also by Mussulmans; they wander

about many countries, and know a great many medicines and appli-

cations, some of which are true, others are false. Many of these

joguees play the trick of passa-passa. [This is a trick, which we

see nowadays displayed by the jugglers with 3 small cups and 4 or 5

balls, a sleight-of-hand trick.] They carry with them those cobras

of which I have spoken before, and after having drugged them they

, 22

160 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCTRTY.

pall out their teeth and fangs in order to prevent them from doing

harm. With this and with a little familiarity, they (the joguees )

put them round their arms and necks, and try to make us_ believe

that they are under an enchantment. But I believe it is all a lie.

I will relate to you the following case :—

“* A Portuguese gentleman at Negapatam’ (and thisis the story of

the Franciscan friar) ‘called a joguee who carried cobras with him,

and told him to let his cobra fight with his (the gentleman’s) bicho,

but the joguee having pulled out the fangs of the cobra, wherein

consisted all its strength, refused at first, but the gentleman gave

him one cruzado (about two shillings and fourpence) and he con-

sented. The bicho warned for the fight walked at first under the

benches and chairs to see if it could smell the root of the cobra tree,

but seeing that it could not get it, it daubed itself with its own

saliva and came out to fight the cobra, which on seeing it made-a

dart at its head and slightly bit it twice or thrice, the bicho also bit

the cobra as many times. Then both somewhat wounded, separated,

but the cobra yct the worst of the fight. The joguee having got the

price of the fight and also the cobra remaining alive (which recovered

afterwards) came back with another cobra, which had its fangs, and

challenged the gentleman for another fight between the animals, on

condition that he should pay him more money because his first cobra

was nearly dying and he had brought another. The gentleman only

offered him as much as he had paid before. The joguee was quite

glad to accept it, because this time his cobra was better armed. The

gentleman prepared his bicho for the fight, he caressed it first, then

brought out for it some roots of the tree which the bicho chewed for

- some time, and taking some of the juice in its hands applied it to

its head, loins and belly, and also to its former wounds. The dicho

being thus prepared, the joguee brought his serpent, which raising

half its body from the ground at once darted forward, but the bicho

avoided its bite by jumping on one side. They went on in this

manner for some time, the bicho hitting the cobra, and the cobra

hitting the bicho also; at length the bicho jumped on the cobra’s

head or a little behind it, and bit, squeezed, and scratched

it go, that when he found that the cobra was completely

exhausted, he killed it. The cobra however was disabled by the

very first bite of the bicho, for the breath of the bicho is poison to

the cobra, Thus was the joguee’s cobra killed, and he left the

place broken-hearted.’ ”

NOTES ON THE ORIGIN OF THE BELIEF IN THE BIS-COBRA. 161

This is the passage from Garcia de Orta, who was considered to be

the highest authority in Natural History among the Portuguese in

India. It was said at'that time (and I am sure it is said also now

in some places) that this bicho not only fought with, and killed the

cobras, but that, when hungry, if it happened to spy a cobra,

caught it, divided it into three parts, and ate the middle part; then

it joined together the remaining two parts, and apphed to the

wound the juice or the leaf of some plant. The cobra then got well

and walked off as quictly as if nothing had happened to x.

About 400 B.C. Aristotle mentioned this animal as being an

enemy of serpents, in his History of Animals.

Pierre Belon, a French naturalist, who travelled in Greece, Asia,

Keypt, Palestine, and Arabia, describes this animal in his Obser-

vations of Singular and Memorable Things he foand in those places.

This book was published in 1555. I give an extract from it in

the original French— Les habitans d’ Alexandrie nourrissent une

béte nommeée wehnewmon, qui est particulicrement trouvée en Egypt.

On la peut apprivoiser és maisons tout ainsi comme un chat ou

un chien. Le vulgaire a cessé de la nommer par son nom ancien,

car il lanomment en leur langage rat de Pharaon. Or nous avons

vu que les paysans en apportoient des petits aux marché

d’Alexandrie, ot ils sont bien recueillis pour en nourrir és maisons,

a cause qu’ils chassent les rats, les serpents, &c. Cet animal est cau-

teleux en épiant sa pature ; il se nourrit indifferemment de tou-

tes viandes vives, comme d’escarbots, lézards, chaméleons, et

généralement de toutes especes de serpens, de grenouilles, rats et

souris ; il est friand des oiseaux, des poules et poulets,”

Prospero Alpini, a Venetian naturalist, while acting as physician

to the Venetian Consul in Egypt in 1580, had one of these animais

with him, and like Pips of Mr. Sterndale, it also proved to him a

friend. He describes it in his Historia. Hgypti thus: “« Ichneumon

seu Mus Pharaonis- Mihi ichneumon fuit ultissimus ad mures ex

meo cubiculo fugandos ; unum alui, a quo murium damna plane

cessarunt, siquidem quotquot offendebat, interimebat, longeque ad

hos necandos fugandosque fele est ichneumon utilior.” These works

were published up to the 16th century. ‘

Engelbert Kaempfer, a German naturalist who was in India about

1690, is probably the first author who refersto the animal as the Man-

goose. In the Amcenitates Academice of 1693 he refers to the

cobra tree also, and he says that the Portuguese called it Mungo and

162 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCLBTY.

the Dutch Muncus. I give an extract from his writings only which

refers of the subject. ‘“Primum antidotum......radix est plantas

malaice Hampa du Tanah, id est, Fel terre, dicta a sapore amaris-

simo ..,...Lusitanis ibidem Razz seu radix mungo appclata a mustela

seu viverra, Indis Mungustia appellata quia radicem monstrasse, et

ejus usum.”

I could cite passages from other writers of the 17th and 18th cen-

turies, such as Maillet, John Klein, Hasselquist, George Edwards,

Linneus, Albert Seba, Vincent Maric, Buffon, &c., but ‘suffice it to

say that they are unanimousin saying that the Ichncwmon or

mangoose is serpenticida or serpent killer. From this one can

easily identify the mangoose or Herpestes of the present day,

and which was once called in Greek and Latin Ichnewmon,

Mus Pharaonis, Donula, Donola Mustela and in French Mangéuste,

&c., with the same animal described by Garcia de Orta as Bicho de

Cobra.

It may be asked, that even granting that the mangoose is the bis

cobra, how can the idea of its being a poisonous lizard be

explained ? When Vasco da Gama and his successors, imbued with

the adventurous spirit of the age, set out to discover new countries,

they fully made up their minds to conquer those countries, and chris-

tianise them, and also to appropriate their commerce. This they did

by the sword, and while they thrust the Catholic religion on the

people, they also forced them to learn the Portuguese language ; for

both the soldiers and the priests, by whom they were accompanied

did not take the trouble to learn the language of the people, but spoke

to them in theirown. A large number of the converts were kept by

the Portuguese, as personal servants and military and other retainers,

who had to learn the language whether they willed it or not; they

picked it up as best they could, and as it was to be expected, contorted

it very much in speaking it. The converts and the priests were the

chief factors in disseminating extensively into the country the

Portuguese language, and this was done so effectively, that even

now, after a lapse of three centuries, the Portuguese language, or a

jargon purporting to be that language, is spoken in several places

which have long since ceased to belong to the Portuguese nation.

The language and the religion are the two indelible traces which

the Portuguese have left of their conquests in India. Moreover, a

great many Portuguese words have been introduced into the several

languages of tho country, such as in Marathi, Guzerati, Hindustani,

NOTES ON THE ORIGIN OF THE BELIEF IN THE BIS-COBRA, 163

Tamil, Canarese, Malyalim, Chinese, &c., and the word bis-cobra

was one of them.

Strange as it may appear, there is another instance of the contrac-

tion of the prefix in connection with the word cobra, but in this case

the animal is a perfect lizard, and itis not at all poisonous, as it

was supposed. There is a brown lizard, about 9 or 10 inches long,

with yellow stripes and a forked tongue, which is called “ Tia-de-

” in English ‘ cobra’s auntie.” Now the expression in the

cobra,

Portuguese proper is —tira-se como cobra — that is to say, “ an ani-

mal that crawls about like a cobra,” And it has undergone a simi-

lar process of contortion as the expression Bicho-de-Cobra.

As I have said before, the Portuguese in India named the animals

they saw here according to their most prominent features; because

their knowledge of Natural History was rudimentary ; they conse-

quently were not very clear about the Amphibia, Reptilia, Mammalia,

&c. They regarded the Mangoose as a reptile, and it may be

gathered from the old and new dictionaries that they were right

then. A reptile isan animal that moves on its belly or by means of

short small legs, such as caterpillars, lizards, snakes, earthworms.

So say the dictionaries.

Almost all writers, modern writers included, are unanimous in

saying that the Mangoose sometimes crawls with its belly on the

ground, when occasion arises, to seize its prey, or as Buffon says:

“ elle marche sans faire aucun bruit, eb sclon le besoin elle varie sa

démarche ; quelquefois elle porte la téte haute, ractourcit son COrpS,

et s’éléve sur ses jambes; d’autrefois elle a Pair de ramper et de

salunger comme un serpent.” Mr. Sterndale says “They are active

and sanguinary, chiefly hunting alung the ground.” It is not to be

wondered at then, if the Portuguese had an idea that the bicho-de-

cobra was a lizard reptile.

That the Portuguese certainly regarded the Mangoose as a poison~

ous animal, may be gathered from the writings of Garcia de Orta:

The Oriente Oonquistado says that all lizards are poisonous; they are

described therein as having their teeth “ set in different rows and

hollow, having enclosed within them smaller ones filled with venom.”

In fact the Mangoose was described and taken to be in the last ana-

lysis as that Poisonous Reptile Bicho-de-Oobra. Well then the story

of the poisonous reptile, bicho-de-cobra or bis-cobra, seems to have

spread far and wide during the first 70 years or more of the Portu-

guese conquests in India. Subsequently, however, on the inter-

164 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCINTY.

course between the Portuguese and the natives becoming greater and

of a more familiar character, they began to be more observant of the

language and other things of the country. They noticed that this

animal was called by the natives Mungutia, Mungus, Mungli and by

various other names in various places, but that the first two were

more prevalent, and they now began also to call it Mangus. Ihave

no doubt that the Dutch and the scientific travellers of other

nations largely contributed towards generalising its native name,

Mangoose.

As years rolled on, the Portuguese, the naturalists and the natives

all called the animal Mangoose, and thenceforth the Portuguese

term Bis-cobra fell into oblivion, but among the natives the idea

of the poisonous reptile Bis-cobra still remained, and it has been

handed down together with the exaggerated accounts of its tremen-

dous poisonous properties.

The natives still believe in its existence, but they, like the Mussul-

mans of Cowper, are uncertain which animal was meant. Most

probably having got an idea that it must have been a reptile, they

have a suspicion that it is a lizard. Here then, [ think, is the origin

of the belief which the natives have in the poisonous lizard Bis-cobra,

BUTTERFLIES AND ANTS.

(With Plates Nos. 26 and 27.)

By Lions, pe Nickvitie, F. E. 8.

(Read at the Society’s Meeting on the 7th May, 1888.)

Tuar there should be any connection between butterflies and

ants is, I believe, known to few, though as regards one family of

butterflies at least this relation is a very close and intimate one.

As a rule, ants are the most deadly and inveterate enemies of but-

terflies, and ruthlessly destroy and eat them whenever they get

the chance, as I have frequently found to my sorrow, when in a

single night a fine brood of larvee has been carried off by ants from

the food-plant growing in tubs in my verandah, and not a single

one has been left by the morning. In the case, however, of the

larvee and pupe of some Lycenide, not only do the ants restrain

their natural appetites by nob eating these tempting morsels,

PLATE No. 26,

LARVA. AND PUPA OF CURETIS THETYS, DRURY, ENLARGED.

(Also Enlarged view of the Tentaculum, with brush ewtended, on the 12th Segment of the larva.)

BUTTERFLIES AND ANTS. 165

butthey take the greatest care of the larvae, defend them from

their enemies to the best of their ability, and when they are about

to turn to pupx, conduct them to a safe place, where they may per-

form their transformations, and allow the newly-emerged and at

first helpless butterflies to escape unmolested.

On the penultimate or twelfth segment ofthese Lycenid larva on

the upperside are two erectile tentacula, and on the cleventh segment

on the upperside in the dorsal line is an oval opening from which

exudes a sweet liquid, of which the ants are inordinately fond, and

to obtain which their care and attention of the larve is entirely due.

The two tentacula on the twelfth segment do not apparently give off

any fluid, and I have a theory, whether correct or no I cannot prove,

that they were originally developed in the larvee to drive away their

enemies, probably Ichneumon-flics, much as the tentacula behind

theheads of Papilio larvee are used. In the larve of the genus

Curetis, which do not appear to be affected by ants, these tentacula

are very large, and when the insect is touched, they are extended

with lightning-like rapidity and whirled round with great velocity.

On Plate No. 26 will be found two enlarged figures of the larva of

QO. thetys, Drury, bred by mein Calcutta, also an enlarged figure of

its eurious jelly-like pupa. In the genus Curetis the tentacula are

very long, much longer than in any other Lyceenid larvee known to

me, and furnished at the apex witha tuft of long hairs forming a

rosette, very similar in appearance to the anal tufts which the males

of butterflies of the sub-family Danaince can thrust out at will.

Curetis larvee appear to have no honey-gland, so ants do not attend

them, nay, would probably eat them with much relish if they came

across them, and were not frightened away by the rapidly-whirling

tentacula. In the larve with the honey-gland these tentacula are

much smaller and have short hairs at the apex; in these larvee they

are probably becoming aborted from want of use. In the larvee

of the genus Virachola, which feed in the interior of certain fruits,

I have been unable to discover that they possess either a honey-

gland or tentacula. They are not therefore, I believe, attended by

ants, though Mr. W. C. Taylor and his daughter, Mrs. Wylly, hold

to the contrary opinion, from observations they have made on the

habits of these larvae.

M. Guenée seems to have been the first to notice the existence of

these organsin the larve of Polyommatus beticus, Linnzeus, which

occurs in France as well as in India and elsewhere, This was in

166 BOMBAY NATUTRAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

1867. Mr. Moore, in Vol. I. of his ‘Lepidoptera of Ceylon,” pub-

lished in 1881, quotes a note by Dr. Thwaites, who observed that cer-

sain formicidians attended the larvee of some Lyczenids ; the species are

not stated. Again, in 1886, Mr. W. Doherty records certain obser-

vations of his on the same subject. But Mr. W. H. Edwards

has given in “ The Canadian Kntomologist,” Vol. X., p. 1, et seq., the

fullest account I have seen of these organs and their use, and I have

copied (Plate No. 27) a woodcut of the posterior segments very

much enlarged of the larva of Lycena pseudargtolus, Boisduval and

Leconte, a North American butterfly, which he gave to ‘illustrate

his remarks. In Calcutta I have found that the larvee of over a

dozen Lyceenide are affected by ants. I collected specimens of the

latter, and have had them identified by Dr. Forel of Geneva, a

great authority on ants. I now give the observations of a valued

correspondent (Mrs. Wylly) onthe same subject, and hope that others

will follow up the matter, as there is still much to be learnt as to

what species of Lycanide are affected by ants, what ants perform

> and guardiansto the larvee, and what larvee

the offices of “ milkers’

possess these special organs.

That ants attend Aphides (plant-lice), many Homopterons,

Josside, &c., in much the same way and for the same purpose, is

well known, and it seems unnecessary to make any special reference

to the fact beyond just mentioning it. This is what my correspon-

dent has to say on the subject :—

“The larvee of Tarucus theophrastus, Fabricius, are cultivated and

protected by the large common black ants of Indian gardens and

houses. ‘The caterpillar, which varies in colour from light pure

green to a dark reddish tint [this is a common variation in Lyceenid

larvec| is about three-quarters of an inch long, louse-like in shape,

and slow in movement, and it feeds on the Zizyphus jujuba, a small

thorny bush of the jungles, with an edible astringent yellowish fruit,

the “ Byr-coolie” of the natives. Some Lyccenide larve have the

power of protruding and retracting at will two small fleshy tentacles

or horns, each tufted with a brush of fine hairs, from the upper sur-

face of the tailsegments, Between [on thenext segment anteriorly]

these tentacles is a small slit, from which they exude a small drop of

a juice of some sort eagerly sought by the ants, and which they can

generally procure by stroking the larvee gently with their antenne.

The ants set up what appears to be merely a temporary nest at

the foot of the tree, the better to carry on their operations. Just

PLATE No. 27. |

THE LAST SEGMENTS OF LARVA OF LYCAENA

PSEUDARGIOLUS, ENLARGED. |

SHOWING THE ORGANS AFFECTED BY THE ANTS,

a—stigmata or breathing holes, on 11th and 12th segments;

b—spots resembling stigmata on 12th segment i

b1—processes issuing therefrom, front and top Views ;

c—opening on 11th segment ;

j cl—oyoid membrane,

The processes b? are but partly protruded and do not show the tuft of hairs with which

they are furnshed at the apex. i <q

BUTTERFLIES AND ANTS. 167

before the rains set in, about the middle of June, great activity

among the inhabitants of a Zizyphus tree may be observed. The

ants are busy all day long running along the branches and leaves

in search of the larve, and without fail an ant will come on one

full-grown, and meditating on the choice of a snug retreat;

{in which to turn to a pupa]. A friend or two turning up, the ants

set to work to guide and drive their caterpillar in the direction they

wish him to go, i.¢., down the stem of the tree towards their nest.

This is not always an easy business if the prisoner is refractory ard

would prefer going somewhere else. But asa rule they are docile

and easily led. Having kept guard over him until they get him

safely into his proper berth in the row, and he has accepted their

ultimatum as final, he drops off into the preliminary doze, and

undergoes his transformation into a pupa. If yougently scrape away

the loose earth piled up at the base of the tree, you will see some

hundreds of larvae and pupe in all stages of development arranged

in a broad even band all round the trunk, and lightly covered with

earth. The ants object to their being uncovered, and will imme-

‘diately set to work to recover them, and if you persist, they will

remove all the chrysalids, and bury them lower down. When the

butterfly is ready to emerge, which is in about six or seven days, it

is tenderly assisted to disengage itself from its shell, and should it be

strong and healthy, it is left undisturbed to spread and strengthen

its wings and fly away. But if by any mischance, it emerges

deformed and too crippled to use its wings, a catastrophe occurs. In

one case a butterfly had fallen to the ground before its opening wings

had dried, and one of the .soldier-ants tried to rescue it. He

carried it back to the tree with the utmost care, and made several

attempts to assist the butterfly to holdon again. Finding his efforts

unavailing, he left the cripple for a short time to recover itself. On

his return, seeing no improvement, he appeared to lose patience,

and rushing in bit off both the deformed wings at the base, and

carried off the wingless body into the nest below, whether as food

for the community, or for what other purpose, I was unable to

ascertain. That was the ouly occasion on which I ever saw any

high-handedness on the part of the ants, though their usual ill-temper

requires no very close observation to detect. Tt is curious sight to

watch the fragile and delicate newborn butterflies wandering about,

all feeble and helpless, amongst the busy crowd of coarse black

ants, and rubbing shoulders in perfect safety with the ordinary

168 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

fierce big-headed soldiers; as odd a contrast as the fresh creamy

whiteness of the opening wing, the flash of purple and blue, and

_ the sparkle of green and silver eyes is to the darkness and dinginess

of their queer home. For some time after the butterflies have

gained strength to fly away, they remain hovering over the nest.

A larva of a species of Catopsilia [one of the Pierince or ‘ Whites’]

I threw down as an experiment, was immediately set upon and torn

to pieces in a second by the ants.”

“JT took a T. theophrastus larva from a tree, and introduced it‘on

the pathway of another company of the same species of ants who

lived in our verandah, but kept no ‘farm,’ and it was odd -to see the

ants come tumbling out headlong to fight the intruder, and the

sudden way they cooled down on investigation of the foe. None

attempted to harm him, and he was politely escorted across their

boundary, the ants running alongside, and feeling him all over

with their antenne. This must have been instinct, as they could

-have had no former knowledge of himas a “milk-giver.” The dead

chrysalids in an ants’ nest are carefully removed and thrown away

outside ; the ants also distinguish between the dead and living.”

ON THE LEPIDOPTERA OF KARACHI AND ITS

NEIGHBOURHOOD.

By Con, C. Swinnon, F.LS., F.Z.S8., &c.

(Continued from page 184.)

PSEHUDO-DELTOIDES,

THERMUSIIDM,

122

Azazia rubricans.

Ophiusa rubricuns, Boisd., Faun. Lep. Mad., p. 106,

pl. 16, & 1 (1834).

Thermesia transducta, Walker, xxxiii., p. 1058, & (1865),

Thermesia consueta, Walker, Char, undescribed. Lep. Het.

pe 93 (1869).

June to January.

ON THE LEPIDOPTERA OF KARACHI AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD. 169

DELTOIDES.

HypENnIDaA.

123

Rhynchina wylina. ©

Rhynchina wylina, Swinhoe, P.Z.S. 1886, p. 402.

July, 1886.

124

Hypena laceratalis.

Hypena laceratalis, Walker, xvi., p. 60 (1858).

July, 1886, in great numbers.

1265

Hy pena mimicalis.

Hypena mimicalis, Swinhoe, P.Z.S., 1885, p. 471,

pl. 28, f. 618.

October, 1886. A pair taken on board the steamer leaving Karachi.

HERMINIIDA.

126

Byturna digramma.

Bocana digramma, Walker, xxxiv., p. 1170 (1866).

June, 1880 and September, 1886.

127

Aginna robustalis.

Herminia (?) robustalis, Guén., Delt. et Pyral, 58, 66, 9

(1854).

Bocana turpatalis, Waller, xvi. p.174 & % (1858).

danuary, 1886.

128

Rivula sericealis.

Pyralis sericealis, Denis, Wien. Verz.,p. 122, n. 18, (1775).

Noctua munda, Berl. Mag. iii., p. 296.

Rivula limbata, Herr.-Schaff., Eur. Schm. vi., 4475.

Common in almost every month of the year.

129

Rivula flavonigra.

Rivula flavonigra, Swinhoe, P.Z.S., 1884, p. 522, pl. 47, f. 15.

Common from September to March.

170 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOOCINTY.

130

Myana sopora.

Myana sopora, Swinhoe, P-Z.8., 1884, p. 522, pl. 48, f. 5.

January and March, 1880.

131

Myana atromacula.

Myana atromacula, Swinhoe, 1884, p. 528, pl. 48, f. 5

February, 1880,

PYRALES.

Borypipm.

132

Botys iopasalis.

Botys topasalis, Walker, xviii., p, 652 (1859).

Common from May to September.

133

Botys incolorals.

Botys incoloralis, Guén., Delt et Pyral., p. 332, 369 (1854).

September to December.

134

Botys sublituralis.

Botys subliturahs, Walker, xxxiv., p. 1452 (1865).

July and August, 1886.

185

Botys abstrutsahs.

Botys abstrutsalis, Walker, xviii., p. 663 (1859).

July to November. This insect, which is common in many parts

of India, will have to be re-named, asit is not identical with Walker’s

type, which came from Java.

136

Ravanoa creonalis.

Botys creonalis, Walker, xviii., p. 579 (1859).

», meoclesalis, Walker, xviii., p. 635.

» suspicalis, Walker, xviii., p. 667.

» connectalis, Walker, xxxiv., p, 1411 (1865).

ee September and October, 1886.

ON THE LEPIDOPTERA OF KARACHI AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD. 171

137

Ebulea catalaunalis.

Botys catalaunalis, Dup., Lep. Fr., vui., p. 330, pl. 282, f. 8

(1881).

Margaritia cilialis var., Steph., Cat. Brit. Lep., p. 239

(1850)

Botys venosalis, Walker, xxxiv., p.1401 (1865).

May and June; October and November, common.

138

Scopula vinctalis.

Scopula vinctalis, Walker, xxxiv., p. 1476 (1865).

April and May, 1885.

139

Scopula palinalis.

Scopula palmalis, Swinhoe, P.Z.S., 1884, p. 525, pl. 48, f. 11.

September, October and November.

140

Udea fotalis.

Scopula fotalis, Swinhoe, P.Z.S., 1885, p. 875, pl. 57, f. 9.

September and October, 1885; August to October, 1886, in great

numbers.

141

Nymphula interpunctalis.

Pyralis interpunctalis, Hiibn., Pyral., ii., 11, pl. 19, f, 128

(1797).

» wundalis, Hiibn., Pyral., pl. 14, f. 90.

May to August, common.

142

Godara comalis.

Pionea comalis, Guén., Delt. et Pyral. p.368,n. 453, § (1854).

» imeomalis, Guén., Delt. et Pyral., p. 369,

Common in nearly every month of the year.

MARGARONIDA.-

143

Glyphodes fessalis.

Glyphodes fessalis, Swinhoe, P.Z.S., 1886, p. 409, pl. 41,f. 8.

May, June and October.

Wan. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

144

Phakellura indica.

Eudioptis indica, Saunders, Trans. Ent. Soc., 1851, p. 168,

pl. 12, f. 5, 6 7.

Phakellura gazorialis, Guén., Delt. et Pyral., p. 299, n.

304, (1854).

June to October common.

146

Oydalimia conchyalis.

Margarodes conchyalis, Guén., Delt. et Pyral., p. 3038, n.

317, pl. 8, f. 9. (1854).

On board the steamer leaving Karachi, October, 1986.

146

Cydalima submarginalis.

Botys submarginalis, Walker, zxxiy., p. 1414 (1865).

August to September, common.

147

Pygospila tyres.

Phalena (Pyralis) tyres, Cram., Pap. Hxot., vol. iii., p. 124,

pl., 263, f. C, Q (1782).

Pygospila costiflecalis, Guén., Delt. et Pyral., p. 318,

(1854).

July and August, 1886, in great numbers.

148

Noorda blitealis.

Noorda blitealis, Walker, xix., p. 979 (1859).

Scopula subjectalis, Walker, xxxiv., p. 1472 (1865),

July and August, 1886, in great numbers.

ASOPIDA.

149

Hymenia fasciahs.

Phalana (Pyralis) fascialis, Cram., Pap. Exot., iv., pl. 398

f.O. (1782).

Phlena angustalis, Fabr., Mant. Ins., p. 309 (1787).

vecurvalis, Fabr., Ent. Syst. iii.,2, p. 237, n. 407

(1794).

Hymenia diffascialis, Hiibn., Verz. Bek. Schm., p. 361

(1825-27),

Hydrocampa albifascialis, Boisd., Faun. Ent. Madag. , Lep.,

p. 119, pl. 16, f. 1 (1834).

June to December, common.

ON THE LEPIDOPTERA OF KARACHI AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD. 173

150

Coptobasis lunalis.

Botys lunalis, Guén., Delt. et Pyral., 352, n. 417 (1854).

5» thyasalis, Walker, xviii, p. 734 (1859).

August, 1886.

151

Coptobasis opisalis.

Coptobasis opisalis, Lederer, Ent, Mon., vii., 482, pl. 16,

f. 10 (1863).

On board the steamer leaving Karachi, October, 1886.

162

Leucinodes orbonalis.

Leucinodes orbonalis, Guén., Delt. et Pyral., p. 223, n. 187

(1854).

August, 1886.

SPILOMELIDH.

153

Synclera traducalis.

Hudioptis traducalis, Zeller, Lep. Micro. Caffr., Kongl. Vet.

Abrad. Handb., p. 54 (1852),

Synclera retinalis, Lederer, Wien. Ent. Mon., i, p. 100

(1857).

Glyphodes univocalis, Walker, xvili., p. 499 (1859).

Synclera traductalis, Lederer, Wien. Ent. Mon., vii,

p. 445 (1863).

June to December.

164

Haritala cassusalis.

Zebronia cassusalis, Walker, xvii. p. 477 (1859).

aurolinealis, Walker, xvii., p. 478.

amenalis, Walker, xxxiv., p. 1852 (1865).

Botys signatalis, Walker, xxxiv., p. 1444.

», faustali, Lederer, Wien. Ent. Mon., vil., p. 375, pl.

10, f. 15 (1868).

Notarcha cassalis, Meyrich, Trans. Ent. Soc., 1884,p. 311.

July to October.

174 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCTETY.

Ennycurpm.

155

Pachyzancla mutualis.

Botys mutualis, Geller, Lep. Microp. Caffr., Kongl. Vet,

Abrad. Handd., p. 40 (1852).

» stultalis, Walker, xviii., p. 669 (1859).

June to December, 1885; July, 1886. —

156

Hedylepta.abruptalis.

Asopta (?) abruptalis, Walker, xvii., p. 371 (1859),

August, 1885, and September, 1886.

157

Rhodaria arida.,

Rhodaria arida, Butler, P. Z. 8., 1881, p. 621.

May, 1880.

158

Rhodaria guncturalis.

Rhodaria juncturaliss Walker, xxxiv., p. 1283 (1865).

August, 1886,

Hurcynipa,

159

Herbula meleagrisalos,

Herbula meleagrisalis, Walker, xviii., p. 824 (1865).

Common from February to August.

STENIDA.

160

Spanista ornatahs.

Asopia ornatalis, Dup., Lep. France, viii., Dp. 207, pl. 228,

f. 8 (1831),

Botys saturalis, Treit. Schler Hur. Schm. Suppl. 2, p. 29,

Cataclysta (t) elutalis, Walker, xvii., p. 448 (1859).

Pyralis deciusalis, Walker, xix., p. 905 (1859).

September and October, 1885 ; July, 1886.

181

Lepyrodes geometrals.

Lepyrodes geometralis, Guéu., Delt. et Pyral., p. 278, pl. 8,

f. 6 (1854).

June to December, common.

ON THE LEPIDOPTERA OF KARACHI AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD. 175

HYDROCAMPIDA,

162

Paraponye affinialis.

Paraponye afinialis, Guén., Delt. et Pyral, 270

(1854).

July to October, common.

163

Oligostigma incommoda.

Oligostigma incommoda, Butler, P.Z.5., 1881, p. 180.

November, 1879.

164

Hydrocampa tenera.

Hydrocampa tenera, Butler, P.Z.S.,; 1883, p. 167.

January and May, 1880.

PyYRALIDm.

165

Pyralis gerontesalrs.

Pyralis gerontesalis, Walker, xix., p. 896 (1859).

» lantatella, Walker, xxvil., p- 124, 6 (1863).

» despectalis, Walker, xxxiv., p. 1243 (1865).

» miseralis, Walker, xxxiv., p. 1244.

January, 1880 ; December, 1885 ; May and July, 1886.

166

Pyralis suffusales.

Pyralis suffusalis, Walker, xvi., 390 (1809).

Tatta, August, 1886.

167

Pyralis uberalis.

Pyralis uberalis, Swinhoe, P.Z.S., 1884, p. 523, pl. 48,

£210:

May, 1879.

168

Pyralis rubicundalis.

Pyralis rubicundalis, Swinhoe, P.Z.8., 1885, p. 864.

June and September, 1885.

169

Stemmatophora ingrata.

Stemmatophora ingrala, Butler, PAZ.8.71081,.p. 621.

May, 1880.

24,

176 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIBTY.

1'70

Hellula undalis.

Phalena undalis, Fabr., Ent. Syst. iii., , p- 226 (1794).

Scoparia aleonalis, Walker x1) Ds 927 : 859).

: optatusalis, Walker, xix., p. 1018.

May and June; November and December, common.

171

Hypotia vulgaris.

Hypotia vulgaris, Butler, P.Z.S., 1881, p. 621.

Common all the year round.

172

Hypotia vafera.

Hypotia vafera, Swinhoe, P.Z.S8., 1884 »p- 523,-pl. 48, £1 8.

August, 1880; October, 1885.

173°

Hypotia rubella.

Hypota rubella, Swinhoe, P.Z.S., 1884, p. 523, pl. 48, f. 9.

January and August, 1880. Received from Lindi, February, 1886

and from Hyderabad, April, 1886.

SCOPARIDA.

174

Nemophila hybridalis.

Pyralis hybridalis, Wiibn., Pyral., 29, 20, pl. 17, f. 114

(1797).

Tinea noctuella, Wien. Verz., bp. 186, n.: 35.

Nemophila noctuella, Uederer, Wien. Ent. MGs 2 Vii Di

379 (1863).

Common in nearly every month of the year.

176

Scotormera tristis.

Scotormera tristis, Butler, P. Z. S:, 1881, p. 623,

March, 1880 ; September and November, 1886.

176

Dosara celatalis.

Dosara celutalis, Walker, xix. , p- 829 (1859).

September und November, 1885: ; July and August, 1886, in great

numbers,

ON THE LEPIDOPTERA OF KARACHI AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD. 177

GHOMETRES.

ENNomip™.

177 i

Hyperythra phantasma.

: Hyperythra phantasma, Butler, P. Z. 8.,1881, p. 615.

February and March. |

178 |

HHyperythra swinhoer. |

Hyperythra swinhoei, Butler, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.

(1880), (5) vol. v., p. 228.

BoarMIDA,

179

Boarmia cornari.

Boarmia cornarta, Guén., Phal., 1., 245, 390 (1857).

June, 1885; March, April and August, 1886.

180 |

ITypochroma duspensata. 1

Hypochroma dispensata, Walker, xxi., p. 485 (1860. |

January and June, 1880.

181

Hypochroma pseudo-terpnaria.

Hypochroma pseudo-terpnaria, Guén., Phal., i.,p.276 (1857).

January and June, 1880.

LARENTIDA.

182 ]

Lycanges albatus.

Lycanges albatus, Swinhoe, P Ze Bes 1885, p. 862, pl. 56, f. 5.

October, 1886.

183

Lycanges demissus.

Lycanges demissus, Swinh

August and September, 1886.

184

Lycanges defamataria.

Acidalia defamataria, Walker, xxii., p- 752 (1861).

: October, 1885.

oe, P. Z. 8., 1886, p. 456.

BOMBAY NATUTRAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

GroMETRIDa,

185

Thalera diatomata.

Timandra (?) diatomnata, Walker, xxvi., p. 1616 (1862).

June to December, common.

186,

Nemoria frequens.

Nemoria frequens, Butler, P. Z. S., 1881, p. 616.

Common all the year round.

187

Nemoria parvulata.

Nemoria parvulata, Walker, xxvi., p. 1559 (1862).

September, 1886.

188

Nemoria pruinosa.

Nemoria pruinosa, Butler, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.

(1880). (5), Vol. v., p. 224

September to December, common.

Ipatpa,

189

Idea actuaria,

_Acidalia actuari, Walker, xxii., p. 752 (1861).

August, September and October, 1886.

190

Idoa distracta.

Acidalia distracta, Butler, P. Z. S., 1881, p. 616,

May, 1880.

191

Idea inductata.

Acidalia inductata, Walker, xxiii., p. 792 (1861).

September to February, common.

192

Idea ivalida.

Acidalia invalida, Butler, Ann, Mag. Nat. Hist, (1879), (5)

Vol. iv., p. 439.

May and December.

ON THE LEPIDOPTERA OF KARACHI AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD. 179

193

Ideea jacta.

Idea jacta, Swinhoe, P. Z. 8., 1884, p. 526, pl. 48, f. 12.

September, October and November, common.

194

Idea remotata.

Acidalia remotata, Guén., Phal., i., p. 458, n. 762 (1857).

June, 1880; February, 1836.

MACcARID&.

195

Macaria lithina. :

Tephrina lithina, Butler, Pe UZ. Bi 1880, b. 11s

January and March, 1880; May, June and September, 1886.

196

Macaria streniataria.

Macaria streniataria, Walker, xxvi., p. 164; (1862).

December, 1885; May, 1886.

197

Macaria strenuata.

Macaria strenuata, Walker, xxvii., p. 1646 (1862).

Common all the year round.

‘198

Tephrina arenaria.

Tephrinaarenaria, Swinhoe, P.Z.S., 1884, p.527, pl. 48, f. 13.

December, 1880.

199

Tephrina peremptaria.

Macaria peremptaria, Walker, xxiil., p- 929 (1861).

November and December, 1880; and October, 1885.

FIDONIDa.

200

Sterrha sacrarta.

Phalena sacraria, Linn., Syst. Nat.,i., 2, p. 868, n. 220

(1766).

Geometra sanguinaria,

105, U1.

November, 1880; May, June and October, 1885,

Esper., Schmett, v., i738, pl. 3U, i

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

201

Midonia albofascia.

Pidonia albofascia, Swinhoe, P.Z.S., 1884, p. 527, pl. 48,f.14.

September, 1880 and July, 1836.

Hpnyripm.

202

Oyclophora fluidaria.

Ephyra fluidaria, Swinhoe, P.Z.S., 1885, p. 856, p. 10,

pl. 56, f.10,

August and October, 1886.

Erostipa.

203

Erosia adjutaria.

Doano adjutaria, Walk., Cat. Ceylon Ins.

Hrosia adjutari, Walker, xxiii., p. 849 (1861).

» verticaria, elder, Reise Novara, pl. 128, f. 7 (1874).

» theclata, Guenée, Phal.,; ii., p. 86 (1857).

July, 1886.

204

trosta hyperbolica.

Brosia hyperbotica, Swinhoe, P.Z.S., 1884, p, 528,pl. 48,f.15,

May, 1880.

CRAMBITESS.

GALLERIDE.

205

Melisoblaptes bupunctanus.

Melia bipunctana, Haworth, M. §., Curtis, Brit. Hnt., v., p.

201 (1828).

Tinew sociella, Hubner, Kur. Schm., Tinea, pl. 4, f. 24, v.,

p. 201.

Galleria anella, Zink.-Som., Germ. Mag. Hnt., iv. p. 243,

Lamorva planalis, Walker, xxvii., p 88 (1868).

Acrobasis imbellay Walker, xxx., p. 905 (1864)

June, July, and August, 1886, in numbers.

ON THE LEPIDOPTERA OF KARACHI AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD. 181

Cramsipm.

206

Apurima wanthogastrella.

Apurima wathogastrella, Walker, xxvil., p. 194 (1868).

Rupela degenerella, Walker, xxxiil., p. 524.

Lithosia cramboides, Walker, xxxi., p. 230.

September, 1885.

207

Crambus zonellus.

Crambus zonellus, Swinhoe, P.Z.S., 1884, p. 528, pl. 48, f. 16.

May, 1880; June, July and August, 1885; April, 1886.

208

Jartheza chrysographella.

Chilo chrysographella, Kollar, Hug. Kasch., iv., p. 494

(1848).

April to October, common.

209

Scheenobius bisignatus.

Schenobius bisiqnatus, Zeller, M.8.,in coll. B. M., Swinhoo,

P.Z.S. 1885, p. 461.

October and November, 1885

210

Hromene bella.

Tinea bella, Hitbner, Tinea, f. 60 (769)

September and November, 1885; July, 1886

Surattha albipennis.

Surattha albipennis, Butler, P:Z.8., 1886, p. 383.

October, 1885.

PuycipA.

212

Nephopterye figuella.

Nephopterya: figuella, Zeller, Walker, xxvit., p. 487 (1863).

September, October and November, 1885.

213

Pempelia illella.

Pempelia illetla, Swinhoe, P.Z.8., 1884, p. 529, pl. 48, f. 6.

December to May.

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

214

Mella zinckenella.

Phycis zinckenella, Treit., Schmett. Hur., ix., 1. p. 201,

», ttella, Treit., loc. cit., x., 3. p. 276 (1835).

Mella dymnusalis, Walker, xix., p. 1018 (1859).

April and May ; October, November and December, common.

TorTRIcIpR.

215

Pedisea decolorana

Padisca decolorana, Freyer, Neue Beitr., p. 318, pt. 5, 43

(1831-58)

February and May, 1880.

216

Hemirosia aurantina.

Hemirosia aurantina, Pryer, Cist. Ent., ii., 235.

July and August, 1886.

217

Tinea glabretla.

Linea glabrella, Walker, xxviii., p. 478 (1863).

February, 1886.

218

Hapsifera eburnea.

Hapsifera eburnea, Butler, P.Z.S., 1881, p. 623.

September and October.

219

Hriocottis fuscanella.

Hriocottis fuscanella, Zeller, Isis, p. 813 (1847).

May, 1880.

220

Alavona cossusclla.

Alavona cossusella, Walker, xxxv., p. 1816 (1866).

June, 1885.

GuLucHipm,

221

Ypsolopus robustus.

Ypsolopus robustus, Butler, P. Z. S., 1883, De (4.

February, September and December.

NOTES OF SOME BUHS AND WASPS FROM BURMA. : . 188

PreROPHORIDA.

222 i

Aciptilia congruales, H

Aciptilia congrualis, Walker, XxX., p- 943 (1864). ]

February and May, 1&80.

223

Aciptilia ischnodactyla.

Aciptilia ischnodactylus, Treit., Lep. Hur., x. 0, 202.

October, 1885. |

NOTES ON SOME BEES AND WASPS FROM BURMA.

By Capram C. T. Brnasam, Deputy Conservator of Forests, Rangoon.

Butow I give a list of a few bees and wasps that I have collected

in Burma, with notes as to their habits, time of appearance, &c.

I have been collecting Hymenoptera in various parts of Lower

Burma for the last four years, but have only been able to identify

a very few of the species procured.

] Literature on the subject is not only scarce, but consists to a

large extent of papers scattered through various scientific journals,

proceedings of societies, &c.—papers it is next to impossible for

a collecting naturalist in India to get together and carry about

with him.

The nomenclature I have adopted in this list is that of the

British Museum catalogue of hymenopterous insects.

The more striking orders of the Lepidoptera and Coleoptera

can even in India count their students by scores. Hymenoptera have

been wofully neglected. My object in writing this paper is to |

of collectors to this fascinating group of |

draw the attention

insects :—

Halictus eanthognathus, Smith.

A pretty little bee, swarming about flowering trees from May to

August. J have procured it at Henzada, Bassein and Rangoon.

Originally described from Northern India.

Megachile dimidiata, Smith.

Common through the hot weathe

most of the other leaf-cutter bees, into the verandahs and rooms of

r and rains, and coming like

184 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

our wooden houses here, and selecting crevices and holes for their

nests. ‘

Megachile conjuncta, Smith.

Megachile rufipes, Smith.

Procured at Bassein only. The male of conjuncta is often consi-

derably smaller than the female, and has the face covered with

white instead of black pubescence.

Megachile disjuncta, Fabricius.

Commonest of all of this genus. The width of the white band

across the back differs considerably in individuals inter se. I have

watched this bee cutting off and carrying away circular pieces out

of the leaves of the guava.

Megachile fraterna, Smith.

Not uncommon in the Pegu hills in November and December.

Jrocisa histrio, Fabricius.

Of very wide distribution—India, France, Russia and Algeria.

‘The blue interrupted bands on the abdomen vary in width in differ-

ent specimens.

Anthophora zonata, Linneous.

Anthophora confusa, Smith.

Henzada, Bassein, Rangoon: found throughout the year; in

abundance during the rains. Ihave invariably found these bees

keeping low down and buzzing about flowering shrubs and even

grasses. :

Xylocapa latipes, Drury.

Xylocapa cestuans, Linneus.

Xylocapa oliwrert, St. Fargeau.

These are the great carpenter bees, sometimes mistaken for and

called “humble-bees” by people in India. The true humble bee,

Bombus, is of course quite different.

The carpenter bees are very destructive to dry timber of any

kind. I have seen a log even of the hard ironwood, Pyngado

(Xylia dolabriformis), full of bee holes.

X. oliviert seems rare, and to be crepuscular in its habits. I have

procured it only at Pegu.

Bombus eximius, Smith.

Procured on Mooleyit, Dawnat mountains, at an elevation of

about 4,500 feet.

Apis dorsata, Fabricius.

‘

This is the common honey bee of Burma.

NOTES OF SOME BEES AND WASPS FROM BURMA. 185

Scolia quadri-pustulata, Fabricius.

A very variable insect, with the front of the prothorax however

invariably yellow. Found on flowers May to September.

Scolia decorata, Burmeister.

Scolia instablis, Smith.

Scolia modesta, Smith.

Found on flowers, May to September.

Scolia aureipennis, es Fargeau.

Rave; procured near Thayetmyo in October. Originally described

from the Gambia, South Africa. :

Scolia (Elis) annulata, Fabricius.

Scolia (Hlts) iris, Burmeister.

Found on flowers, May to August. Heavy and sluggish; easily

caught.

Scolia ignita, Smith.

A very lovely species, the rust-r ad down on the last four seg-

ments of the abdomen having a very rich sheen, and contrasting

well with the jet black of the thorax and the coppery iridescence of

the wings.

Scolia aureicollis, St. Fargeau.

Scolia ruficeps, Smith.

Scolta erythrosoma, Burmeister.

Fairly common from June to October.

Pompilus analis, Fabricius.

Rare; procured in December in the Pegu Hills at about 1,000 feet

elevation.

Pompilus honestus, Smith.

Rare; a lovely insect, the whole of its body covered with

bright golden pubescence. Procured near Rangoon in Septem-

ber.

Pompilus dorsalis, St. Fargean.

Pompilus pedestris, Smith.

Common, Henzada, Bassein, Rangoon aeily to November.

Pompilus untfasciatus, Smith.

Fairly common, The amount of fuscous tipping to the wings

varies considerably in different individuals.

Mygnimia eruginosa, Smith.

Very common, May to October.

Ammophila nigripes, Smith ;

Ammophila vagabunda, Smith,

186 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

This genus does not seem well represented here in Burma. The

above are the only two species I have managed to find.

Pelopeus bilineatus, Smith.

Common; found all the year round. It very often comes into

houses and builds its mud nest against the furniture, generally

choosing the under side of a shelf of the dinner wagon, or theunder-

side of the seat ofa chair, and sometimes the under side of a rafter

or beam. Occasionally the nest is made with cells end-on to each

other ; ordinarily however the cells lie parallel. One egg is deposited

in each cell, the number of which latter varies from three to seven.

Hach cell is stuffed to overflowing with spiders, which have been

paralysed by being stung, but which are by no means dead, but

keep alive and fresh for consumption by the larve. I have

remarked that P. bilineatus seems to invariably keep to one pretty

little green species of Hpetra,

Pelopeus bengalensis, Dahlbom.

As common as the last, and constructing similar nests, but storing

them with a different species of spider.

Chlorion lobatwm, Fabricius.

Common. Varies in colour from a bronzy green to a dark metal-

lic blue. I believe this species burrows into banks to construct its

nest, and stores it with crickets.

Sphex argentata, Dahlbom.

Common, July to October.

Sphew ferruginea, St. Fargeau.

Rare ; procured in December in the Pegu Hills.

Sphex vicina, St. Fargeau.

Sphex flavo-vestita, Smith.

These two species are by far the commonest of the Shegidé.

April to November found all over the country.

Ampulea hospes, Smith.

This lovely species, first described from Borneo from collections

made by Mr. A. R, Wallace, is not uncommon near Rangoon in

the rains. In the Pegu Hills I got a specimen not one-third of the

size of the ordinary ones, but exactly alike in colouring and in the

second segment of the abdomen being suddenly’ produced on the

under side.

Larrada subtessellata, Smith,

Common, May to October.

Tachytes sinensis, Smith,

NOTHS ON SOME BEES AND WASPS FROM BURMA, 187

Common, May to October.

Cerceris instablis, Smith.

Common, May to October. I have found it solitary buzzing

about flowers.

Eumenes esurtens, Fabricius.

Eumenes flavo~picta, Blanchard.

Humenes petiolata, Fabricius.

All these are common about flowers from May to October. The

last-mentioned builds a nest very like that of Pelopeus, only storing

it with caterpillars instead of spiders. One nest I broke open con-

tained the larva of some species of Tortrix.

Rhynchium brunneum, Fabricius.

Very common. Very frequently chooses its nest-holes in the

wood-work of houses, and stores it like Humenes with caterpillars.

Rhynchium metallicum, de Saussure.

Common, June to October.

Polistes hebroeus, Fabricius.

Polistes stigma, Fabricius. an

Both these are common, making their nests in June about the

eaves of houses.

Vespa magnifica, Smith.

Karen Hills, 8,000 feet. Pegu Yoma, 1,000 feet. A huge hornet

making its nest in hollow trees. The Burmans and Karens hold it

in great fear. In investigating a nest: too closely I was once stung

by three of these insects in the face. The pain was something

dreadful; my whole face and head swoll up, nausea and violent

retching followed, and it was not till twenty-four hours afterwards

that the inflammation began to subside. For two months after I

was stung I felt the effects, in a numbed feeling on the forehead

and cheek, where the stings had entered.

Stilbum splendidum, Fabricius.

A beautiful but common and widely-spread insect, found also in

Europe and Africa. It lays its eggs in the cells of Pelopeus.

—

ON THE CULTIVATION OF FERNS FROM SPORES.

By M. H. Sraruine.

(Read at the Society’s Meeting on 2nd July, 1888.)

Tar paper this evening will be a practical description of the difi-

culties which attend, and the best way of growing ferns from spores,

188 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOGIRTY.

the result of my own practical experience in the matter, and I shall

keep it as free as possible from scientific language. The first matter

to be discussed is “ What is a spore ?” Spores are the little brown

seed-like substances which are found in variously shaped clusters

on the back of fern fronds, either covered up at some time of their

existence by a thin membrane, or else always naked. Those

who are not botanists would call them seeds, but they are not seeds in

the sense in which we generally use the word. An ordinary flowering

plant produces flowers which possess stamens and pistils either in the

same or different flowers. On the stamens is a yellow cellular sub-

stance called pollen, which, when transferred to the pistil, fertilizes

the seed and causes it to mature. When the seed is ripe, if it is

planted in the ground, it will at once develope into a plant like that

which produced it. Now ferns are not flowering plants, and spores

are not seeds which have been fertilized by the action of pollen or in

any similar way, and will not at once produce a plant like that

from which they were gathered. What the process is I will now

describe. The spore, in shape, is somewhat angular, and consists of

two coats, an outer and an inner. When germination commences,

the inner coat is protruded as an elongated tube, which bursts, and

by cell division forms the prothallium which, in appearance, resem-

bles a small lichen of a brilliant emerald green colour. When the

prothallium first appears, it is only a bright green speck, but it will

sometimes grow to a size which equals a section through the middle

ofan ordinary sized sweet-pea seed. From the prothallium root

hairs are produced, and also, on the under surface two small bodies,

or cells, called antheridia and archegonia. The antheridia repre-

sent the stamens in a flowering plant, and are cells in which are

developed spiral filaments. The archegonia fill the place of the

pistil and ovary in a flowering plant ; in the centre is a canal leading

to the germ cell in which is a small corpuscle. When the proper

time has come, the antheridia burst, and the spiral filaments pene-

trate the germ cell and come in contact with the small corpuscle

therein, which is thus fertilized and forms the primordial

cell, from which the first frond springs. Thus the growth of a fern

from a spore is much more complicated than the growth of a plant

from a seed, Thus mifch science is necessary in order to enable us

to understand what is going on under our eyes, though all that can

be seen by the naked eye is the growth of the prothallium and the

root hairs, and the final appearance of the frond, ‘To pass on now to

ON THE CULTIVATION OF FERNS FROM SPORES. 189

practice. The fronds, the spores of which we desire to propagate,

should be gathered when the spores are just brown, but not before,

as they will probably not be sufficiently matured to germinate. If

left after they have turned brown, there is always a chance of the best

spores having been scattered, but in this matter one has often to take

his chance of whatis got. The fern from which the spores are taken

should be as isolated as possible, so as to eliminate the chance of the

spores of other ferns having dropped onits fronds. Having picked a

few pieces of a frond, or a few fronds if they are very small, they

should be placed in an envelope which should be closed, and care

should be take that every portion of the edge of each flap is gummed

down, otherwise if you tie up a number of these envelopes together

in a bundle, and have to travel any distance with them, the spores,

which detach themselves as soon the frond begitis to get a little dry,

will work out of one envelope and into another in the most extra-

ordinary way. When you want to sow the spores the envelope should

be cut along three sides of jt with a sharp knife. On opening the enve-

lope a large portion of spores will be found to have detached them-

selves; the pieces of fronds should then be shaken so as to clear

them of spores, and if there are any spores still adhering to the

underside of the frond, they should be rubbed off. The spores are

then ready for sowing, unless the covering of the spores while on

the fronds should happen to be bulky, in which casea little cautious

shaking will separate the spores from the chaff, which can then be

removed. ‘This, as well as the sowing, should be done in some place

protected frem the wind, as the spores are very light and easily

carried away by even a slight breath of air. Next as to the soil

in which they should be sown. Ferns will germinate in any

ordinary soil, but if you happen to take soil from the neighbour-

hood of growing ferns, it nearly always contains a quantity of

spores of those ferns which will germinate before those you sow,

and will in many cases crowd them out. ‘The great thing is to

get earth which contains no spores. I have successfully used

earth which has been dug from the bottom of a newly-made deep

excavation: but the best course it to take an ordinary brick and

burn it thoroughly in a hot fire, so as to destroy any organic sub-

stance which may be in or adherent to it, and then powder it and

put the powder into a tin canister, and keep it away from the garden.

When you wish to sow fern spores, take a clean pot, fill it up to

about half an inch from the top with good sweet mould, sprinkle

190 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

that with a thin layer of powdered charcoal, and cover that with a

little less than one-eighth of an inch of the burnt brick powder.

Smooth the surface, and press it gently so as to consolidate it.

On this surface the spores should be sprinkled evenly and not too

thickly, covered with a glass, a plain common finger-glass is

very good, and water gently poured on the outside of the glass so as

to moisten the earth in the pot without disturbing the spores, and

by watering in this way from time to time the earth under the

glass should be kept damp. After a time the bright green prothal-

lia will appear, and after another interval the first frond curled up

at the edge of the prothallium, But patience is needed at this stage,

as the prothallia will sometimes be a long time in making their

appearance ; with other ferns the prothallia will come up very rapidly,

but the fronds will be along time in appearing. As soon as there

are three fronds, the fern should be taken out of the germinating

pot by means of a thin pointed stick and planted in a good ordinary

mould, and kept without glass in the shade for a few days, when it

will be fit to put in some place where if may get a little early morn-

ing sun, When once the plant is recognizable as afern the progress

of its growth differs very much. Some species grow very rapidly,

so that in fifteen months I have grown a fern with stalks to its fronds

four or five feet high, and the fronds stretching out from six to

eight feet from side to side. On the other hand, I have had other

species apparently refusing to grow at all for two or three years,

and then getting on all right. On the table you will see some speci-

mens of the ordinary way in which seedling ferns grow in size,

You may ask, what is the good of taking all this trouble? In the

first place it is very interesting to watch the whole course of fern

lifey and to study the infantile forms of ferns. Then you can often

get a piece of fern frond with spores on it from places from which

it would be dificult to get a fern. It is also much easier to take on

one’s walks half-a-dozen envelopes and fill them with fern

fronds, than to take a coolie and a basket to carry roots you

may wish to dig up, or to find some fern which you covet, while

walking alone, and after digging it up, having to carry it home

in your hand. At the same time I believe that in the study

of the rudimentary forms of ferns will be a great means of

determining to what class a fern belongs. Those who have had

anything to do with the names of ferns must know how tiresome it

is to find the same fern known by different names. Now where

ON THE CULTIVATION OF FERNS FROM SPORES. 191

there is a dispute as to the class in which a fern should be placed, I

believe in many cases the class could be determined by growing

from spores the fern whose class was disputed, and ferns acknow-

ledged to belong to each of the classes to which the fern in dispute

was referred, and comparing the first or first two fronds of each. I

have not had time to work this out yet, but I have noticed a strong

generic likeness in the very early fronds of ferns of the same class

which does not continue so strong as the plant grows up to maturity.

T have also found that where a fern has for a long time been classed

in some particular class, but subsequently placed by some botanists

in a separate class, the early form of that fern has turned out to be

quite different from the early form of those with which it has been

previously classed. How far this could be worked out I cannot at

present say, and I am afraid I shall never be able to work it out as I

should like, because I feel I am wanting in that enthusiasm on the

subject, with just. a slight touch of madness, which is necessary for

the successful working out of a problem like this.

Dr. D. MacDonald proposed a vote of thanks to Mr, M. H. Star-

. . . * f °

ling for his interesting paper, and the meeting ended.

BOOK NOTICE

SPORT AND TRAVEL

An interesting journal of ’ Sport and Travel” has been written by Mr. H.

Liscomb, who appears to be a most ardent sportsman. The book describes prin-

| i .

cipally the sport to be found in the district of Astor, just beyond the Cashmere

frontier. The list of game-animals of Astor is not a long one, and comprises two

Cashmere is famous—the markhor and ibex—and urin (or wild

animals for which

Describing the markhor,

sheep), the brown or snow bear, and the musk deer.

Mr. Liscomb says :—

], recorded on the spot, inclines me to think

My experience of the Astor anima

wears a dirty white coat on his

that the male, in the month of April, at any rate,

e distance down his sides, making him a very conspicuous

back, which hangs som

object indeed among rocks ; the light “ blue grey, ” or “greyish brown,” hardly

visible on the body. These were the old males ; the young

es, were decidedly’ of a “muddy red,” that made them, when they were

motionless, undistinguishable from their surroundings at even a short distance.

eeks later, in another locality, across the Indus (Damot Valley) the old

oad streak of dirty-white along their backs, and the light blue

bucks, herding with

the femal

Two w

bucks had only a br

grey was very conspicuous.

his long back and disproportionately short

The markhor is an ungainly animal ;

ather detract from his appearance as a game looking beast; his shaggy coat

legs r

192

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

and long hair which conceal the upper portions of his limbs make his ungainliness

more conspicuous. Even in his gait he is not graceful, but none can deny his

wonderful activity among the rocks and precipices of his favourite haunts, and he

is notwithstanding these detractions, a noble animal, worthy the powder and lead

of the best sportsman in the world. A venerable buck, standing solitary on a

rock, contemplating the world below him, will make the blood of the most blasé

sportsman tingle in his veins: or a herd of long-bearded seniors, gravely crossing a

patch of snow, perhaps, just beyond the reach of your rifle, isa sight that will

recur to your memory for many a year after. And the amount of fatigue and

labour that you will have to undergo before you can bring a forty incher to bag will

certainly create a wholesome respect in your bosom for the acute sense of smell and

vision, and the wide-awakeness that this animal possesses in perfection.

My experience is that the markhor is not a cold or snow-loving animal like the

ibex, though nature has not been niggardly in supplyiug him with winter cloth-

ing. He passes his life at a much lower level, at all seasons of the yearthan the

other animal, and he seems to bear the heat of the early summer months with-

out any inconvenience though he still wears his winter suit. As summer advances,

he is driven higher by the flocks from the villages that graze gradually up as the

snow keeps melting ; and also by the swarms of flies, gnats, midges, and what not

that make life a burden both to man and beast at alow level. The fresh and tender

grass, too, can be found only near the snow line. These circumstances combine

to keep him constantly moving upwards, till he reaches open slopes near the top

of the range where he may then be seen in close proximity to the ibex. The rut-

ting season overtakes him here by the end of September or ,beginning of

October, and he has his short season of madness at this high elevation where

cover is scarce and precipices unfrequent. Native shikaries have informed me

that this is the time for markhor shooting, and that they themselves hunt him

most frequently at this particular time. His shyness and seclusion, I am

inclined to think, is caused a good deal by those ever present pests, the flies.

The cool shades of the forest and thicket preserve him from their attacks during

the heat of the day when these insects are liveliest. In the morning and evening

when the cold has paralyzed the activity of the flies, the markhor is not loth to take

advantage of the opportunity. The old bucks are decidedly lazy, and if a flock.

of them is watched for some time, a decided stiffaess and’ slowness of movement

will soon discover the seniors of the flock. The younger bucks are’ full of life

and play, quick in their movements and have a set-to after every dozen mouth-

ful of grass ; the elders are always feeding or resting. The native shikaries say,

the old bucks keep these youngsters with them for the sake of their keener sense

of sight and smell, they are quicker to detect danger and so warn their seniors.

THE IBEX

Regarding the ibex, Mr. Liscomb writes :—

The ibex is by no one means an ungainly animal, as I have styled the markhor.

He is lord of the mountain-tops, and looks every inch the monarch of all he sur-

veys. But I must protest against the caricature of this animal at page 445 in

Sterndale’s book. The head shows none of the massiveness of the living animal ;

ROOK NOTICE. : 193

and where, oh! where is the beard, ‘‘ from six to eight inches long?” As for the

understandings of the figures in the book they are truly a libel on the sturdy limbs

of this the gamest of mountain animals. Thosespindle shanks would snap like pipe-

stems, if they were used as I have seen the ibex use his legs while jumping from

rock to rock in his mad career.

The ibex is the pleasantest animal to hunt that I know of within the limits

of Kashmir. More real pleasure has been experienced in the pursuit after him than

of all the rest put together. Markhor takes it out of you in a very short time;

after you have secured a reasonable trophy you are apt td ery, “ hold enough ;”

But the ibex is a gentleman in his manners and customs, as compared with his

spiral horned cousin lower down on the mountain ; and he gives you all the chances

that a gentlemanly-minded animal should give to an honest foe. He is neverthe-

less “ All there ’when treading his ancestral hills, and after you have circumvent-

ed him, you feel that he has been a worthy opponent.

The most wide-awake animal in creation is certainly the female ibex, and she

seems to exercise her vigilance solely for the benefit of the ungrateful male of her

kind, who is by no means so watchful ; in fact, if he is old and lazy, he keeps no

look-out at all, after having comfortably laid himself up for the day. That duty

falls to his compact little companion, and admirably she performs it. Uncomfort-

ably perched of a jutting rock far above the rest of the flock, who are securely

snoozing below on some soft patch of level or gently sloping ground, the sportsman’s

powerful telescope has watched her hour after hour lying motionless on her rocky

bed, scanning untiringly, to the right and to the left and straight down before her,

the mountain sides for miles and miles. The patient native of Kashmir

is used to her sentry duty, and after taking in the situation, he too falls asleep like

the bearded males, he is trying to circumvent, aud waits patiently for a chance, but

the hot-blooded Saxon, boiling over with energy and impatience, 1s fuming and

swearing at one moment; and at the next watching the little animal through his

glasses. The ease isa perfectly hopeless one, there is no approach nearer than a

thousand yards, without instant detection, for several hours to come at any rate ;

and the bad language that contaminates the pure mountain air in that locality is

truly awful! How often have I resolved in these moments of desperation to shoot

that one female in particular, and allow the long-horned careless one sleeping just

beyond range, to go in peace just for the satisfaction of the thing. That feeling

has come to more persons than myself, I am sure, when they have been similarly

placed. The female ibex is the béte noir of the sportsman ; she has spoiled many

acareful stalk, and at other times has foreed him to trudge many and many a weary

wile to escape her all-seeing eye : when, if she had been absent, a walk of a few

hundred yards would have placed him for his shot. : :

The report of the rifle is so similar to noises in these elevated regions that ibex

are little alarmed by the crack of the weapon. “Walling rock,’ or ‘‘ thunder’

is the first idea that occurs to them when the sound reaches their

first start is to get out of the way of those familiar dangers. When a good stalk

ig made and the sportsman has his wits about him, several shots can almost always

rare when three or four animals have been

ears, and_ their

be obtained, and instances are not

bagged at one stalk. The ground, too, in general is so favourable that the stalker

can get within yery short range , always providing, that the sharp-sighted female

194,

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

has been successfully dodged. Ihave shot bucks, at five, ten and fifteen yards

distances, and a sportsmaa has informed me that oa one occasion he could have

touched the animals with the muzzle of his rifle.

CHASING THE MARKHOR,

Mr. Liscomb describes very minutely his experiences in search of markhor, and

he shows that the sportman must make up his mind to be frequently disap-

pointed before meeting with his reward. Here is an account of a successful

chase :—

18th May.—Started after these blessed buck goats, again at 6 a.m. Went up to

top of ridge and then along it till we came to their tracks ; and followed them down

steadily for four hours. Going down this ridge was terrible work indeed. I

am sure, we did not get over a milein that time. The whole distance was one

mass of crumpled rocks with great gaps between—the rocks were knife-edges, the

edges to the sky, the slope below at a frightful angle, for a short distance, ending

in blank precipices further down. Mirza Khan led over this dangerous ground at a

good pace, always some distance ahead, going over double the ground I traversed,

carefully peeping over the precipices on cither side, and searching the hill sides

below with the binoculars. Sharofa looked serious and did not relish the work at

all, for Mirza Khan beat him at it out and out ; and he had to play second fiddle

throughout. I gave in after 9 a. m., and sat down on a rock, blessing the goats

with all my heart. I. kept my eyes on Mirza Khan all the time a good distance

below, quartering the ground like the best of trained dogs. At last came his faint

whistle, and it galvanized the whole of us like the shock from a battery. The

real excitement of the chase now began. I went as best I could and reached

Mirza Khan in no time ; he said he had sighted the flock far down the precipices !

He led for half a mile more and then we had the markhor under us! They were

feeding at the foot of the cliff on a patch of young tender grass. It was impossible

to geta shot from this point : we had to go along the ridge some distance further

and take them in flank, though the range would be greater; came to a good place,

a projecting rock with a stunted fir-tree growing by; it served for some covey

though cover was not necessary. We were above the animals, and they were

so intent on the young grass that there was no danger of detection. Got into

position and picked out the largest pair of horns I could see; waited for some

time, till I got a broadside shot, fired and—missed! Fired the second barrel and

missed again! ‘Took the second rifle, and at the third shot broke a foreleg. An-

other large markhor came into view, fired the fourth shot at him and missed!

Took first rifle (re-loaded by Sharofa) and fired again at the wounded one, who was

now making off, and missed again! The agony of that moment was hard to

bear. The brute was limping off and would be round a projection and out of

sight in ten paces more! Luckily, just at the turn, he stopped for a second to

look back. My last shot and my last chance. Desperation made me steady,

I put up the second sight, and with deliberate aim placed the bullet at last in the

proper spot, behind the right shoulder, andthe markhor rolled down the slope

some distance and lay dead. ‘The range of this shot could not have been less

than 300 yards, Firing downwards at an angle of 30 degrees is very difficult

BOOK NOTICE. 195

work, and many misses must occur unless the hunter is well practised in this

kind of hunting. At the last shot, the animal, though further off, was nearly

level with me, and hitting him was easier. Mirza Khan and Ghariba, with

drawn knife, started off at a frightful pace for the ‘ halal *” (cutting the throat),

but the ground was most difficult ; they had to go back some distance the way

we had come, then go down round one slope, cross the ravine and up the opposite

hillside, on which the markhor was lying. It took them atleast 15 minutes before

they appeared on the opposite side, whereas the poor old buck had been goat’s

meat for nearly half an hour! The halal was a failure; but would not have been

if Sharofa had not been so orthodoxically scrupulous. He shouted out that the

animal was dead, and that no halal was possible; but to be careful about cutting

well below the neck, &c., &e. Ghariba, in a rage, shouted back that he would

halal. Sharofa then said the meat would be“ makruh, ” unlawful ; that was the end

of the meat. I now found out from Sharofa that, in this country, the game is

always considered “halal” provided the hunter, after shooting the animal, follows

him up and never sits down till he has cut his throat, though his last act may be

performed hours. after the animal has been hit, orisdead. But for this convenient

interpretation of the laws a good deal of meat would be wasted in a difficult country

like this. , In all countries, where Mussalmans are the hunters, they always have

some convenient dodge like the above. Sharofa superintended the eutting off the

head through the telescope. When this was done we left our perch on the: rock,

going back and then down hill, making for the main stream. Then up to tent ab

2-30 p.m.—and so ends the hunt of the 47-inches. Dimensions—length of horn

round curve, 47 inches; girth at base, 11-25 inches; divergence at tips, 26°75 inches.

I measured the hoof of one of the forelegs, length, 3:5 inches; breadth at heel,

2:25 inches. Of my six shots only two took effect ; the third broke the left foreleg

at the knee, the sixth through the right shoulder—a splendid shot at 300 yards

‘if not more.

IBEX SHOOTING,

I have only another week for sbikar and then my return tramp must begin, so I

had better make the most of the few days left. Breakfasted, and went down spur ‘

into Boin Valley. Had not gone far when a hurricane of wind and snow and sleet

came on, and I had to crouch behind a rock not much larger than myself on the

bare hill-side: there was no other cover in sight, a few small birch trees were scat-

tared about. Remained in this position for an hour; and saw no hope of the storm

abating somade for camp straight down instead of going along the hill-side towards

the head of the valley. We were thus obliged to abandon the exploration of a

most likely portion of ibex country. Had not gone far when the storm suddenly

‘ame to an end. We regretted much having come down so soon; but a Providence

directs the movements of a solitary sportsman as well as the march of a nation.

Sitting on the bill-side and scanning the central ridge of Boin, where I had shot the

ibex, Mirza Khan saw three large bucks, not far from the spot where the first

one had been bagged, but about 600 yards further down, towards the end of the

spur, in the direction of camp! Had the shower not driven us down so low we

would certainly have missed seeing these three! Two of the ibex were grazing about,

the third was lying near a large flat white: stone, a capital mark for guiding the

196 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

stalkers. He was a few yards above the other two, and certainly had the le rgest

horns of all. Ina direct line, they were not more than a mile from us, but to

get to them we had certainly to go double the distance, down to the bottom of the

velley, across the stream, and upagain over some precipices that, from this side,

looked utterly impossible. It did not take us long to rush down to the bottom

but going up was much slower work. We had some trouble getting across the cliffs.

There was luckily a goat path along the rocks that Mirza knew and followed.

There were bad places in it here ‘and there, but they were all crossed without a

thought in the presence of the game above us. After this, going along the hill-

side was easy enough, and I think we got into position above our quarry

within an hour from our start. They had not moved from the spot where we

had marked them down, and the large-horned one was. still taking his ease

near the white rock. By cautious creeping we got within fifteen yards of the

large one in our front, and about thirty from the other two feeding below us.

This was a most exciting positioa to be in, but it was also a most uncomfortable

and trying one for me who had to use the rifle. The slope of the hill was very

abrupt, and I could not get firm footing on the crumbling earth. I was stand-

ing behind a rock, partially covered by the branches of a small tree. When I

stood on tip-toe, I could see the ibex lying down gazing steadily across the valley.

There was a shallow water channel between us. When I stooped down I could

see him indistinctly between the leaves of the tree. In neither position could

I fire, and the excitement and uncertain footing were telling on my nerves!

I bore this for at least two minutes, looking right into the eyes of the unconscious

buck and admiring the splendid sweep of his horns. There was a far-off look

in his large liquid eyes, as if he were watching for danger on the hill-side oppo-

site, where we must have been under his view an‘hour ago ; he certainly was not

conscious of the danger within fifteen yards of him! Sometimes he would lazily

shake his head and flap his ears to drive the flies off, then he certainly looked

into my eyes, but the thick screen of leaves and the rock prevented discovery.

The wind was, of course, in the right direction for us. There was a small round

vacant space among the leaves throngh which, I thought, I could bring

the sights to bear on the buck’s shoulder as he lay, but I still had to raise

myself on my toes a little, and that was not a steady position for a shot! ~ There

was, however, no other way, and I had to chance it. Motioning Sharofa to

hold up my feet with his hands, I stood on tip-toe, took aim and fired. Of

course I missed! The buck sprang to his feet and stood confounded for a

moment andI gave him the second barrel of No. 1. I missed aga! The ibex

vanished round the hill and [ thought seriously of suicide; but Sharofa brought

me to my senses by telling me to look out for the other two. 1 turned round

and went down a few paces but no bucks could be seen. A minute after, as

we stood motionless, ready for their appearance, one of them rushed from under

our position to my right about 40 yards off. He was going at a good space, but I

tumbled him over like a rabbit with a bullet through his neck.—Bombay Gazette.

PROCEEDINGS. 197

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY

Procerpines of tHe Mrerine oN 9tH Apri, 1888,

The usual monthly meeting of this Society took place on Monday, the 9th April

1888. Dr. D. MacDonald presiding. About 75 members were present.

The following new members were elected :—Mr. P. W. Mackinnon, Mr. Alfred

Mull, Mr. Donald Bain, Mr. Thomas Summers, Lieut. H. R. F. Anderson.

Mr. H. M. Phipson announced that the following contributions to the Society’s

collections have been received :—

Conrrisutions IN MARCH.

Contribution. Description. | Contributor.

I Insect Cabinet ....0......4 PEs ne | Mr. J. Parmenides.

1 Snake (alive) ..............., Tropidonotus ee

ALTIS wsesserees

Mr. J. Brand.

2 Leverets (alive) .......0.5 Lepus ruficandatus ..| Mrs. Wilkins.

58 Birds Eggs ...... ..| From Sikkim «....... ..| Mr. J. C. Parker.

3 Turtles’ Skulls From Aden .,.... ..| Mr. G. McMullen.

19 Animals Skulls Prom Canara ...4.5..,...|) Mire. A. Hill,

1 Malabar Squirrel sei Sciurus malabaricus ...... Do.

2 Bear’s Skins .......00 Ursus labiatus . Do.

1 Cheetal’s Skin ............} Axis macilatus Do.

1 Panther’s Skin ........++6 WeLS Pardus 4.0.60... 6.1 1ss 50 Do.

A Number of aaa Ter- :

MOAIECS: 00 sts) ’ Termes dirds s1ss0s..00| Dr. Day.

1 Aviary... With 19 birds ..| Mr. E. M. Slater. -

1 Panther’ 8 ‘Skull Felis pardus ...... ewes Do.

A. Collection of Moths From Satara «....| Mr. R. B. Stewart, 0. 8.

1 Lesser Civet . Viverra mallacensis ..,... Mr. H. Bicknell.

1 Chinese Gold Fish (aliy ) With abnormal tail Capt: A. Moore, R. N.

A Quantity of Shells ......J From Trincomallee..

Do.

Dr. D’Monte.

LoSnak6. 6.5 icc. seer] Ptyas mucosus 1...

2 Hen’s Eggs... ...| Curiously deformed Mr. W. Stephens,

PMS 8 iii veeevevccuses Lycodon aulicus Genl. Pottinger .

A number of Beetles ...... From Zanzibar .........+.| Rev. A. Baur,

A collection of Snakes, Li-

_zards, Scorpions, Cen-

* tipedes and Insects ...) From Trincomalee .........| Mr. W. Connop, R. N.

1 Stuffed Fish .......... TLetrodon sp.. “ Do.

1 Four-horned Antelope. Tetraceros quadiricomns. Mr. H. 8. Wise.

2 Sunbirds.. i as, ae Mr. R. A. Straw.

3 large Gourds . ane From Muscat iscetivdes oc Mite S2-Ve Sukhtankar.

A nuteber of Geological

Specimens: ss.5...0. 6. From Aurungabad Mr. F. Rose, P. W. D.

A Painting of the Fruit of] Sterculia guttata...... Mrs. John Jardine.

Mr. H. W. Jones exhibited. two of the new 28 bore sporting guns by MacNaughten

of Edinburgh, which are said to shoot as well as an ordinary 12 bore, while they

weigh only 4lbs. Goz.

Mr. ¥. A. Hill also exhibited two fine pair of bisons’ horns, shot by him in Canara.

PRocEEDINGS OF THE Mrntine on 71H May, 1888.

The usual monthly meeting took place on Monday, the 7th May, 1888, Mr. J. H.

Steel, A.V.D., presiding.

The following new members were elected : Mr. F. C. Rimington, Major J. H. Yule,

and Dr. James Munday.

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

The Honorary Secretary acknowledged the following contributions since the last

Meeting :—

ConrriBuTioONS RECEIVED DURING APRIL.

Contribution. Description. Contributor.

1 Spotted Owlet (alive) ...| Carine brama ............... Mrs Gilbert.

L Crocodiles Skit 3.3... ..| Crocodilus palustris ..| Mrs. Pearson.

1 Snake . Dipsas gOKOOL sic. ss. etend: Mr. M. C. Turner.

Ptiloris alberti and EHpi-

machas speciosus .........| Dr. Hay.

7 Crocodiles’ Eggs ......... From Tulsi Take ............) Mr. S. Tomlinson.

A number of Marine

Specimens:...............| Drom a depth of 52

fathoms ... :

2 Birds of : Paradise | ees

Mr. G. B. Stacey.

1 Otter (mounted) .......... Lutra nair ... Dr. W. Kay.

2 Chukor Partridges (alive), Caccabis chukor Dr. Anderson.

1 Fox’s Skull | Vulpes bengalensis ......... Mr. F. Gleadow.

‘

‘|

A quantity of Lizards,

Snakes, and Insects ..

8 Snakes ....

1 Wallaby (alive) .

2 Snakes .....

1 Hyena Cub (alive) .

1 Crocodile (alive)

2 Panther’s Cubs (alive)

From Surat Do.

Hrom Poous 1... .| Mr, R. Wroughton.

Macropus sp.......... .| Mr. H. Wenden.

Brom Aden \\0<... Capt. Wilson.

Hyena striata Rey. R. Winsor.

6 feet in length.... Mr, 8. Louard.

Felis pardus Mr. H. 8. Winter, C. 8.

1 Python (alive) eee Python reticulatus ......... Dr. Jas. Munday.

1 Spoonbill’s Head (mount- |

GUD ae ho cre norccne | Platalea leucorodia, ......... Capt A. Gwyn.

CoNTRIBUTIONS To THE LIBRARY.

Natural History of Plants (Baillon), from Dr. Dymock.

Study of the Mango Weevil (Simmonds), from the Author.

Life of Hrasmus Darwin (Krause), Mr. James Murray.

Report of the Smithsonian Museum, Mr. James Murray.

Minerals and the Use of the Blowpipe (Griffin), Mr. James Murray. ;

Advanced Text Book of Geology (Page), Mr. James Murray.

The Fodder Grasses of Northern India (Duthie), from the Author,

Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Nos. 8 and 4.

Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales, (Vol IL, Part IV.

PrRoposat To Starr a ZoonocicaL GARDEN.

Mr. H. M, Phipson stated that a great many valuable specimens of animals had of

late been offered to the Society, which owing to want of accommodation in their

rooms in the Fort, they had been obliged to decline. He was of opinion that the

time had now arrived when the Society should obtain, if possible, a convenient site

on which to form a Zoological Garden of its own. Mr. Phipson reminded the mem-

bers present that the finest collection of live animals in the world, the one in London,

was originally started by, and had throughout been under the sole management

of a private scientific society. There were sites in and about Bombay which would

suit the purpose admirably, and if one of them could only be obtained, he felt sure

the Bombay Natural History Society was strong enough to carry out the project:

PROCEEDINGS. 199

with success. Such a garden would, in a short time, become the chief attraction of

the City, and ifthe entrance fee on native holidays did not exceed an anna, the

advantages of such a place would be fully appreciated by tae great mass of the

people. The few animals, at present kept in the Victoria Gardens at Byculla, were

not in a satisfactory condition, but the Municipality could not reasonably be expected

to form a zoological collection at the expense of the ratepayers, and as Govern-

ment had decided that no charge could be made for admission into the Victoria

Gardens, after they had been so long open to the public, nothing could be done in

that direction.

Mr. N. S. Symons said that he quite agreed with all the Honorary Secretary's

remarks, and suggested that the committee should carefully consider the subject and

place some definite plan before the members at an early meeting.

Dr. D. MacDonald seconded the proposal, which was carried unanimously.

Dr. J. A. da Gama then read an interesting paper on the “‘Origin of the Belief in the

so-called Bis Cobra,” showing that the name is a corruption of bicho-de-cobra (i.e.

the destroyer of cobras), ‘a term applied to the mongoose by the early Portuguese

settlers. Dr. J. A. da Gama quoted many ancient and quaint historians to prove

this assertion, including Pierre Belon, Prospero Alpini, Engelbert Kaempfer, and

Garcia de Orta. From the last writer it may be gathered that the Portuguese

regarded the mongoose as a poisonous animal, andit was frequently referred to as

that poisonous reptile, bicho-de-cobra, a creature whose venom was even greater than

that of the dreaded cobra-de-capello. The Portuguese eventually adopted the term

mongoose, and the word bis cobra gradually fell into disuse and was forgotten by them,

but among the natives the idea of the poisonous reptile bis cobra still remained, and

it has been handed down with exaggerated accounts of its tremendous poisonous

properties. A full report of this paper will be found on page 1d}.

Mr. J. H. Steel proposed'a vote of thanks to Dr, J. A. de Gama for his

valuable paper in which he had traced out the origin of a term which had greatly

puzzled naturalists of late.

The Honorary Secretary then quoted extracts from an exceedingly interesting

paper received from Mr. L. de Nicéville, of Calcutta, on “ Butterflies and Ants,”

which, owing to the lateness of the hour, could not be read in full. The paper

appears in this number, page 164, with illustrations supplied by Mr. de Nicéville.

PROCEEDINGS oF THE MrntinG HELD ON 2NpD Juxy, 1888.

Tue usual monthly meeting of this Society took place on Monday, the 2nd July,

1888, and was largely attended. Dr. D, Macdonald presided.

The following new members were elected :—The Hon. Mr. Justice Parsons, Mr.

Ameeroodin Tyabjec, Captain E. R. Shopland, Mr. Ww. S. Hexton, Mr. O. Myer, Mr.

W. H. Trail, Mr. John Trail, Mr. W. 8 Millard, Mr. W. H. W. Searle, Mr. W. L..

Cameron, 0.H., Mr. J. L. Jenkins, Lieutenant B. Whitehouse, R.N., Dr. I. B. Lyon,

and Mr. Kaikhosro N. Kabrajee.

Mr. H. M. Phipson, the Honorary Secretary, then acknowledged the following

contributions :—

BOMBAY

NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY.

smilsiaslicaice puRING May AnD Tove

Contributions

Nests

Edible Nest Swiftlet.

1 Cat’s Head (mounted).

1, Snake saliva)... pissin

1 Jackal’s Skull...

I Otters Sicall .....,

1 Crocodile (alive). ne

1 Scorpion with young ee

BAUS (ALIVE) cae ee cscs

orns of the brow antlered

Deer,

A. collection of Snakes.

Trap-door Spider’s Nest.

4 live Fish in a glass bowl.

65 specimens of “Bock,

Egos 4...

1 Pore upine’s 8 Skuil ..

1 Indian Monitor .....,

A Quantity of Corals

16 Crocodiles’ Hggs,,

Coral and Shells...............

Net of the Common Honey-

Sucker,

de BOSkO cd civietet

1 Gecko .... “ga

1 Pied Crested

(alive).

Cuckoo;

A Quantity of Stalactites

and Stalagmites.

1 Snake ........

1 Large H oneycomb...

Head of Nilgiri Wild Goat.

Corals

1 Tortoise (alive) Testudo elegans

1 Lynx (alive) ... Felis caracal......

1 Panther Cub (alive). Felis pardus ,

I Hyend Sin 3. Hyena striata ..ccccccees dss

1 Indian Monitor (alive)

Lizards

Rata ii.

Kges of..

Do,

Do.

1 Rose Ringed Paraquet ..

- ae Bi

i te (al ie).

1 Black

Shrike.

Hore-arm of Lion.«.,.13¢,,,

1 Paradise Flycatcher.,

DP Lidrd us Vii

1 Pair Sambur | Horny: |

1 Nilgiri Goat’s Head ......

1 Indian Monitor (alive) ..

A Quanity of Larves

1 Flying Lizard...

i Sne sae

Headed Cuckoo!

From Baroda

| Description. | ‘Oonitbutoh.:

and Eggs of the] Collocalia linchii............ Lieut. B. Whitehouse, R. N.

Felis chaus .

Lycodon aulicus

Canis aureus..

Lutra nair, ‘

Crocodilus pe alu tris.

Magaderma lyra ...........

Rucervis Cldit..; ercsccks os

From Burma

Do.

Found while excavating

the Victoria Dock, Bom-

bay.

Pratincola caprata

Elyetris loucuray <ii.acc.,

5 feet in length -.,..0..05.0

Crocodilus palustris

From the Red Sea, ....

Cinnyris zeylonica

Passerita mycterizans

With twor tailec.e. tesivess

Coccystes melanoleucos ...

Struck by lightning.

From Poona

Trimeresurus strigatus ...

Capra hylocrius

From Persian Gulf ..

Varanus draceona...........

ks, rouxii

@) 8 fe

Gnastdd Black Bunting

White. cheeked Or ested

Bulbul.

Crimson-winged Laughing

Thrush.

Collocalia unicolor .,

Naga tripudians............

Voloccivora Syksii ........

Brom: Gajerat i vais

Muscipeta paradisi

Chiamela lineata

Abnormal ,

Capra hylocrius

Varanus dracena,

‘| Payllidas BPs Wirtin

Draco dussumieri....,......,

Cynopis malabaricus ..

MV BALE SP. fic,

From Canara

——

Mr. EH. L. Chappel, 0.8,

Mr. W. W. Squire, C.E.

Mr, R. P. Strong.

Do.

Mr. A, Breul.

Capt. Dixon,

Mr, L. H, Butcher,

Dr, Henderson,

Do.

Mr. Cowajsee D.Furdoonjee.

Mr. J. Fleming, C.1.B.

Lieut. H. HE. Barnes.

Mr, E. L, Cappel, C.S.

Mr: M. C. Turner.

Do.

Mr, 8. Tomlinson,

Mrs. Briscoe.

Mi Eu

Hatch.

My AoW; Barrow.

Mr. S. Cooke.

Mr. W. J. Essai.

Mr, W. Shipp.

Do,

Mr. H. M. Slater.

Mr, Vishbhoocan Atmaram,

Mr. H. M. Slater,

Capt, W. Morrison, R.N.

Mr. Krishnarao B. Navalkar.

Capt F. D. Alexander,

Lieut, A. F. Pinhey.

Mr EK. Von. Hagtslniann.

Capt. R. C. Dixon,

Rev. F, Dreckmann, 8, J.

Do.

Mr. J. Parker,

Dor.

Do.

Sergt. Major Webb,

Dr. Langley.

Mr. G, Carstensen.

Capt. Becher, B.A.

Mr. Ameeroodin Tyabji,

Dr, da Gama.

Mr. J. E. Wilberbone,

Mr. W. Lee Kirby.

Dr, A. C. Gaye.

Mr, W. Holland,

Mrs. Ricketts.

Mr, T. B.D: Bell,

Do.

Mrs. H. 8. Wise.

Do.

PROCEEDINGS. 201

ConTRIBUTIONS To THE Liprary, May anp June.

Title of Book. Presented by

Journal of Comparative Medicine and Surgery, Vol. [X., No 2.) By exchange.

Proceedings of the Zoological Society, 1886, Part 4, 1887, Part 1. Mr. Jas. Murray.

Large Game Shooting in Thibet, Himalayas and N. India.| Mr. C. B. Lynch.

(Kinloch)

Nature) Volssels Einpahdalhlt aA RvR Ge Rd RO AG Rane?

British Association Report, 1881 .... Do,

Fertilization of Orchids (Darwin)... Do.

The Aquarian Naturalist (Rymer Jones). Ba

Bulletin of the California Academy of Science, No. have

Evolution without Natural Selection (Dixon)

Wheat and Rice Weevils in India (Cotes).

Introduction of Insecticides into India (Cotes). Sassi

List of the Butterflies of Khorda in Orissa. .......

Mr, G.Ormiston,C.E.

By exchange.

Capt. Becher, R. A.

From the Author.

Do.

Mr. W. C. Taylor

AN APPEAL FOR HELP.

The Honorary Secretary stated that he had heard recently from Mr. Robert

Wroughton, of Poona, with respect to the collection of Hymenopterous insects (ants,

bees, wasps, &c.) which that gentleman had for some years past been making for

the Society. The collection now consisted of 489 species, but as the majority of

these had been caught in the neighbourhood of Poona, the supply was nearly exhaust-

ed in that part of the country. The assistance of every member of the Society was

earnestly solicited in order that this very valuable collection might be increased.

Mr. Wroughton was now trying to work out the ‘life history’ of the different species,

and was consequently in want of the nests of all sorts of the hymenoptera. The

females ofsome wasps were unknown, andas many of the hymenoptera were sup-

posed to be parasitic on one another, discoveries could only be made by breeding

and rearing. “Mud-balls” of all sorts so common on the walls of bath-rooms and

verandahs, bits of rotten sticks hollowed out and closed up, ‘brown paper” nests.

&e., should all be carefully collected, and sent to Mr. R, Wroughton, Forest Officer,

Poona. The best way of transmitting specimens is to send them packed in dry

sawdust, but each nest should be sent in a separate box.

: EXHIBITS.

Mr. EH. L. Barton exhibited 3 tiger’s heads and one bear’s head recently mounted

by him for members of the Society, all of which were greatly admired.

has recently invented. It appeared to possess the two essentials, strength and

lightness, and when doubled up ina canvas bag with mosquito curtains, poles, &.,

complete, weighed only 16lbs.

THE PROPOSED ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS,

The following letters, written by the Honorary Secretary to the Collector of Bom.

bay and to the Municipal Commissioner, were laid before the meeting :—

——

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

6, Apollo Street, Bombay, 15th June, 1888.

From the Honorary Secretary, Bombay Natural History Society ; to the ContecTor

or Bombay, Bombay.

Siz,—(1). Ihave been requested by the Committee of the Bombay Natural History

Society to ask you whether the Government of Bombay would be disposed to assist

the Society in forming a zoological collection and aquarium, by placing at its disposal

a piece of land, free of rent and taxes, for that special purpose. ‘

(2). The principal reasons, which have induced the Committee to make the above

request, are the following :—

I. The number of valuable and interesting specimens which are constantly being

offered to the Society by its members from all parts of the country, but which owing

to want of accommodation, the Committee are unable to accept.

II. The great interest which the inhabitants of this country take in such collec-

tions, and the importance of imparting a more accurate knowledge regarding the

fauna of India and adjacent countries, regarding which the ignorance of the people

is So great.

III. The desire on the part of the Committee of this Society to facilitate and

promote scientific investigation regarding the habits of tropical animals, birds, and

fishes, kept under fayourable conditions for observation.

TV. The importance of increasing and improving the supply of fish (both fresh

and salt water) and other important articles of food.

Vv. The necessity of encouraging the acclimatization and domestication of various

birds and animals, and the importance of improving the indigenous breeds of

eattle and farm-stock in this country.

3. The few specimens of animals at present kept at the Victoria Gardens,

Byculla, are not in a satisfactory condition, but in the opinion of the Committee the

Municipality cannot be expected to incur any considerable expenditure in maintaining

a zoological collection at the cost of the ratepayers.

4. The Bombay Natural History Society, although it was started only in 1883,

is a flourishing and growing institution, with 420 members, and the Committee are

confident that if Government will grant them:a suitable site, they will be able, in a

few years time, to form a zoological collection which, besides being a credit to the

City, will become an important educational factor amongst the more intelligent part

of the native community.

5. The Committee count on the support of the Municipality of Bombay in carrying

out its project, and would be prepared, in return, to enter into an agreement for the

benefit of the poorer ratepayers, never to charge more than one anna entrance fee

for adults, and half-an-anna for children on all recognised public native holidays,

(6). The site which, in the opinion of the Committee, is the best suited for the

purpose of a zoological garden and aquarium, is the Chowpatty cliff, extending from

the footpath leading up the hill, on the right (formed by the main water pipe) to the

Siri Road on the left, including the vacant land at the foot of the hill. This land

appears to be of little value for building purposes, but owing to its being protected

from the strong sea winds, and beiug at the same time close to Back Bay, it possesses

particular advantages for a zoological collection and for the erection of fresh and

salt water aquaria, which the Committee consider to be of so much importance.

PROCEEDINGS. 203

(7). The Society would also be glad if Government would allow them to rent the

two bungalows which stand on the piece of land in question facing the old Chowpatty

Road.

(8). I enclose a rough sketch of the ground which the Society desire (marked with

blue lines on the plan), and attach a list of the present Office-bearers and Managing

Committee.—I have, &e.,

H.M. PHIPSON,

Honorary Secretary.

H. E. Lord Reay, GOIN. LL.D., President, Managing Committee: Hon.

Mr. Justice Birdwood (Vice-President), Dr. D. MacDonald (Vice-President), Dr.

G. A. Maconachie (Vice-President), Colonel C. Swinhoe, Rev. Fr, Dreckmann, Sid,

Dr. T. §. Weir, Dr. Kirtikar, Mr. J. H. Steel, A.V-D., Mr. G. W. Vidal, C. S.,

Mr, W. F. Sinclair, 0.8., Dr. Edith Pechey, Major W. 8. Bisset, R.H., Lieut. H. EH. Barnes,

Mr. J. O. Anderson, Mr. E. L. Barton; Mr. A. Leslie, Honorary Treasurer ;

Mr. H. M. Phipson, Honorary Secretary.

6, Apollo Street, Bombay, Lith June.

From the Honorary Secretary, Bombay Natural History Society; to the MUniciraL

CommisstoNer, Bombay.

Sir,—I have been requested by the Committee of the Bombay Natural History

Society to send you the enclosed copy of aletter, dated to-day, which I have addressed

to the Collector of Bombay on the subject of a site for a proposed Zoological Garden

in Bombay. The Committee are about to lay before the members of the Bombay

Natural History Society some definite proposals, but before doing so they would like

to know to what extent the Municipality would be disposed to co-operate with them

in carrying out so desirable a project.

Lam instructed to say that if the Municipality would agree to hand over to this

Society (in the event of their obtaining the site) the specimens now kept in the

Victoria Gardens, with the cages, building materials, &c., and to make an annual

contribution of a sum equal to the amount now spent in maintaining the animals, the

Committee of the Society would, in return, propose that for the benefit of the poorer

ratepayers, the Society should bind itself never to charge more than 1 anna for

adults, and } anna for children, as an entrance fee into its garden on all recognised

native public holidays. :

You will observe that the site which the Committee hope to obtain, and which

they consider to be most suitable for Zoological Gardens and Aquaria, is the piece

of vacant land at Chowpatty and the ground which extends up the side of the hill

to the edge of the cliff. The narrow piece of ornamental land between the road and

the edge of the cliff, would not be required, and the Society would engage not to

obscure the view in any way from he road.—I have, &c.,

H. M. PHIPSON,

Honorary Secretary,

13. ELANUS CARULEUS, Desf.

The Black-winged Vite.

4, SPILORNIS MELANOTIS, Jerd.

The Lesser Harmer Eagle.

hrome

London

JOURNAL

OF THH

BOMBAY

Aatural History Society

Wo. 4.] BOMBAY, DECEMBER, 1888. [Vol. Ill.

NESTING IN WESTERN INDIA.

By List. H. E. Barnus.

Works on Indian Oology are very few, and many years have

elapsed since the last was written. Colonel Marshall’s book,

« Birds Nesting in India,’ was published in 1877, and although

most invaluable to collectors; does not describe. fully. either nests

or eggs, and contains but few references to this side of India.

Mr. Hume’s splendid work, “Nests and Hggs of Indian Birds,”

was published in 1873, and has long been outof print. It describes

in the most careful manner, both nests and eggs, of all birds

known to breed in India at that time, and gives the fullest inform-

ation regarding both localities. and dates, but here again the

references to Western India are few and incomplete. I believe

that at one time Mr. Hume contemplated publishing a new and

revised edition; indeed, Colonel Marshall in the preface to his work

mentions having been allowed to take extracts from the mant-

scripts, which must at that time have been in an advanced stage.

ng now presented his collection to the British

being fully taken up with another and per-

Mr. Hume havi

Museuin, and his time

haps more important subject, renders it extremely unlikely that

this work will ever be published; this is to be the more regretted

as it would have contained much matter especially interesting to

Western Indian ornithologists. A great deal of information is

contained in the Bombay Gazetteer, and many valuable notes are to

206 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCINTY.

be found in the pages of Stray Feathers and other publications, not

available to the general public.

The object of this paper is to collect together, in as concise a

form as possible, all information available on the subject, in the hope

that it will prove useful to those interested, and form a nucleus

round which collectors will record their observations, and thus lead

to a more complete knowledge of bird-life in Western India.

2.—THE INDIAN KING VULTURE.

Otogyps caluvus, Scop.

The Indian King Vulture is more or less common throughout the

district ; unlike most Indian vultures, they are solitary in their

habits, rarely more than two or three being seen together, the third

one when present being a bird of the year which has not yet

learned to forage for itself.

They are of a very quarrelsome dispositi articularl “i “

They - @ very quarrelsome disposition, particularly when

feeding, not allowing any other creature to approach until they

have satisfied their hunger,

They breed later than most of the other vultures; the middle of

January being quite early enough to search for nests, which are few

and far between, and long distances have to be gone over before

much success can be looked for.

In some parts of the country, the birds make their nests in the

tops of dense thorny bushes, about ten or twelve feet from the

ground, but generally they are built on lofty trees; in the latter

case the nest is of the usual platform type, but in the former they

are cup-shaped.

The egg, there is only one, is very pale greenish-white in colour

when first laid, but as incubation proceeds, it becomes much dis-

coloured from the droppings of the parent birds; it is moderately

fine in texture, and the lining is green; they vary in shape from a

Jong oval to one nearly spherical, but broad ovals predominate.

They measure 3°4 inches in length by about 2°6 in breadth.

Sholapur, 26th December to 1st Eebruary. . Jd. Davidson, C.S.

Nassick, 80th January to 1st March. 5

Deesa, 14th September to 28th February, H. EH. Barnes.

Neemuch, 13th February to 1st March. iy

Hydrabad, Sind, 14th March (nestling). is

Sgustern Narra, Sind, 15th Webruary to 15th April. S. Doig, sq.

Baroda, Ldth April (nestling). | HH. Lnttledale, Esq.

bee 5

NESTING IN WESTERN INDIA.

3 bis—THE BAY VULTURE.

Gyps fulvescens, Hume.

The Bay Vulture occurs not uncommonly in the northern portion

of the district, where it is a permanent resident, breeding during

the months of January and February, making a huge platform stick

nest, on a lofty tree, and laying a single white egg, which is larger

than that of either the King or the White-backed Vultures.

Baroda, 13th to 20th February, mostly young. H. Inttledale, Esq.

4 bis—THE COMMON CLIFF VULTURE.

Gyps pallescens, Hume.

The Common Cliff Vulture occurs throughout the greater portion

of the district, but has not as yet been recorded from Sind. They

are permanent zesidents, but retire to the nearest suitable hills to

breed during the cold season. They place their nests on ledges in

the faces of almost inaccessible cliffs; they are both difficult and

dangerous to get at, as in most cases a man has to be drawn up

from below, or let down from above. The nests, although so hard

to get at, are easily found, owing to the conspicuous patches of

white on the cliffs near them; these patches are the accumulated

droppings of the birds. The nest is a mere collection of grass or

sticks ; the egg, there is only one, is usually a longish oval in shape,

and is Katy unspotted greyish-white in colour, but is occasionally

spotted with pale rusty-red and faint purplish-brown,. They vary

enormously in size, but the average is 3-61 inches in length by

about 2°71 in breadth.

It is only of late years that this vulture has been discriminated, it

having formerly been confounded with the Long-billed Brown

Vulture, Gyps indicus, Scop., from which it differs in many respects.

Khandesh, 23rd December to 5th January (ine. eggs and nestlings).

J. Davidson, C8.

. Nassick, 80th December. 9 ” ”

Aboo, 27th December. H. Hi. Barnes.

—THE WHITE-BACKED VULTURE.

Pseudogyps bengalensis, Gm.

The White-backed is the commonest of our Indian vultures,

breeding in all parts of the country, from early in October to

about the middle of December. They breed on lofty trees, in

Some eggs are unspotted greyish-white, but many of them are

208 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCINTY.

colonies, sometimes as many as twenty nests being fonnd on asingle

tree; these nests are placed at various heights, some being not more

than ten or twelve feet from the ground, whilst others are

placed near the top, each branch of any size being crowned with

a nest. They never lay more than one egg, and this is somewhat

smaller than that of the King Vulture, measuring about 8:25

inches in length by nearly 2'4 in breadth.

It is rather coarse in texture, and the liming is deep green.

sparingly and faintly blotched with reddish-brown. Like most

vulture eggs they are generally discoloured by the droppings of

the parent birds.

Panch Mahals, 12th to 24th November, J. Davidson, C. 8.

Nassick, 25th November. Pr

Deesa, 25th December to 19th February (young). HH. H, Barnes,

Neemuch, 9th November to 2nd December (ine. eggs). sy

Hydrabad, Sind, 4th to 10th December Ss

Eastern Narra, Sind, 15th Nov. to 15th December, 8, Doig, Esq.

Baroda, 25th November to 20th February. HI. Littledale, Esq.

6.—THE SCAVENGER VULTURE,

Neophrow ginginianus, Lath,

The White or Scavenger Vulture is common throughout Western

India, frequenting the neighbourhood of villages in preference to less

populous places, for reasons indicated by its name, They breed

from early in March to the end of April; the nests are solitary,

and are found in varions situations,—the cornices of buildings,

ledges in the faces of rocky or clayey cliffs, and more commonly

on trees; when in the latter situation, ib 1s nob usually placed in a

fork, but is built on a large horizontal branch at its junction with

the trunk. Mr. Littledale says, ‘‘they never breed on trees in :

Sind” (this is quite in accordance with my own experience) ;

about Baroda always on trees; in hilly jungles on cliffs by

preference, About Neemuch they always build on trees.

The nest isa large, loose untidy affair, often lined with rags.

The eggs, two in number, are broadish oval in shape, of a greyish- :

white ground colour, beautifully streaked and blotched with deep

reddish-brown; some of them are sorichly marked as to leave

little or none of the ground colour visible, whilst others are

NESTING IN WESTERN INDIA. : 209

comparatively plain, and oceasionally even a dingy white. They

vary greatly in size, bub average 262 inches in length by about

1-96 in breadth.

Many naturalists prefer to consider this vulture as a variety, or

at most a sub-species of the Heyptian vulture, Neophron percnop-

terus, Lin. This latter breeds at Chaman, South Afghanistan.

The eggs are considerably larger but less highly coloured than

those of the Indian bird. |

Hastern Narra, Sind, March and April. S. Doig, Esq.

Hydrabad, Sind, 22nd March to 22nd April. H. B. Barnes.

Deesa, 20th March to 15th April. s)

Neemuch, 18th March to 29th April. ”

Paneh Mahals, 9th March, J. Davidson, C. 8.

Khandesh, 2nd March. 5

Nassick, 2nd to 22nd March. js

Baroda, 3rd to 17th March. H. Littledale, Esq.

9,—_THE SHAHIN.

Falco peregrinator, Sund.

The Shahin is the least common of our resident falcons, but it

occurs in suitable localities throughout the region, its favourite

resort being the neighbourhood of high rocky hills, where it breeds,

choosing a hole in the face of analmost inaccessible cliff. I have

neyer been able to secure an egg, but I saw a pair making prepa-

“ations for breeding near the waterfall at Patelpani, close to

Mhow, the very same place where, years ago, Jerdon found an

eyrie, Colonel Butler reports another eyrie at Khandala, and

Mr, Dayidson, C. 8., West Khandesh, found a nest containing three

fully fledged young ones in May, so that most probably the eggs

were laid in March or early in April. He has also seen an eyrie at

Matheran. The egg is said to resemble that of the Laggar Falcon,

but to be somewhat narrower and not so highly coloured, but as

the description was admittedly taken froma single egg it may

not hold good in all cases.

They are great game destroyers.

11,.—THE LAGGAR FALCON.

Falco jugger, J. H. Gr.

The Laggar is our commonest falcon, being generally distributed

throughout the entire district; they nest indifferently on trees, on

210 : BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

ledges in the faces of cliffs, cornices of buildings, &c. In the first

case, they usually appropriate the deserted nest of a Tawny Eagle

or other bird. Most of them lay in the latter half of January and in

February, but eggs are occasionally found in March. ‘he nest is

composed of small sticks and twigs; the eggs, four in number, are

nearly perfect ovals in shape, somewhat chalky in texture,and are of

a dingy yellowish-brown colour, clouded, mottled, and blotched with

reddish-brown. When first taken they are often highly coloured,

but if exposed to light soon fade. They average rather more than

two inches in length by about 1°57 in breadth.

Sholapur, 4th January to 9th March. J. Davidson, CS.

Khandesh, 22nd January. a

Neemuch, 30th January to 27th February. H. E. Barnes.

Hydrabad, Sind, 12th February to 15th March. a

Poona, 6th May (fledged nestlings). i

H. Narra, Sind, 10th to 15th February. S. Doig, Esq.

16.—THE RED-HHADED MERLIN.

Falco chiquera, Daud.

The Turumti or Red-headed Merlin is common throughout the

district, frequenting open country in the neighbourhood of cultiva-

tion, preying chiefly on small birds and mice. It breeds during

February and March, making its nest in a fork near the top of a

densely foliaged tree ; it is cup-shaped, neatly and compactly made,

and is composed of sticks and twigs lined with grass roots. The

egos, four in number, are not unlike those of the Lagegar Falcon, but

are of course muchsmaller. Some of them are dingy yellowish-brown

in colour, spotted and freckled with darker brown, but often they

are of a deep red colour; these last are very beautiful. They

average 1°66 inches in length by rather more than 1:26 in breadth.

The nest would often remain undiscovered were it not that the birds

are so noisy and puguacious during the breeding season, sallying out

and attacking any bird approaching the nest, no matter how large,

not hesitating even to attack a Tawny Hagle, should one intrude.

Sholapur, 27th Lebruary to 1st March. J. Davidson, C.8.

Khandesh, 14th February.

Nassick, 15th February to 29th March,

Deesa, 2nd March to 3rd April (ine. eggs). H. EH. Barnes.

Hydrabad, Sind, 15th March. if

Hastern Narra, Sind, 16th April. - Ss Doig, Esq.

}

NESTING IN WESTERN INDIA. NA

17.—THE KESTREL,

Cerchneis tinnunculus, Lin.

Most of the Kestrels found in Western India are cold weather

visitants only, retiring to the mountain ranges to breed, many of

them leaving the country altogether for this purpose. They are

known to breed on the Nilgiris, and Mr. Davidson, C.S., found nests

containing young in May on the Ghats in the Nassick district. Iam

indebted to him for the following interesting note:-—“ This is, as a

“rule, a migrant, but a fair number breed all along the ghats in the

“Nassick district. I have never taken the eggs, but I have shot the

“‘young on the sides of the cliffs while unable to fly. They breed in

“holes in the cliffs, and as there are a great many holes equally

“suitable, the nests are hard to find. To get at them one party has

“to stay below the cliffs, probably 200 feet from the top, and

“another with a rope ladder above. As the holes in which the bird

“nests are very deep and often 100 feet from the top, it is simply

“luck to find the right one, and one in a position that the man let

“* down the cliff can reach.”

They breed very commonly in the Bolan Pass and on the Khoja

Amran Mountains in Southern Afghanistan.

At this latter place I found many nests. The nest is generally

on a ledge or ina hole in the face of a cliff, but I once took four

eggs from a nest that originally belonged to a common magpie.

The nest is of no particular shape, often taking the form of

the place m which it is built ; it is composed of small twigs, and all

those that I have seen have been unlined. The eggs, four in

number, rarely five, are broad ovals in shape, somewhat compressed

at one end. ‘The colour varies from light to dark brick or blood-

red, mottled, blotched, and freckled with darker shades of the same

colour, but yellowish-brown varieties also occur. They measure

1°58 inches in length by about 1:2 in kreadth.

Chaman. H. EH. Barnes.

Nassick, May. Nestlings. J. Davidson, 0.8.

23.—THE SHIKRA.

Astur badius, Gm.

Of the many hawks that occur in India, the Shikra is perhaps

the commonest, and is the only one that is known to breed in our

212 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

district, though most probably one or two of the others do so ot

the higher mountam ranges.

The Shikra breeds during April and May, making a shallow cup-

shaped nest, rather smaller than that of the Turmuti, and not so

neatly or so compactly built; like the latter 1t is composed of sticks

and twigs, lined with grass-roots; it takes them a very long time

to build it.

The eggs, three or four m number, are oval m shape, and measure

1:54 inches in length by about 1:23 in breadth. In colour, they are

pale, glossless, bluish-white, ummarked, as a rule, very rarely witha

‘few pale brown blotches.

Neemuch, 2nd to 80th April. H. H, Barnes.

Much too common to need further details,

28..THEB SPOTTED EAGLE.

Aquila clanga, Pall.

T have never fotind this bird breeding, but am indebted to

Mr. J. Davidson, C.S., for the following interesting note :—

“Not uncommon in the Tapti Valley, breeding in the hot

‘weather in high trees, along the water courses coming out of

“the hills. The nest is placed in a fork, not near the top of the

“tree, but very similar in position to that of Ji. cirrhatus ; it is

“liowever smaller. The birds so far as Lhave been able to observe

“lay but a single egg.”

Khandesh, 18th April, 2 single eggs. J. Davidson, C8.

29.—THE INDIAN TAWNY EAGLE.

Aquila vindhiana, Frankl.

‘The Tawny Hagle is fairly common throughout Western India,

except perhaps in the more densely-wooded or marshy tracts ; they

breed from about the end of October up to the middle of Mareh,

but most eggs will be found during the motths of December and

January.

The nest which is flat is composed of sticks, lined with greon

leaves, and is placed on the small branches near the top of a high

tree, occasionally in a fork; the egg’s, two in number, seldom three,

are subject to much variation in size and shape, but are usually a

broadish oval, slightly narrower at one end; the average of a large

number measured was 2°62 inches in length by nearly 2°12 in

NESTING IN WESTERN INDIA. 2138

breadth; the texture is fine, and the lining pure sea-green, In _

colour the eggs are greyish-white, more or less spotted with

brown and reddish-brown ; sometimes the markings are bright and

well defined, but as a rule they are not richly coloured.

Neemuch, 20th November to 2nd March. H. H. Barnes.

Too common for further details.

30.—THE LONG-LEGGED EAGLE.

Aquila hastata, Less.

Mr, J. epee C.S., has kindly furnished me with the follow-

ing note :—

“This was the common eagle of Central Mysore, and no doubt

“extends northwards into the Belgaum district. I took a nest in

‘Mysore on the 13th March 1877, which contained one very bril-

‘jiantly coloured egg. The bird which I shot would have laid

“another the next day; the nesthad apparently been a large one,

“but was blown down, and the egg was laid on a heap of sticks, not

“as big as an ordinary nest of the Shikra; it was in a fork and

* not in the branches of a tree.”

338.—THE CRESTLESS HAWK EAGLE.

Nisdétus fasciatus, Gm.

The Crestless Hawk Eagle occurs throughout the district, but is

nowhere common. They breed principally during December and

January, but eggs are occasionally found early and later. They

nest, as a rule, on ledges of rocky clifis, which are often very difficult

of access, owing to the site chosen being under a projecting crag, but

sometimes they breed on trees. Thenest when ona cliff is a small

one, but when on a tree it is of an enormous size; it is composed of

sticks lined with green leaves. The eggs, two in number, are

moderately broad ovals, measuring 2°75 inches in length by about

2 in breadth; they are pale greyish-white in colour, sometimes

unspotted, but are generally thinly marked with yellowish or

reddish-brown spots. They are seldom if ever richly- coloured.

This bird does not use the same nest yearly; it seems to have two

or three eyries in the same neighbourhood, and breeds in one of them.

Sholapur, 15th January. J. Davidson, 0. 8.

Khandesh, 24th Dec. to 5th January. (Cliffs.)

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

35.—THH CRESTHD HAWK EAGLE.

Limndétus cirrhatus, Gm.

The Crested Hawk Eagle is confined to the hilly tracts of tho

district, and appears to be uncommon everywhere, except perhaps in

Ratnagiri.* They breed during the first three months of the year,

making a large stick nest high up ina fork of a lofty tree; it is

usually lined with green leaves. They lay but a single egg, which is

white, devoid of markings ; the lining is pale green, and it measures

2°65 inches in length by 1°9 in breadth.

Although they allow no other bird to build on or near the tree

in which they have placed their nest, yet they make no attempt to

defend it from the attack of a bird-nester, and forsake it on the least

provocation.

They are along time making their nest, and it is often finished

weeks before the ogg is laid.

Khandesh, 16th February to 13th April. J. Davidson, CS.

S. Kanara, December to April. C. Vidal, OS.

38.—THE COMMON SERPENT EAGLE.

Ciredétus gallicus, Gm.

The Common Serpent or Short-toed Eagle is sparingly distri-

buted throughout the greater part of Western India, but has not as

yot been recorded from Ratnagiri. They are permanent residents

breeding during the first three months of the year, placing their

nests as a rule on trees, more rarely on ledgesin the faces of rocky

ar clayey cliffs.

The nests are rather large, and are composed of sticks, sometimes

with grass intermixed, and they are often lined with green leaves.

The egg, they lay but one, is broad oval in shape, slightly taper-

ing at one end; it varices a good deal in size, but the average is 2°9

inches in length by about 2:3 in breadth; it is unspotted bluish-

whitein colour. The egg lining is a beautiful sap-groen. Although

they frequent the neighbourhood of the nest for a long time after it

has been robbed, they do not appear to lay a second time. This

Hagle is the Jean-le-blanc of the French, so called from its beauti-

ful white breast.

* Mr. Davidson, O.S., found this to be the common Hagle of W. Khandesh.

Vide B. N. H, 8, Journal, p.194, No. 4, Vol. I. eds haphgsuaer

NESTING IN WESTERN INDIA, 215

in December and January.

Neemuch, 2nd March. H. H. Barnes.

39.—THE CRESTED SERPENT EAGLE.

Spilornis cheela, Lath.

The Crested Serpent or Indian Harrier Hagle is very rare, but

specimens have been obtained from several widely separated

localities within the limits of the Presidency.

* A specimen in the Bombay Natural History Society’s collection

bears a label, stating that it was shot off the nest, which contained

but a single egg.

The nest is placed in a fork halfway up a tree, alwaysintho neigh-

bourhood of water ; it is made of sticks and twigs, lined with grass

and green leaves. The egg, they do not appear to lay more than one,

is generally of an oval shape, rather smaller at one end; the colour

is greentsh-, blutsh-, seldom reddish-white, and is more or less

spotted and blotched with reddish or purplish-brown. They are

occasionally very richly coloured.

Mr. Hume found the eggs to average 2°78 inches in length by

nearly 2°2in breadth. They breed during the hot season.

39 bis —-THE LESSER HARRIER EAGLE.

Spilornis melanotis, Jerd.

The Lesser Harrier Eagle is not uncommon in the Ratnagiri dis-

trict, and is sparingly distributed in the hilly tracts and jungles

along the Western Ghats, where it is said to breed during the hot

weather, both nest and eggs being of the same type as those of the

larger and better known Serpent Hagle, Spilornis cheela, but the

eggs, occasionally at least, are two in number, and are smaller.

Not much is known at present regarding the nidification of this

interesting bird.

It is considered by many to be only a sub-species of S. cheela,

but I believe an examination of the specimens in Mr. A. O. Hume’s

collection (now in the British Museum), would result in its re-

establishment as a good species.

8. Konkan, 18th to 20th March. G. Vidal, C.S.

* This specimen wss shot by Mr. I. Littledale, at Pattra, Panch Mahals, 12th

April, 1886. Vide B. N. U. 8. Jonrnal, p. 195, No. 4, Vol. I.

Mr. Davidson, C.S., found it breeding east of Sholapur, on cliffs,

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

42.—THE INDIAN RING-TAILED EAGLE.

Halidétus leucoryphus, Pall.

The Indian Ring-tailed or Fishing Eagle is very common in Sind,

and occurs, but more sparingly, in Guzerat and Rajpootana.

They breed during November, December and January, making a

huge stick nest, high up in a tree, always in the immediate vicinity

of water. As the birds use the same nest year after year, it is often

of immense size, some of the sticks composing it being as thick as

aman’sarm. ‘hey make no attempt to defend their nest while it

is being plundered, and if the eggs are taken, will lay another clutch

within a fortnight.

The eggs, two or three in number, as often one as the other, are

usually broad ovals in shape, averaging 2°8 inches in length by

about 2°17 in breadth; they are unspotted white in colour, but get

much soiled as incubation proceeds.

Hydrabad, Sind, 25th Nov. to 8rd Jan. HT, E. Barnes.

LH. Narra, Sind, November and December. 8. Doig, Hsq.

Baroda, 26th November. H, Iitiledale, Esq,

43.—THH GREY-BACKED SEA EAGLE.

Halidétus leucogaster, Gm.

The Grey-backed Sea Hagle appears to be restricted to the Sea

Coast and a few miles up the larger rivers; it does not occur in Sind,

They nest during November and December on trees, which they

occupy continuously, whether breeding or not.

The ground beneath the nest is strewed with snake and fish’, bones,

and other debris. Dr. Jerdon, in the Birds of India, gives a good ac-

count of a colony he visited at Pigeon Island, and Mr. Vidal a still

better one in his Ratnagirt Birds, written for the Bombay Gazetteer.

The eggs, two in number, are unspotted white, measuring about

3 inches in length by 2°06 in breadth.

These eagles do not restrict themselves to a snake or fish diet,

but occasionally help themselves to a fisherman’s fowl.

S. Konkan, October to December. G. Vidal, 0.8,

48.—THE WHITEH-EYED BUZZARD.

Butastur teesa, Frankl,

The White-eyed Buzzard is common in all parts of the district,

except in Ratnagiri andthe more densely-wooded tracts, where it

israre. It is a permanent resident, wherever it occurs, breeding

NESTING IN WESTHRN INDIA. 217

much later than most other members of the family, the month of

April being the best to search for eggs.

The nest is placed in a fork high up in a densely-foliaged tree

usually an outer one of some small clump, and is rather a loose un-

tidy affair, composed of sticks and twigs, and is unlined. It is often

completed long before the birds are ready to lay.

The eggs, three in number, occasionally only two, much more

rarely four, are broad oval in shape, and unspotted greyish or bluish-

white in colour, averaging rather more than 1°8 inches in length by

1:53 in breadth. The egg lining is sea-green. The birds hang

about the nests for days after it has been robbed, and sometimes

lay again. They build a new nest every year.

Neemuch, 5th April. H. H. Barnes.

They are too common to need further details.

55.—THE BRAHMINY KITE.

Haliastur Indus, Bodd.

The Maroon-backed or Brahminy Kite is distributed more or

less commonly throughout the district, but is much more plentiful

on the sea coast and in the vicinity of the larger rivers.

It breeds during the first three months of the year, making its

nest on any large tree, as a rule in the immediate vicinity of water,

cocoanut palms when available being preferred; it is composed of

sticks, and is generally unlined.

The eggs, two in number, are moderately broad oval in shape,

averaging about 2 inches in length, by nearly 1-65 in breadth ; they

are greyish-white in colour, feebly spotted with pale dingy and red=

dish-brown. They are rather smaller than those of the Common.

Kite. They do not defend their nests from the assaults of the bird-

nester, and desert them on the least provocation.

E. Narra, Sind, 4th April. S. Doig, Esq.

Hydrabad, Sind, 3rd March. H. H. Barnes.

Bombay, 2nd Pebruary. 9

Khandesh, 29th January. J. Davidson, C.S.

Nassick, 4th December to 16th January. 5

S. Konkan, January to March. G. Vidal, C.S.

56.—THE PARIAH KITE.

Milvus govinda, Sykes.

The Common or Pariah Kite is abundant throughout Western

India; it has a most extensive breeding season, commencing early

218 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

in September, and eggs have been taken as late as the middlo of

April, but November and February are the months in which most

eggs will befound. It is very probable that they breed twice in the

year. They are by no means fastidious in selecting a site for a nest,

but commonly a fork, high up ina treo, or a flat branch atits junction

with the trunk is chosen, no matter whether itis situated in the

open jungle, ina compound, or in the very midst of avillage or town.

A tree in thevicinity ofa meat market is often selected, and the cor-

nice of a building is sometimes made use of, but this latter not

often, except perhaps in a place like Karachi, whero suitable trees

are rare. ‘The nest is an untidy mass of sticks and twigs, lined with

leaves, rags, or any other available rubbish. 'The eggs, two in

number, often three, are oval in shape, and average 2°2 inches in

length by about 1:77 in breadth. They are greyish-white in

colour, spotted, speckled, streaked, blotched, clouded, or mottled,

with various shades of brown and red. Some few of the eggs are:

almost unmarked but occasionally they are handsomely and richly

coloured, having blood-red blotches clearly defined on a white

ground; between these two extremes every possible variety occurs.

They are very fierce in the defence of their nests, especially when

they contain young or much incubated eggs, swooping down

and striking the climber with wings and claws. They are good

and useful scavengers, but aro nevertheless a great nuisance,

especially near a poultry yard, having a predilection for young

chickens, and they often succeed in carrying off a sickly half-grown

fowl.

They infest camps, and seem to know the time for dinner or other

meals, being much more numerous and active at these times than at

others ; a piece of meat left exposed fora moment is certain to be

carried off, the successful marauder being closely followed by his

fellow kites, each eager to take it from him, and the coveted morsel

changes owners many times before it is finally disposed of.

The nests are too common to need detailed dates.

57,.—THE HONEY BUZZARD.

: Pernis ptilorhynchus, Tem.

Tho Honey Buzzard is comparatively rare, only occurring

as a straggler throughout the greater portion of the district, but

in the Deccan and more eastern parts of the Presidency it is less”

uncommon.

NESTING IN WESTERN INDIA. 219

Messrs. Doig and Littledale found a nest, one egg, at Singargarh,

near Seonth, Panch Mahals, on the 25th April 1886. The ege was

white, faintly marked with brown at the largerend. Vide B. N.H.S.

Journal, p. 195, No. 4, Vol. I.

It is probably a permanent resident in those places in which it

occurs, breeding during the hot season, making its nest on trees,

at some height from the ground. The nest is neatly and compactly

built, well lined with dead leaves. The eggs, two in number, are

broad oval in shape, many of them being almost spherical; they

measure about 2 inches in length by 1:72 in breadth. The ground

colour varies from white to buffy-white, and the markings (consist-

ing of blotches, clouds and mottlings) vary from reddish-brown to

deep blood-red. They are as a rule very richly coloured. The shell

is thin and brittle, smooth in texture, and usually quite devoid of

gloss; the egg lining varies from greenish-white to dingy yellow-

ish green.

Mr. Davidson says, in epis: “‘I think it breeds very sparsely

“in this Presidency. I took a nest in Mysore, on the 14th February

“in March. The nest I took was quite invisible from below the

“treo, and was high up in athick mango. I sawthe bird carrying

“sticks into the tree, otherwise I should never have found the

* nest.”

59.—THE BLACK-WINGED KITE,

Elanus ceeruleus, Desf.

The Black-winged Kite is distributed generally throughout the

plain portion of the Presidency, sparingly in the north but becoming

more common in the Deccan. It breeds at the close of the year,

building a neat compact stick nest, lined with grass, in a fork in

the upper portion of a tree. Tho eggs, three or four in number, are

broad oval in shape, measuring about 1:5 inches in length by alittle

less than 1*2 in breadth; they are greyish or creamy-white in colour,

mottled and clouded with various shades of reddish-brown and

dingy-red, occasionally approaching to blood- red; they are rather

chalky in texture, and the egg lining is pale sea~green.

Mr. Hl. Littledale found a nest containing three incubated eggs

at Tandalja, two miles from Baroda, on the 23rd October 1885, and

a nest with young birds early in the same month.—B, N. H. 8.

Journal, page 80, No. 2; Vol. I.

220 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

Mr. Davidson, C.S., notes that the birds were very common

during the season of 1878 to 1879, at Sholapur, Poona, and Khan-

desh; I also found it not uncommon at Deesa about the same time.

Mr. Davidson has taken many nests at Sholapur and Khandesh, and

he remarks that the nests were generally on small babool trees,

from fifteen to twenty feet from the ground, but occasionally high

up in a tree.

_Sholapur, 20th September to 4th April. J. Davidson, C.S,

Khandesh, 7th November.

”

60.—THE INDIAN SCREECH OWL.

Strix javanica, Gm.

The Indian Screech Owl is more or less common throughout the

whole of Western India, less so in Sind and the North, more so

in the Deccan and the South. They breed during December and

January, occasionally later, in holes, in trees, wells and buildings,

making no nest. The eggsare less spherical in shape than those of

owls usually are, averaging 1°69 inches in length by about 1:28 in

breadth; in number they vary from four to eight ; probably when

more than four are found, they are the joint produce of two

birds.

In colour they are unspotted white, with just a faint tinge of

cream. The texture is fine and compact, and they have but little

gloss.

Deesa, 16th January. H, H. Barnes.

Satara, 25th February. J. Davidson, O.8.

Khandeish, 1st December to 1st February, s

65.—THE MOTTLED WOOD OWL.

Syrnium ocellatum, Less.

With the exception of Sind, the Mottled Wood Owl has been

recorded from all parts of the Presidency. It is, however, somewhat

locally distributed, not occurring as a rule in heavy forest, but much

affecting small topes of trees in the vicinity of villages. It breeds

during January and February, occasionally later, laying its eggs in

holes in trees, or in a depression formed by one or more branches ;

it makes no nest. The eggs, two in number, are very broad ovals,

measuring nearly two inches in length by about 1:67 in breadth.

They are unspotted white in colour, many of them having a barely

NESTING IN WESTERN INDIA. oa)

perceptible creamy tinge. The eggs are very large for the size of

the bird.

Khandeish, 10th Dec. to 12th February. J. Davidson, 0.8.

Nassick, 16th Dec. to 28th February. 4

Saugor, 20th Nov. to 4th January. H, H. Barnes.

S. Konkan, January. Ge Vidal, CS.

Baroda, March. H. Inttledale, Esq.

69.—THE ROCK-HORNED OWL.

Bubo bengalensis, Frankl.

The Rock-Horned Owliscommon in suitable places throughout the

district, with the exception of Sind, where it appears to be rare. It

frequents river banks and nullahs, breeding from January to about

the middle of March; but eggs are occasionally found both earlier

and later. It makes nonest, but lays its eggs in a depression on the

ground, under the shelter of arock. ‘They are three or fourin num-

ber, rarely five, and are nearly perfect ovals in shape, measuring 2:1

inches inlength by 1°73 in breadth. They are small for the size of

the bird.. In colour they are white, with a faint creamy tinge; they.

scarcely differ from those of the Mottled Wood Owl.

Sholapur, 6th to 12th December J. Davidson, O.S.

Khandesh, 25th November to 29th February. ‘

Nassick, 22nd January. ay

Poona, 14th February. H. H. Barnes.

Neemuch, 2nd March to Q7th April. 4

Baroda, March. H. Inttledale, Hsq.

70.—THE DUSKY HORNED OWL.

Bubo coromandus, Lath.

The Dusky Horned Owl ig common in the northern portion of

the Presidency, but appears to beabsent fromthe South. It greatly

affects mango topes in the vicinity of villages and along the banks

Tt breeds as a rule during the months of

but eges are often found much later. The

ing to its being used during many

of rivers and canals.

December and January,

nest is usually of large size, OW

etiGceasiye seasons,’ 16.18 composed of sticks, and is generally placed

in a stout fork ina lofty and densely-foliaged tree, but is occa-

sionally built on a flat horizontal branch, or in a depression at the

junction of a branch with the trunk. The eggs, two in number, are

coarse in texture, and faint creamy-white in colour; typically

222 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

they are broad ovals, but vary much both in shape and size ; they

average 2°33 inches in length by about 1°89 in breadth.

Khandeish, 2nd January. J. Davidson, O.S.

Neemuch, 7th December to 5th January. HA. H. Barnes.

Hydrabad, Sind, 14th December. :

E. Narra, Sind, December 8. Doig, Esq.

72.—THE BROWN FISH OWL.

Ketupa ceylonensis, Gm.

The Brown Fish Owl is rare in the north, but becomes more

common towards the south. Its usual haunts are in the thick jungle

along the banks of rivers and streams. It breeds from January to

March. The nestis found ina variety of situations, in a hole in a tree,

in a hollow in the fork of a tree, in a deserted Fishing Hagle’s nest,

or even on a ledge in the face of a cliff on the bahk of a river. The

eggs, two in number, occasionally three, are broad oval in shape,

white in colour, with a barely perceptible creamy tinge. They average

about the same size as those of the Dusky Horned Owl, from which

they are not distinguishable. A fresh and an incubated egg will

often be found. in the same nest, owing to the female commencing

to sit as soonas the first egg is laid. This habit seems to be

general amongst the the owls. The diet of these birds is not con-

fined so exclusively to fish as is so generally supposed.

Satara, 14th February. J. Davidson, C.S,

Khandeish, 19th January.

Nassick, 16th January. is

S. Konkan, Jan. to March. G. Vidal, 0.8:

79 ter—THE LARGE SCOPS OWL.

Scops bakkamuna, Lorst.

The Large Scops Owl occurs, but is by no means common in Sind,

Rajpootana, and some parts of Guzerat, but has not as yet been

recorded from the more southern parts of the district.

It breeds from January to March, making a scanty nest of dead

leaves and feathers in a hole in a tree.

The eggs, two in number, are very spherical in shape, measur-

i ing 1:25 inches in length by about 1:05 in breadth. They are

i pure glossy white in colour.

Khandeish, 11th Dec., inc. eggs and nestling, J. Davidson, CS,

Nassick, 19th March, fully fledged young. »”

NESTING IN WESTERN INDIA. 223

75 quat—THE MALABAR SCOPS OWL.

Scops malabaricus, Jerd.

The Malabar Scops Owl occurs not-uncommonly in Ratnagiri, but

does not appear to have been recorded from any other district in

Western India.

It frequents thick groves and cocoanut gardens. It is a perma-

nent resident where it occurs, breeding very early in the year in

holes in trees.

The eggs, three to six in number, are glossy white in colour, and

are almost spherical in shape.

S. Konkan, Jan. and February. G, Vidal, C.S.

_ 76.—THE SPOTTED OWLET.

: Carine brama, Tem.

The Spotted Owlet is common throughout Western India, except

on the ghats and in the adjacent forest country; it appears to be

absent from Ratnagiri, or at most to be exceedingly rare. It is a

permanent resident, breeding during March and April. It is not

particular in its choice of asite for a nest. An old decayed tree will

afford a lodging for several pairs; in fact, holes in trees are their

favourite nesting places, and they may often be seen peeping out

even in the middle of the day. Holes in wells, in old buildings, in

walls, under the eaves of houses, and holes in haystacks are each

and all made use of by this very accommodating bird. They do not

make an elaborate nest,a few dead leaves, pieces of grass and feathers

thrown together anyhow, suffice for their requirements. The eggs,

four in number, are often found in different stages of incubation;

they are pure white in colour, and are rather broad ovals in shape,

measuring 1°25 inches in length by about an inch in breadth.

This bird is too common to need detailed dates.

76 quint.—HETEROGLAUX BLEWITTI, Hume.

Mr. Davidson, C.S., found this bird to be a permanent resident

in the plains jungle, north of the Tapti, but never found a nest,

77,—-THE JUNGLE OWLET.

Glaucidium radiatum, Tick.

ars to be absent from Sind. It oceurs in

, The Jungle Owl appe

the jungle at the foot of Mount Abu, and through the Panch Mahals,

224 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

and isnot uncommon on the Khandeish hills. At Ratnagiri it is

replaced by a bird intermediate between it and the Malabar Owlet.

It breeds during April and May, much in the same manner as

the Spotted Owlet does, and the eggs do not differ in any respect

from those of that bird.

Abu, 28th April, nestlings. H. HE. Barnes.

Khandeish, 14th April. J. Davidson, C.8.

Nassich, 25th April to 21st May. 5

78.—THE MALABAR OWLET.

Glaucidium malaburicum, Bly.

Typical specimens of the Malabar and Jungle Owlets differ con~

siderably, but these differences are bridged over by so many inter-

mediate forms, that it seems doubtful whether the one is anything

more than a local race or variety of the other. The owlets of

Ratnagiri and the southern portions of the district generally

approach nearer to the type of G. malabaricum than they do to that

of G. radiatum; it is better, therefore, for the present to consider

them as distinct.

It is a permanent resident, breeding during March and April,

laying its eggs, which are indistinguishable from those of the Spotted

and Jungle Owlets, in holes in trees.

They seem more diurnal in their habits than other members of the

family usually are.

S. Konkan, 14th April, d. Vidal, CS,

NOTES ON SAMBHUR AND SAMBHUR STALKING,

( Read at the Society’s Meeting on 6th August 1888. )

By Mr. Ruaivanp Ginperr,

My experience of the sambhur are confined to what I have seen

of him in the Central Provinces, Central India, and the Bombay

Presidency, and to one place in Australia where he has been suc-

cessfully introduced, I have always shot them whilst stalking, and

it is my boast that, although I have often had the opportunity, I

never demeaned myself by shooting a sambhur in a drive. The

time of the year I have devoted to the sport has been the Christmas

vacation, and I have spent seven Christmas holidays stalking in the

PO Nh er

NOTES ON SAMBHUR AND SAMBHUR STALKING. 225

Satpuras, at and near the Taptee River. The greatest bag I have

ever made of sambhur was seven sambhur in six days during

Christmas, 1879, and my lowest bag for the same period has been

nil, working over the same ground and with equal opportunities.

On the latter occasion my companion scarcely ever missed a day

without getting a shot at a good stag, whilst I had but one shot the

whole trip, which I missed. You will thus see there is a great

element of chance in stalking. In December and January the

sambhur are not in the hills, but inhabit the huge jungles which are

found in the Satpuras generally within a mile or two of cultivation.

In the night they wander sometimes into the cultivation near the

jungle, or feed on favourite berries in the jungle itself. About 9

A. M., they retire into thick shade, more often in nullahs or at the

tops of nullahs, and remain lying down till about 4p. m. The jungle

being thick and the grass high at this time of the year the sambhur

is difficult to see, and if he remains in view for any period the

branch of a tree or some high grass may spoil the sportsman’s

aim. Sometimes, however, he presents an easy shot. Thave occa-

sionally walked quite on to them sleeping in a nullah in the middle

of the day. The sambhur then rises hurriedly and makes off as

fast as he can go. On the other hand if the sambhur hears one

ata distance of 100 or 200 yards he rises and takes a good look to

see who it is before making his rush.

AN ADVENTURE.

I do not propose to give you a scientific dissertation on the sam-

bhur; but only a few notes of unusual adventures I have had out

sambhur stalking taken from my shikar diary, written on the spot

and at the time of their occurrence. My practise is to go with a

small tent and as little kit as possible, taking with me all supplies

for self and men. Sometimes I have had a companion with me, but

more often I have gone alone. Even if one has a companion, he

goes out in a different direction, so that one sees little of him except

at night. I make one shikaree walk in front of me and one im-

mediately behind, 50 yards or so behind. I have two other spare

trackers or shikarees of sorts. Behind these a coolie carrying my

photographic kit, and still further behind him my pony and a man

carrying the tiffin basket. From dawn till10 a.m.Iwork. I then

find a cool place near water, where I stay till 3 p. m. »My men

always cook and eat their morning meal at this period. From 3 p.m.

226 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

till dark I stalk along towards camp, and generally time myself to

arrive in camp just before dark. At Christmas the jungles are pro-

bably feverish, and camped as one is in the heart of the jungle,

there is no doubt great danger of catching fever; but I have been

singularly fortunate in avoiding it. I know no scenery more delight-

ful than the jungles at the edge of the Satpuras in the neighbourhood

of the Taptee River. At Christmas time the leaves of the trees show

the gayest of tints, the grass is not yet dried up, and the whole

jungle is closely watered with babbling brooks and nullahs of cool

sparkling water. The climate, too, is delightfully cool except at

midday. ‘There are always a few tigers, bears, and panthers at this

time, and although the jungle renders it almost impossible to shoot

them, still I have had more than one adventure with these animais

on my stalking trips. To a man fond of wild jungle life, I know of

no more exhilarating amnsement than a trip of this kind, Full

accounts of this kind of sport and of this country will be found in

Forsyth’s ‘‘ Highlands of Central India.” Now for an adventure.

On the 380th December, 1884, in the early. morning, whilst out

with Mr. H. M. Slater, of this Society, we came across a fine stag

sambhur on the edge of the Taptee, half eaten by tigers. The

ground was soft around, and the marks of a tigress and cubs were

only too evident. In fact, they had only left the kill on our coming

up ib was certain, because we heard a sambhur belling at a short

distance from us, the sure and certain sign of a tiger. Now I must

leave the sambhur to speak about this tigress. The Taptee at this

spot was very deep and at least 100 yards wide. We found that the

tigress had dragged the sambhur up from the river, and the marks

were very plain. On our next day asking a native close by who

was tending cattle, he told us the tigress had killed on the other

side of the river and swam across with the sambhur. We asked

why the tigress had done this instead of eating on the other side of

the river, to which he gave a very satisfactory reply, that the bank

on the other side was bare and very steep, and in order to hide the kill

from vultures, the tigress had to bring the sambhur across the river,

the bank being too high and steep for the tiger to drag it up to

the thick jungle at the top of the bank on the other side. We

could not go across the river to absolutely verify this statement, but

we could see with our glasses the marks where the sambhur appeared

to have been dragged into the river down the steep bank on the other

side, and there were the undoubted marks of its being dragged out

| NS)

NOTES ON SAMBHUR AND SAMBHUR STALKING.

of the river by the tigress and killed on the side on which we stood.

Our shikarees, most of them Bheels, assured us it was a fact, and

appeared to consider the feat of a tiger swimming across the Taptee

with a sambhur as nothing very wonderful. Whether the cubs had

swum across, or whether the tigress had killed on the other side of

the river and dragged the sambhur across to her cubs to eat we could

not say, but it seemed to us a wonderful thing, that this tigress in

the cold weather should take such a long swim, dragging a stag

sambhur with her. The sambhur might, however, have become inflat-

ed with gas, which would render the task of dragging it across the

river an easy one. To return to the sambhur we left belling. We

proceeded as quickly as we could to this in the hope of getting

a shot at the tigress. We marched up to within thirty yards of

a sambhur hind standing at the top of a broad dry nullah, covered.

with vegetation from top to bottom. The sambhur continued bell-

ing without taking the slightest notice of us, and was answered by

other sambhur on the other side of the nullah. We took little

notice of the sambhur, as we hoped by waiting still we should catch

a glimpse of the tigress in the nullah below and get a shot. After

anxiously waiting a few minutes, and hearing and seeing nothing of

the tigress, we went even nearer to the hind, which made off. On

the other side of the nullah, about eighty yards off, was a fine stag

sambhur with three or four hinds also belling. We watched this stag

for some time determining to fire at him as soon as we were assured

the tigress was not in the nullah. We attempted no concealment

ourselves, but the sambhur seemed perfectly panic-struck and

appeared to look for no danger from our side. Afier a short) time

the stag walked slowly down the nullah, and then came up on our

side and in our direction. I whispered to my companion the tigress

had left the nullah or the sambhur would never have gone in the

nullah, and suggested he should now kill the stag. He fired and

hit too. Subsequent proceedings, however, will not interest you,

although I have another little story about that tigress and her cubs,

which I dare not tell you because I should digress from the subject

of this paper. We afterwards went down into the bottom of the

nullah and found the tigress and her cubs had gone along the nullah

quite close to the sambhur.

THE LARGEST SAMBHUR ON RECORD.

Now for the largest stag sambhur on record. My experience

8 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

teaches me that the sambhur in the Satpuras are the largest in those

parts of India of which I have any knowledge. I have never seen

the head of a sambhur from the Ghauts or the Concan of any size.

They always have appeared dwarfed. It is true I have not seen many

from those parts. In fact, there are but a few, and those are fast disap-

pearing. [hope you will pardon my absence of modesty when I tell you

that, so far as I can discover, I have seen and knocked the horn off

the biggest sambhur in the world. The horn is here, and has been

given by me to this Society. On the 27th December, 1886,

when stalking with Mr. Barton near the Taptee River, a few miles

from Asirghur, ix the Central Provinces, I put up a monster stag

sambhur out of a thick nullah. It ran down the nullah. I was

standing on the top. I only saw him for a second or two, and had

only time to take a snap-shot at him before he passed round a bend

in the nullah. The shell hit his horn from behind and knocked it

off, splitting it up as you see. I picked the horn up and here it

is. I never saw that sambbur again; but to the last day of my life

I shall never forget him or cease to regret I missed him. The

horn you see is broken off just above or in the neighbourhood of the

brow antler, and it measures from the broken end to the tip of the

longest point along the outside 444 inches. The horn being broken

off above the brow antler, I can fairly assume the length of the

horn was nearly, if not quite, 50 inches. The end of the horn

where the split is appears slightly turned up, as though this were

near the base of the horn. This, however, cannot be, as will be easily

seen if the horn is held up in the right position. I shot at the stag

running away. The mark where the 500-bore express shell hit the

horn is plainly visible. This ‘proves the horn to be the left horn,

and also satisfies me that the end of the split portion is turned up at

the spot where the brow antler joined. The top antler of this

horn is 22 inches long. This gives the great length to the horn, I

have been searching up authorities to find out the biggest horn on

record. I find that in the Asian of 1884, especially the number of 20th

August, 1884, the subject of the length of sambhur horns is fuily

discussed. The Asian states the largest pair of horns on record

are those known as the Coromanded Coast horns in the Calcutta

Museum, and gives an illustration of them. The Astan appears to

vonsider the largest to mean the heaviest in weight. The length of

the longest beam of these horns is 414 inches, and the right brow

antler 20 inches, the weight of both horns being together 224 lbs.

NOTES ON SAMBHUR AND SAMBHUR S'TALKING. 229

These horns have nine tines, being three more than the regulation

number, and are spoken of in the Asian by one correspondent as the

“Coromandel monstrosity.” They were picked up on the Coromandel

Coast, and though there is every reason to suppose they are sam-

bhur horns, still they are described as a trophy representing the

utmost limit of eccentricity which nature is capable of producing.

The weight of these horns is enormous, but this can be partly

accounted for by the horns being malformed and containing three

extra tines. The editor of the Asian stated that a correspondent

wrote he had seen horns of 44 inches, and quoted another from

Wilson’s Himalayan Journal of 46 inches. One or two correspondents,

I see, record horns of 89 inchesas being large. Mr. Sterndale, in

his book states he has in his collection a horn of 45 inches, whilst

Mr. Inverarity tells me he has killed one of 44 inches. I have killed

one or two heads over 89 inches and one of 41 inches. From a

perusal of abook called “ Nilghiri Sporting Reminiscences,” it would

appear the Nilghiri sambhur have but small heads, as the author of

that work speaks of the best heads as being only 85 or 87 inches.

Captain Forsyth, in the ‘ Highlands of Central Iudia,” a great

authority, speaks of 41 inches as the largest he had ever seen.

This is all the information I can give you about the size of sam-

bhur horns, and it shows conclusively that this broken horn beats

the record into fits by several inches. I should mention that this

broken horn weighs 6 lbs. 3 oz., and assuming everything in its

favour, it could hardly weigh so much as the Coromandel Coast horns,

unless, perhaps, the extra tines were cut off the latter, and then, per-

haps, the horn might equal the largest of them. I wrote a letter tothe

Asian some time ago describing this horn, in the hope that sports-

men and naturalists might supply some further information or

discuss the subject, but with the exception of its publication by the

editor, nobody took the slightest notice of it ; I fear that I was taken

for one of the 12 foot tiger school and thought unworthy of notice.

A FIGHT BETWEEN STAGS.

I have often come across places in the jungle where the bushes

and grass have been trampled down and the ground torn up, show-

ing the scene of a combat between two sambhur stags.

A few years since, whilst walking along the jungle overhanging

the Taptee River, my attention was attracted by the noise of the

clashing together of horns on the other side of the river, some 300

aianeeeaensiies

230 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

yards off, and getting out my binocular glasses, I watched a fight

between two fine stags. I did not get a clear view of the fight

because the bushes and high grass so often impeded the view; but

I watched them for some time, and the fight continued for several

minutes. I went round by a ford and got over to the other side of

the river in the hope of getting a shot, but was unsuccessful.

Sambhur are supposed to shed their horns annually in or about

March as the hot weather comes on, but this is denied, I see, by the

author of “ Nilghiri Sporting Reminiscences,” who states that the

annual shedding of horns by sambhur is a myth inthe Nilghiris, and

he states that he has known, by undoubted evidence, stags carry

their horns more than two successive seasons. Captain Forsyth, in

the “ Highlands of Central India,” states he was perfectly convinced

that neither in the case of the sambhur nor the cheetul are the

antlers shed regularly every year in the forests of Central India.

I have myself on a few occasions seen sambhur with good heads in

May, and I have often seen cheetul with good heads in that month.

I once shot a good stag sambhur in May. I think, therefore, we

may be satisfied that sambhur do, as a rule, shed their horns

annually, but there are often exceptions to the rule. In. the hot

weather in the Satpuras, when the jungles are burnt, I have noticed the

sambhur often get together, five or six in a herd. I have seen as

many as seven or eight. The jungle being very open there they are

very wild and difficult of approach. Captain Forsyth speaks of seeing

herds of thirty and forty in this neighbourhood. No such herds are

to be seen now. They appear to like to keep up in the hills in the

hot- weather, and do not often come down in the plains below in the

day time.

SAMBHUR NEAR BOMBAY.

There used to be sambhur in the island of Salsette. In 1877 I

was in at the death of one on the top of the high hill over Vehar

Lake, within 18 miles say of where we now are. Ir sgret to say she

was a hind, but for my own reputation I must say I had no hand in

killing her. I believe she was the last survivor of the race in

Salsette, as I have never heard of any there since. At Lanowlee,

close to the reservoir, I once put up a doe sambhur with its fawn

whilst beating the jungle. Alas! two valiant railway men from

Lanowlee killed them both next day, and I believe there are none in

that neighbourhood now. Sambhur occasionally bell when they

NOTES ON SAMBHUR AND SAMBHUR STALKING. 231

are disturbed by man, but they always bell when they sce a tiger.

On two occasions when beating for tiger, I have known a

sambhur driven out past. the guns without sounding any note

of alarm, but when some distance behind commence to bell.

On both these occasions the tiger was behind the guns and near

where the sambhur commenced to bell, so that I infer he must have

_seen the tiger and then commenced to bell. It would, therefore,

appear that the sambhur bells when he sees the tiger either to warn

any of his mates who may be in the neighbourhood, or to express

his hatred like the monkeys, who often follow the tiger from tree to

tree and rock to rock swearing all the while, and that the belling

is not necessarily caused by fear. A native shikaree first drew

my attention to this theory, and I have talked with one or two

sportsmen, whose experience was much the same as mine.

ANTIPATHY TO TIGER.

The well-behaved monkey never swears, except at a tiger or pan-

ther, but the sambhur, who is of a lower order, occasionally swears

his swear at something else besides the tiger. There is no doubt

the tiger is the sambhur’s deadliest foe, and that he frequently

affords food for the tiger. I have several times come across the

remains of sambhur killed by tigers. After I had written the above,

T happened to come across a passage in the “ Nilghiri Sporting

Reminiscence,” in which the author, who appears to have had con-

siderable experience of sambhur stalking, states that the sambhur

never bells upon seeing a man but only at the sight ofa tiger; but

T know him to be wrong there, because I have on a few occasions had

a sambhur bell at me when I have disturbed him. I have used the

expression “bell” throughout because that is the word generally

used, but I think “ bark” would be a more expressive word.

SAMBHUR IN AUSTRALIA.

Sambhur and Cheetul have been brought to Australia from India,

and turned down. Iam told that cheetul thrive wild, and have

mereased at a great pace in Gippsland, Victoria, but I saw none of

them and can give no personal information about them. last year,

however, I made the acquaintance of the sambliur in Victoria, at a

station called Ercil-down, belonging to Sir Samuel Wilson. I saw

about seventy in a large deer park. In the middle of this park

. ay G 1 a a ae a m 4

thore was a hill and the ground was well suited for sambhur. They,

982 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCINTY.

however, all seemed dwarfed, and none of the stags had heads of any

size worth mentioning. The climate is rather cold in winter for

them there, and this may account for it. It was in the month of

August, the cold weather there, when I saw them, and at that time

the stags had their horns. I saw none in velvet. In the month of

August in India, sambhur would be in velvet, of course. As these

sambhur increased, they were from time to time turned down wild in

the neighbouring hills, and I was told they thrive in a wild state.

THE MEANS OF SELF-PROTECTION POSSESSED

Bi EUANTS:

( Read at the Society’s Meeting on 6th September 1888.)

By De, W, Dymoox.

Tax number of destructive insects which abound in India

render it very necessary that plants should have some means of

protecting the stores of starch which they elaborate for future use.

Amongst the starch-storers there is no class in this country more

abundant than the Aroide, especially at this season of the year.

Some plants of the genus, such as the Amorphophallus campanu-

latus, or YT, produce enormous tubers under cultivation, weighing

as much as eight or ten pounds or more, and composed almost

entirely of starch. Different kinds of Colocasia, known in the

vernacular as 87%, are always to be seen in the gardens, of even the

poorest people, during the rainy season ; and their leaves, stems, and

tubers are favourite articles of food amongst all classes of the popu-

lation. The leaves especially made into a roll with gram flour, and

spices, boiled, and then cut in slices and fried, form a very tasty

vegetable dish called qraagt or qaag, i.e., “ leaf-cake.”” The Colo-

castia antiquorum is one of the oldest vegetables known, and derives

its Latin name from the Coptic Kalkasi. Pliny notices it as a

favourite vegetable in Hgypt. - Most of the varieties of Colocasia

and other edible Aroids are so acrid that it is only by prolonged

boiling and the addition of some vegetable condiments containing

citrates that they can be made palatable; they all die away in the

dry weather after producing one or more tubers. It must be

THE MEANS Of SELI-PROTECTION POSSESSED BY PLANTS. 233

’

evident to every one that a large starchy tuber would stand a very

poor chance of escaping destruction during the many months it has

to remain just beneath the surface of the ground awaiting the next

rainy season, were it not that nature affords a sufficient protection

by storing in the root-cells a number of needle-shaped ’ crystals

which cause the most intense irritation when ingested by any

animal, and have often proved fatal to man. ‘The effects produced

by the raw or imperfectly cooked plant are swelling of the tongue

and throat, convulsions, asphyxia, and other signs of poisoning by

an irritant.

Pedler and Warden in 1886 were the first to point out that the

toxic effects of Kachoo (the Bengal name for Colocasia) were due to

entirely mechanical causes, and that the tubers contained no specific

organic poisonous principle as had hitherto been supposed.

The same theory has since, apparently, been independently adopted

by Herr Stahl, who, at arecent meeting of the Jena Naturalists

Society, read a paper upon the significance of those excreta of plants

which are known asraphides. From experiments this investigator

inferred that they were a protection to plants against being eaten

by animals. Many animals avoid plants with raphides, or eat them

reluctantly, and snails in eating these plants select those parts

which are without the crystals. (Nature, Dec. 29th, 1887.)

Messrs. Pedler and Warden’s experiments showed that these

needle-shaped crystals are composed of calcic oxalate, a salt very

insoluble in water even after moderate boiling, which accounts for

the acridity of the tubers when cooked in the ordinary manner ;

they also demonstrated that the addition of nitric and hydrochloric

acids, which dissolve the salt, immediately removes the acridity of

the tubers. Two difficulties still remained—Ilst, it is well known

that the dried tuber is practically harmless, but microscopic exami-

nation explained this by showing that the crystals, which in the

fresh root are arranged in loose fan-like bundles, are in the dried

root brought parallel to one another and become adherent, forming

practically a single blunt crystal; 2nd, how is it that the hydro-

chloric acid of the gastric juice does not dissolve the crystals: and

thus prevent irritation of the intestines ? The answer is that excessive

irritation of the stomach procuces a stoppage of the flow of gastric

juice, and the pouring out of a ropy mucus instead. (See Pedler

and Warden’s paper, Journ. Asiat. Soc. of Bengal, Vol. LVII., Part

II., N., 1, 1888.) When cooking these plants the natives of India

234 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY»

use mango or limes to remove the acidity. They have found by

experience that kokum and tamarinds will not answer for this

purpose. I find by experiment that calcic oxalate is soluble ina solu-

tion of citrates but not in a solution of tartrates and malates, to

which the acidity of tamarinds and kokumisdue. Schima Wallichii,

a tree of Nepal belonging to the Ternstreemiaces, affords us an

excellent example of a very starchy bark protected from the attacks

of animals by a peculiar development of the liber, which resembles

sharp glistening white needles, and causes much irritation when

handled, The Nepalese call the tree chilawnt, or itch tree, and

makkarchal, or spider’s itch tree. The liber cells are about +5

of an inch long, translucent, and sharp-pointed at both ends; the

bulk of the parenchyma consists of cells containing starch and a

red colouring matter; by macerating the bark with water, the liber

cells are easily separated and may then be examined under the

miscroscope.

The bulbous roots of squillsand many of the Liliacew are protected

by the presence of irritating raphides, the effects of which are well-

known to those who have to slice these bulbs preparatory to drying

them for medicinal use. The raphides, like those of the aroids,

consist of calcic oxalate deposited in cells containing mucilage and

forming bundles of necdle-shaped crystals or large solitary square

prisms. Oxalate of calcium is generally associated with mucilage

in most plants, and this fact is remarkably evident in the squill and

other lily bulbs. If these bulbs are finely sliced and shaken in a

bottle with water, a quantity of the crystals will be deposited, and

are clearly visible to the naked eye, but it must not be supposed

that every plant which contains calcic oxalate has acrid properties.

This depends entirely upon the shape of the crystals, of which

thirty-four forms at least have been observed iu European plants.

Ina recent number of the Dutch journal, Maandblad voor Natwur-

wetenschapen, J. H. Wekker, in an article upon “De vorming

der kristallen von oxalzure kalk in de plantencel, ”’ shows, that

even in the youngest cells the crystals are always found in the

vacuole, and if the microscope be inclined, they will show by gra-

vitation that they are free and not embedded in the protoplasm.

Wekker found this to be the case in twenty-nine different plants

examined by him, only occasionally a crystal adheres to the proto-

plasm bordering the vacuole and is set in motion by it. These

observations explain the rapidity with which the irritating effects of

LIBER CELL of the bark of SCHIMA WALLICGHI/—(magnified 30 times.)

THE MEANS OF SELF-PROTECTION POSSESSED BY PLANTS. 985

the crystals are produced when the plant is wounded by the teeth

of any animal. i

Orinum ornatum, Wight, the pretty white lily so common in the

Concan, and known to the natives as qafdtater, has such acrid bulbs

that they are used to blister cattle.

Several species of Vitis protect their tubers by the same mecha-

nical means, V. indica for example, Vitis carnosa protects its fleshy

stems, and V. lanceolaria its fruit, whence it has received the

Marathi name of @raitarat 4, or itch-berry-vine.

Gnetum scandens, ¢4%t, produces a plum-hke fruit in the pulp of

which are many stinging hairs of a reddish yellow colour.

Hibiscus cannabinus and Sterculia urens have formidable seed

pods beset with stinging hairs. The different species of Mucuna

protect their pods in the same manner. I need hardly mention the

many thorny plants found in this country, as their means of protec-

tion is so obvious, he nettles form a separate class, their irrita-

ting action being partly mechanical and partly chemical. The

stinging hairs with which these plants are armed are hollow ; at the

base of cach hair is situated a gland containing an acid (formic).

When the hair enters the skin and is broken off, the pressure causes

the discharge of the acid, by which a swelling is produced like that

caused by the sting of many insects. ‘The nettle tribe is well re-

presented in India by the Pouzolzias, Gerardinas, Boehmerias, and

Urticas. A species of Pouzolzia is known to Europeans as the

Nilgiri nettle, and Urtica interrupta, @aid, is a common weed in

neglected corners of the Bombay gardens at this time of year, and

is nob unlike the common English nettle. It may be thought that

nettles have little worth protecting, but the genera Beehmeria and

Pouzolzia yield some of the strongest and finest fibres in Asia.

Many plants are protected by their poisonous secretions, notably

those of the Euphorbiacees. Well-known examples are afforded by

the genera Excecaria, Buphorbia, Ricinus and Croton, all contain-

ing poisonous principles which protect their foliage and fruit from

injury.

The Hxeecaria Agallocha so common about Bombay derives its

Latin name from excecare, to blind, and is called by the Marathas

af, on account of the great swelling and pain caused by contact

with its acrid milky juice. It is difficult to induce labourers to

cut or interfere with the tree, so much do they dread it, and animals

equally avoid it. This plant, although it bears the name of Agal-

236 BOMBAY: NATURAL HISTORY SOCTETY.

locha, does not produce Aloewood, but the herbalists obtain the dry

inert suber from old trees, and sell it as a strengthening medicine

under the name of Tejbal. The poisonous principle contained in

the juice has not been properly examined, but it is probably an

acrid resin like that from gum euphorbium, which is well known as

a blistering agent.

The genus Huphorbia is a very large one, and most of the plants

are remarkable for a milky poisonous juice which makes them

obnoxious to animals. Thus in Guzarat we see the hedges made of

the Huphortia Tirucalli or milk bush, which though a fragile,

smooth plant, so abounds in milky poisonous juice, that cattle will

not break through it. Huphorbia neriifolia, another hedge plant,

yields a similar juice, and it is also protected by thorns; others

of the genus have the same properties, The poisonous principle

of such of. the Huphorbias as have been examined chemically

appears to be identical, and the same as that of the drug Euphor-

bium. They also agree in yielding to analysis, a crystalline

substance, called KHuphorbon. The Ricinus, or castor-oil plant,

which is such a common weed here, protects its oily . seeds from

destruction by a powerful toxic principle quite distinct from the

purgative oil with which we are all so well acquainted. These

seeds have in Hurope often proved fatal to children, even when

very few have been eaten. Dr. Stillmark has recently discovered

in them an albumenoid body which he has named ricin, and which

produces the most violent inflammation of the gastro-intestinal

tract in men and animals. A dose of six milligrams of rivin, which

would be contained in about ten seeds, would be sufficient to kill

an adult man. The results obtained by the experiments of Dr,

Stillmark are confirmed by experience, for we find that when

children eat the seeds which are scattered on the wharf during

the discharge of cargo in Hurope, they suffer from severe vomiting

and prostration, but not from catharsis. Croton seeds owe their

immunity from the attacks of insects to the presence of crotonoleic

acid, the most violent cathartic known.

Nerium odorum, the sweet-scented oleander belonging to the

Apocynex, is a most poisonous plant, and is never eaten by animals.

Its Sanskrit name Asvamaraka, or horse-killer, shows that its

properties have long been known’ in India; and De Gubernatis

informs us in his Mythologie des Plantes, IT., 257, that the closely

allied plant Nerium Oleander of: Hurope is called in Italy ammazza

THE MEANS OF SELF-PROTECTION POSSESSED BY PLANTS, 2387

cavallo, or ammazza l’asino, and remarks that this accounts for the

dread of its presence shown by the ass of Lucian and Apuleius.

Both plants are poisonous. Our Indian oleander contains two active

principles, nertodorein and neriodorin, both powerful heart poisons;

these exist in all parts of the plant, as has been frequently demon-

strated by the poisoning of children who have eaten the leaves or

flowers.

The oily kernels of the marking nut and cashew nut are protected.

by their pericarps, full of an acrid blistering fluid containing ana-

cardic acid.

We all know how nauseously bitter most of the wild Cucurbitacess

aro in this country. Were it not so, their soft pulpy fruit would

be exterminated by the snails and slugs, which abound at the time

of year when most of them ripen. When, under cultivation, cucum-

bers and melons have lost their bitter, purgative, and emetic prin-

ciples, they require the constant watchfulness of the gardener for

their protection.

Bitterness or astringency in the bark of many trees doubtless

saves them, to a great extent, from being injured by cattle.

Some bulbs, such as onion and garlic, as well as some cruciferous

plants, are obnoxious to animals, on account of the pungent oils

which they develop.' No animal appears to relish mustard, but

almost all the Cruciferae, as well as onions, garlic, &c., are eagerly

sought after by man. The leaves of Anona squamosa, the custard

apple, are not browsed upon by cattle, and when crushed they have

an acrid and disagreeable, odour, so much so that the country,

people use them instead of smelling salts asa remedy for the |

vapours. The leaves, young fruit, and seeds are powerfully

insecticide, and are in common use for washing the head when the

population become too lively.

Rue is protected by its nauseous volatile oil; terebinthinate exuda-

tions and gum-resins make many trees and umbelliferous plants

obnoxious to cattle. The mints, the balms, and basils, though

their odour is pleasant to man, are not generally depastured by

animals; even in Arabia, where pasture is scarce, the common

wild basil or Calamintha (faranjmishk) is left untouched.

Camphor appears to be particularly disagreeable to animals, and

a numerous class of plants in India owe the safety of their starchy

depots to this substance, or in some instances, to an acrid resin. [

allude to the Scitamines. In this class most of the Curcumas have

33 e

288 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIRTY,

camphoraceous tubers; those which do not smell of camphor are

more or less acrid, such as Ourewma caulina, the Mahableshwar

arrowroot; ginger contains an acrid resin and a volatile oil. When

dried, these tubers are freely eaten by weevils and mites, which

appear then to be able to separate the starch cells from those con-

taining resin and odorous principles.

Bony coverings or shells protect many seeds. The sea cocoanut

and bonduc nut are carried about by the ocean for months without

losing their germinating power. Bonduc nuts have even been found

on the coasts of Scotland. i

Lastly, the seeds of the smaller weeds, which germinate so

abundantly on the first fall of rain, owe, to a great extent, their

preservation from destructive insects, during the hot season, to their

forms ; which often so nearly resemble grains of sand or earth that,

when mixed with the soil, they are most difficult to distinguish.

Of this fact we may satisfy ourselves if we carefully powder and

lift a little dry mould or sandy soil from a road, and then, having

with the aid ofa lens removed everything which has the appear-

ance of a seed, place it under a glass bell and keep it moist with

distilled water. However carefully the experiment may be conduct-

ed, we shall find that in a short time some of the familiar road-side

weeds will make their appearance.

THE NATURAL HISTORY OF A VOYAGE FROM

LIVERPOOL TO BOMBAY,

By E. H. Arrxen.

(Read at the Society’ s Meeting on 1st October 1888.)

Tue Naturalist on board a steamer suffers the pains of Tantalus,

who was doomed to pass eternity, hungry and thirsty, with food and

water always in sight, but just beyond his reach. On a steamer

one rarely passes a day without seeing something of interest, but

rarely secures a specimen. He could easily shoot valuable birds,

which he will never see again, but I have never met with a captain

enlightened enough to stop his steamer in the interests of

science and pick up the treasure. However, the organ of a true

naturalist’s faculty is his eye, and perhaps, after all, the discipline is

A VOYAGE FROM LIVERPOOL TO BOMBAY. 989

wholesome which forces him for a time to stay his hand from slaying

and content himself with watching. I spent much of my boyhood

prowling about stealthily, with a catapult in my hand, plotting against

the lives of little birds. The little birds were rarely any the worse,

and I learned more of their habits, voices, and distinguishing

characteristics than I have ever done since. Now I go out witha

gun, and if I meet with an unfamiliar bird, I have scarcely a chance

of becoming acquainted with it before it ceases to be a bird and

becomes a specimen, I have the specimen, but that is poor

compensation, Every day I live I become more confirmed in the

conviction that no naturalist can adopt a wholesomer motto than the

saying of a very wise many; of whom it is recorded that ‘he spake

also of beasts and of fowls, and of creeping things, and of fishes.”

The saying Erefer to is this, “A living dog is better than a dead

lion.” I suppose every ship that leaves Liverpool is followed by

a party of gulls, which accompany it all the way down the Channel,

but leave it as soon as they see plainly that it is bound for other

shores. These birds have become as dependent on man as the

common Indian crow. Without our shipping and our great

seaports, I imagine half the gulls on the English coast would die

of starvation. As it is, the hard times of which we hear so much,

seem to press severely on them. On a summer day last year, not

far from Glasgow, I was surprised to seo a large number of gulls

at a great height in the air, crossing and re-crossing, and perform-

ing the most energetic evolutions in which, I had ever seen gulls

engaged. After watching them for a while, I discovered that they

were engaged in hawking insects in the air, just as we see kites

and crows in India preying upon a swarm of winged white ants.

At Edinburgh I saw a number of terns engaged in the same way

above Arthur’s Seat. The party of gulls which followed our ship

was composed exclusively of one species, the common grey and

white herring gull, and the easy grace of their fight supphed matter

for never-ending wonder and admiration. With the wind, orin a

calm, they flap their wings and fly like other birds ; but against a

strong head wind they will keep up with the. ship, overtake it, fall

back, rise and sink, simply by holding their wings at a

certain angle to the wind, on the same principle on which a good

sailing boat can go almost in the teeth of the wind. In striking

contrast to the gulls are the puffins with their short wings and clumsy

beaks, more like parrots at sea than orthodox water birds. These

240 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIBTY.

do not live in the air like the gulls, but on the water, floating very

happily on the waves and constantly diving in pursuit of fish. These

birds also leave us as soon as we are fairly out of the Irish Channel.

Then the stormy petrels appear and scarcely leave us till we reach

Port Said. All day they are on the wing in the wake of the steamer,

skimming the water with all the power and grace of swallows. In

fact, at a very short distance they are so absurdly like the common

black and white swift, which makes its feather nests under the

porches of our public buildings here in India, that the first time I

saw them I exchanged views with a fellowepassenger, who was also,

a naturalist, upon the remarkable phenomenon of a swift taking to a,

marine life. Where these petrels go at night I cannot say. During

the day they are very rarely seen to rest on the water. Mr. Wilson

records an instance of one which was shot at from a ship, with the

result that two of its quill feathers were broken, and their ends

hanging. down, made it easily recognisable afterwards. For a whole

week that bird continued to follow the ship, If it had stopped to,

sleep for even an hour it could scarcely by any chanee have found the.

ship again, and as they never rest on the rigging or any part of the.

ship, it seems that this bird must have been on the wing night and day

for a week with nointermission, except, perhaps, an occasional rest on

the water fora few moments. Ihave watched them with a powerful

glass to see if I could ascertain what they fed on, but could not satisfy

myself. Undoubtedly they do sometimes, like gulls, pick up scraps

of food thrown overboard, but from, the persistent way in which they

beat up and down the line of seething water which flows from the

stern of the steamer, I have got the impression that they are on

the watch for small marine creatures killed or tossed to the surface

by the action of the screw. I should like to, know. whether they

follow sailing vessels in the same way. I must not forget to

mention that I saw one petrel on this side of Aden, which, I suppose,

was Wilson’s petrel (Oceanites ocvanica), After passing Cape

Finisterre, whales are often seen spouting, but they rarely come

near enough to. a steamer to be distinctly seen. A few. years ago,

however, one of the B. I. {5. N. Company’s steamers, coming

from Kurrachee to Bombay, was accompanied for a whole day by a

whale, which came so near, I believe, as almost to rub against it.

Some of the passengers or officers, following the true Englishman’s

instinct of killing, fired rifle balls into it. I do not remember

whether the whale showed any signs of being aware of this. Curious

A VOYAGE FROM LIVERPOOL TO BOMBAY, 241

to say, the best view I ever had ofa whale was between Kurra-

chee and this. Four or five were playing within a mile or so of

the steamer, and one monster several times rose above the surface

like avoleanic island, quite near enough to give me a distinct view

of it. This was, I suppose; Balaenoptera mdica, which is sometimes

stranded on opr coast. The skeleton of one which was so stranded

near Bassein forms the ‘piece of resistance’? in the Victoria and

Albert Museum, If whales avoid steamers, there is one marine

mammal which has no such fear, This is the dolphin (Delphinus

delphis), a near relation of the porpoise, which is common enough in

our harbour, but easily distinguishable by its sharp snout, slender

form and colour, which, in the water, appears to be silvery grey

above and white beneath, though I believe that when the

animal is out of the water its back ig almost black. There is some-

thing very fascinating in the high spirits and jubilant happiness of

this creature, It is just the animal to offer its back to. Orpheus,

though I would be scientifically sceptical about its being charmed by

his musig, on the ground that its ears being usually under water, his

strains could hardly have reached them. The dolphin is very

common in the Mediterranean, going in pairs or small companies.

When they catch sight of a steamer, they race for it, leaping out

of the water in concert when they want to breathe, as if they were

steeple-chasing and clearing hurdles. When they reach the steamer

they get in front of it, just under the bows, and sport in the

foam which it drives before it, rolling over on their backs, leaping out

of the water, diving, and performing marvels of agility, without

betraying, by any motion which you can detect im fin or tail, that

they are exerting themselves. All the time there is an expression

of fun and happiness on their faces, if I may use the term, which is

infectious and makes this one of the most delightful of the small

excitements which enliven a sea voyage. Every dolphin in the

Mediterranean secms to know the trick, and when we neared Port

Said on my way out last month, three of the porpoises, which are so,

common in that harbour, came out to meet us and tried to disport

themselves in the same way, but the clumsiness of their efforts was

positively ludicrous to one who had seen dolphins doing the thing. -

All the way from Gibraltar to Port Said the ship is visited

occasionally by land birds, butterflies, moths, and other insects. At

two seasons in particular, about April and again about September,

hundreds of migratory ‘birds, crossing the sea, are glad to geta

242 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

rest. The sight of a quail in these circumstances is fitted to give

one a vivid conception of this strange instinct of migration. Here

is a bird which lives on the ground and for six months in the year

never uses its wings except when“ put up” by some enemy, and then

only to fly a hundred yards and drop again ; but when the sun enters

the sign of Aries, it starts off without fear from Alexandria, say, to

Italy or Greece, Hundreds are often killed in Malta, I believe, when

they arrive too tired to make much effort to escape, and, without

doubt, hundreds perish in the sea; but I suppose the majority

reach their destination. They fly very low, almost touching the

water, and rising to every wave. I suppose this is to escape the

force of the wind, , All through the Red Sea and also, between Aden

and India migratory birds are met with. On this voyage I noted the

following :--Quails, a hoopoe, one or two yellow wagtails, a wheat~

ear or bushchat, a light brown robin witha rufous tail, a species of

bunting, and several tree warblers. One of the last spent several days

on the ship and was very hungry, hunting for insects in the joints and

crevices of iron plates, poor bird |! When within one day’s sail or so, of

Aden, ships are often visited by peregrine falcons. I imagine they go

far out to sea in pursuit of sea birds, When they settleon the ship they

are often so exhausted that the sailors climb up therigging and catch

them. Atthe southern end of the Red Sea gulls and other sea birds

are on all sides, but disappear as soon as we pass Aden, After that we

fall in with two very interesting birds, which have been given a place

among our Indian avifauna, the Tropic bird (Phceton indicus) and

the Noddy (Anous stolidus). The former, a smoky coloured bird, as

restless as the petrel, skims the surface of the water in all directions,

but never follows the ship ; the latter flies at a great height with a

seemingly laborious flapping of its short wings, and drops into, the

water like a kingfisher. If its snowy plumage and long tail do not

attract attention, its incessant screams will. Of fish in any form, except

salt or tinned, one sees very little indeed during a voyage ona steamer,

out a large hook with a bit of white rag wrapped round it. This

trailing from the stern of the vessel, looked very like a small fish

rushing through the water, and succeeded in “taking-in” a large

dolphin, not the mammal which I have mentioned already, but a

species of fish which all sailors persist in calling the dolphin, Its

proper name is the coryphene (Coryphana hippurus). I had so often

found myself at variance with ancient mariners as to what was a

A VOYAGE FROM LIVERPOOL TO BOMBAY. 243

dolphin that I was very glad to have an opportunity of seeing this

fish, which is certainly one of the most splendid of living creatures.

When in the water it shines with dazzling brilliance, like burnished

brass in a green light; but as soon it is taken out, it changes to

various shades of dark green, blue, and purple, sprinkled all over with

round spots of the most intense blue, and bordered or touched at

various points with green and gold. As life ebbs, the colours become

rapidly duller, but even in death it is a most beautiful fish. This is

the fish to which Byron refers in describing a sunset in the

Mediterranean—

“yarting day

Dies like the dolphin, which each pang imbues

With a fresh colour as it gasps away,

The last still loveliest, till—’tis gone, and allis grey.”

The khalasees considered the coryphene a great prize; but the captain

and officers did not grudge it to them. I suppose it is coarse, The

chief business of the coryphene is to pursue and eat the flying fish,

and the chief use of the wings of the flying fish is to help it to

postpone death by the coryphene. Flying fish are found in many

seas; but between this and Aden they are so thick as to leave little

room for water. All day they rise on both sides of the steamer like

locusts, their silver sides glittering in the sun, Atthisseason (in

September) they are mostly about four inches long. In April or May

they seemed to me much larger and not nearly so abundant. At

night they fall upon the deck in numbers and are eagerly picked up

by the khalasees to be converted intocurry. As they fall, a splash of

phosphorescence marks the spot. Many speciesof fish are phosphore-

scent; but without amicroscope it was impossible tosettle whether the

luminosity inthis case wasnotdue simply to minute organisms in the

water which fell from thefish. Thewatersof the Arabian Seaatthis

season become brightly luminous when agitated, owing to the presence

of minute species of phosphorescent protozoa; but on the other hand

I twice noticed the whole sea become luminous for half an hour, so

faintly that it just looked like Bombay milk, and this the captain

attributed to a passing shoal of small fishes, probably flying fishes.

Even if he was right, the effect might not be due toluminosity in the

fishes themselves, but to the gentle agitation of the water as they

passed through it. Before I leave this subject, I will remark that it

does not appear to be generally known that the great Sea Serpent

is phosphorescent. Nor did I know it till one dark evening just a

244, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCINTY.

monthago. I was sitting on the deck engaged inmy usual evening

occupation of wishing it was bed time, when I saw, rushing through

the water at a fearful rate with a wavy motion, something allablaze,

at least 60 feet in length. 1 sprang to my feet with a shout and

ran to the side of the ship. The monster doubled upon itself and

rushed close by the ship almost under me, and I saw plainly, just

beneath the surface of the water, a huge porpoise leaving a trail of

light behind it! But it is time to stop. The last specimen Isaw at

sea was a native of Bombay, a large butterfly ofthe genus Catopsilia

going out to sea. ‘This is the way in which this and some other

butterflies meet the difficulty of over-population. Soon after that

specimen passed, we were at anchor and the cheering voice of the

Bombay crow assured me that I was in this beautiful city once

more.

Dr. D. MacDonald proposed a vote of thanks to Mr. Aitken for

his paper, which was much appreciated by all present.

The Honorary Secretary stated that Mr. EH. W. Oates, the well-

known author of the Birds of Burmah, had given the Society, for pub-

lication in its journal, a valuable paper on The Indian and Burmese

Scorpions of the genus Isometrus, in which he had described three

new species. Mr. Phipson added that Mr. Oates, who was now

in England publishing the Birds of India, had given the Society

great assistance In various ways, in recognition of which he (Mr.

Phipson) proposed that Mr. Oates should be elected an hono-

rary member of the Society. This proposal, on being put to the

* mecting by the Chairman, was carried unanimously

ON THE INDIAN AND BURMESE SCORPIONS

OF THE GUNUS JSOMHTRUS, WITH DESCRIPTIONS

OF THREE NEW SPECIES.

By Eucenn W. Oarnus, F, Z. 8.

(Read at the Bombay Natural ITistory Society’s Meeting on

1st October 1888.)

f : 3 av ‘ na) By

P'unsmall andelegant scorpions of this genus are well represented

throughout Burma becoming less frequent in India, The largest

London.

Mintern Bros, del, et hth

3,4. I.maculatus .

7.1. shoplandu,

“

1,2 I. phipsom

5.6. Lassamensis.

INDIAN AND BURMESE SCORPIONS. 245

known species does not much exceed three inches im length, and the

smallest is less than two inches. The colours of all are yellow or

fulvous marked with black, the former colour preponderating on the

limbs and the latter on the head and body.

The genus Isometrus is characterized by the following structural

peculiarities. The sternum is triangular ; the movable finger of

the mandibles is furnished with teeth on both edges ; the fixed finger

has teeth on the upper margin, but only one small tooth or spine on

the lower edge;the serrated edges of the fingers of the chelz are

composed of short simple rows of small teeth obliquely parallel to

each other, and each row furnished with a larger tooth, one on each

side, at the basal end of the row; the sixth joint of the tail is

furnished with a spine under the sting.

Of the eight species found in India, Burma and Ceylon, I have

been unable to examine specimens of J. trtcarinatus, EH. Simon,

and I. basilicus, Karsch, the former described from Pondicherry

and the latter from Ceylon. Itis hoped that some of the mem-

bers of the Society, favourably situated for the purpose, will

endeavour to procure specimens of these two species for the

museum.

I subjoin a key by means of which the eight species found

within the limits of British India may be identified without much

trouble :

A.—Second joint of tail furnished with ten keels.

a. The last abdominal segment below, with four

keels.

a’. Mandibles, cephalo-thorax and body above

blackish; cheliceres and legs fulvous

without marks. ...csceeecssseeteree es Rs shoplandi.

}’. The whole animal uniform fulvous. ...+-++-. tricarinatus.

b. The last abdominal segment below, with only

two keels.

oc’. The upper part of the first four joints of the

i i each si the second

tail, extending on each side to

keel, imniaculate fU]VOUS. ceeessvcceseseeees atomarius.

d'. The upper partof the first four joints of

the tail mottled with Drow cecseierseree varius.

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

B.—Second joint of tail furnished with only eight

keels.

ce. The tibial joint of the 4th pair of legs furnished

with a strong spine at its apex.

e’. The fingers of the chele notlonger than the

PN, desire iytesesspuitcnererurinsnd) (vi a DARLIN Me

f’. The fingers of the chele: much longer than

d. The tibial joint of the 4th pair of legs not

provided with a spine at its apex.

g’. Anti-ocular region black with a distinct

triangular yellow patch, the apex reach-

ing to the eyes; tail distinctly spotted.maculatus.

kh’, Anti-ocular region entirely black ; tail infus-

cated througnont. vik cc ae a asenmenets-

The characters of I. basilicus and I. iricarinatus, of which, as

‘ derived from M. Simon's remarks in the “ Annali del Museo Civico

di Storia Naturale di Genova, vol. xx., pp. 325-872 (1884),

1. Isometrus shoplandi, N. Sp., fig. 7.

Q Cephalo-thorax, body above and the mandibles deep brown

tinged with fulvous ; the last abdominal segment wholly fulvous on

its posterior half; cheliceres, under side of cephalo-thorax with

pectoral combs and the legs uniform fulvous; the femoral and genual

joints of all the legs with a reddish brown spot on the outside at the

apex ; lower abdominal segments yellow; the under side of tail with

the four keels on the first four joints and the three keels on the fifth

joint with the interspaces black, except at theanterior portions of the

joints, which are fulvous ; remainder of the tail wholly fulvous ; sting

black at the tip.

before remarked, I have not’ been able to examine specimens, are

Length of cephalo-thorax and abdomen 1: inch.

ay ae 4

o tail 20, 3,

a cheliceres “7 .

i hand alone. 25

The cephalo-thorax is coarsely and densely granulated, distinctly

emarginated in front and divided longitudinally by a deep furrow

passing between the central eyes, which are about a diameter apart

and seated obliquely ; abdomen above coarsely granulated with tho

median keel well developed on 2-6 segments; Ist segment withouta

keel ; 7th segment with an obsolete central keel and four lateral ones ;

INDIAN AND BURMESE SCORPIONS. 247

extending from the middle of the segment to the posterior edge ; the

first four lower abdominal segments very smooth; the fifth finely

granulated, with the two central keels well marked, extending from

the centre of the segment to the posterior edge ; lateral keels short

and interrupted ; first and second joints of tail with ten very distinct

keels ; third with ten keels, the third on each side less defined than the

others ; fourth joint with eight keels; fifth with three sharp keels

below, the upper part rounded, with a longitudinal central depression ;

sixth joint with a keel below, terminating in a rather short blunt

spine, and with some ill-defined keels at the sides; sting well-

curved and very sharp, about as long as the joint itis attached to ;

lees normal, slightly keeled ; the spine of the tibial joint sharp and

about a quarter the length of the metatarsus ; pectoral combs long,

with 22 teeth; humeral joint of cheliceres nearly smooth ; cubital

joint with two parallel keels above, another one below and outside,

and another beneath the joint; radial joint much swollen interiorly,

smooth and rounded outside, the upper side with a nearly smooth

keol, the inside with some blunt spines more orless,arranged in two

or three rows; digital joint small and perfectly smooth, the fingers

half as long again as the hand, curved inwards and rather hairy.

The male is not known: most probably it willbe found to differ

from the female in stracture only, notin coloration ; the body will be

smaller and the tail proportionally longer, and the fixed finger of

the cheliceres will be found to be strongly sinuated as in I. varius.

I. shoplandi has hitherto been found only at Palone, a village about

50 miles north of Rangoon, and at HEntagaw near Pegu. I have

much pleasurté in naming this well-marked species after Captain

H. R. Shopland, the late commander of Her Majesty’s Indian

Marine steamer “ Enterprise,” a keen naturalist, who has always

assisted me greatly, especially in the numerous trips we have taken

together to the Burmese lighthouses.

2. I. tricarinatus, H. Simon.

A remarkable species, uniformly fulvous throughout. The length

of the female is given as 1°4 inches or 38 millimetres. Pondicherry.

3. I. atomarius, H. Simon.

Described from Minhla on the Irrawaddy river in Upper Burmah,

a few miles north of the old frontier. I have procured it at

Thayetmyo and also in the Tharrawaddy District north of Rangoon.

& length of body, ‘58 in.; of tail, ‘98; of cheliceres, *72

ee ” Oa ss 3 POR; ” 72

| 1

248 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

This species is allied to the next, I. varius, from which however

it varies in some important particulars, In I. atomarius the fifth

lower abdominal segment is entirely fulvous yellow, with only one

black spot near the anterior edge; the upper part of the first four

caudal segments, as far as the second keel on each side, is clear

fulvous yellow without any marks whatever; the cubital joint of the

cheliceres has merely a small dot of black at each end on the upper

side, and the radial joint is marked with black only on the terminal

third of its length. It is also a much smaller species than J. varius.

The male differs from the female in having the body shorter, the tail

proportionally longer, and in having the fixed finger of the hand

strongly sinuated on the basal half of its length.

4. I. varius, C, Koch.

An extremely common species widely distributed. TI have taken

specimens in all parts of Burma, from Tenasserinm up to Mandalay,

It varies greatly in colour from bright rufous to dull brown, but I

cannot find that these variations are correlated with climate, speci-

mens from the dry region of Mandalay being fully as brightly

coloured as others from Tenasserim,

6 Length of body, °8 in.; of tail, 1:3; of cheliceres, +95

fo) i i ay a pel 2g "B85

The male is smaller than the female, with much longer (propor-

tionally) tail and cheliceres, and the hand igs much larger with a

strongly sinuated fixed finger. The coloration of the sexes is the

same,

5. I. basilicus, Karsch.

Appears to be rare in collections, but probably common enough

in Ceylon, If correctly described, this species has the curious

peculiarity of having the hands of the same length or longer than

the fingers, a point of structure not possessed by any other known

species,

6. I. phipsoni, N. Sp., figs. 1, 2.

This species, the largest of the genus, appears to be common in

Tenasserim, whence I have received numerous specimens,

Judging from the description, this species is allied to I. mMessor,

FE. Simon, from Java, but it is much larger, and differs moreover in

the coloration of the legs and other points,

? General colour fulvous yellow above; the cephalo-thorax nearly

black round the central eyes and in front of them up to the anterior

margins, the whole thickly and coarsely granulated, with the excep-

INDIAN AND BURMESE SCORPIONS. 249

tion of a few patches and streaks which are quite smooth ; the first

six upper abdominal segments thickly granulated with prominent

central keels, each segment with two clearly impressed yellow spots

on the hinder margin and a sub-marginal broad stripe on each side ;

seventh segment with black granulations on the anterior central part,

and with yellow ones elsewhere, lateral keels very distinct, mesial

keel indistinct posteriorly. Legs above marbled with brown which

nearly covers the fulvous yellow ground-colour, except on the ter-

minal portions of the tibial and metatarsal joints and the whole of

the tarsal which are falvous without marks; the cephalo-thorax

beneath is fulvous yellow, the pectoral combs yellow, and the first

four abdominal segments shining yellow, with the posterior edges

paler and duller yellow ; fifth abdominal segment dull fulvous yellow,

finely granulated; under side of legs dull fulvous yellow; first four

joints of the tail fulvous above, infuscated below; fifth joint en-

tirely dark brown or blackish ; sixth joint black suffused with red-

dish; sting reddish yellow at base and deep red at the tip; axillary,

humeral, cubital and basal portion of the radial joints of the cheli-

ceres fulvous, with one or two very minute brown marks in some,

absent in other specimens; terminal portion of radial joint, the

whole hand and the basal half of the fingers rufous brown; termi-

nal half of fingers fulvous yellow ; sides of the abdomen blue; the

hand is hardly as wide as the radial joint; the two upper keels of

the fifth caudal segment are sharpand strongly toothed, and there are

five distinct keels on the under side of the sixth joint of the tail.

The & resembles the 9 in coloration, except that the first four

abdominal segments below are deep fulvous, broadly edged pos-

teriorly and laterally with yellow, and the fifth segment is of the same

fulvous colour as the other ones and obsoletely granulated. In struc-

ture it differs remarkably, having a shorter body and a longer tail ;

the cheliceres are much longer, and the hand is broader than the

radial joint ; the keels on the upper surface of the fifth caudal seg-

ment are rounded and obsoletely granulated; it has only one keel

on the lower side of the sixth joint, and the granulations on this

are absent.

In the female the length of the body is rather more than that of

the first four caudal segments, whereas in the male it equals that

of the first three segments.

& Length of body, *95 in. ; of tail 2°2; of cheliceres, 1:55

Qs i 103 555 yy aS 55 1:35

250 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIRTY.

I name this fine species after Mr. Herbert M. Phipson, the ener-

getic secretary of the Society.

7. I. maculatus, De Geer, figs. 8, 4.

I have this species from Tavoy, Moulmecim, Rangoon, Table

Island (Andamans) and Bombay. It is of very wide distribution.

This scorpion and the next are peculiar in not having a spine at the

end of the tibial joint of the fourth pair of legs.

The male differs from the female in having a smaller body and

much longer tail and cheliceres. The colour is the same in both and

so is the structure,

& Length of body, +75 in.; of tail, 1:75; of cheliceres, 1:4

g ” ” Bea oe ” 1:05; ye) 8

8, I. assamensis, N. Sp., figs. 5, 6.

From Dhubriin Assam, whence I received six specimens from my

friend, Mr. O. G. Smart, of the Public Works Department. It is of

much the same colour as I. maculatus, but is very much smaller. It

may be distinguished at once by having the whole space in front of

the central eyes black, the keels on the last abdominal seoment

obsolete ; and the tail not spotted but clouded with fuscous.

Like I. maculatus it wants the spine on the tibial joint of the

fourth pair of legs,

The sexes are alike in colour and differ in structure by the male

having a smaller body and a longer tail; the cheliceres in both

sexes are of much the same size,

6 Length of body, *5 in.; of tail, 1:0; of cheliceres, +55

2 ” 29 roy} 9 "80; 9 5

The slight difference in size in the sexes of this Species separate

it widely from I. maculatus, in which the difference is very striking,

NOTE ON SOME BRANCHING PALMS.

Communicarup ny Mrs. W. E. Harr.

(Read at the Society's Meeting on 11th December, 1888.)

To the popular mind, perhaps the most characteristic feature

r of the Palm family is the tall, straight, undivided stem, surmounted

by its single head of leaves,

Some species, no doubt, as the edible date (Phanix dactylifera),

throw out a number of young plants from the parent stem at a

{

A BRANCHING DATE PALM (Phenix Syluestris)

IN THE RESIDENCY GROUNDS, INDORE,

(From a Photograph received from Mr. L, S. Newmarch.)

Drawn by Miss STARLING.

NOTE SOME BRANCHING PALMS. 251

short distance from the ground. These can be removed without

interfering with the growth of the main stem. Indeed I am told

by Mr. Birdwood and other friends, who have seen this species in

cultivation in Sind and other places, that the usual mode of pro-

pagation is by removing these young shoots, which, when planted,

take root and enter upon an independent existence, and in time

themselves throw out similar shoots.

A good specimen in Bombay is to be geen in the Elphinstone

Circle Garden, close to the railings, a few feet to the left as you

enter by the Western Gate. At a height of about three or four

feet from the ground, from among the thick mass of adventitious

rootlets which thicken the stem at its base, have sprung eight of

these young shoots, radiating from the axis of the parent stem, to

which four of them are still attached. The other four have been

removed and planted in the Victoria Gardens, but only one seems

likely to survive. Mr. Carstensen kindly showed it to me the other

day ina large pot near the fern-house. When once it has pro-

perly rooted, it will probably be found to thrive quicker if planted

in the open ground, for I have found that to pot young specimens

of the common wild species (Pheeniz sylvestris) greatly retards their

growth.

But these young plants thrown out by the parent tree are not

branches in the proper sense of the word. There are, however,

certain species of so called “ branching palms,” in which the stems

naturally bifurcate after growing single for some distance. Some-

times each bifurcation again divides after it has attained a certain

height. Occasionally the operation is even again repeated in each

of these second bifurcations.

Such is the Doum palm of Egypt (Hyphane Thebaica), a good

specimen of which is to be seen in the Sewree cemetery, a short

distance from the gate on the left of the main walk as you enter.

There, among a group of these palms with dichotomous stems,

which I suppose found their way to the spot in the days when the

Agri-Horticultural Society of Bombay had their head-quarters in

the neighbourhood, is one which repeats the bifurcations in the

manner LI have described. ;

But besides the species in which the stems naturally divide,

there are exceptional instances of apparent monstrosities, in which

individuals of a species ordinarily characterized by the simple stem

have developed a dichotomous disposition.

‘

252 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

A few months ago there appeared in the Times of India the follow-

ing account of what seems to be acelebrated specimen of a branching

betel-nut palm: “A famous forked palm of Cayenne is giving

signs of weakness. It has been proposed to cut it down, and pre-

serve the trunk in the Natural History Museum at Paris after

being shown in the World’s Fair in 1889. This remarkable tree

belongs to the genus areca, is about 100 feet high, and divides at a

height of about 30 feet, the two stems being equal in height and

diameter, and flourishing and fructifying like two isolated trees. The

vegetable phenomenon is in a grove with some 400 other palms and

shows nothing abnormal save its twin stems.”

A still more curious instance is that of the wild date (Phenix

sylvestris) mentioned by Brandis, at p. 553 of his Forest Flora of

North-West and Central India, as “ growing in the Residency

Garden at Indore, with a trunk 22 feet high to the first branch,

and with 22 vertical closely packed branches.” This specimen is

also described according to Brandis, in the Gardener’s Chronicle of

1874, p. 116, and our Honorary Secretary informs me that it is

figured in the Agri-Horticultural Society’s Journal 4. N.S. of 1878,

but I have been unable to lay my hands on either of these works.

The accompanying illustration of the above mentioned tree is from

a photograph obtained with the kind assistance of Mr. L. S.

Newmarch. I am also informed by our Honorary Secretary,

who recently visited Indore, that there are now only 12 branches,

and that the tree shows no signs of having ever been cut for toddy.

Two instances of abnormal division in the stems of the common

wild date (Pheenia sylvestris) have come under my own notice in

Bombay.

One is in the compound of the bungalow belonging to the estate

of the late Mr. A. G, DeGa, in which [ am at present residing, on

Altamont Road, Cumballa Hill. The other is in the compound of

the house on the Pedder Road, formerly known as Sea Scale, when

it was the residence of Mr. Wordsworth, but now called Sea Gale,

and in the occupation of Mr. Nowrojee N. Wadia.

The former of these two specimens is a few yards to the north of

my stable, close to the west side of Altamont Road. The treeis appa-

rently of considerable age, and bears the marks of deep incisions for

toddy. After growing in the usual way to a height of nearly 20

feet the stem has branched into four. The ramifications do not

radiate from the axis of the original stem but are thrown out, so to

A BRANCHING DATE PALM (Phenix Sylvesiris)

GROWING ON CUMBALLA HILL, BOMBAY,

(From a Photograph by Capt. BE. Shopland.)

Drawn by Miss STARLING,

NoTH ON SOME BRANCHING PALMS. 253

speak, all. in the same plane. There is no thickening of the

original stem at the point of junction, The branches themselves are

considerably attenuated just at this point, but almost immediately

assume a vertical direction, and then all attainthe thickness of the

main stem. They are also all of about equal height, having grown

some 12 feet from the point of junction to the base of the crown of

foliage. Hach branch bears flowers and fruit, A sketch of this

tree had been made by Miss Starling, from a photograph by Capt.

Shopland, for the Society’s Journal.

The other specimen ‘stands about 50 yards from the com-

pound wall on the west of the Pedder Road, but being on rather

elevated ground is plainly visible from the road. The stem, which

in this instance also shows signs of having been tapped for toddy,

has bifurcated at a height of about 12 feet from the ground. The

southernmost of the two branches seems to form rather more of a

right angle with the original stem at the point of junction than do

any of the four branches in the other specimen. Excepting this,

and the numberof their branches, the two’trees seem to grow in

much the same manner.

I have also heard of an instance of a bifurcating cocoanut palm

(Cocos nuctfera) in the Mahim woods, but have not seen it. I have

also heard of, but not seen, another instanceofa bifurcating wild

date (Phenix sylvestris) in the jungle between Mount Nepean Road

and the Malabar Hill Reservoir.

Brandis, at the page already cited, in the Forest Flora, speaking

of the edible date (Phenia dactylifera) says the branching stems are

occasionally foundin the Panjab, and that many palms have occasion-

ally bifurcating stems and sometimes developa large number of side

branches. But the above are the only specific instances of abnormal

branching in the simple stemmed species that I have been able

to find or hear of. From them it would appear that the abnormal

branching is always, if not strictly dichotomous, yet in multiples of

two.* It would also appear that the branches, whatever their number,

spring from the original stem at the same height. Next it would

appear that they do not radiate in different directions around on

the axis of the original stem. Lastly, it would appear from their

being of the same length and girth that they are of equal age.

* An instance mentioned at p. 79 of An Indian Olio by General Burton of a seven-

branching Palmyra, shows the ramifications are not always dichotomous. At the

reading of the paper Mr. Kabraji mentioned another instance of a seven-branching

cocoanut palm at Jabalpur near Naogari.

254 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

From all these facts I am inclined to infer, first, that these

abnormal so-called ‘ branches” are not ramifications in the strict

sense of the word. That is, they are not lateral growths from a main

stem which continues growing, but are divisions of the original stem

itself; secondly, that all these divisions, whatever their number, ori-

ginated simultaneously from the same cause; thirdly, that this cause

also resulted in the disappearance of the first head of foliage which

originally crowned the single stem.

The question then arises, what is the cause? This is not with-

out an economic interest, for it is clear that if the cause be one

capable of artificial application, it might be possible to double or

quadruple the yield of fruit, nuts, or toddy, from a single tree.

Several possible causes suggestthemselves. Stewart in his Panjab

Plants, p. 244, as quoted by Brandis in the page already cited of his

Forest Flora, supposes that “the branches are merely apparent, caused

by seeds germinating in the axils of the petioles.” Brandis, how-

ever, regards this theory as improbable. Certainly it would be diffi-

cult, on this supposition, to account for the facts above noticed

of the apparent identity in age of the branches and the disappear-

ance of the original crown of foliage.

But the abnormal branching might be due to atavism, or “ throw-

ing back,” toa primeval type of ancestral palm, which naturally

branched, a lineal descendant of which has survived in the Doum palm,

or it might be an effort of evolution in the direction of development

towards a branching type.

This raises a very interesting question in Darwinism with which

I fear I am hardly competent todeal. The solution of it would seem

to depend ina great measure on whether we are to regard the natur-

ally branching palm as the survival of an ancient type or the

development of a new one.

Judging from what we know of palzsontological botany it would

appear that the evolution ofthe dicotyledonous type from the acrogens’

through the cycadacew was already complete before the appearance

of the palms. For besides their mosses, ferns, reeds, and cycades, .

we find in the coal measuresof Great Britain, numerous remains of

conifers and true exogenoustrees. But it is not tillthe Tertiary period

that there occurs any abundance of palms. From this I would infer that

the palm does not come in as a link in the chain of the evolution of

the dicotyledonous trees, and therefore that the branching of the

palms is not to be regarded as an effort towards such evolution.

NOTE ON SOME BRANCHING PALMS.

It may, however, be one in the evolution ofa new type of monocoty-

ledonous branching trees. In this sense the Doum palm would

appear to be rather the forerunner ofa new type than the descendant

of an old one. For among the various species of fossil palms that

have yet been discovered, lam not aware of one that is characterized

by a branching stem. We should however remember that, owing no

doubt to their softer texture, far fewer species of palms have been

found than of the harder wooded dicotyledonous trees, and possibly

among those which have been lost is the branching type.

Is then the abnormal branching of palms naturally single stem-

med due to the efforts of individuals to develop a branching

species in imitation of the Doum palm? I think not. The author of

the article Palma in the last edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica,

noticing the abnormal branching of palms, writes that it is

“probably the result of some injury to the terminal bud at the

top of the stem, in consequence of which buds sprout from below

the apex.” This view seems to be corroborated by most of the facts

already mentioned, notably by the disappearance of the original foliage

crown, by the apparent identity in age of the branches, and by the

presence of incisions for toddy, at. least in those Bombay specimens

which I have described. These incisions, made just, at the base of

the crown of leaves, often result in its destruction and the death of

the tree. Often however we notice merely a distortion of the single

‘stem at the point of incision. It may well bethat where the injury

is greater than would merely result in a simple distortion of the axls

of growth and yet not great enough to entirely destroy it, the young

bud at the top of the tree divides into two, or more, and hence the

apparent branching of the stem at the point of injury and disap-

pearance of the original single foliage crown.

It would therefore appear that the reduplication of the productive

power of a tree could be artificially effected by the infliction

of the right injury, care being of course taken to avoid such excess

as would result in the death of the tree. Possibly too, if specimens of

such artificially branching palms were produced in sufficiently large

quantities over a sufficiently long period and propagated by careful

selection, we might in time have another species of naturally branch-

ing palms. Only in striving to arrive at this laudable result let us be

careful we do not first destroy all our existing species, and go

down to posterity, as the rivals in fame of the old lady who killed

the goose that laid the goiden eggs.

MAULED BY A PANTHER.

By W. B. M.

{ vin from my diaries that I had killed fifty-six panthers and

forty-six tigers—a total of one hundred and two felines—when I

was defeated by a panther in the following manner :—

I had been camped for 14 or 15 days close to the great earthen

dam of the Waghad lake, looking after my police and revenue sub-

ordinates, who had to collect and keep on the work 3,000 labourers

required by the Engineering Department to secure the dam from

injury during tho rains, when I heard of a tiger being in the Ram-

sej hills, distant about ten miles. 1 at once despatched a tent to

Tongaldhara, a small village below the hill, and sent out four or five

of my police constables and the same number of sepoys to collect

information of the tiger and mark him down jf possible. The day

after my arrival at Tongaldhara (31st May 1884), a villager came

hurriedly to my tent about nine o’clock in the morning, announced

that a tiger—it turned out to be a la rge panther—had been seen by

the paltyas (watchers) at carly dawn crossing over the hill, and that

it had been satisfactorily marked down on the far side.

I started on my pony to ride round the hill, while I sent my

policemen and the few beaters I could collect in Tongaldhara across

it with orders to meet mo at Dherrigam village,

When I arrived at Dherrigam I was pointed out the side of a hill,

some 800 feet high, in which the so-called tiger was saidto be

marked down. This hill was crowned throughout its length with a

massive natural wall of trap rock, varying from 150 to 200 feet

high, having about its middle three or four deep rents or clefts

forming passes from one side of the hill to the other, and through

one of these the panther had been seen to enter the ravine at

dawn.

Looking through my glasses I could discern 15 or 20 paltyas

(watchers) posted in twos and threes at various commanding points

on the hill side. The white head-dress or clothing of some render-

ing them conspicuous on the black

easily distinguishable by their dark

the tree on which they we

rocks on which they sat, others

skins against the light. bark of

re perched, or against:the yellow grass on

which they squatted, It wag

inch without detection with all

Beckoning down some of them

impossible for the beast to move/an

these fellows round the jungle.

from the hills, I enquired where the

MAULED BY A PANTHER. 25%

beast was supposed to be. Those of the northern side asserted that

they had seen him go intoa nalla—dry torrent bed — on their

side of the hill, and lie up in some cactus bushes (sabrt), while those

of the southern side declared he had gone down the hill and had

disappeared amongst some large rocks under a clump of green and

shady trees. The knowing ones of the village said that he had a lair

in both places. The distance between the two points was between

a quarter and ahalf mile, and deeming it impossible to organize a

drive which would cover both,I made up my mind to drive therocks

below first, and then to drive the nalla above. The only thing

against this arrangement was the small number of beaters, who were

not more than 50, and who would have been quite lost on the exten-

sive area to be covered. LIconsequently sent two police constables

to neighbouring villages for more men, while I sat down to a light

breakfast. After eating a hurried meal I went with an old villager

to a large rock, under which the beast was said constantly to he in

the heat of the day. Nice cool quarters he had under it, but un-

fortunately he was not at home, so T returned to where the beaters

were assembled, and was soon rejoiced at seeing about 75 more men

turn up with my police constables. A consultation took place

amongst all the elders of Dherrigam village, and it was finally settled

that I was to take up my position in awild fig-tree about a hundred

and fifty yards beyond the rocks and clump of tree containing the

lair of the animal.

An old villager, wearing a dark brown blanket, the fashionable

head-dress of his caste, and affording protection to his head and

shoulders from the sun, was sent with me, as he was reputed to

know exactly where to place me. When I got to the tree in ques-

tion I objected to get into it, as no portion that would bear my

weight was five feet from the ground, and it practically afforded no

protection, while it was a most awkward one to shoot from; I

therefore said I would stand on the ground, where my aim would —

bo steadier. The old fellow declared the beast’s path lay directly

under the tree, and the panther would pass pote-a-kal (under my

belly) if I would only get up the fig-tree. Over-persuaded by

such arguments I got astride a large horizontal branch, while my

companion climbed high up the small shoots over my head, and

taking my spare rifle well out of reach, ensconced himself in the

green branches at the top of the tree. Iso placed myself as to face

the beast as he came along under the tree, as I considered it very

258 ROMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

probable that if I did not prevail on him to stop before he came up

to me he might have a pleasant few minutes’ amusement with my

legs dangling down to within a few feet of the ground,

The first shout of the beaters had scarcely echoed up the hill

when my friend on the tree above me remarking, ‘There goes the

tiger,” pointed upward, and following the direction of his finger I

saw a very fine panther one hundred and fifty or two hundred yards

off trotting with long and rapid. strides up the hill to my right.

Sitting as I was astride a large branch it was impossible for me to

turn round sufficiently, get my rifle to my shoulder, and bring it to

bear on an object above and well to my right, Nevertheless IJ fired

at him from my cramped position, and I believe I hit him, as he

turned round and snapped at his hind quarters, and some paltyas

in trees who saw him pass close declared they. saw blood on his

flanks. He tried to pass over the hill, but was turned by paltyas,

and he proceeded to lie up in some rocks under trees directly below

the high cliff crowning the hill. [ hurried up the hill to head him,

and getting the beat so arranged as to drive h.m towards me, I

knelt on the ground, rifle in hand, directly in his road to cross over

the hill.

I had not been long in position when I saw his beautiful yellow

skin shine in the bright sunlight as he descended a dip in the path

under the cliff, coming straight towards me. When he rose out

of the dip, to my surprise, he suddenly pulled up .and looked

dead in our direction. I whispered to the old fellow behind me,

holding my spare rifle, that it must have been the confounded dark

blanket over his head that the panther had seen. He declared the

blanket was not to blame, but the men above us on the rocks, and

looking up I perceived, for the first time, some half-dozen beaters

shewing well down to their waists above the high rocks over us,

The panther then lying down broadside on in the open with his

tongue hanging out, kept his head turied round in our direction

showing that he distinctly saw us in spite of the bright glare of

the sun. I was nearly tempted to fire at him as he was not more

than 80 yards off, but a shot at a sitting animal is always a difficult

one, and I dreaded putting him back on the beaters, some of whom

he would have been sure to maul, if not kill. As the drive came on

he quietly slipped down the hill and I went after him,

When thus following him some men in ateak-tree, hailing me, told

me they had seen him sneak into some cactus bushes and long grass

MAULED BY A PANTHER. 259

close by, and that he had certainly not passed out or gone beyond.

I took up a position from which I could command the small piece of

jungle pointed out, and was having it driven when a police con-

stable, Daghru, shouted from above that he had discovered

a large hole with panther foot-marks going into it, and to corro-

borate the statement he brought me some hairs found at theentrance

of the hole which, on examination, I saw were long and white, so,

remarking that they looked more like hyena’s than panther’s hair,

I told him to see if there were any yellow or black ones about. I,

however, clambered up the hill after the constable, having one

loaded rifle carried by the Kotwal of the village close by me. The

other I unloaded, as there was some climbing and nasty ground to

be got over, and from accidents I had seen, I always dreaded rifles

going off when in the hands of ignorant natives. The bearer of this

second weapon I told to come on as quickly as he could.

I went straight to the earth where Daghru was, and satisfied

myself that the pugs-of a panther distinctly led into the hole.

I was then taken to a second hole about 20 or 80 yards distant, which,

the villagers asserted, communicated with the first. While here,

taking a pull at my drinking water and making arrangements to

light a fire of grass-and green leaves to smoke the brute out, in order

that I might shoot him as he escaped at the other end, the police

constable, Daghru, came running round in a great state of alarm

and told me that two (baghs) panthers, had come out of his end of

the earth, were simply playing the mischief amongst the beaters,

and that unless I hurried round the beasts would get away.

I seized my rifle fromthe hands (of a native standing close by me),

and ran to about as strange ascene as it was ever my lot to witness,

The panther had come out of the hole with a rush amongst the

beaters crowding round; many of these were in the act of bolting

as hard as they could down the hill, others were lying about,

having gone in the knees from funk, and fallen in the extraordinary

way natives sometimes do, and the last man standing was going over

backwards before the infuriated panther when I arrived.

Many seconds were not allowed me for contemplation of this scene

as the panther charged straight at me. Owing to the number of

beaters about—some on the ground, some picking themselves up,

and some bolting—it was impossible for me to fire without the

greatest risk of shooting one or two of them. I consequently had

to wait untilthe panther was within a few feet of me, and I then

2 TRE Te ITS SETS eT

260 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

put my rifle down to his head, expecting to roll him over like a rabbit

(as I had succeeded in doing on other occasions), and then place my

second bullet pretty much where I pleased. ‘lo my horror there

was no report when the hammer fell! The next moment the panther,

with an angry roar, sprang on me. Hanging on with the claws of

one fore-paw driven into my right shoulder and the other round me,

he tried to get at my head and neck, but I fortunately prevented this

by raising my left arm which he instantly seized in his huge mouth.

I shall never forget his sharp, angry roar, the wicked look of tho

greenish yellow eyes within six inches of mine, the turned-back ears,

his feotid breath upon my cheek, and the feeling of his huge fangs

closing to the bone through my arm above the elbow.

I endeavoured, by giving him my knee in the stomach, to make

him let go. ‘Those who have ever kicked a cat, can imagine what

little effect this had. It was more like using one’s knee toa foot-

ball than anything else. The panther, with a roar, gave a tremen-

dous wrench to my arm, hurled me some five paces down the side

of the hill prone onmy face, bringing my head in contact witha tree.

Stunned and insensible, I lay some seconds on the ground, and the

brute, thinking me dead, fortunately did not worry me, but, passing

over me, went for the retreating police constable who had brought

me into the difficulty. I remember when I came to raising my head

from the ground, leaning my forehead against the tree, and smiling,

with a certain feeling of grim satisfaction, when my eye caught the

retreating form of the constable andthe pursuing panther down the

hill, and I thought the policeman’s turn had come. In his precipi-

tate flight, however, this constable went apparently also in his legs,

for he fell and thus escaped a mauling.

During the scrimmage the beaters, completely losing their heads,

bolted here, there, and everywhere, and neither they nor the con-

stables made the slightest effort to drive the beastoff me. The patel

or head of the village, clapping his hand to his mouth, shouted at the

top of his voice: ‘‘ Oh, my wife isa widow, my wife isa widow,’’

meaning, I conclude, that if I were killed an avenging but just

Government would hang him, while, if I survived, in all probability

I would at once dispose of himin some other but equally effectual

manner,

When the panther had passed away police constable Narayen,

raising me from the ground, inquired if I was much hurt. I replied

that I feared I must be. He opened my coat and flannel shirt and

MAULED BY A PANTHER. O61

taid bare my gnawed arm and clawed shoulder, bleeding profusely.

Feeling faint from loss of blood, I got Narayen to wrap his head-dress

round and round the arm and pour cold water on it, and giving

him strict injunctions to lay meé flat and pour water on my head in

case [ fainted (natives invariably prop you up in a sitting position

when you faint, and there kéep you until you die !) 1 began the

descent of the hill. Ireached my little nag saddled and waiting for

ine, and mounting it, 1 simply turned her lead towards home and

flew over the five miles of broken country track to my camp at

Tongaldhara, the other side of the hill. As I sped through the air

the wet bandages on my wounds felt icy, cold and refreshed me, so

that I could not believe I was much hurt. The wayfarers on tho

road must have been astonished at the appearance of their District

Magistrate and Collector as { galloped along; arid, indeed, L observed

that they all pulled up and looked after me as I passed bleeding from

my forehead and with the arms of Narayen’s coat which I lad merely

buttoned af the neck and his pagri flying in streamers behind me on

the breeze. WhenI reached my tents the scene was one rather

ealculated to unnerve ever a stronger man than me. All my ser-

vants, butler, cook, mate, dressing boy, &c., &c., gathering round, as

Tt bathed the woundsin cold water and re-wet the bandages, and ery:

ing piteously, told me I never could recover from such deep injuries.

Y tried to persuade them I was all right, ard as if to disprove their

mournful predictions I became quité elated in spirits, and after

swallowing a cup of tea, I started, with my dressing boy, in my pony

trap, for Nasik. The lad driving, rattled over the ten miles of good

¥oad almost as fast as the mounted policeman I sent ahead to

summon the Doctor to my house, and two hours and a half had not

elapsed from the time of my mauling before I was in the hands of

the Civil Surgeon of the Station.

The Doctor probed the teeth wounds in the arm snd fouiid that

at the back of the arm ran right to the bone ard was an inch

and a halfdeep. The two wounds on the inner side; in or close to

the biceps, were one an inch and a quarter and the other an inch

deep. The claw wounds on the right shoulder were not serious,

and had fortunately just missed the large artery near the collar bone,

injury to which would have resulted in my bleeding te death ina very

few minutes.

Carbolie acid and water lotion bandages were applied, and these

my servants kept wet night andday. My head, as the Doctor feared

casi

= Te ee ree otto eeerteRTUTSISesrserreNesrornesi es reseear=

262 ‘ BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

concussion from my symptoms, was kept deliciously cool with an

eau-de-cologne and water bandage. For three or four days I con-

tinued ina very exhausted state. I was incoherent and more or less

off my head. I well remember how, inmy frightful dreams, the

panther constantly came at me again, and how fiercely I struggled to

get my hands and feet (which I imagined tied) free, and how

ultimately I awoke bathed in perspiration, having got rid of my

horrible nightmare. From the poisonous wounds sinuses formed

which had frequently to be laid open with the lancet. On the 27th

day I was out of bed and moved to Bombay to join a new appoint-

ment, One wound gave trouble longer than the others, but 1 aving

been turned inside out, as the Doctor termed it with the lancet a second

time, all proceeded satisfactorily, and, thanks to the great care and

attention of my medical adviser, within two months from the occur-

rence of the mishap, the wounds were healed up and even a sling was

dispensed with.

Here a word of advice to those who, like myself, have the

misfortune to be mauled. Remember that tecth and claw wounds

of these large felines are poisonous, from their eating flesh and

carrion, and that being punctured wounds they must be kept open

at the mouth and made to granulate from below; so sure as they close

over at top sinuses will form and the wound and sinuses must be

laid open with the lancet. I should have been spared much pain if

I had borne the above in mind, and not hurried to have the wounds

closed over for me to get about.

Asked how it occurred, all I can reply is that I can’t say with

certainty whether a cartridge missed fire, or whether, when I

hurriedly seized the rifle from the hands of the bearer, I seized the

unloaded one. It is possible that the village Kotwal, hearing of

two panthers, and the utter rout of the beaters, lagged behind with

the loaded rifle and allowed the unloaded one to come on with me.

When I was mauled the rifle was knocked out of my hands, the hat

off my head, and even the watch and cartridges out of my pockets,

and I did not see the rifle again until I rose from my bed three

weeks after the accident. It ig consequently impossible for me

definitely to explain’ the mishap, though, when I examined my rifle,

I certainly found the claw-marks cf the panther on my twelve-bore

rifle, while I am under the impression that it was my central

fire express that I loaded before commencing my ascent of

the hill,

ZOOLOGICAL NOTES. 263

ZOOLOGICAL NOTES

A CURIOUS INSTANCE OF FRIGHT.

In the last number of the Journal I noticed that Mr. Vidal, in his letter on

“ Poisonous Lizards,’? mentions several cases of the effects of fright on a native

when under the impression that he had been bitten by some poisonous reptile.

The following incident, which occurred at one of my camps, may be interesting.

One evening one of my subordinates told me a coolie had been bitten by a

snake; I went and examined the man, who said he had been bitten on the inside

of the big toe. Careful examination, however, showed no puncture or even scratch.

To put the man’s mind at ease I admnistered a large dose of brandy. The man

did not seem frightened, his chief idea being to go and kill the snake. He

gradually got worse, and in a quarter of an hour he was insensible, skin cold.

froth at the lips, quite rigid, and most remarkable of all, his eyes were insensible

to light. His pulse was, however, fairly steady and good. I could do nothing

more for him, but one of the coolies came up and asked to say Mantras over

him. Having got permission, he took a small Jota of water and standing quite

six feet from the man began to recite, every now and then sprinkling a little water

towards, but not on, the man. In ten minutes the coolie was walking about

perfectly well. There is in my mind no doubt that the saying of the Mantras

cured the man, not from any inherent efficacy m them, but simply because the

man’s faith in them was greater than the fear of the snake poison.

F, E. DEMPSTER,

26th July 1888. Myingyan, Upper Burmah.

A FOX EATING WHITH-ANTS (TERMITES).

Dr. Sruwart, of the Poona Horse, who is acareful observer, writes as follows

on 7th November 1888 :—

“Qn the 5th instant, while breaking a young horse, I came upon a fox ina

ditch by the side of the road. There had beenrain, and he was on a white-ants’

nest, from which numbers of the winged white-ants were issuing. About 40

crows were crowding round him, barely keeping “at arm’s length” and hardly

afraid of him. As I came up, at a walk, he retired into a field about 20 yards, but

almost immediately turned and went back. All the crows on this rose from the

nest with a noise that would have alarmed most animals, but he only hesitated

a moment and then ran eagerly and quickly to the nest again. I have not the

slightest doubt he was eating the white-ants. I passed within four yards of the

nest and saw there was no carrion of any sort on it, for the ground was bare ;

on the other hand his very eager manner and the position he took up on the nest,

left no doubt in my mind what he was after. Had I been able to do so, I

should have watched him.”

It is not at all unlikely that the fox was engaged in this excellent work of

destruction, as the number of birds and animals, which feed on these excellent little

insects, is very | large. I once saw a squirrel at Matheran scratching the redearth off

a dead tree and greedily devouring the white-ants beneath, which greatly surprised

me, as I had always supposed the squirrels to be striet vegetarians.— Editor,

]

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

Ettore cect OF ert

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

PROCEEDINGS oF THE MypnTtiNe HELD on 61H August 1888,

THE usual monthly meeting of this Society took place on Mond ay, the 6th August,

#nd was largely attended, Dr. D. MacDonald presided,

The following new members were elected :—C aptain W. St, John Richa rdgon,

Mr. W. S. Owen, Khan Saheb J Manockjee Dhanji, + G. K. Betham, Mr. Goverdhun-

dass Khatag Mackunjee, Lieut. R. H. Light, Dr. HE. H. Brown, Dy. Monks, Mr. G. A.

Kittredge, and Dr. Bar Ty.

The Honorar ry Secretary, Mr. H. M. Phipson, then acknowledged the following

be aad the Socie ay 8 collection :—>

Coxmarnom0Ns DURING Ala LY.

Contribution. | Description. Contributor.

L Suske (alive) wisicc.c. co

Palm-Roof Swift, Mr. E. 0. S. Baker,

headed Broad-Bill, through,

> Spider-Hunter, Lient. H. RE. Barnes.

Several rare Birds’ Nests’

from the North Cachar

Falls. 3:

Gre}

Bungarns arcuatus, | Dr. da Gama.

Mrs. Goulds’ Honey Suc.|

ker

Scarlet-backed Higwen

| Pecker. |

| Golden headed Babbler!

| and |

| Rufous-bellied Bulbul

2 Snakes.......... ..| Chersydrus granulatus) Mr. W. 8S. Hexton.

and Cerberus exceed |

Coral, 7, ..: iors | Om Red Seg, sac. cisvavs es Dr, E. Littlewood,

A Piece of Bark Clot h Mrs. Ashdown.

1 Sealy Ant Hater...... Manis pentade actyla Mr. Fred. Wright,

1 Panther Cub ee Felis pardus ....... | Do,

1 Mongoose (alive) . Herpestes griseus .. Mr. R. H. Light.

1 Chameleon (al ive) +.| Chameleo vulgarig .. a Mrs, Aston,

1 Cobra (alive)...cc..0..0/, Naga tripudians ............| Major Bissett.

1 Sea Snake (alive)......... Unhydrina, bengalensis | Mr. H. J. Hemming.

2 Young Porcupines (alive); Hygtrix leucura ............/ Mr. H. Barrett.

1 Black Sloth Bear yeni Ursus labiatus Lieut. . Sapte.

1 Cobra (alive) .. Naga tripudians ..| Mr. G. Carstensen.

1 Chameleon...... Chameleo vulgaris .. |} Dy. H. H. Brown.

3 Guinea Pigs (alive) ..,,..| Cavia cobaya. .....,. | Mr. H. A. Coggan,

1 Sun Bear (alive) ......... | Ursus malayanus ‘from| Sig. G. Ceccarelli, through

Borneo. | Mr. FB, Bozzoni.

Gallus ferruginens ......... Mr. W. §. Price.

1 pair Red Jungle Fowl . |

Nest and BURBS cei bee vsre| Black-capped Black Bird.,| Mr. H. M, Hewett.

| White Winged Ground!

| Thrush and "Blue. breagt-|

| ed Water Rail.

LE BMAKG Ge. ite ieisriie ies bee Tropidonotus aia: | Mr. Lennane,

ConTRIBUTIONS TO THE LiBRARY.

Birds of British-Burma (Oates), from Captain Shopland.

The International Scientists’ Direc tory, from Dr. Dymock.

Records of the Geological Sur vey of India, in Hixchange.

Journal of the Asiatic Saciety of Bengal, Vol. LVIL, Part IL, Now, 1, 2, in

Exchange.

Verhandhingen der Zoologisch Botanischen,

Gersellechaft in Wien. XXXVI. Band. Quarial. I, I,

PROGEEDINGS, 265

Miss La Touche exhibited a fine specimen of the Hunting Leopard (Felis jubata) or

Chita, which she had reared from a cub. The animal, which was perfectly tame,

was much admired by all present. Mr, WH. L. Barton also exhibited two tigers’ heads

mounted by him for members of the Soojety since Jast meeting.

THE PROPOSED ZOOLOGICAL GARDEN.

The Honorary Secretary, Mr. H. M. Paipson, stated that since the last meeting of

the Society no reply had been received from Government as to the site asked for, and

that the Committee was, therefore, not yet in a position to lay before the members

for their approval any definite proposals with regard to the contemplated Zoological

Garden. With a view, however, to test the popularity of the scheme, a list had

been started in the local newspapers of persons who would be willing to support

the project by becoming life-members of the Society on payment of Rs, 150, on the

understanding that they would be relieved of all further payments, and be entitled

to a free entrance to the Garden to themselves and two friends. The Times of India

had most generously headed the list with a subscription of Ry 500, and the amount

had in less than one month risen to Rs. 51,150. (Cheers.) T. E. Lord and Lady

Reay had added their names to the list as well as their Royal Highnesses the Duke

and Duchess of Connaught. H. H. the Rao of Cutch, Sir Dinshaw Maneckjee Petit

and another well-known Parsee gentleman had promised Rs. 1,000 each, and it was

proposed that donors of such amounts should be elected patrons of the Society with

allthe privileges of life-members, and algo that cages built with the money should

be named after the donors.

The Honorary Secretary further stated that no reply had been received from the

Municipal Commissioner to the proposals made hy the Committee, bat that the

subject had heen discussed at several meetings of the Town Council and Corpora-

tion. In the opinion of the Committee the site asked for was the only one in Bom-

bay on which a popular and successful Zoological Garden and Aquarium could be

made. The land had for many years been partially occupied by cattle keepers, and

was at present in a mast insanitary condition. A Zoological Garden, if properly

laid out and well kept, could not possibly be a source of annoyance to any one. In

support of this assertion the Honorary Secretary drew the attention of those preseut

to the largest collection of wild animals in the world that belonged tothe Zoological

Society of London, which may now be said to be in the heart of the Metropolis. No

complaints had ever been made of any annoyance arising from the London Zoological

Garden, and the best evidence of this was the fact that the houses on the north and

north-east of Regent’s Park, facing the Menagerie, command very high rents.

Promises of specimens had been received from all parts of the country, and the

Committee were confident that if the desired site were obtained, one of the most

picturesque gardens in the world could be made thereon, which would be a credit

to Bombay, and furnish the inhabitants with a constant source of amusement and

instruction. (Applause.) ;

Mr. Reginald Gilbert then’ read an interesting paper, entitled :—“ Notes on Sam-

bhur and Sambhur Stalking,” which will be found in another part of this number.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE MENTING HELD ON 61H SEPTEMBER.

The usual monthly meeting of the members of this Society tcok place on Monday,

the 6th September, Mr. G. Carstensen presiding.

The following new members were elected :—

Mr. E. Hadyn, Dr. Boyd, Dr. Sinclair, Mr. W. B. Mulock, C.S., Mr. C. J. Maltby,

Captain G. Budgen, Mr. A. R. M. Simkins, Mr. F. G. Richardson, Brigadier-Generat

La'Touche, Mr. H. E. M. James, C.S., and Mr, B. W. Blood.

266 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

The Rev. A. K. Nairnes was elected an honorary member of the Society,

Mr. H, M. Phipson, the Honorary Secretary, then acknowledged the following

contributions to the Society’s collections :—

CoNtTRIBUTIONS DURING AuGuUST.

Contributions.

Description.

A Collection of Lizards and

Bats.

2 Hares (alive) ..

1 Cashmere Mouse- Hare .

Skin, Nest and Hges of

White-browed Bunting.

Skull of Black-necked

Stork.

2 Eggs of Chukor Part-

ridge.

2 Eggs of Marsh Tern......

1 Beg of Himalayan Snow

Cock.

3 Snake’s Skins.....

1 Cobra (alive) .

8 Sea Snakes (alive) .

1 Purple Coot (alive) ......

2 Monkey-monthed wie

1 Porcupine’s Skull .

£ Snake os...

A quantity of Turtles? Regs:

1 Mongoose Skull ..

1 Tailor Bird (alive) . A Graal

1 Flamingo (alive)

1 Chameleon .........

1 Monitor (alive) ... ites

i Boat Orv Gigris acs,

1 Pair Khudoo Horns ......

1 Python (alive). 0a0.8)

i Indian Antelope’s Head...

ErOm Boman. viet,

Lepus nigricollis .,

Lagomys sp ...... *

Hnibenize Gea whee i,

Mycteria australis............

Oaccabis chukor ..... .....,

Hydrochelidon indica ......

Tetragalious himalayensis..

From Natal cae

Naga tripudians..........

Enhydrina bengalensis,

Hydrophis diadema.

Porphyris poliocephalus ...

Stegostoma tIgTINUM: sy,

Bystrix leucura .. ays

Tropidonotus punctatus | te

Chelonia virgata Nee PEs,

Herpestes griseus ...........

Orthotomus sutoriug..

Phoenicopterus antiquoram.

Chameleo vulgaris

Varanus dracoona

From Africa ..

Do, vise

Python retioulatus

A Doe with horns .

Contributor.

Marchese G. Doria,

Mr. W. Stephens.

Mr. H.-Littledale.

Do,

Do.

Miss Lloyd.

Mr. G. Carstensen.

Mr. Vincent McCarthy,

thro’ Capt. Falle.

Mr. W. Shipp.

Mr, W. W. Barr,

Do.

Mr. Lemane.

Dr. D. A. D’Monte.

Mr. C. J. Maltby.

Sergeant-Major Webb.

Mr. J, Littlewood.

Mr. R. H. Madan.

Mr. Barrett.

Brig.-Genl. LaTouche

Do.

Capt OC. H. Bingham.

Major J. H. Yule.

ConTRIBUTIONS To THE LIBRARY.

Catalogue of the Frogs, Toads, and Owcilians of 8. India (Edgar

USIP RUGED), iurrvsuectiee sms cacti MS ape ea From the Author’

Proceedings of the Linnean Soc. of N. 8. Wales, Vol. IIL, Part I.

Astor : or Sport and Travel in Cashmere (H. Liscomb)

Journal of Comparative Medicine and Surgery, Vol, IX. No. 3..

In Exchange.

Mr. T. J, Bennett .

In Exchange.

Annali del Museo Civico de Genova, Series II., Vols. I to V. v.10 Marchese G. Doria

Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 1883 to 1887

(Watde): jive

Nek eo,

Knapsack Manual for Sportsmen in the Field.

Plants and Drugs of Sind.

Economic Products of India .

List of Indian Economic Prodaéta’.

In Exchange.

Mr. J. A, Murray,

Catalogue of the Exhibits in the Indian Section of ihe Fisheries

EZIUDIGION siete ssi e

The Birds of edition: eatin:

The Vertebrate Zoology of Persia.

Fauna of British India.

Mammailia.

" (Swinhoo)

(Blanford.)

COMOUA) ec eri harrsissapcaie

wi Do.

teeveeeee, Hrom the Author,

PROCEEDINGS.

267

Minor CONTRIBUTIONS FROM

My. Lambert, Mr. F. H. Coutts, Mr. . W. Barrow, Mr.

Jardine, Mr. HE. 8. Cooper, Mr. B. W. Blood, Mr.

H, Bromiley, Mr, W. 2.

J. W. Scott.

TuE Proposed ZooLoGicAL GARDEN.

Mr. H. M. Phipson stated that the Committee were still waiting fora reply to the

letter they addressed to Government on the 15th June last with reference to the

proposed site for » Zoological Garden.

In the meanwhi

le about Rs. 54,000 had been

subscribed by the members of the Society and those who were willing to join in the

event of the scheme being carried out.

PROCEEDINGS oF THE MEETING HELD ON Ist OctTopER 1888.

Tu usual monthly meeting of the above Society was held on Monday, the Ist

October 1888, Dr.

Ma, is

contributions to the Society’s

M. Phipson,

D. MacDonald presiding.

elected :—Mr. J. McLeod Campbell,

collections :—

The following new members were

Lieutenant C R. Boniface, and Mr. P. R. Mehta.

the Honorary Secretary, then acknowledged the following

CONTRIBUTIONS DURING SEPTEMBER,

Contribution. Description. | Contributor.

1 Hawk (aliv e) . Astur badius .........+......| Mr. Chubildas Lulloobhoy.

2 Florican’s Eggs’ & 2 Rain From Kharaghora .,.........| Mr. E. P. Close.

Quail’s Eggs.

3 Rnakes (al eo .| Silybura macrolepis ..| Mr. E. Butcher.

4 Cobras (alive)... vaaseeeeee| Naga tripudians .| Mr, P. R. Mehta.

2 Snakes (alive) ..........+-| Hryx johnii and Ptyas Do.

muicosus.

TM OMGOn. es esas seb aces Varanus dracena ov. Mr Re Po Simin.

1 Porcupine’s Skull ......+ Hystrix leucura...............| Mr. W. W. Barr.

2 Young Mantras .... Paradoxurus musanga ...... Mr. W. S. Owen.

Te MOrabOr Mie ica er Varanus dractena ...... sess. Mr. F: H. Coutts.

1. Large Turtle .| Chelonia viridis.... ...| Dr. de Monte.

6 Snaices .| From Mhow ...| Lieut. R. H. Light.

1 Snake (alive) .. .| Eryx johnii... “ue, | Capt. J.-B. R. Butler.

1 Manura (alive)... Paradoxurus musanga SN oe Dr Gonsalves.

3 Pieces of Floxible Sand: From Rewari .. .| Major Bissett.

stone.

A number of Insects and) From Natal... Miss Lloyd.

Lizards.

1 Monkey (alive) wis Macacus radiatus ............| Mr. P. H. Myer.

Mrvnor

CoNTRIBUTIONS FROM

Mrs. Simkins, Mr. Kaikobad C. Dinshaw, Mr. C. B. Lynch, Mr. J. W. Scott, Mr. W.

Gaye, Mr. J. O'Connell,

Mr.

H, T. Ansell,

Mr. W. W. Squires, and Mr. E. P. Close.

Rev, R. Stothert, Mr. W. H. Bushby,

CoNnTRIBUTIONS TO THE LIBRARY,

Catalogue of the Moths of India (Coles and Swinhoe) ...ssesssereees

Records of Geological Survey of India .

Rough Notes on Travel and Sport in canons and 1 Litt

.. From the Authors

In exchange,

Je Thibet...From the Author.

Proceedings and Transactions of the Royal Dublin Society, Vol. V.,

Nos. 7 and 8... Vol; V1.5 Nos. 1 and 2... cect isesceneennyrer see

In exchange.

epevereeeres

158 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

Mr. &. L. Barton exhibited a large boar’s heal mounted by himself, which was

much admired.

Mr, U. H. Aitken then Yead a paper entitled “ The Natural History of a Voyage

from Liverpool to Bombay,” which will be fotind in this number.

Produupinas of THe Mretine apt on 11TH Dacemper 1888,

The tsual monthly meeting of the members of this Society took place on Tuesday,

the 11th December, Dr. Lisboa, presiding.

The following new membeis were elected :The Harl of Scatborough, the Hon’ble

Mr, Justice Bayley; H. H. Maharaja of Rutlam, H. H. Samat Singjce, Miss Ada

Brooke; Lieut. F. W. Wedchotise, Dr. Crofts, Mr. F. Reddie, Mr, John Bristed, Mr. W.

H. Bushby, Mr. Dorab J. Tata, Mr. Hrasmus Beynon, Mr. T. R. Fernandez, Dr. Banks,

Mr. W. Leedamur, Mr. R. M. Betham, B.S. C.,Mr. A.D. Younghusband, C.S., Dr. J. P.

Greany, M.D.; Mr. R. Bateman Smyth, C.H, Mr. Camulsey Premjee, Mr. B. E. Candy,

Bomanjee Dinshaw Petit, Mr. R. B. Stewart, 0.S., Mr. Geo. H. Pilcher, Mr. J. Mites

Mackenzie, 0.S., Mr. R. J. Rustomjee, Mr. L. BH. Spence, Mr. G. McCorkell, O.8., Mr.

Jamsotjce Cursetjee Powalla, Mr. G. Cotton; Mr. Alex. Menesse, Mr. H. W. Ulothy

Mr. T. C. H. White, Mr. Alex. McKenzie, Mr. W. H. Middleton, Mr. ¥ - Westall, Dr. R.

Manser, Mr. M. H. Scott, C.S., Mr. N. M. Patell; and Mr. Ey J. Ebden, C.S,

Mr. H. M. Phipson, the Honorary Secretary, then acknowledged the following con-

tributions to the Society’s collection : —

CottR1BUTIONS DURING OcTOBER AND Noveitenr.

Contribution.

Description.

Contributor.

Set of Cock-fighting imple-| Used by the natives in the) Mr. H. M- Hewitt.

ments.

1 Malabar Red Squirrel

2 Squirrels (alive)

A quantity of Insects

Do. dn = i,

A quantity of Insects and

Reptiles.

Snake

Night Jar (alive) is

Dusky- -hortiiéd Owl ..y...0.5

Gat Fish (57 168.) ‘were

Nicobar Pigeon

Krait (alive) -

Skin and Skullof 5 Jungle Cat,

1 large Black Sand Snake

(alive).

1 Yellow-breasted Ground

Thrush (alive).

1 Indian Bee-Hater ene

1 Pit-Viper .. Ute sea tseus

pte ee et

Pe SU AOM si oiciebabeiigitetictes

.| Sciurus palmarum....

..| Callanas nicvobarica ....

.| Bungarus arcuatus

Kurnool District.

Sciurus malabaricus .........

Bront Surat. actives « ;

HOM GUSTO seh. vee

...| Silybura macrolepis ........,

. Caprimulgus asiaticus ......

Bubo coromandus (frovt

Baroda.)

Caught in the Bhima ......

Felis chaus..,.

TCLS OMA didi ens eves

Pitta bengalensis ............

Morops viridis. ia

Trimeresurtis dnnamalen-

sis.

Tropidonotus quincuntiatus,

Tropidonotus plumbicolor,

Lycodon aulicus, and Ptyas

mucosus.

Mr. T. Thornburn.

...| Mr. A, J. Lennane.

| Mr, J. A. Betham.

..| Mr. W. 8S. Hexton.

Mr. D. J. Wilson.

Mr. @. W. Roughton.

Mr. Bd: Elliott.

Mr. J. M. Henry.

Dr. Stewart.

...| Capt. Carpenter, R.Nv

| Mr. H. Littledalo.

-| Mr. D. George.

Mr. P. R Mehta.

Capt. Shopland.

.| Mr. T, Thornburn.

py 7

Miss LaTouche.

Mr. G, W. Roughton.

PROCEEDINGS. : 269

Contribution. Description. Contributor.

1 Manura (alive) ............] Paradoxurus musanga, ...... Mr. H. Barrett.

1 Chameleon (alive) ...| Chameleo vulgaris ..| Mr. N. 8. Symons.

1 Monkey vay Bice ....| Macacus silenus........ .| Mr. F. L, Charles, C.9,

1 Aviary .. ts erbecye.. (Sundry birds)... Do

L Snak6) i204 vecscsseses oes. | DabOId Clegans’ ..,..1.c0.50...| Mi, Justice Jardine.

1 Flamingo ....,......0........| Phosnicopterus antiquo-) Dr. Boccarro.

rum

dL NOs ELOPSE Sari cccieccis rs Hippocampus sp. 4.44... Capt. Macaulay.

PO Snake eiersy ic Typhlops porrectus .. ,.| Mr. James Moore.

Skull of Albatross ...... .-+.| Diomedea gp. ...........5...-..| Mr. Jas. Mitchell.

1 Chameleon Neat ie .| Chameleo vulgaris... ..| Capt. H. D. Rosseter.

1 Snake Daboia elegans ...... ..| Mr. F. Steers.

A collection of Shells and| From Fiji .| Mr. E. Wimbridge.

Insects,

1 Pair of Lemurs (alive) ..| Lemur mongoz ..,. .| Mrs. McClelland.

1 Cotton Teal . seese.| Nettopus dorotnandélianus. ( Mr. Prid

2 White-Eyed Pochards ..«| Aythya nyroca ....... : ees

2 SNakes Va aint ce yes es i'ropidonotus slumbicolor : :

Pasvebita pie sce Bee ‘ Brig-Genl. LaTouche.

1 Pair of Loris (alive) ...... Loris gracilis ..| By exchange.

1 Pair of African Love; Psittacus sp. ..................| Mr. Tytler.

Birds (alive).

Minor CoNTRIBUTIONS FROM

Colonel Westmacott, Colonel Hunter, Mr, Tytler, Mr. Trevor Smith, Miss LaTouche,

Mr. H. L. Butcher, Dr. Munday, Mrs. M. C. Turner, and Major Babington Peile.

Exurpits, &c.

The Hon’ble Mr. Justice Birdwood exhibited various specimens of rare plants

from Mount Abu.

The Honorary Secretary exhibited some specimens of the Amphioxus—the lowest

form of vertebrate life—-which had been received from the Zoological Station at Naples

through Mr. W. F. Sinclair, C.S.

The Honorary Secretary also read some interesting zoological notes by Dr. Stewart

of the Poona Horse, and by Mr, F. H. Dempster.

Mr. W. H. Hart then read a paper, communicated by Mrs. W. E. Hart, entitled

‘Notes on some Branching Palms,” which will be found elsewhere in this number.

Rombay AMatural Ajistory Soviety.

<2.

LIST OF OFFICE-BEARERS.

President.

H. Ei. the Right Honorable Lorp Ruay, G.C.1-H., LL.D.) FR.G.S-

Vice- Presidents. j

Dr. D. MacDonald, u.v., B.sc., C.M. |

The Hon’ble Justice Birdwood, m.a., L.M. (Cantab.) |

Dr. G. A. Maconachie, m.p., 0.M.

1 How. Secvetarp.

N Mr. H. M. Phipson, ¢.m. 2.8. |

How. Treasurer.

Mr. E. M. Slater.

dito.

Mr. H. M. Phipson, ¢.M. 4.8.

Managing Commiltec.

Dr. G. A. Maconachie. The Hon. Mr. Justice Birdwood.

Dr. D, MacDonald. Mr. G. W. Vidal, c.s.

Col. C. Swinhoe. Mr. W. PF. Sinclair, c.s.

Rev. F. Dreckmann, s.J. Dr. Hdith Pechey-.

Dr. Kirtikar. Lieut. H. EH. Barnes.

Mr. J. H. Steel, a.v.p. Mr. J. C. Anderson.

Mr. H. M. Slater. Mr. E. L. Barton.

Mr. H. M. Phipson, ew-officto.

Ist Section.—(Maminals and Birds.)

President—Mr. R. A. Sterndale, ¥.R.G.s., 2.2.8.

Secretary—Lieut. H. E. Barnes.

2nd Section.—( Reptiles and Hishes.)

President—Mr. G. W. Vidal, c.s.

Secrebary—Mr. H. M. Phipson, c.m. 4s.

srd Section.—(Insects.)

President—Colonel C. Swinhoe, F.z.8., F.u.8., FES

Secretary—Mr. H. H. Aitken.

4th Section.—(Other Invertebrata.)

President—Dr. G. A. Maconachie, M.D., ¢.M.

Secretary—Mr. J. C. Anderson.

5th Section.—( Botany.)

if : ‘ : é At.

President—The Hon’ble Justice Birdwood, m.a., LL.M. (Cantab.)

am ) Secretary—Surgeon K. R. Kirtikar, r.8.a. (France), 2.8.0.8.

Bombay Salut ural Ark

Ory

Society,

LIST OF MEMBERS.

January 1888.

Name.

Abbott, Revd. He... 6 oc

Adam, Hon. F. Forbes

Adams,, B.D... sec

Aitken, H. H.

Almon, W. ...

Anderson, G. A.

Anderson, d.

Anderson, J. C.

Anderson, W.C. ...

Anderson, Capt. W. RB.

Andrewes, H. H.

Appleton, A. F. (a.v.p.)

Arnott, Sur anaes J.

Arthur, A. ... fe :

Ashburner, Rastumjee J., ‘Khan Bahadar

Ashby, J. S.

Aves, Capt. W.

Babaji Gopal :

Baddeley, Lieut. Celouel.

Bagnell, H. W. L. (c.s.)

Bainbridge, Surgeon-Major G.

Baines, J. A. (c.s.)

Bajana, H. H. Prince Joravar khanji

Bankier, W. A.

Barclay, Capt. :

Barnes, Lient. H. ER.

Barr, Ww. We

Bartow, ee Ae

Barton, E. L.

Baumbach, R. j

Beardmore, H. B. ... ves

Becher, Captain (#.z.a.) R. A.

Begbie, J. A. : af

sell, 1. B.D. :

Bengallee, Sb. (cut. LB, )

Berg, Louis “a

Best, W. Oye bea toe

Betham, J. As ee she

Retham, W. G. A be as

Beyts, C. A. eae up See

Rusipence.

.. Bombay

4 al

.. Tanna

.. Lurope

... Bombay

... Mahim

... Bombay

.. Bombay

.. Simla

; -Bel gaum

... Kirkee

... Bombay

.. Bombay

: .Bombay

...Bhuy (Cutch)

... Bombay

.. Bombay

.. Cawnpore

... Burope

.. Kurrachee

.. Kaira Dist.

...Bajana

... Bombay

.. Hurope

- Bombay

...Dwarka

... Bombay

.. Bombay

. .Bombay

..-. Badnera

... Ahmedabad

... Bombay

...Canara

... Bombay

.. Bombay

... Raipur, Cie,

.».. Nasik

vo. Hurope

CO ————

LIST OF MEMBERS.

NAME.

Bhatavadekar, Bhalchandra K., Dr.

Bicknell, H. x Ere

Biddulph, Col. J. ..

Bingham, Captain C. Hy ee

Birdwood, the Hon’ble Mr. ‘Jastice

Bishop, Capt. ae ins 5

Bisset, Col. . i vee

Blackwall G. H

ne ee Hak.

Bousted, Surgeon-Major R.

Bovis, F. de f... see ie ioe

Branson, R. M. (%.. Se as ie

Brendon, C. R. é

Bromley, Herbert ...

Bromley, Thos.

Brown, J. W.

Brunton, R. P. Ses

Buckland, H. W. ... Ses

Bullock, W. i. tes

Sutcher, Li. | *

Butler, Capt. J. B. i.

Byrne, C. Ee

Calthrop, H.

Campbell, H. W.

Campbell, John

Cane, Rev. A. G.

Capel, H. Li. (¢.s.)

Carroll, H. B. (c.B.) é

Carstensen, G- ee rc i

Cates, Dr. W. HE. ... os ioe

Chalmers, H. - pe :

Chambers, F. :

Channer, Dr. O. a.

Charles, Bali (0.8 sari

Chatfield, K. M, : ae

Cheetham, J. ica Se os

Chrystal, J. S. :

Clark, Captain A. E.

Clerke, W. J,.634(0.5,)

Slifton, C. N. (c.z.)

Clos) al ema

Cobbold, H. R. ae :

Collie, Surgeon R.... os, es

Collister, J. G. H....

Colvin, H. G. (¢.8.)

Conder, Hag

Connop, W. A. (nas % H. M.S. “ “ Bacchante ”

Contoy, Assi ; : vee

Cooke, Dr. T. an de : wee

Cooper, CUP. :

RESIDENCE.

... Bombay

... Deolz

.,. Rangoon

... Bombay

... Hurope

...Bombay

... Tanna

... Bombay

... Hurope

... Bombay

..Malvan

... Bombay

...Mahim

.. Bombay

..Bandora

..Egatpura —

...Deesa

... Bombay

«Poona

... Sholapore

... Bombay

... Beleaum

...Bombay

...Poona

... Bombay

* inioli

... Bombay

... Kaira

... Kharagora

... Bombay

...Bombay

... Bombay

... Calcutta

... Bombay

...Poona

.. Hurope

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Nama.

Cornforth, JiPaec%.. fee a,

Crawford, Anthur (0.6.) «2. :

Crawford, L. £3 a ne

Crawley-Boevey, A. W. (c.s.) ...

Crawley, C. E. , as a

Creagh, Captain REP. ac

Cuffe, T. W. hes bee oe

Cumberley, N. R. ... a he

Curjel; HW. vas Fi, nas i

Cursetjee, Miss as ie

Curwen, H. :

Cutch, H. H. the Rao of ae oe

Dadabhoy, Cowasjee M. ... ies

Dady, Hormusji . Dadyshett

Daley, K. J. Hs

Daleado, ais D. aay

ooe

Daver, Framjee N. nn =

Davidson, J. (¢.s.) vee i

Dempster, F. H.. ... a “.

Descubes, A. i. ces is

Ditmas, A. R. oe See

Dixon, Capt. R. o vs a

Doig, S. B. ea.) 77.. os és

Douglas, Mrs. iy Le ia

Drec skmann, Rev. F. a ca

Dubash, Sorabj ee D. “ .

Duigan, S. A. fen wae 3

Dumayne, BG... ins se

Dumbell, He... :... see sas

Dunsterville, J. H. C. sat vii

Dymock, Dr.Wi. {.. ve ape

Hdgelow, F. Aes ine ed

Hllaby, Dr. Charlotte i aes

Hilrot, A. (C.8e)e0%.., ‘ oi

Klliston, Major H. C. ci oi

Hunson, Henry J. (a.m, ras.) 2,

Pairbank, Rey. S.‘:.. tas a

Fenton, Capt. L. L. tas A

Ferguson, Dr..A. F. ve aN

Fleming, WN... ‘ a

Fletcher, G..., a on “a

Forbes, Mra,[email protected], B. .,, aa

Forrest, G. W. Mes AG Ae

Forrest, L.-R. W. ; a

BOs, CO. Hy cic = ti i

Francke, A. oe fas

Franklin, J... Gs a vee

. M.S. “Investigator”

wee

Resipener,

... Bomba

1 LOOnG,

... Bombay

--- Bombay

... Lahore

... Bombay

.. Hurope

.. Akola

... Bombay

.. Bombay

... Bombay

.. Bhuj

... Bombay

.. sawantwaree

..-Bombay

.. Mallegaum

.. Sholapur

.» Chickalda

». Burmah

..« Bombay

.. Ahmedabad

.. Hurope

: ‘Bombay

... Bombay

... Kolaba

... Bombay

... Hydrabad, Sind

...Amraoti, Berar

+s 00na

...Morvi, Kathiawar

.. Ahmednugeer

.. Kathiawar

.. Lurope

.Bombay

... Bombay

.. Lurope

.. Bombay

... Bombay

eo Ura

peat

’ Griffiths, J..

LIST OF MEMBERS,

Name.

Freeborn, E.

ry. Ub.

Furdunji, Jamsetji ...

Gaddum, F....

Gama, Dr. A. da

Gaye, Dr. A. C.

Gaye, W.

Gay, EH.

George, D.

Ghandy, K. D.

Gilbert, R.

Giles, E. fe

G lazebrook, W. gk

Gleadow, F....

Goleta. F, Pai

Gompertz, Rev. J. F, We.

Gonne, H. ...

Goodtall ow, Col. G. e.

Gopal, Babajee

Gordon, H. K.

Graham, W. D. ae

Grant, G. F. M. (¢.8.)

Gray, C.

Gray, Dr. Tomperley

Gray, Dr. Weliington

Graeme, Major R. iG),

Greaves, W.

Greives, Rev. A. oe

Gunthorpe, Licut. Colonel |

Gwyn, Captain A...

Hall, Rev. E. S.

Hare, Be Dass

Hantelman, Ea. Von

Hart, Miss..

Hart, Mrs. W. E.

Haslam, A. J. (A.v.D. D.)

Hatch, H. F. ss

Hatch, Draw ss

Hay, A. ‘

Hemming, J. R.

Henderson, Dr.

Hibbert, Col. J.

Hill, F. Ze A.

Hoare, A. BE.

Hodgkinson, le ‘HLS. B.

Holland, W. Cae

Hornidge, Ss. ae oe)

Heyn, John M. oe

RESIDENCE, |

... Bombay

1 Poona:

... Bombay

... Lurope

... Bombay

... Poona

, Secunderabad

... Calcutta

.. Ratnagiri

... Bombay

».. Bombay

.. Ahmedabad

... Bombay

.. surat

.. Alibag

... Dacca

... Kurrachee

... Bhuj

.-. Bombay

.. Calcutta

. Bombay

.. watara

... Bombay

... Hurope

... Kurrachee

... Bombay

... Hurope

... Bombay

... Berar

... Bombay

.. Bombay

. .Khangaum

... Bombay

.. Lurope

... Bombay

... Kirkee

.. Ratnagiri

... Bombay

... Hurope

... Bombay

... Karwar

.. Bombay

,..Canara

... Bombay

... Ahmedabad

so. Lanna,

... Bombay

Hussey, Col. C. E....

Indore, H. H. the panarels pend

Inverarity, J.D. ...

Irving, Dr. L. A.

Jacob, H. U;

Jamsetjec, C. Jamsetjee us

Jamsetji, Pherozshaw hile a

Jardine, Mrs. J.

Jeejeebhoy, Sir naegtee, “Bart. .

Jefferson, F, ;

Jefferson, retae

Johnson, J. R. Kirby

Johnstone, Miss

Resipencu,

«« Neemuch

..._—Indore

... Bombay

.. Bombay

... Kurrachee

..._Bombay

., Bombay

... Bombay

... Hurope

... Bombay

...VDeoli

Jones, G. Sutton

Jones, H. W.

Juergens, Rev. Fr....

Kama, K. Os

Kantak, Dri Bktavam Vi.

Kay, Dr. W. ie ;

ahah Rao Bahadur R. M.

Rois Capt. W. P.

King, Alfred Se

Kang, H.R.

Kingsley, FG." i

Kirtikar, Surgeon K. R.

Knyvitt, Ross

Langley, Surgeon-Major ...

Latham, the Hon’ble F. L..

Lathi, HL. H. The Thakore Saheb of

LeFebvre, Rev. H. P. Ae i

Leonard, Major 1

Leslie, A. K.

Lester, C. F. G.

Lidbetter, T.

Limjee, Cowasjee Dady

Tidhou, Dr. J.C.

Litchfield, E.

Little, F. A.

Littledale, H.

Luard, ‘hi. 8. a

Lynch, OP.

Lynch, M. P,

... Bombay

.. Bombay

... Bombay

... Vishnugger

...Bombay

... Kathiawar

... Bombay

... Calcutta

.. Bombay

...Babugarh, near

Meerut

... Bombay

. ld athi

. Satara,

... Bangalore

... Bombay

... Palanpur

... Bombay

...Chikalda

...Bombaiy

... Baroda

... Bombay

...- Bombay

.. Hurope

LIST OF MEMBERS. vil

Name. ResIDENCE.

saneliey Dr. “ nee ee ae ... Bombay

Macaulay, Capt. K. me ae a ... Bombay

a cestiiy) Re Hi ys. ae a | ... Bombay

Macaulay, W. M. ... is he es ... Bombay

Macdonald, Dr. D.... one o ie ... Bombay

Macdonald, J. : es es ae ... Bombay

Macdonald, W. M.. a fee a. ... Bombay

Mackenzie, ‘Tl. D. (c. 3.) ae ies oe ... Broach

Macnaghten, Chester 2 re me .. .Rajkote

Maconack he ll er ne Ae - sieatie

Macpherson, ati ae ee vee .. Hurope

Madowrao, Lieut. D. H. HH. the Nizam’s R. A....Eyderabad, Deccan

Maguire, J.... a “i ae nee ... Bombay

Maistry, D. B. es me oo A: ... Bombay

Major, Col. F, W. ... e aii ee ... Hurope

Migscks Guat: att ae We ist ... Bombay

Mason, ‘Gao Bul. me as we ... London

Marriott, Capt. E. F. ous o ag ... Hurope

Martin, Major G. ... es ae ae ...Bombay

McCann, WIE Soa. “he o ae ... Bombay

McEwen, R.... a — ae use ... Bombay

McMullen, G. C.. ... ca tae aie ... Kurrachee

Meade, Capt. M. J.... ae ae we .. outa

Mebta, B. C. ie ae i me ... Bombay

Melvin, W. F. abs Sec a oe ... Bombay

Merewether, Col. G. (8.2.) dus a ... Bombay

Mercer, F.... oo ee i me ... Nagpore

Messent, P. G. bs oe “a — ... Bombay

Miller, HE. .. ie ies ‘ie ‘ne ... Hurope

Miller, N.« x2: hes “ — oss ...Giridhi, Bengal

Millett, G. P. ; ae ae ae ... Tanna

Minter, Capt. J. Ss. he ae ods ... Bombay

Mitchell, E.... Aa aes is ... Bombay

Modi, B Jahmanji Edulji “as ae bs ... Broach

Monté, Dr, Dy A. de ao eo hie ... Bandora

Montgomery, Heh. A. G... se ng ... Bombay

Morris, A. W. (8.2.8-) a es .. Yercaud

Mormis, Di... ae ace nS aa ... Bombay

Morrison, AY ne 2 swe x ... Bombay

Moscardi, H. 8. (c 8.) ies e es ... Canara

Mure, J.8.. a ae as ba ... Bombay

Murphy, Dr.. ave ae ne on ...Mahableshwar

Murray, A. S. es a ne ne ... Bombay

Murray, J. A. “ ae me ane ... Bombay

Murray, W.... in a as ... Bombay

Nazar, M. H. Gen ae “a mee ... Bombay

Newborn, C. a ons nea me ...Bombay

Newnham, A. a ... Lurope

Nicéville, L. de (Hon. Corr. Men.) ee .. Calcutta

Nicholson, C. ‘ “ss ~ ... Lanowlie

LIST OF MEMBURS.

Name. LESIDENCE,

Wicholson;-H. BL ... in 5 5 .». Hurope

Nuthall, C. EH. bee ae a i ... Meerut

O’Connel, J. fun net ae ae ... Bombay

Ollivant, Hostaoll (0:8.)° 0. nan hae lI,

Oliver, G.- si, ae Gs 5 =) ... Bombay

Olivier, Captain H. D. (R,2.) (7.z.8.) .... ... Bombay

Ommaney, Hy.(c.5,) .... aes ee ... Dharwar

Opiumwalla, Dorabji EH. ... ea oe ... Bombay

Ormiston, G. (c.B.)... ee va a ...Bombay

Halls, Ani sis ks ae nes A ... Bombay

Palliser, H..G; oe a ---Burope

Panday, Ardeshir Shapurji a i .. Bombay

Parker, J. C. ..Caleutta.

Parker, Capt. J. C., , H.LM.S. “Patrick Stewart.” Kurrachee

Parmenides, J. ‘ a he ae .. Bombay

Parmenides, fog. ae coe a ...Bombay |

Patterson, Dr. aes ai ahs bes ... Bombay

Pearson, Mrs. in ve ies a ...d hinjinwara

Pearson, Di Waor.... hi a ane ...Munmar

Pechey, Miss H. (m.p.) ... fs sae ... Bombay

Penny, Mrsa Lue:.,. ae on a ... Bombay

Pentland, Capt. ... Le nee ee ...Mount Abu

Peters, Surgeon-Major ... due Ao ... Burmah

Peterson, Dr Pi... ee ae a ... Bombay

Petit, . D. ee ee ie le ... Bombay

Petits Pe @s yaa ve ... Bombay

Peyton, Lieut. -Colonel W.. ae in ... Kanara

Phipson, Hi. M.(¢.u.z.s.).... te a ... Bombay

Pinhey, A.B. a bas ... Banswarra

Portman, Lieut. Col. a oe ie tei ... Bombay

Pottinger, Brig.-Genl. ies me Oe ... Bombay

Radcliffe, Capt. W. C. A. (R.A.) ... ee .. Kirkee

Rayment, H. J. (A.v.D) ... i me ...Babugarh, near

Meerut

Readymoney, N. J. a a ... Bombay

Reay, H. E. Lord (¢.1.2., Lu. LD.) We on .. Bombay

Reid, G. Briss)... a te ak .. Ahmedabad

Reynolds, Pi (OiE,),.. ie ae me ... Baroda

Rich, Miss H. a a as ips ... Bombay

Riddell, Raw. ae te tee he .. Khundwa

Ritchie, A. M. Bi Re oe rye ss. DOCTAMOEr

Rivett-Carnac, L. ... fae bee as ... Bombay

Robb, Surgeon- sae ats ioe at ... Ahmedabad

Roberts, Bi Med Bo es ne .. Secunderabad

Robertson B. (o.8 .). sae in is .. Surat

Hobinson, Gaokis..:. aoe oe is ... Bombay

Rosé, EB. actu se me bay wit ...Aurungabad

Russell, B. B. one sue ae iG ... Bombay

LIST OF MEMBERS. 1x

Name. RuEsIDENCE.

Russell, L. P. o Ae ae Hs ... Bombay

Rugoonath Mukand, Bs ses ae ...Bombay.

Ryrie, J. M. sis ise we bee ... Bombay.

Sassoon, Mrs. 8. D. oe ae sin ... Bombay

Sawyer, Major : : A oa ... Bombay fi

Scott, The Hon’ ble Mr. Justice ... ies ... Bombay :

Scott, J. Wi. 4 Ma _.. Bombay

Selby, Captain W..0. (R.E. . ... Bombay

Sheppard, G. F. (c.s s.) Commissioner, i Dt Poa

Shipp, W. oe an as ... Poona,

Sileock, H. F. Ge 8.) ses Soe ise .. Sholapore

Simpson, fGen op ea ... Bombay

Sims, Proctor a os i ee ... Bhownugger

Sinclair, W. F. (c.s.) Se nes os .. Alibag

Slater, D. McLauchlan _... bs “aj ... Bombay

Slater, H. M. is bits ied ms ... Bombay

Sleater, J. M. (c.z.) ie ise ves ... Bombay

Smith, Mrs. Yorke... aes ie wae ... Bombay

Soane, G. de ia ee ee i ... Bombay

Spencer, N... ae ie ee se ... Bombay

Squire, W. W. (¢.z.) es ue ee ... Bombay

Squires, Mrs. ae oc a6 a ... Hurope

Starling, M. H. : es ae ... Bombay

St. Clair, Capt. W. AE (x1) ti iv ... durope

Steel, J. "HL (As V. D.-) oo ne oe ... Bombay

Steiner, J. . as wt ie bas ... Bombay

Sterndale, R. a (BZ) ) iss ae oa ... Madras

Steward, A. B. (¢.8.) ots i ae ... Broach

Stewart, R. L. ae G ose is ... Bombay

Straw, R. A. ao ee Ae ies ...Gandevi, Guzerat.

Street, Capt. : “a os os .. Hurope

Street, Dr, A. W. F. ate is a ... Burmah

Stuart, C. A. ies wee fe “ce ... Bombay

Stuart, M. Scott ... ces cs a ... Mhow

Sturt, Colonel sai . vee ... Hurope

Sukhtankar, Sittaram Vishnu a a ... Bombay

Surveyor, ce ake ioe oa es ... Kurrachee

Swan, H, H. uh |... oO wee «Bombay

Swayne, H, G. KH. (k,n) °-.. fe ste . Aden

Swinhoe, Colonel C. (#.2.8., ¥.L.8+) FVH8.).64 ...Poona

Sykes, C. «4. Ae ite ee wy ... Catch Mandvi

Symington, J, H. ... ee ss af ... Bombay

Symons, J. L. fi ve ce a ***Bombay

Symons, H. 5. i .o on iv ... Bombay

Symons, N. 8. ie “i ees Wa ...Bombay

Taylor, Chas. a ie ae vee ... Bombay.

Taylor, W. C. os oe iL. ee ... Bombay

Terry, G. W. os whe ei ... Bombay

Temulji, Dr. B. NG ao oe ast .». Bombay

Namu.

Thacker, W.

Thakur Shripad Bab: aji (c. 8.)

T'wemlow Col. (x. u.) tes

Thomson, Mrs.

ods oi. vil

Tuiner, Mrs. A. F..

Turner, Montague C.

Thom, H,

Thompson, B. W. ae

Vadal, G. W(0.87):..

Walcott, Colonel (c.8.)

Walker, A. C. 10

Walker, T.

Whyte, Lt. 0. dike

Willis, R.cA,

Wallac se, JAMES Wes

Wallace, John

Wallace, L. A. ‘

Walton, Rienzi (0.u.)

Walton, EH. M.

Ward, Frank

Ward, H.'B.

W6bb, We tes

Weer, Dreliws. i.

Wenden, H. (¢.B.)...

Westmacott, Col. 4...

Wise, Col...

Wise, El. 8)... ius

Woodward, W. (c. #

Wroughton, eC;

Wylie, R.

Yerbury, Major

Noung, G8.

Young, W. H.

LIST OF

MEMBERS.

ResipEencE.

... Bombay

... Broach

. Bombay

.. Bombay

a ... Bombay

ves .. Bombay

ids ... Bombay

Ne jombay

...Ahmednugger

.. Lanna

es ke .. Europe

. Bombay

...Bombay

... Mhow

... Bombay

.. Hurope

.. Bombay

... Bombay

.. Hurope

.- Bombay

... Bombay

.. Bombay

; f oone,

sore Poona

..Poona

.. Bombay

». Nasik

.. Hurope

...Gadechi

... Hurope

... Bombay

CONTENTS OF VOL III, 1888.

No. li.

Waters or Western Invi, Part V.—Sind. (By a Member of

the Socraty) aiicg vas F ied ie ce ai eg CTT Bae ts eT een 8

Notes on A CoLLECTION or BUTTERFLIES MADE IN Burman between

September 1885 and December 1886. By Lieut. E. Y. Wat-

son, (Communicated by James Ay Murray,). 2. c..1s-.-. biecdee

Nores on Viena vexintata. (By the Rev. A. G. Cane.) ..;..0.2

Mararut Names or Prants, With a Glossary. (By Brigade Sur-

geon W. Dymock.) ......-- OR Aves veces arase: bees eres “

Nesting oF THE Inp1AN HirnuNDINES. (By Lieut. H.

CATALOGUE OF SNAKES IN THE Soorevy’s COLLECTION .......0.000 8 eee

Tan ‘Fouktore oF Lnpran Prants.” (By Dr. K. R. Kirtikar.)...

ZooLocicaAL Noves—

Proceedings of the Zoologica! Society of London.— Parts I.,

TL, and ILL. of 1887 ecscseeccessossrsseicesoncrscerseccwerscees

CorrESPONDENCE—

Can Snakes Hear ? ....csssetecsegiecvensoersseersecrsc rere caisciseuies

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY cecsesesssoncecee covreresrserevcceses seco e

No. 2.

Warers or Wustern InDIA.—Supplementary Note ....se-ssereeeree

Tue Bis Copra, (By G. W. Vidal, C. S.)...-.--ereceeere sllsecedsuee

Tue Nearest AuLins or THE Horse. (By Vet. Surgeon J. H.

Steel Ay Vi 0) wie ee ee Gai dec tisescveuterves

Tue ConpITIons For THE DistRiBUTION oF PLANTS AND THE MEANS

by WHICH IT 18 PERFORMED, WITH SPECIAL REGARD To INDIAN

Sprctes. (By G. Carstensen, Supdt., Victoria Gardens,

Bombay.) ..;..-20.---++ eee ee oar cue ae ie vieeeane

Hints on Contectine Hymenoptera. (By Capt. C. T. Bingham)

Some Coup Wearner Nores rrom Guzerat. (By Capt. C. F.

Becher, R.A. #.Z.8.) ..... Soe isisicercitesseseseiesee vielices sesies

On tar LepiwopteRA oF KARACHI AND ITS NeraHBourHoop, Part

Il. (By Col. C. Swinhoe, F.LS., F.Z.S., S., ...secrereee we

ZooLocicat NorEs—

Hot Weather Notes in the Central Provinces, 1887. (By Capt.

Bl. BY Bécher) ....<..005.5. ctu wesn ee eeseeteeies irecns gt os

Simultaneous Twin Parturition of Buthus afer, the Black

Rock Scorpion (with an illustration) ....s.seseeererrereeeee tee

CorRESPONDENCE—

The Protection Of Gaie..c...css.ascessuonesessese cote

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY — .ccseeseerer ee: ses ey ee

No. 3.

Unscrentiric Nores on tus Tramr. (With three Plates.) (By

J. D. Inverarity) ....0.seeeee cee Cavisaebsees Nene ds ikote ee

Norss oN THE Origin oF THE Brninr IN THE Bis-copra, (By

J. A. Da Gama, L. M., K. C, J. OD) ireiihaiccateesecerteccneves eyes

PAGE

112

114

Ave

134

137

138

1389

148

154

ul CONTENTS.

Burterriigs anp Ants, (With two Plates.) (By Lionel de

INaGgeyiiley His S2) iscsi ces iseec ects. ssc eecgn heise oe) “

On THE LeprpopT@RaA oF KaRraculI AND ITS Neicus ouRHooD. Part

I... (By Col. Ce Swinkoe, BvE.S., 12.5). &e.) s..... baie a

Notes on Some Bees ann Wasps rrom Burma. (By Capt.

Goi bimgham)< ite.

On tHe CULTIVATION or Fmrns FROM Sporns. (By Ma.

Boox Notic—e—

SOlt ANC MUTA VEL 60.5. sccsssrs weeisy sho veretacmibesevdadlanctenstess

PROCHUDINGS Ol THM. SOCIHTY oicscsccutecce cote tcecacs se svese crus vs cee

No. 4.

Nustine ry Western Inpta (With a Plate) (By Lieut. H. E.

Cee Coe wera e ners eenasveesesenssocces correo

BaIHOR cist cas ecierenesccost yee se sie sees” SoCs Ub neste

Norss on Sampnun anv Samanur SraLKrnc. (By Mr, Popiniata

MGULOUG) avetins caus s4500 iso canjses ves ciapceesvenseeth Uheuso7 eessue ees.

Tau Muans or Setr-Prornorion Possnssnp BY PLaNts. (With a Plate.)

Gls LOT, W ee VIMOCK) co. sissvessesccutec sas pistsaen cso se sss sact aes :

THe Narurat History or A Vowacr FROM LivERPOOL To Bompay,

(Cy HE AKON) Soir. isteststesvecscese cece sss aussi earasi ts ved

On tHe INDIAN AND BurMESE SCORPIONS OF THE GEenus ISomETRUS,

with Duzscriprion or Turen new Sprecius.. (With a Plate.)

(By Hugené We Oates, HiZSi) 5.01. tescsseavs cee ssctuacducewwets :

Nores on Somn Branonina Patms. (With two Plates.) (Commn-

nicated by Mrs. W. EH. Hart) Seeger seieeal Gece ueneibsigcsa sins ve

MAtunD Be A Danton, (By Wa bt Mi). Gis ceben cheecs sts s.cs:

AooLocicaL Notrs—

AC @umious Tnstande OL -UPICnt Gi sli ceeuiae Geese shite eecscs e<

AOS catine White ANS ii .i. 7 uciecvsscscvevrsiiearsyesessseulses

PROCHMDINGS Ui sevsisiss derdelecyeasteeussesuretlscestbeeranieiseiiestss

PAGE

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168

183

187

197